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diff --git a/birds_v2.txt b/birds_v2.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8dddb2e --- /dev/null +++ b/birds_v2.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20705 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77498 *** +Transcriber’s Note: + + In Memory of + + Chris Curnow + (1937–2023) + the Project Manager at Distributed Proofreaders + who selected this book, + and more than 2200 others, + to be preserved as free digital transcriptions + by Project Gutenberg. + + +The source scans used are from the Dover edition, published in 1962, +an unabridged republication of the work first published by the United +States Government Printing Office. Part I was originally published +in 1927 as Smithsonian Institution United States National Museum +Bulletin 142; Part II was originally published in 1929 as Smithsonian +Institution United States National Museum Bulletin 146. In Part II, +the Smithsonian publication used Plate 1 as a frontispiece. The Dover +edition included Plate 1 with the rest of the plates at the end of +the book. + +Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like +this_. Those in bold are surrounded by equal signs, =like this=. +Footnotes were renumbered sequentially. Obsolete and alternative +spellings were not changed. + +Misspelled words were corrected. Missing diacriticals were added. +Obvious printing errors, such as partially printed letters and +punctuation, were corrected. Final stops missing at the end of +sentences and abbreviations were added. + + + + +_Life Histories of North American Shore Birds_ + + +_by Arthur Cleveland Bent_ + + +_in two parts - Part II_ + + +_Dover Publications, Inc., New York_ + + + + + ADVERTISEMENT + +The scientific publications of the National Museum include two series, +known, respectively, as _Proceedings_ and _Bulletin_. + +The _Proceedings_, begun in 1878, is intended primarily as a medium +for the publication of original papers, based on the collections of +the National Museum, that set forth newly acquired facts in biology, +anthropology, and geology, with descriptions of new forms and revisions +of limited groups. Copies of each paper, in pamphlet form, are +distributed as published to libraries and scientific organizations and +to specialists and others interested in the different subjects. The +dates at which these separate papers are published are recorded in the +table of contents of each of the volumes. + +The _Bulletin_, the first of which was issued in 1875, consists of +a series of separate publications comprising monographs of large +zoological groups and other general systematic treatises (occasionally +in several volumes), faunal works, reports of expeditions, catalogues +of type-specimens, special collections, and other material of similar +nature. The majority of the volumes are octavo in size, but a quarto +size has been adopted in a few instances in which large plates were +regarded as indispensable. In the _Bulletin_ series appear volumes +under the heading _Contributions from the United States National +Herbarium_, in octavo form, published by the National Museum since +1902, which contain papers relating to the botanical collections of the +Museum. + +The present work forms No. 146 of the _Bulletin_ series. + + ALEXANDER WETMORE, + _Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution_. +WASHINGTON, D. C., _December 11, 1928_. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + Page + Order Limicolae 1 + Family Scolopacidae 1 + Tringa solitaria solitaria 1 + Solitary sandpiper 1 + Habits 1 + Distribution 9 + Tringa solitaria cinnamomea 13 + Western solitary sandpiper 13 + Habits 13 + Distribution 15 + Tringa ocrophus 16 + Green sandpiper 16 + Habits 16 + Distribution 21 + Rhyacophilus glareola 22 + Wood sandpiper 22 + Habits 22 + Distribution 26 + Catoptrophorus semipalmatus semipalmatus 27 + Eastern willet 27 + Habits 27 + Distribution 35 + Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus 36 + Western willet 36 + Habits 36 + Distribution 39 + Heteroscelus incanus 41 + Wandering tattler 41 + Habits 41 + Distribution 46 + Heteroscelus brevipes 48 + Polynesian tattler 48 + Habits 48 + Distribution 49 + Philomachus pugnax 49 + Ruff 49 + Habits 49 + Distribution 54 + Bartramia longicauda 55 + Upland plover 55 + Habits 55 + Distribution 65 + Tryngites subruficollis 69 + Buff-breasted sandpiper 69 + Habits 69 + Distribution 76 + Actitis macularia 78 + Spotted sandpiper 78 + Habits 78 + Distribution 93 + Numenius americanus 97 + Long-billed curlew 97 + Habits 97 + Distribution 106 + Numenius arquata arquata 109 + European curlew 109 + Habits 109 + Distribution 112 + Numenius hudsonicus 113 + Hudsonian curlew 113 + Habits 113 + Distribution 122 + Numenius borealis 125 + Eskimo curlew 125 + Habits 125 + Distribution 134 + Numenius phaeopus phaeopus 136 + Whimbrel 136 + Habits 136 + Distribution 139 + Numenius tahitiensis 140 + Bristle-thighed curlew 140 + Habits 140 + Distribution 143 + Family Charadriidae 144 + Vanellus-vanellus 144 + Lapwing 144 + Habits 144 + Distribution 148 + Eudromias morinellus 150 + Dotterel 150 + Habits 150 + Distribution 153 + Squatarola squatarola 154 + Black-bellied plover 154 + Habits 154 + Distribution 166 + Pluvialis apricaria altifrons 171 + European golden plover 171 + Habits 171 + Distribution 174 + Pluvialis dominica dominica 175 + American golden plover 175 + Habits 175 + Distribution 189 + Pluvialis dominica fulva 193 + Pacific golden plover 193 + Habits 193 + Distribution 201 + Oxyechus vociferus 202 + Killdeer 202 + Habits 202 + Distribution 213 + Charadrius semipalmatus 217 + Semipalmated plover 217 + Habits 217 + Distribution 225 + Charadrius hiaticula 229 + Ringed plover 229 + Habits 229 + Distribution 232 + Charadrius dubius curonicus 233 + Little ringed plover 233 + Habits 233 + Distribution 236 + Charadrius melodus 236 + Piping plover 236 + Habits 236 + Distribution 244 + Charadrius nivosus nivosus 246 + Snowy plover 246 + Habits 246 + Distribution 251 + Charadrius nivosus tenuirostris 252 + Cuban snowy plover 252 + Habits 252 + Charadrius mongolus mongolus 253 + Mongolian plover 253 + Habits 253 + Distribution 256 + Pagolla wilsonia wilsonia 257 + Wilson plover 257 + Habits 257 + Distribution 262 + Podasocys montanus 263 + Mountain plover 263 + Habits 263 + Distribution 267 + Family Aphrizidae 269 + Aphriza virgata 269 + Surf bird 269 + Habits 269 + Distribution 277 + Arenaria interpres 278 + Turnstone 278 + Habits 278 + Distribution 293 + Arenaria interpres interpres 293 + Arenaria interpres morinella 294 + Arenaria melanocephala 298 + Black turnstone 298 + Habits 298 + Distribution 304 + Family Haematopodidae 305 + Haematopus ostralegus 305 + European oyster catcher 305 + Habits 305 + Distribution 308 + Haematopus palliatus palliatus 309 + American oyster catcher 309 + Habits 309 + Distribution 315 + Haematopus palliatus frazari 316 + Frazer oyster catcher 316 + Habits 316 + Distribution 319 + Haematopus bachmani 320 + Black oyster catcher 320 + Habits 320 + Distribution 323 + Family Jacanidae 324 + Jacana spinosa gymnostoma 324 + Mexican jacana 324 + Habits 324 + Distribution 327 + References to publications 328 + Explanation of plates 341 + Index 407 + + + + + INTRODUCTION + + +This is the eighth in a series of bulletins of the United States +National Museum on the life histories of North American birds. Previous +numbers have been issued as follows: + +107. Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, August 1, 1919. + +113. Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns, August 27, 1921. + +121. Life Histories of North American Petrels, Pelicans and their +Allies, October 19, 1922. + +126. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl, May 25, 1923. + +130. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl, June 27, 1925. + +135. Life Histories of North American Marsh Birds, March 11, 1927. + +142. Life Histories of North American Shore Birds, December 31, 1927. + +The same general plan has been followed, as explained in previous +bulletins, and the same sources of information have been utilized. The +classification and nomenclature adopted by the American Ornithologists’ +Union, in its latest check list and its supplements, have been +followed, mainly, with such few changes as, in the author’s opinion, +will be, or should be, made to bring the work up to date and in line +with recent advances in the science. + +The main ranges are as accurately outlined as limited space will +permit; the normal migrations are given in sufficient detail to +indicate the usual movements of the species; no attempt has been made +to give all the records, for economy in space, and no pretence at +complete perfection is claimed. Many published records, often repeated, +have been investigated and discarded; many apparently doubtful records +have been verified; some published records, impossible to either verify +or disprove, have been accepted if the evidence seemed to warrant it. + +The egg dates are the condensed results of a mass of records taken from +the data in a large number of the best egg collections in the country, +as well as from contributed field notes and from a few published +sources. They indicate the dates on which eggs have been actually found +in various parts of the country, showing the earliest and latest dates +and the limits between which half the dates fall, the height of the +season. + +The plumages are described in only enough detail to enable the reader +to trace the sequence of molts and plumages from birth to maturity and +to recognize the birds in the different stages and at the different +seasons. No attempt has been made to fully describe adult plumages; +this has been already well done in the many manuals. The names of +colors, when in quotation marks, are taken from Ridgway’s Color +Standards and Nomenclature (1912) and the terms used to describe +the shapes of eggs are taken from his Nomenclature of Colors (1886 +edition). The heavy-faced type in the measurements of eggs indicate the +four extremes of measurements. + +Many of those who contributed material for former volumes have +rendered a similar service in this case. In addition to those whose +contributions have been acknowledged previously, our thanks are due +to the following new contributors: Photographs, notes, or data have +been contributed by E. G. Alexander, C. M. Beal, W. W. Bennett, A. +D. Boyle, W. J. Brown, M. H. Burroughs, J. J. Carroll, N. W. Cayley, +Ralph Chislett, W. M. Congreve, S. J. Darcus, H. G. Deignare, Jonathan +Dwight, F. F. Gander, T. S. Gillin, W. E. Glegg, S. P. Gordon, Frank +Grasett, R. W. Harding, L. L. Haskin, E. A. Hyer, T. A. James, F. +Kermode, H. M. Laing, Carl Lien, G. H. Lings, Julian Lyder, S. H. +Lyman, M. J. Magee, Miss M. E. McLellan, F. C. Pellett, R. T. Peterson, +H. H. Pittman, C. A. Proctor, J. C. Salyer, A. W. Schorger, Althea R. +Sherman, L. W. Smith, E. L. Sumner, jr., Malcolm Taylor, jr., R. M. +Thorburn, C. H. Townsend, Josselyn Van Tyne, Stanton Warburton, jr., +Alexander Wetmore, F. N. Wilson, L. R. Wolfe. + +Receipt of material from over 275 contributors has been acknowledged in +previous volumes. + +Through the courtesy of the Biological Survey, the services of +Frederick C. Lincoln were again secured to compile the distribution +paragraphs. With the matchless reference files of the Biological +Survey at his disposal and with some advice and help from Dr. Harry C. +Oberholser, his many hours of careful and thorough work have produced +results far more satisfactory than could have been attained by the +author, who claims no credit and assumes no responsibility for this +part of the work. + +Dr. Charles W. Townsend has contributed the life histories of two +species; the Rev. Francis C. R. Jourdain has furnished valuable notes +for two, has written nine new life histories and two of his have been +transferred from the previous volume; and Dr. Winsor M. Tyler has +contributed two life histories. The author is much indebted to Dr. +Charles W. Richmond for many hours of careful and sympathetic work +in reading the proof and correcting errors in this and all previous +volumes; his expert knowledge has been of great value. + +As most of the shore birds are known to us mainly, or entirely, as +migrants, it has seemed desirable to describe their migrations quite +fully. As it is a well-known fact that many, if not all, immature and +nonbreeding shore birds remain far south of their breeding ranges all +summer, it has not seemed necessary to mention this in each case. Nor +did it seem necessary to say that only one brood is raised in a season, +as this is a nearly universal rule with all water birds. + +The manuscript for this volume was completed in April, 1928. +Contributions received since then will be acknowledged later. Only +information of great importance could be added. When this volume +appears, contributions of photographs or notes relating to the Raptores +should be sent to + + THE AUTHOR. + + + + + LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN SHORE + BIRDS + + + ORDER LIMICOLAE (PART 2) + + + By ARTHUR CLEVELAND BENT + _Of Taunton, Massachusetts_ + + + + + Family SCOLOPACIDAE, Snipes and Sandpipers + + + TRINGA SOLITARIA SOLITARIA Wilson + + SOLITARY SANDPIPER + + + HABITS + +This dainty “woodland tattler” is associated in my mind with some +secluded, shady woodland pool in early autumn, where the summer drought +has exposed broad muddy shores and where the brightly tinted leaves of +the swamp maple float lightly on the still water. Here the solitary +wader may be seen, gracefully poised on some fallen log, nodding +serenely, or walking gracefully over the mud or in the shallow water. +Seldom disturbed by man, it hardly seems to heed his presence; it +may raise its wings, displaying their pretty linings, or it may flit +lightly away to the other side of the pool, with a few sharp notes of +protest and a flash of white in its tail. I have often seen it in other +places where one would not expect to find shore birds, such as the +muddy banks of a sluggish stream, somewhat polluted with sewage, which +flows back of my garden in the center of the city, or some barnyard mud +puddle, reeking with the filth of cattle; perhaps it is attracted to +such unsavory places by the swarms of flies that it finds there. + +_Spring._--The solitary sandpiper arrives in the United States during +the latter part of March, but it makes slow progress northward, for it +does not reach New England until May. We generally see it singly, in +pairs, or in small numbers, but according to William Brewster (1925) it +sometimes occurs in favorable localities, near Umbagog Lake, Maine, in +large numbers; he writes: + + According to an entry in my journal I saw them there + literally in “swarms” on May 20, 1880, when, as we advanced + by way of the river in a boat, they were ceaselessly + rising and flitting on ahead, uttering their _peet-weet_ + calls, and also making a faint yet noticeable rustling + sound with their wings. Thus driven they sometimes + alighted, one after another, on some muddy point, until as + many as seven assembled within the space of a few square + feet. Nevertheless, they were for the most part paired, and + the mated birds almost invariably kept together, and apart + from all the rest when on wing. + +The migration in the interior seems to be at least two or three weeks +earlier. E. W. Hadeler tells me that in Lake County, Ohio, one is +almost sure to find it, on the river where the sewer empties into it, +between April 22 and May 18. Many must pass through the inland States +in April, for Edward S. Thomas has recorded it in Ohio as early as +March 30 and calls the average date of arrival April 15. A. G. Lawrence +has recorded it in southern Manitoba as early as April 29 and it +reaches its northernmost breeding grounds in Mackenzie and Alaska soon +after the middle of May. + +_Courtship._--Dr. John B. May has sent me the following notes on a +courtship display of this species which he saw in New Hampshire: + + Paddling down river one day, probably between the 8th and + 15th of June, I saw several pairs of solitary and spotted + sandpipers where the muddy banks were exposed, near a + swamp where bitterns breed. Both species were apparently + courting, making considerable noise and showing their white + feathers in display. Every little while one of the solitary + sandpipers would fly up slowly into the air, only rising + a few feet, and rising slowly with rapidly beating or + quivering wings, giving a twittering whistle and spreading + the tail so that the outer white feathers were very + conspicuous. Then it would drop back to the mud again near + where it rose. The time taken in rising a few feet would + have carried it some distance with its ordinary flight. + +_Nesting._--The nesting habits of this sandpiper long remained a +mystery or were misunderstood. In looking over the literature on the +subject I came across no less than seven published records of nests +found on the ground and said to be positively identified as this +species. These were all published prior to the discovery of the now +well-known habit of nesting in the deserted nests of passerine birds. +Not a single one of these records seems to be substantiated by an +available specimen of the parent bird. The solitary sandpiper may +occasionally nest on the ground, but it is yet to be proven. + +To Evan Thomson belongs the credit for making the interesting discovery +of the tree-nesting habit. This historic incident is described by J. +Fletcher Street (1923) as follows: + + Mr. Thomson many years ago took up a quarter section of + land under the Canadian homestead act, built himself a log + cabin at the edge of a muskeg, and commenced the arduous + task of clearing the land. Living alone in this wilderness + without neighbors and possessing a keen love for nature + and a particular interest in the abundant wild life about + him, he came to devote his spare moments to the study of + birds, counting as his immediate associates such hermit + species as the great-horned owl, long-eared owl, saw-whet + owl, goshawk, and a large host of water fowl and waders. + Seated one day before his cabin he noticed a bird fly to + a low tamarack and enter a nest. It was ostensibly one of + the waders, and great was his surprise upon examining the + nest to find it the structure of a robin. It contained + four beautiful eggs, greenish white in ground color and + heavily spotted and blotched with reddish brown. Thus, on + June 16, 1903, the first authentic eggs of the solitary + sandpiper were taken but it was not until a year later + that the identity of the bird was definitely established. + It was indeed interesting, 20 years later, to be shown the + cabin and to view the original tree from which the eggs + were collected. Subsequent to the finding of this nest many + others have been located, the bird evidencing no particular + choice of nest in which to deposit its eggs, the list + including those of the bronzed grackle, Brewer’s blackbird, + cedar waxwing, kingbird, robin, and Canada jay. These have + been found at an elevation as low as 4 feet and as high as + 40 and in locations contiguous to water and as far away as + 200 yards. + +Walter Raine (1904), for whom Mr. Thomson was collecting eggs at the +time, was the first to publish the important news, but he waited a year +until another nest was found and the parent bird shot. The following +year, 1904, Mr. Thomson found two more nests and shot the parent bird +from the last one. Mr. Raine (1904) then published a full account of +all three nests, each of which contained four eggs. The first nest, +taken June 16, 1903, was “an old nest of the American robin, built 15 +feet up in a tamarack tree, that was growing in the middle of a large +muskeg, dotted with tamaracks.” The second was found on June 9, 1904, +an old “nest of a bronzed grackle, built in a low tree.” The third set +was taken on June 24, 1904, and the parent bird was shot, as she flew +from “the nest of a cedar waxwing, which was built in a small spruce +tree growing in a swamp, the nest being about 5 feet from the water.” +Since then numerous other nests have been found in similar situations. +A. D. Henderson (1923) reported a nest found in 1914, about a “dozen +feet up in a poplar tree,” and on June 7, 1922, a set of eggs was taken +for him, with the parent, by a young friend: + + The nest was in a white birch tree, growing at the edge + of the timber, on the shore of a small lake, and about + 150 yards from his home. A brood of young robins had been + raised in it last season, he told me. It was about 18 + feet from the ground and a typical robin’s nest, of grass + and mud. The inside lining of grass was gone and the eggs + lay in the bare mud cup, no material being added by the + sandpiper, which I identified as the eastern form of the + bird. + +Mr. Henderson and Richard C. Harlow took a set of four fresh eggs on +May 30, 1923, near Belvedere, Alberta, from an old robin’s nest 10 feet +up in a scrubby spruce, 30 feet high, on the muskeg border of a swampy +lake. A nest found by Messrs. Street (1923) and Stuart, near Red Lodge, +Alberta, on May 29, 1923, was also an old robin’s nest only 4 feet from +the ground in an 8-foot spruce, in a muskeg surrounded by spruces and +tamaracks. + +Mr. Henderson tells me that he thinks he now understands the nesting +habits of this species more thoroughly, for he has found five sets of +eggs this season, 1927. He says: + + The principal breeding place seems to be around small + lakes or ponds in muskegs; and the bird they are chiefly + associated with is the rusty blackbird, which also breeds + among the same surroundings, and whose nests are as + suitable for the solitary sandpiper as are those of the + robin. A few breed around lakes and sloughs, away from + the muskegs, but the main body is in the muskeg country + associated with the rusty blackbird. + +_Eggs._--The solitary sandpiper lays almost invariably four eggs; I +believe there is only one set of five recorded. They are ovate pyriform +in shape, with a slight gloss, and the shell is very fragile. There are +two distinct types of ground color, green and buff. These two types are +well illustrated by the Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain (1907) in an excellent +colored plate. In the green type the ground colors vary from “pale +glaucous green,” or “pale turtle green,” to greenish white; and in +the buff type, from “cream buff” to “cartridge buff.” They are rather +thickly spotted and blotched with irregular markings, usually more +thickly about the larger end, where the spots are sometimes confluent. +The underlying spots and blotches in various shades of “purple drab” +and “heliotrope gray” are often quite conspicuous. Over these the +eggs are boldly marked with dark rich browns, “claret brown,” “liver +brown,” “bay” and “chocolate,” or even darker colors where the pigment +is thickest. One beautiful egg, figured by Mr. Jourdain (1907), has +a “pale glaucous green” ground color, with only two blotches of very +dark brown near the larger end, heavily splashed elsewhere with “pallid +purple drab,” and sparingly peppered with light brown. The measurements +of 68 eggs average 36 by 25.5 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =38.5= by =27=, =33.7= by 23.8 and 36.1 by =23.6= +millimeters. + +_Plumages._--I have never seen this species in natal down, but Ora W. +Knight (1908) says that “the downy young are a general grayish buff +above with darker suffusions on the back; a darker line through each +eye from bill to nape; darkish crown line; below white with slight +dusky suffusion on flanks.” + +Young birds in juvenal plumage are grayish brown above, lighter and +more olivaceous than in adults, and thickly spotted with white or +buffy white; the sides of the head and neck are grayish, indistinctly +streaked with dusky on the neck. A partial postjuvenal molt occurs in +the fall producing a first winter plumage, in which young birds may be +distinguished by retained juvenal wing coverts. Young birds are also +more profusely spotted on the upper parts and less distinctly streaked +on the neck and breast than adults. At the first prenuptial molt, the +following spring, the young bird becomes practically adult. + +Adults have a partial prenuptial molt, between February and May, +involving the body plumage, the tail and some scapulars, wing coverts, +and tertials. The complete postnuptial molt begins in July with the +change of the body plumage and may last through September, but the +primaries are not molted until the winter months, December to February. +The winter plumage is similar to the nuptial, but the upper parts are +grayer and less distinctly spotted; the neck and chest are only very +indistinctly streaked with grayish. + +_Food._--Dr. Elliott Coues (1874) has described the feeding habits of +solitary sandpipers so well that I can not do better than to quote his +words, as follows: + + They differ from most of their relatives in their choice of + feeding grounds or of places where they usually alight to + rest while migrating; a difference accompanied, I suppose, + by a corresponding modification in diet. Their favorite + resorts are the margins of small, stagnant pools, fringed + with rank grass and weeds; the miry, tide-water ditches + that intersect marshes; and the soft, oozy depressions in + low meadows and water savannas. They frequent also the + interior of woods not too thick and collect there about the + rain puddles, the water of which is delayed in sinking by + the matted layer of decaying leaves that covers the ground. + After heavy rains I have seen them running about like grass + plovers on open, level commons, covered only with short + turf. They also have a fancy, shared by few birds except + the titlarks, for the pools of liquid manure usually found + in some out of the way place upon the thrifty farmer’s + premises. They find abundant food in all these places, + aquatic insects of all sorts, and especially their curious + larvae, worms, grubs, and perhaps the smallest sorts of + molluscs; with all these they also take into their gizzards + a quantity of sand and gravel, to help along the grinding + process. With food to be had in such plenty with little + labor the birds become, particularly in the fall, extremely + fat. + +Edward H. Forbush (1912) says: + + In the fall, on its return from the north, it has a habit + of wading into the water in stagnant ditches or ponds, + where it advances one foot at a time, and by rapidly moving + the forward foot stirs up the vegetation at the bottom ever + so slightly. This motion is so swift and delicate that + the leg seems to be merely trembling, as if the bird were + chilled by contact with the water, but it is done with + intent to disturb insects among the algae at the bottom + without roiling the water, and the eager bird, leaning + forward, plunges in its bill and head, sometimes to the + eyes, and catches the alarmed water insects as they dart + away. I have watched this carefully with a glass while + lying in the grass only 10 or 12 feet from the bird. It is + easy by stirring the bottom slightly with a stick to cause + a similar movement of the water insects, but I never could + agitate it so delicately as to avoid clouding the water + with sediment from the bottom. + +Giraud (1844) says that “on the wing it is very active, and is +sometimes seen darting after winged insects, which it is expert in +catching.” Other observers have noted in its food various insects +and their larvae, dragon-fly nymphs, water-scavenger beetles, water +boatmen, grasshoppers, caterpillars, spiders, worms, small crustaceans, +and small frogs. + +_Behavior._--The solitary sandpiper is always light, graceful, and +dainty in all its movements. In spite of the unsavory places in which +it often feeds, its trim figure is always neat and clean. In flight it +is light and airy as it flits away for a short distance, only to alight +again and lift its prettily lined wings high above its back before +folding them. It flies higher than the spotted sandpiper and more +swiftly, often in a zigzag manner, a trick probably learned by dodging +branches in the woods, and the wings are raised well above the body on +the upward stroke. + +Walter H. Rich (1907) says: + + There is scarcely another bird which flies with so little + apparent effort. His strokes are slow and regular, a short + sailing between each motion, but he moves very fast. Let + him be alarmed and he will quicken his speed until he seems + only a black streak in the air, and as he rises to top the + surrounding trees it needs good and quick work with the gun + to stop him. + +It frequently indulges in a peculiar tilting and nodding habit, similar +to that of the spotted sandpiper, but it is more deliberate and not so +pronounced; it seems to be more of a bow than a tip-up more like the +bobbing of the yellowlegs. It moves about rather sluggishly, wading in +shallow water or even standing motionless, where its colors blend into +its dark background and make it difficult to see. If it wades beyond +its depth, it swims readily and can even dive to escape its enemies. +John T. Nichols says in his notes: + + In feeding it frequently lowers the head with a drilling + motion, especially when immersing its bill in the water, + apparently probing in the mud at such times, whereas as a + rule our tattlers feed by snatching. It frequently stops + to scratch its head with one foot. When bathing it ducks + and splashes and sits in the water soaking, and at the + conclusion of the bath, trips out onto the mud, raises the + wings once or twice, and preens itself thoroughly. I have + seen a solitary, alighted in a pool on the marsh, preening + its feathers without dipping its bill in the water, and am + not aware whether it has this bill-dipping habit common + with some of its relatives. + +Harrison F. Lewis has sent me the following notes on the rather +peculiar behavior of a solitary sandpiper which he watched for some +time: + + The sandpiper, which was well aware that I was watching + it, stepped slowly out onto the open surface of the mud + of the bog, and, standing there with its left side toward + me, repeated several times the following curious actions. + It spread its wings about halfway, holding them stiffly + in the plane of its back, neither raised nor lowered, so + that the dark markings on its axillards were slightly + visible. At the same time it drew its head as far backward + and its tail as far forward over its back as possible, + and slowly lowered its breast until it almost seemed to + touch the mud. After remaining rigid in this position for + 10 to 15 seconds, it would suddenly relax and become its + normal self, only to repeat the entire procedure almost + immediately. I could think of no purpose for these actions, + unless they were an attempt at concealment by making the + bird’s outlines and colors as unlike as possible to those + normally to be expected in a sandpiper. Although it did not + conceal itself from me by this means, it made itself appear + extremely unlike a bird. + +Solitary sandpipers are usually very tame and unsuspicious, often to +the verge of stupidity, as the following incident, related by Doctor +Coues (1874) well illustrates: + + Once coming up to a fence that went past a little pool, + and peeping through the slats, I saw eight tattlers of + this species wading about in the shallow water, searching + for food. I pulled trigger on one; the others set up a + simultaneous outcry, and I expected them, of course, to + fly off, but they presently quieted down and began feeding + again. Without moving from my place, I fired three times + more, killing a single bird at each discharge; still + no effect upon the survivors, except as before. Then I + climbed over the fence, and stood in full view of the four + remaining birds; they merely flapped to the further side + of the pool, and stood still looking at me, nodding away, + as if agreed that the whole thing was very singular. I + stood and deliberately loaded and fired three times more, + taking one bird each time; and it was only as I was ramming + another charge, that the sole surviving bird concluded to + make off, which he did, I will add in justice to his wits, + in a great hurry. + +Mr. Brewster (1925) says: + + Not less confiding than sluggish, they will usually allow + a man to approach in the open to within less than a dozen + yards, and sometimes he may almost lay his hands on young + and inexperienced birds, while several of these may + continue to gaze at him with obviously serene unconcern + immediately after he has discharged his gun directly over + their heads. There are times, however, especially in + calm weather, when the report of a gun, or the sound of + one’s paddle striking against the side of a boat, will + instantly startle all the solitary sandpipers within 20 + rods, causing them to rise on wing with loud outcries, + and to fly off singly, in various directions, to more or + less distant places. In summer and autumn they invariably + act thus independently of one another when flushed, and + also when engaged in feeding, although by no means averse + to assembling rather numerously where food is especially + plentiful or easily obtained. + +_Voice._--Mr. Nichols has described this very satisfactorily, in his +notes, as follows: + + The ordinary notes of the solitary sandpiper are very + close to those of the spotted, but probably always + differentiable. They are sharper, cleaner cut, less + variable. The full-flight note is a sharp piping _peep weep + weep_, more often three than two syllabled when a bird is + definitely leaving a locality, or by wandering birds which + ordinarily fly high. In birds flushed on, or making longer + or shorter flights to different parts of the same marsh + where they were living, the same note was usually double + _peep weep_, rarely single. + + A quite dissimilar call, less frequently heard, is a fine + _pit pit pit_, or _chi tit_. This may have no significance + other than being a reduction of the preceding, when the + bird is less definitely on the wing, but seems to depend + on their being another individual fairly close by. There + is likely homology between it and the short flocking call + of the lesser yellowlegs, and if correctly determined, a + certain analogy thereto is also established, perhaps as + much as possible with this non-social species. Of similar + quality was a peculiar _kikikiki_ from one of two birds in + company which came to decoys nicely, as they went on past + my rig without alighting. + + A third kind of note, isolated _pips_, suggesting the call + of the water thrush, is expressive of excitement when a + bird is on the ground, as when just alighted. + +_Field marks._--The field characters are also well described by Mr. +Nichols, as follows: + + In flight the under surface of the solitary sandpiper’s + wings appears blackish. Birds on the ground not + infrequently raise the wings over the back, displaying + this mark to advantage. Its tail, spread when about to + alight, appears white with a contrasting dark center. When + traveling in the air its flight is either swift and darting + or else resembles that of a yellowlegs, a little jerkier. + When about to alight it usually drops down abruptly, much + as the Wilson’s snipe does; and when flying only a few + yards it has a peculiar jerky flight with wings partially + spread. On the ground it looks much like a yellowlegs, but + is darker, smaller, and stands relatively lower. Its legs + are olive green; very rarely an individual in spring has + quite yellow legs. + +_Fall._--The fall migration of the solitary sandpiper is a general +southward movement all across the continent, performed in a leisurely +manner. The earliest birds, probably adults, reach New England in July; +and late birds, probably young, linger through October. Mr. Brewster +(1925) says: + + On August 2, 1873, I saw fully 100 along the Androscoggin + River between the lake and Errol Dam, and almost as many + more, a few hours later, while going up the Magalloway + River some 7 or 8 miles. At that date in almost any year + there is, throughout the whole Umbagog region, almost no + muddy shore of pond, lake, river, lagoon, or brook, whether + open to the sun or densely shaded by overhanging foliage, + which is not frequented by one or more solitary sandpipers. + Hence we may safely assume that in the region at large they + are regularly present in far greater numbers during August + than at any other time of year. + +When with us in the fall they are more likely to be seen on open +meadows or salt marshes than they are in the spring, often in company +with lesser yellowlegs. Mr. Nichols writes to me: + + In the first half of August, 1919, this species was + unusually plentiful, living on the bay marsh at Mastic, + Long Island, with maximum numbers August 9 to 10. The birds + frequented the larger bits of flooded dead marsh that + yellowlegs love and were also found in smaller, less open, + pools more overshadowed by grass. On August 16 and 17 two + birds were also repeatedly found feeding on patches of weed + matted at the surface of an adjacent creek, exceedingly + tame. The presence of these solitary sandpipers on a + coastal marsh may have been due to conditions of high-water + level prevailing at the time, flooding the muddy borders of + inland pools where they are ordinarily to be looked for. + +Capt. Savile G. Reid (1884) says that in Bermuda “they generally come +with the other species in August. They soon betake themselves to the +wooded swamps, where they may be found singly or in pairs throughout +the autumn.” + +On the Pacific coast both races of the solitary sandpiper occur +regularly on the fall migration, but the western race is undoubtedly +much commoner and is supposed by some to be the only race found west of +the Rocky Mountains. The migration occurs mainly in August and early +September. J. A. Munro tells me that he gets both forms regularly at +Okanagan Landing, British Columbia. + +_Winter._--A few birds may spend the winter in the West Indies, but the +main winter home of the species is in South America. The distribution +of the two forms in winter is not well understood and probably both +races are more or less mixed. W. H. Hudson (1920) writes: + + I was once pleased and much amused to discover in a small, + sequestered pool in a wood, well sheltered from sight by + trees and aquatic plants, a solitary sandpiper living in + company with a blue bittern. The bittern patiently watched + for small fishes and when not fishing dozed on a low branch + overhanging the water, while its companion ran briskly + along the margin snatching up minute insects from the + water. When disturbed they rose together, the bittern with + its harsh, grating scream, the sandpiper daintily piping + its fine, bright notes--a wonderful contrast! Every time I + visited the pool afterwards I found these two hermits, one + so sedate in manner the other so lively, living peacefully + together. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North America chiefly east of the Rocky Mountains to South +America. + +_Breeding range._--The only unquestioned eggs of the solitary sandpiper +that have been collected have come from Alberta where it is known to +breed from the northern part south as far as Stony Plain and Red Lodge. +A pair of adult birds with young also were collected in 1921, 30 miles +below Fort Simpson, Mackenzie (Williams, 1922), while the same observer +found them common in the vicinity of Fort Norman, Mackenzie, as late as +August 14. + +It has been reported breeding as far south as Iowa (Keokuk and +Winneshiek Counties); Ohio (Columbus); and Pennsylvania (Pocono +Mountain and Beaver); and east to New Hampshire (Isle of Shoals, +Franconia, and Appledore); Maine (Penobscot and Aroostook Counties); +and Quebec (Lake Mistassinni and Godbout). The circumstances attendant +upon each of these and intermediate cases are such as to cause doubts +concerning their authenticity, although it seems probable that the +species did, (and possibly still does) breed somewhere in eastern North +America. + +_Winter range._--The solitary sandpipers wintering in South America +have been determined subspecifically only on a few occasions, so +it should be understood that the following outline includes both +_solitaria_ and _cinnamomea_. Specimens collected in Colombia by +Chapman and Todd all prove to be _solitaria_, while Chapman obtained +both races in Ecuador. + +The winter range of the species extends north to Vera Cruz (Playa +Vicente); rarely Florida (probably Pensacola, probably Waukeenah, +Sevenoaks, and Safety Harbor); rarely Georgia (Chatham County); +probably the Bahama Islands (Inagua); Jamaica; and Porto Rico. East +to Porto Rico; eastern Venezuela (mouth of the Orinoco River); +British Guiana (Bartica); Dutch Guiana (Surinam and Maroni River); +French Guiana (Cayenne); Brazil (Mixiana, Para, Chapada, Urucuia, and +Pitanguy); Paraguay (Colonia Risso); Uruguay (Rocha, Montevideo, and +Colonia); and Argentina (Buenos Aires and Azul). South to Argentina +(Azul and Cordoba). West to Argentina (Cordoba, Tucuman, Salta, and +Oran); Bolivia (Caiza); Peru (Chorillos, Cajabamba, and Tumbez); +Ecuador (Guayaquil and Quito); Colombia (Cali, Novita, Medellin, Puerto +Berrio, and Santa Marta); Costa Rica (San Jose); Guatemala (Los Amates +and Duenas); Yucatan (Tabi); and Vera Cruz (Playa Vicente).[1] + + [1] The migration dates here given probably include, in many cases, + observations and records for both _solitaria_ and _cinnamomea_. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of arrival in the spring migration +are: South Carolina, Charleston, March 27, and Aiken, March 30; North +Carolina, Raleigh, April 4, and Weaverville, April 9; District of +Columbia, Washington, March 30; Pennsylvania, State College, April +14, Sewickley, April 15, and Doylestown, April 16; New Jersey, Dead +River, April 18; New York, York, April 18, Ithaca, April 20, and New +York City, April 21; Connecticut, Litchfield, April 27, and New Haven, +April 29; Massachusetts, Northampton, April 25, Melrose, April 26, +and Fitchburg, April 28; Vermont, Randolph, April 26, Bennington, +May 4, and Wells River, May 6; New Hampshire, Manchester, April +26, and Monadnock, May 11; Maine, Orono, May 3, Pittsfield, May 6, +and Waterville, May 7; Quebec, Quebec, May 1, and Godbout, May 4; +Mississippi, Bay St. Louis, March 17, and Biloxi, March 25; Louisiana, +Hester, March 16; Arkansas, Monticello, March 24, and Tillar, March +31; Tennessee, Nashville, April 7; Kentucky, Bowling Green, April 8, +and Russellville, April 9; Missouri, Jonesburg, March 19, and Monteer, +April 6; Illinois, Rantoul, March 24, Danville, April 2, and Chicago, +April 7; Indiana, Frankfort, March 15, Indianapolis, March 17, and +Delhi, March 28; Ohio, Oberlin, March 28, Sandusky, March 31, and +Scio, April 7; Michigan, Ann Arbor, April 23, Hillsdale, April 24, and +Portage Lake, April 30; Ontario, Toronto, March 16, London, April 28, +and Ottawa, May 2; Iowa, Hillsboro, April 10, National, April 14, and +Sigourney, April 20; Wisconsin, Beloit, April 24, Milwaukee, April 25, +and Madison, April 26; Minnesota, Minneapolis, April 17, Hallock, April +21, and Lanesboro, April 24; Texas, Santa Maria, March 3, Brownsville, +March 17, Texas City, March 22, and Boerne, March 25; Kansas, Wichita, +March 29, Emporia, April 10, and Independence, April 16; Nebraska, +Neligh, April 20, Red Cloud, April 25, and Valentine, April 27; +South Dakota, Forestburg, April 16, and Huron, May 3; North Dakota, +Charlson, April 27, and Bismarck, April 30; Manitoba, Aweme, April +29; Saskatchewan, Wiseton, May 13, and Osler, May 19; and Alberta, +Alliance, May 2, Flagstaff, May 4, and Oonoway, May 5. + +Late dates of spring departure are Colombia, La Manuelita, April +11, and eastern Santa Marta region, April 18; Costa Rica, San Jose, +April 27; Yucatan, Rio Lagartoo, April 13; West Indies, San Domingo, +April 27; Cuba, Isle of Pines, May 18; Bahama Islands, Nassau, May +10; Florida, St. Marks, May 10, and Pensacola, May 30; Alabama, Bayou +Labatre, May 20, and Autaugaville, May 23; Georgia, Macon, May 10, and +Savannah, May 17; South Carolina, Aiken, May 10, Frogmore, May 19, +and Mount Pleasant, May 27; North Carolina, Weaverville, May 20, and +Raleigh, May 28; District of Columbia, Washington, May 21; Maryland, +Sandy Springs, May 22, and Cumberland, May 23; New Jersey, Camden, +May 25, Morristown, June 7, and Bernardsville, June 11; New York, +Rhinebeck, May 26, Cincinnatus, May 31, and Orient Point, June 6; +Connecticut, Norwalk, May 27, and Litchfield, May 31; Rhode Island, +Providence, June 3; Massachusetts, Worcester, May 30, Melrose, June +1, and New Boston, June 10; Louisiana, New Orleans, May 6, and Bains, +May 12; Mississippi, Ellisville, May 17; Tennessee, Nashville, May 27, +and Knoxville, June 12; Kentucky, Bowling Green, May 22; Missouri, St. +Louis, May 16, and Monteer, May 20; Illinois, Chicago, May 26, Joliet, +May 28, and Rantoul, May 29; Indiana, Goshen, May 24, and Holland, +May 30; Ohio, Columbus, June 1, Oberlin, May 28, and Huron, May 29; +Michigan, Laurium, May 26, and Detroit, May 30; Ontario, Port Perry, +May 27, Toronto, June 3, and Madoc, June 7; Iowa, Sioux City, May 26, +Emmetsburg, May 29, and Sioux City, May 30; Wisconsin, Madison, May +27, and La Crosse, May 29; Minnesota, Waseca, May 22, Hallock, May 25, +and Minneapolis, May 31; Texas, Gainesville, May 15, Kerrville, May +20, and Hidalgo, May 23; Kansas, Lawrence, May 21, and Topeka, May +22; Nebraska, Valentine, May 20, and Lincoln, May 22; South Dakota, +Huron, May 21, Vermilion, May 27, and Forestburg, May 30; North Dakota, +Charlson, May 25; Manitoba, Aweme, May 26, Shell River, May 29, and +Shoal Lake, June 1; and Saskatchewan, Prince Albert, June 5, and +Kutanajan Lake, June 15. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of arrival in the full migration are: +Saskatchewan, Maple Creek, July 6; Manitoba, Margaret, July 8, and +Oak Lake, July 19; South Dakota, Sioux Falls, July 1, and Forestburg, +July 2; Nebraska, Valentine, July 3; Kansas, Little Blue River, July +22; Texas, Gurley, July 15, Kerrville, July 20, Brownsville, August 2; +Minnesota, St. Vincent, July 2, Lanesboro, July 4, and Minneapolis, +July 15; Wisconsin, Shiocton, June 30, North Freedom, July 14, and +Ladysmith, July 16; Iowa, Marshalltown, July 8, Sioux City, July 12, +and Hillsboro, July 18; Ontario, Toronto, July 10, and Port Dover, +July 13; Michigan, Detroit, July 7, and Charity Island, July 10; Ohio, +Columbus, July 3, Wooster, July 8, and Painesville, July 20; Indiana, +Sedan, July 15; Illinois, Chicago, July 3, Glen Ellyn, July 16, and +Port Byron, July 21; Missouri, Monteer, July 29; Kentucky, Bowling +Green, July 22; Mississippi, Biloxi, July 12, and Bay St. Louis, July +16; Louisiana, New Orleans, July 9; Massachusetts, Becket, July 8, +Harvard, July 12, and Lynn, July 17; Rhode Island, Newport, July 4, and +Providence, July 11; Connecticut, East Hartford, July 14, and Milford, +July 28; New York, Camp Upton, July 8, Rochester, July 12, and Poland, +July 15; Maryland, Calverton, July 14, and Cambridge, July 19; District +of Columbia, Washington, July 15; North Carolina, Raleigh, July 14; +South Carolina, Frogmore, July 24, and Charleston, July 26; Alabama, +Stevenson, July 15, and Leighton, July 17; Florida, Pensacola, July 12, +Bradenton, July 12, St. Marks, July 28, and Key West, July 28; Bahama +Islands, Fortune Island, August 5; Cuba, Isle of Pines, August 20; +Porto Rico, Comerio, July 29; and lesser Antilles, St. Croix, August 5. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Keewatin, Echimamish River, September +15; Manitoba, Shoal Lake, September 17, and Aweme, October 5; North +Dakota, Charlson, September 18; South Dakota, Forestburg, September 30; +Nebraska, Valentine, October 9, Nebraska City, October 10, and Lincoln, +October 20; Minnesota, St. Vincent, September 22, Parkers Prairies, +September 30, and Lanesboro, October 4; Wisconsin, Elkhorn, October +10, Delavan, October 20, and Racine, October 30; Iowa, Marshalltown, +October 5, and Hillsboro, October 20; Ontario, Toronto, October 2, St. +Thomas, October 4, and Ottawa, October 31; Michigan, Detroit, October +1; Ohio, Weymouth, October 14, Austinburg, October 28, and Medina, +November 1; Indiana, Indianapolis, October 15, Richmond, October 28, +and Roanoke, November 15; Illinois, Chicago, October 6, La Grange, +October 7, and De Kalb, October 10; Missouri, Jaspar City, October +9, and Independence, October 13; Kentucky, Bowling Green, October +11, Versailles, October 21, and Lexington, October 23; Tennessee, +Knoxville, October 11, and Nashville, November 4; Quebec, Montreal, +September 27; Maine, Portland, October 6, Pittsfield, October 8, and +Hebron, October 20; New Hampshire, Tilton, September 29, Lancaster, +October 5, and Errol, October 31; Vermont, Rutland, October 10, and +West Barnet, October 17; Massachusetts, Lynn, October 28, and Boston, +October 30; Rhode Island, Providence, October 13; New York, Rochester, +October 10, Ithaca, October 19, and New York City, October 31; New +Jersey, Montclair, October 13, Elizabeth, October 16, and Morristown, +November 1; District of Columbia, Washington, October 28; Maryland, +Chesapeake Beach, November 2; and South Carolina, Long Island, November 8. + +_Casual records._--The typical form of the solitary sandpiper has +been many times taken in Western States. Among these occurrences are: +New Mexico (Guadalupito, August 7, 1903); Wyoming (Arvada, August 19, +1913); Montana (Milk River, July 25, 1874, Miles City, August 14, 1900, +Gold Creek, August 20, 1910, and Three Buttes, August 6, 1874). Many +specimens also have been taken in British Columbia (Atlin and Okanagan +Landing), where it appears to be of regular occurrence, a specimen was +taken at Griffin Point, Alaska, June 1, 1914, and one at Fort Chimo, +Ungava. + +Two were collected on October 12, 1897, on Chatham Island, Galapagos +Archipelago; one was taken on the Clyde River, Lanarkshire, Scotland; +and another was obtained at Kangek, Greenland, on August 1, 1878. + +_Egg dates._--Alberta: 29 records, May 24 to June 24; 15 records, May +30 to June 8. + + + TRINGA SOLITARIA CINNAMOMEA (Brewster) + + WESTERN SOLITARY SANDPIPER + + + HABITS + +The western race of this species is larger than the eastern. In adult +nuptial plumage the upper parts are much less distinctly spotted with +whitish, the white bars on the tail are decidedly narrower and the +outer primary is usually finely mottled, with ashy white along the +border of its inner web; this last is none too constant a character and +is sometimes seen in the eastern bird. The name was derived from the +fact that in young birds the light spots on the back, scapulars and +wing coverts are brownish cinnamon instead of white or buffy whitish. + +_Courtship._--The following description of the song flight of this +species was originally recorded by Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1900) under +the name of the undivided species, but he now evidently thinks that it +should belong here: + + The song flight of this species is mostly indulged in + during the early morning hours. This consists of a slow + circuitous flight on rapidly beating wings high over the + tree tops, accompanied by the frequent repetition of a + weak song somewhat resembling the call of a sparrow hawk. + At the close of this song flight the bird alights, as if + exhausted, and perches silently for some time at the top of + the tallest spruce in the vicinity. During the performance + of the male, the female may be seen feeding around + some grassy pool beneath, from all appearances entirely + unmindful of the ecstatic efforts of her mate. + +_Nesting._--Nothing definite is known of the breeding range or +nesting habits of the western solitary sandpiper. It is supposed to +breed in the interior of British Columbia and Alaska. The following +observations, made near Circle, Alaska, by Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood (1909) +throw some light on the subject: + + Within a radius of several miles from Circle one or more + adults were found about almost every woodland swamp. + In most cases they acted like parent birds anxious for + the safety of their young. Whenever we entered certain + precincts, they hovered nervously about, calling loudly, + or alighted on nearby trees scolding. The first pair seen + near Charlie Creek exhibited such actions on the evening + of June 22, and we made a hasty search in the twilight for + young birds, but found nothing. The excitement of the old + birds seemed to be greatest while we were in a small grassy + swamp, so the next day we made a more careful search. + The old birds were even more excited than before, and it + was some time before we detected that, besides the loud + cries ringing all about us, a faint peeping was issuing + from several points in the grass. Guided by this scarcely + audible peeping, we soon found three downy young birds + widely separated and squatting aimlessly in the grass. + They are quite small, exactly of a size, and none shows + the least indication of growing feathers; evidently they + belonged to one clutch, and could not have been out of the + eggs more than one or two days. The eggs of this species, + like those of the European green sandpiper, have been found + in the nests of other birds in trees. The small opening + where the birds were found was bounded on one side by an + extensive area grown with willows of relatively small size, + but on the other side was only a thin line of willows and + then alders, birch, poplars, and heavy spruce, in which + probably such birds as olive-backed thrushes, robins, and + varied thrushes nested in abundance. Therefore there was + ample opportunity for the sandpipers to lay their eggs in + the nests of these birds. + +_Plumages._--The downy young referred to above are thus described by +Robert Ridgway, (1919): + + General color of upper parts cinnamon drab, longitudinally + varied with brownish black; forehead and crown with a + broad median streak of black; a sharply defined black + loral streak, extending from bill to eye; a narrow black + stripe across auricular region (longitudinally), or a + black postauricular spot; occiput brown centrally, black + exteriorly, the black border sending from each side + a forward branch; an oval patch of brownish black on + median portion of rump, this bordered along each side + by a stripe of pale dull vinaceous-buff, the two buffy + stripes converging or almost uniting both anteriorly and + posteriorly; wings cinnamon drab, margined posteriorly with + dull white, the brown portion with several irregular spots + or blotches of black; under parts dull white. + +Subsequent plumages and molts are doubtless similar to those of the +eastern race. + +_Winter._--As mentioned under the preceding subspecies, we know very +little about the winter distribution of the two races. Dr. Frank M. +Chapman (1926) says that most of his specimens from Ecuador are of this +form, which he calls “a common winter resident from the coast to the +tableland, arriving from the north at least as early as August 10.” Dr. +Alexander Wetmore (1926) says: + + The specimens taken at Formosa and General Roca belong + certainly to the western form, on the basis of size (male, + wing, 134.3; female, wing 136.7 mm.), dorsal coloration, + and the presence of mottling on the inner web of the outer + primary. A female from Lazcano, Uruguay, has molted the + outer primaries, but on the basis of other measurements and + on the presence of some dark, buff mottling on the back + seems within the limit of variation of _cinnamomea_ and is + identified as the same as the other two. Though the typical + subspecies _solitaria_ is recorded definitely from Colombia + by Chapman, these findings seem to cast a doubt on its + presence as far south as Argentina. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Western North America and South America. + +_Breeding range._--No unquestioned set of eggs of the western solitary +sandpiper has thus far been recorded. Downy young with their parents +have, however, been taken in western Alberta (Henry House) and in +Alaska (Circle, Kowak River, Eagle, and Charlie Creek). There also is +a strong probability of their breeding in British Columbia (Cariboo +District, and Ducks). + +_Winter range._--As mentioned under _T. s. solitaria_, the two races +of this species on their wintering grounds in South America have +been distinguished only on a few occasions. It is probable that they +either occupy the same winter grounds or that their ranges overlap. +All specimens collected by Wetmore (1926) from Uruguay, Paraguay, and +Argentina, prove to be this form, indicating that it may winter south +of true _solitaria_. It also has been taken by Chapman in Ecuador +(Guayaquil, Loja, and Cebollal). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: Texas, Samuels, +April 15, and Henrietta, April 19; New Mexico, State College, May 4, +and Las Vegas, May 8; Colorado, Colorado Springs, May 1, Denver, May +4, and Boulder, May 5; Montana, Terry, May 7, and Billings, May 10; +Alberta, Athabaska Landing, May 5, Edmonton, May 10, and Sandy Creek, +May 14; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 10, and Fort Providence, May 14; +Arizona, Verde Valley, April 20, and Paradise, May 9; California, Los +Angeles, April 10, Gridley, April 23, and Fort Crook, May 4; Oregon, +Anthony, April 16, and Malheur Lake, April 17; Washington, Tacoma, May +6; British Columbia, Okanagan Landing, May 5, and Chilliwack, May 7; +Yukon, Forty-mile, May 8; and Alaska, Tocatna Forks, May 12, Nulato, +May 15, and Kowak River, May 18. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Colorado, Boulder, May 25, Denver, +May 28, and Grand Junction, June 3; and Wyoming, Fort Saders, May 25. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: California, Santa +Barbara, July 22; Arizona, Apache, July 29, Cave Spring, August 1, +and White Mountains, August 10; Montana, Terry, June 28; Wyoming, New +Castle, July 7; Colorado, Lytle, July 6, Middle Park, July 13, and El +Paso County, July 23; New Mexico, Zuni Mountains, July 24; and Texas, +Brownsville, July 31. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, Taku River, September 15; +British Columbia, Okanagan Landing, September 26; Washington, Seattle, +September 11; California, Santa Barbara, September 7; Arizona, San +Pedro River, October 10; Lower California, Agua Escondido, November +18; Montana, Missoula, September 4, Terry, September 5, and Bitterroot +Valley, September 7; Wyoming, Yellowstone Park, September 4, and Green +River, September 5; Colorado, Boulder, September 18, Florissant, +October 5, and Greeley, October 25; and New Mexico, Acoma, September +27, and Glenrio, October 2. + + + TRINGA OCROPHUS Linnaeus + + GREEN SANDPIPER + + _Contributed, by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The green sandpiper is only an accidental visitor to North America. +Swainson and Richardson (1831) record it from Hudson Bay, but this is +now generally acknowledged to be probably due to error. However, Dr. T. +M. Brewer (1878) mentions a specimen obtained at Halifax, Nova Scotia, +in 1872 or 1873 and forming part of a collection made there which was +purchased by J. E. Harting from a dealer at Woolwich. The evidence is +far from satisfactory and Seebohm’s remarks (1884) should be consulted, +but the skins in question are still in existence in the collection of +the British Museum. + +_Courtship._--It is a most remarkable fact that though the green +sandpiper is widely distributed during the breeding season over +temperate Europe and is by no means a shy or retiring bird, even though +it haunts the recesses of wooded marshes and wet forests, yet there +is hardly anything on record about its courtship activities. Seebohm +writes that the notes “are no doubt modulated into a musical trill as +the male performs his amatory excursions in the air during the pairing +season,” but adds that he has never had the good fortune either to +hear the love song or to find it described. Fortunately Prof. C. J. +Patten (1906) met with a pair which frequented a moorland stream in the +neighborhood of Sheffield from May 3 to June 4, 1903. He says: + + They were always to be found in the same spot, and after + feeding they frequently flitted on to a stone wall, + where for a little while they would remain motionless. + At intervals they suddenly shot up into the air for a + short distance, darting down again to the same stone + with astonishing speed. On the wing they displayed great + activity and adroitness, the female twisting and turning to + escape the addresses of the male. + +Newton (1896) writes: + + Yet in the breeding season, even in England, the cock bird + has been seen to rise high in air and perform a variety of + evolutions on the wing, all the while piping what without + any violence of language may be called a song. + +Doctor Hartert (1920), speaking of its habits on its breeding grounds, +remarks that it may be seen shooting through the air with the speed +of an arrow, and opines that this must be the love flight. With the +exception of these notes and some references to the song (which are +referred to under the heading of Voice), I can find nothing in the +literature with regard to the actual courtship, except Hartert’s +statement that on the ground the male trips about, with tail outspread +like a fan, calling loudly. When, however, a pair has definitely +settled down in its breeding territory, both birds are exceedingly +noisy and demonstrative. Wheelwright (1864) speaks of the “boisterous, +noisy behavior” of this bird, and in his later work on Sweden (1865) +remarks: + + Now, of all our waders, this is the noisiest, and there is + little trouble in finding the locality where it breeds, + for the old male is always about some brook in the + neighborhood, and I have before noticed that the loud, wild + cry of the green sandpiper and greenshank are much alike. + +_Nesting._--The nesting habits of the green sandpiper have been fully +described, but were practically unknown to naturalists till about +1852–1860, when quite independently Forester, Weise, and Hintz (sen.), +in Germany, and H. W. Wheelwright in Sweden, published the results of +their discoveries. The story is told in detail by Forest-Inspector +Weise, in the _Journal für Ornithologie_ for 1855 (p. 514). He had +first heard of the habit of adopting old nests of other species in +trees from an old ranger, but naturally discredited it. However, in +1845, the same man brought him four sandpipers’ eggs from a nest in +an old beech. Next spring Weise found a green sandpiper breeding in a +pine about 25 or 30 feet from the ground. He climbed to the nest and +found the four eggs so highly incubated that the young could be heard +squeaking inside the shells. Two other nests in similar sites came to +his notice subsequently, the last on May 25, 1855, when the four eggs +were already chipped. + +Forester, W. Hintz 1, writing in the same periodical for 1862 (p. 460) +says that he had found sandpipers’ nests in trees as far back as 1818, +but at that time he had no correspondents who took any interest in +birds’ eggs and only took a clutch or two for his own collection. On +April 26, 1834, he found a clutch of this species in a nest of the song +thrush (_Turdus philomelus_) and from 1852 onward, as the circumstances +began to be known to German naturalists, he found a long series of +nests with eggs of which he gives full details. Most of these eggs +were laid in old nests of song thrush (_Turdus philomelus_), but some +were placed in old nests of pigeon (probably _Columba palumbus_) or +squirrel’s dreys, and in one case the young were found in an old nest +of red-backed shrike (_Lanius collurio_). Another curious case recorded +is that in which an old aspen (_Populus tremula_) was broken off and a +hole which had been occupied in the previous year by a pied flycatcher, +contained a brood of young green sandpipers, which had apparently only +been hatched half an hour before. On the forester’s approach the young +birds jumped from the hole and concealed themselves among the grass. +Some further details are also given in a letter from Hintz sent to the +Rev. H. S. Hawkins and published in Dresser’s Birds of Europe; also in +the _Journal für Ornithologie_ for 1864 (p. 186). + +Summarizing these we find that the birds arrive on their nesting +grounds in Germany from the beginning to the middle of April, choosing +wooded localities in marshy districts with pools or slow-flowing +streams in the neighborhood. Old nests of song thrush, blackbird, +mistle thrush, red-backed shrike, and half-ruined nests of jay, +woodpigeon, or squirrel are all adopted from time to time. Occasionally +the eggs are laid in a hollow where dead leaves and pine needles have +accumulated, and holes formerly used by starlings and flycatchers +have been taken possession of. The height from the ground varies +considerably, some nests may be as much as 35 or 40 feet above the +ground while others are only a few feet up. The distance from the +nearest water is also variable, as though most nests are within 500 +yards, yet occasionally the birds have been known to nest half a mile +away. + +Meantime H. W. Wheelwright in Sweden had met with an exactly similar +state of things, and in the _Field_ newspaper of August 18, 1860, +described the tree-nesting habits of this species. The editor, who +was ignorant of the evidence of Weise and Hintz, openly expressed his +doubts as to the accuracy of the observations, but Wheelwright stuck +manfully to his facts and subsequently the editor admitted his mistake. +The republication of Wheelwright’s notes in Sweden in 1866 elicited +further evidence from Jagmaster Lundborg, who had on one occasion +taken the eggs from what appeared to be an old squirrel’s drey or +nest. The only important difference in the habits of the bird in the +two countries appears to be that nests of the hooded crow (_Corvus c. +cornix_) are freely used in Sweden and also those of the fieldfare +(_Turdus pilaris_). + +Like the greenshank, the green sandpiper has a great attachment to +certain localities and in some cases the identical nest has been used +for two consecutive seasons. In a district where the birds are not +scarce, this naturally renders the discovery of the nest much more +simple to the resident, and explains the success of Forester Hintz and +others in discovering the eggs. Very little in the way of addition +appears to be made by the sandpipers to their adopted home and the pine +needles which are noted in the interior of old thrushes’ nests may well +have dropped from the adjacent trees in the ordinary way. + +_Eggs._--These are normally four in number, pyriform in shape, rather +thin shelled and, as compared with those of the wood sandpiper, +generally large and pale in coloring, showing more of the ground colors +and fewer markings. The ground color varies from some shade of pale +greenish or greenish grey to warm creamy, buffish stone color and +light yellowish red. The markings are generally rather fine and in the +reddish eggs are rich purplish brown, shading into very dark brown, +while in the greenish eggs they are generally less reddish and more +purplish in tone. Numerous fine speckles are characteristic and there +are generally also some underlying shell marks of violet or ashy. The +measurements of 100 eggs average 39.11 by 28.04 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =42= by 28, =41.1= by =30.3=, =34.6= +by 26, and 34.8 by =25.7= millimeters. + +_Young._--As to the shares of the sexes in incubation, there are +references to females shot from the nest and males on guard in the +neighborhood, but how far this has been confirmed by dissection and +how much is surmise it is not easy to say. The incubation period is +also unknown. When the young are hatched their stay in the nest is very +short. Besides Hintz’s observation, quoted above, of recently hatched +young jumping from the nest into the grass on his approach. Wheelwright +also found on one occasion four very small young, apparently not a day +old, at the foot of a fir, while in the nest overhead were the empty +shells, still wet inside. In this case the early abandonment of the +nest was not due to human interference. On another occasion Hintz found +three young and a chipped egg in a squirrel’s drey about 30 feet up +in a birch. The young birds sprang from the nest and alighted on the +ground without injuring themselves, concealing themselves at once among +the grass. + +_Plumages._--The molts and plumages are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920), to which +the reader is referred. + +_Food._--The main food of this species consists of insects, especially +small coleoptera and their larvae, but larval forms of other water +insects such as the Phryganeidae are also taken and also larvae of +Diptera. Other substances recorded include wood lice, spiders, and not +infrequently the very small red worms, which are to be met with on the +edges of stagnant pools, but apparently not common earthworms. Traces +of vegetable matter are also recorded. H. Stevenson also includes small +fresh-water mollusca, and W. Farren, algae, tender shoots of plants and +on the seashore thin shelled Crustacea. + +_Behavior._--The green sandpiper may be met with in the British Islands +in almost every month of the year except perhaps June, when it is +decidedly rare, though only a few individuals stay with us through +the winter. As some birds have undoubtedly stayed through the summer, +breeding has been suspected on several occasions, but the evidence +has always been unsatisfactory. It occurs most frequently in spring +and autumn, sometimes singly and sometimes (especially in autumn), in +family parties, haunting the margins of brooks and ponds. + +They are much more deliberate in their movements than the common +sandpiper and search the mud very thoroughly, boring into it with the +bill, probably in search of the small red worms on which they feed. +Without being especially shy, they have their wits about them and +frequently the piping note which they utter when well on the wing (not +just prior to rising) is the first indication of their presence to +the shooter. The striking contrast of color between the dark greenish +mantle and the snow white rump and tail coverts render its recognition +a fairly simple matter. From the wood sandpiper it can be readily +distinguished if a glimpse can be caught of the undersurface of the +wing, for in the green sandpiper the axillars are very dark, looking +almost black, whereas in the wood sandpiper they appear almost white +with faint barrings. + +_Voice._--With regard to the notes, during the breeding season the +alarm is given by a loud sharp call which is variously written as +_gik_, _giff_, _yick_, _yeck_, etc., somewhat recalling the nuthatches’ +call. Christoleit also describes a pairing song, which bears some +resemblance to that of the other sandpipers, but does not make it clear +whether it is uttered on the wing or on the ground. In forested country +it is naturally not so easy to settle a point of this kind as in open +country. The full song is written by him as: _Tittittitluidich-luidich +titluidie titluidie titluidie-titt-titt_. Probably this is the love +song and forms part of the courtship, but we still await a connected +history of the courtship of this species. + +_Fall._--Hintz noticed the last birds on their German breeding grounds +up to July 25, and it is about the middle of July when the first +immigrants appear in the British Isles. The great majority of our +visitors have left by November. During the period of its stay it is +rarely to be met with on the seashore, but nearly always makes its way +inland by means of the water courses, preferring a sheltered brookside +or an inland pool to the open marshes. + +_Winter._--The evidence of wintering in South Africa rests entirely +on some old records by Layard, unsupported by skins, but the winter +quarters undoubtedly extend to Angola, British Central Africa, and +Portuguese East Africa. Unlike so many waders it does not associate +in large flocks, but generally is found singly or in small parties on +inland waters in preference to the coast. Large numbers winter in Egypt +and a good many at suitable spots in the Mediterranean Region. In Luzon +(Philippine Islands) Whitehead found it common in December in Benguet, +at a height of 4,000 feet, and on Rumenzon it has been met with at +6,000 feet, while in Abyssinia, Jesse describes it as common on the +highlands, but did not meet with it on the coast. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--Northern Europe; but very sparingly in Norway up +to Nordland; in Sweden more generally north to the Arctic Circle; +Finland to 63° 10´; North Russia south of the White Sea and on the +Kamin Peninsula (66° 50´). Southward it breeds in the Baltic Republics, +in North Germany (Holstein?, Oldenburg?, Hanover, Mark Brandenburg, +Pommern, West and East Prussia, Silesia); sparingly in Bavaria; +Czechoslovakia (Bohemia), Galizia and the Carpathians; possibly +occasionally in Jutland, but records from South France and North +Italy can not be relied on. In Asia it breeds across the continent in +the valleys of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena, etc., south to Turkestan and +Transcaspia. + +_Winter Range._--The main winter quarters lie in southern Europe and +Africa where it ranges south to Portuguese East Africa, British Central +Africa, and Angola, perhaps even to the Cape (Layard) and in Asia to +Iraq, India, Ceylon, the Andamans, Burma, Cochin China, China, Hainan, +Formosa, and the Malay Archipelago (Philippines). + +_Spring Migration._--In February and March it passes north through +Morocco from its African winter quarters, and in Tunisia is most +abundant on spring passage in March and April, while its stay in +equatorial Africa does not extend beyond March. In the marshes of Iraq +it stays till mid May, the spring in North Asia being later than in +West Europe. This is also the case in India, where they do not leave +till about mid May. In southeast China they pass in the first half of +April, usually singly. It has been noted on passage in Corsica in April +(late date May 28); some winter on the Balearic Isles where it has been +noted up to the end of May, while in Cyprus it is found on passage in +March, April, and May (birds seen in Greece on 25th July and in South +China on 11th and 24th July were either nonbreeders or extraordinarily +early migrants southward). The first arrivals reach their breeding +grounds in Germany about the end of March, and in the Baltic states +they arrive about the end of March or early April. + +_Fall migration._--Leaving their breeding grounds in Central Europe +about the end of July, they pass the Straits of Gibraltar about +August–September and in Greece arrive in some numbers in September. In +the Iraq marshes the arrival takes place during August, while in India +it sometimes comes during the latter half of July, but more frequently +in August. In southeastern China the first arrivals come in about the +end of July or early in August, but the main body passes in September +or October. In Burma it is generally distributed during the winter +months, but apparently does not range down the Malay Peninsula. + +_Casual records._--It is a winter visitor to Japan and occurs +occasionally on the Canaries, but the record from Mauritius must be +regarded as doubtful, and that from Australia by R. Hall is due to +confusion with _T. glareola_. Gould’s record from Borneo is also +doubtful and the American records can only be received with some +suspicion. + +_Egg dates._--In Germany out of some 25 records only five fall between +April 15 and 24. From May 2 to 15 there are nine records, from May +18 to 29 five records, and from June 1 to 23, six records. Probably +most of these late dates are due to birds laying again which have been +previously robbed. In Sweden all dates fall between May 6 and June 20 +(13 records) and of these eight fall between May 6 and May 21. The +second half of May is the usual time in the southern Provinces, but in +the north and Finland few eggs are laid before June. In Siberia eggs +may be found till the first half of July. + + + RHYACOPHILUS GLAREOLA (Linnaeus) + + WOOD SANDPIPER + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + HABITS + +The only record of this species within North American limits is due +to Chase Littlejohn (1904), who obtained a single specimen on May 27, +1894, on Sanak Island, Alaska. + +_Courtship._--Our information on this point is somewhat scanty. The +song flight has of course been frequently described and observed, but +the actual courtship of the female can only be observed under somewhat +difficult conditions and there must be a considerable element of luck +in any case where it can be closely studied. All the evidence hitherto +obtained goes to show that it is carried on in much the same way as +that of the common sandpiper (_Tringa hypoleucos_), but the song flight +forms a much more conspicuous part of the proceedings. When the male +alights he has a habit of elevating his wings for a moment, until, as +Seebohm says, they almost meet overhead, much as Temminck’s stint also +does. Apparently this forms part of the display before the hen, but the +male may also be seen running by the side of the female with drooping +wings. One can as a rule only get a momentary glimpse and generally +at a considerable distance. The love song is, however, quite another +matter. On the heaths of West Jutland one can see the males in rapid +flight even from the windows of the trains, while in North Finland the +loud musical _leero_, _leero_, _leero_, is one of the most familiar +sounds in the wood-fringed marshes. John Hancock (1874), who by +persevering search found the only nest which has ever been discovered +in the British Isles, in June 1853, gives a very graphic account of it. +He was on a visit to Prestwick Car, in Northumberland, at that time +undrained, and as he says: + + About 3 o’clock our dogs, a retriever and a setter, raised + a bird about 50 yards in advance of us, which at once rose + to a considerable height coursing about, rising and sinking + somewhat in the manner of a snipe, and like it, while + sweeping downwards with outstretched, tremulous wings, + produced a peculiar drumming note, but one much shriller + than that of the snipe, and almost amounting to a sort of + musical whistle. From the strangeness of the actions and + peculiar whistling or drumming note, I was convinced that + we had met with a rare bird, and that its nest was near at + hand. The birds were still in view flying about; our only + chance now was to watch the bird to its nest. It was not + long before one of the birds “pitched” and after allowing + a little time for it to settle I went forth to raise it, + but did not succeed. The bird, however, was soon in the air + again flying about as before. The watching dodge was again + tried and this time the bird was marked to, and raised from + the nest. There lay the nest, with its four pretty eggs, on + the side of a dry hillock where grew some heath and grass + in the midst of a swampy spot. + +One of the parents was subsequently shot by Mr. Reay to authenticate +the identification, and the specimen is still extant. Seebohm (1884) +also describes the song flight, but it is difficult to reconcile his +account with the facts. According to him: + + The note which the male utters during the pairing season + is much more of a song than that of the grasshopper + warbler, which it somewhat resembles; it is a monotonous + _tit-it-it_, begun somewhat low and slow, as the bird is + descending in the air with fluttering upraised wings, + becoming louder and more rapid and reaching its climax as + the bird alights on the ground or on a rail, or sometimes + on the bare branch of a willow, the points of its trembling + wings almost meeting over its head when its feet find + support. This song is a by no means unmusical trill, and + has an almost metallic ring about it. + +The comparison to the trill of the grasshopper warbler seems very +far fetched, and would apply far better to the persistent trilling +of Temminck’s stint. In fact the note reads like a paragraph drafted +from filed notes jotted down when the writer was surrounded by singing +stints and sandpipers; the metallic and musical song and dashing flight +being that of the wood sandpiper and the monotonous trill being that +of Temminck’s stint. To my ear the Finnish name of the bird, “liro,” +exactly describes the ringing musical cadence which one hears overhead +so frequently by the lake sides and marshes of Sweden and Finland. +Buturlin notes the song as _peri_, _peri_, _logi_, _logi_, _logi_, and +von Droste’s translation is also expressive _hithitit-tli-a_, _tli-a_, +_tli-a_, _tlia_. It is obvious that this bears no likeness whatever to +the monotonous droning note, rising and falling slightly as the bird +turns its head, of _Locustella naevia_. Occasionally the song of the +wood sandpiper is uttered while the bird is perched on a bush or in +treeless districts even on the ground. + +_Nesting._--Although often not concealed with any art, the nest of the +wood sandpiper is by no means an easy one to find, as the possible +area is so vast, while the sitting bird frequently remains on the eggs +until almost trodden on. In consequence most nests are discovered by +accident, when the bird has been flushed at one’s feet, or by long and +systematic beating of likely ground in the neighborhood of a singing +male. The nest is, however, almost invariably on some slight eminence, +a hummock in some cases as much as 2 feet high, though often smaller, +and on dry ground, though there may be water within a foot or so. The +actual nest is merely a hollow in the ground, lined with bents and +grasses and is usually to be found on low-lying ground where willow +scrub, heath mosses, and rank grasses furnish a certain amount of +cover. This is the normal European site, but H. Leyborne Popham (1897), +while collecting on the Yenisei in 1895, found that out of five nests +discovered in that season, only one was placed on the ground, while +the eggs in the other four cases were laid in the numerous old nests +of fieldfares (_Turdus pilaris_) and other thrushes which were to be +seen in great numbers in the trees. In 1900 Mr. Popham (1901) was able +to confirm these observations, for in the forest district two more +clutches were taken from old thrushes’ nests, while at the edge of +the tundra two nests were found on the ground. That this habit is not +strictly confined to the forest districts of Asia was proved by Lieut. +S. A. Davies (1895), who visited the upper waters of the River Muonio +on the borders of Finland and Sweden in 1904. He obtained a clutch from +an old nest of great grey shrike (_Lanius excubitor excubitor_), placed +in the fork of a birch about 20 feet from the ground. A. Cnattingius +also found the eggs on one occasion in Sweden in a fieldfare’s nest, +8 feet from the ground. There is some evidence that in certain parts +of the range this species breeds almost in colonies. Collett has +described a case of this kind from the high field of southern Norway, +and Forester Hintz (sen.) writes that on one marshy flat of about 60 +acres in Mecklenberg from 7 to 9 pairs were breeding, and that on May +25, 1858, he received no fewer than 26 fresh and partly incubated eggs +from this locality. + +_Eggs._--These are normally four in number, pyriform in shape and thin +shelled. The ground color varies from a beautiful pale green to creamy +white and exceptionally to warm buff. They are spotted and blotched, +more heavily at the large end, with warm reddish brown, some eggs have +most of the markings small, but others have large and almost confluent +blotches. There are also a few purplish brown shell marks. The +measurements of 100 eggs average 38.34 by 26.4 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =42= by 28.1, 41.5 by =28.5=, =35.5= +by 25 and 37 by =24.4= millimeters. + +_Young._--Both sexes take part in incubation; all the birds shot by +Popham from the nest in 1895 were males, but in 1900 he found that out +of two killed one was a male and the other a female. Collett also notes +that both sexes have incubation patches. When the young are hatched +the parents display the greatest anxiety, but the male bird seems to +take the greater share in brooding and guarding them. On one occasion +H. J. Pearson (1904) surprised a bird with four young only about a day +old in a marsh. He placed the young in his pocket after having spent +half an hour in finding them, though they were fully exposed to view +and all within 10 yards. The young soon began to cry out and the parent +bird, which he surmised to be the male, followed him nearly a mile, +often settling within 5 feet and expressing his views. He then flew +back to the marsh, but actually returned and settled on a low shed near +the house. Lieut. S. A. Davies (1895) having caught a brood of young, +placed them on the ground in a marsh, first in one place and then in +another, in order to watch them. + + The male bird would run excitedly in and out of the + tussocks, searching everywhere till he heard their feeble + chirp. Then he would run toward them and settle down a + yard or two off, quickening his note to a continuous + _giff-giff-giff_. Then all the young had to tumble along + laboriously (for they could hardly walk) till they reached + the male bird who tucked them safely under his wings; once + or twice the female bird appeared on the scene for a minute + or two, when both would soar in the air like drumming snipe. + +_Plumages._--The molts and plumages are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920), to which +the reader is referred. + +_Food._--The greater part of the food consists of insects and their +larvae, but worms are also taken in some numbers and small mollusca, as +well as spiders. Among insects the following classes may be mentioned: +Beetles (Coleoptera), including many water beetles, _Haliplus_, +_Hydroporus_, _Dytiscus_, _Berosus_, _Dryops_, _Helichus_, _Phylobius_ +(all recorded by Hesse), and _Gyrinus_, _Hydroporus_, _Donacia_, and +_Colymbetes_ (R. Gray). Of Diptera, Hesse records larva of _Stratiomys_ +(also recorded by Bar), and among Rhyncota, _Plea minutissima_ (once by +Hesse). Rey also met with Arachnida (spiders), and Jäckel records small +fish. + +_Behavior._--Many observers have called attention to the habit of +perching on trees. Seebohm (1884) mentions having shot specimens from +the summit of high bare trees at least 65 feet from the ground, and +similar observations have been made wherever it has been met with in +forested regions. Beside the love song already described, this bird has +an alarm note, which Davies renders as _tchick-tchick_, or _giff-giff_, +and which is generally uttered from the top of a bush or post. A. +Chapman phrases this note as _chirkop_, _chirkop_, _chib_, _chib_. + +_Fall._--From July to October it appears often singly, but also at +times in flocks in Great Britain. As a rule these flocks are of no +great size, but on July 26, 1867, Mr. Power met with large numbers at +Rainham, Kent, and when one had been shot others rose on all sides, +forming one large flock, which flew round and round, keeping up a +continual whistle. He estimated the number at 80–100. + +_Winter._--During the winter months it haunts mud banks at the +mouths of rivers or marshes and streams inland in small flocks, or +sometimes in pairs, feeding on worms and small insects in southern +Africa. Its habit of perching on trees and bushes has also been noted +when wintering in northern Africa (Tunisia). On the whole, it may be +described as a fresh-water haunting species, usually avoiding the +neighborhood of the sea. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--Not on the Faeroes, as stated by Ridgway, but +formerly in very small numbers in Great Britain, Holland, Jutland, +Scandinavia, north Germany locally. Finland, the Baltic Republics, and +Russia generally; also in Asia, east across Siberia to Kamtschatka +and the Commander Isles, north to about 75° on the Yenisei and 71° on +the Lena. Reports of breeding in south Europe (Spain, north Italy, +Pyrenees, etc.) require confirmation. + +_Winter range._--Africa, south to Cape Province; Asia, southern +Arabia, Iraq (chiefly on passage), India and Ceylon, Burma, the Malay +Peninsula, and southeast China; the Malay Archipelago (Borneo, +Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Timor, Philippines, etc.); and Australia. + +_Spring migration._--It leaves its winter quarters in South Africa in +March, is common in the swamps of Morocco toward the end of April, +fairly plentiful in Tunisia in April and also in numbers in Egypt, +some remaining till May. Most have left Iraq by mid May, and the +departure from India, Ceylon, and Burma also takes place in May. They +pass Gibraltar from March 9 to early May; Corsica, April 12 to May 28; +Cyprus, April–May (late date May 20); Corfu, April 19–May 6; while a +few visit the south and east coast of Great Britain in April and May. +On the lower Petchora they did not arrive till May 26. + +_Fall migration._--From Portugal it is recorded on August 18, Spain +(early date, August 4), passes through Italy in some numbers from +August to October, leaving Sweden in September and passing the eastern +Pyrenees in September-October. It reaches Iraq in August, but rarely +stays after October; arrives in India and Burma in August; and in South +Africa in September-October, early dates, August, Transvaal (August 28) +and Zambesi River. + +_Casual records._--Faeroes (H. C. Muller), Madeira (R. Gomez), Canaries +(occasional D. A. Bannerman), Hawaiian Isles, and Sanak Island, Alaska +(C. Littlejohn). + +_Egg dates._--In Holland, May 11 to 25 (9 dates); Jutland and Germany, +May 7–25 (about 18 dates, mostly after May 20); south Sweden from mid +May onward; Lapland, June 3–16 (16 dates), June 17–27 (11 dates), July +7 (one date). + + + CATOPTROPHORUS SEMIPALMATUS SEMIPALMATUS (Gmelin) + + EASTERN WILLET + + HABITS + +A score of years or so ago it seemed as if this large showy wader was +destined to disappear from at least the northern portion of its range +on the Atlantic coast. It had entirely ceased to breed in many of its +former haunts and was nearly extirpated in others. Most of the birds +that we shot on migration in New England were immature birds from the +West. In Wilson’s (1832) time it bred “in great numbers--along the +shores of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland.” Audubon (1840) +wrote that “a few have been known to breed not far from New Bedford +in Massachusetts,” probably on some of the islands off the coast. +In 1875 H. B. Bailey (1876) found it breeding “in large numbers” on +Cobb Island, Va.; when we visited this locality in June, 1907, there +were not over two or three pairs of willets breeding there; they have +increased since then under protection. Maj. G. Ralph Meyer wrote to +me in 1922 that about 15 pairs bred on Cobb Island and 5 or 6 pairs on +Hog Island that year. It does not now breed in any numbers, so far as I +know, north of South Carolina, except in the Nova Scotia colonies. + +Although our check list does not recognize that fact, it has been known +for many years that willets breed regularly in southern Nova Scotia, +though during the early years of this century they came very near being +extirpated. Dr. Spencer Trotter (1904) recorded the willet as “one of +the most conspicuous inhabitants of the tidal marshes” near Barrington, +Shelburne County. But when I visited that locality with him in July, +1907, we found only one pair. Evidently they began to increase again +after that under adequate protection. Harrison F. Lewis (1920) found +them breeding in Yarmouth County, and Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1920_a_) +saw a flock of 10 on July 18 and as many as 26 on July 25, 1920, near +Barrington. Later information from R. W. Tufts (1922 and 1925) shows +a decided increase up to 1922, when he estimated that there were 736 +willets, old and young, between Digby and Queens Counties; but in 1923 +and 1924 there seemed to be no further increase. + +_Spring._--The northward migration of willets, which breed north of +the winter range, is along the Atlantic coast, starting in March. +The first migrants reach Virginia during the first or second week in +April, but do not appear in Massachusetts until May, the main flight +passing between the middle and last of that month. The probability of +an offshore migration route is suggested by the following interesting +observation made by Dr. George B. Grinnell (1916) during the last days +of May, 1907: + + It was in the middle of the morning of a gray, but + not foggy, day, when we were off the Grand Banks of + Newfoundland, that I noticed a considerable gathering of + birds resting on the water in the immediate path of the + ship. As we approached them I thought they looked like + shore birds, and as the vessel drew quite close to them + those immediately near it rose on wing and flew off to + right and left, and again alighted on the water among their + fellows. In the way in which they left the path of the + vessel they reminded me of similar flights of waterfowl + seen in Alaska. When the birds took wing they were at once + recognized as willets, and there must have been somewhere + near a thousand of them, not all packed together in a dense + clump on the water, but more or less scattered out, in + groups of forty, fifty, or a hundred, yet all fairly near + one another, and suggesting a single flock. They seemed to + leave the water reluctantly and gave me the impression that + they were weary. + +_Courtship._--Very little seems to have been recorded about the +courtship of the willet, but John T. Nichols has sent me the following +notes: + + On the shore of Wakulla County, Fla., in late March willets + were evidently about to nest, March 27 they were noticed + chasing one another in air, and holding the wings over + the back after alighting, the black and white pattern + displayed. The following mating behavior was observed + March 29 toward sunset. Out on a mud flat exposed by low + water two birds were standing. One stood directly behind + the other, waving its parti-colored wings over its back, + and ended by mounting the back of the front bird and + fluttering there. The performance was accompanied by a + tern-like series of _kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk_ calls. + +_Nesting._--The eastern willet is decidedly a coastwise bird and it is +seldom seen far from the coastal marshes, beaches, and islands. Its +favorite nesting places are on sandy islands overgrown with grass, tall +and thick enough to conceal its nest, or on dry uplands where similar +conditions may be found in close proximity to marshes or the shore. In +Nova Scotia I was too late to find nests, but Mr. Lewis (1920) writes: + + I have occasionally searched for the nests or the young of + the willets, but without success until June 8, 1920, when + I found a nest with four eggs of this species, in an open + swale in an upland pasture, about a quarter of a mile from + the nearest salt marsh or salt water, at Arcadia, Yarmouth + County, Nova Scotia, on the western side of the Chetogue + River. The nest was near the junction of the River Road + with Argyle Street, and was about 150 yards from each of + those much-traveled highways, which were in full view from + the nest site. Several cattle occupied the pasture at + the time when the nest was found. The swale in which the + nest was placed was of considerable extent and was of the + kind preferred as a breeding place by Wilson’s snipe; in + fact, a pair of those birds were evidently nesting there. + The willet’s nest was a slight hollow in the damp ground, + lined with a few dead rushes. It was surrounded by growing + rushes, cinnamon fern, low blackberry bushes, and wild rose + bushes, and was well concealed. + +Mr. Tufts (1925) says that “they often nest in the open pastures or on +the rough boulder-strewn uplands at a considerable distance inland,” +but all the nests that he found were “on low land close to the feeding +grounds,” near the shore. One nest was located under a tangle of wild +rose bushes in a pasture in Yarmouth County. + +More typical nesting conditions are to be found on the coastal islands +of Virginia and South Carolina. In the Bull’s Bay region of South +Carolina we visited two islands, on May 22 and 23, 1915, on which +willets were breeding. Most of the nests were on a sand-hill plain, +back of the beach, which was overgrown with tufts of fine beach grass +and with a few scattering clumps of myrtle bushes. The nests consisted +of deep hollows in the sand in or under the tufts of grass, usually +well concealed, and were well lined with bits of dry grass, sedges, +or small sticks; the hollows measured 6 or 7 inches in diameter. A +partially built nest contained only one egg, which was lying on the +bare sand and was only partially surrounded by the nesting material; +apparently material is added during the laying period and the nest is +not completed until incubation begins. One nest was under a little +dead, thorny bush, but well concealed, on a small, high spot on an +open sandy reef, not far from the nests of oyster catchers and Wilson +plover. Another nest, in a situation which was probably flooded at +times, was built up 10 inches above the damp ground in a clump of +thickly tufted sedges. H. B. Bailey (1876) says that, on Cobb Island, +“the marshes are also favorite localities for breeding, and in this +case the nests are more elaborate, being built up from the ground, +which is wet at high tide.” I think, however, that the willet prefers +to nest on dry ground. + +Roger Tony Peterson writes to me that, among 11 nests found by him on +the South Carolina coast, “five sets of eggs on one particular strip of +beach were located on the open sand with no preparation at all made for +a nest.” Another set was “in a very heavy, well-made nest of weeds and +grass, out on the open sand, far from any grass or bushes.” All were +very conspicuous. + +C. J. Maynard (1896) found them breeding in Florida, during the first +week in May, “among the low scrub, just back of the beach ridge. The +nests were placed in the midst of low bushes and were quite difficult +to find.” Arthur T. Wayne (1910) “found two nests on the top of a high +sand hill, in wild oats (_Zizania miliacea_)” and E. A. Samuels (1883) +says that it “has been known to breed in a rye field 20 miles from the +seashore.” + +Willets which I have found breeding on the coasts of Louisiana and +Texas have proved to be referable to the eastern form. On Dressing +Point Island in Matagorda Bay, Tex., we found a few pairs breeding, +with heavily incubated eggs, on May 8, 1923. This is a large, flat, +grassy island on which we found black-crowned night herons and a few +pairs of Ward herons nesting on the ground. The willets’ nests were +well concealed under thick tufts of luxuriant grass. + +Willets on their breeding grounds are among the noisiest and most +demonstrative of birds. No sooner does one land on an island where they +are breeding than an outcry is started and one after another the birds +arise and fly out to meet the intruder, until the whole colony is in a +state of great excitement. Regardless of their own safety they circle +about at short range, pouring out a steady stream of angry invectives +in a great variety of loud, ringing notes. And this performance is +kept up as long as the intruder is anywhere near their nests. They +often alight on bushes, trees, posts, or even buildings and keep up a +constant scolding. + +_Eggs._--The willet regularly lays four eggs; as many as six, and even +seven, have been found in a nest, but these large numbers are probably +the product of two females. The eggs vary in shape from ovate to ovate +pyriform and they have only a slight gloss. The ground colors vary +from “deep olive buff” to “olive buff,” rarely “yellowish glaucous,” +in greenish types, and from “avellaneous” to “tilleul bluff,” rarely +pale “Isabella color,” in the buffy or brownish types; and there +are numerous intermediate shades between these extremes. They are +generally boldly and irregularly marked with both large and small spots +and blotches, but sometimes they are quite evenly covered with small +spots; rarely they are blotched around the large end only. The markings +are mostly in dark browns, “burnt umber,” “bister,” “sepia” and “clove +brown,” but sometimes they are in lighter, olive browns. The underlying +markings are in various shades of “brownish drab” or “drab gray.” +The measurements of 56 eggs average 52.5 by 38 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =60.5= by 38, 53.5 by =40=, =49= by +37, and 50 by =36= millimeters. + +_Young._--The period of incubation seems to be unknown. Both sexes +share in the care of the young, which run soon after hatching. Arthur +T. Wayne (1910) says: + + The young are hatched by May 29, and the parents sometimes + remove them between the thighs (as the woodcock is also + known to do) to a place of safety, fully a quarter of a + mile away. I observed this trait on May 29, 1899. I found + a nest in an oat field, which contained one young bird + just hatched and three eggs on the point of hatching. I + remained near the place until the eggs were hatched, and + the willets were greatly alarmed all the time. Presently I + saw one of the old birds remove a young one and fly with it + across three creeks and marsh land to an island a quarter + of a mile away. This was repeated until all the young were + removed. + +_Plumages._--The downy young willet is rather prettily and quite +distinctively marked. There is a distinct loral stripe of brownish +black, a post ocular stripe and a median frontal stripe of “warm +sepia.” The chin and throat are white and the rest of the head is pale +buff, mixed with grayish white, heavily mottled on the crown with “warm +sepia.” The down of the hind neck and upper back is basally sepia with +light buff tips. The rest of the upper parts are variegated with pale +buff, grayish white and “warm sepia”; but in the center of the back is +a well marked pattern of four broad stripes of “warm sepia” and three +of light buff, converging on the rump and between the wings. The under +parts are buffy white. + +The young bird begins to acquire its Juvenal plumage before it is +half grown, beginning with the scapulars, back and wings; then comes +the plumage of the breast and crown, and lastly the neck, rump and +tail. In the full juvenal plumage, in July, the feathers of the crown, +back, scapulars and wing coverts are “sepia”; those of the crown are +tipped, those of the back and scapulars are broadly edged or notched +and those of the wing coverts are still more broadly edged with “pale +pinkish buff”; the greater coverts are irregularly barred, variegated +or sprinkled with sepia; the rest of the wing is as in the adult; the +rump is “hair brown,” narrowly tipped with buffy white; the upper tail +coverts are white, indistinctly barred with dusky near the tips; the +central tail feathers are barred with “sepia” and “drab,” tinged with +“pinkish buff,” these markings decreasing laterally; the chin, upper +throat and belly are white; the lower throat, chest, and flanks are +suffused with “pale pinkish buff,” streaked on the throat and chest and +barred on the flanks with “sepia.” These colors soon fade until the +edgings become nearly white. + +A partial molt takes place mainly in September, involving the body +plumage, the tail and some of the wing coverts; this produces the +first winter plumage, which can be distinguished from the adult only +by the retained juvenal wing coverts. This plumage is worn through the +winter and I think, in most cases, through the first spring. At the +next complete molt, the first postnuptial, the adult winter plumage is +acquired. + +Adults have a nearly complete prenuptial molt in March, April, and +May, involving everything but the flight feathers of the wings, which +are apparently molted later in the fall or early in the winter. I have +not actually seen these feathers molting. The lighter portions of the +spring plumage wear away during the breeding season, giving the birds a +very black appearance above. The complete postnuptial molt begins with +the body plumage in August, or even July, and by September the plain +“smoke gray” winter plumage is assumed. + +_Food._--The favorite feeding grounds of the eastern willet are on the +broad mud flats or sand flats in the bayous, bays, and estuaries on +the coast; it also feeds along the muddy banks of creeks and ditches, +or about the pond holes and splashes on the salt marshes. If disturbed +at its feeding it rises with a loud outcry, alarming all the birds +within hearing. W. J. Erichsen (1921) has noted that, although they +feed at all hours of the day, the nesting birds are seldom found on +their nests during the early morning hours, when there seems to be a +concerted movement from the breeding grounds to their feeding places. I +am inclined to think, however, that they are governed more by the tides +than by the hours, as most of their feeding grounds are covered at high +tide. + +Their food consists of aquatic insects, marine worms, small crabs, +fiddlers, small mollusks, fish fry, and small fish. Some vegetable +matter is eaten, such as grasses, tender roots, seeds, and even +cultivated rice. + +_Behavior._--The flight of the willet is said to be swift, but it has +always seemed to me to be rather slow and heavy, when compared with the +flight of other shore birds, though perhaps it results in better speed +than it appears to do. The willet is a heavy-bodied bird and its flight +is strong, direct, and protracted; it seems to fly more like a duck +than the other shore birds. Occasionally it sets its wings and scales +downward; and on its breeding grounds I have seen it hover on quivering +wings like a poised falcon. I have not found the willet particularly +shy, as compared with other large waders, though it has the reputation +of being very wary. When in large flocks in open situations, it is +useless to attempt to approach it; but I have often walked up to within +gunshot range of single birds and have frequently had small flocks +fly within range while I was standing in plain sight. On its breeding +grounds it is utterly fearless and bold. + +Willets often perch on bushes, trees, fences, posts, rocks, or +buildings, where they can watch and scold at the intruder. Mr. Maynard +(1896) has seen them “perching on the limbs of pine trees, 40 or 50 +feet from the ground, and sometimes, a dozen birds would sit side +by side on a single branch, presenting a novel appearance.” Being +partially webfooted, they can swim fairly well and probably alight on +the water to rest when migrating at sea. On the ground they are rather +sluggish, standing still much of the time, with heads drawn down. They +indulge in the bobbing or nodding motions less frequently and more +moderately than the yellowlegs do. Francis H. Allen has noted that “in +bobbing, the head is drawn back and the tail lowered at the same time, +the whole body turning as on a pivot, then the head is brought forward +and the tail raised to its natural level.” + +_Voice._--On its breeding grounds the willet is a very noisy bird, +pouring out a great variety of notes. Its usual note is a loud, +vehement _wek_, _wek_, _wek_ or _kerwek_, _kerwek_, _kerwek_, varied +to _piuk_, _piuk_, _piuk_. Occasionally the whistling note, _pill_, +_will_, _will_ or _pill-o-will-o-willet_, is heard, suggesting the note +of the yellowlegs in quality, accent, and manner of delivery. Less +frequently another note is heard, which sounds like _beat it_, _beat +it_. John T. Nichols adds in his notes: + + At this season one hears several variations of the _kiyuk_ + flight note, one of these, _ki-yi-yuk_ suggesting the + loudest, most ringing call of the greater yellowlegs. + A loud, high-pitched _kree-uk_, which is infrequent, + suggests a note of the lesser yellowlegs. Similarly + _kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk_ in tern-like series from two mating + birds is probably homologous with the alighting and + flushing notes of the yellowlegs. The ordinary loud flight + note of the transient willet is a far-reaching, gull-like + _kiyuk_, repeated at intervals. A less frequent call + resembles the _wheu wheu wheu_ of the greater yellowlegs, + but is much lower pitched, not loud. It is likely to be + heard from a bird lingering at a given locality. + +_Enemies._--Man has been the chief enemy of the willet and the main +cause of the restriction of its breeding areas. When it bred abundantly +in Nova Scotia and Virginia its eggs were collected in large numbers as +a legitimate article of food. And the birds were shot all through the +breeding season. Being a large, fat bird, it helped to fill the game +bag rapidly and so was a favorite with sportsmen or market gunners. It +does not come readily to decoys, but it can easily be attracted by a +skillful imitation of its notes, and flocks often fly by within range +of the gunner’s blind. Mr. Nichols tells me that it will decoy well to +the whistled imitation of the black-bellied plover’s note. As it is no +longer on the game-bird list, it will probably be given a chance to +increase. + +Some colonies have been washed out by high tides and their natural +enemies, predatory animals and birds, have done considerable damage. P. +B. Philipp (1910), who visited Raccoon Key, S. C., says: + + The birds had been badly persecuted by fish crows and + minks; broken and sucked eggs were found everywhere, and + two nests were found in which the skeleton of the bird was + lying on sucked eggs, the work of minks. + +_Field marks._--The willet, while standing on the ground, is a +nondescript looking bird, almost devoid of characteristic markings, +especially in the immature and winter plumages. It is about the size +of the greater yellowlegs, but more heavily built, with shorter and +heavier, bluish-gray legs, shorter neck, and decidedly heavier bill. +Its drab colors match well into a background of sand or mud. But when +it lifts its black and white wings or when flying, no bird is more +easily recognized, for its color pattern is unique and conspicuous; the +black wings, with their broad white band extending across the base of +the tail, advertise the willet as far as they can be seen. Its notes, +described above, are also quite characteristic. + +_Fall._--I imagine that the willets, which breed in Nova Scotia, +migrate at sea to the West Indies, mainly in August. I have never seen +an adult willet on the New England coast in the fall, and practically +all that I have shot are referable to the western form, but it is not +easy to recognize the two forms in immature plumage. Willets of some +form, in immature plumage, are quite common at times in southern New +England and on Long Island from the middle of July to the middle of +September. The main flight comes in August. I suspect that these are +practically all young western willets. + +_Winter._--The eastern willet spends the winter on the south Atlantic +and Gulf coasts of North America, in the Bahamas and West Indies, and +on the more northern coasts of South America. It is therefore resident +or present the year round in much of its breeding range. It is rather +rare as far north as South Carolina, but abundant in Florida and on +the Gulf coasts, where the resident birds are reinforced by eastern +and western willets from the North. In Florida they are occasionally +seen about the ponds on the prairies or in the pine woods, but +their favorite resorts are the broad mud flats in the estuaries and +bayous or in the coastal marshes. In such places we often saw them +in large flocks by themselves, where they were very shy and utterly +unapproachable. Toward the end of March their numbers began to +decrease, as the birds left for their breeding grounds. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--The Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America to northern +South America; accidental in Kansas, Bermuda, and Europe. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the willet extends north to +Texas (Corpus Christi, Houston, and Galveston); Louisiana (Calcasieu, +New Orleans, and Breton Island); Alabama (Grand Batture Island and +Bayou Labatre); and Nova Scotia (Digby, Halifax, and Sable Island). +East to Nova Scotia (Sable Island and Barrington); Massachusetts +(formerly New Bedford and Nantucket); Connecticut (Madison and West +Haven); New Jersey (Barnegat Inlet, Bridgeton, Beasleys Point, Sea +Isle City, and Cape May); Maryland (Berlin); Virginia (Chincoteague, +Hog Island, Cobb Island, and Norfolk); North Carolina (Atlantic and +Beaufort); South Carolina (Waverly Mills, Sullivans Island, and +Frogmore); Georgia (Savannah, Darien, and St. Simons Island); eastern +Florida (Fernandina, Anastasia Island, New Smyrna, Turtle Mount, +Mosquito Lagoon, Cape Canaveral, and Lake Worth); and the Bahama +Islands (Great Bahama, Abaco, and Inagua). South to the Bahama Islands +(Inagua and Andros); the West Indies (Grand Cayman); western Florida +(Indian Key and St. Marks); and Texas (Brownsville). West to Texas +(Brownsville and Corpus Christi). + +The breeding range above outlined has become greatly restricted, and +while it is still reported as breeding in Nova Scotia, it is of rare +occurrence at this season on the coasts of the Northern and Middle +Atlantic States. Willets have been reported as nesting on Barbuda, West +Indies, but the record is probably based upon non-breeding individuals +which also have been noted in Cuba (Guantanamo). + +_Winter range._--The winter range extends north to Texas (Brownsville); +Louisiana (State Game Preserve and Breton Island); Alabama (Coffee +Island); and probably rarely Virginia (Cobb Island). East to rarely +Virginia (Cobb Island); rarely North Carolina (Fort Macon); South +Carolina (Waverly Mills and Frogmore); Georgia (Savannah and Darien); +Florida (Fernandina, Mosquito Inlet, Indian River, Sebastian, and Royal +Palm Hammock); the Bahama Islands (Grassy Creek and Caicos); Cuba; +probably Haiti; Porto Rico (Boqueron and Anegada Island); the Lesser +Antilles (Antigua, Barbados, Grenada, and Trinidad); British Guiana; +and Brazil (Catejuba Island). South to Brazil (Catejuba Island and +Guapore River). West to Brazil (Guapore River); northeastern Colombia +(Cartagena); probably Panama (Rio Juan Diaz); Yucatan (Merida and +Cozumel Island); Tamaulipas (Matamoros); and Texas (Brownsville). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: New Jersey, +Cape May, March 22, Long Beach, April 6, and Caldwell, April 7; Rhode +Island, Rock Island, April 27; Massachusetts, Nantucket, May 2, Dennis, +May 5, and Falmouth, May 11; and Nova Scotia, Yarmouth, April 22, and +Wolfville, April 29. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Mexico, Tampico, April 11; and +Cuba, Trinidad, April 14, Siguanea, May 2, and Guantanamo, May 8. + +_Fall migration._--Information is lacking of the early arrival of +the willet on the southern part of its winter range, but among late +dates of fall departure are: Maine, Sagadahoc County, October 25; +Massachusetts, Plymouth, October 4; Connecticut, Meriden, October 15; +New Jersey, Salem County, October 8, and Caldwell, October 17; and +Maryland, near Baltimore, about November 1. + +_Casual records._--The willet has been taken once in Kansas (near +Hamilton, September 8, 1912); and one was obtained in Bermuda on July +3, 1848. It also has been reported on a few occasions from Europe, in +all cases without complete data: France (Abbeville, also two in the +Paris market); Dalmatia; and Sweden. + +_Egg dates._--Nova Scotia: 4 records, June 5 to 19. Virginia: 26 +records, May 19 to June 16; 13 records, May 27 to June 8. South +Carolina and Georgia: 53 records, March 10 to July 4; 27 records, May 9 +to 22. Texas: 28 records, April 3 to June 10; 14 records, April 23 to +May 24. + + + CATOPTROPHORUS SEMIPALMATUS INORNATUS (Brewster) + + WESTERN WILLET + + HABITS + +When William Brewster (1887) described and named the western willet he +characterized it as: + + Differing from _S. semipalmata_ in being larger, with a + longer, slenderer bill; the dark markings above fewer, + finer, and fainter, on a much paler (grayish-drab ground); + those beneath duller, more confused or broken, and bordered + by pinkish salmon, which often spreads over or suffuses + the entire underparts, excepting the abdomen. Middle tail + feathers either quite immaculate or very faintly barred. + +It is a bird of the western interior; its main breeding grounds are +in the Great Plains regions of the Northern States, west of the +Mississippi River, and the central Provinces of Canada. Nearly all +recent writers have recorded it as breeding on the coasts of Louisiana +and Texas, an oft-repeated error. All the breeding birds that I +have shot on the coasts of these two States, in May and June, were +clearly referable to the eastern form. And I have been unable to find +any specimens of _inornata_ in collections that could be classed as +breeding birds from these States. If the western willet breeds in +Texas at all it must be on the plains or prairies of the interior. But +it seems hardly likely that it would have a breeding range so widely +separated from the northern range as outlined below. The eastern willet +is strictly a coastwise bird and breeds, or did formerly, all along +the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. On the other hand, the western willet is +just as strictly a bird of the inland prairies and plains during the +breeding season. + +_Spring._--The main migration route seems to be northward through the +Mississippi Valley, chiefly in April; most of the birds are on their +breeding grounds by the first of May or earlier and are laying eggs +before the end of that month. Birds which winter in South Carolina +and Florida probably join this route by an overland flight. There is +a northward migration through the interior valleys of California to +breeding grounds west of the Rocky Mountains, and probably some birds +cross these mountains to the interior plains. + +_Nesting._--We found western willets very common about the lakes in the +prairie regions of North Dakota and Saskatchewan; but owing to their +habit of flying a long distance to meet the intruder and making a great +fuss everywhere but near their nests, we succeeded in finding only +one nest. This was on the higher portion of the open prairie, a long +way from any water, near Big Stick Lake, Saskatchewan. The nest was a +hollow in the ground, measuring 7 by 6 inches in diameter and 3 inches +deep, lined with grasses and dry weeds. It was in plain sight in short +grass; a few scattered dead weeds were standing around it, but no long +grass. It contained three fresh eggs on June 14, 1906. Ernest T. Seton +(Thompson, 1890) found a nest in Manitoba “which was placed in a slight +hollow, shaded on one side by the skull of a buffalo and on the other +by a tuft of grass,” on an alkali plain. + +The western willet breeds commonly in Boxelder County, Utah. Three sets +of eggs in my collection, taken there on May 7, 13, and 16, 1916, by +the Treganzas, came from nests described as slight depressions in short +marsh grass; one was near an alkali flat, one near a water runway, and +one on a partially grass-grown dike. + +This bird is a rare, or very local, breeder in California. J. Van +Denburgh (1919) reports five nests found on “a partially flooded +mountain meadow” in Lassen County on June 1 and 6, 1918. “The nests +were made of pieces of weeds rather carelessly built up on the mud. +Some were found where the water was a few inches deep and some where +the mud was drying.” + +_Eggs._--The eggs of the western willet are indistinguishable from +those of the eastern bird. There is a slight average difference in +length, but the measurements widely overlap. The measurements of 56 +eggs average 54.1 by 37.6 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =58.1= by 39.4, =50.5= by =39.7=, and 54.9 by =35= +millimeters. + +_Plumages._--The sequence of plumages and molts is the same for both +races, but juvenal western birds are somewhat paler than eastern birds, +and they have less barring on the tail feathers or none at all. + +_Fall._--From its breeding grounds in the interior the western willet +migrates in three main directions to the seacoasts, almost due east to +the Atlantic coast of New York and New England, southeast and south +to the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts and southwest to the California +coast. Probably the birds which breed east of the Rocky Mountains take +the easterly and southerly routes and those which breed west of these +mountains migrate to California. Most of the willets which we get in +Massachusetts in August are immature western willets; I have never +seen an adult. These young birds apparently come from the Great Lakes +region, where they have been recorded in Illinois and Ohio and as far +north as Toronto, Ontario. John T. Nichols says in his notes: + + Along the bays and marshes of the south shore of Long + Island the willet is a regular late-summer migrant in + small numbers varying from year to year. Southbound shore + birds of other species are now following this coast to the + westward, but a large majority of the willet are moving in + the opposite direction; that is, from west to east. Its + maximum flight seems to come in the beginning of August, + and a peak of abundance for the species was reached + in 1923. At Mastic on August 4, 1923, 14 willet were + counted passing west to east in 3 flocks during 2½ hours’ + observation. + + I have examined a number of specimens of these Long Island + fall-migration willet, which have all been in the grey + unmarked plumage of birds of the year (which I would not + undertake to distinguish from adult fresh winter plumage), + and remarkably uniform in size. Their bills varied scarcely + at all in dimensions (slightly over 2¼ inches), being + decidedly too long for the short-billed Virginia breeding + bird, but much too short for the long-billed bird from + the Dakotas (unless its young of the year are uniformly + short-billed). + +_Winter._--Western willets mingle in winter with their eastern +relatives on the South Atlantic and Gulf coast from Florida to Texas; +they are especially abundant in Texas. They also winter abundantly from +the coast of California southward. Bradford Torrey (1913) saw them, +mixed with marbled godwits, near San Diego, in such numbers that he-- + + mistook them at first for a border of some kind of + herbiage. Thousands there must have been; and when they + rose at my approach they made something like a cloud; + gray birds and brown birds so contrasted in color as to be + discriminated beyond risk of error, even when too far away + for the staring white wing patches of the willets to be + longer discernible. + +Mrs. Florence M. Bailey (1916) has well described their habits, as +beach birds at this season, as follows: + + In the flocks of brown godwits the few gray willets looked + small. They fed in the same way as the godwits, though + their bills were shorter and they could not probe so deep, + but they ran their bills ahead of them through the wet + sand, probed as far as they could reach, and then trotted + back before the oncoming waves. A thoughtless one sat down + just at the edge of the water line one day, its back toning + in with the sand, its long legs stretched out before it; + but soon after it was comfortably settled up came the foam + and it had to bend forward on its tarsus, raise itself, and + flee up the beach. I often saw one resting, standing on + one leg, or sitting at ease with white rump showing. When + stretching the black of the wings showed effectively as it + does both when the birds fly up and when they alight with + wings raised over the back. _Willet_, _willet_, they often + called as they went. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--United States and southern Canada (casually Alaska), south to +northern South America. + +_Breeding range._--North to Oregon (Fort Klamath and Camp Harney); +Montana (Bozeman); Alberta (probably Edmonton and Buffalo Lake); +Saskatchewan (probably Quill Lake and Indian Head); Manitoba (Moose +Mountain and Turtle Mountains); North Dakota (Cando and Larimore); +Minnesota (Herman and Madison); and probably formerly Illinois +(Belvidere and Glen Ellyn). East to probably formerly Illinois (Glen +Ellyn). South to probably formerly Illinois (Glen Ellyn); Iowa +(probably Newton and formerly Boone); Nebraska (Long Pine, Kennedy, +Garden County, and Morrill County); Wyoming (probably Big Piney); Utah +(Parleys Park and Salt Lake); and northern California (Beckwith). +West to northern California (Beckwith, Grasshopper Valley, Alturas, +and Goose Lake); and Oregon (probably Tule Lake and Fort Klamath). +Non-breeding birds have been observed in summer as far south as Lower +California (Mazatlan and San Quintin Bay); Colorado (Barr); Florida +(Pensacola); and Alabama (Petit Bois Island). + +_Winter range._--North to California (Humboldt Bay); Texas +(Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Rockport, and Refugio County); probably +Louisiana; and Florida (Amelia Island). East to Florida (Amelia Island, +Dummitts, and the Florida Keys); Tamaulipas (Tampico); probably +Honduras (San Pedro); Ecuador (Bay of Santa Elena); and Peru (Tumbez). +South to Peru (Tumbez); and the Galapagos Islands (Albemarle). +West to the Galapagos Islands (Albemarle and Abingdon); Costa Rica +(Lepanto); Guerrero (Acapulco); Nyarit (San Bias); Lower California +(San Quintin); and California (San Diego, La Jolla, Morro Bay, San +Francisco, Bodega Bay, and Humboldt Bay). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of arrival are: Arkansas, Osceola, +March 29; Missouri, Stotesbury, April 8, and St. Louis, April 27; +Illinois, Quincy, April 5, and Big Lake, April 29; Iowa, Cedar Rapids, +April 2, Emmetsburg, April 21, and Keokuk, April 30; Wisconsin, Heron +Lake, April 10, and Waseca, April 10; Minnesota, Lanesboro, April +26; Kansas, Manhattan, April 28, and McPherson, April 30; Nebraska, +Niobrara, April 26, Neligh, May 1, and Valentine, May 5; South Dakota, +Pitrodie, April 25, and Forestburg, April 28; North Dakota, Charlson, +May 1, Jamestown, May 1, and Harrisburg, May 2; Manitoba, Treesbank, +April 30; Saskatchewan, Indian Head, April 26, Wiseton, May 2, and +Eastend, May 7; Colorado, Durango, April 15, Barr, April 20, and Baca +County, April 28; Utah, Great Salt Lake, April 12; Wyoming, Cokeville, +April 26, and Cheyenne, April 30; Montana, Lewiston, May 2, and +Billings, May 4; Oregon, Narrows, April 15; and Alberta, Flagstaff, +April 26, Vagreville, April 28, and Alliance, April 29. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Florida, Indian Rocks, May +6; Alabama, Coden, May 17; Tamaulipas, Tampico, April 11; Texas, +Brownsville, April 23, and Texas City, May 13; Lower California, Tres +Marias Islands, April 8, and Cerros Island, April 18; and Nyarit, San +Blas, April 24, and Los Penas Island, May 5. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of arrival in the fall are: Lower +California, San Quintin, August 8; Arizona, San Bernardino Ranch, +August 13; New Mexico, Carlsbad, August 16, and Capitan Mountains, +August 28; Oklahoma, Yarnaby, August 9; Texas, Padre Island, August +20; and Tehuantepec, San Mateo, August 6. Western willets also are of +fairly regular occurrence in fall migration on the Atlantic coast, +specimens having been collected in Massachusetts, Newburyport, August +5, and Boston, August 8; Connecticut, Stony Creek, August 15, and West +Haven, August 26; Rhode Island, Quonochontaug, August 5; and New York, +Amityville, August 14, and Hempstead Bay, August 15. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Oregon, Yaquina Bay, October 1; +Montana, Terry, September 8; Idaho, Rupert, October 20; Nevada, +Carson River, October 13; Arizona, San Bernardino Ranch, September 2; +Wyoming, Yellowstone Park, September 13; New Mexico, Jicarilla Apache +Reservation, September 13; Saskatchewan, Redberry, September 2; North +Dakota, Dawson, September 17, and Harrisburg, October 3; Nebraska, +Long Pine, September 10, and Lincoln, September 29; Iowa, Cerro Gordo +County, September 2, and Keokuk, October 27; Illinois, Chicago, +September 30; and Connecticut, West Haven, September 3, and once in +October. + +_Casual records._--In spite of its regular occurrence on the Atlantic +coast, the western willet has been detected only on a few occasions +in the interior States east of the Mississippi River. There appear +to be several records for Ohio from April 30 (Oberlin) to November 2 +(Bay Point); one for Indiana, Millers, August 14, 1897; and one for +Michigan, Ann Arbor, May, 1889. One was taken July 20, 1898 at Toronto, +Ontario, and four other specimens without data are presumed to be from +the same locality (Fleming). Other casual occurrences are: Washington, +Seattle, July 23, 1922, and Tacoma, September 6, 1913; British +Columbia, Clover Point, August 18, 1898; probably Yukon, Lake Marsh, +July 2, 1899; and Alaska, Lynn Canal (Hartlaub). + +_Egg dates._--Utah: 32 records, April 5 to May 21; 16 records, May 4 +to 14. Saskatchewan and North Dakota: 19 records, May 8 to June 22; 10 +records, May 23 to June 7. Washington to California: 9 records, May 8 +to June 16. + + + HETEROSCELUS INCANUS (Gmelin) + + WANDERING TATTLER + + HABITS + + +Along the rocky and stony portions of the Pacific coast, and especially +on the islands and outlying reefs, this ocean wanderer is a common and +well-known bird. Here it is much at home among the surf-swept rocks, +drenched in ocean spray and often enveloped in fog; it has no fear +of foaming breakers, which it nimbly dodges as it seeks its bits of +marine food among the kelp and barnacles on the rocks. It is, at most +seasons, essentially a bird of the seashore, but is seldom seen on the +sandy or muddy shores. The dark color of its upper plumage matches its +surroundings and it is not easily seen among the gloomy rocks, unless +its characteristic outline can be seen against the sky or water as it +poses on the top of some prominent rock to watch the intruder. If he +approach too near, it flies off a short distance with loud, piercing +cries and alights on another rock, to bob and teeter, somewhat like our +familiar spotted and solitary sandpipers. It is generally solitary and +seems to be satisfied with its own society. + +It is well named, as it is a famous wanderer. I am tempted to quote Dr. +E. W. Nelson’s (1887) well-chosen words on this subject, as follows: + + Over the entire coast of the Pacific north of the equator + its presence has been noted by the various naturalists + whose Bohemian tastes have made their lives somewhat akin + to that of this gentle wanderer. Across the broad ocean + it ranges to those bits of paradise dotting the South + Seas, tripping its way daintily on the beaches of the + coral-enclosed islands, their feet laved by the warm waters + of the tropics, and their eyes familiar with the luxuriant + face of nature in its gentlest and most lovely state. The + next season may find them thousands of miles to the north, + under the shadow of the stupendous cliffs and grand but + desolate and repellent scenes of the Aleutian Islands. + +_Spring._--Prof. Wells W. Cooke (1912) says that “the spring migration +begins in March, bringing the birds to the coast of California by the +latter part of the month. The Aleutian Islands are reached the middle +of May, and the most northern part of the range by the latter part of +the month.” H. W. Henshaw (1902) says that “about April or May the +greater number” leave the Hawaiian Islands for the north. “While most +go, many remain, the latter being the immature birds and the weaklings. +At all events, those that remain retain the immature or winter dress +and show not the slightest inclination to breed.” Henry Seebohm (1890) +reports a straggler taken on the Bonin Islands on May 11, 1889. D. E. +Brown’s notes record one at Forrester Island, Alaska, on May 3, 1917, +and several at Grays Harbor, Wash., from May 4 to 21, 1920. He says: +“At low tide these birds were found, with flocks of black turnstone, +on the rock jetty and at high tide among the drift logs on the upper +beach.” + +_Nesting._--The nesting habits of the wandering tattler long remained +shrouded in mystery. Various observers had seen it on or near its +probable breeding grounds in the interior of different parts of Alaska. +Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood (1907) collected a very young bird in which “the +head and neck were still downy,” near the upper MacMillan River, Yukon, +on September 5, 1904, and he reported a pair, which evidently had +young, seen by Charles Sheldon, near Mount McKinley, July 28, 1906. Dr. +Joseph Grinnell (1910) mentions a “half-grown juvenal” taken by Joseph +Dixon on Montague Island, July 28, 1908. + +The first nest was found in 1912 and is thus described in a letter from +J. M. Jessup to Dr. Charles W. Richmond, accompanied by a specimen of +the bird: + + The wandering tattler was found nesting on a gravel bar + near a small stream flowing into the Arctic Ocean, the + exact location was about latitude 69° 10´ and longitude + 141° west, or about 25 miles south of the Arctic Ocean + near the international boundary between Canada and Alaska. + The nest was first observed by Sir Frederick Lambart of + the Canadian Coast and Geodetic Survey, and was later + identified by myself. Sir Frederick describes the nest + as follows: “The nest was situated in the middle of an + elevated gravel bar open to the sky for fully 50 feet all + around. The nest was just alongside a small rock; there + were no sticks or any form of nest material, it consisted + merely of a semispherical hollow in dry fine and coarse + gravel. Four eggs were in the nest, I should say about the + size of a ptarmigan’s, brownish blue and mottled very much + like a sandpiper’s. The young birds were noted to have come + out of the eggs July 9.” + +Ten years later Olaus J. Murie (1924) collected a downy, young +wandering tattler on Jennie Creek, a small tributary of Savage River, +in the Alaska Range, on June 9, 1922. The following year he completed +the record by finding a nest and collecting the first and only set +of eggs ever taken. He has given us a very good account of the whole +proceeding, from which I quote, as follows: + + The following day, July 1, we continued up Savage River 9 + miles and made permanent camp. We had been on the lookout + for the birds and I had pointed out to Mr. Buhmann one in + the distance, that he might have an idea for what we were + looking. About noon Mr. Buhmann and my brother were riding + on the wagon, while I walked ahead over the usual gravel + bars, when Mr. Buhmann suddenly called out to me, “Is that + one of your birds?” I turned and saw a wandering tattler + flying away. The bird had been flushed by the horses. We + all three walked back carefully beside the wagon and in a + few moments spied the nest and eggs a short distance to the + rear, not over 6 inches from the wheel track! Mr. Buhmann + picked up one of the eggs, wishing, as he enthusiastically + explained, to be the first one who had ever handled the egg + of a wandering tattler. I explained that the eggs should + not be disturbed until photographed, and it was carefully + replaced in the nest. A series of exposures was made of + the nest and eggs, and we moved away some distance with + our outfit and prepared our lunch. In the meantime the + bird returned and settled on the nest. Several photographs + were then taken of the bird on the eggs, the last one at a + distance of about 10 feet or less. The nest and eggs were + then taken and carried to our camping ground. + + All our observations indicate that this nesting site is + characteristic, that the wandering tattler prefers the + gravel bars of mountain streams, as typified by Savage + River. These rivers are rapid and split into numerous + channels, sometimes in an intricate network over the + gravelly valley. This nest was found on Savage River about + 5 miles above the mouth of Jennie Creek at an elevation + of about 4,000 feet. It was placed on a gravel bar about + 30 feet from the nearest water, and was sunk in a shallow + depression in the gravel. It was well built, unusually + elaborate for a shore bird. It was composed principally of + fine roots carefully woven into a firm structure, including + a number of twigs around the edges. Small bits of twigs and + some dry leaves had been used for lining. It was so compact + that I had no difficulty in picking it up and transporting + it to camp. The diameter of the nest to the edges of the + finely woven body was about 5 inches, but, of course, some + of the twigs extended much farther. + +_Eggs._--The eggs taken by Mr. Murie on Savage River, Alaska, July 1, +1923, are now in the United States National Museum and are, so far as +I know, the only eggs in existence. In shape they are between pyriform +and subpyriform, and they have a slight gloss. The ground color is +between “glaucous” and “greenish glaucous,” as in some crow’s eggs. +They are spotted and blotched irregularly, rather heavily near the +larger end and rather sparsely elsewhere, with dark browns, from “seal +brown” or “bone brown” to “burnt umber” or “Verona brown”; there are +some elongated splashes and some small, inconspicuous, underlying spot +of various shades of “brownish drab.” They measure 43.3 by =32.7=, +=44.5= by 31.4, =44.1= by =31.5=, and 43.7 by 32.3 millimeters. + +_Young._--The young are able to run about soon after they are hatched +and are carefully guarded by both parents. An adult, secured by Mr. +Murie with the downy young, proved to be a male. “A whistled _cheep_, +imitating a chick, would bring the excited bird within a few feet.” Mr. +Jessup writes that the mother bird was much distressed and attempted to +lure him from her little one by feigning lameness. + +_Plumages._--Mr. Murie (1924) has described the downy young very well, +as follows: + + These downy young may be described as follows: Under parts + dull white with a faint indication of grayish on upper + breast and lower fore neck; upper parts pale gray, with a + very slight suggestion of buffy on wings, rump, and tail, + more evident in the fresh specimens than in the skin; upper + parts narrowly, irregularly, and indistinctly barred with + blackish, with dull black loral and postocular streaks and + with irregular black spots on hind pileum. In a colored + sketch made from freshly killed bird, tarsus and upper part + of toes appear dull glaucous green; the under surface of + foot olive yellow; bill dull glaucous blue. + +Another bird which I have examined, as a dried skin, does not show any +buffy tints. A young bird, mainly in juvenal plumage but still downy +on the hind neck, chin and forehead, taken on September 5, is from +“deep mouse gray” to “dark olive gray” above, with very faint whitish +tips; the wing coverts have more prominent white edgings; the chest +is “pallid mouse gray,” and the flanks “pale mouse gray,” both more +or less indistinctly barred; the rest of the under parts are white. +A limited postjuvenal molt of the body plumage occurs in September, +producing the first winter plumage; this is much like the adult, +except that the juvenal wing coverts, some of the scapulars and the +mottled plumage of the breast and flanks are retained. Some young birds +apparently assume a plumage which is practically adult at the first +prenuptial molt in April. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt from August to January, the +wings being molted last, between October and January. I have seen birds +in full nuptial plumage from April 13 to September 14 and in full +winter plumage as late as April 12. In winter adults the upper parts +are slightly lighter gray than in summer, the sides of the head, chest +and flanks are still lighter gray and the chin and belly are white. The +partial prenuptial molt occurs in April. + +_Food._--The usual feeding grounds of the wandering tattler are the +rocky shores, where it searches for its food among the kelp-covered +rocks at the water’s edge, following the receding waves and nimbly +dodging the incoming breakers or making short flights to avoid the +surf. If over-taken and drenched it flies to a rock, shakes the water +from its plumage and soon resumes its feeding. B. J. Bretherton (1896) +says that on Kodiak Island: + + This species seemed to habitually frequent the sand or + gravel beaches in preference to rocky localities, and had + regular feeding grounds to which they resorted at certain + stages of the tide, returning regularly each day at the + same time. Their food consists largely of decapods together + with small crabs, marine worms, and minute mollusks. + +Its food seems to be mainly insects, but includes small crustaceans, +minute mollusks, marine worms, and other small marine animals. The +contents of six stomachs, reported on by Preble and McAtee (1923) +consisted of “flies (Diptera), 46.1 per cent; caddis flies 30.6 per +cent; amphipods, 16 per cent; mollusks, 3.6 per cent; and beetles 1.1 +per cent.” + +_Behavior._--The movements of wandering tattlers are often suggestive +of spotted sandpipers with which they are sometimes associated; +they indulge in the same “tip-up” motion of the body, though less +frequently; and their flight is very similar, with intermittent strokes +of down-curved wings. W. Leon Dawson (1923) says: + + When it alights, it sits for some time motionless in a + plover like attitude, with its long bill held horizontally, + invisible, in the dull light of a foggy day, unless, + perchance, outlined against the surf. At other times the + bird will betray its uneasiness by a jetting motion of the + tail. + +In his notes on the Farallones, Mr. Dawson (1911) says: + + Contrary to earlier statements these tattlers do spend a + considerable portion of their time upon the higher ground. + The tiny bowlder-strewn meadow surrounding my earlier camp + (just east of Franconia Beach) was a favorite resting place + for them, and I am inclined to think the birds spent the + night there, for some were invariably startled upon my + first appearance mornings. Having a common affection for + the tide reefs, wandering tattlers are not infrequently + found in loose association with black turnstones; but + when put to flight they pay no attention whatever to the + fortunes of their chance shipmates nor to others of their + own kind. + +Dr. E. W. Nelson (1883) writes: + + Their note is a loud, ringing whistle, which seems + specially fitted to the bird and the haunts it occupies, + and as the shrill cry reechoes from the towering cliffs and + ledges at the base of which it feeds its peculiar character + and intonation might lead one to fancy some genie of the + rocks was uttering its cry. When the birds are approached + by boat as they are feeding along the water’s edge they + ascend gradually, with an expression of mild curiosity, and + pass from ledge to ledge until they reach a jutting point + on the face of the cliff or its brow, where they stand in + relief, like beautiful clear-cut statuettes, and do not + utter a sound or move until they are still further alarmed, + when they take flight, uttering at the same moment their + loud note before mentioned. + +_Voice._--Doctor Nelson (1880) describes its note as “a loud, ringing +_kla_, _kla_, _kla_,” and again he (1887) calls it “a loud, clear, +flutelike _tu_, _tu_, _tu_, _tu_.” Mr. Dawson (1923) says it is “a +quavering cry, somewhat like the _tew_, _tew_, _tew_ of the greater +yellowlegs, but more subdued.” Mr. Murie (1924) writes: + + Whenever I approached the home grounds of a wandering + tattler he would fly to meet me and would scold excitedly, + uttering a vigorous _deedle-deedle-deedle-deedle-dee_, with + variations which I failed to record minutely. + +_Fall._--Doctor Nelson (1887) says: + + They usually reappear on the seacoast about St. Michaels + the last of July or very early in August and remain until + from the 1st to 10th of September. During their presence on + the coast of Norton Sound they show a decided preference + for the most rugged and rock-bound parts of the shore, + rarely or never occurring elsewhere. It is a frequent and + regular summer bird on the rocky parts of the coast to the + vicinity of Bering Straits and occurs on the islands and + Siberian shore of Bering Sea. + +William Palmer (1899) says that on the Pribilof Islands: + + It is the first species to return in the fall; adult birds, + July 10 and afterwards. Usually in pairs on the surf-swept + rocks, but sometimes seen--usually the brownish, unbarred, + and less wary immature--on open sandy places, and sometimes + with the turnstones on a sandy beach. They are not shy, but + are seldom noticed when perched on the wet rocks, which + harmonize so well with their color. Solitary birds remain + quiet and unseen and will permit one to approach quite + close, frequently startling us as they get up suddenly, + almost under our very feet, and uttering their loud, shrill + cry, flying off to another resting place. + +From the Aleutian Islands and the interior of Alaska there is a +southward migration to the islands in the Pacific, where it spends +the winter, and a more general movement southward along the Pacific +coast of North America. D. E. Brown’s notes record it on the coast of +Washington from August 10 to September 15. It has been recorded in +California early in July, but these were perhaps summer sojourners; +the return movement seems to come along between July 15 and August. +H. W. Henshaw (1902) says that the return migrants begin to appear in +the Hawaiian Islands “about the middle or latter part of August”; he +noticed that “the first comers are adults, chiefly males, and still in +nuptial dress.” + +_Winter._--The Santa Barbara Islands, off the coast of southern +California, mark the northern limit of the normal winter range of the +wandering tattler, where a few may always be found in winter. Most of +the birds go farther south. W. B. Alexander tells me that the wandering +tattler occasionally visits Cape York, North Queensland, and there is a +specimen, unquestionably of this species, in the Museum of Comparative +Zoölogy in Cambridge, from Australia. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Western North and South America, eastern Asia, and Oceanica. + +_Breeding range._--The nest and eggs of the wandering tattler have +actually been found only on one occasion (Savage River, Alaska +[Murie]); but the evidence of young birds seems sufficient to establish +additional breeding stations in Alaska (Mount McKinley and probably +Montague Island); and in Yukon (Russell Mountains). They probably +breed also in eastern Siberia (Plover Bay). Nonbreeding specimens have +been observed or collected in summer at many localities on the Pacific +coast, south to Lower California (Socorro Island, San Jose Island, and +Cocos Island); and the Hawaiian Islands (Cocoanut Island). + +_Winter range._--The winter range of the wandering tattler extends +north to the Philippine Islands (Mindanao); the Hawaiian Islands +(Laysan, Kauai, and Hawaii); and probably, rarely, Oregon (Cannon +Beach). East to probably, rarely Oregon (Cannon Beach); California +(Santa Cruz Island, and Santa Monica); Lower California (Cedros Island, +Comondu, and San Jose Island); and the Galapagos Islands (Abingdon, +Indefatigable, Chatham, and Hood). South to the Galapagos Island (Hood +and Albemarle); Paumotu Islands; Society Islands (Huaheine); Samoa; +Fiji Islands (Ovalau); New Hebrides (Aneiteum); and northeastern +Australia (Cape York). West to northeastern Australia (Cape York); and +the Philippine Islands (Mindanao). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: Washington, +Shoalwater Bay, May 1; Alaska, Forrester Island, May 7, Cape Prince of +Wales, May 11, Sanak Island, May 15, Unalaska Island, May 18, and Mount +McKinley, May 18; and Siberia, Copper Island, May 17. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Guerrero, Acapulco, April 30; Lower +California, Cedros Island, April 24, Socorro Island, May 10, Guadeloupe +Island, May 18, and Clarion Island, May 20; California, San Nicholas +Island, May 11, and Eureka, May 18; Washington, Neah Bay, May 20, and +Flattery Rock, June 2; and British Columbia, Courtenay, May 23, and +Comox, June 4. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of arrival in the fall, are: British +Columbia, Okanagan, July 26; Washington, Clallam Bay, July 16, and +Quillayute Needles, July 17; Oregon, Seal Rocks, July 22, and Crater +Lake, July 27; California, Farallon Islands, July 13, Monterey Bay, +July 14, and Santa Cruz, August 1; and Lower California, Los Coronados +Islands, August 6, and Cedros Island, August 14. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, St. Paul Island, October 4, +and Unalaska, October 16; British Columbia, Okanagan, September 20; and +Washington, Seattle, September 18, and Clallam Bay, September 19. + +_Egg Dates._--Alaska: One record, July 1, 1925. + + + HETEROSCELUS BREVIPES (Vieillot) + + POLYNESIAN TATTLER + + HABITS + +Three specimens of this Asiatic sandpiper have been taken in the +Pribilof Islands; the first was secured on St. Paul Island, October +4, 1911, by M. C. Marsh; the other two were taken by G. Dallas Hanna, +on the same island, September 2, 1917, and September 17, 1919. +These constitute the only North American records. It is not easily +distinguished in life from the wandering tattler and so may have +occurred much oftener on our extreme western coasts. + +Dr. Leonard Stejneger (1885), who took an adult male on Bering Island, +in the Commanders, May 28, 1882, devotes considerable space to showing +that this is a species distinct from _incanus_; but some recent writers +have treated it as a subspecies. The principal differences are that +_brevipes_ is somewhat smaller, has a shorter nasal groove, and has the +tarsus scutellated instead of reticulated at the back; the belly and +under tail coverts are pure white in all plumages, whereas in _incanus_ +these parts are barred in the nuptial plumage; and the upper tail +coverts, which are nearly uniform gray in _incanus_; are distinctly +barred with white. The structural differences would seem to warrant +specific rank. + +The Polynesian tattler is supposed to breed in eastern Siberia, from +Lake Baikal to Kamchatka, but, so far as I know, its nest has never +been found and nothing is known about its nesting habits, eggs, or +young. + +_Plumages._--Except for the specific characters outlined above the +plumages and molts are similar to those of the wandering tattler. In +the juvenal plumage the feathers of the upper parts are notched with +light buff or white; the upper tail coverts are tipped and irregularly +barred with the same colors; the upper breast and flanks are suffused +with light gray, more or less mottled on the chest; the tail feathers +and wing coverts are tipped or notched or barred with pale buff or +white; they are otherwise like winter adults. + +This plumage is worn until September, when the body plumage, some of +the tail feathers, and some of the wing coverts are molted, to produce +the first winter plumage, which can be distinguished from the adult +only by the retained tail feathers and wing coverts. In some birds a +partial prenuptial molt produces a plumage which is nearly adult, but +in others this molt is suppressed and a molt into the adult winter +plumage comes later. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt between July and January, and a +partial prenuptial molt, involving the body plumage, the tail and some +of the wing coverts, scapulars, and tertials. + +_Behavior._--The habits, and probably the food, of the Polynesian +tattler are apparently similar to those of our American bird. Doctor +Hanna (1920) says: + + I had an opportunity to observe this bird for a while with + two wandering tattlers in view at the time. The actions + of the two species were practically the same. They feed + very close to the sea on rocky shores and when disturbed + fly lazily, rarely more than 100 yards. The wandering + tattlers on this occasion appeared perceptibly larger than + the Polynesian and the notes of the two were different. + The latter uttered an irregular screech not of the same + intensity or pitch, whereas the former gave its usual call, + a series of 6 to 10 individual notes uttered in the same + pitch and rapid succession, but each of shortening duration. + +_Winter._--This tattler migrates southward in winter through the Kurile +Islands and Japan to the Malay Archipelago, the Philippines, and +Australia. W. B. Alexander (1926) says of it in North Queensland: + + This was the commonest species of sandpiper on the beaches + at Cairns and Yarrabah early in September, feeding in small + parties. The first were noted on September 1. They are + easily recognized by their gray plumage and yellow legs, + though the latter are not so brightly colored as those of + the two species known in America as yellowlegs. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Eastern Asia, Melanesia, and Australia; casual on the +Pribilof Islands. + +The Polynesian tattler breeds in eastern Siberia, from Lake Baikal +to Kamchatka; in migration it passes through China, Japan, and the +Philippine Islands to winter quarters in the Malay Archipelago and +northern Australia (Queensland). + +_Casual records._--This species has been detected in North America on +three occasions, all on St. Paul Island, of the Pribilof group, Alaska +(October 4, 1911, September 2, 1917, and September 17, 1919). + + + PHILOMACHUS PUGNAX (Linnaeus) + + RUFF + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + HABITS + +The claim of the ruff to a place in the American list is a much +stronger one than that of most of the Palaearctic species which figure +in it, as it has occurred three times in Greenland, once in Canada, +on many occasions in the eastern States, in Barbados, Guadeloupe, and +South America. + +_Spring._--Apparently the ruff migrates chiefly by night and in this +connection it is noticeable that the period of its greatest activity +in the breeding season is during the twilight of the early morning +hours. Naumann (1887) states that the first birds to arrive are the +young of the preceding year, and that the adult males are the next to +follow while they in turn are succeeded by the old females. Owing to +the enormous development of the feathered ruff from which the species +derives its names, the males are readily distinguished during the +breeding season even in flight and on the ground can be recognized at +almost any distance. + +_Courtship._--The breeding habits of the ruff are so remarkable that it +is necessary to treat of them in considerable detail. When the males +reach the breeding ground they are in full breeding plumage, the bare +skin of the face being covered with bright yellow warts, while a disk +of feathers protects the neck and two tufts project from each side of +the head. The extraordinary variation in the coloring of these feather +adornments renders it possible to identify individual birds, as it is +rare to see two with even approximately similar coloring, and this +enabled Mr. Selous (1906) to make the valuable observations which are +referred to below. + +Where ruffs are common, as in North Holland, one finds from time +to time bare areas of ground where the grass has been worn away in +patches. They are the playing grounds of the ruffs, and were known in +England technically as “hills.” During the daytime they are resorted to +from time to time by the male birds, which may often be seen sparring +with one another, but the significance of these meetings was little +understood until Edmund Selous (1906) spent a fortnight in the spring +of 1906 in Holland, during which he concealed himself in a hide which +commanded a good view of the “hill” at close quarters, and was often +on the watch before daylight. The diary of his observations was first +published in the _Zoologist_ for 1906 and 1907, and is too lengthy +and discursive to be reproduced here, but in the following condensed +account most of the essential facts have been preserved. The “hill” +under observation was roughly about 10 paces by 6, with 11 distinct +patches where the grass had been worn bare, besides a couple of +others less plainly marked. There were other similar “hills” in the +neighborhood, all much alike, placed on dry ground, in the neighborhood +of marshes. They are resorted to year after year, and bear traces of +excrement from previous seasons, while the grass is much worn away +owing to the presence of the birds. Some of the Dutch “hills” are quite +close to or actually in the way of paths, and the birds when disturbed +by passers-by will return to the ground within a few minutes. Like many +other Dutch birds they show much indifference to the presence of man, +owing to the fact that no shooting is permitted during the breeding +season. On April 14 a single male was disturbed by Selous from the +“hill” at 7 a. m. and did not return, but on the next day a flock of +eight or nine birds arrived and at once began to fight, but not on the +“hill.” It soon became evident that in order to be in place before the +arrival of the birds it was necessary to get into hiding before dawn. +By April 16 the “hill” was in regular use, each male resorting to the +same stand and sitting there, from time to time rising and making a +slight demonstration with erected tufts and ruff, sometimes followed +by a slight sparring match with one of the other males, but when not +engaged in fighting spending the time quite amicably side by side, in +some cases almost touching. In the afternoon a similar state of things +prevailed, but the proceedings were quieter and more subdued. When +sparring the birds “would rush and leap high into the air against each +other, rushing away and not leaping again as they came down,” and this +activity was generally more pronounced when a reeve appeared on the +ground. The other birds on occasions of this kind also rushed about in +wild excitement, suddenly pulling themselves up with the head extended +forward and remaining in this position motionless, perhaps then rushing +in another direction and then gradually sinking down quickly. When a +reeve arrived at the “hill,” where perhaps a dozen males were present, +after the first wave of excitement had passed she would thread her way +among the ruffs, which as she approached sank down to the ground by +her side with bowed head. Her preference for one particular male was +shown by halting at his side and gently nibbling with her bill the +feathers at the back of his neck. If copulation followed, there was no +interference on the part of the other males present, except perhaps +occasionally by accident in the course of excited running to and fro. + +After persistent watching it became evident that the attentions of the +reeves were very unevenly distributed among the regular habitues of +the “hill.” There were two conspicuously handsome males--one a bird +with a golden-brown ruff and the other with a blue-black one--and these +two seemed to be selected far more frequently than the other ruffs. +The few attempts made by males to force the compliance of the female +were quite unsuccessful. Perhaps it is due to this that attempts to +pair between two male birds frequently took place and, strange to +relate, even between two reeves also. Selection on the part of the +hen birds apparently bore no relation to the fighting powers of the +male, although one serious fight, which lasted some three or four +minutes, took place, during which the two birds concerned fought like +demons, but finally ceased by mutual consent. The two selected birds +were, however, certainly among the finest and handsomest birds on the +ground. While the stations were usually occupied by the same birds day +after day, there were times when over 20 birds were present, so it +is probable that males from other “hills” call in at times. While it +was clear that one ruff paired with several reeves, it was much more +difficult to prove that the reeves paired with more than one male, +owing to their general similarity of appearance, though it is probable +that this was the case. The following extract from Selous (1906) gives +a good description of the characteristic sparring: + + Each ruff has certainly a place of its own, and the most + envenomed fights appear to me to result from one bird + pitching down in another’s place when he flies in. The + aggrieved bird instantly rushes at the intruder and there + is a fight which may last for a longer or shorter time. + The birds have then a perfectly frantic appearance. They + kick, strike with their wings, and especially endeavor to + bite or peck each other. This biting is very noticeable, + the mandibles seeming to snap with rage. They leap commonly + before they close and then continue to do so as a matter of + course, the object seeming to be, as with other birds, to + get above the adversary and strike down upon him with wings + and feet and bill. Of course, when one bird is displaced + by another, others are displaced also, leading to general + commotion and, moreover, the mere anticipation of any fresh + arrival is matter for excitement for every ruff on the + ground. + +Summarizing the results of Mr. Selous’ observations, it becomes +evident that the “hills” are the pairing grounds to which both males +and females resort, but the period of the greatest activity is +during the early morning from about 3.30 a. m. onward. Each male has +a definite place and the choice of a mate rests entirely with the +female, the males adopting an attitude of supplication, crouching low +with partially spread wings, tail and beak pointing to the ground. +The hen marks her preference by nibbling the back of the neck of the +prostrate male with her bill, and soon afterwards coition takes place, +the surrounding males remaining usually quiescent. One reeve was seen +to pair with two ruffs in succession and it is probable that she is +polyandrous as the ruff is certainly polygamous. There seemed to be no +connection between the fighting power of the males and the preference +exercised so strikingly by the females, but, on the other hand, the +favored ruffs were apparently always handsome and strikingly colored +birds. + +_Nesting._--The reeve makes her nest within a reasonable distance of +the “hill,” but not very close to it. Naumann (1887) says that it is +never less than a hundred paces distant, and most of those which I have +seen were within a quarter of a mile. In the Dutch water meadows the +usual nesting site is among fine, thickly growing grass, where it is +difficult to see unless one’s eye is caught by a glimpse of the nest +hollow. In the marshes of Lapland, where vegetation is more backward, +it may be found among clumps of sedge and rushes. It is built entirely +of fine grasses, and would frequently be overlooked if it were not for +the sight of the bird when flushed. + +_Eggs._--Normally four; sets of three are quite exceptional and are +probably second or third layings. They are pyriform in shape, thin +shelled, and, as is frequently the case with the eggs of waders, large +for the size of the bird. The ground color varies from brownish yellow +to pale olive brown as a rule, but occasionally has a greenish tinge, +while varieties with a clear pale blue ground are not very scarce. The +markings consist of spots and blotches of brown ranging from umber to +dark sepia and ashy grey shellmarks, more numerous at the large end. +White eggs have been recorded. The measurements of 143 eggs, chiefly +by the writer, average 43.97 by 30.7 millimeters; the eggs showing the +four extremes measure =47.5= by 30.5, 43.2 by =32.1=, =39.2= by 31.6, +and 42.9 by =28= millimeters. + +They are usually laid in central Europe during the latter half of May +and early in June, occasionally in the second week of May. In northern +Europe most eggs are found during the latter half of June. Only one +brood is reared in the season. + +_Young._--Incubation is performed by the female alone. Naumann (1887) +gives the incubation period as 17 to 19 days, but this is probably +too low an estimate and recently Heinroth has recorded 27 days. +From observations made by Mr. W. H. St. Quinten on young hatched in +captivity they leave the nest very soon after hatching, apparently +directly the down is dry. The reeve is a good mother, and I have seen +one when flushed from eggs on the point of hatching run from the nest, +flapping her wings in a helpless way as if unable to fly. Another +bird was also seen trying to distract attention by running with every +feather erect, looking more like some small mammal than a bird. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and moults are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby. + +_Food._--The ruff is mainly insectivorous, feeding largely on beetles +(Coleoptera), chiefly the smaller species. Jäckel records specimens of +the following genera: _Agonum_, _Bembidium_, _Parnus_, _Cyclonotum_, +_Sitones_, _Pisodes_, _Rhinoncus_, _Philhydrus_. Weevils are also +mentioned by Florence. Among the Orthoptera remains of grasshoppers +were found by Slater. Neuroptera met with include caddis worms +and cases (Phryganeidae) and larvae of _Ephemera_, Trichoptera +(_Limnophilus_ by Jäckel) who also records _Naucoris_ (Hemiptera). It +will be noted that most of the above are aquatic forms. Diptera are +a staple food in the north, including larvae of Tipulidae and many +small species. Of Mollusca, Slater records small fresh water bivalves, +Collett worms (_Lumbrici_). In winter the food is more largely +vegetable in character, though fresh water algae and seeds of _Rumex_ +have been recorded in summer. Rice is frequently found in birds killed +in India and Mellor also found in seven cases nothing but durra grains +(Sorghum) from 19 to 228 in number. + +_Voice._--The ruff is an extremely silent bird. One may live among them +in the Dutch polders for weeks together in the spring, and never hear +a sound from them, except a very low guttural or quacking note from a +reeve when disturbed from a family of young. Naumann (1887) however +describes a note _kack_, _kack_, _kick_, _kack_, which is probably the +same as that which Slater writes as _wick_, repeated rapidly several +times. Unless much persecuted it is confiding in its habits and pays +little attention to the presence of men. + +_Enemies._--In England its extermination was primarily due to the +reckless way in which the breeding stock was netted not only in autumn +but also on arrival in spring on the “hilling” grounds, in order to be +fattened for the table. Montagu’s account of the state of things in +his day has been quoted at length in many books on British birds, so +that it is not necessary to repeat it here. As Pennant spoke of 40 or +50 dozen birds being taken by a single fowler in a season it is not +surprising that the stock was rapidly reduced to so low a level that in +spite of belated efforts to protect the birds and their eggs, it has +now practically disappeared. On the continent where it is still locally +common it has to contend against other avian enemies, more especially +the harriers (_Circus_), but also the goshawk, peregrine, and to some +extent gulls and crows. + +_Fall._--The distinctive plumes of the male are shed in June and in +July the autumn plumage is assumed even in the extreme north. The males +begin to disappear from their breeding haunts in central Europe in late +July and early August, while the females are said to leave in September. + +_Winter._--In their winter quarters ruffs are generally sociable and +are to be met with in small flocks, which show a preference to fresh +water marshes rather than the sea coast. In India and the Sudan the +flooded fields are a great attraction and the staple food consists of +grain. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--Formerly at many places in England from +Northumberland southward, lingering until recently in Norfolk. Belgium, +locally in North France, Holland, Denmark, North Germany, and Bavaria +(Jäckel). Hungary, Czechoslovakia, the Baltic Republics, Norway, +Sweden, Finland, Russia north to Kolguev, Waigatz, and Dolgoi and +south to Bessarabia and Orenburg. In Asia, Siberia north to 72° on +the Yenisei and east to the Lena and Kolyma valleys, south to Dauria, +Turgai and Uralsk. + +_Winter range._--From Europe through Africa south to Cape Province, but +scarce on passage in the Atlantic Islands. Asia, south to India, Ceylon +(scarce), Burma, also recorded from China and Japan, Borneo (Labuan), +etc. + +_Spring migration._--At the Straits of Gibraltar the northward movement +begins in January and does not cease till May, but it is at its height +in April. Some birds winter in the Mediterranean region and these have +usually gone by the middle of April. In the eastern Mediterranean the +passage begins in the Ionian Isles about March 15 and in Corfu in March. + +_Fall migration._--The return passage through southern Spain takes +place in August and September, while in Greece, where it is less +noticeable, it appears to take place toward the end of September. + +_Casual records._--The species has been rather frequently detected +on the Atlantic coast of North America and (rarely) in the interior +eastern States. Among these occurrences are: Ontario, Toronto Island, +spring of 1882; Nova Scotia, near Halifax, May 27, 1892; New Brunswick, +Grand Manan; Maine, Scarboro, April 10, 1870, Upton, September 8, 1874, +and Camden, September 14, 1900; New Hampshire, Seabrook, September 23, +1907; Massachusetts, Newburyport, May 20, 1871, Chatham, September 11, +1880, and Nantucket, July, 1901; Rhode Island, Seaconnet Point, July +30, 1900, and Point Judith, August 31, 1903; New York, two on Long +Island, one of which was taken May 18, 1868, and Freeport, September +27, 1914; New Jersey, Barnegat (Elliott collection); Virginia, +Four-mile Run, September 3, 1894; North Carolina, Raleigh, May 6, 1892; +Ohio, Licking Reservoir, November 11, 1872, and Columbus, April 23, +1878; and Indiana, English Lake, April 12, 1905. + +It also has been taken in the Lesser Antilles, Barbados, previous to +1848; Colombia, probably between the Rio Negro and the Orinoco or +adjacent regions; and Alaska, St. Paul Island, September 7, 1910. It is +of rare occurrence in Japan (Yezo). There is one record from Iceland +(Reykjavik, September, 1820). + +_Egg dates._--In Holland, 4 dates between May 7 and 14; 18 dates +between May 15 and 31, 8 dates between June 1 and 22. In Lapland and +North Russia, 16 dates between June 8 and 27. + + + BARTRAMIA LONGICAUDA (Bechstein) + + UPLAND PLOVER + + HABITS + +Let us be thankful that this gentle and lovely bird is no longer +called Bartramian sandpiper. It is a sandpiper truly enough, but one +that has adopted the haunts and many of the habits of the plovers. To +those who love the rolling or hilly pasture lands of the east or the +broad flat prairies of the middle west, it will always be known as the +upland or “field plover” or “prairie dove,” or, more affectionately, as +“quailie.” It is a characteristic bird of the prairies and wide open +grassy fields, where it once abounded in enormous numbers. Excessive +shooting for the market, where it was much in demand, reduced its +numbers to an alarmingly low ebb. Dr. Thomas S. Roberts (1919) says +that, in Minnesota, + + Fifty years ago it was present all through the summer, + everywhere in open country, in countless thousands. Now + it is nearing extinction. Here and there an occasional + breeding pair may yet be found, but they are lonely + occupants of the places where their ancestors dwelt in vast + numbers. + +And with the disappearing prairies have gone these and other +interesting birds that made the wide open places so attractive. When +I visited the Quill Lake region in Saskatchewan in 1917, I found that +practically all the prairies had been burned over or cultivated; the +long-billed curlew had entirely disappeared, though recently abundant +there, and I saw only one pair of chestnut-collared longspurs; but some +of the upland plover were adapting themselves to the new conditions and +were nesting in cultivated fields, much as the spotted sandpipers and +the killdeer have learned to nest in grain fields and truck gardens. +Perhaps such adaptation may be the salvation of a useful and attractive +species. Some observers report it as already increasing in numbers. + +_Spring._--W. H. Hudson (1922) describes the beginning of the spring +migration from the pampas of South America, as follows: + + The north migration as a rule begins about the 15th of + February and continues to the 15th of March, and it is at + the beginning of the former month that the disquiet becomes + noticeable. Now on one occasion the season of unrest began + much earlier, in the month of January, increased from day + to day and week to week in the most extraordinary way, + and continued to about the middle of March before the + birds began to fly north, the migration continuing through + March. On any day in February when out riding I would see + from time to time a bird spring up with its wild alarm cry + and flight, and after going a little distance drop down + again. Then in a minute or two another, farther away, would + start up with its cry; and sitting still and watching and + listening, I could see the birds rise up here and there all + over the plain--rise with a cry, then settle down again; + and if one rode a 100 miles to any side he would find it + the same everywhere. The birds were in a continual state + of agitation, of fear; and though this state began so much + sooner than usual, the actual migration did not begin till + a month later than the usual time. + +Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1926), writing from the same general region, +says: + + At Tucuman, Tucuman, five were heard early in the evening + of April 1 as they passed over the city traveling due north + during a slow rain accompanied by heavy mist. On the night + of April 5 under similar conditions an extensive flight of + shore birds began at a quarter of 10 and continued until + half past 11. During this period J. L. Peters, with whom + I was traveling at the time, and I identified the call of + the upland plover from 38 individuals. The birds were in + company with yellowlegs, solitary sandpipers, and a few + golden plover. How many passed unheard in the darkness + there was no way to know. The calling of these birds + when in northward migration was a phenomenon of common + knowledge in Tucuman during that season in the year, but + all commented upon the fact that the birds seemed to have + decreased greatly in abundance in recent years. + +The earliest birds reach Texas and Louisiana early in March. +Illustrating the abundance of this species in Texas 40 years ago, G. B. +Benners (1887) says: + + At the former place we found immense flocks on the prairie, + and they were so tame that the flock would part in the + middle and let us drive between them. We often shot enough + birds while going through a flock in this way to last for + several meals. When they thought we did not see them they + would stand perfectly still, and being the same color as + their surroundings they easily escaped detection. + +From there the main migration route seems to be directly northward +between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. + +Fred J. Pierce writes to me: + + On my rambles over the rolling country of Buchanan County, + Iowa, in the early spring, I usually hear the Bartramian + sandpiper and see the small speck high in the sky that I + know is his form. A damp, cloudy morning seems to be the + preferred time for the bird’s sky circling, but it may be + found frequently in the early morning, too. Cloudy days are + the days which it enjoys most, it appears. + +Edward S. Thomas tells me that he has seen it in Ohio as early as March +26, but that the average date of arrival is April 2. It is not recorded +east of Cuba in the spring, but some birds migrate across from Yucatan +to Cuba and Florida and then up the Atlantic coast. When this species +bred more commonly in New England it used to arrive in April, but now +it is very rare here. + +_Courtship._--The courtship flight song of the upland plover is well +described in some notes sent to me by Fred J. Pierce, as follows: + + The bird’s song is very interesting, but it is given + little attention in books relating to ornithology. On + still wings, these large birds circle slowly about, + usually so high as to be mere specks in the sky, and + give their shrill, penetrating whistle, which will carry + nearly a mile, depending upon the wind and the altitude of + the whistler. First there are a few notes sounding like + water gurgling from a large bottle, then comes the loud + _whip-whee-ee-you_, long drawn out and weirdly thrilling. + When I first heard this strange cry I at once thought + of some species of hawk as being the author of it, and + I have known others to think the same thing. It is too + loud and penetrating a cry to be attributed to one of + the sandpipers. I have heard the bird whistling in this + manner as late as July, but I do not believe that this is a + common practice. On more than one occasion I have seen the + bird, after circling at such height as to be almost out of + sight, close its wings and shoot to earth like a falling + stone. This thrilling performance is similar to that of the + prairie horned lark, which takes a headfirst drop to earth + when it has finished singing its contribution to the usual + spring morning chorus. + +Another pretty version of the courtship is given by Katharine U. Hunter +(1916) thus: + + It was the springtime (1916). The prolonged wail, vague + and sad, of the plovers rose in our upland pasture. I + watched them carry on their odd courtship; hopping toward + each other, twittering, flying away, then repeating it all + again, the hopping, twittering, and retreating. Ungainly, + spirit-voiced birds! Once from out the black, vibrant night + came the eerie, long-drawn whistle of a plover lover. + +_Nesting._--My first upland plover’s nest was found on May 25, 1900, +near the western end of Marthas Vineyard, Mass. The birds were still +fairly common here in those days and there were at least three pairs of +them breeding in this and adjoining pastures. The nest was on a knoll +in a sheep pasture where the grass had been cropped short except for +scattered tufts, where it grew from 7 to 10 inches high, offering the +necessary concealment. In one of these tufts, about a foot in diameter, +a hollow had been scratched, 4 or 5 inches in diameter and nearly 3 +inches deep; it was lined with small bits of dried grass and held four +handsome eggs. + +Since then I have found several nests in Saskatchewan. These nests were +all similarly located on the dry, grassy prairies, slight hollows in +the ground, about 4 inches in diameter and 2 inches deep, generally +well hidden in rather long, thick grass; they were lined with pieces +of dry grass, and the growing grass was artfully arched over them for +protection. The birds usually sat very closely; once we drove over a +nest, flushing the bird under the wagon; and several times we were able +to part the grass over the nest or even touch the bird before she left. +She usually ran or fluttered away for a few feet and then ran about +near us, with her long neck stretched up above the grass, watching us +and uttering her _quip-ip-ip-ip_ notes of protest. + +Nests found by others have been similarly described, but Prof. W. B. +Barrows (1912) says that-- + + in Michigan, it frequently nests in wet grounds, although + the nest itself is usually placed on one of the drier + spots. We have seen the birds nesting in two instances in + good snipe bogs where the mud was ankle deep and dry spots + few and far between. + +Prof. William Rowan (1926) says that in Alberta-- + + the nests found were very variable in make-up and + situation. One had no lining whatever and consisted of a + mere scrape in the ground. This was in a hollow right in + the open on a huge sandy area with but sparse vegetation, + on which long-billed curlews (_Numenius americanus_) were + nesting. Others were in clumps of rough brush, and this is + probably typical for this locality. Another was in long + grass. The most elaborate lining noted consisted of leaves, + bents, and small twigs. One clutch of five was found and + one of three, the latter no doubt incomplete, as the bird + was not about and the eggs were fresh. + +Edward R. Ford has the following observation on the selection of a +nesting site: + + As in the case of the larger ground-nesting birds, + whose nests have little architectural pretension, the + upland plover often deposits the first egg before any + nest-building operations have been begun. It is probable + that the physiological condition of the female urges her + to seek a location generally favorable to the successful + rearing of a brood; but the exact site of the nest may + be in some measure accidental. It is not often that one + may be fortunate enough to come upon the kind of evidence + best calculated to prove a theory of animal behavior, but + it happened once that we found a single egg of the upland + plover, unbetrayed by the presence of the parent and hidden + deep in the grass. It might have been an egg prematurely + laid and, therefore, not likely to receive further parental + attention. If it had been a meadow lark’s egg, for example, + that would have been the conclusion and the facts of + experience would have borne it out. But here was the chance + to test a theory and so, while not surprised, we were + gratified, three days later, to flush a bird from the spot + marked as the location of the single egg and to find there + the full complement of four. About these the dry grass had + taken hemispherical form and, with the addition of loose + material and by reason of the impression made by the eggs + themselves, as well as by the body of the parent, there now + existed a well-defined if simple nest. + +_Eggs._--The upland plover lays four eggs, rarely five, and perhaps +sometimes only three. These are ovate to short ovate in shape, less +pointed than most shore birds’ eggs; and they have only a slight gloss. +In the commonest types the ground colors vary from “light pinkish +cinnamon” to “pale pinkish buff”; in others they vary from “cartridge +buff” or “pale olive buff” to greenish white. They are more or less +evenly spotted with small spots of various shades of dark browns +or reddish browns, and usually with small underlying spots, rarely +large blotches, of “ecru drab” or “pale drab gray.” The measurements +of 66 eggs in the United States National Museum average 45 by 32.5 +millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =51= by 33, 48 +by =35=, =41.5= by 32.5, and 48 by =29.5= millimeters. + +_Young._--The incubation period is said to be 17 days, but this needs +confirmation. Both sexes share in the duties of incubation and care of +the young. Katharine U. Hunter (1916) says: + + The birds relieved each other at the nest--a true division + of domestic cares: one bird would alight at a long + distance, fold his wings, utter no cry, and, with head held + low, walk through the grass, squatting lower and lower till + finally he disappeared on the nest; then the female would + retreat with the same caution, not spreading her wings till + far from the eggs. + +Doctor Coues (1874) describes the behavior of young birds and their +parents very well, as follows: + + Young birds are abroad late in June--curious little + creatures, timid and weak, led about by their anxious + parents, solicitous for their welfare, and ready to + engage in the most unequal contests in their behalf. When + half grown, but still in the down, the little creatures + have a curious clumsy, top-heavy look; their legs look + disproportionately large, like those of a young colt or + calf; and they may be caught with little difficulty, as + they do not run very well. I once happened upon a brood, + perhaps two weeks old, rambling with their mother over + the prairie. She sounded the alarm, to scatter her brood, + but not before I had secured one of them in my hand. I + never saw a braver defense attempted than was made by this + strong-hearted though powerless bird, who, after exhausting + her artifices to draw me in pursuit of herself, by tumbling + about as if desperately wounded, and lying panting with + outstretched wings on the grass, gave up hope of saving + her young in this way, and then almost attacked me, + dashing close up and retreating again to renew her useless + onslaught. She was evidently incited to unusual courage by + the sight of her little one struggling in my hand. At this + downy stage the young birds are white below, finely mottled + with black, white, and rich brown above; the feet and under + mandible are light colored; the upper mandible is blackish. + + Although these tattlers are generally dispersed over the + prairies during the summer, yet they affect particular + spots by preference. Away from the river valleys, such + spots are the numerous depressions of rolling prairie, + often of great extent, which are moist or even watery at + some seasons, and where the vegetation is most luxuriant. + Here they gather almost into colonies. Riding into some + such spot in July, when the young birds are being led + about by their parents, some old bird more watchful than + the rest, or nearest to the person approaching, gives the + alarm with a loud outcry, the young scatter and hide, and + all the old birds are soon on wing; hovering in the air, + often at a great height, crossing each other’s path, and + ceaselessly vociferating their displeasure. I have often + seen a dozen or twenty overhead at once, all from a little + spot only a few acres in extent. Later in the season, when + all the summer’s broods are on wing, they make up into + flocks, often of great extent, and old and young together + assume the ordinary routine of their lives. They leave + these northern regions early. I saw none after the forepart + of September. + +_Plumages._--In the downy young upland plover, the crown, back, and +rump are prettily variegated, marbled, or mottled, with black, “wood +brown,” “pinkish buff,” and white, with no definite pattern. The sides +of the head and the entire under parts are pale buff or buffy white, +whitest on the belly and throat. A narrow, median frontal stripe and a +few spots on the sides of the head are black. + +The juvenal plumage is much like that of the summer adult, but it +is much more buffy, especially about the head and neck, which are +“cinnamon-buff” or “light ochraceous buff”; the crown is nearly solid +brownish black, or with only a narrow, median, buffy line; the back +and scapulars are brownish black with broad “cinnamon” edgings and +with little or no definite barring on the scapulars; the lesser wing +coverts are sepia with “cinnamon-buff” edgings, broader than in the +adult; and the median coverts are sepia, broadly tipped, and notched +with “cinnamon-buff” and with a subterminal spot or bar of dark sepia. +This plumage is partially molted in August and September, producing the +first winter plumage, which is like the adult, except that the juvenal +flight feathers and most of the wing coverts are retained. At the first +prenuptial molt young birds apparently become indistinguishable from +adults. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, beginning with the body +plumage in August and ending with the wings in December and January. +Their prenuptial molt in spring involves nearly everything but the +wings. The winter plumage is less buffy than the spring, more grayish +above and whiter below, with paler edgings, but the color pattern is +about the same. + +_Food._--The feeding habits of the upland plover are almost wholly +beneficial. It is one of our most useful birds; living, as it does, +in grass lands and cultivated fields, it destroys vast numbers of +grasshoppers, locusts, and other injurious insects. W. L. McAtee (1912) +writes: + + From its habits the upland plover would naturally be + expected to have a closer relation to agriculture than most + sandpipers, and such proves to be the case. Almost half its + food is made up of grasshoppers, crickets, and weevils, + all of which exact heavy toll from cultivated crops. Among + the weevils eaten are the cottonboll weevil; greater and + lesser clover-leaf weevils; clover-root weevils; _Epicaerus + imbricatus_, which is known to attack almost all garden and + orchard crops; cowpea curculios; _Tanymecus confertus_, + an enemy of sugar beets; _Thecesternus humeralis_, which + has been known to injure grapevines; and bill bugs. + _Thecesternus_ alone composes 3.65 per cent of the seasonal + food of the 163 stomachs examined, and bill bugs constitute + 5.83 per cent. No fewer than 8 species of bill bugs were + identified from the stomachs. These weevils injure, often + seriously, such crops as corn, wheat, barley, and rye, as + well as forage plants of many kinds. The upland plover + further makes itself useful to the farmer by devouring leaf + beetles, including the grapevine colaspis, southern corn + leaf-beetle, and other injurious species; wireworms and + their adult forms, the click beetles; white grubs and their + parents, the May beetles; cutworms, army worms; cotton + worms; cotton cutworms; sawfly larvae; and leather-jackets + or cranefly larvae. They befriend cattle by eating + horseflies and their larvae, and cattle ticks. They eat a + variety of other animal forms, such as moths, ants, and + other _Hymenoptera_, flies, bugs, centipedes and millipeds, + spiders, snails, and earthworms. Practically 97 per cent of + the food consists of animal matter, chiefly of injurious + and neutral forms. The vegetable food comprises the seeds + of such weed pests as buttonweed, foxtail grass, and sand + spurs, and hence is also to the credit of the bird. + +J. M. Bates (1907) says that, in Nebraska, “after the wheat is cut, +and during migration, it frequents the wheat stubble and gorges itself +with the waste grain.” He has also seen it in the rye stubble in +Connecticut. But this does no harm, of course. + +_Behavior._--When traveling the upland plover’s flight is swift and +strong, well sustained on its long, pointed wings; and when migrating, +by day or by night, it flies at a great height. In the autumn it is +wary and difficult to approach, as it jumps up at long range and flies +rapidly away for a long distance. But in the spring its flight is quite +different, more leisurely; it seems to drift along so high up in the +sky as to be almost invisible; it might pass unnoticed, were it not +for its flute like notes. Edwin Sandys (1904) has described this very +well, as follows: + + This drifting flight is characteristic of the present + species, and it usually ends in a diving slant earthward, + which is performed without any perceptible motion of the + wings. A few feet from the ground the long, beautiful, + easy descent is gently checked, and the bird alights as + quietly as though it had stooped only a yard or so instead + of hundreds or thousands of feet. For a few seconds after + alighting the bird is apt to keep its wings considerably + elevated above its back, and the brief pose in this + position is particularly attractive. Then the airy fans are + sedately furled. This pretty trick of keeping the wings + spread as if for a momentary study of how they should be + correctly folded is not peculiar to this species. Others + of its near and remote kin go through the same dainty + evolution, although, perhaps, without the air of studied + care which is characteristic of Bartram’s sandpiper. + +On its breeding grounds its flight is different again; it often flies +along slowly and evenly, at a low elevation, 15 or 20 feet above the +ground, on quickly vibrating wings, pouring out its liquid, rolling +trills or flute like notes, a delightful performance; or when flushed +from its nest it flies off close to the ground with short, rapid +strokes of its down-curved wings, as if using only its wing tips, +suggesting the flight of the spotted sandpiper. On a windy day it may +occasionally be seen to soar or hover on quivering wings like a small +falcon. + +On the ground its movements are ploverlike, running swiftly and +stopping suddenly. It runs gracefully through the grass with its long +neck stretched up to watch the pursuer; or, crouching down, it runs +rapidly away and disappears in the grass. It alights frequently on +fences, telegraph poles, stumps, or rocks to watch the intruder and +scold at him. It is seldom seen near water, and I doubt if anyone has +ever seen it swimming. It is a gentle bird at all times and lives +harmoniously with its neighbors on its breeding grounds, but it does +not seem to associate with other species elsewhere. + +_Voice._--The voice of the upland plover is one of its greatest charms; +once heard in its perfection it will never be forgotten; and it often +serves to identify the species when the bird can not be seen. W. H. +Hudson (1922) has referred to it very attractively, as follows: + + Lying awake in bed, I would listen by the hour to that + sound coming to me from the sky, mellowed and made + beautiful by distance and the profound silence of the + moonlit world, until it acquired a fascination for me above + all sounds on earth, so that it lived ever after in me; + and the image of it is as vivid in my mind at this moment + as that of any bird call or cry, or any other striking + sound heard yesterday or but an hour ago. It was the sense + of mystery it conveyed which so attracted and impressed + me--the mystery of that delicate, frail, beautiful being, + traveling in the sky, alone, day and night, crying aloud + at intervals as if moved by some powerful emotion, beating + the air with its wings, its beak pointing like the needle + of the compass to the north, flying, speeding on its + 7,000-mile flight to its nesting home in another hemisphere. + +The most beautiful and striking note heard on its breeding grounds is a +sweet, mellow, rolling trill, uttered as the bird flies along at a low +elevation or while perched on a fence post or even on the ground; it is +evidently a love note. Prof. Lynds Jones (1903) has described it very +well, as follows: + + The rolling cry is not unlike the rolling call of a tree + toad, but of a different quality and caliber, which + makes it unmistakable. The whistle is partly double, + the first part passing upward nearly half an octave, + terminating abruptly there, the second part beginning + where the first began and rapidly swelling through nearly + or quite an octave, then gradually falling again and + decreasing in volume to the close, several tones above + the beginning. The first part of the whistle is usually + rattling or trilled, and sometimes the trill is carried + to the end, but oftener it becomes a clear whistle + before the culmination and continues clear to the end. + _Tre-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e, tre-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-p; + or tr-r-r-r-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-p._ Often the whistled part is + never reached, but the call stops as if interrupted by some + threatened danger. + +The alarm note, as the bird flies away from its nest or as it runs +about scolding at the intruder, is an emphatic and rapidly uttered +_quip-ip-ip-ip_. It also has a rich, musical note, which sounds like +_qua-a-ily_, from which one of its local names is taken. This and a +modified form of its rolling trill are often heard on migration, a +prolonged, mournful, mellow whistle, drifting down out of the sky, more +like the whistling of the wind than a bird’s voice. + +_Field marks._--The upland plover should be easily recognized by its +size and shape; its slender, graceful form, its delicate head and neck, +and its long tail are characteristic. In flight its long, pointed +wings, its dark rump, and its barred, whitish, outer tail feathers are +good field marks. Its manner of flight and its notes are distinctive. + +_Fall._--About the middle of July, or even earlier, old and young birds +begin to gather into flocks, move off their breeding grounds, and start +on their fall migrations. The migratory flights are made mainly during +the night or early evening. At this season the birds are much wilder, +the leisurely behavior of spring and summer has gone, their flight is +much swifter and stronger, and it is difficult to approach the loose, +detached flocks which stop to feed during the day on the hoards of +grasshoppers and locusts which are then to be found in the upland +pastures and dry meadows. During wet spells they do not stop, but in +hot, dry weather they linger to feast on the abundant insect life and +become very fat. We used to expect them in Massachusetts about the last +of July, but they were most abundant in August and early September. The +general movement is southward, through the interior and the Atlantic +Coast States and through the West Indies to South America. The earliest +birds reach Louisiana and Texas early in July and arrive in Peru and +Argentina in September. The last birds leave their breeding range +before the end of September. + +_Game._--The upland plover is, or was, a fine game bird. Over 40 years +ago, in my younger shooting days, these birds were still fairly common +in Massachusetts, but it was no easy job to make a fair day’s bag; it +meant tramping many miles over rolling, or hilly pasture lands, where +the wary birds rose at long range and flew swiftly away for a long +distance. One had to shoot quickly and accurately to kill his bird, and +perhaps chase one for several miles before getting even a long shot at +him. It was a real sporting proposition with the chances much in the +bird’s favor. The birds would not come to decoys, nor to the gunner’s +whistle and a dog was utterly useless except to retrieve birds. A +thorough knowledge of the ground and of the birds’ fly-ways sometimes +brought results, when we could hide behind some fence or stone wall and +wait for the birds to fly over. Even meager results were well worth +while, for we had plenty of good exercise and the birds made delicious +morsels for the table. + +A more common and more successful, though less sportsmanlike, method of +shooting them is thus described by Edwin Sandys (1904): + + A popular method in many parts of the West is to drive to + the birds in a buckboard, or other convenient rig. For a + man who can shoot well in the sitting posture this is an + excellent plant, as the birds almost invariably will permit + a wheeled conveyance to approach within comparatively easy + range. A clever driver is a valuable assistance. Such a + man never heads his team directly at the birds, but drives + as though he merely intended to pass them by. A good + judge of distance in the open can in this way edge within + comfortable range of plover which, if the driver steered + straight for them, or with the gun attempted to dismount + and stalk, would at once make off. I have varied the + shooting from the seat by walking at the horse’s shoulders. + The plover do not appear to notice the extra pair of legs. + This sometimes gives the prettiest kind of shooting. All + one has to do is to judge when sufficiently close, then + stand still with the gun at the ready, while the team moves + steadily ahead. Usually the plover will take wing the + moment the foot-man is uncovered; but should they not, the + man can gain a few yards by briskly walking toward them. + I have occasionally stalked them by keeping close to the + shoulder of a steady old horse that was indifferent in the + matters of smoke and loud reports. + +Edward H. Forbush (1912) writes: + + About 1880, when the supply of passenger pigeons began to + fail, and the marketmen, looking about for some other game + for the table of the epicure in spring and summer, called + for plover, the destruction of the upland plover began in + earnest. The price increased. In the spring migration the + birds were met by a horde of market gunners, shot, packed + in barrels and shipped to the cities. There are tales of + special refrigerator cars sent out to the prairie regions, + and parties of gunners regularly employed to follow the + birds and ship plover and curlews by the carload to the + Chicago market. These may not be based on facts, but we + know that the birds came to market in great quantities. + +_Winter._--The upland plover spends our winter months on the pampas of +Argentina and Patagonia, where unfortunately it is more sought for by +market hunters than it is here. Mr. Hudson (1920) writes: + + This species differs from its fellow-migrants of the same + family from the north to Argentina in its wide and even + distribution over all that portion of the pampas where + the native coarse grasses which once covered the country + have disappeared, an area comprising not less than 50,000 + square miles. It begins to arrive as early as September, + coming singly or in small parties of three or four; and, + extraordinary as the fact may seem when we consider the + long distance the bird travels, and the monotonous nature + of the level country it uses as a “feeding area,” it is + probable that every bird returns to the same spot year + after year; for in no other way could such a distribution + be maintained, and the birds appear every summer evenly + sprinkled over so immense a surface. + +Doctor Wetmore (1926) says: + + Formerly abundant, the upland plover is now rare in the + region where it spends the period of northern winter. Its + winter range on the open pampa is a region so vast that it + is difficult to form a proper estimate of the actual number + of individuals of the species that remain. Among epicures + the species has inherited in part the name and reputation + of the Eskimo curlew and is sought constantly by gunners to + supply that demand. The few that survive frequent remote + regions on some of the large estancias where they are + secure until they leave their seclusion and begin their + return flight northward. The majority of those that I noted + were identified by their liquid calls, heard, as is the + case in Washington, as they passed at night. + +He says again (1927): + + In the season of 1919–20 the upland plover was reported + to have increased somewhat in abundance at Rosas in the + Province of Buenos Aires, a circumstance due perhaps to + protection in the United States and Canada. It can hardly + be expected to regain anywhere near its former abundance, + however, with increasing encroachment on its winter and + summer ranges. Unfortunately, in Argentina it has replaced + the Eskimo curlew as a table delicacy, and is so eagerly + sought by gunners that its preservation in settled regions + is doubtful. Those that remain must seek the pastures of + remote estancias in order to survive. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and South America; accidental in Europe. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the upland plover extends +north to Alaska (Kobuk River and Gens de Large Mountains); southern +Mackenzie (probably Fort Smith); Saskatchewan (Prince Albert, Quill +Lake, and Crescent Lake); Manitoba (Shoal Lake and Winnipeg); Minnesota +(Clarissa, St. Cloud, Minneapolis, and Lake City); Wisconsin (Kingston +and Kelley Brook); Michigan (Lovells and Zion City); Ontario (probably +Plover Mills, Dunnville, and Kingston); northern New York (Canton and +Potsdam); southern Quebec (Hatley); and Maine (Farmington, Plymouth, +Orono, and Calais). East to Maine (Calais); Massachusetts (Salem, +Marthas Vineyard, and Nantucket); probably Connecticut (South Windsor); +New York (Montauk Point); New Jersey (Princeton, Lawrenceville, and +probably Tuckerton); Virginia (Wallops Island); and rarely South +Carolina (Oakland). South to rarely South Carolina (Oakland); southern +Indiana (Bicknell); Illinois (Olney and Odin); Missouri (Appleton and +probably Stotesbury); Oklahoma (Copan and Fort Reno); probably Texas +(Gainesville); Colorado (Barr and Denver); Utah (Kamas Prairies); and +Oregon (Fort Klamath). West to Oregon (Fort Klamath); northern Idaho +(Lapwai and Fort Sherman); British Columbia (Newgate and Osoyoos Lake); +probably Alberta (Edmonton and Athabaska Landing); and Alaska (Mount +McKinley and Kobuk River). + +_Winter range._--The main winter range of the species is confined +to the southern part of South America, north to northern Argentina +(Tucuman); and southern Brazil (Irisanga and probably Mattodentro). +East to southern Brazil (probably Mattodentro); Uruguay (Concepcion, +Sta. Elena, and Colonia); and eastern Argentina (Buenos Aires and +Rio Negro). South to Argentina (Rio Negro). West to Argentina (Rio +Negro, Mendoza, and Tucuman). A specimen was taken at San Angelo, +Tex., January 1, 1883, but this must be considered as an accidental +occurrence as the species at this season is usually found only in +southern South America. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: Ecuador, +Chaupicuz, March 30; Chiapas, Comitan, March 29; Florida, Indian Key, +March 17, St. Marks, March 23, Deer Park, March 24, and Leon County, +March 25; Alabama, Barachias, March 7, Coosada, March 22, and Sand +Mountain, March 29; Georgia, Macon, March 18, and Savannah, March 23; +South Carolina, Mount Pleasant, March 11, and Frogmore, March 24; North +Carolina, Raleigh, March 28; Virginia, Alexandria, March 22; District +of Columbia, Washington, March 21; Pennsylvania, Marietta, March 27, +Plymouth, April 10, and Erie, April 11; New Jersey, Haddonfield, +April 7, and Cape May, April 12; New York, Long Island, April 1, +Watertown, April 6, and Amagansett, April 11; Connecticut, Jewett +City, April 16, and Saybrook, April 22; Rhode Island, Newport, April +29; Massachusetts, Woods Hole, April 10, Salem, April 12, and Cape +Cod, April 12; Vermont, Woodstock, April 17, Bennington, April 22, and +Rutland, April 26; Maine, Pittsfield, April 14, Plymouth, April 25, +and Portland, April 30; Louisiana, New Orleans, March 9, Hester, March +16, and Lobdell, March 19; Mississippi, Biloxi, March 10, and Rodney, +March 27; Tennessee, Nashville, March 31; Kentucky, Guthrie, March 20; +Missouri, St. Louis, March 17, Appleton City, March 19, and Kahoka, +March 20; Illinois, Rockford, March 19, Lebanon, March 20, and Canton, +March 27; Indiana, Bicknell, March 13, Vigo County, March 19, and +Vincennes, April 1; Ohio, Oberlin, March 20, Berlin Center, March 23, +and Columbus, March 29; Michigan, Ann Arbor, March 15, Plymouth, April +8, and Livonia, April 12; Ontario, Forest, April 16, London, April 17 +and Preston, April 18; Iowa, Storm Lake, March 25, Wall Lake, March 30, +and Hillsboro, March 31; Wisconsin, Delavan, March 24, Milford, April +10, and Stoughton, April 11; Minnesota, Lanesboro, April 8, North Star, +April 9, and St. Cloud, April 16; Texas, Bonham, March 5, Mont Belvieu, +March 8, Dallas, March 10, and Corpus Christi, March 13; Oklahoma, +Copan, March 31; Kansas, Girard, March 16, Richmond, March 28, Topeka, +April 1, and Onaga, April 7; Nebraska, Falls City, April 6, Badger, +April 7 and Syracuse, April 9; South Dakota, Vermilion, April 9, Grand +View, April 14, and Rapid City, April 15; North Dakota, Argusville, +April 26, Larimore, April 26, and Marstonmoor, April 30; Manitoba, +Aweme, April 26, Reaburn, April 30, Winnipeg, May 2, and Two Rivers, +May 3; Saskatchewan, South qu’Appelle, April 16, Wiseton, April 25, and +Indian Head, May 2; Colorado, Denver, April 18, and Colorado Springs, +April 28; Wyoming, Lake Como, May 5; Montana, Billings, April 23, +Columbia Falls, April 27, and Terry, May 10; Alberta, Flagstaff, May 2, +Alliance, May 7, and Red Deer, May 11; and British Columbia, Osoyoos +Lake, May 25. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Argentina, Buenos Aires, April 3, +Tucuman, April 5, and Baradero, April 13; Bolivia, Piedra Blanca, April +23; Brazil, Tonantino, May 7; Guatemala, Duenas, April 12; Mexico, +Chiapas, Teopisca, May 7; Yucatan, Cancun Island, April 19; Vera Cruz, +Lake Catemaco, May 5; Florida, Garden Key, May 2, Loggerhead Key, +May 7, and Pensacola, May 9; Georgia, Savannah, April 28; Louisiana, +Lobdell, May 15, and New Orleans, May 19; Mississippi, Biloxi, May 16; +and Texas, Brownsville, April 15, Bonham, May 12, and Huntsville, May +18. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: New Mexico, +Glenrio, July 25; Texas, San Angelo, July 4, and Lipscomb, July 10; +Louisiana, New Orleans, July 5, and Abbeville, July 25; Alabama, +Montgomery, July 28, and Barachias, August 22; Florida, Pensacola, +August 9, and Arcadia, August 22; the Bahama Islands, Mariguana, August +5; the Lesser Antilles, Barbados, August 12, and Granada, August +24; Mexico, Jalisco, Chapata, August 27; Costa Rica, September 5; +Panama, Gatun, September 1; Colombia, Cienaga, September 12; Ecuador, +Carapungo, August 10, and Cerro Campania, September 24; Brazil, Matto +Grosso, September 26; Paraguay, Puerto Pinasco, September 29, and +Concepcion, October 3. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alberta, Red Deer River, September +22; Montana, Big Sandy, September 6; Wyoming, Little Medicine, August +15; Colorado, Fort Lyon, September 2; New Mexico, Glenrio, September +11; Manitoba, Treesbank, September 7, Margaret, September 18, and +Aweme, September 28; North Dakota, Marstonmoor, September 15, and +Westhope, September 24; South Dakota, Huron, September 2, Sioux +Falls, September 6, and Forestburg, September 30; Nebraska, Dewitt, +September 21, Badger, September 28, and Valentine, October 5; Kansas, +near Wichita, October 3, Topeka, October 13, and Onaga, October 15; +Texas, Grapevine, September 25, Gainesville, September 28, and Corpus +Christi, October 2; Minnesota, Lanesboro, August 22, and St. Vincent, +August 31; Iowa, Emmetsburg, October 14, Newton, October 22, and +Grinnell, November 2; Michigan, Livonia, September 18, and Detroit, +October 20; Ohio, Lakeside, October 13, Scio, October 17, and Waverly, +October 23; Illinois, La Grange, October 5, Belvidere, October 24, and +Rantoul, November 29; Missouri, Monteer, September 17, and Jasper City, +September 27; Kentucky, Lexington, October 11; Louisiana, New Orleans, +October 7; Maine, Pittsfield, September 22; Vermont, St. Johnsbury, +September 25; Massachusetts, Harvard, September 14, Taunton, September +19, and Woods Hole, September 29; Rhode Island, Block Island, September +6; Connecticut, Hartford, September 3, and Litchfield, September 6; +New York, Phelps, September 14, Montauk, September 17, Orient Point, +September 23, and Floral Park, October 20; New Jersey, Absalom Light, +September 15; Pennsylvania, Erie, September 22, Germantown, October 2, +and Bridesburg, October 18; Virginia, Alexandria, November 5; North +Carolina, Weaverville, November 10; South Carolina, Mt. Pleasant, +October 28; Georgia, Savannah, September 20; Alabama, Barachias, +October 26; Florida, Key West, October 3; Costa Rica, San Jose, +November 15; Nicaragua, Escondido River, November 26; Panama, Culebra, +October 22, and Davila, November 30 and Gatun, December 8; Guiana, +Cayenne, October 27; Peru, Cosnipata, October 3; and Brazil, Allianca, +November 9. + +_Casual records._--A specimen of the upland plover taken February +8, 1923 at Deception Island, South Shetlands, must be considered +accidental, as this is far south of its normal winter range (Bennett, +1926). The species has been reported as occasional in spring in +Newfoundland (Macoun) and one was obtained on Sable Island in 1868 +(Gilpin). There are several records for Quebec (Montreal and Godbout) +from May 7 to October. Two have been taken in Bermuda (September 20, +1874, and September 18, 1875). In Porto Rico one was obtained by Stahl +between 1878 and 1881 (Gundlach); F. A. Potts reports that he saw one +September 10, 1921 near Central Aguirre, collected one from a flock +of 15 on September 13, 1921, near Santa Isabel, and saw still another +August 26, 1926 near Fortuna. On the Pacific coast south of British +Columbia, it is known from a specimen taken August 8, 1896, at Tule +Lake, California, and one taken at Sulphur Springs, Arizona, August 18, +1874. + +There are six records for England, Warwick, October 31, 1851, +Cambridge, December 12, 1854, Bigswear, January 19, 1855, Falmouth +November 13, 1865, Boulmer, November 21, 1879 and the Parret River in +Somersetshire (date ?); one for Denmark Tim, November 3, 1920; one for +Malta, November 17, 1865; one for Holland (Meyer); one for Germany, +Hessen (Naumann); and one for Italy, Liguria, October, 1859. It also +was taken near Sydney, Australia, in 1865 (Gould). + +_Egg dates._--New England and New York: 10 records, April 28 to June +13. Pennsylvania and New Jersey: 15 records, May 6 to June 11; 8 +records, May 15 to 27. Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Dakotas, and Minnesota: +86 records, May 4 to July 1; 43 records, June 1 to 15. Ohio to Iowa and +Kansas: 22 records, April 30 to June 17; 11 records, May 14 to 20. + + + TRYNGITES SUBRUFICOLLIS (Vieillot) + + BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER + + HABITS + +My acquaintance with this species is limited to a few birds seen +migrating in company with golden plover on the burnt-over prairies +about Quill Lake, Saskatchewan. I have never seen it elsewhere. Like +the upland plover, it is a sandpiper which has associated much with +plover, frequents similar haunts, and has acquired some similar habits. + +_Spring._--W. H. Hudson (1922) gives a striking account of the spring +migration of this species in Argentina during its former abundance, +from which I quote, as follows: + + Now, one autumn, when most of the emigrants to the Arctic + breeding grounds had already gone, I witnessed a great + migration of this very species--this beautiful sandpiper + with the habits of a plover. The birds appeared in flocks + of about one to two or three hundred, flying low and very + swiftly due north, flock succeeding flock at intervals of + about 10 or 12 minutes; and this migration continued for + three days, or at all events three days from the first + day I saw them, at a spot about 2 miles from my home. I + was amazed at their numbers, and it was a puzzle to me + then, and has been one ever since, that a species thinly + distributed over the immense area of the Argentine pampas + and Patagonia could keep to that one line of travel over + that uniform green, sea-like country. For outside of that + line not one bird of the kind could anywhere be seen; + yet they kept so strictly to it that I sat each day for + hours on my horse watching them pass, each flock first + appearing as a faint buff-colored blur or cloud just above + the southern horizon, rapidly approaching then passing me, + about on a level with my horse’s head, to fade out of sight + in a couple of minutes in the north; soon to be succeeded + by another and yet other flocks in endless succession, each + appearing at the same point as the one before, following + the same line, as if a line invisible to all eyes except + their own had been traced across the green world for their + guidance. It gave one the idea that all the birds of this + species, thinly distributed over tens of thousands of + square miles of country, had formed the habit of assembling + previous to migration at one starting point, from which + they set out in successive flocks of a medium size in a + disciplined order on that marvelous journey to their Arctic + breeding grounds. + +Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1926) noted migrating birds at Guamini on March +3 to 8. Prof. W. W. Cooke (1912) says that “migrants appear in the +interior of Brazil and in Peru during March, but there are no spring +migration data for the whole distance between Peru and Texas.” There +is a heavy migration through Texas during April and then directly +northward through the western part of the Mississippi Valley and the +prairie Provinces of Canada to the Arctic tundra. The whole migration +route in the spring seems to be very narrow. Prof. William Rowan (1927) +writes: + + This is a remarkable sandpiper from many viewpoints. Like + the American golden plover and the Eskimo curlew it used + to exist in millions and was slaughtered in uncountable + numbers. To-day there are many widely traveled collectors + who have never in their lives met with it. After extensive + inquiries I can discover only one spot on the continent + besides our point on which migrating buff-breasted + sandpipers may be relied upon to turn up in any numbers. We + get it in hundreds every spring, and, roughly speaking, it + frequents only one field. Odd birds or moving flocks may be + noted elsewhere from time to time, but on the rough pasture + that forms the main body of the point this species arrives + with unfailing regularity within a day or two of the 18th + of May. Like the golden plover, it seems to migrate by + night, for at daybreak there may be hundreds in place of + the few or none at all of the previous evening. + +In his notes for 1924 he writes to me: + + Two birds were seen May 19 and subsequently collected. + On the 21st, five were seen shortly after sunrise with + black-bellied plover, the first time that I have seen this + association, but a large arrival took place during the day + and there were scores in the evening. On the 24th they + had reached numbers such as I have never before seen and + numerous photographs were taken. On the 26th they must have + been on the ground in many hundreds. The whole of their + area, over a mile long, was crawling with them. There is no + doubt that this year they outnumbered every other wader we + had on the place. Even so, they never formed large flocks, + and I think we never saw more than 60 get up and fly + together. They dropped very suddenly in numbers after this, + as though they had all cleared off together, but a few were + seen each day till the 30th, when a flock of 30 constituted + our last record. + +Pierce Brodkorb and Frank Grasett have recorded it in northeastern +Illinois as early as April 27. A. G. Lawrence’s dates for Whitewater +Lake, Manitoba, are from May 13 to 19. Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) noted +the first arrivals at St. Michael, Alaska, on May 31; and John Murdoch +(1885) says that it arrived at Point Barrow June 6 to 8. + +_Courtship._--Professor Rowan (1927) has given us the most elaborate +account of the nuptial display of the buff-breasted sandpiper, as +follows: + + As we have noted it annually, there are several distinct + stages to the display, but the males do not appear to be + concerned in the least with the females at any time. Nor + have I ever seen a female take the slightest notice of any + of the displays. Nelson comments on the fact that Murdoch + frequently saw solitary males displaying, yet he was + observing them on the actual breeding grounds. + + Probably the most frequent performance is the raising of + one wing only (either one), but this has various phases. + A, the wing is spread and held steadily for a few moments + with the primaries horizontal and is then closed again. B, + the wing is spread with the primaries nearly perpendicular + and waved round in an ellipse, the bird standing still. C, + the wing is spread while the bird runs round in circles. + D, the wing is held aloft while the owner runs after + another bird, always, so far as I have seen, another male, + which instantly raises one wing also and starts zigzagging + through the grass, the first bird giving chase. They may + thus cover many yards before one suddenly collapses his + wing and halts, the second immediately following suit. All + these single-wing performances seem to be carried out in + silence. + + Both wings together are used for another set of actions. + E, the wings are raised similarly to a bird alighting on + or arising from the ground, the body horizontal. In this + attitude one bird sometimes chases another. F is a double + version of B, both wings being raised high and waved + round and round. G, both wings are spread, undersurfaces + forward, primaries horizontal, after the manner of the + American eagle, the body being almost perpendicular. + This may be accomplished by a rapid _tick tick tick_ + many times repeated. Two birds may do it simultaneously + standing opposite to each other with the tips of the wings + practically touching. H is the most characteristic of all + and the most amusing to watch. Both wings are raised with + the undersurfaces facing to the front as in G, but with the + primaries perpendicular, tips practically touching each + other over the bird’s head. The body is held absolutely + vertical and the legs stretched to capacity (I am not + sure that the birds do not stand partially on tiptoe), + tail cocked out horizontally behind, while the individual + “_ticks_” at top speed for about a second. Each “_tick_” is + accompanied with a rapid jerk of the whole body. The bird + then relaxes momentarily, turns through an angle of 40 to + 50 degrees, repeats the performance to a fresh audience + (if there is one, for I have seen isolated birds doing + this), relaxes to switch round again, and so on perhaps + half a dozen times. This may also be done simultaneously + by two birds, face to face, and standing so close that the + wing tips appear to touch over their heads. It may then be + repeated without any change of direction in the intervals. + But it always seems to be done in spasms. Display is + evidently infectious, particularly in fine weather, for + no sooner does one start than a dozen may be at it in a + moment. But it is curious to see a bird suddenly stop in + its hunt for food in order to go through one of these acts + and then proceed as though it never had anything else + in mind, particularly if it is by itself. It seems so + irrational. Occasional bickering occurs, but we have never + seen serious fights or even suggestion of anything serious. + +Murdoch (1885) has also observed that-- + + Two will occasionally meet and spar like fighting cocks for + a few minutes and then rise together like towering birds, + with legs hanging loose, for about 30 feet, then drifting + off to leeward. A single bird will sometimes stretch + himself up to his full height, spread his wings forward, + and puff out his throat, making a sort of clucking noise, + while one or two others stand by and apparently admire him. + +_Nesting._--Roderick MacFarlane found the buff-breasted sandpiper +breeding commonly on the barren grounds east of Horton River and on the +Arctic coast. I find the records of some 25 nests in his notes, but the +data given are very meager. One nest was “near a small river, made of a +few dead leaves”; another was “a depression in the ground, lined with +a few withered grasses and leaves, on the slope of a gentle eminence”; +a third, he said, was “precisely similar to that of the golden plover. +The female made a short, low flight to a distance of about 12 yards, +when the nest was approached within 9 or 10 feet.” + +Murdoch (1885), at Point Barrow, “collected the eggs in considerable +abundance”; he says that “they were never seen on the lower marshy +portions of the tundra, but always confined themselves to the high and +dry banks, or what we call the black tundra.” The eggs were deposited +“in a shallow depression in the ground lined with a little moss,” where +they harmonized very well with the black and white of the ground and +moss. + +_Eggs._--The buff-breasted sandpiper lays four eggs; one set of five +is recorded. The shapes vary from ovate pyriform to pyriform, usually +decidedly pointed. The prevailing ground colors are very light, from +“cartridge buff” to dull white; in some darker colored eggs they +are “olive-buff,” “chamois,” or “cream buff.” They are heavily and +boldly marked, chiefly at the large end, where the markings are often +confluent, with longitudinal and somewhat spiral blotches and with +small spots and blotches scattered over the whole egg. An occasional +egg is only sparingly marked with small spots. The markings are in +dark browns, “bister,” “sepia,” “liver brown” and “livid brown,” +sometimes “Saccardo’s umber” or “chestnut brown.” There are usually +underlying blotches and spots in various shades of “brownish drab” or +“drab-gray.” The measurements of 62 eggs in the United States National +Museum average 37 by 26 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes +measures =40= by 27, 37.5 by =27.5=, =34.5= by 25.5, and 35.5 by =25= +millimeters. + +_Plumages._--I have never seen a downy young buff-breasted sandpiper +and I doubt if any one else has. Young birds are in juvenal plumage +when they migrate southward. They are like the adults, except as +follows: The feathers of the mantle are sepia with an olive tinge, +“dark grayish olive,” narrowly edged with cream white, giving a scaled +appearance, whereas in the adult these feathers are brownish black or +black, with very broad edgings of “cinnamon-buff” or “pinkish buff”; +the feathers of the lower back, rump and upper tail coverts are from +“hair brown” to “fuscous,” tipped with “cinnamon,” whereas in the adult +these are brownish black, broadly edged with “cinnamon-buff”; the +inner webs of the primaries, on the under side, are much more finely +and closely sprinkled with black than in the adult, which has larger, +more widely scattered and hence more conspicuous black spots. This last +character probably persists through the first year. The postjuvenal +molt and the first prenuptial molt are accomplished in South America. I +have seen no specimens illustrating these. + +Adults have a complete molt, apparently late in the fall or in the +winter, the wings being molted last. Doctor Wetmore (1926) shot a male +on September 21 that was still in worn breeding plumage. Birds molting +primaries have been taken in February and March. Summer and winter +plumages are very similar and the sexes are alike, except that the +female is much smaller than the male. + +_Food._--Professor Rowan (1927) says: + + I am indebted to the Biological Survey at Washington for + kindly analyzing the contents of 17 stomachs, spring + taken. Roughly, 40 per cent consisted of Coleoptera, + adults and larvae, and 50 per cent of Diptera, chiefly + larvae and pupae. Seeds of _Polygonum_, _Potamogeton_, and + _Eleocharis_ were present to the extent of 1 per cent. + The rest consisted of spider and insect remains. I shall + be glad to send a detailed list to anyone who may be + interested. + +_Behavior._--The same observer writes: + + The buff-breasted sandpiper, like Bartram’s, is a plover in + its ways and habits rather than a sandpiper. Even in its + coloration it differs radically from the common sandpipers. + It is extraordinarily tame and confiding at times. When + the mood seizes it, one could without difficulty wipe out + every bird of a flock, provided one killed or wounded one + with the first shot. The remainder will return again and + again to a wounded bird. The noise of the gun seems to have + little more than momentary effect. + + Owing to the muddy tone of their plumage, these birds are + exceptionally difficult to see on the type of ground that + they so habitually frequent. One can easily walk into a + flock without knowing it till the birds get up almost + under foot. This is made the easier by their habit of + “freezing.” They stand immobile on being approached, not + necessarily crouching, generally the very reverse, but + without movement they readily enough escape observation. If + they start moving as one gets nearer, it is always on the + run. They then carry their necks “craned,” scatter widely, + and zig-zag hither and thither rather after the manner of + partridges, of which they frequently remind one. + + A flock will seldom rise in unison, but the nearer birds + will merely fly over and settle on the remote side of + the further ones. Even when the buff-breasts are amongst + sandpipers, such as Baird’s, Semi-palmateds, etc., five + times out of ten they will remain on the spot if the others + are scared up. A really large flock is rare. We estimated + the number of buff-breasts on a few acres of grass one + morning at about 2,000, and we spent several hours in + trying to photograph them. They were scattered in clumps + in all directions. Although we walked through them from + one end to the other more than once, thus tending to herd + them, the largest number we were able to put up together + was about 150. This constitutes the largest flock we have + ever seen. The typical loose association is evident in the + photograph. The birds merely flew round and settled again + in the vicinity. + + On windy days these, like other waders, become exceedingly + restless and impossible to approach. They then perform the + most remarkable gyrations, always but a few feet above the + ground, and seldom rising and falling vertically, as do + so many others. They attain great speed and keep in close + formation, moving in absolute unison. As such a flock + turns in the sunlight there can be no possible error as + to identity, for the whole mass looks yellowish. A single + bird, in favorable light, may also give one the impression + of being yellow. + +George H. Mackay (1892_a_) says of their habits in Massachusetts: + + Of the few which I have seen I have remarked their extreme + gentleness and desire to be in company with other birds. + On one occasion I had one alight among my plover decoys + on the upland (which they seem very fond of frequenting), + and, not wishing to shoot it, I allowed it to remain for + quite a while so I could watch it. During this time it + moved about with unconcern, apparently not being aware that + its supposed companions were of wood. It seemed so gentle + that I determined to see how near it would permit me to + approach, and it was not over 5 or 6 feet from me when + it flew away, but only for a short time, however, for it + returned and alighted in the course of 10 or 15 minutes. + Having no desire to shoot it, I allowed it to remain until + it departed not to return. All the birds that I have seen + come immediately to the decoys on perceiving them, and + alight without hesitation or fear. Their flight is rapid, + with many turns and zigzag movements, and near the ground, + constantly turning up so as to show their entire under + parts. + +Much of the behavior of the buff-breasted sandpiper, while on the +ground, reminds one of the upland plover; it seems to prefer the grassy +places rather than the open flats or shores, and often runs away to +hide in the grass rather than fly; in running it lifts its feet rather +high, as if accustomed to walking through grass; and it often stops and +stands with its neck stretched up looking at the intruder, just as the +upland plover does. + +_Voice._--It is not a noisy bird, and seems to have a limited +vocabulary. Professor Rowan (1926) says: + + The spring note of the buff-breast, on the other hand, is + the most unusual and diagnostic wader note that I know. The + only thing it reminds me of is the song of the short-billed + marsh wren (_Cistothorus stellaris_), which produces a very + excellent imitation of two stones being chipped together. + The note of the buff-breast has the same quality about + it; but, instead of being loud and clear, it is quiet and + very short, and might be described as _tik_. This species, + however, is rather silent. I call this the spring note, + but perhaps it should more correctly be termed the adult + note, for we have not a single good record of an adult + in the autumn, wherefore I am only familiar with young + at this season. Like some other waders (e. g. willet), + birds of the year have a very different call or calls from + spring adults. In the case of the buff-breast the note of + the young is so like the pectoral’s--Harold considers it + shorter and less harsh--that, although distinguishable in + the field, it can hardly be described adequately by itself. + +Doctor Wetmore (1926) writes: “As they rise they may give a low call +that resembles _chwup_, somewhat robinlike in tone; a second call note +is a low trilled _pr-r-r-reet_. The species is to be confused in the +field with no other shore bird.” + +_Field marks._--Professor Rowan (1927) says, on this point: + + The absence of white margins and black center to the rump, + and hence the lack of contrast in this region, I have + found to be the most useful diagnostic character in the + field. The wing patch is also valuable. The extraordinarily + rounded head seen in silhouette against the sun or in bad + light at reasonable range has more than once proved useful. + The note is always diagnostic. + +Doctor Wetmore (1926) writes: + + When in the air or on the ground they are distinctly buff + in color, with a glimpse of the marbled underwing surface + as they rise or pass, and a flash of the gray tail with its + darker markings as they alight. On the ground in profile, + they show a long neck and long legs, while the short bill + is suggestive of that of a pigeon. The neck is drawn in + during flight. + +E. A. Doolittle (1923) observed that-- + + The greenish legs, finely streaked crown, buffy breast + and sides of head, lack of streak through eyes, and long + pointed wings reaching beyond tail were all good field + marks while the bird was at rest; while lack of wing bars + and rounded tail were striking when the bird took flight. + +_Fall._--The fall migration is much more widely extended than the +spring; the main flight is directly southward through the center of +North America, but it is so spread out that some birds appear on both +the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Professor Cooke (1912) says: “The main +body of migrants follows the Barren Grounds to the shores of Hudson +Bay, thence almost due south across the Mississippi Valley to the coast +of Texas, and through Central America to northwestern South America, +and diagonally across the interior of South America to Argentina.” A +limited flight swings eastward, south of Hudson Bay, or perhaps across +it, to the eastern Provinces of Canada and New England. The species is +so rare on the Atlantic coast south of Long Island as to indicate the +probability of an oversea flight to the West Indies and South America. +On the Pacific coast it seems to be very rare, though perhaps it has +been overlooked, south of Washington, where it is probably of regular +occurrence. D. E. Brown has sent me several records for Washington, +the dates ranging from September 3 to 20. Major Allan Brooks (1924) +says that he has noted it every year that he has been on the British +Columbia coast. + +In the interior the adults come along during the last three weeks in +August, and the young birds all through September. In New England the +dates are about the same. Here they were occasionally seen in small +flocks, but now they are so rare that single birds are more often seen +in company with upland or golden plover on the rolling uplands, or with +other sandpipers on the meadows. + +_Winter._--It evidently spends the winter south of Argentina, for +Doctor Wetmore (1926) saw the first one on September 21 in Paraguay and +the last one on November 13 near Buenos Aires; he did not see it again +until the return flight in March. Mr. Hudson (1920) says: + + It begins to arrive, usually in small bodies, early in the + month of October; and during the summer is seldom met with + in flocks of any size on the pampas, but is usually seen on + the dry, open ground associating in small numbers with the + golden plover, the whimbrel, and other northern species. I, + however, think it probable that it travels farther south + than its fellow-migrants from North America, and has its + principal feeding-grounds somewhere in the interior of + Patagonia; also that its northern journey takes place later + than that of other species. + +Doctor Wetmore (1927) says: + + The species frequented open flats or muddy shores near + lakes or channels, where it was subject to considerable + hunting, as several of those seen had been crippled by + shooting. From observations at Guamini, it appeared that + the species has some resting station in northern Patagonia, + perhaps near the mouths of the Rio Colorado and the Rio + Negro, or some of the large alkaline lakes of that region. + The small numbers remaining are preserved in some such + place, but apparently the species is near extinction. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and South America. + +_Breeding range._--The buff-breasted sandpiper is known to breed +only on the Arctic coast of northwestern North America from Alaska +(Cape Smythe, Point Barrow, and probably Cape Halkett); east to Yukon +(Herschell Island); and Mackenzie (Fort Anderson and Bernard Harbor). +It has been detected in summer and may breed at Nulato and Fort Egbert, +Alaska, and at Winter Harbor, Franklin (Hennessey), while it also has +been noted at this season in eastern Siberia (Cape Wankarem and the +south coast of the Okhotsk Sea). + +_Winter range._--The winter range appears to be restricted to southern +South America. They have been noted at this season in Uruguay +(Montevideo); and Argentina (Cordoba, Missiones, Rio Parana, Buenos +Aires, and Lavalle). + +_Spring migration._--The spring migration of the buff-breasted +sandpiper is imperfectly known, and only a few records are available. +It has been detected at Guamini, Argentina, on March 8, at Paramba, +Ecuador, on April 22, and at Gatun, Panama, on March 29. On the +Atlantic coast of the United States it is practically unknown at this +season, old records at Frogmore, South Carolina (May 5), and Kendall +(April 20), and Howard (May 8), New York, constituting the meager data +at hand. + +The main flight is seemingly up the Mississippi Valley, but even +in that region, the record is incomplete. The data available are: +Louisiana, Bird Islands, May 18; Kentucky, Bowling Green, April 27; +Missouri, April 15, and May 20; Illinois, Chicago, April 27; Ohio, +Columbus, May 6, 1923 (only record); Iowa, Norway, April; Minnesota, +Madison, May 16, and Wilder, May 21; Texas, Corpus Christi, March 17, +and Gainesville, April 23; South Dakota, Sioux Falls, May 12, and Fort +Sisseton, May 22; North Dakota, Jamestown, May 6, and Harrisburg, May +7; Mackenzie, Fort Chipewyan, May 24, and Fort Simpson, May 29; and +Alaska, Demarcation Point, May 26. + +_Fall migration._--The fall record is more complete and dates of +arrival and departure can be given with greater consistency. Early +dates of arrival are: British Columbia, Chilliwack, July 23; Keewatin, +Cape Eskimo, August 10; Manitoba, Shoal Lake, August 9; North Dakota, +Grafton, August 14; South Dakota, Harding County, August 15; Nebraska, +Neligh, August 12, and Waverly, August 14; Texas, Tivoli, August +3; Gainesville, August 4, and Brownsville, August 4; Minnesota, +Minneapolis, August 1; Iowa, Charles City, August 1, and Sioux City, +August 2; Indiana, Millers, August 30; Ohio, Lake County, August 19; +Illinois, Chicago, August 16; Louisiana, Abbeville, August 4; Quebec, +Godbout, August 7, and Henley Harbor, August 20; Maine, Scarboro, +August 1, and Damariscane Island, August 26; New Hampshire, Rye Beach, +August 25; Massachusetts, Ipswich, August 7, Cape Cod, August 16, and +Nantucket, August 26; Rhode Island, Little Compton, July 22; New York, +Canandaigua, July 24, Shelter Island, August 22, Syracuse, August +24, Rockaway, August 25, and Montauk Point, August 26; New Jersey, +Toms River, September 8; Virginia, Wallops Island, September 5; North +Carolina, Currituck, September 12; Florida, Lake Jackson, September +12; Costa Rica, San Jose, September 7; Colombia, Cienaga, August 12; +Peru, Pebas, August 3, and Yquitos, September 2; and Paraguay, Puerto +Pinasco, September 21. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Washington, Westport, September 3, +and Tacoma, September 20; California, Morro, September 14, 1923 (only +record for the State); Montana, Yellowstone County, September 1; +Colorado, Barr, August 25 and September 4 (only records); Manitoba, +Lake Winnipeg, September 5, and Oak Lake, September 9; North Dakota, +Jamestown, September 30; Nebraska, Lincoln, October 25; Kansas, Salina, +October 10; Texas, Brownsville, October 7, and Corpus Christi, October +10; Wisconsin, Pittston, September 7, and Rock Prairie, September 10; +Michigan, Kalamazoo County, September 17; Ohio, Columbus, September +9, Indiana, Lafayette, September 10; Illinois, Chicago, September 28, +and Beach, October 2; Missouri, Independence, September 15; Kentucky, +Bowling Green, September 7; Quebec, Magdalen Islands, September 13, +and Port Burwell, September 28; Maine, Cape Elizabeth, September 13; +Massachusetts, Nantucket, September 8, Plum Island, September 15, +Monomoy Island, September 19, and Cape Cod, September 24; Rhode Island, +Middletown, September 10, Newport, September 15, and Compton, September +23; Connecticut, New Haven, September 30; New York, Orient Point, +September 8, Rockaway, September 13, and Mastic, October 6; Lesser +Antilles, Barbados, October 6; Costa Rica, San Jose, October 8; and +Panama, Gatun, October 18. + +_Casual records._--The buff-breasted sandpiper has been recorded as +taken once at Cardenas, Cuba (Gundlach). There are fifteen or sixteen +records for the British Isles, all being for the period from July to +September, except one, taken in May, 1829, at Formby, Lancashire. It +also has been recorded from Abbeville, Picardy, France (Dalgleish); and +from the Province of Owari, Japan (Stejneger). A record of this species +from Heligoland, May 9, 1847, is considered by Seebohn as possibly _T. +subminuta_. + +_Egg Dates_.--Arctic coasts of Canada and Alaska: 37 records, June 1 to +July 18; 19 records, June 28 to July 3. + + + ACTITIS MACULARIA (Linnaeus) + + SPOTTED SANDPIPER + + + HABITS + + _Contributed by Winsor Marrett Tyler_ + +The spotted sandpiper is one of the successful species of birds. + +The old writers, speaking of a time when the surface of the country +was very different from at present, are in accord as to the abundance +of this bird in North America. Wilson (1832) refers to it as “very +common”; Nuttall (1834) says it is “one of the most familiar and common +of all the New England marsh birds”; and Audubon (1840) reports it +“quite abundant along the margins of the Mississippi, the Ohio, and +their tributaries,” and “on the island of Jestico, in the Gulf of St. +Lawrence, about 20 pairs had nests and eggs, * * * and the air was +filled with the pleasant sound of their voices.” + +At the present time we find the bird apparently little diminished in +numbers. In the numerous local lists published from every part of the +country the spotted sandpiper almost always has a place. Notations such +as “seen daily throughout the summer” or “common along the streams” +indicate the wide distribution and abundance of the species. Indeed it +is the best known of our sandpipers, not only because of its extensive +breeding range, extending from coast to coast and northward into Alaska +and Labrador, but by reason of its individual and peculiar habit of +flight and its characteristic notes. + +Almost every inhabitant of the United States, sometime during the year, +may meet this graceful little wader stepping delicately along the +margin of some sandy pond, the shore of the sea, or skimming from perch +to perch on the rocks bordering a mountain stream. + +Poised well above the ground on its slim greenish-yellow legs it walks +slowly and carefully along the shore, picking up a bit of food now +on this side, now on that. It goes forward with a switching motion, +head reached well forward and a little lowered. Except when creeping +up within reach of an insect or when its attention is riveted on the +snapping up of a bit of food the tail is almost continuously in motion +up and down. At the least alarm the motion is increased to a wider arc +until the posterior half of the bird’s body is rapidly teetering. A +little increase in alarm and the bird is off on vibrating wings held +stiffly and cupped with the tips depressed, sailing along the shore +away from danger. As the bird takes wing it gives, almost without +exception, its whistled call, _peet-weet-weet_, a call so associated +with the bird that Nuttall long ago give it the name _peet-weet_. + +_Spring._--The spotted sandpiper moves northward earlier than the +other sandpipers. It enters the transitional zone in late April and +early May, its time of arrival coinciding very closely with the +chewink, another ground feeder. It returns to its breeding ground +inconspicuously, never passing by in the large flocks characteristic of +many sandpipers, but appears on the first day of its arrival running +about on the shore of its chosen bit of water, apparently settled for +the season. In this habit of not gathering into flocks it resembles its +relative the solitary sandpiper. + +Wright and Harper (1913) speak of a few birds, left behind after most +of the species had spread over the country to the north, tarrying in +the Okefinokee Swamp till late in the spring: + + The spotted sandpiper was a distinct surprise as a summer + resident of the swamp. Not only is this several hundred + miles south of its known breeding range, but one would not + expect it to find a suitable haunt in the Okefinokee. The + lakes and rivers are practically shoreless; they are simply + open spaces in the otherwise continuous cypress swamps. + However, the logs and driftwood near the edges of Billys + Lake serve as teetering stands; half a dozen were seen here + on May 11, one on June 5, and still another a few days + later. The species probably does not breed in this latitude. + +_Courtship._--The courtship of the spotted sandpiper has not been +observed very minutely. Some of the few published reports on the +subject show a discrepancy in details, and one, giving an instance of +display by a bird proved by dissection to be a female, casts doubts +on all records of courtship based on sight identification and raises +the question as to the respective rôles played by the sexes in the +home-life of the species. + +Bradford Torrey (1885), assuming the bird to be a male, speaks of + + A spotted sandpiper, whose capers I amused myself with + watching, one day last June, on the shore of Saco Lake. + As I caught sight of him, he was straightening himself + up, with a pretty, self-conscious air, at the same time + spreading his white-edged tail, and calling, _tweet, + tweet, tweet_. Afterwards he got upon a log, where, with + head erect and wings thrown forward and downward, he ran + for a yard or two, calling as before. This trick seemed + especially to please him, and was several times repeated. + He ran rapidly, and with a comical prancing movement; but + nothing he did was half as laughable as the behavior of his + mate, who all this while dressed her feathers without once + deigning to look at her spouse’s performance. + +Whittle (1922) describes a similar action of a bird observed in Montana +on May 29: + + One of the birds, judged to be a male, was seen standing + on a long, inclined timber, while another, presumed to be + a female, fed close by along the shore. The male first + walked the length of the timber and then flew to another + one, where he depressed and spread his tail, and, without + teetering, stalked slowly along its entire length, with + head bent low. + +Lewis O. Shelley (1925) reports from New Hampshire a courtship display +which differs from the two previous ones. Here again the respective +sexes are assumed: + + A female sandpiper came running along the brook, + occasionally stopping to pick up an insect and teeter, + then run on again. Behind her were two males, the first + strutting along, looking much like a goose, craning his + neck up, swelling out his throat, drooping his wings, and + spreading his tail; the second kept well to the rear, and + did no strutting. + + Every time the female stopped for a second, or slowed, the + male would dart past her and stop, throw his head higher, + and make a _fump, fump, fump_, in his throat. If that + failed to attract her attention, he would again pass her + and alternately spread wings and tail. This performance + went on all the afternoon, until almost dusk. + +This observation describes a courtship in which the behavior of the +aggressive bird corresponds closely, especially in the movements of the +head, with the action of the bird noted in the next quotation--a bird +proved by dissection to be a female. + +A. J. Van Rossem (1925) gives the following extract from Dr. Loye +Miller’s notebook: + + Altitude, 9,000 feet; Mammoth Lakes, Inyo County, Calif.; + July 4, 1923: [spotted] sandpipers are just beginning to + pair, and several seen in courting flights. One especially + active bird was shot and proved to be a female. She came to + an imitation of the call--soared over a fallen log before + alighting on it. She then ruffed out the feathers and + strutted like a turkey cock, with head thrown back. The ova + were the size of buckshot. + +_Nesting._--The breeding range of the spotted sandpiper, extending over +a vast area of diversified land, ranging in altitude from sea-level to +14,000 feet, and including both arid and well-watered country, makes +necessary in the bird a wide degree of adaptability in the choice of +its nesting site. Few birds show a greater variation in this respect +and among the places which the bird selects to lay its eggs there is +but one point in common--the proximity of water. + +The following quotations bring out the extreme variety of nesting +sites: Mearns (1890) writing of the bird in Arizona says: “These birds +were apparently breeding at a small lake, in a crater-like depression +at the summit of a volcanic peak arising near the western base of the +San Francisco cone, the lake being at an altitude of from 10,000 to +10,500 feet.” Shick (1890) reports the bird in New Jersey as breeding +“in the higher parts of the island, generally on a sandy knoll in the +high, rank sedge grass,” and Audubon (1840), speaks of the nests “in +Labrador, where, in every instance, they were concealed under ledges of +rocks extending for several feet over them, so I probably should not +have observed them, had not the birds flown off as I was passing.” He +also speaks, quoting Nuttall, of “their eggs laid in a strawberry bed.” +Dwight (1893) records a nest “found in an odd situation at Tignish +[Prince Edward Island]. It was under a decayed log in a boggy slope, +and was carefully lined with bits of rotten wood.” + +In the use of material to construct or line its nest the bird shows +nearly as much variation as in the choice of the nesting site and it +may be stated roughly that the more northerly the latitude of the +breeding ground, the bulkier is the nest. Audubon (1840) says, speaking +of the nests found in Labrador: + + They were more bulky and more neatly constructed than any + that I have examined southward of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. + * * * These nests [those in Labrador] were made of dry + moss, raised to the height of from 6 to 9 inches, and well + finished within with slender grasses and feathers of the + eider duck. + +Brewster (1925) speaks of the bird as: + + Especially given to breeding on small islands in Lake + Umbagog [Maine], scarce one of which is left untenanted + by them at the right season or resorted to by more than + a single pair. Their eggs, almost invariably four in + number, are usually laid during the last week of May, in + saucer-shaped hollows scraped in surface soil, and thinly + lined with dry grass. * * * If the island be treeless + and ledgy, the nest is likely to be on or near the most + elevated or central part, and more or less well concealed + by grass or other lowly vegetation. But if all the ground, + not subject to inundation, be densely wooded, the spot + where the bird has hidden her treasures is seldom far back + from the shore, and perhaps scarce above highwater mark, + usually where driftwood has accumulated, or beneath the + leafy branch of some outstanding alder or Cassandra bush. + In such places as these, it is by no means easy to find + the nest, even when the total area to be searched is only + a few rods square. The task may well seem hopeless if + undertaken in the open farming country about the southern + end of the Lake, for, although spotted sandpipers breed + here not uncommonly, they are so widely and sparsely + distributed over hilly pastures and fields of considerable + extent, that it is only by the merest chance that anybody + ever stumbles on a nest. The only one that I have happened + upon was well hidden in a tangle of withered grass and + ferns, covering a steeply sloping bank by the roadside. + +In incubation as well as in courtship the male has been shown to +assume duties which are usually ascribed to the female. The following +quotation illustrates this fact. Van Rossem (1925) says: + + On July 11, in a boggy meadow near the water’s edge, we + found a nest of four eggs which seemed nearly fresh. We + often had occasion to pass this nest, but there was never + more than one bird present. On July 25 the eggs had hatched + and after a short search we found the downy young in the + short grass. They were collected with the parent, which + proved to be the male. The sides of his breast and belly + were worn quite bare of feathers, showing that he had done + most of if not all of the incubating. The succeeding days, + we frequently passed the old nesting place, but never saw + any other sandpiper in the vicinity. On July 26 Alden + Miller and the writer were on the headwaters of the San + Joaquin River, in Madera County [California], and while + there found a nest on a grass-grown gravel bar in the + river. It contained young which were just emerging from + the shells. These were collected with the parent which, as + in the first case, was a male. We were at this nest and in + the immediate vicinity nearly an hour, but no other adult + appeared. + +Although as a rule the spotted sandpiper does not build near the nest +of other birds of the same species, in exceptional cases many pairs +nest in close proximity to each other. + +L. McI. Terrill (1911), illustrating this gregarious habit, says: + + A few years ago a large colony were nesting on Isle Ronde + (a small island of a few acres, opposite the city of + Montreal). Visiting this island on May 26, 1896, I located + without difficulty 13 occupied nests. Again, on May 31, + 1898, I examined upward of 25. On each occasion only a + small portion of the island was examined, and I estimated + that there were well over 100 pairs breeding. + +Mousley (1916) points out that-- + + It may not be generally known that these birds if flushed + whilst constructing their nest invariably desert it, at + least this has been my experience on four occasions, when I + have flushed both birds whilst in the act of scooping out + or lining the hole. In one instance, however, they made a + fresh nest within 45 feet of the old one. + +_Eggs._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: The spotted sandpiper lays almost invariably +4 eggs, very rarely 5, and rarely only 3. These are ovate in shape, +less pyriform than the eggs of most waders, and they have only a +very slight gloss. The prevailing ground color is “cartridge buff,” +with some variations to “pinkish buff,” or “pale olive buff.” They +are irregularly spotted or blotched, usually both; sometimes they +are finely and evenly sprinkled with small spots; and very rarely +the markings are concentrated at the larger end. The markings are +mostly in very dark browns, “seal brown,” “clove brown,” and “blackish +brown,” and rarely as light as “Mars brown” or “russet.” The underlying +markings are generally lacking or inconspicuous, but some handsome eggs +are blotched with “lavender gray,” “pallid purple drab,” or “brownish +drab.” The measurements of 88 eggs, in the United States National +Museum, average 32 by 23 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =34= by =25=, =29= by 23, and 33 by =20= millimeters.] + +_Young._--The young spotted sandpiper furnishes an instance of an +ancestral habit springing into action almost at the moment of hatching. +When no larger than the egg from which they have just stepped they run +over the sand teetering their tail in the manner of their parents. +My notes mention a little bird, no more than a tiny ball of fluff, +which stood on my hand waving up and down the feathery plumes of its +infinitesimal tail. + +Wilson (1832) says: “The young, as soon as they are freed from the +shell, run about constantly wagging the tail,” and Nuttall (1834) +speaks of “the habit of balancing or wagging the tail, in which even +the young join as soon as they are fledged.” + +Another example of the precociousness of the fledgling sandpiper is its +ability to swim while still in the down. G. M. Sutton (1925) speaks of +the habit thus: + + Upon several occasions within the writer’s experience downy + young of the spotted sandpiper, when closely pursued, have + taken to the water, where they swam lightly although not + very rapidly in making an escape. + +Dr. C. W. Townsend (1920) cites a case in which a young bird, evidently +in juvenal plumage, swam under water: + + In Labrador I caught a nearly full-grown young still unable + to fly and put it in a small river. It at once dove and + swam under water for a distance of 3 or 4 feet, using for + propulsion its wings and probably its feet, although I + could not be sure of the latter point. It then rose to the + surface and swam to the opposite side like a little duck + and walked out on the sand, where the mother was anxiously + calling. + +Aretas A. Saunders also mentions in his notes a case of diving: + + Young birds when away from the parent and threatened with + danger often take to water and dive and swim under water, + using the wings to help swim. At such times the down is + covered with air bubbles, which helps keep them dry and + gives them a silvery appearance. Once I pursued a young + bird I wished to band, and it did this so many times that + it became wet in spite of the air bubbles, and in fact was + quite chilled through for a time. + +More commonly the method of escaping danger adopted by the young +sandpipers is to lie motionless on the beach, where a pebbly shore +affords an ideal background for concealment. William Palmer (1909) +brings out the success of this ruse thus: + + While walking along a beach one summer a spotted sandpiper + (_Actitis macularia_) and a single young were noticed some + distance ahead. As I approached the place the old bird, + with the startled manner characteristic of its kind at such + a time, kept well ahead, but I could not find the other. + Going back some distance, I waited and soon saw it again + with its parent. I repeated my quest, and again failed to + find the youngster. Going back once more and again seeing + it rejoin the old bird, I slowly moved forward, keeping my + eyes this time very intently on it, and soon picked it up + from the sand, an unwilling captive. + +A. A. Saunders gives in his notes a picture of the parental care of the +young. The young birds are-- + + able to run and follow the parent when about half an hour + from the egg (two instances). The parent leads them away + and watches over them for a few days after hatching, after + which they gradually stray away from her (?) care. At + Flathead Lake [Montana] one bird hatched her young and + led them down the beach, and I followed to see what would + happen. When I got too near the mother (?) called _Peet! + peet! peet!_ in a loud, sharp call. The young immediately + flattened themselves down among the pebbles so effectually + I could only find one. I sat down on a log, and after + waiting some 20 minutes the parent quieted down--flew to + the opposite side of her young from me, turned and faced + them, and began to call _tootawee, tootawee, tootawee_ + over and over. The young immediately responded and began a + hurried run for the mother (?), calling baby _peeps_ and + tumbling over the pebbles in their eagerness. The parent + half spread its wings as they arrived and they took shelter + beneath, just as chickens do under a hen. + +The period of incubation is 15 days. + +_Plumages._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: The young spotted sandpiper in the natal +down is quite uniformly grizzled or mottled on the upper parts, from +crown to rump, with “buffy brown,” “wood brown,” grayish buff, and +black. The forehead is grayish buff, and the entire under parts are +white; a narrow black stripe extends from the bill through the eye +to the nape; a black patch in the center of the crown extends as an +indistinct median stripe down the nape and broadens to a black band +along the back to the rump. + +The juvenal plumage comes in first on the mantle and wings, then on +the flanks, breast, and crown, and lastly on the neck, rump, and tail. +The upper parts are “light brownish olive,” more grayish on the sides +of the neck and chest; the scapulars and upper tail coverts have a +subterminal sepia bar and are tipped with pale buff or creamy white; +the lesser and median wing coverts are conspicuously barred with pale +buff and sepia; the chin, throat, and under parts are white. + +During the fall, beginning late in August, or in September, some of +the body plumage, tail and some tertials and wing coverts are molted, +producing the first winter plumage. This postjuvenal molt is very +limited and very variable; I have seen birds in juvenal plumage as +late as December 3. The first winter plumage is like the adult winter, +except for the retained juvenal wing coverts. It is worn until March or +April. The wings are molted during the winter at any time from October +to April; and during March and April the body plumage is molted, +producing the first nuptial plumage. This is like the adult nuptial, +but there is more gray on the sides of the neck and less spotting on +the breast, sometimes very little of the latter. But the plumage is +practically adult, except for a few retained juvenal wing coverts. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt beginning with the body plumage +in August, or earlier, and ending with the molt of the primaries at any +time from October to April. In winter plumage the upper parts are plain +“dark grayish olive,” shading off lighter on the sides of the head and +neck; the under parts are white, faintly washed with grayish on the +throat. The partial prenuptial molt, involving only the body plumage +comes in March and April and produces the spotted breast of the nuptial +plumage.] + +_Food._--At the seacoast the spotted sandpiper searches for its food +both on the beach and on the muddy borders of creeks and inlets, wading +into the water, however, less frequently than most sandpipers; inland +it feeds along the margins of sandy ponds, sluggish meadow streams +and rushing mountain torrents; in farming country it strays into the +meadows, fields, and market gardens and finds in all these situations +food which it picks up from the low vegetation or from the ground. + +Like some of the other sandpipers, however, and like several other +birds which have the agility to do so, it easily captures flying +insects even when they are on the wing. In order to come within +striking distance of an insect before it flies away, the spotted +sandpiper resorts to a ruse by which its approaching head and beak are +concealed or made inconspicuous. As the bird walks over windrows of +seaweed and such places where flies abound, it stretches its body out +with the bill pointing straight in front, the whole bird lengthened +into a line with the long axis parallel to the ground. In this position +the head, from the flies’ point of view is masked by the body as a +background and the bird is enabled to come so near that it can snap up +a fly, even after it has taken wing, by a straight forward movement of +the head. In stalking a flying prey the spotted sandpiper creeps up +to the fly, moving slowly with cat-like steps, the tail motionless, +and apparently never adopts the well-known trick of the semipalmated +sandpiper, the running about with the hind part of the body tilted far +upward, advancing upon a fly under cover of this as a screen. + +A complete list of the insects which form the spotted sandpiper’s diet, +could one be compiled, would doubtless be a very long one, comprising +as it would both marine and land insects. The wide range of the bird’s +choice of food is shown by the following quotations which prove +definitely that it is a very beneficial species to the agriculturalist. + +E. H. Forbush (1925), speaking of the bird’s habit of frequenting +cultivated fields, says: + + They feed largely on locusts, grasshoppers and + caterpillars, such as cutworms, cabbage worms and army + worms, also beetles, grubs and other pests of cultivated + lands. + +H. K. Job (1911) writes: + + The usual food of most species of this class [shore birds] + is aquatic insect life of all sorts. This is in part the + diet of the spotted sandpiper. But as it is also a bird + of field and pasture, its range of insect food is very + wide, including grasshoppers and locusts. Probably almost + anything in the insect line is grist for its hopper, and it + is a most useful bird. + +Austin H. Clark (1905_a_) furnishes the following unusual observation: + + While on the island of St. Vincent, West Indies, last + October, I observed a number of our shore birds feeding on + the young of a small fish known as the “tri tri” (_Sicydium + plumieri_), which were at that time ascending the Richmond + River, near which I was staying, by thousands. The land + about the lower reaches of this river was laid completely + bare by the recent eruptions of the Soufrière, and in its + present state proves very attractive to all the species of + shore birds which visit the island during the migrations. + Those observed or proved by dissection to be eating the + young tri tri (which were at that time from half an inch to + an inch and a quarter long) were * * * solitary sandpipers + (_Helodromas solitarius_), and spotted sandpipers (_Actitis + macularia_). All but the last two kept near the mouth of + the river, or on the flat lands along its lower reaches; + the solitary sandpiper followed the stream up into what + were formerly arrowroot fields, half or three-quarters of a + mile from the sea, and the spotted sandpiper was found well + into the mountain forests. + +W. H. Bergtold (1926) cites an instance of the bird’s catching another +swift-moving fish. He says that the caretakers at the Wigwam Fishing +Club, Colorado, “reported the spotted sandpiper as also catching trout +fry.” + +The following quotation adds crickets to the list of insects; H. W. +Jewell (1909) writes: + + While sitting on the banks of Sandy River one night I was + attracted to the actions of a spotted sandpiper. There + were lots of crickets on the shore of the river, and the + sandpiper would catch one in its bill, run up to the water, + and immerse the insect several times, then swallow it. This + seemed a very interesting performance to me, and I wondered + if all living insects caught are thus treated before they + are eaten. The cricket is quite a large insect, and as this + bird ate 10 or 12 he did not go to bed hungry that night. + +Alexander Wetmore (1916), who examined the contents of nine stomachs, +says: “Though mole crickets (_Scapteriscus didactylos_) were found +in but two stomachs, they form 10.78 per cent of the total food.” +Summarizing his findings, he concludes, “From the foregoing the spotted +sandpiper is a beneficial species and should not be molested.” + +_Behavior._--Nothing is more characteristic of the spotted sandpiper +than its flight. When it first starts from the shore the wings seem +to vibrate like a taut wire; then, as the bird gains headway, they +set and, depressed and quivering, they carry the bird slowly onward, +often swaying from side to side, close to the surface of the water. As +a rule, when startled, the sandpiper takes a semicircular course and +alights a short distance farther up the beach, and if followed either +takes another flight onward or doubles back as a kingfisher would do +under similar circumstances. This scaling flight, somewhat after the +manner of a meadow lark, is seen most commonly during the summer, but +on infrequent occasions the sandpiper lets go his wings and carries +them back with a long, free sweep and speeds through the air with the +rapidity of a swallow. The transition from one kind of flight to the +other is remarkable to see; with outstretched neck it drives along with +regular wing beats, a long, slender, unfamiliar-looking wader. + +J. T. Nichols mentions in his notes this peculiar flight; he says: + + One might be familiar with the bird for years and believe + it [the scaling flight] invariable. Careful attention in + late summer and fall, however, will demonstrate that it + is not. When, as rarely happens, the spotted sandpiper + rises to some height to make a considerable aerial passage + (especially over a stretch of marsh) the flight becomes + regular like that of a miniature yellowlegs, or swift and + darting as it sometimes is with a white-rumped sandpiper + for instance. It also, at times, flies low over the tops + of the marsh grass in this last named manner. To identify + such birds in the air is very difficult, and they will pass + for some one of the other sandpipers of rather small size + if one does not chance to appreciate the slenderer neck and + somewhat different shape, or the more uniform color of the + upper parts. + +The ability to swim and dive which is so noticeable in the young of the +spotted sandpiper is even more remarkably evident in the behavior of +the adult bird. Of the many instances recorded in the literature, the +following will illustrate this well developed proclivity. + +E. H. Forbush (1912) speaks thus of the action of a wounded bird: + + In September, 1876, I saw a wounded bird of this species + when pursued, dive into deep water from the shore of the + Charles River and fly off under water, using its wings + somewhat as a bird would use them in the air. All its + plumage was covered with bubbles of air, which caught the + light until the bird appeared as if studded with sparkling + gems as it sped away into the depths of the dark river. + +Later (1925) he adds a record of the bird actually running along the +bottom while entirely submerged. The spotted sandpiper-- + + can dive from the surface of the water or from full flight, + at need. Under water it progresses by using its wings which + it spreads quite widely, and in shallow water it can go to + the bottom and run a short distance with head held low and + tail raised like an ouzel or dipper. + +G. M. Sutton (1925) describes the behavior of two birds which he +startled by a close sudden approach. In the first quotation he shows +that the spotted sandpiper readily dives while on the wing and +continues its flight under water and in the second quotation he shows +the bird’s ability to rise directly into the air from beneath the +water, a feat impossible for many water birds. + + When the bird first flushed, its wings were fully spread, + and it was headed for the open water of the lake. Upon + seeing me towering above it, however, it turned its course + abruptly downward, and without the slightest hesitation + flew straight into the water. With wings fully outspread + and legs kicking it made its way rather slowly along the + sandy bottom, until it was about 8 feet out, in water over + 3 feet deep. I pursued the bird, thinking at the time, + strangely enough, that it was wounded. When I reached + for it, it tried to go farther but apparently could not. + Bubbles of air came from its mouth, and air bubbles were + plainly seen clinging to the plumage of its back. At the + time it was captured its mouth, eyes, and wings were all + open, under water, and it remained at the bottom seemingly + without difficulty. As it lay in my hands above water + it seemed tired for a second or two, and then, without + warning, shook itself a little, leaped into the air, and + with loud, clear whistles, circled off a few inches above + the water to a distant point of land. + +On a subsequent occasion, May 7, 1925, Mr. Sutton-- + + purposely came upon a spotted sandpiper suddenly and + witnessed it employ almost the identical tactics in making + an effective escape. At this time, however, the bird dove + into running water, swam with wings and feet rapidly moving + for about 20 feet, and emerged down stream, still flying, + and made off in its characteristic way, only a few inches + above the water. + +L. L. Jewel (1915), watching a sandpiper in Panama under most favorable +circumstances was able to make out clearly the position of the feet +while the bird was swimming under water. The beach where Mr. Jewel made +this observation was, as he describes it: + + A wide coral reef, bare at low tide, and with occasional + openings or “wells” connected underneath with the sea. Some + of these are of considerable size and the water in all is + as clear as crystal to all depths--clear as only those who + have seen such tropical “coral water” can imagine. * * * + + I had however a perfect view of the bird as he “flew” the + 10 feet across the pool, through the beautifully clear + water which showed white pebbles distinctly on a bottom + perhaps 20 feet below. The bird crossed at a uniform depth + of 18 inches to 2 feet, which he held until he brought up + against the opposite wall. The head and neck were extended + but not at all stretched while the legs and feet trailed + behind with flexed toes, like a heron in flight. The + wings seemed to be opened to only perhaps half their full + extent--the primaries pointing well backward like wings + are trimmed as birds cut down from some height to alight. + The wing-beats were slow and even but not labored, and + progress was uniform and not at all hurried. + +In addition to the anomalous behavior of the spotted sandpiper in and +under the water, the bird shows a further departure from the regular +habits of the other shore birds in its ability and frequent tendency +to perch on small supports which requires a grasping power in the feet +to hold the bird in place. My notes supply an extreme instance of this +habit, noting the action of an adult bird (exercised, to be sure, over +the safety of its young) which alighted on a slender wire running +between poles and stood crouched a little and leaning forward, but +keeping its balance by securely gripping the wire. + +The literature furnishes one other record of grasping a wire. L. L. +Snyder (1924) reports thus: + + On June 25, 1923, at Orient Bay, Lake Nipigon, Ontario, the + writer observed a spotted sandpiper perching on a telegraph + wire. The fact that the species was perching was not + surprising but the size of the perch made the observation + of interest. The bird was not in an erect position, being + squatted, which probably made the feat less difficult. + In this case the act was entirely voluntary and not an + instance of unusual conduct due to the pressure of an + emergency. + +Other quotations, showing the bird acting in unsandpiper-like behavior +follow. Mousley (1915) says: + + On one occasion only have I seen a very excited parent bird + with young alight on a cat-tail head, and very out of place + and uncomfortable it seemed to be. + +H. H. Cleaves (1908) says: + + We were returning along a rather unused railroad when, in + an area to one side, which was flooded for the most part + with a number of inches of water, we noticed a spotted + sandpiper flying about in circles and acting peculiarly. We + had all come to the conclusion that her young were about + somewhere, when she did a most peculiar thing. The wet + area in question was covered with considerable underbrush, + out of which grew rather tall, second-growth timber. The + sandpiper alighted on the tops of some of these trees, on + the small twigs, and remained balancing there for some + time, fully 25 or 30 feet from the ground. This performance + she repeated several times, making her appear for all the + world like a perching bird. + +P. A. Taverner (1919) says: + + Common all along the river [Red Deer River, Alberta] and + breeding everywhere. One bird on being flushed from her + eggs flew into adjoining bushes and climbed about them in a + most unwaderlike style while complaining at our intrusion. + +J. T. Nichols points out in his notes that the foot of the spotted +sandpiper is adapted to its peculiar habits; that the bird is able to +grasp a small object because the front toes are nearer together than in +most waders and the hind toe is more developed. He says: + + The footmarks of the spotted sandpiper on moist sand or mud + are recognizable. Compared to those of related birds the + toes are relatively little spreading, and the mark left by + the hind toe relatively large and conspicuous. + +Under the title “Spotted Sandpiper Removing its Young” J. C. Merrill +(1898) describes a very remarkable performance, the only record of such +behavior noted in the literature. + + A clearly observed case of the spotted sandpiper (_Actitis + macularia_) removing its young by flight recently came + under my notice, and I place it upon record, as such + instances are rarely seen, though they are, perhaps, of + tolerably frequent occurrence, as in the case of the + woodcock. + + Last summer, in the month of July, I frequently landed on + a little rocky islet near the head of the Saquenay River, + shortly after it issues from Lake St. John. Each time + a spotted sandpiper showed much concern for her young, + which were often seen running about and were a few days + old. On one of these occasions, the mother ran ahead of + me to a point of rocks near which I stopped to fish. A + few moments later she flew, circling in the usual manner, + and as she passed in front of me and within a few feet, I + saw one of the young beneath her body, apparently clasped + by her thighs; its head was directed forward, somewhat + outstretched, and was seen with perfect distinctness. The + parent’s legs were apparently hanging down as she flew, + though I am not positive that what I saw were not the legs + of the young. The mother was in sight for about 60 yards, + flying heavily and silently, and landed on a large island, + though I could not see her at the moment of alighting. + +_Voice._--The notes of the spotted sandpiper are mainly modified +and extended from its common alarm note, the sharp, clear whistle, +_peet-weet_, but as in the case of many birds, degrees of emotion +may be expressed by a little change in pitch or inflection. When +considerably alarmed the bird continues to repeat the _weet_ note often +giving a long series which trails off in diminuendo like the quacking +of a duck. + +J. T. Nichols (1920) describes a series of notes: + + _Hoy, hoy, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet_ is + a prolonged call frequently heard in the early part of + the nesting season, in toto or in part, suggesting in + that respect the songs of the cuckoos. It doubtless has + value as advertisement or location notice and something + the significance of a very generalized song. A series of + loud _weets_, heard also at other times of year, the most + far-reaching call of the species, doubtless serves as + location notice. + +A. A. Saunders in his notes similarly describes the “song.” He says: + + I believe the long call _weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, + weet, weet, peet a weet, peet a weet, peet a weet, peet a + weet_ serves as a song. I have seen it sung in flight, when + the actions and flight of the bird were similar to those of + other flight singers. + +Both of these observers describe the soft crooning note used by the +parent to bring together its young. Nichols says that, “a rolling +note, _kerrwee, kerrwee, kerrwee_, now loud, now very low and distant, +has been heard from an adult with the evident purpose of assembling her +young; and Saunders speaks of a parent bird which called to its young, +_tootawee, tootawee, tootawee, tootawee_ over and over. The call is +like the _peet a weet_ in form, but lower pitched and softer.” + +A common note, heard during the summer on the breeding ground when the +birds are undisturbed, resembles closely the whistle of the little +frog, _Hyla pickeringii_. This is a far-reaching whistled note, not +given in a series like the _weet, weet_ call. It is a single note, +apparently, repeated over and over again, not regularly, but always +with an interval between each repetition. + +It is clear that Nichols has this note in mind when he says, “_Pip! +pip! pip!_ is a note heard between adult birds in the breeding season +which seems to be of polite address, or possibly impolite, as it is +almost identical in form with a note of protest by old birds when nest +or young are threatened.” + +Continuing, he describes two other notes, “the _pit-wit-wit_ frequently +heard from adults as a note of departure may best be considered a +variation of this one [the _pip wip_ of the young] as also the _peet +weet weet_ or _weet weet_ most frequent a little later in the season +as little companies of birds start out over the water for longer or +shorter distances. + +“An old bird, surprised near her brood and fluttering off playing +wounded called _cheerp cheerp_ a sort of scream as of pain and fear.” + +_Field marks._--The spotted sandpiper is one of the prettiest, most +delicate, and trim of the shore birds; in place of the browns and greys +of the streaked upper parts of most waders there is a plain greenish +sheen on the back, and in autumn across the breast a soft tint like a +fawn. Through the glass the wings show a fine mottling, suggesting a +wren. The line of white at the posterior margin of the open wing is a +good diagnostic mark, and its habit of teetering makes identification +certain. The only bird which resembles the spotted sandpiper at +all closely is its larger relative the solitary sandpiper, but the +characteristic motion of this bird is a ploverlike hitching movement +or bob, as if hiccoughing, very different from the spotted sandpiper’s +rapid swaying up and down of the hinder part of the body. + +_Enemies._--The chief enemies of the spotted sandpiper are the +swift-moving hawks, whose pursuit it sometimes successfully eludes by +diving in the manner described above. J. E. H. Kelso (1926) records an +instance of this habit. He says: + + Skirting the lake shore in my sneak boat a spotted + sandpiper was repeatedly disturbed, flew along in front of + the boat to settle again and again on the shore. It then + made off to cross a small bay, when a pigeon hawk dashed + out from some trees and made a stoop or two at the dodging + sandpiper, which would certainly soon have been captured in + the air if it had not suddenly alighted on the water. This + for a few seconds confused the hawk, which circled just + over its quarry and appeared to try to capture it with its + talons. The sandpiper dove, remaining under 3 or 4 seconds. + The hawk on the disappearance of its intended victim at + once made off at a great pace. + +W. H. Osgood (1909) describes an escape in this manner from an attack +by a northern shrike. + +Wilson (1832) in his most charming manner tells this delightful story: + + My venerable friend, Mr. William Bartram, informs me + that he saw one of these birds defend her young for a + considerable time from the repeated attacks of a ground + squirrel. The scene of action was on the river shore. The + parent had thrown herself, with her two young behind her, + between them and the land, and at every attempt of the + squirrel to seize them by a circuitous sweep raised both + her wings in an almost perpendicular position, assuming the + most formidable appearance she was capable of, and rushed + forwards on the squirrel, who, intimidated by her boldness + and manner, instantly retreated; but presently returning + was met, as before, in front and on flank by the daring and + affectionate bird, who with her wings and whole plumage + bristling up seemed swelled to twice her usual size. The + young crowded together behind her, apparently sensible of + their perilous situation, moving backward and forward as + she advanced or retreated. This interesting scene lasted + for at least 10 minutes; the strength of the poor parent + began evidently to flag, and the attacks of the squirrel + became more daring and frequent, when my good friend, like + one of those celestial agents who in Homer’s time so often + decided the palm of victory, stepped forward from his + retreat, drove the assailant back to his hole, and rescued + the innocent from destruction. + +A. A. Saunders sends the following suggestive note: + + Once on Sherwoods Island, Westport, Conn., in September, I + saw a bird fly ahead of me with something large and black + looking dangling beneath it. The bird could hardly fly + and tried to hide in the beach grass as I approached. I + caught it and found that a large specimen of the common + edible mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) had closed its shell on + the middle toe of the bird’s left foot. The toe was nearly + severed just above the nail, and since I couldn’t pry the + mussel open, I cut through the bit of skin left and freed + the bird. + +_Fall._--As is the case during its northward migration, the spotted +sandpiper leaves its breeding ground and moves to its winter quarters +inconspicuously, showing little tendency to gather into flocks. Its +voice is not infrequently heard among the notes of the autumnal +nocturnal migrants--an indication that the bird in a measure makes use +of the safe, dark hours during its long journey southward. + +Cooke (1897) says: “In the fall [in Colorado] it ranges above the pines +to 14,000 feet,” illustrating the tendency to wander about in autumn. + +_Game._--During the years, now past, when the smaller shore birds could +legally be shot for food or sport the spotted sandpiper suffered less +than some of the other Limicolae by reason of its more solitary habit. +The gunners, waiting for several of their tiny target to come within +range of a single shot, often disregarded a spotted sandpiper running +alone on the shore. + +_Winter._--Most of the spotted sandpipers leave the United States to +spend the winter on the islands to the southward, and in South America, +but the species is nevertheless well represented in California during +the winter, and in the Southern States on the Atlantic seaboard. + +George Willett (1912) “found this species plentiful in winter around +Santa Barbara Islands and on rocky shores of the mainland.” + +Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1916) speaking of the bird as a winter visitant +of Porto Rico says: + + It frequents the mangrove swamps, borders of lagoons, + margins of all the streams, and occasionally the sandy + beaches. During the winter season it follows inland along + the small streams and occurs throughout the island. + +And (1927) reporting the birds’ winter status in South America says-- + + It is a regular migrant in South America as far as Bolivia + and southern Brazil, and on March 4, 1918, several were + found by Mogensen at Concepcion, Province of Tucuman, in + northern Argentina. On October 25, 1920, one was taken by + the writer near the mouth of the Rio Ajo on the eastern + coast of the Province of Buenos Aires, the southernmost + point at which the species is known. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and South America; accidental in Europe. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the spotted sandpiper extends +north to Alaska (Kobuk River, Fort Yukon, and Circle); Yukon (La Pierre +House); Mackenzie (Fort McPherson, Arctic Red River, Fort Anderson, +Aylmer Lake, Clinton-Colden Lake, and Artillery Lake); Manitoba (Fort +Du Brochet, Fort Churchill, and York Factory); Ungava (Fort Chimo); and +Labrador (Okak). East of Labrador (Okak and Rigolet); eastern Quebec +(Sloop Harbor and Wolf Bay); Newfoundland (Humber River and Penguin +Island); Nova Scotia (Breton Island, Pictou, and Yarmouth); Maine +(Thomaston); New Hampshire (Portsmouth); Massachusetts (Boston and +Woods Hole); Rhode Island (Block Island); New York (Shelter Island); +New Jersey (Red Bank and Five-mile Beach); Maryland (Cambridge); +Virginia (Cobb Island and Richmond); North Carolina (Kona, Fort Macon, +and Wilmington); and probably South Carolina (Chester and Columbia). +South to probably South Carolina (Columbia); probably Georgia +(Okefinokee Swamp); Alabama (Autauga County and Greensboro); Louisiana +(New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and Vermilion Bay); Texas (Corsicana, +Calhoun County, Austin, Buffalo Bayou, Kerrville, Concho County, +and Tom Green County); New Mexico (Las Vegas, Willis, and Espanola); +Arizona (Camp Verde); and California (Santa Paula). West to California +(Santa Paula, Kernville, Lime Kiln, Royal Arches, Lake Tahoe, and Eagle +Lake); Oregon (Fort Klamath, Elkton, Eugene, Corvallis, Salem, Dayton, +and Portland); Washington (Bellingham Bay); British Columbia (Vancouver +and Skidegate); and Alaska (Lewis Point, Sitka, Idaho Inlet, Glacier +Bay, Hinchinbrook Island, Port Nell Juan, Lake Clark, Mount McKinley, +Nulato, and Kobuk River). + +Nonbreeding individuals also have been observed in summer in the Bahama +Islands; Porto Rico; Jamaica; Guadeloupe; Barbados; Grenada; St. +Vincent; Dominica; Martinique; Florida (Fruitland Park, Indian Key, and +Seven Oaks); Chihuahua (Pachaco); and Nyarit (Tres Marias Islands). + +_Winter range._--In winter, the spotted sandpiper ranges north rarely +to British Columbia (Courtenay and Chilliwack); Arizona (Camp Verde +and Salt River Bird Reservation); New Mexico (Carlsbad); Texas (Fort +Brown); probably Louisiana (Vermilion Bay); and rarely Virginia (James +River peninsula). East to rarely Virginia (James River peninsula); +South Carolina (Sea Islands and Port Royal); Georgia (Savannah, +Blackbeard Island, and St. Marys); Florida (Fernandina, Daytona, New +Smyrna, Malabar, St. Lucie, Miami, Key Largo, and Key West); the Bahama +Islands (Andros); Cuba (Santiago de Cuba); Haiti (Monte Christi); +Porto Rico (Cartagena Lagoon, Mameyes, and Caguas); the Lesser +Antilles (Dominica, St. Lucia, Barbados, Carriacou, and Trinidad); +British Guiana (Bartica and Georgetown); French Guiana (Cayenne); and +Brazil (Mixiana, Marajo, Para, and Bahia). South to Brazil (Bahia +and Santa Fe); Bolivia (San Francisco); and Peru (Lima). West to +Peru (Lima, Huacho, and Tumbez); Ecuador (Santa Elena, Quito, and +Esmeraldas); Galapagos Islands (Albemarle); Colombia (Puerto Berrio); +Panama (Panama City); Costa Rica (La Estrella de Cartago, and San +Jose); Nicaragua (Escondido River); Salvador (La Libertad); Honduras +(Chamelecon); Guatemala (Lake Atitlan); Oaxaca (Tehuantepec City); +Lower California (San Jose del Cabo and La Paz); Sonora (Alamos); +California (San Clemente Island, Santa Catalina Island, Santa Cruz +Island, and Marysville); rarely Oregon (probably Klamath Lake, Elkton, +and Portland); probably Washington (Seattle, Clallam Bay, and Port +Angeles); and rarely British Columbia (Courtenay). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: North Carolina, +Raleigh, April 3, Andrews, April 5, and Weaverville, April 10; +Virginia, Miller, April 10, Bowers Hill, April 12, and Camp Eustis, +April 14; West Virginia, Waverly, April 4, White Sulphur Springs, +April 6, and Lewisburg, April 11; District of Columbia, Washington, +April 2; Maryland, Cambridge, April 13, and Sandy Spring, April 18; +Delaware, Wilmington, April 27; Pennsylvania, Phillipsburg, March 27, +Jeffersonville, March 31, Wallingford, April 1, Beaver, April 2, and +Berwyn, April 5; New Jersey, New Brunswick, March 30, Deep Water Point +Light, April 14, and Camden, April 16; New York, Rhinebeck, March 20, +Locust Grove, April 2, Geneva, April 13, and Branchport, April 15; +Connecticut, Canaan, April 14, Portland, April 18, and Fairfield, April +21; Rhode Island, Block Island, April 6; Massachusetts, Dorchester, +April 12, Woods Hole, April 13, Holyoke, April 15, and Harvard, April +25; Vermont, Woodstock, April 23, Rutland, April 25, and St. Johnsbury, +April 27; New Hampshire, Tilton, April 26, Peterboro, April 28, and +Hanover, April 30; Maine, Westbrook, April 14, Ellsworth, April 16, +and Portland, April 26; Quebec, Montreal, April 26, and Quebec, May +2; New Brunswick, Scotch Lake, May 2, and Blacksville, May 5; Nova +Scotia, Yarmouth, May 4, and Wolfville, May 9; Arkansas, Tillar, +March 17, and Monticello, March 22; Tennessee, Knoxville, April 3, +and Athens, April 10; Kentucky, Bowling Green, March 29; Missouri, +Marshall, March 27; Illinois, Peoria, March 20, Odin, March 24, and +Rantoul, April 5; Indiana, Vigo County, March 20, Greencastle, April +1, and Vincennes, April 3; Ohio, Cleveland, March 29, Columbus, April +8, Canton, April 9, and Oberlin, April 10; Michigan, Vermontville, +April 6, Ann Arbor, April 13, Battle Creek, April 14, and Grand +Rapids, April 19; Ontario, Plover Mills, April 12, Guelph, April 13, +and Ottawa, April 16; Iowa, Ottumwa, March 28, Elkader, March 30, and +Emmetsburg, April 3; Wisconsin, Milwaukee, March 30, and Shiocton, +April 13; Minnesota, Lake City, April 3, Brainerd, April 16, Lanesboro, +April 18, and Minneapolis, April 19; Oklahoma, Ponca City, March 31; +Kansas, Manhattan, April 5, Lawrence, April 7, Blue Rapids, April 9, +and Wichita, April 15; Nebraska, Lincoln, April 18; South Dakota, +Sioux Falls, April 10, Forestburg, April 15, and Pitrodie, April 23; +Manitoba, Killarney, April 22, Alexander, April 24, and Aweme, April +25; Saskatchewan, Indian Head, May 3, and Eastend, May 7; Mackenzie, +Fort Simpson, May 19; Colorado, Greeley, March 18, Mesa County, March +18, and Colorado Springs, April 16; Wyoming, Lake Como, May 2; Idaho, +Rathdrum, May 1, and Rupert, May 3; Montana, Billings, April 1, and +Columbia Falls, May 4; Alberta, Stony Plain, April 22, Carvel, April +30, and Athabaska Landing, May 6; Yukon, Dawson, May 24; and Alaska, +Kuskokwim River, May 12, Craig, May 16, Nulato, May 22, and Forrester +Island, May 24. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Peru, Rio Perene, March 9, and +La Merced, March 23; Brazil, Praia de Cajetuba, April 12, Santarem, +April 12, and Matto Grosso, April 1; Venezuela, San Bricene, April 21; +Ecuador, Lake Colta, April 5, and San Pedro River, April 11; Colombia, +La Concepcion, March 23; Panama, Chiriqui, April 13; Costa Rica, +Guapeles, March 5; Guatemala, Puerto Barrios, April 7; Pueblo, Altisco, +May 22; Yucatan, Tizimin, May 16; Tamaulipas, Victoria, April 16; +Sonora, Hermosillo, April 30; Lower California, La Paz, April 16, and +Gardners Laguna, April 23; Lesser Antilles, St. Croix, April 27; Porto +Rico, Patillas, May 13, and Cartagena Lagoon, May 23; Haiti, April 11; +Cuba, Guantanamo, May 5; Bahama Islands, Andros, April 21, Cay Lobos +Light, April 25, and Abaco, April 28; and Florida, Gainesville, May +10, Daytona Beach, May 11, Palma Sola, May 22, St. Marks, May 24, and +Pensacola, May 31. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: Florida, Palma +Sola, July 7, Pensacola, July 18, Daytona Beach, July 21, and St. +Marks, July 21; Porto Rico, Manati, July 9 and Bayamon, July 20; Lesser +Antilles, St. Bartholomew, August 3; Lower California, Los Coronados +Islands, August 6; Tehuantepec, San Mateo, August 14; British Honduras, +Manatee Lagoon, August 16; Guatemala, Duenas, September 2; Nicaragua, +Escondido River, July 30, and Bluefields, September 17; Costa Rica, +Ujurras de Terraba, September 16; Panama, August 4; Colombia, +Fundacion, August 16, Barbacoas, August 30, Cienaga, September 13, +and Valle Dupar, September 25; Venezuela, Curaçao, July 27, and +Macuto, August 4; Ecuador, Guainche, August 27, Guayaquil, August 28, +and Portovelo, September 2; Peru, Trujillo, September 1, and Eten, +September 7; and Guiana, Abary Creek, October 6, and Cayenne, October +18. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, Wrangel, October 9, and Kenai +River, November 14; Yukon, mouth of Moose River, October 1; Alberta, +Red Deer River, September 17; Montana, Missoula, September 17, and +Columbia Falls, September 22; Idaho, Priest River, September 19, and +Rupert, October 2; Wyoming, Yellowstone Park, September 17; Colorado, +Boulder, September 22, Denver, September 23, and Mesa County, October +7; Mackenzie, Great Slave Lake, September 16, and Point Brule, October +1; Saskatchewan, Eastend, September 10; Manitoba, Margaret, October +4, Aweme, October 7, and Killarney, October 18; South Dakota, Wall +Lake, October 13, and Forestburg, October 20; Kansas, Topeka, October +11, and Lawrence, October 14; Oklahoma, Copan, October 4, and Caddo, +October 16; Minnesota, St. Vincent, October 14, and Lanesboro, November +2; Wisconsin, Madison, October 4, Racine, October 6, and Burlington, +October 14; Iowa, Newton, October 25, Sioux City, November 3, and +Coralville, November 8; Ontario, Toronto, October 11, London, October +25, and Ottawa, October 30; Michigan, Charity Island, September 28, +Ann Arbor, October 9, and Jackson, October 27; Ohio, Huron, October 21, +Sandusky, October 24, Cedar Point, October 30, and Columbus, November +7; Indiana, Albion, October 17, Elkhart, October 19, and New Harmony, +October 23; Illinois, Chicago, September 29, Maxwell, October 10, and +Urbana, October 18; Missouri, St. Louis, October 11, and Jaspar City, +October 15; Kentucky, Bowling Green, October 13; Tennessee, Athens, +October 11, and Knoxville, October 24; Nova Scotia, Pictou, October 9; +New Brunswick, Scotch Lake, October 4; Quebec, Montreal, October 2, +and Quebec, October 12; Maine, Portland, October 8, Kennebec County, +October 15, and Orono, October 21; Massachusetts, Woods Hole, October +20, Braintree, October 22, and Boston, November 2; Rhode Island, +Newport, October 3; Connecticut, Portland, October 15, Hartford, +October 19, and Windsor, October 20; New York, New York City, October +13, Collins, October 15, and Highland Falls, October 15; New Jersey, +Camden, October 17; Pennsylvania, Renovo, October 18, and Berwyn, +October 28; and Maryland, Plummer Island, October 28. + +_Casual records._--Spotted sandpipers have been detected twice in +Argentina, Concepcion on March 4, 1918, and mouth of the Rio Ajo, +October 25, 1920 (Wetmore). It also has been reported from Europe on +numerous instances, among which the following cases from the British +Isles, seem to be authentic: Two near Belfast, July and September, +1928; one near Whitby, March 29, 1849; one at Kingsbury Reservoir, +Middlesex (date ?); two at Warrington, Lancashire, May, 1863; two at +Eastbourne, Sussex, in October, 1866; and two at Aberdeen in August, +1867 (Dalgleish). + +_Egg dates._--Labrador: 7 records, June 1 to July 16. Quebec to Nova +Scotia: 53 records, May 20 to July 4; 27 records, June 15 to 19. New +England and New York: 41 records, May 19 to July 9; 21 records, May 30 +to June 13. Ohio to Iowa: 16 records, May 14 to July 6; 8 records, May +31 to June 16. California to Washington: 13 records, June 7 to July 7; +7 records, June 15 to 28. Alaska and Mackenzie: 26 records, June 10 to +July 22; 13 records, June 15 to July 7. + + + NUMENIUS AMERICANUS Bechstein + + LONG-BILLED CURLEW + + + HABITS + +One can not see this magnificent bird for the first time without +experiencing a thrill of enthusiasm for the largest, one of the most +interesting and notable of our shore birds, one that seems to embody +more than any other the wild, roving spirit of the vast open prairies. +Its large size, its long, curving bill, the flash of cinnamon in its +wings, and above all, its loud, clear, and prolonged whistling notes +are bound to attract attention. In its former abundance this species +must have been a most striking feature of the western plains, as it +flew in large wedge-shaped flocks in full cry. The last of the great +open prairies are rapidly disappearing; and with them are going the +curlews, the marbled godwits, the upland plover, the longspurs, and a +host of other birds that can not stand the encroachments of agriculture. + +The long-billed curlew formerly bred over a large portion of central +North America, including all of the prairie regions, at least as +far east as Michigan and Illinois, and probably Ohio. But, with the +settling of the country and the disappearance of the prairies, it has +been gradually driven farther and farther west, and even there into a +more and more restricted range. It seems to me that we can hope for its +survival only on the maintenance of large, open ranges as grazing lands +for cattle where it still continues to breed. + +It was apparently quite common as a migrant in New England up to about +the middle of the last century. The birds seen here were probably +migrants from the more eastern prairies. The numerous citations given +by Edward H. Forbush (1912) show its gradual decline, until now it is +only a rare straggler anywhere on the Atlantic coast. In Audubon’s time +it was abundant in winter and as a migrant on the coasts of Florida +and South Carolina. I have never seen one during my various seasons in +Florida and Arthur T. Wayne (1910) says: + + Since 1885 is has been supplanted by the Hudsonian curlew + (_N. hudsonicus_), which is still exceedingly abundant + during the spring and autumn migrations. From 1879 to 1885, + _americanus_ was to be found in the immediate vicinity of + Charleston, but its numbers steadily diminished year after + year until at the present time it is so rare that it is + seldom seen; in fact I have not seen one since September + 23, 1899. Audubon, in his Birds of America, states, upon + the authority of Doctor Bachman, that this curlew “breeds + on the islands on the coast of South Carolina, and it + places its nests so close together, that it is almost + impossible for a man to walk between them without injuring + the eggs.” It may appear hypercritical to question Doctor + Bachman’s statement that this species bred on the coast + islands, but the eggs were not described by either Audubon + or himself, and as far back as 1879 there were no eggs of + _N. americanus_ in the Charleston Museum, while the eggs + of the “Stone Curlew” (_Catoptrophorus semipalmatus_) + were well represented and were classified as eggs of the + long-billed curlew, I have been unable to obtain any + evidence, even from the “oldest inhabitants,” that this + species ever bred anywhere on the South Carolina coast. + +Dr. Thomas S. Roberts (1919) says of its status in Minnesota: + + As late at least as 1883 it was still breeding in southern + Jackson County (J. W. Preston) and Gleason saw a single + bird of this species near Euclid, Polk County, on June + 17, 1897, which at that date may be assumed to have been a + breeding bird. This report of Gleason’s is the very last + record of the long-billed curlew in Minnesota known to the + writer. It ceased to be generally abundant somewhere about + 1880 and rapidly decreased in numbers, even as a migrant, + until it disappeared entirely about the close of the last + century. + +It apparently ceased to breed in Illinois before 1880; the last +published breeding record was in 1873. It probably still breeds in the +interior of Texas and perhaps on the coastal prairies as well, for J. +J. Carroll writes to me that on July 9 and 10, 1926, he saw 8 or 10 +long-billed curlews near Matagorda Bay that acted as if they had young. +It is now a very rare bird at any season east of the Mississippi River. + +_Spring._--The spring migration is now a general northward movement +throughout the western half of the United States; there was formerly +a heavy flight up the Atlantic coast as far as the Carolinas and a +straggling flight farther north. The migration begins in March, but +the main movement is during April and most of the birds reach their +breeding grounds in April. Only one of my correspondents in Manitoba +and Alberta mentions the long-billed curlew and he has seen only one in +15 years; so it must be disappearing very rapidly there. + +_Courtship._--The spring behavior of these curlews, or what might be +called a nuptial flight is thus described by P. M. Silloway (1900): + + After their arrival, the curlews inhabit the high, dry + prairies, flying restlessly from one portion to another, + showing a tendency to associate in pairs, though as + couples, these birds are not inseparable. In the mating + season, one of the pair is likely to follow the other in + a few moments, when the first bird has flown far over the + prairie to a more distant station. At any time the loud, + prolonged whistling of these birds, either when on the + ground or a-wing, will call attention to their movements, + warning the disturber of their domain that his presence is + known and that his actions will be watched with the closest + interest. + + One of the pleasing sights to the ornithologist in watching + the behavior of these curlews is seen when a pair are + sailing upward in company abreast of the wind, moving in + perfect accord on widespread, motionless pinions curved + gently downward, within several feet of each other, then + fluttering downward side by side or one in advance of the + other, again to sail upward, uttering the characteristic + whistles. + +_Nesting._--The long-billed curlew is likely to nest almost anywhere +on the boundless prairie, though we have found it, in Saskatchewan, +showing a decided preference for damp, grassy hollows in the prairie, +or long slopes near the lakes or watercourses. The nest is a very +simple affair, a slight hollow in the ground, usually thinly lined with +grasses or weeds; but sometimes quite a substantial platform of grass +is made and slightly hollowed. The female is often quite conspicuous, +as she sits on the nest with her neck stretched out on the ground, and +can sometimes be seen at a distance of 100 feet; she usually sits very +closely and can sometimes be approached within 8 or 10 feet before +flushing. + +In some notes sent to me by A. O. Treganza, from Box Elder and Weber +Counties, Utah, he says that in one “particular locality (Weber County) +the birds seem to be quite gregarious, possibly due to food conditions. +While there are many square miles of what seems to be similar country, +they seem to have chosen a very small area in which to breed.” Here he +found sometimes two females sharing the same nest, resulting in sets of +from five to eight eggs. In other localities, in Box Elder County, they +do not seem to be at all gregarious. In one instance he found four eggs +of the western willet and one of the curlew in a nest, with both the +willet and curlew on guard. + +P. M. Silloway (1903) has had some extensive experience with the +nesting of the long-billed curlew in Fergus County, Mont. Some of his +nests were on the high dry prairie a long way from any water, but most +of them were in such situations as I have described above. Several of +his nests were in depressions beside dried cow dung, where, perhaps, +the bird was not quite so conspicuous; and chips of dried cow dung +often entered into the composition of the nest. In a typical nest “the +cavity was 8 inches across and 2 inches deep. The brim of the nest was +elevated an inch and a half above the surroundings.” He has written +(1900 and 1903) some interesting accounts of his experiences in hunting +for nests, and sums up the behavior of the birds as follows: + + The male curlew is a most jealous guardian of the premises + near the nest. When the female is sitting on her eggs, the + male will denote a watchful interest in the movements of + anyone who is within several hundred yards of the nest. + At such times he will come flying from some quarter of + the pasture, and with angry cackling will alight near the + disturber, impatiently feeding and watching the movements + of the one threatening the peace of his household. If the + observer approaches nearer the nest the male will begin to + fly at him in a straight course, turning upward abruptly + with a loud whiff of wings when it stems that the disturber + must certainly be struck by the determined defender of + his home. The nest may still be more than a hundred yards + beyond the observer. In the majority of instances it lies + ahead in the line the male points in his flight. As the + disturber gets nearer, the male shows more distress and + flutters wildly overhead, flying at the disturber from + every direction, though not from long distances as before. + All the while the female is sitting unconcerned on her + eggs, indifferent to the angry and distressed cackling of + her spouse. Perhaps by this time a half dozen or more other + males have joined in the outcry, and frequently one of + these allies will try to mislead the disturber. + + The female sits very closely upon her eggs, flattening + herself upon them in such a manner that she resembles a + dead chicken lying on the ground. When flushed from the + nest she will fly low for 30 or 40 feet or flutter from the + nest and run awkwardly for a short distance, feigning to + be crippled. Frequently she will lower her head, with bill + almost touching the ground, and run along in a shamefaced + manner. Before the nest is discovered the males who are + aiding to mislead the observer will sometimes act in this + shamefaced way. + +_Eggs._--Four eggs are ordinarily laid by the long-billed curlew, +occasionally five; as many as eight have been found in a nest, +evidently the product of two females. The eggs vary in shape from +ovate to short ovate or ovate pyriform, sometimes quite rounded; and +they have a slight gloss. The prevailing ground colors are in various +shades of “olive buff”; but some dark types are “ecru olive,” some +green types are “seafoam green” and some are as pale as buffy white. +The eggs are generally quite evenly spotted, some very thickly and +some very sparingly, with various shades of brown and olive, “Van-dyke +brown,” “bister,” “snuff brown,” “buffy brown,” and “buffy olive,” with +numerous underlying markings in various shades of “brownish drab” and +“drab gray.” A very handsome set has a rich buff ground color, between +“honey yellow” and “chamois,” uniformly covered with small spots of +rich browns, “Sudan brown” to “russet.” The measurements of 68 eggs +average 65 by 45.8 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes +measure =72= by 48, 70 by =48.5=, =56= by 43.5, and 62.5 by =42= +millimeters. + +_Young._--Incubation is said to be shared by both sexes; its exact +duration does not seem to be recorded, but for the European curlew it +is said to be 30 days. Both birds are certainly very solicitous in the +care of the young. We were too late for eggs in Saskatchewan, but we +found three broods of young. On June 1, 1905, we found two small young +curlews, hardly able to walk, in a grassy hollow in the prairie; the +old birds gave us a great exhibition of parental solicitude, flying +about, alighting on the ground near us and making a great outcry. +Their loud cries brought a third curlew which joined in the chorus of +whistling cries. + +When large enough to run, the young are adepts in the art of hiding; +they seem to disappear entirely, even in the short grass; after hunting +carefully for fully half an hour, over a limited area where we had seen +one vanish, we gave it up and walked away, when we were surprised to +see the youngster get up and run away from the very spot we had been +hunting hardest. + +Probably the mortality among young curlews is rather high, as they +have many enemies. All three of the broods we found contained only two +young. The parents have to work hard to preserve even this average. +We saw an interesting exhibition of parental strategy one day, which +probably succeeded in saving some young curlews from the jaws of a +prowling coyote. The curlew was decoying the coyote away by feigning +lameness, flopping along the ground a few yards ahead of him, but +always managing to barely escape him. We watched them for some time +until they finally disappeared over a hill, fully half a mile from +where we first saw them. + +_Plumages._--The young curlew, when first hatched, is completely +covered with long, thick, soft down. The color varies from “warm buff” +on the breast and flanks, to “cream buff” on the face, upper parts and +belly and to “cream color” on the throat; the crown is even paler. +The markings, which are brownish black in color, consist of a broken +and narrow median stripe on the forehead, irregular spotting on the +posterior part of the head and large, bold, irregular spotting on the +back, wings, and thighs. In older birds the bright buffs fade to paler +shades. + +I have seen no specimens showing the change from downy to juvenal +plumage. The latter is very much like that of the winter adult, but +it is somewhat more tawny, especially below, and the streaks on the +neck and breast are fewer and narrower. The first winter plumage +is apparently a continuation of the juvenal, subject to some wear +and fading, and with very little molting. By spring young birds are +practically indistinguishable from adults. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt from August to November, most +of which is accomplished in September and October, including the wings. +The prenuptial molt, which involves the body plumage, most of the +scapulars, many wing coverts and the tail, is prolonged through the +spring, from February to June. + +_Food._--On their breeding grounds, and to a large extent in their +winter quarters, these curlews are upland feeders, far out on the open +prairies, in the damp, grassy hollows, or about the edges of prairie +sloughs or ponds. But on migrations they are often seen feeding on +ocean beaches or about the shores of large lakes. I have seen them on +the beaches of southern California feeding at the surf line in company +with marbled godwits. They were wading out into the retreating waves, +picking up some small objects about an inch long or less, probably +mollusks. They seemed to experience some difficulty in properly +grasping the morsel with the tips of the long mandibles, but when once +started right they handled it very skillfully, as the shell seemed to +travel swiftly up the long bill and into the mouth. They are said to +probe in the soft sand to the full extent of the long bill, but I did +not see them do this. + +C. W. Wickersham (1902) has described the food and the feeding habits +of the long-billed curlew very well as follows: + + Crawfish, small crabs, snails, periwinkles, toads, worms, + larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, caterpillars when + found on the ground, spiders, flies, butterflies, and + berries, especially dewberries, all play minor or major + parts in their diet. The worms, larvae, etc., are pulled + out of the ground by the long bill, the end of which may + act as a finger having separate muscles to control it, and + often it is sunk into the ground as far as it will go to + reach some unwilling victim. The crustaceans are taken + on the beach, or, discovered beneath the surface by the + probing bill, are pulled out and eaten. The berries are + neatly picked off the bushes, while butterflies and other + insects are taken on the wing. + +_Behavior._--Except on their breeding grounds, where they are concerned +in the welfare of their eggs or young, long-billed curlews are +exceedingly wary; when a flock is feeding, one or more birds usually +stand as sentinels, and at their cry of warning the whole flock raise +their wings and make off. Their flight is a bit erratic or snipelike at +first, but when well under way it is strong and steady. While migrating +or traveling for long distances they often fly high in the air in +wedge-shaped flocks, uttering occasionally their loud, whistling notes. +When alighting they drop nearly to the ground, make a graceful upward +sweep, and check their speed with a flash of cinnamon wings. They walk +gracefully and swiftly on land and can swim if necessary. + +The night roosting habits are well described by Audubon (1840), who saw +them at their best in South Carolina. He writes: + + The long-billed curlew spends the day in the sea marshes, + from which it returns at the approach of night to the sandy + beaches of the seashores, where it rests until dawn. As the + sun sinks beneath the horizon the curlews rise from their + feeding grounds in small parties, seldom exceeding 15 or + 20, and more usually composed of only 5 or 6 individuals. + The flocks enlarge, however, as they proceed, and in the + course of an hour or so the number of birds that collect + in the place selected for their nightly retreat sometimes + amounts to several thousands. As it was my good fortune + to witness their departures and arrivals, in the company + of my friend, Bachman, I will here describe them. The sun + at length sunk beneath the water line that here formed + the horizon, and we saw the birds making their first + appearance. They were in small parties of 2, 3, or 5, and + by no means shy. These seemed to be the birds which we had + observed near the salt marshes as we were on our way. As + the twilight became darker the number of curlews increased, + and the flocks approached in quicker succession until they + appeared to form a continuous procession, moving not in + lines, one after another, but in an extended mass, and with + considerable regularity, at a height of not more than 30 + yards, the individuals being a few feet apart. Not a single + note or cry was heard as they advanced. They moved for 10 + or more yards with regular flappings, and then sailed for + a few seconds, as is invariably the mode of flight of this + species, their long bills and legs stretched out to their + full extent. They flew directly toward their place of rest, + called the “Bird Banks,” and were seen to alight without + performing any of the evolutions which they exhibit when at + their feeding places, for they had not been disturbed that + season. But when we followed them to the Bird Banks, which + are sandy islands of small extent, the moment they saw us + land the congregated flocks, probably amounting to several + thousand individuals, all standing close together, rose at + once, performed a few evolutions in perfect silence, and + realighted as if with one accord on the extreme margins + of the sand bank close to tremendous breakers. It was now + dark and we left the place, although some flocks were still + arriving. The next morning we returned a little before + day, but again as we landed they all rose a few yards in + the air, separated into numerous parties, and, dispersing + in various directions, flew off toward their feeding + grounds, keeping low over the water until they reached the + shores, when they ascended to the height of about a hundred + yards and soon disappeared. + +A similar habit evidently prevails on the prairies, which Mr. +Wickersham (1902) describes very well as follows: + + As evening falls he becomes restless, his hunting comes to + an end, his bobbing becomes more jerky and more and more + repeated, until with a loud whistle he jumps forward, his + long wings fly out and up and with the first unsteadiness + over he joins the bunch in a long line and betakes his way + with the others toward some distant marsh or pond. On, on + they go; the leader whistles, the others answer, suddenly + they all drop, sweep forward and up a little, and then, + with wings almost meeting above them and legs held daintily + down to break the shock, they all alight. For five minutes + there is no movement, no sound; there are no birds to be + seen where, a moment before, the graceful creatures had + alighted; suddenly there is a little flutter of wings and + before you know it numerous forms have run forward and bent + over the water to noisily quench their thirst. For another + five minutes there is as great a confusion and clamor as + formerly there was order and quiet; wings are fluttering, + hoarse, short cries are arising, feet are pattering up and + down, the water is heavily rippling from the motion of + many bills, and, in a word, all is chaos. One by one the + drinkers cease, calmness is gradually restored, and, after + pluming themselves, the birds draw one leg up under them, + tuck their head under one wing, neatly fold the other, and + sweet slumber reigns. + +On its behavior with other species Mr. Silloway (1900) writes: + + There is another side to the disposition of the long-billed + curlew, for this spring I was once startled by an unusually + piercing whistle, and looking upward I saw a curlew + swooping angrily upon a ferruginous roughleg that had + chanced to wander over the claimed domain of this pair + of _Numenii_. Time and again the curlew swooped upon the + unoffending _Archibuteo_ as the latter flapped heavily + along the edge of the coulee, and the cliff echoed with the + shrill whistles of the angry curlew. On the other hand, the + long-billed curlews are the victims of petty teasing by + the longspurs which throng the prairie. I have repeatedly + noticed McCown’s longspur (_Rhynchophanes mccownii_) + flutter up beside a curlew, sailing upward, or attempt to + strike the curlew, the latter on such occasions seldom + giving any attention to the petty annoyance mentioned. + +E. S. Cameron (1907) says that he has seen nesting curlews make flying +attacks at Swainson and marsh hawks, just as the European curlews +attack the jaegers. + +_Voice._--Long-billed curlews are noisy birds, especially on their +breeding grounds. I have recorded their ordinary notes of protest, when +near their nests or young, as loud musical whistles, like _quee-hee, +quee-hee, quee-hee_, sometimes prolonged into a long, rattling call, +_que-he-he-he-he-he_, loud and striking. Sometimes we heard a series +of somewhat guttural notes, or a melodious _coy, coy, coy_, somewhat +like the autumn gather call of the bobwhite. I have heard them in Texas +in the spring give rich, loud, musical notes as they flew, _wheety, +wheety, wheety_, very rapidly uttered, opening the bill with each +note. Our name “curlew” and the French “curlieu” are probably both +derived from one of the commonest and most characteristic calls. + +P. A. Taverner (1926) says: + + The commonest call note is a clear _pil-will_, so nearly + like that of the willet that it can not always be + distinguished from it. Other notes resemble those of the + upland plover. One especially delightful is a long-drawn + _curl-e-e-e-u-u-u_, sparkling clear and rising in the + middle about five notes, then dying gradually away, + lowering in scale and volume. The entire call lasts about + three seconds of time. + +_Field marks._--The long-billed curlew can be easily recognized by its +large size, long, curved bill, and cinnamon color. It is much larger +than the Hudsonian and much more cinnamon in color, especially in the +wings. It is much like the marbled godwit in color, but its curved bill +is easily distinguished from the straight bill of the godwit. + +_Fall._--I quote again from Mr. Wickersham (1902) as follows: + + July is spent in raising the chicks and by the middle or + latter part of August, all is ready for the flight south + to Texas, Mexico, Florida, and the West Indies. Then it + is that we see them in great flocks of hundreds, bobbing + up and down all over the prairie, more nervous than ever; + and then it is that they are least wary at times and at + other times so very wary that it is impossible to approach + them. They are so nervous and upset that they do not seem + to know their own mind and it is at that season of the + year that their antics become almost as ridiculous as they + are just before the breeding season. The day comes when + you stroll out to take notes on the birds that you have + seen by the hundreds the day before only to find that they + have disappeared; not a bird answers your call, no hoarse + screaming betokens your approach; they have gone, gone + far away in long V-like squadrons and, unless you follow + them to their winter home in the southland, you will not + see their familiar forms for many months. + +The long-billed curlew is now practically unknown in any of the Eastern +States, but it formerly appeared on the Atlantic coast about the middle +of July and in the Southern States in early August. It is still quite +common in California from the middle of July through September. The +main flight goes directly south to Texas and Mexico. + +_Game._--Although long since removed from the game-bird list, +the “sickle-bill” was a fine game bird. Its large size made it a +tempting target. It decoyed readily and could be easily whistled +down by imitating its notes. The cries of a wounded bird were sure +to attract others, which would circle around again and again until +many were killed. For these and other reasons it is well that the +much-needed protection came in time to save this fine bird from certain +extermination. + +Dr. D. G. Elliot (1895) writes: + + Once when shooting in Florida, in the vicinity of St. + Augustine, a large flock of these birds passed overhead, + and I brought down some by two shots from my gun. Although + naturally much alarmed, the survivors immediately returned + to their wounded companions, which were calling aloud as + they lay upon the marsh, flying over and around them, with + hanging legs, and uttering answering notes of sympathy, + and approaching nearer and nearer until they were not many + feet above the ground. Repeated discharges of my gun failed + for a time to drive the unwounded birds from the vicinity, + but as each individual fell from the ranks, the rest would + swoop toward it, and with much crying seem to urge it to + rise and follow them. The air was full of rapid-flying + circling birds, each one screaming its best, and it was not + until a considerable number had fallen that the remainder, + convinced at length of the fruitlessness of their efforts, + and the danger present to themselves, departed for a more + secure locality. + +_Winter._--The long-billed curlew is still quite common in Texas and +Mexico in winter. Mr. Wickersham (1902) says: + + After reaching its winter home, the curlew undergoes little + change of habits except in his relation to other birds. + For a few days the big bunches stay together and then they + begin to separate into small bunches of from 2 to 20 birds. + It is rarely that a single one is seen entirely by himself + but two or three feeding together and then, perhaps a mile + off, two or three more and in this way scattered all over + the pastures and prairies is the way we find them in Texas. + They are rarely found in the brush or even in ponds or + swales surrounded by the brush, but far out on the open + prairie or in little mud flats on the larger swales we + rarely miss them. Here they feed all day looking for almost + any form of insectivorous or crustacean life. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and Central America, accidental in the West Indies and +Newfoundland. Failure to accurately separate the different curlews, +particularly on the Atlantic seaboard, causes some uncertainty +regarding their general ranges, but _americanus_ is evidently now very +rare east of the Mississippi River. + +_Breeding range._--The long-billed curlew breeds (at least formerly) +north to British Columbia (150-mile House, probably Lac La Hache, +and Vernon); Alberta (near Calgary, probably Flagstaff, and Walsh); +Saskatchewan (Rush Lake and Quill Lake); Manitoba (Shell River, +Aweme, and Pilot Mound); North Dakota (Bathgate and Argusville); and +Wisconsin (Ceresco and Racine). East to Wisconsin (Racine); Illinois +(formerly Chicago); Iowa (Newton and formerly Ferry); Kansas (Neosho +Falls); Oklahoma (Camp Supply and Ivanhoe Lake); and Texas (Houston, +Corpus Christi, and Brownsville). South to Texas (Brownsville, and +Fort Davis); New Mexico (Fort Sumner, Santa Rosa, Los Pinos, and +Fort Wingate); Arizona (Sulphur Springs); Utah (Fairfield, and Skull +Valley); Nevada (probably Franklin Lake, Humboldt River, and Truckee +Valley); and northern California (Pitt River, Butte Valley, and +Eagleville). West to California (Eagleville); Oregon (Fort Klamath, +Camp Harney, Haines and Dalles); Washington (Kiona, Yakima, and Wapato +Lake); and British Columbia (Okanagan, Vernon, and 150-mile houses). + +_Winter range._--The winter range extends north to California (San +Rafael and Sacramento Valley); southern Arizona (Pima County); rarely +New Mexico (Demning, Santa Rosa, and Carlsbad); Texas (Pecos, San +Angelo, Clay County, and Victoria); Louisiana (Vermilion Bay); and +formerly South Carolina (Charleston). East to formerly South Carolina +(Charleston and Frogmore); Georgia (Savannah, Sapelo Island, and +Darien); and Florida (mouth of the St. Johns River, Tarpon Springs, +and Fort Myers). South to Florida (Fort Myers); and rarely Guatemala +(Duenas, and Chiapan). West to rarely Guatemala (Chiapan); Oaxaca +(Juchitan); Jalisco (La Barca); Durango (Rancho Santriario); Lower +California (San Jose del Cabo, La Paz, Magdalena Bay, and San Quintin); +and California (San Diego, Owens Lake, San Joaquin Valley, San +Francisco, and San Rafael). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: North Carolina, +Corolla, April 15, Virginia, Chesapeake, April 15, and Locustvile, +April 16; District of Columbia, Washington, April 11; New York, Montauk +Point, April 28; Maine, Scarboro, May 2; Missouri, Warrensburg, April +1, St. Louis, April 2, and Appleton City, April 3; Illinois, Mount +Carmel, April 4, Quincy, April 10, and Canton, April 15; Indiana, +Liverpool, April 2; Iowa, Mitchell, April 3, Ferry, April 13, and +Coralville, April 15; Minnesota, Hallock, April 24; Oklahoma, Sentinel, +April 5; Kansas, Emporia, April 9, and Manhattan, April 13; Nebraska, +Valentine, March 28, Long Pine, March 29, Whitman, March 31, and Alda, +April 3; South Dakota, Vermilion, April 5, and Rapid City, April 10; +North Dakota, Argusville, April 8, Charlson, April 14, and Larimore, +April 15; Manitoba, Aweme, April 9, Margaret, May 2, and Killarney, +May 4; Saskatchewan, Eastend, April 16; Ravenscrag, April 28, Osler, +May 7, and Indian Head, May 9; Colorado, Springfield, April 3, +Colorado Springs, April 11, Denver, April 15, and Salida, April 29; +Utah, Salt Lake County, March 28, and Camp Floyd, April 12; Wyoming, +Sheridan, April 13, Cheyenne, April 15, and Jackson, April 18; Idaho, +Grangeville, March 14, and Neeley, March 15; Montana, Great Falls, +April 5, Terry, April 7, Corvallis, April 7, and Big Sandy, April 13; +Alberta, Provost, April 22, Veteran, May 2, and Flagstaff, May 14; +Oregon, Malheur Lake, March 28, Klamath Falls, March 28, Narrows, March +30, and Lawen, April 1; Washington, Prescott, March 23, and Chelan, +April 6; and British Columbia, Okanagan Landing, March 29, and Osoyoos +Lake, April 1. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Florida, Palma Sola, May 11; North +Carolina, Cape Hatteras, May 20, and Cape Lookout, May 24; Maryland, +Hail Point, May 23; Missouri, Corning, May 25; Tepic, San Blas, April +28, and Los Penas Island, May 5; and Lower California, Turtle Bay, +April 14, and mouth of the Colorado River, May 15. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: Lower California, +San Quintin, July 4, and San Jose del Cabo, August 26; Sonora, Altar, +September 14; New Hampshire, Rye Beach, August 12; Massachusetts, +Amesbury, July 21, Plymouth, August 9, and Cape Cod, August 27; Rhode +Island, Newport, July 15; New York, Orient Point, July 9, and Long +Beach, July 24; Maryland, Ocean City, August 19; South Carolina, +Frogmore, August 7, and Ladys Island, August 9; Florida, Tarpon +Springs, July 5; and Alabama, Dauphin Island, August 21. + +Late dates of fall departure are: British Columbia, Okanagan Landing, +October 29; Washington, Grays Harbor, October 7; Oregon, Klamath Lake, +November 19; Montana, Big Sandy, August 25, and Choteau, September +4; Idaho, Neeley, October 1; Utah, Fillmore, November 19; Wyoming, +Cheyenne, August 9, and Yellowstone Park, August 22; Colorado, Denver, +September 12, Yuma, September 30, and Barr, October 22; Saskatchewan, +Eastend, August 6, and Quill Lake, August 11; Manitoba, Westbourne +Marsh, October 8 (Nash); South Dakota, Rapid City, August 3, and +Hermosa, August 15; Nebraska, Whitman, August 25, Valentine, September +1, and Long Pine, September 6; Michigan, Washtenaw County, September +12, and Ann Arbor, September 15; Ohio, Cleveland, September 15; +Missouri, Jasper County, October 15; Quebec, Montreal, September 21; +Massachusetts, Plum Island, September 2; Rhode Island, Jamestown, +September 9; New York, Fishers Island, September 10, and Montauk Point, +September 12; New Jersey, Cape May, September 14; and Virginia, Wallops +Island, September 6, and Cobb Island, September 25. + +_Casual records._--As previously stated, the long-billed curlew is +now of casual or accidental occurrence east of the Mississippi River, +although it was formerly fairly plentiful on the Atlantic coast. Macoun +reports it as a rare emigrant in Newfoundland without particulars, and +in the lack of subsequent confirmation it seems probable that he was +misinformed. Preble (1908) records a specimen that was taken several +years previous in the vicinity of Fort Simpson, Mackenzie. Several +occurrences have been recorded for Alaska, among which are: Bethel, +five seen May 9, 1917, by J. J. Brown (authority of A. H. Twitchell); +a specimen, without date or exact locality, recorded by Macoun; St. +Michael, June 19, 1874 (Turner); and upper Kuskokwim, July 23, 1898 +(Hinckley). A specimen also is reported as having been taken near +Spanishtown, Jamaica, in July, 1863. + +Other West Indian records for this species are considered indefinite +and probably refer to _N. hudsonicus_. + +_Egg dates._--Utah: 41 records, April 1 to May 22; 21 records, April +26 to May 9. Montana and Idaho: 24 records, April 20 to July 4; 12 +records, May 16 to 29. Saskatchewan: 11 records, May 3 to July 4; 6 +records, May 23 to June 10. Washington and Oregon: 7 records, May 4 to +20. + + + NUMENIUS ARQUATA ARQUATA (Linnaeus) + + EUROPEAN CURLEW + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The European curlew is said to have occurred once on Long Island, N. +Y., in 1853, and the specimen is still extant in the New York State +Museum. It was originally recorded as a long-billed curlew, _Numenius +longirostris_, but was identified by William Dutcher, who recorded it +in the _Auk_ (1892). Its claim to a place in the American list does not +however rest on this ancient record, as E. Lehn Schiöler says that it +has also occurred both on the west and east coasts of Greenland. The +first record was that of Johan Petersen, who obtained a young male on +August 23, 1913, at Angmagsalik on the east coast. Another was shot at +Nanortalik in Julianehaab district in 1915 on the west side. + +_Spring._--Although great numbers of curlew are present throughout +the winter on the mud flats and low lying coasts and estuaries of the +British Isles, there is little doubt that the majority of our homebred +birds migrate southward, and this is confirmed by the fact that when +the breeding birds appear on the moors, the shore haunting birds are +still present in their haunts and remain for several weeks longer. +The average date of the arrival of the breeding stock in the north of +England is about mid February; Chapman has recorded their arrival from +February 5 to March 11, and in years of heavy snowfall, such as 1886, +they were unable to reach their nesting ground till March 19. In mid +Derbyshire they generally arrive early in March. + +_Courtship._--As William Farren (1910) remarks the watchfulness of +the curlew and the open nature of the country it frequents, make +observation of the courtship on the ground extremely difficult. +False nests or “scrapes” are almost invariably to be found in the +neighborhood of the nest, and O. R. Owen writes that in some parts of +Radnorshire, where the curlew breeds commonly, it is not unusual to +find two or three dozen “scrapes” in an afternoon. The curlews arrive +on the moors in flocks, which keep together for a week or so, but soon +resolve themselves into pairs. At this times, the moors reecho with +their songs. Mr. Farren describes it as follows: + + The performance, with its accompanying trilling song, + resembles somewhat that of the redshank. It rises from + the ground and with rapid wing beats ascends to a good + height. Often when near the summit of its flight it + checks suddenly, almost throwing itself over backwards. + Recovering, it hangs poised kestrel-like in the air, and + while so hovering, and also during a short temporary + drop on motionless wings, it pours forth the trilling or + jodelling song. It rises again on quivering wings and + again sinks as before. This may continue for some time or + it may be varied by the bird circling round on extended + wings, when one is again reminded of the flight of a hawk. + More often than not the bird will stop before a circle + is completed and hover again over a fresh spot. So it + continues, circling, rising, and falling, and pouring forth + a joyful ripple of song. The song consists of two--or + three--rising notes, rapidly repeated, high pitched, but + liquid and flutelike. I would express the curlew’s song as + _gur-lech, gur-lech, gur-lech, gur-lech_, pronounced rather + distinctly at first and not too quickly, but quickening + after the first two or three repetitions. Toward the end + the syllables must be almost run together, losing all of + the first except the “g” and at no time sounding the “ch” + too hard but rather as in the Scottish “loch.” + +Seton Gordon (1915) writes as follows: + + The singer, flying along the moor a few yards above + the surface of the ground, checks his flight and rises + almost perpendicularly with wings rapidly beating the + air. On reaching a certain elevation he soars--glides + rather--earthward in a slanting direction, and it is now + that his song is uttered. Commencing usually in a couple + of long-drawn whistles, uttered in a very low key, the + song quickens, the notes are sharper and clearer, and have + at the middle of the performance a curious, distinctive + “break,” difficult to put into words. It is at this point + that the song is carried far across the moorland country, + but almost at once the key is lowered, the calls become + more subdued, more drawn out, until they end, as they + commenced, in low, melancholy tones. Sometimes one sees + a curlew making his way across a moor and constantly + fluttering up into the air. But one imagines that there + is something at fault, for time after time he utters + only the first note of his song and then almost at once + mounts again into the heavens. Can it be that he does not + succeed in reaching the correct altitude from which all + self-respecting curlew commence their appeals to their + adored ones? But perhaps the songster is not producing + that bottom note satisfactorily and thus is doing his + best to perfect it. It is, I believe, only the male birds + that practice these distinctive risings and dips in the + air, but I can assert from personal experience the hen + also makes use of the trilling, tuneful notes which most + ornithologists associate only with the cock bird during the + season of nesting. + +_Nesting._--The nesting sites are somewhat varied. Often the eggs +are laid in a slight hollow, lined with grass or sometimes sprigs +of heather on moorlands among short or long heather; others will +breed among the long, wiry grass of high levels or on short-cropped +pasture lands. A tussock in the middle of a wet bog may be used, or, +exceptionally, the nest may be in a plowed field. There is not much +effort at concealment, but the sentry is generally on watch to warn the +sitting bird. Occasionally I have known a bird allow approach within +a few yards, and Mr. Fenwick records a case in which the sitting bird +allowed itself to be stroked and even lifted from the eggs. As a rule, +the bird leaves the nest long before the intruder comes anywhere near. +The nest is about 5 to 5½ inches across. + +_Eggs._--The eggs, which are normally four, are occasionally only three +or sometimes five. Of this latter number I have about a dozen records. +The only recorded case of six was probably due to two hens laying +together. The eggs are very large for the size of the bird, pyriform +in shape and very thin shelled, and are not laid on consecutive days. +In color they range from light green to olive green or olive brown, +spotted or sometimes blotched with light or dark umber brown and ashy +shellmarks. Exceptional varieties are pale greenish blue or whitish +grey, almost unmarked. The measurements of 100 British eggs, made by +the writer, average 67.6 by 47.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the +four extremes measure =78.6= by =55.1=, =56.2= by 44, and 61 by =43= +millimeters. + +_Young._--Incubation is carried on by both sexes, and the period is +29½ to 30 days. In spite of their long legs the young can run soon +after they are hatched, but remain in the nest longer than the young +of most waders, running out and concealing themselves on the approach +of danger. Both parents assist in looking after the young, and only a +single brood is raised in the season. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920). + +_Food._--During the winter months the main food consists of marine +mollusca, such as cockles (_Cardium edule_), mussels (_Mytilus +edulis_), _Mya tellina_, _Bythenia_, etc.; also Crustacea, especially +small crabs; occasionally fishes from rock pools, such as _blennies_ +and Annelida (lugworms). In the breeding season land Mollusca, such +as snails (_Helix aspersa_, _H. nemoralis_, etc.) and slugs; Amphitra +(small frogs), Annelida (earthworms). Insects, including Diptera +and their larvae (chiefly Tipulidae), Lepidoptera and their larvae, +Orthoptera (_Acheta_, _Forficula_), Rhyncota (_Notonecta_, etc.), and +Coleoptera (_Rhizotragus_, _Anisoplia_, _Dytiscus_, _Scarabicus_, +_Aphodius_, _Harpalus_, _Zabras_, _Pterostichus_, etc.). Also vegetable +matter, seeds of _Polygonum_ and grasses, berries of crowberry +(_Empetrum nigrum_) and _Vaccinium myrtillus_; occasionally also +blackberries. Fragments of seaweed have also been found in the stomach. + +_Behavior._--The curlew is not popular with the shore shooter, as he +is not only exceptionally wary himself but seems to take a delight in +warning other and less suspicious species. Howard Saunders says that he +has seen a curlew, after shrieking wildly over the head of a sleeping +seal, swoop down and apparently flick with its wing the unsuspecting +animal upon which the stalker was just raising his rifle. + +Although a bird of the coast and bare moorlands, it can and does perch +not infrequently on trees. In North Brabant, where it breeds on the +vast expanses of moorland with scattered belts of small pine trees, I +have seen an excited pair perched insecurely on the tips of small trees +and keeping up an unceasing succession of anxious yelping notes while +their young crouched in the heather below. Although it usually wades, +the curlew can on occasion take voluntarily to the water and swims well. + +_Enemies._--Naumann mentions the peregrine and gyrfalcon, as well as +the goshawk among the enemies of this species. Saxby, J. F. Peters, +and others have found remains of curlew at the feeding places of the +peregrine; and Ussher also states that it is also the case in Ireland. + +_Fall._--Early in July the young birds are on the wing on the English +moors and are already beginning to collect into packs, which leave the +breeding grounds about the middle of the month and resort to the shore. + +_Winter._--Probably most of the birds which winter on the English +coasts are migrants from northern Europe. They chiefly haunt the larger +estuaries and the wide mud flats of the east coast, assembling in +flocks of fifty to a hundred. When their feeding grounds are covered by +the tide they will sometimes work inland, or may be seen waiting for +the water to recede on some isolated clump of rock which commands a +view in all directions, all facing the same way. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--The British Isles, but only locally in England in +the midlands and southeast; also in the Orkneys and Shetlands; but not +in the Faroes. On the Continent, France (only in Bretagne), Belgium, +Holland, Germany, Denmark (Jutland), Switzerland, Austria, Carinthia, +Galicia, Rumania (Dobrogea), Poland, the Baltic Republics, Sweden and +Norway, Russia, and Finland south to the Perm Government. In Asia it is +replaced by an eastern race (_N. arquata lineatus_), which ranges east +to Japan. + +_Winter range._--Many winter in the British Isles, southern Europe +(the Mediterranean region), and a great part of Africa. Also in small +numbers to the Persian Gulf, but here it meets the eastern form. + +_Spring migration._--At the Straits of Gibraltar the passage takes +place in March, but Irby saw a few late in April, while along +the Portuguese coast they pass from March to May. In the eastern +Mediterranean some leave Cyprus by the end of February, but stragglers +have been seen on March 30 and April 5 and others have been seen on +Crete at the end of April. In Iraq large flocks passed Feluja between +mid April and May 25, flying north in the evening. + +_Fall migration._--Although long after the normal southward migration +the advent of hard weather will bring big flocks past Heligoland flying +west as late as November 19 to 20. The young birds begin to arrive +there as early as mid July from Scandinavia, and on the Portuguese +coast the passage lasts from late July to November and at Tangier from +September through October. At the Ionian Isles and on Cyprus they +arrive at the beginning of September, and the passage through Greece +lasts throughout September. + +_Casual records._--The records for Greenland and eastern America have +been mentioned. In Iceland Faber recorded the first on September 6, +1819, and since then other occurrences have taken place without exact +date. To the Faroes it is only a straggler in the winter months. In the +Canaries it is an occasional visitor, chiefly to the eastern isles, and +has been seen there as late as June 14. It has also been recorded from +the Azores, Madeira (December 7, 1893, October 25, 1896, October 28, +1896, January 30, 1897, and great numbers on April 28, 1898) and the +Cape Verde Islands. + +_Egg dates._--British Isles, April 17 to May 31 (42 dates), April 20 +to May 10 (26 dates). Holland and Germany, earliest date April 6. +Scandinavia from about mid May onward, May 13 to 26 (6 dates). + + + NUMENIUS HUDSONICUS Latham + + HUDSONIAN CURLEW + + + HABITS + +A striking case of the survival of the fittest is seen when we compare +the relative abundance of the three common species of North American +curlews to-day with their status 50 years ago. Whereas, at that time +the Hudsonian curlew was the rarest of the three, it is now by far the +commonest. The vast flocks of Eskimo curlew, that formerly frequented +the Labrador coast every summer and visited the New England coast +at frequent intervals, have all disappeared. They were tame and +unsuspicious, were easily decoyed, and were therefore slaughtered in +enormous numbers on their feeding grounds; they made a long migratory +flight over the ocean from Nova Scotia to South America, where many +undoubtedly perished in stormy weather. The long-billed curlew, once so +common all over the interior prairie regions, and even on the Atlantic +coast, has gradually been driven westward and northward, until it is +now occupying a comparatively restricted range. The long-billed will +probably be the next of the curlews to disappear, perhaps within the +near future. But the Hudsonian curlew, on the other hand, has held its +own, and in some sections it has apparently increased. This increase, +however, is probably more apparent than real, due to comparison with +other species which are decreasing rapidly. The reasons for its success +in the struggle for existence are not hard to find. Its breeding +grounds are in the far north, where it is never disturbed; it has no +dangerous migration route; it does not ordinarily migrate in large +flocks, which are susceptible to vicissitudes of weather and great +slaughter at the hands of gunners; but, above all, it is a shy, wary, +wily bird, quite capable of taking care of itself and well fitted to +survive. Like the crow, it is more than a match for its enemies. + +The Hudsonian curlew was evidently comparatively rare in Audubon’s +time, for he apparently knew very little about it. Wilson seems to have +overlooked it entirely or to have confused it with the Eskimo curlew, +and Nuttall’s remarks are not altogether clear on the subject. George +H. Mackay (1892_b_) says: + + Speaking for Nantucket and Tuckernuck Islands, as far as + I am aware, not over 15 or 20 of these birds a year on an + average have been shot there during the past 17 years, and + the local saying, that “it does not pay to go after them,” + is true, they being too shy and too limited in number to + make it any object, either for gain or for pleasure. During + these 17 years there have never been more than 100 birds on + an average living on the above islands each year, and for + the past few years I have noticed a falling off from this + number. + +I am quite sure that I have seen more Hudsonian curlews on Cape Cod +during the past 10 years that I saw during the previous 20. The species +certainly has not decreased, and I am inclined to think that it has +increased. The 1927 fall flight was unusually heavy. + +_Spring._--From its winter range on the Pacific coast of South America +this curlew migrates through Central America to Florida and up the +Atlantic coast. It reaches Florida during the latter half of March, the +Carolinas about the middle of April, and Massachusetts about the middle +of May. During a week spent with Arthur T. Wayne on the South Carolina +coast May 18 to 25, 1915, I saw the last part of a heavy flight of +Hudsonian curlews. Mr. Wayne told me that the first birds come early +in April, but the height of the migration is between the third week +in April and the second week in May, when enormous numbers (he says +hundreds of thousands) may be seen every day. We saw no such numbers, +but numerous flocks were seen every morning flying in to feed on +fiddler crabs on the extensive marshes and flying out again at night to +roost on the sand bars and islands. They flew high in the air in +V-shaped flocks or in long irregular lines and their loud notes could +be heard almost constantly. + +Herbert K. Job (1905) saw them here in “scores of thousands”; he spent +a night at each of several little low islands--mere sand bars--lying +off the coast, and says: + + About half past 5 or 6 o’clock, when the sun was low in the + horizon or had set behind a cloud bank, the first advancing + line is seen, and a string of from a dozen to 50 Hudsonian + curlews come scaling over the beach, to alight on the bar, + down at the other end. After a few minutes another flock is + seen approaching. By half past 6 they are arriving fast, + and by 7 there are two or three flocks in sight all the + time, some of them containing as many as 75 birds. Meantime + I am shooting at them as they pass, with my reflex camera, + despite the dull light. As may be imagined, the company on + the sand has become immense, covering many acres. They keep + up a sort of murmuring noise, and now and then all fly up, + with a perfect storm and tumult of wings and voices, soon + to alight again. Even after dark they are yet arriving, + as one may hear. I hazard the guess that there are often + 10,000 curlews at such a roost each night. At the first + glimmer of day they are off again for the marshes. + +Mr. Wayne (1910) makes the following interesting suggestion: + + This species supplanted the long-billed curlew between + the years 1883 and 1885, for previous to these dates the + former species was rare, but it gradually became more + abundant each year until it established itself firmly in + great numbers. The result was that the long-billed curlew + was driven from its accustomed range by a smaller species + in the struggle for existence. The long-billed curlews fed + almost entirely upon fiddlers, and the Hudsonian curlew + also subsisted upon them, and as the food supply was + inadequate, one species was forced to seek other paths of + migration. + +The Hudsonian curlew seems to be a rare migrant everywhere in the +interior; some of my correspondents do not mention it at all and others +give only scattering records. But William I. Lyon writes to me that +he saw a flock of about 100 on May 22, 1926, in Illinois; they were +flying in V formation, uttering their characteristic four short +whistles, and breaking sometimes from a V into a line. Edwin Beaupre +tells me that “the foot of Amherst Island, in Lake Ontario, is a +favorite crossing place for these curlews in their northward flight. +May 24 is the date on which they may be looked for, passing through +this locality in one large flock.” + +J. A. Munro (1911) records a heavy flight which occurred at Fisherman’s +Island, Toronto, during three days, May 24 to 26, 1910; a careful count +was made of passing flocks in which over 1,000 birds were recorded. +Probably the main flight from the Atlantic coast turns inland before +it reaches New England and flies by way of the Great Lakes to the west +side of Hudson Bay. The species is rare in New England in the spring. + +Along the Pacific coast there is a heavy migration; the main flight +appears in southern California about the middle of March, progresses +slowly northward, reaches Alaska about the middle of May, and arrives +on the breeding grounds in northern Mackenzie by the end of May. In +California the main migration route is coastwise, the bulk of the +flight coming in April; but John G. Tyler (1913) records them as +“regular spring migrants” in the interior valleys. “Their favorite +resorts are large, open fields where shallow ponds occur, and in such +places they often gather in large numbers.” D. E. Brown’s notes record +them as common, or very abundant at times, in Washington, flocks of 40 +or 50 birds being not at all uncommon; his dates run from April 7 to +May 14. + +_Nesting._--The best account of the nesting habits of this species and +its behavior on its breeding grounds is given us by Dr. Joseph Grinnell +(1900), who found eight nests in the Kotzebue Sound region of northern +Alaska; he writes: + + I found the Hudsonian curlew to be a common breeding bird + over the tundras from Cape Blossom eastward into the Kowak + Valley. In the vicinity of our winter camp on the Kowak, + the arrival of the curlews was on May 17. From the middle + to the last of June, in the Kowak delta, I became well + acquainted with the Hudsonian curlew. At this season they + were of course mated and most of them had eggs. They were + ordinarily met with on the open stretches of tundra, often + where these alternate with strips of timber and lakes. + Where such perches are afforded, solitary birds on watch + would be seen sitting on the tips of isolated dwarfed + spruces or even willow bushes. As soon as an intruder + entered the domains of a pair of curlew, the bird on watch + would give the alarm by a loud, ringing call note, and soon + both birds would fly to meet him. As long as the intruder + remains in the vicinity, the pair of birds keep flying + restlessly to and fro, now and then alighting on the ground + and walking about, but most of the time keeping up their + monotonous rolling whistle. This was the only note I heard, + except earlier in the season a long, faint whistle like + that of a distant locomotive, uttered by the male bird + while sailing slowly, on set motionless wings over the + nesting grounds. This is probably their song flight, though + it is certainly very simple. The far-off whistle, however, + puzzled me for some time as to its origin. I at first + thought it was a steam launch on the river somewhere, until + I finally connected the sound with the slow soaring of the + curlew overhead. + + The eggs so closely resemble the monotonous lights and + shadows of the surrounding moss and grass that I have + stepped directly over the nest, all the while scrutinizing + every foot of the ground about me, without detecting the + eggs. Sometimes from the nature of the surroundings the + eggs are more conspicuous and can be seen 10 yards or more, + but this is the exception. While one is at the nest, the + parents fly close about one, almost deafening one with + their loud penetrating cries. If anything the male bird + is the most demonstrative of the two. The nest is simply + a saucer-shaped depression in the top of a low hummock of + moss or grass. The locality was always a wet swale or low + place in the tundra, in which the clumps of grass or moss + were often surrounded at their bases with water. The nests + were in no way protected, the eggs always being in plain + view, but the remarkable mimicry in their coloration is + generally of sufficient protection. + +MacFarlane collected some 13 sets of eggs on the barren grounds west +of the lower Anderson River, but I find only one nest described in his +notes; this he said was “a depression in the ground, lined with a few +decayed leaves.” Stanton Warburton, Jr. took a set of three eggs near +Teller, Alaska, on July 4, 1924; he writes to me that “the nest was +situated on hard, dry tundra, the eggs occupying a slight depression +in light grasses; distinctive nesting material of grey lichen-light +material covered the cavity. Both birds were present.” A nest found +by Bishop J. O. Stringer on an island in the lower Mackenzie River is +described as a pile of grass, moss, and weeds. + +_Eggs._--The Hudsonian curlew lays almost invariably four eggs, though +the set of three referred to above was heavily incubated. The eggs are +hardly, if at all, distinguishable from those of the European whimbrel. +They are ovate pyriform, rather pointed, in shape and show little or no +gloss. Doctor Grinnell (1900) describes them as follows: + + Their ground color is very variable, from a bluish pea + green through olive buff to light olive green. The markings + are numerous and somewhat amassed at the larger ends of + the eggs. They consist of dots, spots, and blotches of + pale lavender, drab, Prout’s brown, and bistre. The latter + seems in every case the real pigment, and the varying depth + to which it is covered with subsequent layers of shell + material, seems to account for the different tints, even to + the palest lavender. + +In the few sets that I have seen the prevailing ground colors are dark +and light shades of “olive buff,” with occasionally “Isabella color” +or “ecru olive.” In the markings I recognized various browns, such +as “bone brown,” “warm sepia,” “Saccardo’s umber,” “olive brown,” +and “buffy brown.” The measurements of 37 eggs average 57.5 by 40.7 +millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =61.9= by 41.7, +59.2 by =43.2=, =52= by 38.5, and 55 by =37.2= millimeters. + +_Plumages._--I have never seen a downy young Hudsonian curlew, and, +so far as I know, it has never been described. Young birds are in +juvenal plumage when they reach us on migration. They are more easily +recognized by their much shorter bills than by any plumage differences, +as they look much like adults. The markings on the neck and breast are +finer and closer; the feathers of the back, scapulars, tertials, and +wing coverts are “warm sepia,” notched with cream-white or pale buff, +producing a spotted effect, most pronounced on the wing coverts and +tertials (in adults these parts are more narrowly edged with buff); the +rump is “sepia,” with large spots of “pinkish buff,” and the upper +tail coverts are barred with the same colors; the under parts are +more buffy than in adults and the whole effect is brighter and more +variegated. + +A postjuvenal body molt in late fall or early winter, which almost +runs into a first prenuptial molt, produces a plumage, which can be +distinguished from the adult only by the faded juvenal wing coverts and +the bird becomes fully adult at the next postnuptial molt. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, beginning with the body molt +in August and ending with the molt of the primaries in the winter; soon +after the wings are molted, or from February to May they have a partial +prenuptial molt, including the body plumage, the tail, and some of the +scapulars and wing coverts. + +_Food._--Hudsonian curlews are mainly shore feeders; on the beaches and +sand flats they pick up various insects, worms, small mollusks, and +crustaceans, often probing for the sand fleas in the wet sand; on the +mud flats they find similar animal food. I have also often seen them on +the marshes, or even on high, dry pasture lands, such as are frequented +by golden plover and Eskimo curlews, where they find grasshoppers, +spiders, beetles, and other insects. In South Carolina we saw them at +low tide on the oyster banks and on the mud banks riddled with holes of +fiddler crabs, on which they were doubtless feeding. In the Magdalen +Islands I have seen them on the uplands and among the sand dunes, +where they were evidently eating crow berries (_Empetrum nigrum_). +They are also said to eat blueberries, dewberries, and various seeds. +E. W. Hadeler tells me that he once saw them feeding on the bodies of +light-colored millers; the beach was lined with these moths, some dead +and others alive, and the curlews did not like to leave this abundant +supply of food. + +Mr. Mackay (1892_b_) says: + + They feed on fiddler crabs, grasshoppers, and the large + gray sand spiders (_Lycosa_) which live in holes in + the sand among the beach grass adjacent to headlands, + huckleberries, which they pick from the bushes, and beetles + (_Lachnosterna_, _Scarabaeidae_), all of which are usually + mixed with coarse gravel. When a flock of these birds is + on the ground where they have been feeding they become + scattered, 25 or 30 birds covering 15 or 20 yards’ space. + At such times they do not appear to be particularly active, + moving about in a rather slow, stately manner, although I + have once in a while seen them run. + +L. L. Jewel (1913) writes: + + One of the bird surprises of my life was to see a Hudsonian + curlew tiptoe and catch butterflies within 20 feet of my + front door at Gatun. The clearings in and around the town + seemed very attractive to these birds and they were fairly + tame. Marching or advancing by rushes, always with graceful + dignity, sometimes singly but more often in groups of four + or five, they foraged through the shorter grass, picking + up or catching on the wing their insect food. They usually + kept near the water’s edge or well down in dry gullies, but + also fed on higher ground at times. + +_Behavior._--Although Hudsonian curlews may fly swiftly at times and +probably make good speed when traveling they appear to me to fly rather +slowly and heavily, with steady and rather moderate wing beats; they +often set their wings and scale for a long distance. When migrating +over land they usually fly high, in flocks, much after the manner of +ducks and geese; but when migrating over water or flying to and from +their roosting grounds they often fly in long lines close to the water. +Their flight has been said to resemble the flight of gulls when moving +in flocks, or to suggest that of herons when flying close to the water, +but I could never see any such resemblance. + +Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1905) says: + + They walk and run rapidly, stand still, often with one foot + several inches in front of the other, rest occasionally by + squatting down, with tarsi flat on the ground, or standing + upon one leg, with the other out behind. + +William L. Dawson (1923) writes: + + The curlews deploy, then, upon the dry sands of the upper + beach and either potter about on listless lookout for + passing insects or else squat upon the sand, tuck bill + under wing, and lose themselves in dreams. There is always + at least one wary fellow on guard, however, and let but + the smallest appearance of motion, be it only a khaki hat, + break the purity of the sky line among the attendant sand + dunes, and a quaver of warning puts the scattered flock on + guard. Sleepy heads are stealthily withdrawn; the birds + rise slowly and begin to creep toward their leader, their + neutral-colored bodies scarcely distinguishable against the + background of sand; and all meanwhile scanning the horizon + for the danger sign. If the alarm spreads, all run down + the beach slope for a quick take-off, pass over the surf + line, and then parallel the shore with moderate, firm wing + strokes until a safe distance has been reached. + +_Voice._--John T. Nichols says in his notes: + + The flight note of the Hudsonian curlew in migration + resembles somewhat that of the greater yellowlegs, but + is easily distinguished therefrom, being less modulated + and usually lower pitched. It commonly consists of four + short whistles, but is frequently prolonged, sometimes + accelerated into a trill. The more prolonged calls are + usually the dryer and seem characteristic of the noisiest + birds, flying highest or with most uncertainty. On its + northern breeding grounds (Nome, July, 1926) this species + keeps up a continual vocal protest while an intruder is + present. Its note then matches in form the trills which may + be heard in migration but is much more musical and varied + in quality. It may be described as polysyllabic, rolling, + usually 10 syllabled or less; modulated and varied in + tone--loud, reedy, sweet, mellow, or liquid. It is the same + when the bird is in the air as when it is on the ground. + +Mr. Mackay (1892_b_) says that the rolling note sounds like “that +produced by a boy’s lead bird whistle filled with water.” They also +have a soft, musical _cur-lew_ note, more often heard in the spring. +Dr. E. R. P. Janvrin says in his notes: “The note uttered during +flight, usually just after the birds are put up and apparently an alarm +note, sounds like _krek, krek, krek_, quite loud and rather metallic.” +E. W. Hadeler refers to this note as _pip, pip_, uttered five or six +times in rapid succession. + +John G. Tyler (1913) writes: + + There are no birds with which I am acquainted that can + compare with these splendid waders in the rich, musical + quality of their voices. On the last day of one April I + encountered a large flock of curlews in a grain field, part + of which was being flooded at the time with irrigation + water. The nervous lispings that at my approach threatened + to break into the clamorous, screaming flight calls finally + subsided, and the birds fed and waded about in the water or + preened their feathers while standing storklike on one leg. + Suddenly I was thrilled with a medley of subdued pipings so + marvelously sweet and musical that I could hardly believe + the sound came from my flock of curlews. The faintest + whispering it seemed, yet the liquid melody was really + far-reaching and was, as I afterwards learned, distinctly + audible from a distance of a quarter of a mile when + atmospheric conditions were favorable. A strange nervous + unrest seemed to affect the entire group on the ground. + The whistlings became louder, and the cause was suddenly + revealed to me when a curlew call from overhead drew my + attention to a flock of new arrivals, nine in number, + that were circling preparatory to joining the company at + the pond. My surprise and admiration knew no bounds when + I realized the sublime heights at which these travelers + through the sky had been flying. Mere specks they appeared, + and yet their melodious call rang clear and distinct. + +_Field marks._--A large, rather pale brown bird with a long, decurved +bill can easily be recognized as a curlew; the long-billed curlew is +larger, has a longer bill, and is much more rufous or cinnamon colored, +especially in the wings; the Eskimo curlew is, or was, smaller, with +a shorter bill, though young Hudsonians have rather short bills. Mr. +Nichols suggests that at close range the much barred under wing can +frequently be noticed; the outer primaries look blacker and plainer +than in long-billed, and a white streak near the edge of the wing, made +by the primary quills, is cut off abruptly at the base by a blackish +blotch. + +_Fall._--Like most of the northern breeding shore birds, the Hudsonian +curlew moves off its breeding grounds as soon as the young are able +to shift for themselves, and begins its summer wanderings, or starts +on its southward migration early in July. There are two main lines of +flight, down the east and west coasts of the continent, as well as a +more scattering flight through the central valleys and plains. The +eastward flight is from the west coast of Hudson Bay, where many birds +linger through August, to the coasts of New England and southward. A +few Hudsonian curlews migrate as far east as Labrador; the species has +never been common there, but since the disappearance of the Eskimo +curlew it has been more in evidence; Lucien M. Turner recorded it only +twice in northern Ungava; a few specimens have been taken on the east +coast of Labrador. + +Adults appear on the coast of Massachusetts about the middle of July +and the young birds about a month later; the heaviest flights come in +August and September, but young birds often linger well into October; +my latest date is October 20. They reach the Carolinas in July; Mr. +Wayne (1910) says that he has seen them as early as July 5 and not +later than October 2. They are reported as migrating over the Bermudas +in August and September, but the last of the birds do not leave the +West Indies until November. + +Pacific coast flights occur on corresponding dates. Early in August, +when the blueberries and crowberries are ripening, large flocks of +this and bristle-thighed curlews come down to the Bering Sea coast +of Alaska, where large numbers are brought into the markets at Nome +all through August and early September. From there the migration is +southward along the Pacific coast. D. E. Brown’s dates for Pierce +County, Wash., run from August 6 to October 2, but probably there are +earlier dates. The earliest birds reach southern California about +the first week in July and the latest birds linger through October. +Meantime some of the birds have appeared in Peru early in August and in +Chile by the middle of that month. + +_Game._--The Hudsonian, or “jack,” curlew is a gamey bird, which will +test the skill and try the patience of the most experienced sportsman. +It is so shy and vigilant that it is difficult to outwit. It is almost +impossible to stalk an old bird, but I have, on rare occasions, been +able to creep up on a young bird. Most of my chances have been at +single birds flying over, when several gunners have been spread over +ground where scattered birds were feeding. Once a flock of 15 birds +swung by my blind within range, but they did not alight to my decoys. +Referring to the “good old days,” Mr. Mackay (1892_b_) writes: + + They were apparently as shy then as now, for even then it + was considered essential in order to take them to mortise + a hole in the ground for concealment in the locality + which they frequented or passed over, care being taken + to remove the soil taken out to some distance in a wagon + in order that the place might appear perfectly natural. + Stands were dug in the center of a clump of bushes, as + being less noticeable. In times past, on Cape Cod, I have + used a hogshead, sunken level with the marsh, from which + to shoot them, but even under such conditions I never + secured more than nine in one day, and that only once. The + Hudsonian curlew is a very observing bird and perceives at + once anything strange and out of harmony with the natural + surroundings of any locality which it has been in the + habit of frequenting, and in order to get a flock up to + the decoys considerable care must be exercised. Single + birds or pairs will, however, decoy fairly well if they + have not been harassed. These birds have a way of setting + their wings stationary and sailing, when headed for the + decoys, at a distance of 100 yards or more, the flock + separating out so that there are scarcely any two birds + together, and then hanging, as it were, in the air. During + this time they are most carefully listening and scanning + the decoys and surroundings. A movement causes them to + spring up in the air several feet, and as this is generally + when aim is being taken they are apt to be missed by being + undershot. In order to get them as near as possible I have + frequently set my decoys only a few feet to windward of + my stand, as it is customary for them, when heading for + the decoys, to keep falling off to leeward of them. They + are not an easy bird to kill, being strong and powerful, + and as the distance is usually great at which they are + shot at, owing to their vigilance, many go off wounded and + are not recovered. Should one or more be wing-broken they + frequently commence falling, which causes the remainder of + the flock to hover around for a short time, apparently to + give encouragement to the wounded ones, and while their + attention is thus absorbed they will often afford the + sportsman a second shot, if he keeps concealed. Were it + not for the satisfaction of getting so shy a bird, for, as + a rule, they are but indifferent eating, there would be + little inducement to waste the time necessary to obtain an + occasional one. I take a few every year by getting out of + my wagon into some place of concealment, when I observe + a flock in the distance on the ground, and letting my + companion drive around the other side and start them toward + me. Long familiarity with the ground enables me to form + some idea as to what course they are likely to pursue, and + I have obtained more or less in this manner. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and South America; accidental in Europe. + +_Breeding range._--The Hudsonian curlew is known to breed only on +the Arctic coast of North America from Alaska (Norton Sound, Kobuk +River, Cape Blossom, and probably Camden Bay) to Mackenzie (Anderson +River region). It has, however, been noted in summer in Keewatin +(Fort Churchill and near York Factory) and may possibly breed in that +vicinity. + +In common with several other shore birds, some individuals remain in +summer far south of their breeding grounds. At this season they have +been detected from New Jersey (Great Bay), south along the Atlantic +coast--Virginia (Wreck Island, Bone Island, and Wallops Island); South +Carolina (Mount Pleasant); to Costa Rica (Coronado de Terraba); and the +West Indies (Barbuda). + +_Winter range._--The winter range extends north probably to southern +California (Santa Cruz Island, Santa Barbara, and Ventura County); +probably rarely Louisiana; and rarely (formerly more commonly) South +Carolina (Bullyard Sound and probably Charleston). East to formerly +South Carolina (probably Charleston, Sea Islands, and Frogmore); +probably rarely Florida (Pine Island); probably Cuba; probably rarely +Porto Rico (Gundlach); the Lesser Antilles (Barbuda); Guiana (Berbice +River and Cayenne); Brazil (Praia de Cajetuba); and Chile (Island of +Chiloe). South to Chile (Island of Chiloe). West to Chile (Island of +Chiloe, Valdivia, Valparaiso, and Tarapaca); Peru (Lima, Trujillo, and +Tumbez); Ecuador (Bay of Santa Elena); Galapagos Islands (Charles and +Narborough Islands); Venezuela (Isla de Aves); Costa Rica; Honduras +(Gulf of Fonseca); Guatemala (Chiapam); Clipperton Island; Chiapas (San +Benito); Jalisco (La Barca); Sinaloa (Mazatlan); Lower California (La +Paz, San Jose Island, San Francisco Island, and Colorado River Delta); +and probably southern California (Santa Cruz Island). A specimen +obtained at Rockaway Beach, New York, on December 24, 1912, probably +was either a crippled bird or otherwise physically deficient. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: North Carolina, +Corolla, April 15, and Churchs Island, April 19; Virginia, Hog Island, +April 1, and Cape Charles, April 13; Pennsylvania, Renovo, May 7; New +Jersey, Cape May, April 12; New York, Montauk, April 28, and Shelter +Island, May 9; Connecticut, Fairfield, May 6; Rhode Island, Newport, +April 27, and Block Island, May 3; Massachusetts, Nantucket, April +10, and Muskeget Island, April 20; Ontario, Brighton, May 7, and +Toronto, May 17; Mackenzie, Fort Anderson, May 29; northern California, +Alameda, March 27, and Palo Alto, March 28; Oregon, Newport, March 14; +Washington, Hoquiam, April 19, and Everett, April 26; British Columbia, +Comox, May 3, and Courtenay, May 11; and Alaska, Craig, May 12, Nulato +River, May 12, Hooper Bay, May 17, Kobuk River, May 17, and Fort Kenai, +May 18. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Chile, Concon, April 25; Oaxaca, +San Mateo, May 13; Florida, Palma Sola, May 11, and St. Marks, May +19; Georgia, Savannah, May 13; South Carolina, Port Royal, May 22, +and Charleston, May 23; North Carolina, Pea and Bodie Islands, May 8; +Virginia, Locustville, May 27, and Alexandria, May 30; Pennsylvania, +Lancaster, May 27; New Jersey, Cape May, May 23; New York, Long Beach, +May 31, Canandaigua, June 1, and Branchport, June 2; Connecticut, East +Haven, June 4; Massachusetts, Cape Cod, June 23, and Nantucket, June +25; Ohio, Youngstown, May 24; Ontario, Point Pelee, May 30, Beaumaris, +June 4, and Brighton, June 10; Tepic, Las Penas Island, May 5; Lower +California, Colima Point, April 25, and San Jose del Cabo, May 1; +California, Santa Barbara, June 2; Oregon, Mercer, May 14, and Yaquina +Bay, May 18; Washington, Quillayute Needles, May 30, and Dungeness +Spit, June 3; and British Columbia, Courtenay, May 23. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: British Columbia, +Courtenay, June 27; Washington, Lake Ozette, July 12, and Destruction +Island, July 15; Oregon, Newport, July 10; California, Alameda, July 7, +Los Angeles, July 12, and Farallon Islands, July 16; Lower California, +Los Coronados Islands, August 7, and Santa Rosalia, August 15; Peru, +Chimbote, August 2; Ontario, Point Pelee, July 24; Ohio, Lake County, +July 14; Massachusetts, Muskeget Island, July 12, Monomoy Island, July +14, Marthas Vineyard, July 16, and Boston, July 18; Rhode Island, Block +Island, July 10, and South Auburn, July 23; Connecticut, Milford, +July 20, and North Haven, July 26; New York, Rockaway, July 10, East +Hampton, July 11, and Orient, July 11; New Jersey, Tuckerton Bay, July +2, Long Beach, July 9, and Cape May, July 15; Pennsylvania, Erie, +August 1; Bermuda, August 14; Virginia, Chincoteague, August 1; North +Carolina, Pea and Bodie Islands, July 22; South Carolina, Charleston, +July 19; Georgia, Savannah, July 27; Alabama, Dauphin Island, July 27; +Florida, Bradenton, July 31, and Tarpon Springs, August 3; and West +Indies, Barbuda, August 12. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, Craig, September 24, and St. +Lazaria Island, September 30; Mackenzie, Great Bear Lake, September +30; British Columbia, Courtenay, October 5; Washington, Clallam Bay, +October 9, and Point Chehalis, October 19; Ontario, Brighton, September +1; Quebec, Montreal, September 9; Nova Scotia, Wolfville, September +13; Maine, Northeast Harbor, September 5; Portland, September 9, +and Dover, October 12; Massachusetts, Monomoy Island, September 28, +Harvard, October 2, and Dennis, October 27; Rhode Island, Sakonnet +Point, September 25, Rock Island, September 28, and Newport, October +2; Connecticut, New Haven, September 19, and North Haven, September +20; New York, Montauk Light Station, September 28, and Orient Point, +September 30; New Jersey, Sandy Hook, September 13; and Virginia, +Wallops Island, September 23, and Hog Island, November 10. + +_Casual records._--The Hudsonian curlew is of hardly more than +accidental occurrence in the interior but has been noted on a few +occasions. In addition to notes given under migration, mention may be +made of the following records: Colorado, a specimen at Colorado Springs +on September 23, 1900; New Mexico, a specimen at Fort Thorn in the +spring of 1854; Texas, Brownsville, several records in spring between +March 31 and May 24; Nebraska, Lincoln, October 8, 1898; Wisconsin, +Milwaukee, September 9, 1903, and Cedar Grove, September 23, 1922; +Iowa, Crystal Lake, Hancock County, May 25, 1895; Michigan, St. Clair +Flats, May 25, 1902, Saginaw City, fall of 1896, and Forestville, April +23, 1906; and Indiana, Calumet Heights, August 3, 1902. Reports exist +for other interior States but usually without satisfactory evidence. + +Both Macoun and Hagerup list it as occurring in Newfoundland, but +without any presentation of the evidence. In Porto Rico, Gundlach +reported collecting it at Punta Arenas, and also refers to a specimen +in a collection at San Juan, Stahl secured two others which were +preserved in his collection, F. A. Potts obtained one May 21, 1921, +near Las Mareas, and observed others from July 31 to September 24, +1921, near Central Aguirre. According to Reinhardt (1861), it has +been taken on four occasions in Greenland (Godthaab, Julianehaab, +Fiskenaesset, and Jacobshavn). A specimen was recorded in 1854 by +Kjärbölling from Iceland and one was taken near Seville, Spain, May 3, +1872. + +_Egg dates._--Alaska and Mackenzie: 11 records, May 31 to July 10; 6 +records, June 14 to July 1. + + + NUMENIUS BOREALIS (J. R. Forster) + + ESKIMO CURLEW + + + HABITS + +The story of the Eskimo curlew is just one more pitiful tale of the +slaughter of the innocents. It is a sad fact that the countless swarms +of this fine bird and the passenger pigeon, which once swept across +our land on migrations, are gone forever, sacrificed to the insatiable +greed of man. “The Eskimo Curlew and its Disappearance,” by Prof. Myron +H. Swenk (1915), tells the story; it is well worth reading, but space +will permit only a few quotations from it. Edward H. Forbush (1912 and +1925) also gives a very good account of the tragedy. In some of the +following paragraphs the reader will find many references to its former +abundance and the extent of the slaughter which exterminated it. So we +shall consider here only the period of its rapid decline and some of +the causes which produced it. + +Professor Swenk (1915) says of its disappearance in the West: + + In Texas the Eskimo curlew came in immense flocks on the + prairies from 1856 to 1875, after which year the large + flocks disappeared. Small flocks were seen in 1886 and + 1890. The last records of the species for Texas were 1902 + and 1905, one and three individuals, respectively. The + species were first definitely recorded for Kansas from + Russell County in 1874. In that State these curlews were + abundant as late as 1878, but in 1879 their numbers were + much reduced and the birds decreased rapidly. There were + still a few in the Kansas markets in the early nineties. + The last record is for 1902. Eastwardly in the interior + the birds were always uncommon and disappeared early. The + last Michigan record is in 1883. The last Ohio record is in + 1878. The last Wisconsin records are April 27, 1899, and + September 10, 1912, the latter specimen a male taken at Fox + Lake, Dodge County, Wis. The last Indiana record is, with + some doubt, April 19, 1890. + + The last records of collected birds for Nebraska were made + in the spring of 1911 and of 1915. On March 22, 1911, + while Mr. Fred Geiger was shooting ducks near Waco, York + County, two of these birds came flying by within gun range, + and both were shot by him. The birds were identified by + an old-time hunter, and were then brought to Lincoln, and + mounted by Mr. August Eiche, in whose collection they + are at present. Although no Eskimo curlews were noted in + 1914, a single bird was killed about 10 miles due south of + Norfolk, Nebr., on the morning of April 17, 1915. The bird + was alone when taken. It came into the possession of Mr. + Hoagland, who had it mounted by Allabaugh, a taxidermist of + Omaha, in whose shop I saw it in May. + +But this was not the last word from Nebraska, for 11 years later +Professor Swenk (1926) published the following encouraging note of a +sight record: + + In further substantiation of the undoubtable fact that the + Eskimo curlew is not yet extinct, I am now able to cite + a positive instance of its occurrence in Nebraska during + the present spring. On the morning of April 8, 1926, + Mr. A. M. Brooking, of Hastings, an ornithologist and + taxidermist who is very familiar with this species through + having spent much effort in assembling several specimens + of it for his extensive collection, while driving from the + village of Inland to Hastings along what is known as the + “north road,” saw a flock of eight birds alight in a newly + plowed field about 4 miles east of Hastings. He drove his + car up close to the birds, and when within 40 yards of + them was able to his astonishment to positively identify + them as unquestionably Eskimo curlews. Mr. Brooking knows + the species so well, and saw the birds so clearly, that + in my opinion this sight record can be accepted without + hesitation. + +On the Labrador coast Eskimo curlews diminished rapidly in numbers +between 1870 and 1880. Hon. F. C. Berteau, a government official in +Labrador, in some notes published by W. J. Carroll (1910) says: + + Up to 1889 dough-birds or Eskimo curlew were very numerous + in Labrador from late in August to the end of September. + They frequented the southern part of the coast only, never + appearing north of Indian Harbor at the northern entrance + to Hamilton Inlet. During the first 4 or 5 of the 10 years + during which I was collector of customs on Labrador, they + were very numerous, indeed, flying from the hills to the + shore and vice versa in flocks numbering from fifty to two + or three hundred. During the last years of my collectorship + they gradually diminished in numbers, until in 1890 or + thereabouts they entirely disappeared, and save for a few + seen on one or two occasions have never returned to the + coast. + + The Hudson’s Bay Co. people at Cartwright annually put up + large numbers of hermetically sealed tins for the use of + the company’s officials in London and Montreal. I have seen + as many as 2,000 birds hung up in their store as the result + of one day’s shooting by some 25 or 30 guns. A fairly + accurate idea of the plentifulness of these birds will be + obtained from an account of my own experience. During the + season I used to leave the cruiser at 6 a. m. and return + at 9 for breakfast. I do not remember ever getting less + than 30 to 40 brace during the two hours or so that I was + shooting. + +Dr. Henry B. Bigelow (1902), who visited the northeast coast of +Labrador in 1900, heard of only about a dozen which were seen on the +coast that fall, of which he saw five. Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1913) +reported that seven were “shot and one other seen on the beach at West +Bay, north of Cartwright, in August and September, 1912. The skins +of five were saved, and sent to Cambridge, where they were seen and +identified by Mr. William Brewster.” + +Excessive shooting of this curlew on its migrations and in its winter +home in South America was doubtless one of the chief causes of its +destruction. Ernest Gibson (1920) saw “some 20 or 30 * * * in the +vicinity of Linconia,” near Buenos Aires, on February 13, 1899; and +a small flock was reported in the same locality on April 8, 1901. He +evidently has seen none since then. Mr. Forbush (1925) has recently +given us the latest news from Argentina in a letter from Dr. Roberto +Dabbene, in which he writes that five or six were seen in the Province +of Buenos Aires on February 7, 1924; one of these was captured and +another solitary individual was taken at the same place on January 11, +1925; both of these specimens are in the Museo National de Historia +Natural, at Buenos Aires. These and the other recent records may +indicate that there are a few Eskimo curlews still living; but the +species is reduced to such a low ebb that it is doomed to speedy +extinction, if not already gone. + +One need not look far to find the cause which led to its destruction. +On its breeding grounds in the far north it was undisturbed by man. And +I can not believe that it was overtaken by any great catastrophe at +sea which could annihilate it; it was strong of wing and could escape +from or avoid severe storms; it could, like all shore birds, swim if +necessary; and its migration period was so extended that no one storm +could wipe it out. Several other species of shore birds make similar, +long ocean flights without apparent disaster. There is no evidence +of disease or failure of food supply. No, there was only one cause, +slaughter by human beings, slaughter in Labrador and New England in +summer and fall, slaughter in South America in winter and slaughter, +worst of all, from Texas to Canada in the spring. The gentle birds ran +the gauntlet all along the line and no one lifted a finger to protect +them until it was too late. They were so gentle, so confiding, so full +of sympathy for their fallen companions, that in closely packed ranks +they fell, easy victims of the carnage. + +_Spring._--It was as a migrant only that we knew the Eskimo curlew. +As to how it reached the United States from southern South America we +know very little; but it probably followed the same route taken by its +companion the golden plover. It arrived in Texas early in March and +migrated northward through the prairie regions, mainly west of the +Mississippi River, through central Canada and the Mackenzie region to +the barren grounds on the Arctic coast. It was rare in spring east +of this narrow belt, and practically unknown west of it. The flight +through the United States was mainly accomplished during April and +through Canada in May, arriving on its breeding grounds before the end +of May. + +Professor Swenk (1915) writes: + + As to the abundance of these birds in Nebraska during the + early years of its statehood the observations of Prof. + Lawrence Bruner, who distinctly remembers the flights + which occurred in the vicinity of Omaha during the years + 1866–1868, when he was a boy 10 or 12 years old, are + indicative. The birds would arrive about the time the + later willows began to bloom (latter April), being present + in force for a week or 10 days only, for by the time all + of the wild plum blossoms had fallen (middle May) the + birds were gone. Usually the heaviest flights occurred + coincident with the beginning of corn-planting time, and + enormous flocks of these birds would settle on the newly + plowed fields and on the dry burnt-off prairies, where they + searched industriously for insects. These flocks reminded + the settlers of the flights of passenger pigeons and the + curlews were given the name of “prairie pigeons.” They + contained thousands of individuals and would often form + dense masses of birds extending for a quarter to a half + mile in length and a hundred yards or more in width. When + the flock would alight the birds would cover 40 or 50 acres + of ground. + +Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) called this “the most abundant curlew in +northern Alaska, especially along the coasts of Bering Sea and Kotzebue +Sound.” At Saint Michael a number were seen passing north on May 12, +1878. He says that they were “always more numerous than _hudsonicus_, +and sometimes flocks of 150 or more” were seen. But Dr. Joseph Grinnell +(1900) looked for it in vain about Kotzebue Sound. + +_Nesting._--For all that we know about the nesting habits of the +Eskimo curlew, we are indebted to Roderick MacFarlane, who found this +species breeding abundantly on the barren grounds east of Fort Anderson +and up to the Arctic coast. He collected some 30 sets of eggs there +between 1862 and 1866. He says in his notes that “this curlew never, +in this quarter at least, breeds in wooded tracts, the barren grounds +proper being the real habitat of the species during the season of +nidification.” It is “very difficult to find the nests” as the birds +“get off long before our approach, while the eggs nearly resemble the +grass in color.” Some birds were seen to leave the nests. The nests +are described as mere hollows in the ground, “lined with a few decayed +leaves” and sometimes having “a thin sprinkling of hay.” The birds +“generally ascend in the air in a straight line after getting off the +nest.” + +_Eggs._--The normal set was evidently four eggs, but MacFarlane sent +home several sets of three. The eggs are rather pointed ovate in shape +and have very little gloss. Many eggs closely resemble certain types +of Franklin gull’s eggs. The ground colors vary from browns to olives, +the latter predominating. The olive colors run from “buffy olive” +or “citrine drab” to “olive buff,” and the brown colors from “light +brownish olive” to “buckthorn brown.” Some eggs are boldly marked with +heavy blotches, which are sometimes confluent about the larger end; +more often they are irregularly spotted and blotched; and some eggs +are sparingly marked. The markings are in dark browns, “bister,” “bone +brown,” “buffy brown,” and blackish brown, with underlying spots and +blotches of various shades of “brownish drab.” The measurements of +36 eggs average 51.3 by 35.5 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =54.5= by 36, 52 by =39.5=, =47.5= by 36, and 51 by +=33= millimeters. + +_Plumages._--There are not enough specimens of Eskimo curlews, +collected during the proper seasons, to work out the molts and +plumages satisfactorily. There are no specimens of downy young or very +young juvenals available. Young birds in juvenal plumage, as seen +on migration, are much like adults, but the feathers of the mantle, +scapulars, tertials, and wing coverts are more broadly edged, but less +conspicuously notched, with “pinkish buff”; and the under parts are +less extensively covered with the dusky markings. + +The postnuptial molt of adults is mainly accomplished after they have +left us in the fall, beginning in September; the wings are probably +molted after the birds have reached their winter home. There is +a prenuptial molt of the body plumage, visible during the spring +migration, the new feathers, being more pinkish buff, especially on the +under parts. + +_Food._--Professor Swenk (1915) says of its food habits in the west: + + The Eskimo curlew was a bird of such food habits that it + is a distinct loss to our agriculture that it should have + disappeared. During the invasion of the Rocky Mountain + grasshopper (_Melanoplus spretus_) it did splendid work + in the destruction of grasshoppers and their eggs. Mr. + Wheeler states that in the latter seventies these birds + would congregate on pieces of land which had not been + plowed and where the grasshopper eggs were laid, reach down + into the soil with their long bills, and drag out the egg + capsules, which they would then devour with their contents + of eggs or young hoppers until the land had been cleared + of the pests. A specimen examined by Aughey in 1874 had 31 + grasshoppers in its stomach, together with a large number + of small berries of some kind. The bird in its migrations + often alighted on plowed ground to feed on the white + grubs and cutworms turned up by the plow, or in meadow + lands, probably feeding on ants in the latter situation. + Richardson records finding them feeding on large ants at + Fort Franklin in late May, 1849. The curlews were rarely + seen near water, but were upland birds almost exclusively + during the spring migration over the Great Plains region. + +Doctor Coues (1874) describes its food on the Labrador coast, as +follows: + + Their food consists almost entirely of the crowberry + (_Empetrum nigrum_), which grows on all the hillsides in + astonishing profusion. It is also called the “bearberry” + and “curlew berry.” It is a small berry, of a deep purple + color, almost black, growing upon a procumbent, running + kind of heath, the foliage of which has a peculiar + moss-like appearance. This is their principal and favorite + food and the whole intestine, the vent, the legs, the bill, + throat, and even the plumage, are more or less stained + with the deep purple juice. They are also very fond of a + species of small snail that adheres to the rock in immense + quantities, to procure which they frequent the land-washes + at low tide. Food being so abundant, and so easily + obtained, they become excessively fat. In this condition + they are most delicious eating, being tender, juicy, and + finely flavored; but, as might be expected, they prove a + very difficult job for the taxidermist. + +_Behavior._--Lucien M. Turner gives, in his Ungava notes, a vivid +description of a large flock of Eskimo curlews, which I quote, as +follows: + + I saw none until the morning of the 4th of September, 1884, + as we were passing out from the mouth of the Koksoak River. + Here an immense flock of several hundred individuals were + making their way to the south. They flew in that peculiar + manner which distinguishes the curlews from all other birds + in flight, a sort of wedge shape, the sides of which were + constantly swaying back and forth like a cloud of smoke + wafted by the lightest zephyr. The aerial evolutions of + the curlews when migrating are, perhaps, one of the most + wonderful in the flight of birds. Long, dangling lines, + either perpendicular or horizontal, the lower parts of + which whirl, rise, or twist spirally, while the apex of + the flock is seemingly at rest. At other times the leader + plunges downward successively followed by the remainder + in most graceful undulations, becoming a dense mass then + separating into a thin sheet spread wide; again reforming + into such a variety of positions that no description would + suffice. + +Mr. Mackay (1892_c_) says: + + Of those I have observed in New England during a series + of years I may say that most of their habits closely + resemble those of the golden plover. In migration they fly + in much the same manner, with extended and broadside and + triangular lines and clusters similar to those of ducks and + geese at such times. They usually fly low after landing, + sweeping slowly over the ground, apparently looking it + over, generally standing motionless for quite a little + while after alighting, which, owing to their general color + approximating so closely to the withered grass, renders it + difficult at times to perceive them. I have had a flock of + 50 or 60 alight within 30 yards of me, and have been unable + to make out more than two or three birds. If disturbed + they will frequently alight again at no great distance, + if not previously harassed, and under the same conditions + they can be approached at all times, for they are either + very tame or very shy. They seek out and are found in the + same localities selected by the golden plover with which + they generally associate if any are in the vicinity, there + always being a strong friendship between them. They are not + so active as the plover; on the ground they appear less + inclined to move about, especially after landing and during + rainy weather when I have at times noticed them standing on + the ground quite close together, every bird headed to the + wind, with heads and necks drawn down and resting on their + backs, with the rain running off their tails. At such times + they could be approached on foot to within half a gunshot, + showing little fear. + +Doctor Coues (1874) writes: + + The curlews associate in flocks of every size, from three + to as many thousand, but they generally fly in so loose + and straggling a manner that it is rare to kill more than + half a dozen at a shot. When they wheel, however, in any of + their many beautiful evolutions, they close together in a + more compact body, and offer a more favorable opportunity + to the gunner. Their flight is firm, direct, very swift, + when necessary much protracted, and is performed with + regular, rapid beats. They never sail, except when about + to alight, when the wings are much incurved downward, in + the manner of most waders. As their feet touch the ground, + their long, pointed wings are raised over the back, until + the tips almost touch, and then deliberately folded, much + in the manner of the solitary sandpiper (_Rhyacophilus + solitarius_). + +_Voice._--Professor Swenk (1915) describes the notes as follows: + + The Eskimo curlew had several notes. During flight they + uttered a fluttering _tr-tr-tr_ note, which was given by + many individuals at once, and described by Coues as a “low + conversational chatter” and by Mackay as “a soft, melodious + whistle, ‘_bee, bee_.’” Mr. W. A. Elwood describes this + note as “a short, low whistle” continually repeated by + many of the birds simultaneously while in flight. Mr. A. + J. Leach recalls the notes as resembling quite closely the + note of the bluebird when in flight, only perhaps shorter + and more of a twittering whistle, and, as it was given by a + large number, perhaps all, of the flock as they took wing + and while flying, it was difficult to catch the individual + note. This note was constantly uttered while the birds were + flying and was often audible before the birds could be + seen. Before alighting, as they descended and sailed, they + gave a soft whistle, somewhat like the note of the upland + plover, according to Professor Bruner, while as they walked + over the ground when feeding they uttered a chirruping + whistle, as if calling to each other. + +_Fall._--The adult birds must have started off their breeding grounds +early in July for the first arrivals reached the coast of Labrador by +the end of that month. Their course at first was east-southeast, or +perhaps nearly due east, across Hudson Bay to the Labrador Peninsula, +where they lingered for a week or two to feast and fatten on the +abundant harvest of berries. Turner saw them as far north as the mouth +of the Koksoak River, and says in his notes: + + From the 10th to the 20th of August immense flocks of these + birds appear on the level tracts from Davis’ Inlet to the + Gulf of St. Lawrence, each day adding to their number until + the ground seems alive with them. They feed on the ripening + berries of _Empetrum_ and _Vaccinium_, becoming wonderfully + fat in a few days. By the 8th of September it is asserted + that none remain. + +Audubon (1840) writes: + + On the 29th of July, 1833, during a thick fog, the + Esquimaux curlews made their first appearance in Labrador, + near the harbor of Bras d’Or. They evidently came from the + north, and arrived in such dense flocks as to remind me of + the passenger pigeons. The weather was extremely cold as + well as foggy. For more than a week we had been looking + for them, as was every fisherman in the harbor, these + birds being considered there, as indeed they are, great + delicacies. The birds at length came, flock after flock, + passed close round our vessel, and directed their course + toward the sterile mountainous tracts in the neighborhood; + and as soon as the sun’s rays had dispersed the fogs that + hung over the land, our whole party went off in search of + them. + + I was not long in discovering that their stay on this + coast was occasioned solely by the density of the mists + and the heavy gales that already gave intimation of the + approaching close of the summer; for whenever the weather + cleared up a little, thousands of them set off and steered + in a straight course across the broad Gulf of St. Lawrence. + On the contrary, when the wind was high, and the fogs + thick, they flew swiftly and low over the rocky surface of + the country, as if bewildered. Wherever there was a spot + that seemed likely to afford a supply of food, there the + curlews abounded, and were easily approached. By the 12th + of August, however, they had all left the country. + +The eastward flight reached as far as Newfoundland, where they were +fairly numerous along the eastern and southeastern shores. There was +also a migration, probably down the west coast of Hudson Bay, which +reached the Atlantic coast through Ontario and the Great Lakes region. +But the main flight was through Labrador, across the Gulf of St. +Lawrence to Nova Scotia and then due south across the ocean to the +Lesser Antilles and South America; their course in South America is +not well known, but it was probably across eastern Brazil, to Uruguay, +Argentina, and Patagonia, where they arrived in September. + +In fair weather the 2,000-mile trip across the ocean was probably made +in one continuous flight, though I believe that these birds were able +to alight on and rise from the water if necessary. But if bad weather, +severe southeasterly storms, thick fogs, or heavy rains occurred during +their passage, they were forced to land, sometimes in enormous numbers +on the coast of New England, less often on the shores farther south, or +on the Bermudas; if severe westerly gales occurred they were sometimes +driven far out to sea or even across the Atlantic to the British Isles. +Our flights in Massachusetts could be looked for during the latter half +of August and through September. On Cape Cod they used to frequent much +the same localities as the golden plover, old fields and pastures, +often several miles from the shore, and the drier portions of the salt +marshes, where they found an abundance of grasshoppers, crickets, and +other insects; on Monomoy they were often found on the low sand hills +which were largely covered with gray mosses or lichens. Mr. Mackay +(1892_c_) writes: + + Those which do visit us almost invariably land with their + boon companions, the American golden plover, of whose + flocks I have frequently noticed they were the leaders, + and I can scarcely call to mind, as I write, an instance + where any number of Eskimo curlew have landed without there + being more or less golden plover present at the same time. + Those birds which may come can not, if they would, remain + any longer than is absolutely necessary, for they are so + harassed immediately after landing that the moment there + occurs a change in the weather favorable for migration they + at once depart. They appear to leave the coast at Long + Island, N. Y., and strike farther out to sea, and then are + not seen on the Atlantic coast for another year. + +_Game._--The gunner’s name for the Eskimo curlew was “dough-bird,” not +“doe-bird,” for it was so fat when it reached us in the fall that its +breast would often burst open when it fell to the ground, and the thick +layer of fat was so soft that it felt like a ball of dough. It is no +wonder that it was so popular as a game bird, for it must have made a +delicious morsel for the table. It was so tame and unsuspicious and it +flew in such dense flocks that it was easily killed in large numbers. +On the Labrador coasts and in Newfoundland the inhabitants killed all +they could and preserved them for winter use, according to Mr. Berteau +(Carroll, 1910), “by parboiling them and packing them in tins and jars +and covering them with melted butter or lard.” Coues (1874) tells of +shooting them in Labrador, as follows: + + Although the curlews were in such vast numbers, I did not + find them so tame as might be expected and as I had been + led to suppose by previous representations. I was never + able to walk openly within shooting distance of a flock, + though I was told it was often done. The most successful + method of obtaining them is to take such a position as they + will probably fly over in passing from one feeding ground + to another. They may then be shot with ease, as they rarely + fly high at such times. The pertinacity with which they + cling to certain feeding grounds, even when much molested, + I saw strikingly illustrated on one occasion. The tide + was rising and about to flood a muddy flat, of perhaps an + acre in extent, where their favorite snails were in great + quantities. Although six or eight gunners were stationed + upon the spot, and kept up a continual round of firing + upon the poor birds, they continued to fly distractedly + about over our heads, notwithstanding the numbers that + every moment fell. They seemed in terror lest they should + lose their accustomed fare of snails that day. On another + occasion, when the birds had been so harassed for several + hours as to deprive them of all opportunity of feeding, + great numbers of them retired to a very small island, or + rather a large pile of rocks, a few hundred yards from the + shore, covered with seaweed and, of course, with snails. + Flock after flock alighted on it, till it was completely + covered with the birds, which there, in perfect safety, + obtained their morning meal. + +I can remember hearing my father tell of the great shooting they used +to have on “the plains” at Cohasset when I was a small boy, about 1870. +As he has now gone to the happy hunting grounds I can not give the +exact figures, but he saw a wagon loaded full of “dough birds” shot on +the plains in one day. + +The greatest killings were made on the western plains during the spring +migration, which Professor Swenk (1915) describes as follows: + + During such flights the slaughter of these poor birds was + appalling and almost unbelievable. Hunters would drive out + from Omaha and shoot the birds without mercy until they + had literally slaughtered a wagonload of them, the wagons + being actually filled, and often with the sideboards on + at that. Sometimes when the flight was unusually heavy + and the hunters were well supplied with ammunition their + wagons were too quickly and easily filled, so whole loads + of the birds would be dumped on the prairie, their bodies + forming piles as large as a couple of tons of coal, where + they would be allowed to rot while the hunters proceeded to + refill their wagons with fresh victims, and thus further + gratify their lust of killing. The compact flocks and + tameness of the birds made this slaughter possible, and at + each shot usually dozens of the birds would fall. In one + specific instance a single shot from an old muzzle-loading + shotgun into a flock of these curlews as they veered by the + hunter brought down 28 birds at once, while for the next + half mile every now and then a fatally wounded bird would + drop to the ground dead. So dense were the flocks when the + birds were turning in their flight that one could scarcely + throw a brick or missile into it without striking a bird. + + In hunting these curlew the field glass was used by the + hunters to follow their flights. The fields where they were + prone to gather were patroled many times during the day and + carefully scanned with the glass to discover the flocks on + the ground. When the birds came in they would be up quite + high, perhaps from 200 or 300 yards to a quarter of a mile, + and in preparing to alight they would turn and wheel, + towering in the air while they whistled softly, would hover + a while, and then all drop and come down, flying along over + the ground for a short distance before alighting. The birds + would always alight all at once and very close together, + and if the day were warm they would sit down very close + together on the ground, forming bunches, when they could + be readily discovered with the field glass and approached + close enough to get a shot. + + There was no difficulty in getting quite close to the + sitting birds, perhaps within 25 or 35 yards, and when at + about this distance the hunters would wait for them to + arise on their feet, which was the signal for the first + volley of shots. The startled birds would rise and circle + about the field a few times, affording ample opportunity + for further murderous discharge of the guns, and sometimes + would realight on the same field, when the attack would be + repeated. Mr. Wheeler has killed as many as 37 birds with a + pump gun at one rise. They weighed just about 1 pound each + when they were fat. Sometimes the bunch would be seen with + the glass alighting in a field 2 or 3 miles away, when the + hunters would at once drive to that field with a horse and + buggy as rapidly as they could, relocate the birds, get + out, and resume the fusillade and slaughter. On rainy days + the birds would fly restlessly from one field to another, + moving about in this way most of the day and seeming + unusually plentiful because of being so much in the air. + +_Winter._--There is little known about the winter habits of the Eskimo +curlew except that it formerly associated with the golden plover, +the upland plover, and the buff-breasted sandpiper on the pampas of +Argentina and Patagonia, where it is now but a memory of the past. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and South America, accidental in eastern Asia and Great +Britain. + +The Eskimo curlew is now nearly or quite extinct. Although formerly +abundant, its occurrence in both North and South America has been so +frequently confused with _Numenius hudsonicus_, that it is extremely +difficult to establish its migration range. Like the golden plover, +however, this species followed an elliptical route, usually passing +south in the fall off the coast of the United States, the point of +departure from the mainland being the coast of Labrador, Nova Scotia, +or (more rarely) Long Island, New York. In spring the return trip was +made up the Mississippi Valley and the prairie States at which season +it was practically unknown on the Atlantic coast. + +_Breeding range._--The only known nests and eggs of the Eskimo curlew +have been obtained in northwestern Canada, Fort Anderson, Rendezvous +Lake, Franklin Bay, and Point Lake. + +_Winter range._--The northern limits of the winter range are not known, +but probably extended rarely to Brazil (Ypanema). South to Uruguay +(Montevideo); Argentina (Bahia Blanca, Buenos Aires, Concepcion, and +the Chupat Valley); and Chile (Island of Chiloe, and Paposo). It also +has been detected on the Falkland Islands (Abbott, 1861). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival in North America +are: Texas, Gainesville, March 7, and Boerne, March 9; Arkansas, +Fayetteville, March 31; Missouri, St. Louis, April 10, and Vernon +County, April 16; Kansas, Emporia, April 13; Nebraska, Alda, April 2; +Iowa, Burlington, April 5, and Grinnell, April 10; South Dakota, Brown +County, April 16, and Mackenzie, Fort Resolution, May 26, and Fort +Anderson, May 27. + +A specimen of this species was taken at San Geronimo, Guatemala, in +April; and one at Lake Palomas, Chihuahua, April 8, 1892. A specimen +was taken at Chalmers, Ind., on April 19, 1890. In Massachusetts one +was obtained at Cape Cod in May, 1873, and about 50 were reported near +the mouth of the Rowley River, May 17, 1916. Spring arrivals also have +been noted in Alaska, St. Michael, May 12, 1878, and Cape Lisbourne, +May 25, 1886. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Argentina, Concepcion, March 1; +Texas, Long Point, April 23, and Fort Stockton, May 4; Missouri, Jasper +County, May 1; Kansas, Lawrence, May 6; and South Dakota, Vermilion, +May 3, and Harrison, May 10. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: Quebec, Bras d’Or, +July 29, Caribou Island, August 12, and Indian Tickle, August 16; +Massachusetts, Nantucket, August 18, and Edgartown, August 21; West +Indies, Barbados, August 27, Carriacou, September 5, and Grenada, +September 22; Brazil, Amazon River, September 4; and Argentina, +Concepcion, September 9. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Mackenzie, Fort Anderson, August 2; +Quebec, Koksoak River, September 4, Montreal, September 7, and Magdalen +Islands, September 20; New Brunswick, Tabusintac, September 8; Prince +Edward Island, New London, September 1; Maine, Hog Island, September 2, +and Pine Point, September 23; Massachusetts, East Orleans, September 5, +Monomoy Island, September 10, and Nantucket, October 2; Connecticut, +Saybrook, October 13; New York, Lockport, October 2; and West Indies, +Barbados, November 4. + +There are a few records in the interior for this season, among which +are: Ontario, Wolf Island, October 10, 1873; Pennsylvania, Erie, +September 17, 1889; Ohio, Cincinnati, September, 1878; Michigan, +Kalamazoo, October 28, 1879; Illinois, Summit, August 11, 1872; and +Wisconsin, Fox Lake, September 10, 1912. + +_Casual records._--The Eskimo curlew has been taken or reported from +several points outside its normal range, among which are: Porto Rico, +once near San Juan (Gundlach); Bermuda, September, 1874; Greenland, two +records (Reinhardt); Pribilof Islands, St. Paul Island, May 26, 1872; +“Bering Sea,” May 22, 1874; Siberia, Cape Wankarem, August 6, 1881; +five records for Great Britain (Slains, Aberdeenshire, September 28, +1878; near Stonehaven, Kincardineshire, September 6, 1855; one on the +Alde, Aldeburgh, Suffolk; one at Woodbridge, Suffolk; and one purchased +in the flesh at Dublin, October 21, 1870); and Iceland (Kjaerbölling). +The supposed occurrence of this species in southern California (San +Diego region and near Tia Juana) probably refers to _N. hudsonicus_, +as does also the record for the Galapagos Islands (Charles Island) and +South Carolina (Charleston). + +_Egg dates._--Mackenzie: 28 records, June 8 to July 12; 14 records, +June 18 to 25. + + + NUMENIUS PHAEOPUS PHAEOPUS (Linnaeus) + + WHIMBREL + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The latest and best authority on the birds of Greenland, E. Lehn +Schiöler, writes that in all probability the whimbrel breeds on the +southern part of the west coast of Greenland, perhaps generally in the +south, but more especially in the southwest. The only other American +record of this species is one from south of Sable Island, Nova Scotia, +on May 25, 1906. + +_Spring._--The whimbrel arrives on the British coasts from about +mid-April to June 12, but is very frequently noted during the first +days of May, from which it derives one of its local names, the “May +bird.” On migration it prefers to haunt the low-lying coast and the +adjacent country, feeding on the mud flats and marshes. When on the +wing they fly at a great height, but can be recognized by their clear +seven-syllabled whistle, _tetty, tetty, tetty, tet_. + +_Courtship._--Practically nothing is recorded in the standard works +on British ornithology on the courtship of this species, but some +observations have been made both in Iceland and on the Shetlands. +Reimschneider writes that in Iceland one hears its notes all through +the long summer day and far into the night, a very long-drawn _kwiu_, +uttered with inflated throat and scarcely opened bill. The nuptial +song of the male is a long-drawn fluty trill, much slower and longer +than the alarm note. The bird hardly rises above the ground, but flies +with half opened bill for short distances, trilling, then makes quick +and short wing strokes and slowly descends to earth again with extended +wings, when the cry is again uttered. Bernard Hantzsch (1905) gives a +fuller description, which, however, varies in some details. The male is +perched on some hillock, from which with wide-opened bill he utters a +rolling _di-di-di_. Now he is off, with his long feet trailing behind +and head and neck outstretched. With short and very rapid wing strokes +he rises high in the clear sky till almost out of sight, meanwhile +uttering his soft fluty _du-du-du_, sometimes for minutes together. +Then follows a slightly higher and quicker series of notes, ending with +a beautiful, soft trill, louder and faster than that of the golden +plover. He then descends spirally toward the nesting place, thence +again starting on his upward flight. The female also trills, but the +song flight is peculiar to the male. + +_Nesting._--The breeding grounds of the whimbrel are the vast +expanses of moorland, overgrown with heather and mosses, which are +characteristic of the Arctic tundra. The actual nest is a well-defined +hollow among the heather or rough grass, scantily lined with a few bits +of ling or dry grass and moss. Some nests contain hardly any material +and are merely pressed down and hollowed by the bird. They do not nest +as a rule close together and the breeding place is jealously guarded +by the male who rises fearlessly to attack and drive off almost any +bird which approaches within a 100 yards of the eggs. Even skuas are +attacked in this way, but where they are numerous the whimbrel stands +but a poor chance of rearing young. In the Shetlands the eggs are laid +in the last days of May and early in June, while in Iceland the normal +time is at the beginning of June and exceptionally late in May. + +_Eggs._--These are normally four in number, exceptionally three only, +especially in late layings, and Hantzsch (1905) records one clutch of +five. They are pyriform, and large for the size of the birds, with thin +shells. The ground color varies as a rule from pale olive green to +pale brownish buff, blotched and spotted with olive brown or reddish +brown and with ashy grey shell markings. In some varieties the ground +is a beautiful clear green and the blotches very bold and conspicuous, +while another scarce type has a bluish grey ground with only large +brownish ash blotches. The measurements of 100 eggs, by Doctor Rey and +the writer, average 58.9 by 41.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =65.1= by 41.7, 57 by =44=, =52= by 41.6 and 55.3 by +=36= millimeters. + +_Young._--Both sexes have incubation patches and from Chislett’s (1923) +observations, confirmed also by Hantzsch, both share in the work. The +only note we have as to the length of the period is that of Hantzsch +(1905) who gives it as three to three and one-half weeks. In the case +of a nest watched by Chislett the first two young hatched were led away +by one bird while the other continued to incubate. This was on June +23 and the following day was cold with a high wind. The third chick +wandered from the nest and was sometimes brooded by the incubating +bird, which left the fourth egg for that purpose, but she never seemed +thoroughly at ease except when covering both egg and chick. By the +following morning the last chick had hatched out. Only one brood is +reared in the season. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds edited by H. S. Witherby (1920). + +_Food._--This species feeds largely on earthworms, and also during +the winter months on sandworms (_Arenicola_). Insects are also +freely taken, chiefly beetles (Coleoptera), but also Orthoptera, +especially earwigs (_Forficula_) and crickets (_Acheta_), larvae +of flies (Diptera) etc. During the breeding season many small land +mollusca are eaten, especially snails (_Helix ericetorum_), slugs +(_Limax agrestris_), etc., and in the autumn, marine mollusca, both +univalves and bivalves. Small Crustacea, including small crabs, shrimps +(_Crangon_) and Gammaridae are also freely taken and the berries of +moorland plants such as _Empetrum nigrum_ (crowberry) and _Vacinium +myrtillus_. + +_Behavior._--The boldness of this species in defending its nest has +already been referred to. It has been frequently seen to attack and +drive off birds much larger and more powerful than itself, such as +the raven and the larger gulls. During the winter months it appears +to be less of a shore feeder than the curlew, frequently visiting the +inland marshes in preference to the mud flats and shores. Chislett +(1923) describes its gait as quite different to that of the curlew, its +progress being much more rapid and direct. Instead of approaching the +nest in a leisurely way with many detours and pauses, it walks with +rapid, jerky strides, almost directly to its objective. + +_Enemies._--The large gulls and skuas, though often successfully driven +off when approaching singly, are often successful in destroying the +eggs or young where present in numbers and the enormous increase in the +numbers of the great skua in the Shetlands has proved very detrimental +to this species. In Iceland the Arctic fox is also an enemy to be +counted with and the crow tribe (raven and hooded crow) are always +ready to take advantage of any chance opportunity. + +_Fall._--The young are fledged according to Hantzsch (1905) within a +month of hatching and about the beginning of August begin to collect +into flocks which increase in size daily. In the second half of August +he records great flocks of over a hundred birds which leave the island +about the middle of September. The latest date on which Jönsson records +them on the Westmann Isles is October 10. + +_Winter._--Exceptionally, small parties remain in Iceland during the +winter. Thus in the winter of 1899–1900 they were noticed by many +observers over Hjalteyri and the adjacent district. On the other hand, +many individuals remain all the year round in their winter quarters, +keeping together in small parties and evidently non-breeding birds. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--In the British Isles, very sparingly and almost +exterminated on certain islands in the Shetland group. A few pairs are +said to have bred at various localities on the mainland, chiefly in +the north of Scotland and perhaps also on some of the outlying isles. +Breeds freely on the Faroes and Iceland and probably in southwest +Greenland. On the continent and northern Scandinavia and Finland and in +North Russia, south to Kanzan, Samara, Ufa, Perm, and Orenburg; also in +West Siberia at least to Tara and Tobolsk, but in East Siberia replaced +by _N. ph. variegatus_. Possibly also breeds in Russia in Voronezh, +Kief, and the middle Urals, but proof still lacking. + +_Winter range._--Passes through Europe and western Asia to the coasts +of Africa south to Cape Province, Madagascar, the Seychelles, Comoro +Isles, Aldabra, and Mauritius. In Asia to Arabia, passing through Iraq +to West India, south to Ceylon and the Islands in the Bay of Bengal. + +_Spring migration._--The average date of arrival of the migrating +flocks at the Faroes is given as mid April, while in Iceland they +arrive about the end of April or early in May; at the Westmann Isles on +the south coast the earliest and latest dates are given as April 20 and +May 5 by Jönsson. + +_Fall migration._--The departure from Iceland begins about mid +September, on the Westmann Isles between September 20 and October +10 (Jönsson), while the Faroes are abandoned by September 29 +(exceptionally as late as October 3). + +_Casual records._--It has occurred several times on Jan Meyen, once +Bear Island (June 14, 1898), several times on Spitsbergen, and also +on Kolguev. In the Atlantic it occurs on the Canaries, Madeira, the +Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands. A specimen came on board a steamer +in the vicinity of Sable Island, Nova Scotia, on May 23, 1906 (Latitude +43° north, Longitude 60° west); and one was obtained at Gilgo Inlet, +Great South Bay, Long Island, N. Y., on September 4, 1912. + +_Eggs dates._--In Scotland, May 19 to June 11 (13 dates); Faroes, June +4 to 24 (34 dates), May 25 (1 date); Iceland, June 4 to 23 (22 dates). + + + NUMENIUS TAHITIENSIS (Gmelin) + + BRISTLE-THIGHED CURLEW + + + HABITS + +Although this species has been recognized for over 140 years, +surprisingly little has been learned or published about it. It was +discovered by Latham in 1785 from Tahiti, the largest of the Society +Islands, hence the specific name given by Gmelin in 1788, _Scolopax +tahitiensis_. But the credit is due to Peale for discovering the most +peculiar character of the species, the elongated shafts of some of the +flank feathers which are lacking in barbs and from which we derive the +name, “bristle-thighed.” + +It was long supposed to be a bird of the South Pacific islands and the +first birds captured in Alaska were regarded as accidental stragglers. +During the last century there were only three published North American +records, all for Alaska; the first specimen was taken by Bischoff on +May 18, 1869, on the Kenai Peninsula, the second by Nelson on May 24, +1880, at St. Michael, and the third by Townsend on August 28, 1885, on +the Kowak River. Since then it has been found to be a fairly common +fall migrant in Alaska and it probably breeds somewhere in the interior +of that territory. + +_Spring._--Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) gives the following account of the +capture of his bird: + + On May 24, 1880, while I was shooting black brant, a + pair of these birds settled near by on a rising stretch + of land covered with large tussocks. They uttered a loud + whistling call note very much like that of _hudsonicus_, + but something in their general appearance led me to stalk + and secure one of the birds. To my gratification it was a + bristle-thighed curlew, and I made great efforts to secure + the mate, which had stopped a hundred yards or so beyond. + As she raised on my approach I fired at long range and the + bird fell mortally hurt on a distant hillside, where it was + lost amid a host of large tussocks. + +Bischoff’s bird was taken on May 18; and H. B. Conover (1926) collected +one at Hooper Bay on May 22, 1924. These three dates, only six days +apart, probably indicate the normal time of arrival of birds of this +species in Alaska after their long flight over the Pacific Ocean from +the Hawaiian Islands, the nearest of their winter resorts. This is a +really wonderful flight and it is surprising that we have no evidence +to indicate that they deviate from their direct course at all, as we +have no records of any specimens from any point to the westward or to +the southward of the Alaska Peninsula. The species is comparatively +scarce on the Bering Sea coast of Alaska, from which we might infer +that an overland flight is made from the vicinity of the Kenai +Peninsula to the breeding grounds somewhere in the northern interior of +Alaska. + +_Summer._--The breeding grounds and the nesting habits of the +bristle-thighed curlew are entirely unknown, an interesting problem +for some enterprising ornithologist to work out. Mr. Conover (1926) +suggests that “the main breeding ground is probably above the timber +line on some of the mountain ranges” of Alaska. Herbert W. Brandt says +in his notes: + + From the native information I was able to gather I believe + that these birds may breed at the eastern end of the + Askinuk Mountains, or in the Kusilvak Mountains and perhaps + the mountains to the northward of Mountain Village on the + Yukon River. Their early loitering appearance at Hooper Bay + so shortly after nesting makes it entirely unlikely that + they had traveled very far, but it seems rather strange + that we did not encounter them in their spring migration + and further it is apparently doubtful that they should + enter the Bering Sea coast territory by following down + either the Yukon or the Kuskoquim River valleys. + +Dr. Charles H. Townsend shot a specimen of this curlew at Kotzebue +Sound (Kobuk River) on August 25; it was a young bird which had +evidently recently come from its breeding grounds. We saw none of this +species about Nome in July; but after I left, Rollo H. Beck, a member +of our expedition, collected quite a series of them in August. Two of +his birds, now in my collection, were taken at Cape Nome on August 24, +1911. Mr. Conover (1926) writes: + + By the end of July we had entered the Kashunuk Slough and + traveled down it until we were about 20 miles from where + it enters Hooper Bay. At this place was an Eskimo village + where we stopped for a few days to have a goose drive; + and it was here that we saw the bristle-thighed curlew in + abundance. On July 31 a pair was seen and collected, and + on August 3 one more was taken. August 4 was the big day, + as several hundred of these birds were seen on the tundra + feeding on blueberries. About a dozen were taken by our + party, and I personally believe I saw over a hundred, while + another member of the expedition, who was off in another + direction, estimated that he saw three times as many. All + the specimens taken were old birds. + +The above facts would seem to indicate that the main breeding grounds +are somewhere in the interior of extreme northern Alaska, probably on +the barren grounds; that the spring migration is well inland; and that +there is a heavy fall migration along the Bering Sea coast. The eggs +and downy young are entirely unknown and there are not enough specimens +available to work out the molts and plumages, which probably correspond +to those of closely related species. + +_Food._--Probably the feeding habits of this curlew are not very +different from those of the Hudsonian curlew, but the only food +mentioned by observers consists of berries. Birds collected in Alaska +were feeding on blueberries. They are said to feed on _Canthium_ +berries in the Hawaiian Islands; and birds shot on Midway Island by Dr. +Paul Bartsch (1922) were “crammed full of _Scaevola_ berries.” + +_Behavior._--Doctor Bartsch (1922) found this bird “quite abundant on +both” Midway Islands in November, “where in company with the golden +plover it frequents all parts of the island excepting those covered by +brush. These birds were quite tame as well as curious and when flushed +would frequently fly about us, emitting their peculiar cry.” + +Dill and Bryan (1912) reported about 250 on Laysan Island in the +spring; they say: + + Just before sunset and early in the morning the + bristle-thighed curlews would come up around our camp + uttering their peculiar complaining notes. They roosted on + the roofs of the old buildings at night, sometimes as many + as 20 birds in one flock. We saw them feeding on different + parts of the island but usually about the lagoon or along + the beaches. + +Donald R. Dickey photographed a bristle-thighed curlew on Laysan Island +in the act of robbing a nest of the man-o-war bird, of which he tells +me: + + This was not a sporadic bit of deviltry engaged in by + one perverted individual. Instead, it was characteristic + of most, if not all, of the curlews present on Laysan at + the time we were there. In other words, they indulged in + organized banditry, working about the island in troupes + accompanied by numbers of turnstones and an occasional + golden plover which were partners in crime with the curlew. + The turnstones jammed their bills straight into the + lighter-shelled eggs, but the curlew, frequently at least, + got access to the contents of the larger eggs by raising + them in their bills and then dropping them back on the hard + sand until they broke. They can pick up and run away with + an egg up to the size of a man-o-war bird’s egg. In the + case of the latter, the more dexterous birds seized the egg + and held it endwise in the bill. It seems difficult for + them to pick it up otherwise. + +Dr. Alexander Wetmore has sent me the following notes on this subject: + + That a bird of the shore-bird family should destroy eggs + may seem almost unbelievable in view of the habits ordinary + in this group, yet in work in the Hawaiian Bird Reservation + in 1923 we found the bristle-thighed curlew, as well as + the turnstone, making regular practice of eating the + eggs of the birds nesting on these distant islands. The + sooty and gray-backed terns were the greatest sufferers, + as the curlew drove their long bills through the eggs + with ease, or seized them in their long mandibles to + carry them away and eat them at their leisure. On close + observation we found that curlews attacked the eggs of all + birds indiscriminately, even pulling an egg from beneath + a frigate bird when the incubating bird raised on the + nest for a moment, the theft being committed so adroitly + that the egg seemingly was not missed. Mr. Donald Dickey + in his motion pictures succeeded in filming a spirited + scene in which a bristle-thighed curlew after a number of + attempts accomplished the seemingly impossible feat of + carrying away a frigate bird’s egg held firmly between its + mandibles, while a group of apparently admiring turnstones, + robbers themselves but incapable of such herculean acts + of banditry, scurried about in the background. On another + occasion a curlew flew up to a red-footed booby’s nest in a + bush several feet from the ground in the temporary absence + of the owner, impaled the egg, and dragged it away to be + devoured. The booby was still brooding disconsolately in + her empty nest two days later. On another day a curlew + deliberately opened an old albatross egg found in the sand + and ate eagerly from the putrid interior. As this egg had + been lying unprotected from the sun for at least four + months previous, its condition may be imagined, yet the + bird returned avidly again and again to continue its horrid + repast though I approached within 10 feet. + +_Voice._--Mr. Conover (1926) says: + + The call and appearance of this species are entirely + different from that of the Hudsonian curlew. The latter + gives a very short whistling call, which is roughly as + follows: _Whe-whe-whe-whe_. The former, on the other hand, + has a call very similar to one of the black-bellied plover + and sounds something like wheeeu-whu. In appearance the + bristle-thigh is tawnier above and has a very reddish-brown + unbarred rump, which is a very good field mark. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Alaska and islands in the Pacific Ocean. + +_Breeding range._--Unknown, but considered probable in northern or +northwestern Alaska. + +The bristle-thighed curlew does not seem to be abundant and +consequently has been under observation at comparatively few points. +Specimens have been observed or taken in summer in Alaska at Kotzebue +Sound, Hooper Bay, Kobuk River, Lopp Lagoon, and Mint River. One also +was taken on St. George Island, of the Pribilof group, on May 26, 1917. + +_Winter range._--During the winter they are found north to the Hawaiian +Islands (Lisiansky, Laysan, French Frigate Shoal, Bird Island, and +Hawaii); east to Hawaii, Palmyra Island, Fanning Island, Christmas +Island, Marquesas Islands, Society Islands (Tahiti), and the Paumotu +Archipelago (Vincennes Island); south to the Low or Paumotu Archipelago +(Vincennes Island), Cook Islands (Palmerston Island), and probably New +Caledonia; west to probably New Caledonia, Phoenix Islands (Canton and +Phoenix Island), Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands (Jaluit Island), +and the Hawaiian Islands (Lisiansky Island). + +_Migration._--Early dates of arrival for bristle-thighed curlews in +Alaska are: Fort Kenai, May 18, 1869; Nome River, May 23, 1905; and +Cape Mountain, May 28, 1922. + +They have been detected in the Kotzebue Sound region as late as August +26, 1885. + + + + + Family CHARADRIIDAE, Plovers + + VANELLUS VANELLUS (Linnaeus) + + LAPWING + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The status of this bird in North America is a remarkable one. Up +to 1927, with the exception of Greenland, where according to Lehn +Schiöler, it is an occasional visitor, it had only been recorded on +about seven occasions from the American Continent. Excluding Alaska, +all the other records are from the eastern seaboard, the Bahamas +and Barbados. In December, 1927, large flocks, numbering thousands, +according to one reporter, were recorded from a number of places along +the east coast of Newfoundland, in the middle of the country and +also on the west coast. Among the birds obtained was one sent from +Bonavista, Newfoundland, by Canon A. G. Bagley on December 31, which +still bore the ring with which it had been marked as a nestling in May, +1926, at Ullswater, Cumberland, England, by Dr. H. J. Moon. + +_Spring._--In the British Isles the migratory movements are rather +complicated and irregular, but many birds which have wintered in the +south and near the great estuaries and marshes begin to work their way +back to their breeding places inland, and to the north of Scotland +which is practically deserted by them during the winter months. + +_Courtship._--The lapwing is a highly gregarious species and even in +the height of the breeding season, when territorial jealousy on the +part of the males is apparent, several pairs are generally to be found +nesting within a short distance of one another. The courtship habits +have been closely studied by the late S. E. Brock in Scotland, and more +recently by William Farren, R. H. Brown, and J. K. Stanford, so that +there is plenty of material at hand. + +Even in the autumn and early winter months when the weather is open, +especially after frosts, a certain amount of sexual activity is +evident. Some of the males show indications of territorial defense +and fighting takes place intermittently. It is not till the winter +is over and the males have returned to their breeding grounds, which +is generally from late February to early March, that the nesting +territory is definitely parceled out among the males. The areas may +vary considerably in shape and size and are not always clearly defined, +but each bird shows distinct signs of jealousy at any invasion on the +part of a neighbor and aerial combats take place from time to time, +though sometimes a male will desert the group of “scrapes” which marks +his territorial center and adopt a new series. These “scrapes” form +an important part in the ritual of courtship. On the appearance of +a female the male utters a grating note while standing upright and +moving wings and tail up and down rhythmically. He then drops to the +ground and, as Brock describes it, “lying far forward on his breast, +shuffles the body, and scrapes energetically with the feet, which may +be seen in rapid motion. At short intervals the tail is spasmodically +bent downwards, the action corresponding with energetic footwork.” He +then rises jerking bits of stubble over his shoulder, and in this way a +little group of hollows or “scrapes” is formed, one of which ultimately +becomes the nest. Apparently the female makes choice from several sites +originally selected by the male. + +From time to time the male makes the spring flight which has been well +described by Brock. + + Rising from the ground the male executes a few labored + flaps, moving the wings with exaggerated slowness, owllike; + thence he quickens his pace and rising suddenly at an + abrupt angle, commences the song, the greater part of + which, however, is emitted as the bird falls again. During + the utterance of the song is a pause occurring after the + penultimate note, the performer throws himself sideways + almost on his back, instantly recovering himself with + a flurry of wings. The bird now scuds rapidly over the + ground at a moderate height, making a pronounced humming + sound with the motion of his sharply driven pinions, and + occasionally tilting himself from side to side, much in the + manner of a snipe when flushed. + +The song is well rendered by Brock as _whey-willuchooee-willuch-willuch- +cooee_. The first syllable long and hoarse, the second and third +_willuch_ uttered rapidly and staccato, then a pause, during which +the partial somersault is executed, followed by the loud and musical +final note. The Norfolk marshmen’s transliteration is also good, “Three +bullocks a week, week after week.” + +Sometimes two rival males will rise together in the air almost +perpendicularly each trying to rise above the other. + + At intervals the upper bird stoops suddenly to the lower, + an attack usually avoided by an agile turn of the wing, + but occasionally a distant and hollow clap is audible, + indicating an exchange of blows apparently with the + wing. On at length parting company both combatants break + into full song flight, repeating it twice or thrice ere + resettling in their respective stations. + +These encounters seem as a rule not to be of a very serious character +and the occasional fights between rivals carried on near the ground, +in which one bird swoops repeatedly from one side or the other at its +opponent, which in turn avoids the attack by little upward springs or +swerving aside, seem to be of a more serious character. When a hen +bird approaches, the male bird runs toward her and describes a half +circle round her with stiff and constrained air. Then he makes for +the nearest “scrape” and at once drops into it, working with furious +energy and occasionally dropping bits of straw over his shoulder. +At first the hen makes no response, but about a fortnight after the +beginning of the courtship she approaches the spot where he is at work +by indirect stages. The male then rises and steps forward, with his +back to the hen, slowly lowering his bill to the ground and raising +his tail perpendicularly, thus displaying his richly colored undertail +coverts. The female now settles into the “scrape” and imitates the +actions of the cock, but with less energy, the male meanwhile retaining +his strange uptilted attitude and collecting nesting material which +is jerked over his shoulder toward the “scrape.” When at length the +hen leaves the “scrape” the male reenters and sometimes the hen also +repeats the process. Coition takes place a few days before the eggs are +laid and immediately afterwards the hen works in the “scrape” with far +more energy than before, the male often taking his place in another +scrape. Both birds go through the ceremony of throwing bits of nest +material over the shoulder. No serious attempt is made on the part of +other males to interfere with a paired hen, and she on her part seems +to avoid any strange cock bird. + +_Nesting._--Although it is usual for several pairs to breed in company +the actual nests are usually some distance apart, and nearly always on +slightly raised ground. They may be found on plowed land or on pasture +and occasionally moorland, and vary somewhat in size, some being +merely muddy hollows with a few bits of straw and bent, while others, +especially on grass lands, are fairly substantial edifices of dead +vegetable matter collected round the nesting “scrape” originally made +by the male. + +_Eggs._--Normally four, but on rare occasions five, have been recorded, +and when a bird has been robbed twice, sets of three and even two or +one egg may be found late in the season. When the birds have been much +persecuted as many as 20 have been laid in one season by a single +female. They are pyriform in shape and lie in the nest with the points +touching one another. As a rule there is not much variation, the usual +ground color being stone color or brownish olive with black spots and +blotches chiefly towards the large end. Some eggs have the ground +almost hidden by dense black markings, and there are types in which +the spots are mainly replaced by short black lines. More remarkable +varieties are those in which the ground color in bluish white or some +shade of greenish olive, with scanty markings of black, and the rare +erythristic type in which the ground color is pale brick red or deep +red brown with rich red brown markings. This wonderful variation has +been recorded from Friesland as well as many parts of the British +Isles. The measurements of 100 eggs measured by the writer average 47 +by 33.7 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =58= by +32.5, 47.4 by =37.2=, =42.3= by 33 and 44.7 by =31.2= millimeters. + +_Young._--Incubation is performed by both sexes, but much the greater +part by the hen, the male being on guard to give the alarm. Incubation +begins with the third or fourth egg and the period is as a rule 24 or +25 days, but in some cases is said to extend to 27 or even 28 days. The +adults are very bold and demonstrative when the eggs are chipping and +will even strike sheep or dogs. The young remain in the nest until the +down has been thoroughly dried and at first do not travel far afield, +crouching when the parents give the alarm. They can swim readily +and are led by the old birds from dry uplands toward water meadows. +Directly the young are able to fly they assemble into flocks. Only one +brood is reared during the season. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920). + +Ridgway (1919) says that the sexes are alike, and that he has been +unable to verify the supposed differences in the wing formula of male +and female. It is, however, easy to distinguish the sexes in life by +the shape of the wing of the male, which is, as described by Frohawk +and others, much more rounded in shape than that of the female. + +_Food._--This consists largely of earthworms, mollusca (including +the large slugs _Arion_ and _Agriolimax_ as well as the smaller +snails, _Helix_ sp.; also during the winter months marine shell +fish, _Tellina_, _Bythinia_, _Physa_, etc.) and insects. This latter +family includes Coleoptera (_Otiorhynchus_, Carabidae, _Ocypusolens_, +_Aphodius_, _Agriotes_, various species of _Geodephaga_, etc.), +Diptera, including larvae of Tipulidae, Lepidoptera (many larvae +of moths such as _Noctua segetum_, _N. exclamationes_, etc.), and +Orthoptera. Vegetable matter is also eaten, but not largely. Seeds of +_Ranunculus repens_, _Polygonum aviculare_, and _Spergula_ have been +recognized, also fragments of seaweed (Algae) in winter. Spiders and +marine crustacea are also recorded. + +_Behavior._--The lapwing is preeminently a gregarious bird. All +through the winter months it is to be met with in flocks, sometimes +of great size, and even in the breeding season it is rare to find a +single pair nesting out of sight and earshot of its neighbors. The +curious “wobbling” flight enables the species to be recognized at great +distances. Unlike some other gregarious species, such as the starling, +the lapwing is not expert in the art of simultaneous maneuvers and +it is a common sight to see a big flock rise together on the wing +and break up at once into two bodies moving in different directions. +Then gradually birds from the smaller body will gravitate toward the +larger flock and after a time the two will reunite, but there is a +lack of leadership and confidence in their movements which at once +distinguishes them from the smartly wheeling flocks of dunlins, knots, +or other gregarious waders. Sometimes a party of golden plover will +associate on the wing with a flock of lapwing, but here, again, the +difference is very striking. + +_Enemies._--Probably the rook destroys more eggs and small young than +any other foe except man, but the jackdaw, hooded crow, and carrion +crow are all apt to devour the eggs. I have seen a sparrow hawk drop +from a tree onto a bird rising from its nest and bind onto it for a +time, but the lapwing broke free after a struggle. It is not uncommon +to find remains of birds on the feeding tables of the sparrow hawk near +a breeding ground. The peregrine also sometimes takes lapwing, but its +erratic tumbling flight renders it a difficult prey. + +_Fall._--Ringing has proved that some of the British-reared birds find +their way to Iceland, France, and Portugal. In mild winters there are +always a considerable number of flocks in our southern counties, but +hard frosts or deep snow will cause them to move to the south coast or +to emigrate. + +Although a most useful bird from the agriculturist’s point of view, the +lapwing is shot freely during the autumn and winter, chiefly by shore +shooters, while the demand for its eggs as delicacies has also been +detrimental to its status. In Holland the earliest clutches are all +taken for the market and this has had no injurious effect, as the birds +lay again and are then protected strictly. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--Europe north to the Arctic Circle, the British +Isles, but only exceptionally in the Faroes, and not in Iceland. In +Finland to latitude 68° on the Muonio River and in Russia north to +Archangel. Southward it breeds in Andalusia and in the Balkan Peninsula +to Macedonia, but not in Greece or the Mediterranean Islands. Breeding +in Morocco requires confirmation. It also breeds across Asia east to +the Pacific, south to Transcaspia and Yarkand. + +_Winter range._--Many birds winter in the British Isles, but on the +Continent they move to southern Europe and northern Africa, visiting +the Atlantic isles occasionally (Canaries, Madeira, etc.). In Asia, +Asia Minor, Palestine, Iraq, Persia, and north India, China, North +Burma, and Japan. + +_Spring migration._--The northward movement of continental birds +depends much on the weather. In mild winters they have appeared in +Denmark in January and February, but the average date is about March +6. In Sweden the arrival is also irregular, from mid February to mid +March, but in south Finland not till late in March. In central Europe +the birds arrive as a rule on the breeding grounds early in March, and +the Mediterranean passage is generally over by the beginning of that +month. + +_Fall migration._--Migrants from the north arrive at Gibraltar about +mid October, while in Malta the passage takes place in November, and +in Greece at the end of October. In Iraq they arrive from October 22 +onward, but chiefly in early November. + +_Casual records._--Greenland, occasional visitor (Julianehaab 1847; +Fiskenaes 7, I, 1820, etc.) Iceland; numerous records between September +and March; Labrador (Cartwright, January, 1917); Newfoundland, White +Hills, November 23, 1905 and recently (December, 1927); Nova Scotia +(Ketch Harbor, March 17, 1897); Long Island, New York (Merrick, 2 +specimens, December 26, 1883 and Meccox Bay, Waterville, autumn 1905); +Bahamas (Hog Island, November, 1900); Barbados (December 24, 1886); +West Alaska (small islets in Norton Sound); Madeira (Machico, December +6, 1891, December 2, 1889, December 4, 1893, January 14, 1895, March +10, 1895, December 15, 1896, and November 28, 1897); Jan Mayen (30 on +April 8, 1883). + +[AUTHOR’S NOTE.--The most remarkable occurrence of this species took +place during the fall and winter of 1927–28. A specimen was taken +on Baffin Island in October; and they appeared in large numbers in +Newfoundland (Bonavista) in December, where one man was reported to +have killed 60 individuals, one of which carried a band of British +Bird Magazine that had been attached in Cumberland, England, in May, +1926. Capt. Donald MacMillan reported them at Anatalok Bay, Labrador, +on December 22, and a specimen was obtained January 6, 1928, at North +Head, Grand Manan, New Brunswick.] + +C. L. Whittle (1928) has suggested the following theory, as to the +possible cause of this unusual flight: + + As to the cause of the movement of lapwings to Newfoundland + and the route taken, it is perhaps helpful to study + the Pilot Charts of the North Atlantic above referred + to. During the month of December, the 16th and 17th, a + well-developed cyclone of exceptional intensity had its + center well to the east of Spain, with a low pressure of + 28.30 inches, and with accompanying strong southeasterly + winds from western Europe. These winds might easily have + been instrumental in driving lapwings to Iceland, five + to seven hundred miles distant, and to Greenland. Later, + polar winds and a search for food may have played important + parts in forcing a movement southwesterly to northern + Labrador, and then southeasterly, following the coast to + Newfoundland. Here, near the shore, snowless tundras, which + probably would furnish a food supply, may have existed, + even in December, with the result that the recently + scattered birds became gradually concentrated.[2] + + [2] See also A Transatlantic Passage of Lapwings, by + H. F. Witherby, in British Birds, vol. 22, pp. 6–13. + +_Egg dates._--March 2 to 19 (9 dates); March 26 to 31 (18 dates); April +1 to 14 (60 dates); April 15 to 30 (29 dates, probably including many +second layings); late date June 22. All the above from England. + + + EUDROMIAS MORINELLUS (Linnaeus) + + DOTTEREL + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The claim of this species to a place in the American list rests on a +single occurrence at King Island, Alaska, on July 23, 1897. + +_Spring._--The regularity of the appearance of the dotterel on +migration at almost the same spots year after year and approximately +about the same time in spring, has proved a great disadvantage to the +species, as being very tame and unsuspicious and much sought after, not +only as a delicacy for the table, but also on account of the demand for +its feathers on the part of fly-fishers, it was mercilessly shot on +the way to its breeding grounds in the north of England and Scotland. +The usual date of arrival was about the last week of April and the +beginning of May and little “trips” might be looked for annually at +certain favored spots along the route northward. Exceptionally early +arrivals have been recorded on March 25, April 4 and April 8, but these +are quite unusual. + +_Courtship._--Owing no doubt partly to the inaccessible nature of its +haunts and also partly to its scarcity, there is nothing on record in +the literature as to the courtship of this bird. All writers are agreed +that the migrants which pass through England are in small flocks or +“trips” and are still unpaired. In 1922 I was on the high field of West +Finmark and there was still a great deal of snow about, but here and +there islands of gray rock stood out from the snow field. Here we met +with dotterel in fair numbers, evidently pairing and house hunting. +They shared the ground with a few snow buntings and ptarmigan, and it +was obvious that already certain spots had been selected for breeding. +Sometimes three birds would be seen wheeling round a bare patch of moor +and rock and freely uttering their courting notes, which reminded us of +those of the ring plover. We saw nothing to suggest the existence of a +nuptial song flight, but further observations at this period would be +of great interest. + +_Nesting._--In Scotland and the English lake district the breeding +haunts of this species must be looked for at about 2,500 to 3,500 feet +or even higher, not on the mountain tops, but on plateaus or slopes +below the highest points. Here, where the only vegetation consists of a +scanty growth of heather mixed with wiry grass, mosses and lichens, and +occasional fragments of gray rock crop out here and there, the dotterel +is at home. Few living things haunt their solitudes; a stray raven or +eagle may pass over occasionally, but as a rule there is hardly a sign +of life anywhere. There is some evidence that one or two “scrapes” +are made by one pair of birds, but we have no information as to which +of the two is responsible for making the hollow. The eggs are laid +in a natural depression adapted by the bird, roughly about three and +one-half inches across and fairly deep, as a rule, but generally filled +with fragments of lichen or the red leaves of the cranberry, so that +the eggs are not difficult to see though their coloring harmonizes with +the surroundings. + +_Eggs._--Normally three, but frequently two only, while instances of +four are comparatively rare. They are more elliptical and less pyriform +than most waders’ eggs and are not unlike some types of eggs of the +Arctic tern, though almost always more boldly blotched. In color they +range from yellowish olive to clay color, occasionally with a greenish +tinge and are boldly spotted and blotched with deep blackish brown +and a few ashy shell marks. The average of 100 British eggs, measured +by the writer is 41.1 by 28.8 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =46.7= by 31.3, 44.5 by =31.5=, =37.5= by 29 and 41.6 +by =27.4= millimeters. + +The sexes are not easy to distinguish in the field, but nearly all the +positive evidence from birds shot off the eggs goes to prove that the +male is generally to be found incubating. H. H. Slater shot two males +from eggs. H. J. Pearson and Gloger had similar experiences, and Bengt +Berg, who has watched this bird at close quarters, says that only the +male incubates. Many accounts have been published of the behavior of +the sitting bird. When flushed from the eggs it returns by a circuitous +route, cowering like a mouse, as one observer describes it, sometimes +stopping to look round and sometimes doubling back on his tracks like +a hunted hare, but all the time, in spite of the numerous turns and +twists, gradually approaching the eggs to which at last a short direct +run is made. Viewed from behind the bird is exceedingly difficult to +follow with the eye in its environment, so that close watching is +necessary to mark it down. When the nest has once been discovered, or +if the bird is brooding young, it will show extraordinary boldness and +will even allow itself to be lifted off the nest by the hand, settling +down again as soon as it is removed. Bengt Berg actually succeeded in +photographing a bird in the act of accepting a worm from the hand. The +only information as to the length of the incubation period is Heyshams +oft-quoted assertion that it rarely lasts more than 18 or 20 days. Only +a single brood is reared in a season, but the hen will lay a second +time about a fortnight after the first clutch has been destroyed. + +_Young._--In one case when Seton Gordon came across a nest with +half-grown chicks, both parents showed signs of great excitement +and almost complete disregard of his presence, running backward and +forward and frequently uttering their soft whistle which sounded +something like _twee, twee, tuur_, the first two notes pitched in a +high key and the last a purring sound difficult to express in writing. +On other occasions only a single old bird accompanied the young and +considerable differences were apparent in their behavior, some showing +signs of great anxiety when the young were approached while others were +apparently almost indifferent and remained some distance off. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds edited by H. F. Witherby (1920). + +_Food._--On its breeding grounds it feeds on insects (Diptera, +Coleoptera, and their larvae). Collett records _Bembidium_ and _Elater_ +larvae; Petenyi records _Dorcadion_, _Silpha_, and _Pachygastra_. +Earthworms are also taken, according to Saxby, Collett, and Berg. H. J. +Pearson also records vegetable matter, apparently seeds of _Empetrum +nigrum_ or crowberry. H. B. Tristram writes that in its winter quarters +in Palestine it subsists largely on small snails (_Helix_). + +_Behavior._--The dotterel is a quiet, unobtrusive bird, not associating +much with other waders and generally met with in small parties out of +the breeding season. Its general brown coloring is not striking and no +doubt it is frequently overlooked. Its flight is strong, the clean-cut +wings, as Gordon says, “moving with swift and powerful strokes only a +few feet above the surface of the ground.” + +_Enemies._--Naumann (1887) states that the chief enemies of the +dotterel are the falcons (peregrine, hobby, and merlin) and the +short-winged hawks (goshawk and sparrow hawk). + +_Fall._--At Heligoland Gätke (1895) observed large numbers of young +birds of the year on passage on one or two occasions; on August 22, +1882, great numbers passed, although wind and rain prevailed, and on +September 4 in fine weather one flight alone took five minutes to pass, +an unprecedented occurrence. + +_Winter._--Lord Lilford found it abundant in its winter quarters on the +plains of Tunisia consorting with sand grouse, lapwings, golden plover, +little bustards, and cranes. He failed to get within shot on foot, but +killed many from horse, donkey, or camel, though the birds would run +about fearlessly within a few feet of the Arab plowmen. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--In the British Isles confined to a few localities +in the North Pennine and Cumbrian Hills, and in Scotland chiefly to +levels of 3,000 to 4,000 feet in the Grampians and Cairngorms, and very +locally north and west. On the Continent, in northern Scandinavia, +north Finland and Russia, Nova Zembla, Waigatz, and Kolguev. It is +found locally in the Riesengebirge, Styria, Transylvania, etc. It is +also said to breed in southeast Russia. In Asia it is found across +Siberia and on the New Siberian Isles in the tundra and south to the +mountain ranges of central Asia. + +_Winter range._--Extends to North Africa, Palestine and Syria, Iraq, +Arabia, and Persia. + +_Spring migration._--In the western Mediterranean it is scarce on +spring passage, but Brehm obtained one at Cartagena, Spain, on March +31. It is also of rare occurrence at Malta in spring and seldom +recorded from Greece. At Muonioniska flocks arrive from the south about +May 29 and remain for a week or two before proceeding to their breeding +grounds on the tundra. + +_Fall migration._--The great bulk of migrants seem to pass through +eastern Europe southward through Palestine, but small numbers pass the +Straits of Gibraltar in August and September, and it is not uncommon +on Malta in October and November (early date, August 23; late date, +December 11). Whitaker notes its arrival in Tunisia in September and +October. + +_Casual records._--Saxby records one on the Shetlands in mid-June, +1869. It is a rare visitor to the Canaries and has not been recorded +there for many years. The supposed record from Spitzbergen is probably +a mistaken identification, but it has occurred in Japan and on King +Island, Alaska (July 23, 1897). + +_Egg dates._--British Isles, 8 dates between May 30, and June 15; 5 +dates between June 21 and July 14; probably including some second +layings. In Scandinavia, 14 dates between June 3 and 15; 33 dates +between June 16 and 30; 2 dates between July 1 and 6. + + + SQUATAROLA SQUATAROLA (Linnaeus) + + BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER + + + HABITS + +I use the above name rather than the latest check list name, +_cynosurae_ because I can not see any valid reason for recognizing a +North American race of this cosmopolitan species. A slight average +difference in size is of little significance in a species which shows +such a wide range of individual variation. Recent investigation has, I +believe, convinced even Mr. Bangs that this race, which he described, +has no standing. The bird which breeds in northeastern Siberia has been +separated under the name _hypomelaena_; this may be a good race, though +material to establish it is rather scanty in this country. Probably it +is the Siberian race which breeds on the Bering Sea coast of Alaska. +For life-history purposes the species, as a whole, will be considered. + +The black-bellied plover is an aristocrat among shore birds, the +largest and strongest of the plovers, a leader of its tribe. It is +a distinguished-looking bird in its handsome spring livery of black +and white; and its attitude, as it stands like a sentinel on the +crest of a sand dune or on some distant mud flat, is always dignified +and imposing. Its wild, plaintive, and musical whistle arouses the +enthusiasm of the sportsman and serves both as a warning and as an +invitation to the lesser fowl that look to it for leadership. + +Its breeding range is circumpolar, but decidedly spotty; there are very +few places where it breeds at all commonly. On migrations it is widely +distributed over nearly all of the Northern Hemisphere. It was never +as abundant in this country as the golden plover and apparently never +traveled in such immense flocks; hence it was never slaughtered in such +enormous numbers. Moreover, it is much wilder, more wary, and better +able to take care of itself; consequently it has held its own much +better and has proven more of a success in the struggle for existence. + +Nevertheless, it has been considerably reduced in numbers during the +past 75 years. I am inclined to think that the reduction in numbers +is more apparent than real and that the birds have learned to avoid +certain localities, where they were once so abundant and where they +have been so persistently pursued by gunners. George H. Mackay (1892) +has shown a decided decrease on Nantucket, which he attributes to such +a cause. From my own 30 years’ experience on Cape Cod I know that +this has taken place there; I have noticed a gradual decrease in the +numbers of black-bellied plover that come to Chatham and Monomoy during +the fall flight, until now I often see no more than half a dozen in +a day, where formerly we used to see them in hundreds. On the spring +flight, however, they are often very abundant there, and apparently +have increased since spring shooting was stopped; formerly they were +much more abundant in the fall than in the spring, but the reverse +is now the case. This is a striking example of the bird’s sagacity. +Francis N. Balch told me that he saw at least 4,000 black-bellied +plover on Monomoy on one day during the height of the spring flight in +1927. This compares favorably with Nuttall’s much quoted statement that +flocks of more than 1,000 gathered near Boston about 100 years ago. +Some of the figures given below will show that there are still plenty +of black-bellied plover left in places where they are not too much +molested. + +_Spring._--From the northern part of its winter range in the southern +States the black-bellied plover starts on its northward migration in +April and there is a general northward movement, entirely across the +continent, all through May; the last of the migrants do not leave the +northern States until the first week in June. Arthur T. Wayne (1910) +says that, in South Carolina, “when the wind is from the south and +the tide is low in the afternoon, these birds migrate in small flocks +in a northwesterly direction,” probably taking an overland route to +their breeding grounds. But there is also a heavy northward migration +along the Atlantic coast, at least as far as New Jersey, whence I +believe the main flight swings inland, though there is a well-marked +spring migration in Massachusetts, mainly during the last half of +May, which seems to have increased in recent years. During the latter +part of May, 1927, I was privileged to see, through the kindness of +Dr. Harry C. Oberholser, the greatest flight of black-bellied plover, +dowitchers, and turnstones that I have ever seen. On the coast of New +Jersey, in the vicinity of Tuckerton Bay and Little Egg Harbor, we +made actual counts, or careful estimates, of all birds seen and the +totals were far ahead of any he had recorded there in recent years. +Seven day’s records show a total of over 20,000 black-bellied plover; +on our two best days, May 27 and 28, we recorded 6,200 and 5,600; and +on our poorest day, May 25, we counted only 238, showing that they +came in waves. The black-bellied plover were often associated in the +large flocks with ruddy turnstones; we saw one immense flock which we +estimated to contain 3,500 birds of these two species. This great flock +was a thrilling sight, as it swept in over the marsh like a great cloud +and alighted; twice, while we were watching, it arose like a swarm of +insects, circled about, separated into two divisions, joined again, and +alighted. We did not see it depart. + +This seems to be the best place on the New Jersey coast to observe +shore birds in large numbers, where they alight to rest and feed on +the large, flat, marshy islands. These are mud islands raised but +a few feet above high water and some of them are partially flooded +during spring tides; they are mainly covered with salt-marsh grasses, +intersected by tidal creeks and dotted with small pond holes or bare +muddy splashes. The plover alighted on the bare spaces or in the short +grass, where the large flocks seen in the distance seemed to whiten the +ground. These large flocks, with sentinels always alert, were utterly +unapproachable; and even the small flocks and single birds were as shy +as ever. At low tide they resorted to the extensive mud flats to feed, +though they doubtless fed on the meadows also. + +On Cape Cod they frequent the same localities as in the fall; my +earliest date is April 19 and my latest date for adult birds is June +29. The spring flights here and in New Jersey are made up mainly of +adult birds, mostly in full plumage, but many are mottled and there are +always some “pale bellies,” or young birds. + +The black-bellied plover is an abundant spring migrant up the +Mississippi Valley and through central Canada. We saw it in +Saskatchewan during the last week in May and first week in June. C. +G. Harold tells me that it is abundant around the prairie lakes and +sloughs in Manitoba. Prof. William Rowan (1926) calls it abundant in +Manitoba; his notes mention a flock estimated at about 3,000 seen on +May 23, 1925, at Beaverhill Lake. He says: + + At our lake it is one of the later arrivals in the + spring, seldom appearing before the middle of May. It + stays generally in some numbers till the end of the month + and may linger till the second week of June. Flocks are + usually small, anything up to 30, except when the birds + are ready to start on the next lap north, when they may + aggregate many hundreds if not thousands. On May 23, 1925, + we estimated the ground covered by a single flock of grey + plovers, knots, and a sprinkling of goldens at about one + and a half acres. They were not scattered, but neither were + they closely packed. The grays made up about 75 per cent of + the whole. The sitting flock looked like a large patch of + snow. + +S. F. Rathbun has sent me the following notes from Washington which +illustrates the abundance of this species on the Pacific coast: + + May 12, 1927. This morning was a dark one with a steady + drizzling rain and light wind following the storm of the + preceding two days. On reaching a very wide expanse of + grassy salt meadows bordering the bay we found them dotted + nearly everywhere with many of the smaller sandpipers and + black-bellied plover, the birds being in small and large + flocks and mostly grouped around the many shallow pools + with which the meadows were flecked. It was one of the + finest sights we have ever seen where shore-birds were + concerned. The beautiful black-bellied plover in full + nuptial dress were scattered over a wide area, rarely as + single birds, but ordinarily a number in company and not + infrequently in flocks of considerable size. One such flock + consisted of 50 individuals, shortly after being joined + by another of some 30 birds, the combination of so many + large black-breasted birds making a striking sight. When + first alighting the birds would stand motionless, following + which they would then move slowly about, although at times + individuals might take wing, make several turns in the air + and then alight among the others on the ground. When in + its full plumage this plover is very noticeable even a long + distance off, and when on the ground is always wary and + alert. On alighting if it does not stand motionless, the + bird will immediately move to the nearest height of land, + if such there happens to be, and from such point of vantage + will then scan the landscape, and should there happen to + be a number in company you will always find two or three + maintaining a lookout while the remainder move about rather + unconcernedly. + + At times associated with the many sandpipers would be a + number of knots, but as a rule this latter species was + found in flocks by itself with this exception, that always + with a flock of knots would be one or more black-bellied + plover, such acting as sentinels for the former. And + this being the case, the knots would then unconcernedly + feed, as they seemed to rely implicitly on the plovers’ + watchfulness, and we never noted this confidence misplaced. + And this fact must in instances prove the salvation of + those shore birds more or less unsuspicious and having + this plover in company, for they seem to be governed by + its actions. Sometimes, with a warning note, the sentinel + would suddenly take wing and instantly was followed by the + entire flock of other birds en masse, and all would then + fly about perhaps for a time before once more alighting on + some spot selected by the plover acting as the sentinel. At + one time during our stay there were between three and four + thousand of these plover on the meadows, and we were told + that on the preceding day during the height of the storm + this number must have been exceeded. + +_Courtship._--I have never seen any signs of courtships during the +spring migration, though I have often looked for it; nor have I ever +seen any mention of it by others. Hence I infer that it is accomplished +after the birds arrive on their breeding grounds. Herbert W. Brandt +says in his Alaska notes: + + During courtship the male spends considerable time on the + wing, speeding about like a racer; and amid the constant + din of wild-fowl notes his cheery whistle _to lee, to + lee_, is one of the pleasant sounds that greet the ear. + But once the female is incubating her lord becomes as + serious and silent as his sober black waistcoat, so that + by early June it seemed as if every plover had left the + country. He carries on his courtship regardless of weather, + now mounting high, the next moment skimming low, with + beautiful and bewildering grace, his wild whistling call + meanwhile rising above the din of the storm. The advance + guard of migrants of this plover arrived from the south in + a “nor’wester” on May 7, passing like phantom voyagers, and + the next instant were lost in mid-air in the swirling snow. + +_Nesting._--Mr. Brandt has sent me the following notes on the nesting +habits of the black-bellied plover in the Hooper Bay region of Alaska: + + We found this jauntily attired plover the most common + nesting species of the larger shore birds, frequenting the + upland rolling tundra, where it preferred the ridges. It + often chose for a nesting site the edge of one of the more + prominent bluffs which formed the margin of the valleys, + from which location the sitting bird could view the entire + surrounding country. On these barren areas, where even the + close-cropped moss struggles for existence, the vegetation + is mottled with black and white, and as a consequence + the eggs, in spite of their exposed situation, are very + difficult to find. One must almost touch them to be sure + that they are there, so completely do they harmonize + with their background. This protective coloration is so + perfect that in one case a bird deserted its nest and the + eggs remained unprotected for three days, during which + time jaegers, which were continuously hunting overhead + and about, were, even with their sharp eyes, not able to + distinguish them. + + The nest is prepared by the female by scratching out in the + moss a circular depression some 6 inches in diameter and + about 1½ inches deep and lining it with a few white sprigs + of reindeer moss. Here she lays her four large beautiful + eggs, each set showing marked variation in size, shape, and + markings. These eggs are distinctive, having a considerably + lighter background than those of the golden plover, while + the black markings are not so numerous and are more evenly + distributed. + + They do not nest in proximity to one another, as of the 40 + or more nests observed no two were closer together than + a quarter of a mile. The female is anything but a close + sitter and departs from the eminence on which the nest is + situated long before the intruder arrives. If the eggs + are fresh, often neither bird exhibits any interest while + a person is at the nest and they do not even make their + appearance as long as he remains in their vicinity. As the + hatching point approaches, however, the birds become more + solicitous, protesting vigorously; the male develops into + a militant sentry and rushes out to meet the intruder, + repeatedly whistling _lee-ah_ in a scolding tone, but + staying well out of gun range. He is very combative and + drives away any jaeger or large gull that infringes on + his area. The female often leaves her eggs to join in the + attack, and even the swift-flying long-tailed jaeger can + not avoid their onslaughts but beats a hasty retreat. I + have seen a male plover strike a jaeger so hard that it + reeled unsteadily in mid-air, but the coward made no effort + to retaliate. + +Roderick MacFarlane’s notes contain the records of seven nests found +in the vicinity of Franklin Bay, Mackenzie. The nests were all found +between July 4 and 10, in 1864 and 1865. The first was on an island +in the bay and was “composed of a few withered grasses, placed in a +hole or depression on the side, or face, of a very gentle eminence.” +At least two other nests were on islands. The female was snared on one +nest, but was devoured by a snowy owl, which also ate the four eggs. + +The nesting habits of the grey plover, as this species is called by +Europeans, are apparently similar to those of our bird. Henry J. +Pearson (1896), who found seven nests on Kolguev, describes them thus: + + The positions of the nests were interesting; only two were + on the lower ground near the Gobista; one was a mile both + from the sea and the river; all the others--also several + old nests--were on the tundra not far from the edge of + the bluffs which form the margin of the river basin. Grey + plovers seem to prefer this position, which gives them + good posts of observation and allows them to take their + young easily into the marshes below to feed. We found a + ready way of locating the nest of this bird was to watch a + pair of Richardson’s skua hunting over the tundra, for as + soon as they approached the nest of the plovers, both the + latter rose into the air and drove the skuas away. We never + observed these birds breeding near each other, each pair + appearing to take possession of about a mile of country. + All the nests were slight depressions in the peat, lined + with a little lichen. + +If the black-bellied plover breeds in Greenland it must be very rare +there, for Dr. W. Elmer Ekblaw tells me that he saw it only twice +during the four years that he spent there. A flock that he saw on +Sutherland Island, south of Etah, on August 17, 1914, was made up of +old and young birds and the latter may have been reared there. + +_Eggs._--Mr. Brandt has described the eggs so much better than I can +that I prefer to quote from his notes, as follows: + + Of the more than 40 nests that we examined of the + black-bellied plover each held four eggs when its + complement was completed. Owing to the proportionate + thickness compared with its length the shape of the egg + is ovate pyriform inclining to subpyriform. The shell is + strong, finely granular, and on every egg I have seen the + lustre is uniformly dull. The ground color and markings + vary so much that hardly any two sets are the same. This + ground color appears to follow three different shades, + which are pinkish, greenish, or brownish. These types are + often quite pronounced when the eggs are fresh, but the + delicate tints fade with age. The pink type ranges from + “pale ochraceous salmon” to “light buff”; the green type + is “pale glass green”; while the brown variety is often as + dark as “cinnamon drab.” The eggs are never densely spotted + and are always most heavily marked about the large end, + but the very tip of this end is usually bare of spots, so + that, if viewed upon the long axis, a wreath of spots is + observed. These spots are usually medium in size and are + distinct, although in a few unusual examples the spots + become confluent at the large end. The primary markings are + irregularly circular and never elongated, while upon the + unusual egg these jet ornaments are of thumb-nail size. + In rare instances the markings assume the form of short + penlike scratches which mark the surface at various angles + in the same manner as is occasionally found on the eggs of + other members of the Charadriidae. The spots are uniformly + “blackish brown” to black, but, where the pigment is spread + more thinly, “deep brownish drab” or “dusky drab” tones may + be noted, while here and there “hazel” to “liver brown” + may be observed where the pigment is extremely thin. The + underlying spots are never numerous but always present + and are more prominent on some specimens than on others. + They vary in tone from “pale mouse gray” to “deep violet + gray,” dependent upon the ground color, while one specimen + with small primary spots is conspicuously beautified with + “chicory blue.” A series of these noble eggs is a study + in black and whitish, and while the individual egg is + conspicuous, yet, when resting on their mottled birthplace, + it is evident that nature has most happily endowed them + with protective coloration. + +The measurements of 174 eggs average 52.2 by 36.5 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =58= by 38, 55.5 by =38.2=, =47.5= +by 34.7 and 51.9 by =34= millimeters. The measurements of eggs from +different localities do not throw much light on the relationship of the +proposed subspecies; 120 eggs from Hooper Bay average 52.4 by 36.7, +14 eggs from Franklin Bay average 52 by 36, and 40 eggs from European +localities average 51.6 by 35.9 millimeters. + +_Young._--Several observers have proven that both sexes share in the +incubation. Mr. Brandt says in his notes: + + The first downy young appeared on June 21 after an + incubation lasting 23 days, and they were just as + inconspicuous and distinctive as were the eggs whence + they emerged. At that time both parents were fearless + in their defense, employing all the wing-dragging and + distress maneuvers known to ground-nesting birds. This was + exhibited even by the male, which is rather unusual. The + downy young are variegated, sulphur-yellow and black above, + and harmonize well with the abundant yellowish moss of the + tundra. They conceal themselves by lying with head down and + with their legs drawn under their bodies and are thus very + difficult to detect. + +_Plumages._--In natal down the young black-bellied plover resembles +the young golden plover, except that the band around the neck and the +under parts are purer white. The forehead, crown, and sides of the head +are variegated with black, white, and bright yellows, varying from +“lemon chrome” to “baryta yellow”; the back, rump, wings, and thighs +are mottled with black and the above shades of yellow; the nape, a +broad band around the neck and the entire under parts are pure white; +the cheeks below the eyes are white bordered below by a black stripe +extending from the bill to the auriculars. + +In fresh juvenal plumage, as seen on the breeding grounds, the forehead +and lores are mainly white; the crown and all the upper parts of the +body are sepia, the feathers broadly tipped or notched with yellow, +varying from “light cadmium yellow” to “light orange yellow,” the +spots being largest and brightest on the rump; the chin is white, +but the rest of the under parts are buffy gray and pale buff, the +feathers of the throat, breast, and flanks with median dusky streaks +and faint dusky tips; the greater wing coverts are more narrowly edged, +but more conspicuously notched than in the adult. Young birds are in +juvenal plumage during migration, but the yellows have mostly faded to +creamy white or white, though the rump spots are often quite yellow. A +partial postjuvenal molt takes place late in the fall and in winter, +involving much of the body plumage, but generally not the rump and +back. Generally the molt is finished by December, but often not until +January; by this time the light edgings and notches have worn away, +giving the bird a very dark appearance. The first winter plumage is +much like the adult winter, but it can be distinguished by the creamy +or golden tips and notches of the juvenal wing coverts, by the faded +yellow spots on the rump and by some old, worn scapulars and tertials. + +Young birds have an incomplete and very variable first prenuptial +molt, at which the sexes begin to differentiate. Young males acquire +more of the adult nuptial plumage than young females; sometimes the +breasts become almost wholly clear black; but in the upper parts there +is generally only a sprinkling of new, adult, broadly white-tipped +feathers, most of the first winter plumage being retained, with some +old, worn scapulars, tertials, and tails. Young females show much less +black on the breast and much more winter plumage on the back. Young +birds apparently renew the primaries in February and March and the +first postnuptial molt, the following summer and fall, produces the +adult winter plumage. + +Adults have a partial prenuptial molt between February and May, +involving the body plumage, usually the tail, some of the wing coverts +and tertials, but not all the scapulars, back and rump feathers. +The complete postnuptial molt, begins with the acquisition of white +feathers in the under body plumage in August and the body molt lasts +through September, while the birds are migrating. The wings are molted +later, from September to December. In winter plumage the black breast +is entirely replaced by dull white, more or less marked or shaded +with pale, ashy brown; and the upper parts are dull, ashy brown, the +feathers tipped with white and subterminally shaded with blackish +brown. No trace of the nuptial body plumage is left and adults and +young look very much alike. + +_Food._--The main feeding grounds of the black-bellied plover along +the coasts are on the broad, tidal, sand flats, and mud flats; there +are many such flats about Chatham and other places on Cape Cod, where +the receding tide leaves many square miles of flat mud or sand, dotted +with little islands of tall marsh grass. These are favorite resorts +for plover, where they may be seen away off on the edge of the water, +perhaps a mile from the shore, feeding on marine worms, small mollusks, +crustaceans, and marine insects. As the advancing tide drives them +in onto the marshes or sand dunes, they find other food; Mr. Mackay +(1892) says that “they feed also on the larvae of one of the cutworms +(Noctuidae) which they obtain on the marshes. They also eat the large +whitish maritime grasshopper (_Oedipoda maritima_).” + +In the interior they feed, around the shores of the larger lakes and +on open flats, on various forms of aquatic life. They also resort to +some extent to meadows and upland pastures, where the grass is short, +and to plowed fields; here they do some good by devouring grasshoppers, +locusts, cutworms, grubs, beetles, and earthworms. They also eat some +seeds and berries. Mr. Forbush (1912) says that Prof. Samuel Aughey +found the stomachs of two of these birds “crammed with the destructive +Rocky Mountain locust.” + +Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) mention a bird taken in California +which had in its stomach “14 small snails, 1 small bivalve mollusk, +and parts of 2 or more small crabs.” I once watched a bird in Florida, +which fed for some time on the broken remains of a dead crab. + +_Behavior._--Mr. Brandt, in his notes, pays the following tribute to +the power of flight of this fine bird: + + Only those who have met the lordly black-bellied plover + on his native heath can appreciate how he seems to rule + with a martial air the domains under his control. + Powerful of wing stroke, trim of form as a grayhound, + and erect of carriage, this, the largest of our common + plovers, is the athlete of the wild birds of the North. + Neatly vestured in his silvery white and ebony black, he + is the fleetest racer of the air among a field of highly + developed specialists. To consider him swifter than the + graceful long-tailed jaeger or the far-ranging golden + plover is indeed a startling claim, but my judgment is + that the black-bellied plover can pass through the air + faster than any other feathered creature in the North. At + some time in the future it will be of great interest for + some enterprising ornithologist to test out in his racing + aeroplane the various flying speeds of the northern birds. + It is my prediction that the shore birds will be found to + lead the field there, and that the big black-bellied plover + will surpass them all. The Pacific godwit is a wonderful + air master, darting here and there with but the slightest + effort, yet our plover seems to have only one gear, and + that high speed. This may be best appreciated during + the gales that are of such frequent occurrence in that + storm-swept land. The bird can quarter, or fly into the + teeth of the wind, with such power as almost to disregard + it. + +The above picture is not overdrawn, for this plover is one of our +strongest fliers. Migrating flocks fly high in great bunches or massed +formations, after the manner of many ducks. When flying short distances +or when coming in over the flats they fly low and are often strung out +in lines. Their flight seems to me to be steadier or more duck-like +than that of the smaller shore birds. The powerful, pointed wings move +very swiftly; Doctor Oberholser and I once made a number of accurate +counts of the wing beats of this and several other species in normal +flight; eight counts for this plover averaged 240 beats a minute, or 4 +beats a second; the slowest was 225 and the fastest 250. + +The black-bellied plover is wont to stand erect, with head held high, +in an attitude of dignified yet alert repose; it can be recognized +by its bold outline almost as far as it can be seen, away out on +the shimmering sands. It is a wary sentinel for all of its smaller +companions and it is utterly useless to attempt to approach it in an +open situation. It runs swiftly along at the water’s edge, stopping +frequently to look about or striking quickly at some morsel of food. +Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1905) says that they throw “the feet well +out in front as they run. Their usual stride is 3 or 4 inches, but I +have several times measured tracks that were 6 inches apart.” It is +interesting to watch them bathing; they squat down in shallow water and +spend much time in splashing, fluttering the wings, and dipping their +heads; then comes the drying process, shaking the water out of the body +plumage, flapping wings and wagging tails, followed by a long period of +careful preening. Francis H. Allen writes to me of another method of +bathing, as follows: + + At one time they took to bathing, one after another, and + one pretty little performance was to fly up about a foot + and come splashing down into the water with much fluttering + of wings. One started this play, and another and another + took it up till half a dozen or more had gone through it. + They also hopped on one foot in the water, as shore birds + so often do on the beach, and, in this, one set the fashion + and others followed it. This hopping altogether seems to be + quite common play with various species. + +Like most shore birds, they can swim quite easily, as the following +note from Francis M. Weston will show: + + On March 27 I was watching a small flock of black-bellied + plovers feeding on a sand bar at low tide. One of the birds + was separated from the others by a deep pool about 6 feet + wide, and, in order to join them, entered the water and + swam across the pool. While in the water, it reminded me + very much of a diminutive gull--it floated high in the + “stern” with the forward part of the body low in the water. + The transit of the pool was made so quickly that there + was no time for a detailed study of the bird’s motions. + Thinking that the plover was wounded and had had to swim + through lack of ability to fly, I approached the flock, + when all took wing and flew to another bar several hundred + yards distant. An examination of the pool showed that it + was more than a foot deep--far too deep for a bird of that + size to wade. + +_Voice._--To my mind the whistle of the black-bellied plover is one of +the sweetest and most fascinating of all the Limicoline voices; it is +not quite as melodious as that of the piping plover, nor is it quite as +startling as the loud call of the yellowlegs; but it heralds the coming +of one of our finest shore birds and hence it produces a thrill. The +sportsman loves to hear it and he can imitate it quite easily. John T. +Nichols has contributed the following notes on it: + + The flight note of this species is a clear, mellow, ringing + whistle--_pe-oo-ee_. Although shortened and otherwise + varied at different times, this note is the only one + ordinarily heard from single individuals or small flocks. + In general it may be said that the diagnostic flight or + identification note of plovers is used more extensively + than in yellowlegs and other species, for instance, and + that they seem to have less variety of calls. + + A second note heard from a flock of birds either in the air + or alighted, and in chorus when such a flock is flushed, + circling and hovering in uncertain manner, is a soft, + mellow _quu-hu_. A dissimilar unloud _cuk cuk cuk, cuk, + cuk, cuk cuk cuk cuk_ which I heard from a single bird in + Florida in September, alighted with decoys and running + about, completes my knowledge of the calls of this plover. + +The ordinary call note, referred to above, has a sweet, mellow, and +plaintive quality, with a tinge of wildness, which enlivens the +solitude of the ocean beaches; I should write it _pee-u-wee_, the +first, loud, rich, and prolonged, the second lower and shorter, and the +third higher pitched, more plaintive, and softer. Grinnell, Bryant, +and Storer (1918) describe the note as “a loud, ringing _wher-rell_, +far reaching and, at a distance, clear and mellow in quality.” Dr. E. +R. P. Janvrin tells me that he has “also heard them utter a loud note +resembling that of the common tern, but not so harsh and more musical, +which is apparently an alarm note.” + +_Field marks._--The black axillars, on the under side of the wing next +to the body, are very conspicuous when the bird is flying and form +the most reliable field mark in all plumages. The general outline of +the bird is characteristic, with its large head, short, heavy bill, +and erect carriage. The upper parts are light colored in all plumages, +especially so in spring, the upper tail coverts are nearly white and +there is a white band in the spread wing. In the fully black-breasted +plumage the black of the under parts does not extend so far back as on +the golden plover and the crown is much whiter. The presence of a hind +toe may be detected at a short distance. + +_Fall._--The southward migration begins early in July and spreads out +entirely across the continent. Before the end of August the last of the +black-bellied plover have left their breeding grounds. The first of the +adults sometimes reach Massachusetts as early as the second week in +July; my earliest date is July 7; but the main flight comes in August +and most of the adults have left by the middle of September, though +I have seen adults here as late as October 29. The young birds come +later; I have seen them as early as August 10, but they usually do not +come in any numbers until September, and the heaviest flight is between +September 15 and October 15; a few linger into November. While here +they mingle freely with knots, turnstones, and red-backed sandpipers; +any of the smaller sandpipers are likely to be associated with them. + +Professor Rowan (1923) gives much the same dates for Alberta and says +that the young birds are plentiful through October and “may stay right +into November, even for a week or two after the lakes have frozen +over.” M. P. Skinner tells me that he has seen them in Yellowstone Park +late in September with the thermometer down to zero. Mr. Rathbun tells +me that “the black-bellied plover is a regular and somewhat common +spring and autumn migrant along the coast of Washington and about Puget +Sound.” D. E. Brown’s notes from that region give dates extending from +August 26 to October 2. + +_Game._--It is as a game bird that the black-bellied plover or +“beetlehead,” as it is called on Cape Cod, has achieved its greatest +reputation. There is no shore bird that is better known or more eagerly +sought; for it is not only a large plump bird but it is a swift flier, +and one of the wariest, most sagacious, and most difficult of the beach +birds to secure. To meet with any success in shooting this plover the +sportsman must be familiar with its habits in the locality where he +is shooting, must be well concealed in a skillfully made blind, and +must know how to imitate its notes perfectly. The old black-bellied +birds are particularly wary and will not come to the decoys unless the +surroundings are quite natural in appearance. Mr. Mackay (1892) says: + + After many unsuccessful attempts to capture them one + becomes imbued with the fact that the old birds are well + calculated, under ordinary circumstances, to avoid danger; + they succumb only to those sportsmen who have served a long + apprenticeship, and who have acquired a knowledge of their + habits. + +John C. Cahoon (1888), a veteran gunner and collector, has described +various methods used on Cape Cod, as follows: + + Stands are built on the meadows and marshes by cutting + bushes of about the proper height and sticking them in the + grass or mud so as to form a circle of convenient size for + one or more gunners. If bushes can not be found handily, + dry seaweed, grass, and other materials are sometimes used. + On the mud flats bunches of sedge grass afford concealment, + but the most successful method is to make a bar in the sand + flats and sink a box, or dig a pit in the sand. It requires + considerable labor to build and keep a bar in order, also + to sink a box. The bar is laid bare before any of the + surrounding flats, consequently the birds, finding no other + feeding place uncovered, fly to the bar. One other way in + which large numbers are sometimes taken is to find out + the locality on the high beaches where they roost during + high tide, and digging a hole in the sand for a place of + concealment. They usually come to the same spot to roost + each high tide and by examining the beach these places can + be easily found, by the numerous footprints in the sand. + The blind should be completed soon after the tide begins to + flow, as these birds leave the flats as soon as the tide + commences to cover them. For the young, or “pale bellies,” + all that is needed is a pit dug with the sand thrown out + around the top edge and a few decoys placed out the right + distance from the pit. For the old “black breasts” it is + necessary to have the top covered over with boards and + dry sand spread on them and have an opening in the sides + and front, to shoot from. It is best not to put out any + decoys, as the old birds will seldom alight to decoys on + the beaches, even if they are made to look very natural. + +Most of my shooting has been done on the flats or beaches, from sedge +grass or seaweed blinds. On the inner side of Monomoy the water is +very shallow and at dead low tide the birds are away off, perhaps a +mile from shore, on the edge of the water. The flats near shore are +dotted with islands of sedge grass, where the gunner can easily conceal +himself in the tall grass, with the decoys set out on the open mud. As +the tide comes in rapidly over the shallows, preceded by an advancing +line of foam, the birds begin to move, flying up to the marshes or +beaches. A blind may be made on the inner side of the beach by digging +a deep hole in the sand and piling up seaweed around it. In either case +the blind must be in some well-established fly way between the feeding +grounds and the resting places and must be well enough made to offer +good concealment. The best shooting comes on the first part of the ebb +and the latter part of the flood tide. The gunner must keep out of +sight and be ever on the alert, for at any moment he may hear the wild, +ringing cry or see single birds or small flocks dash by at high speed. +They seldom alight to the decoys, though they often circle over them +and are usually much scattered. + +I have often found it good sport to stalk “beetleheads” on the beaches, +where they rest at high tide. One kills very few birds in this way, as +the chances are all in favor of the bird. Young birds are less wary +than old blackbreasts and a few can sometimes be obtained by crawling +up back of a sand dune and shooting them as they jump. This involves +plenty of exercise, requires perseverance, and calls for quick work +with the gun, and the bird generally escapes. Walter H. Rich (1907) has +described this very well, as follows: + + Yet let the gunner peep ever so carefully over the edge + of the bank where he lies hidden and each wary feeder + becomes at once a motionless statue. Had he not seen their + animation a moment before he might think he had come upon + a wooden congregation of decoys. While he is still they + make no movement, but let him stir, either for nearer + approach or to draw back from view that he may get a better + position, and the instant his head goes out of sight behind + the long salt grass the flock noiselessly takes wing with + easy, graceful flight, alighting some hundreds of yards + away to feed comfortably until the dangerous admirer, with + stealthy caution and much toilsome trudging through the + shifting sand dunes, once more approaches too near for + safety, when the same performance again takes place. It + makes little difference how the approach is managed, the + result is generally the same; the gunner peers cautiously + at the spot where a moment since the flock was busily + feeding, and seeing them not soon discovers them 200 yards + away, apparently just as ready to tease him as before. + +_Winter._--These plover, no longer black bellied now, spend the winter +in the southern United States and from there southward to central +Brazil and Peru. They winter commonly as far north as South Carolina +and the southern half of California, less commonly in North Carolina, +and casually farther north. I have seen them in immense flocks on the +great mud flats among the Florida keys and we had them with us all +winter on the beaches and sandy islands about Tampa Bay. They showed +their sagacity by their confiding tameness on the protected bathing +beaches and by their extreme wildness on the outer islands, where it +was almost impossible to approach them within gunshot range. + +The gray plover of the Eastern Hemisphere goes as far south in winter +as southern Africa, Madagascar, and Australia. Charles Barrett, +referring to Australia, says in his notes: + + This species sometimes associates in large flocks, but more + often is seen singly, or in pairs, feeding on mud flats + and along the sea beaches. It is a wary bird. Arriving in + spring (September) or early summer in the southern portions + of the continent it becomes widely distributed, but seems + to restrict itself mainly to the seashore. However, it + does wander inland at times, having been recorded, for + example, from the midlands of Tasmania. It leaves Australia + apparently in March or April (autumn) on the northern + flight to its breeding haunts. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Cosmopolitan. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the black-bellied plover +in North America is confined to the Arctic coast north to Alaska +(Wainwright, Point Barrow, Colville River delta, Barter Island, +Collinson Point, and probably Demarcation Point); northern Mackenzie +(Cape Bathurst and probably Cape Kellett); Victoria Land (Taylor +Island); and Franklin (Fury Point and Melville Peninsula), East to +Franklin (Melville Peninsula); possibly Keewatin (Cape Fullerton); and +possibly Greenland (Sutherland Island). South to possibly Keewatin +(Cape Fullerton); Mackenzie (probably Bernard Harbor, Colville Hills, +and Franklin Bay); and Alaska (Hooper Bay). West to Alaska (Hooper Bay +and Wainwright). + +In common with several other shore birds, nonbreeding specimens of this +species are frequently found during the summer months at points far +south of the breeding grounds. At this season they have been taken or +observed in Maine (Western Egg Rock); Massachusetts (Monomoy Island, +Marthas Vineyard, and Harvard); New York (Quogue, Freeport, Rockaway, +Long Beach, and Geneva); New Jersey (Tuckerton, Great Bay, and Absecon +Bay); Ohio (Bay Point); Virginia (Cobb Island and Cape Charles region); +South Carolina (Mount Pleasant, Magnolia Beach, and White Point Swash); +Florida (Fort De Soto, Amelia Island, Key West, Fernandina, and Daytona +Beach); Alabama (Dauphin Island); Louisiana (Breton Island); Texas +(Corpus Christi); Jamaica (Port Henderson); and the Galapagos Islands. + +In the Palaearctic region it breeds from the eastern tundras of Arctic +Europe eastward throughout Arctic Asia to Kamchatka and on Kolguev and +the Siberian Islands. + +_Winter range._--The American winter range extends north to Washington +(Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Dungeness Spit); Texas (Brownsville, +Corpus Christi, Rockport, and Matagorda); Louisiana (Breton Islands); +Alabama (Dauphin Island); and Virginia (Wallops Island). East to +Virginia (Wallops Island and Sandy Island); North Carolina (Pea Island +and Southport); South Carolina (Mount Pleasant and Port Royal); Georgia +(Darien, Cumberland, and St. Marys); Florida (Amelia Island, Fort +George, Seabreeze, Mosquito Inlet, Lake Okeechobee, Miami, and Upper +Matecumbe Key); the Bahama Islands (Abaco, Eleuthera, Watling, Acklin, +and Great Inagua); Haiti (Monte Christi); probably French Guiana +(Cayenne); and Brazil (Cajetuba and the Amazon region). South to Brazil +(Amazon region); and Peru (Callao). West to Peru (Callao, Chimbote, +and Tumbez); Ecuador (Bay of Santa Elena); the Galapagos Islands +(Albemarle); Colombia (Cartagena); probably Costa Rica (mouth of the +Martina River); probably Guatemala (Chiapam); Oaxaca (San Mateo); +Lower California (San Jose del Cabo, La Paz, and San Geronimo Island); +California (Coronado, Wilmington, Santa Cruz Island, Los Banos, San +Francisco, and mouth of Eel River); Oregon (Newport); and Washington +(Point Chehalis and Strait of Juan de Fuca). + +Three specimens at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in December, 1872, +constitute the only winter record for that region. + +In the eastern hemisphere it winters from the coasts of southern Europe +and Asia to southern Africa, Madagascar, the Seychelles, and Australia. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: Pennsylvania, +Neville Island, April 26; New Jersey, Atlantic City, April 27, Cape +May, April 30, and Ocean City, May 5; New York, Montauk Point Light, +April 30, Great South Bay, May 1, and Long Beach, May 2; Rhode Island, +South Auburn, April 23, and Newport, May 9; Massachusetts, Cape Cod, +April 19, Monomoy Island, April 22, and Billingsgate, April 27; Nova +Scotia, Pictou, May 17; Missouri, Courtney, April 1, and Concordia, +April 19; Illinois, Hennepin, April 2, and Rantoul, April 16; Indiana, +Knox County, March 30; Ohio, Oberlin, April 24; Michigan, Forestville, +May 2; Ontario, Toronto, May 11, and Oshawa, May 14; Iowa, Keokuk, +April 22, Sioux City, May 8, and New Hampton, May 12; Wisconsin, +Racine, April 14, and Leeds Center, April 17; Minnesota, Heron Lake, +April 21, and Hutchinson, May 7; Nebraska, Vesta, April 21, and +Lincoln, May 10; South Dakota, Pitrodie, May 1, and Vermilion, May 3; +North Dakota, Rice Lake, May 5, Bathgate, May 9, and Harrisburg, May +10; Manitoba, Margaret, May 5, and Whitewater, May 20; Saskatchewan, +Wiseton, May 4, and Indian Head, May 9; Mackenzie, Fort Resolution, +June 2; Colorado, Denver, May 11, and Loveland, May 14; Utah, Provo, +May 11; Alberta, Camrose, May 1, Sturgeon River, May 12, Tofield, May +19, Veteran, May 22, and Fort Chipewyan, May 23; British Columbia, +Comox, April 23, and Courtenay, April 24; Yukon, Dawson, May 20; and +Alaska, Kuiu Island, May 3, Fort Kenai, May 6, Hooper Bay, May 9, and +mouth of the Yukon River, May 12. + +Last dates of spring departure are: Panama, mouth of the Rio Venado, +March 27; Bahama Islands, Andros, April 14; Green Cay, April 29, and +Nassau, April 28; Florida, St. Marks, May 8, New Smyrna, May 14, +Pensacola, May 16, Daytona Beach, May 24, and Cedar Keys, May 27; +Alabama, Dauphin Island, May 19; Georgia, Savannah, May 13; South +Carolina, Frogmore, May 17, and Hilton Head, May 24; North Carolina, +Cape Hatteras, May 20, and Churchs Island, May 30; Virginia, Cobb +Island, May 19, and Wallops Island, May 26; Maryland, Dulaneys Valley, +May 13; Pennsylvania, Erie, May 19; New Jersey, Cape May County, May +23, and Elizabeth, May 30; New York, Jamaica, May 26, Lake Canandaigua, +May 30, and Orient Point, May 30; Connecticut, Westport, May 28, +Fairfield, May 30, and Norwalk, June 1; Rhode Island, Block Island, May +29, and South Auburn, June 5; Massachusetts, Ipswich, May 30, Dennis, +June 2, and Cape Cod, June 6; Quebec, Godbout, June 9; Louisiana, +Mermerton, May 2; Missouri, Concordia, May 23; Kentucky, Bowling Green, +June 3; Illinois, Chicago, May 26, and Waukegan, May 27; Indiana, +Indianapolis, May 30; Ohio, Oberlin, May 22, Youngstown, May 23, and +Painesville, May 27; Michigan, Detroit, May 26, Jackson, May 28, and +Charity Island, June 1; Ontario, Bowmanville, May 25, Toronto, May +26, Kingston, May 30; Iowa, Emmetsburg, May 25, National, May 26, and +Sioux City, May 31; Wisconsin, Shiocton, May 27, and Madison, May 30; +Minnesota, Waseca, May 24, Hallock, May 26, and Heron Lake, June 2; +Texas, Point Isabel, June 2, and Corpus Christi, June 7; Oklahoma, +Norman, May 25; Kansas, Wichita County, May 22; Nebraska, Alda, May 21; +South Dakota, Vermilion, May 24, and Forestburg, June 1; North Dakota, +Jamestown, May 15, Towner County, May 25, and Jerusalem, June 1; +Manitoba, Margaret, May 31, and Shoal Lake, June 3; Saskatchewan, Hay +Lake, June 2, and Kutanajan Lake, June 10; Colorado, Denver, May 30; +Montana, Baker, May 23; Alberta, Flagstaff, June 1, and Fort Chipewyan, +June 8; Yucatan, Cozumel Island, April 18; Oaxaca, San Mateo del Mar, +May 15; Vera Cruz, Tampico, April 10; Lower California, San Geronimo +Island, April 14, and San Quentin, May 10; California, Alameda, May 21, +and Santa Barbara, May 26; Washington, “east side of mountains,” May +18; and British Columbia, Masset, June 16. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: British Columbia, +Comox, July 5; Oregon, coastal region, July 26; California, Venice, +July 4; Alameda, July 22, and Santa Barbara, July 24; Alberta, +Alliance, August 3; Colorado, Denver, August 21, and Barr, August 31; +Saskatchewan, Kiddleston, July 7, and Last Mountain Lake, August 19; +Manitoba, Oak Lake, July 31, and Shoal Lake, August 8; North Dakota, +Grafton, August 23; South Dakota, Forestburg, August 11; Nebraska, +Lincoln, August 7; Texas, Rockport, August 12, Tivoli, August 15, and +San Angelo, August 31; Wisconsin, Lake Koshkonong, August 14; Iowa, +Burlington, August 13; Ontario, Toronto, July 23, Beamsville, August +2, and Hamilton, August 9; Michigan, Little Lake, July 24, Greenville, +August 10, and Charity Island, August 20; Ohio, Painesville, August +12, and Columbus, August 23; Indiana, Millers, August 8; Illinois, +La Grange, August 21, and Chicago, August 24; Quebec, Godbout, July +30, and Bras d’Or, August 5; Maine, Portland, July 31; Massachusetts, +Essex, July 18, Attleboro Falls, July 21, and Monomoy Island, July 7; +Rhode Island, Point Judith, July 12, and South Auburn, August 13; New +York, Quogue, July 1, Montauk Point Light, July 20, Orient, July 24, +and Shinnecock Bay, August 5; New Jersey, Great Bay, July 19, Stone +Harbor, July 22, and Cape May, July 27; Pennsylvania, Erie, August +1, and Whites Island, August 10; Maryland, Plum Point, August 10; +Virginia, Cobb Island, August 19; North Carolina, Charlotte Inlet, July +4, Cape Fear, July 7, and Carolina Beach, July 10; Georgia, Savannah, +August 12; Alabama, Dauphin, and Petit Bois Islands, August 21; +Florida, Key West, August 8, Daytona Beach, August 17, and Pensacola, +August 28; and Lesser Antilles, Barbados, August 22, and Grenada, +August 27. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, Wainwright, September 13, +Taku River, September 26, Kenai River, October 7, and Craig, November +14; British Columbia, Okanagan Landing, September 28, and Chilliwack, +October 23; Alberta, Vermilion-Innisfrea, September 16, and Whitford +Lake, October 29; Montana, Priest Butte Lakes, September 4; Colorado, +Fort Collins, October 28, and Denver, November 13; Mackenzie, Great +Bear Lake, September 5, and Fort Simpson, September 17; Keewatin, +Swampy Lake, September 5; Manitoba, Oak Lake, October 31; North Dakota, +Grafton, October 27; South Dakota, Fort Sisseton, October 25, and Sioux +Falls, November 7; Nebraska, Lincoln, October 21; Kansas, Hamilton, +October 13, and Lawrence, October 29; Minnesota, Minneapolis, October +28; Wisconsin, Lake Mills, October 2; Iowa, Keokuk, October 28, and +Sioux City, November 3; Ontario, Point Pelee, October 18, Ottawa, +November 11, and Kingston, November 16; Michigan, Detroit, November 3, +Sault Ste. Marie, November 5, and Charity Island, November 21; Ohio, +Youngstown, November 11, Painesville, November 29; Illinois, Chicago, +November 3, and La Grange, November 6; Missouri, Independence, November +5, and Courtney, November 9; Franklin, Winter Island, August 17; +Nova Scotia, Pictou, October 11, and Wolfville, November 8; Quebec, +Montreal, November 1, and Tabusintoc, November 3; Massachusetts, +Monomoy Island, November 14, and Boston, November 29; Connecticut, +South Norwalk, November 7; New York, Orient, November 26, and Long +Beach, November 26; New Jersey, Sandy Hook, October 25, and Cape May +County, November 7; and Pennsylvania, Erie, November 10. + +_Casual records._--Two specimens of the black-bellied plover were +obtained on Clipperton Island, November 19, 1901; Gundlach reported +taking two at San Juan Bay, Porto Rico, Stahl had two others, while +F. A. Potts saw one near Central Aguirre on September 9 and 10, 1921, +and a flock of six or seven noted on several occasions near Salinas, +during December, 1920; the species is of casual occurrence in Bermuda +(Mangrove Bay, September 5, 1848, Sand Hills, November 5, 1874, and +Warnick Camp, November 13, 1874); both Reinhardt and Hagerup record +them from Greenland; and one (possibly the European form) was obtained +in late October, at Kaalualu, Hawaii (Henshaw). Although seemingly +on the regular migration route, the only records for Arkansas are two +specimens taken at Fort Smith, September 19, 1892. + +_Egg dates._--Bering Sea coast of Alaska: 24 records, May 27 to June +4; 16 records, May 29 and 30. Arctic coasts of Alaska and Canada: 26 +records, June 10 to July 11; 13 records, June 28 to July 5. + + + PLUVIALIS APRICARIA ALTIFRONS (Brehm) + + EUROPEAN GOLDEN PLOVER + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The claim of the golden plover of Europe to a place in the American +list rests on its occurrence not infrequently in Greenland. The latest +authority on Greenland birds, Mr. E. Lehn Schiöler, in his great work +_Danmarks Fugle_ (vol. 2), refers the Greenland birds to the northern +race of European golden plover, _Pluvialis apricarius altifrons_ +(Brehm). It is now generally agreed that there are two races of this +species, and that the black breast is more strongly developed on the +northern form, while the southern race, _P. apricarius apricarius_ +(Linnaeus) has only a marbling of black on the breast in spring. In +Greenland it has occurred both on the east and west sides, but has not +been proved to breed there though suspected of doing so. + +_Spring._--In the British Isles the northern golden plovers are said +by Abel Chapman to arrive in Northumberland as early as mid February, +spreading over the lower ground and remaining in packs, while the +breeding birds arrive later and are soon distributed over the moors +in pairs. While the southern birds remain on the moorlands to breed, +the northern visitors pass on to their nesting grounds in the Faroes, +Iceland, and Scandinavia. + +_Courtship._--Our information is, as might be expected, scanty, owing +to the inaccessible nature of its breeding ground and its retiring +habits. Abel Chapman (1889) describes the loud wild spring call, which +he renders as _tirr-pee-you_, and adds that after this has ceased +one hears only the well-known plaintive pipe of alarm and a peculiar +rippling song or warble which is wholly indescribable. This, he says, +is the joyous note of courtship and is analogous to the drumming of the +snipe, etc. A fuller description is that of Seton Gordon (1915) who +writes as follows: + + During the season of courtship and indeed up to June is + heard the song of the golden plover and this song is one + of the most striking things in the habits of moorland + birds. Before commencing to sing the cock bird mounts + into the air to a height of at least 100 feet and flies + slowly, deliberately around the spot where his mate is + listening to him below, uttering as he flies a musical + whistling cry of two syllables sounding like _whee-wheeu_, + the last being long drawn out. His flight during this + time is quite distinctive, he no longer cleaves the air + with sharp and rapid wing beats, but moves his wings with + slow deliberate strokes, holding them V-shaped for an + instant between the beats. Should he cease his song--even + for a few moments--the normal flight is at once resumed. + His cry on these occasions carries over a great stretch + of moor, and I think can be heard at a greater distance + even than the vibrating notes of the curlew. After some + time, during which these long-drawn whistles are regularly + continued, the singer shoots earthward, uttering, just as + he is reaching the ground, a curious purring cry, repeated + rapidly five or six times. On paper the sounds resemble + _trooeu, trooeu, trooeu_. These descriptions apply strictly + to the southern race, but the habits of the two forms in + the breeding season are identical and the Icelandic birds + perform their song flights in the same way as the Scotch + birds. Hantzsch points out very justly that the golden + plover is not at all quarrelsome in disposition, and though + rival males may vie in song with one another they meet + frequently quite amicably and the natives have long noted + the toleration which the plover extends to the dunlin and + which has earned for the latter the name Loa-thraoll, or, + as our forefathers put it, Plover’s-page. + +_Nesting._--There is no concealment about the nest; the vast expanses +of moorland or tundra are sufficient protection. Sometimes the nest +hollow may be found on a tiny hillock, sometimes in wiry grass or among +sparse or burnt heather. Such lining as there is is usually scanty and +consists of the materials at hand, leaves, bents, or a bit of heather +stem. Unoccupied scrapes may generally be found near at hand. Even +where the birds are plentiful, as in some parts of Iceland, the nests +are generally a considerable distance apart. + +_Eggs._--Normally four in number, occasionally three only, especially +in late layings. Hantzsch (1905) records one instance of five in a +nest, and five have also been met with in the southern race. They are +pyriform and laid with the points meeting and are very beautiful. The +ground varies from a pale greenish blue to very rich and warm shades of +creamy brown, to almost orange, tinged brownish, heavily blotched with +irregular markings of deep chocolate or blackish. The measurements of +40 eggs from Iceland average 52.3 by 35.2 millimeters; the eggs showing +the four extremes measure =55.1= by 36.4, 51.6 by =38.3=, =49.2= by +33.8 and 52.3 by =33.2= millimeters. + +Incubation is carried on by both sexes, as Alfred Taylor has watched +the male and female change places on the eggs. This explains the rather +contradictory accounts from various authors. H. H. Slater, Seebohm, +and R. Collett only shot males from the nest, while Saxby, Hantzsch, +and Heatherley only saw the female on the eggs. Miss F. Pitt only +noted the male on the eggs during the last week of incubation, but +flushed the hen once at an earlier period. Early estimates of 16 and +20 days as the incubation period are certainly erroneous. F. Heatherley +watched one nest for 24 days, but the eggs were probably laid some +days earlier and in an incubator one egg hatched on the 27th day (W. +Evans). Although such wary birds, it occasionally happens that a nest +is placed in a hollow of the ground from which no view of the country +is possible to the sitting bird. Riding at night suddenly up to a nest +of this kind in Iceland, we found the incubating bird did not stir from +the eggs while three men and ponies stood round, and it was not until +a hand was placed within 3 inches that the bird flew off. As a rule, +the melancholy piping note is the first intimation of the presence of a +breeding pair and shows that they are on the alert. + +_Young._--The young leave the nest as soon as their down is dried and +are cared for by both sexes. They grow very fast, and Hantzsch states +that after 10 or 14 days they can flutter a little way, but the full +flying period is about 4 weeks. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920). + +_Food._--On its breeding grounds the food consists of insects, chiefly +Coleoptera (_Notiophilus_, _Agriotes_, _Sitones_, _Curculio_ and +larvae); Lepidoptera (_Agrotis_); larvae and imagines of Diptera, +Hymenoptera (_Formica_ and _Forficula_); also Mollusca (small +terrestrial species, snails and slugs); Aunclida (earthworms) and +Arachnida (spiders). On migration and in winter quarters it has been +recorded as eating marine mollusca (_Vitrina_, _Littorina_, _Rissoa_, +_Lacuna_, etc., and fry of _Mytilus edulis_), also small crustacea +(Isopoda) and seeds of various plants (_Glaux maritima_, _Carex_, +_Polygonum_, etc.), and berries of _Rhamnus_, _Vaccinium_, _Empetrum_, +etc.; also seaweeds (Algae). + +_Behavior._--Outside the breeding season the golden plover is a +gregarious bird, nearly always to be met with in flocks of varying +sizes and often associating with flocks of lapwings and feeding +together. On the alarm being given, both species take to wing, but in +characteristically different ways. The golden plover rise together +and form a compact body, maneuvering together in any direction, while +the lapwings rise gradually in an unwieldy mass, which breaks up from +time to time and the component parts move in different directions. +The pointed wings and more rapid strokes of the golden plover also +contrast strongly with the slow, flappy, irregular flight of the +lapwing. When on migration the golden plovers often adopt a loose +V-shaped formation. + +_Enemies._--The peregrine occasionally takes toll of the flocks in the +autumn and spring months, while the skua gulls, or jaegers, and in +some districts the hooded crows, destroy eggs or young. The fox, no +doubt, occasionally snaps up an isolated nest of eggs or young. + +_Fall._--About the end of October or early in November the flocks of +northern golden plover arrive on the marshes of the east coast of +England, sometimes in enormous numbers, but their length of stay is +determined by weather conditions, to which they are very susceptible, +showing extreme restlessness before the approach of stormy or windy +weather and leaving the district altogether in hard winters. + +_Winter._--Many birds winter on the coast of the British Isles unless +the weather is severe, feeding chiefly on small marine mollusca but, as +a rule, avoid the mud flats, which are the favorite resort of the grey +plover (_Squatarola_), except occasionally in very dry weather, feeding +chiefly on the pasture lands and in the wheat fields in the daytime and +leaving at dark for the higher ground. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--The northern race breeds in Iceland, the Faroes, +probably a pair or two on Bear Island, northern Scandinavia, Finland, +and North Russia and Siberia to the Yenisei. The southern race breeds +in the mountainous parts of the British Isles, southern Scandinavia, +Denmark, sparingly in Belgium, Holland, and North Germany, and in +Russia south to the Perm Government. + +_Winter range._--It is not possible to separate the winter ranges of +the two forms at present, but golden plover migrate across Europe to +the Mediterranean and north Africa, occasionally visiting the Atlantic +isles, and are said to have occurred in the Gabun on the west and +Somaliland and Lama in East Africa; in Asia its limits are Aden, +Baluchistan, and Sind. + +_Spring migration._--At the Straits of Gibraltar the northern migrants +pass in February and March (late date March 6, L. H. Irby), but on +the Portuguese coast W. C. Tait states that they leave at the end of +February. In the eastern Mediterranean the passage is noted at Cyprus +in early March. At Heligoland Gätke says they arrive during May and +early June on their way to Scandinavia, but the Icelandic flocks arrive +about mid-April as a rule. + +_Fall migration._--On the southward migration Gätke records the arrival +of the birds of the year as early as July, but adds that the old birds +only begin to arrive toward the end of October. On the west side of +the Mediterranean Tait records the arrival of the earliest birds in +October, but the main passage in November; and Farier also notes the +passage at Tangier in October and November; while on the eastern side +they reach Cyprus about the beginning of November. + +_Casual records._--Fischer recorded a pair on Jan Mayen on June 29, +1883, and it has occurred on the Azores, but is only a rare straggler, +Madeira (recorded by Harcourt and also by Schmitz on January 13, 1896) +and the Canaries, where Bannerman describes it as a rare visitor +(records scanty and indefinite). + +In Africa records from the Cape (J. Verreaux), Lamu, East Africa +(Layard), and the Gabun (Du Chaillu) require substantiation. It is +also stated to have occurred in Somaliland, but the normal winter +quarters lie north of these localities. In Asia it has been shot at +Gwadar, Baluchistan, in January, 1872, by W. T. Blanford, and one +was obtained by Brooks near Schwan on January 27, 1878, as well as a +second at Karachi on January 7, 1919, by Captain Hanna. The only other +Indian record is one obtained by Reid at Lucknow. In Greenland (several +records). + +_Egg dates._--Iceland: May 21 to June 1 (5 dates); June 2 to 29 (18 +dates). North Norway, June 10 to 20 (5 dates). North Russia and +Siberia, June 10 to July 1 (10 dates). Most eggs of the southern race +are laid in the British Isles from May 10 onward, but exceptionally +eggs have been met with from April 16 to the end of that month, and in +Friesland eggs have been taken on April 19. + + + PLUVIALIS DOMINICA DOMINICA (Müller) + + AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER + + + HABITS + +The golden plover is not only one of our most beautiful shore birds in +its brilliant spring plumage, but its wonderful migration excites our +admiration and the comparison of its former abundance with its present +scarcity furnishes a striking picture of the ruthless slaughter that +has squandered our previous wealth of wild life. A few quotations will +serve to illustrate the enormous flights of golden plover that swarmed +over both American continents during the past century. Robert B. +Roosevelt (1884) thus refers to a flock he saw near Montauk Point, Long +Island, many years ago: + + A gentle hollow spreads before us for several acres + literally covered with the ranks of the much-desired, the + matchless golden plover. As they stand in serried legions, + the white mark on their heads gives a strange checkered + weirdness to the phalanx; and we involuntarily pause, + spellbound by the novelty of the spectacle. Our host + himself, though an old hand, owns that he has never before + gazed on such a sight. There they stand, with heads erect + and bodies motionless, just out of gunshot. Their number + is computed by our companion to be not less than 3,000, + closely packed, and apparently awaiting our onset. Warily + crawling to within 70 yards, we halt as we see unmistakable + evidences of uneasiness and suspicion among the crowded + ranks. They stoop, they run, they rise with “a sounding + roar,” to which the united report of our four barrels + savagely responds. Away, away with headlong speed scatters + and dissolves that multitudinous host, and we hasten to + secure our spoils. + +Writing of conditions in Argentina about the middle of the last +century, W. H. Hudson (1922) writes: + + The golden plover was then one of the abundant species. + After its arrival in September, the plains in the + neighborhood of my home were peopled with immense flocks of + this bird. Sometimes in hot summers the streams and marshes + would mostly dry up, and the aquatic-bird population, + the plover included, would shift their quarters to other + districts. During one of these droughty seasons, when my + age was 9, there was a marshy ground 2 miles from my home + where a few small pools of water still remained, and to + this spot the golden plover would resort every day at noon. + They would appear in flocks from all quarters, flying to it + like starlings in England coming in to some great roosting + center on a winter evening. I would then mount my pony + and gallop off joyfully to witness the spectacle. Long + before coming in sight of them the noise of their voices + would be audible, growing louder as I drew near. Coming to + the ground, I would pull up my horse and sit gazing with + astonishment and delight at the spectacle of that immense + multitude of birds, covering an area of 2 or 3 acres, + looking less like a vast flock than a floor of birds, in + color a rich deep brown, in strong contrast to the pale + gray of the dried-up ground all round them. A living, + moving floor and a sounding one as well, and the sound, + too, was amazing. It was like the sea, but unlike it in + character since it was not deep; it was more like the wind + blowing, let us say, on thousands of tight-drawn wires of + varying thicknesses, vibrating them to shrill sound, a mass + and tangle of 10,000 sounds. But it is indescribable and + unimaginable. + +Edward H. Forbush (1912) tells of two men who killed plover enough +to fill a tip car two-thirds full in one day, during a big storm on +Nantucket in the forties. Again he speaks of a great flight which +occurred there on August 29, 1863, “when golden plover and Eskimo +curlew landed on the island in such numbers as to almost darken the +sun. Between seven and eight thousand of these birds were killed on +the island and on Tuckernuck.” He says that from 1860 on the species +began to decrease, due to the demand created by the failing supply of +passenger pigeons, and that in 1890 alone two Boston firms received +from the West 40 barrels closely packed with curlew and plover, with 25 +dozen curlew and 60 dozen plover to the barrel. + +By the end of the last century this species had about reached its +lowest ebb; it had become scarce where it once abounded; no more big +flights occurred; and in many places it was rarely seen. But protective +measures came in time to save it from extermination; the stopping of +the sale of game and the removal of this species from the game-bird +list were badly needed. Since the last move was made the species has +shown some signs of recovery. Edwin Beaupre (1917) says that “after an +absence of almost 15 years, the golden plover has apparently resumed +its migratory visits to eastern Ontario.” Prof. William Rowan (1923) +says: + + This year has been an exceptional golden-plover year. At + the place referred to above, somewhere over a thousand + birds were seen on the 20th of May alone, in moving flocks + varying in number from 30 individuals to several hundreds. + This was evidently not unique; for about the same time I + got a report from quite another part of the Province that + this species was unusually abundant, while from yet another + quarter I got a very good description of the bird in a + letter with a request that I name it for the inquirer, a + careful bird observer. Her comment was that she had never + seen the species before, but that it was, at the time of + writing, present on the plowed fields in enormous numbers. + +And John T. Nichols tells me that “of recent years there has been a +distinct increase” on Long Island. If shooting conditions in its winter +home could be controlled, its future would be assured. + +_Spring._--From its winter home on the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay +the golden plover starts early on its long northward migration. Dr. +Alexander Wetmore (1926) noted that-- + + The northward migration began with a flock of nine seen + January 23, 1921, at a little fresh-water pool on the beach + near La Paloma, Uruguay; when flushed these passed on to + the west. Single individuals were seen near San Vicente, + Uruguay, in flight toward the northwest on January 24 and + 30. At Lazcano, Uruguay, birds in passage north were seen + in early morning on February 7 and 8, and one was recorded + February 18 at Rio Negro, Uruguay. On March 8 at Guamini, + Buenos Aires, 15 came in at dusk to roost on a little mud + bar in company with Hudsonian godwits. The migration seemed + almost at an end then, as later I saw only four at Tunuyan, + Mendoza, on March 23; and on April 5 only a few were heard + calling with other shore birds in flight northward over + Tucuman, Tucuman. + +The exact route followed through the interior of South America is not +definitely known, but it is not known to migrate along either coast of +that continent. Austin H. Clark (1905) has advanced the theory that +it prefers to fly with a beam wind and that it selects the route over +which the prevailing winds will produce this condition. He suggests the +following as the probable route: + + In returning the birds would first go north (across the + prevailing westerlies) until in the vicinity of Buenos + Aires and the country just to the west of it, where they + would encounter northeasterly winds, which would turn them + inland, up the valley of the La Plata and along the plains + to the east of the Andes, the course gradually becoming + more northerly, and then northeasterly in the area covered + by the southeast trades. They would reach the Amazon + Valley in its western half, and then under the guidance of + the northeast trades fly northwest toward the Isthmus of + Panama and Central America. The course from here would be + northwest across the trades to Texas and the Mississippi + Valley. The birds follow up this valley northward and then, + on reaching Canada, fly northwest across the prevailing + southwesterly and westerly winds to their breeding grounds + in western Arctic America. + +Another theory advanced by Prof. Wells W. Cooke (1912), into which the +facts seem to fit equally well, is that-- + + Birds follow that route between the winter and summer + homes that is the shortest and at the same time furnishes + an abundant food supply. The plover seeks the shortest + treeless route overland, and alighting on the coast of + Texas travels leisurely over the Mississippi Valley + prairies, which are abundantly supplied with food, to the + plains of the Saskatchewan, and thence to the Arctic coast. + Not until Texas is reached can the movements of the golden + plover be definitely traced, and at no place between Peru + and Texas has it ever been recorded as common. In fact, the + records as they stand are what they should be if the plover + escapes the forested regions of northern South America and + Central America by a single flight of from 2,000 to 2,500 + miles from the valleys of eastern Peru to the treeless + prairies of Texas. + +The golden plover is practically unknown west of the Rocky Mountains in +the spring; it has always been a rare straggler on the Atlantic coast +at this season; and even as far east as Ohio it rarely occurs. Its main +route is through the prairie regions west of the Mississippi River. I +have seen what was probably the last of the migration, during the first +week of May, along the coastal prairies of Texas, and have watched +the late spring flight in Saskatchewan during the last week in May; +probably I missed the heaviest part of the flight in both cases. On May +26 to 28, 1917, while driving about Quill Lake, Saskatchewan, I had a +good chance to observe a considerable flight of these beautiful birds, +all apparently in full spring plumage. The flocks appeared from the +southward during the early forenoon, flying swiftly in ever-changing +formations, rising to a height of 30 or 40 feet and then sweeping low +close to the ground. They all seemed to follow the same course over the +burnt-over prairies and the freshly plowed and harrowed lands near the +shore of the lake. Occasionally a flock would stop and scatter about to +feed; their black bellies and golden-spangled backs were surprisingly +inconspicuous on the black ground and among the yellow stubble. They +were very shy and restless, constantly on the move, and if followed +up too closely they were on the wing again and soon disappeared over +the northern horizon. It was almost impossible to approach them on +foot when they were on the ground, though a flock would occasionally +fly by within gunshot. One that I shot on the ground was 75 paces +away, measured distance. Some of the flocks were accompanied by a few +buff-breasted sandpipers. + +Professor Rowan (1926) says that in Alberta: + + The arrival of this species at our lake is precipitate, + for there may be none to-day and hundreds to-morrow. The + flocks would appear to arrive by night, for they are there + at daybreak, when one usually takes the first walk around. + They are not birds of the shore line in the spring, but + like the buff-breasted sandpiper, they seem nevertheless + chiefly to frequent country adjacent to some large lake. + This, together with their mode of arrival, in considerable + flocks and evidently at night, suggests that they have + traveled a considerable distance from their last stopping + place. They stay with us some days and then go in the + manner in which they came, _en masse_. We have no records + earlier than May 8 when the birds may first be expected, + but the main contingent arrives nearer the 16th or 17th, + while by the 23d or 24th they have usually all gone. Their + period with us is therefore brief as compared with the + majority of shore birds. + +The remainder of the journey is quickly completed, for, at Point +Barrow, John Murdoch (1885) says: + + They are among the earlier waders to arrive, as stragglers + generally appear about the 20th to the 25th of May, before + there is much bare ground. In 1882 a small party in full + breeding plumage, and apparently all males, arrived May 21, + but no more arrived until June 11. The tundra was at this + time bare only along the edge of the beach, and the ice and + snow was not yet gone from the lagoons. This party remained + in nearly the same place for a couple of weeks, feeding on + small red worms which they found in marshy spots, and all + but two of them were taken, although they were very wild. + + Along through the first and second week in June they + continued to arrive in small parties, and from that time on + are quite plenty scattered in pairs and threes all over the + tundra. They are very wild and difficult to approach, and + very noisy. In addition to their ordinary well-known call + note, they have in the breeding season, a loud but very + melodious cry of _tud’ling!_ many times repeated, uttered + as the bird flies along rather high, with long slow strokes + of the wings. + +_Nesting._--Roderick MacFarlane was very successful in finding nests +of golden plover in the Anderson River region and other parts of the +Arctic barren grounds. He sent a large number of eggs to Washington +and I find in his notes references to over 120 nests, on which some +data were given, mostly very brief. He says that “golden plover were +in great abundance in the barren grounds, as well as along the Arctic +coast. They seldom or never nested in the wooded country, though a +few specimens were found on the open plains or commons, which occur +on the borders of that tract.” Some of the nests on the Arctic coast +were “near the beach” or even “within a few yards of the sea water.” +The nests were evidently mere hollows in the open tundra, lined with +dead leaves; there were no attempts at concealment, but the protective +coloring of the eggs made them very difficult to find. He says that +“when a nest of this plover is approached the female invariably gets +off it at a quick pace, between a run and a walk, which it continues +at short intervals until the intruder be attracted to a distance +therefrom, when it flies away. The male generally joins its mate in +this.” On a few occasions, when surprised, the bird fluttered away +for a short distance, but soon began to run as usual. Often the bird +left the nest when the men were 100 yards away from it. Once when +they had hunted in vain for an hour and a half, they retired and +watched. “After a few minutes she came on at a cautious run, stopping +frequently and making occasional excursions in different directions,” +and finally settled on the eggs. They found that several of the party +had repeatedly passed quite close to, and one had nearly trodden on the +eggs. Watching the bird return to the nest, which she generally does +within a few minutes, seems to be the best way of finding a nest. + +Of the nests found near Point Barrow, Mr. Murdoch (1885) says: + + The nest is exceedingly hard to find, although it is not + concealed at all, but is simply a depression in the bare + black clayey tundra lined with a little dry moss. The only + vegetation on this part of the tundra is white and grayish + moss, which harmonizes so extraordinarily with the peculiar + blotching of the eggs that it is almost impossible to see + them unless one knows exactly where to look. A favorite + nesting site is on the high banks of the gullies or small + streams. No nests were ever found in the grass or in swampy + ground. + +W. Sprague Brooks (1915) found only one nest near Demarcation Point, +Alaska, of which he says: + + I found this nest on June 25 with three eggs about + one-quarter incubated. The male was on the nest. It took + several days to find the nest, for the bird would leave + when I was a long way off and begin running about and + feeding as though it had nothing else to do. By placing + a lump of tundra each day where I first saw the bird I + eventually found her nest, a mere depression in some + greenish moss which, with scattered bits of brown dead + vegetation, harmonized extraordinarily with the eggs. + + When the bird saw that its nest was finally discovered it + showed great distress and ran toward me until about 20 + paces distant, where it stood tottering as if about to + fall, with one wing raised over its back. In a short time + the bird, with tail down and a wing dragging, would walk + slowly from me. As I never followed, the bird would return + and totter a while, repeating the same performance several + times until secured for the proper identification of the + eggs. + +_Eggs._--The golden plover’s normal set is of four eggs, but MacFarlane +collected many sets of three and one of five. These are quite uniformly +ovate pyriform in shape and have only a slight gloss. The ground colors +vary from “cinnamon buff” or “light pinkish cinnamon” to “light buff,” +“cartridge buff,” or “cream color,” hence more buffy or less olivaceous +or grayish than in eggs of the black-bellied plover. They are boldly +and profusely marked, more or less irregularly, with large and small +spots and irregular blotches of very dark browns or black, “Vandyke +brown,” “clove brown,” and brownish black. Sometimes there are a few +underlying small spots of “drab gray.” The measurements of 143 eggs in +the United States National Museum average 47.5 by 32.5 millimeters; the +eggs showing the four extremes measure =56= by 31, 50 by =34.5=, =42= +by 34, and 46 by =30= millimeters. Both sexes incubate. The period of +incubation for the European species is said to be 27 days. + +_Plumages._--In the downy young golden plover the forehead, crown, +back, wings, rump, and thighs are mottled with bright “wax yellow” and +black, the yellow being mainly at the tips of the down. A broad patch +under the eye, extending back to the ears, and the chin, are white; a +spot in front of the eye and an indistinct band above it, the hind neck +and the throat are yellowish white, the hind neck being mottled with +black; a broad band from the lores to the nape is pale yellow, mottled +with black. The remaining under parts are grayish white. + +In fresh juvenal plumage, on the breeding grounds, the crown and all +the upper parts are brownish black, the feathers tipped or heavily +notched with bright yellow, “light cadmium” to “buff-yellow,” brightest +on the rump; the wing coverts are pale sepia, notched paler yellow +or white; the breast is pale drab, barred, spotted or notched with +pale dusky and dull yellow, “mustard yellow” to “Naples yellow”; +the belly is white, partially barred with pale dusky; and the tail +feathers are sepia, indistinctly barred with darker sepia and tipped +with dull yellow. By the time that young birds reach us on migration +in September, the bright yellows of the upper parts have faded +considerably, and the duller yellow on the breast has disappeared +entirely. This plumage is not molted until after the birds leave us; +late in the fall, November or later, a partial molt of the body plumage +produces the first winter plumage, which can be distinguished from +the adult only by the juvenal tail and some retained scapulars and +tertials. What happens the next spring we have not the material to +show. Most of the birds that we see here in the spring are in fully +adult nuptial plumage, but I have seen quite a number of birds, some +taken on their breeding grounds, that showed, more or less, old, worn, +winter plumage; these may be young birds in their first nuptial plumage. + +The postnuptial molt of adults begins with the body molt in August, +the new pale drab and whitish feathers of the winter plumage appearing +first in the black under parts; this molt continues through September +while the birds are migrating. But the primaries are not molted until +winter, November to February. In winter the plumage of the under parts +is very pale drab, shading off to almost pure white on the chin and +belly; the adult tail is irregularly barred with dusky and grayish +or yellowish white; the feathers of the mantle are brownish black, +narrowly edged with yellow, not notched or spotted as in spring. The +prenuptial molt of the body plumage begins in March and lasts until +May in some individuals; many old winter feathers are often found in +breeding birds, especially in the wing coverts, scapulars, tertials +and back. The beautiful nuptial plumage is too well known to need +description here. + +_Food._--The favorite feeding grounds of the golden plover are rolling +pasture lands where the grass is short or scanty, prairies, plains, +plowed lands and occasionally open sand or mud flats. Its food consists +almost entirely of insects, chiefly Orthoptera which abound in the +pasture lands. It is said to feed mainly on grasshoppers, but George +H. Mackay (1891), who is very familiar with it, says that he has never +seen it eat any, though he has watched it through a strong glass near +at hand. He says: + + I have also examined the stomachs of a good many which + I have shot on Nantucket, and have never found any + grasshoppers in them, nor in fact anything but crickets + (which seem their principal food there), grass seeds, a + little vegetable matter, like seaweed, coarse sand, and + small stones. I have also frequently shot them with the + vent stained purple, probably from the berries of the + _Empetrum nigrum_. + +They must find abundant food in the north, for they are always very +fat when they arrive here. The large numbers of grasshoppers, locusts, +crickets, and other insects that they destroy make them very beneficial +birds to the farmers of the west, where they also do much good by +eating the grubs, cutworms, and wireworms on freshly plowed lands, +their favorite resorts in spring. On the shores and open flats they +find some small mollusks and crustaceans. The crops of two which Lucien +M. Turner collected in northern Ungava were filled with ripening +berries of _Empetrum nigrum_ and remains of spiders. Hantzsch found +them eating beetles and caterpillars on Baffin Island. + +_Behavior._--The flight of the golden plover is exceedingly swift, +strong and protracted, as it must be to make such wonderful migrations. +Over the prairies the flocks sweep along in compact and ever changing +formations, skimming close to the ground at times and then rising high +in the air, frequently whistling as they go. William Brewster (1925) +has described their flight, as seen at Umbagog Lake, Maine, as follows: + + They habitually flew faster than any of the other waders + and perhaps more swiftly than any of the ducks except + the hooded merganser. Their long, pointed wings, lifting + high and cutting deep at each stroke, beat rapidly and + ceaselessly, yet so easily and smoothly as to indicate + comparatively slight muscular effort. If they happened + to pass near at hand or overhead their flight was likely + to impress one as having not only exceeding speed but + irresistible momentum, also as of solid projectiles, + hurtling through the air. Seen at a distance they appear + to be moving more slowly and looked not unlike passenger + pigeons. + +When preparing to alight the flocks often perform extensive evolutions, +circling and turning, as they sweep about over the ground, as if +selecting a satisfactory landing place. When a suitable spot is chosen, +they all alight in a compact bunch, raising their wings high above +their backs before folding them, and soon scatter over the ground to +feed. When on the ground they are very active, running rapidly and +gracefully, stopping suddenly to look around, with head held high, and +then striking quickly at some morsel of food. Mr. Mackay (1891) says: + + When scattered over considerable ground, as is usual after + they have been any length of time on their feeding ground, + every bird apparently on its own hook, if alarmed, a + note is sounded; they then rise so as to meet as soon as + possible at a common center, which gained, away they go in + a compact body. During the middle of the day they are fond + of seeking the margins of ponds, where they sit quietly + for a long time, if undisturbed. When disturbed they are + almost certain to return, in a short time, to the same spot + from which they have been started, that is, if they have + been resting or feeding there any length of time. When + suspicious, it is very difficult to approach, decoy, or + call them; if not harassed, they are as a rule quite tame + and gentle, and can be easily driven up to with horse and + wagon. + +_Voice._--John T. Nichols says in his notes: + + The flight note of the golden plover in migration is a + far-reaching _que-e-e-a_, with a quaver in the middle and + falling at the end. Though with a thrilling plover quality + it at the same time has an affinity to the killdeer’s + cry, being less mellow and whistled than the note of the + blackbelly, which it also suggests, reversed. + +Mr. Mackay (1891) says that when these birds are approaching decoys +every bird seems to be whistling “a note like _coodle, coodle, +coodle_.” Mr. Forbush (1912) calls its note “a plaintive _too-lee-e_,” +or “a bright whistle, _queep-quee-lee-leep_.” Others have given +different renderings of some of the above notes. + +_Field marks._--The bird with which the golden plover is most likely to +be confused is the black-bellied plover, but the golden is a smaller, +more slender, bird, with a generally darker appearance. When seen in +flight the tone of the tail is very dark and the axillars, under the +wings, are grey, whereas in the black-bellied the tail is decidedly +whitish and the axillars are very conspicuously black in all plumages; +furthermore the black-bellied has a conspicuous light wing bar, which +is lacking in the golden. The notes of the two are quite different. +When in hand the golden is seen to have no hind toe. Mr. Nichols +suggests that the golden has a swifter, more buoyant flight, suggestive +of the killdeer. + +_Fall._--Mr. Murdoch (1885) refers to the beginning of the migration as +follows: + + The nesting season continues till the first or middle + of July, about which time the adults begin to collect + in flocks, feeding together around the ponds on the + higher tundra, associated sometimes with a few knots or a + struggling curlew. The old birds leave for the south about + the end of July, and no more plovers are to be seen until + about the middle of August, when the young, who heretofore + have been keeping out of sight, scattered over the tundra, + gather into flocks, and for several days are quite plenty + on the dryer hills and banks, after which they depart. + Stragglers may be seen up to the end of August. + +The main trend of the fall migration is southeastwards, mainly west and +south of Hudson Bay, but perhaps across it also, to the Atlantic coast, +mostly north of New England. In favorable weather the flight is over +the ocean from Nova Scotia to South America over, or to the eastward +of, Bermuda, and the Lesser Antilles. Mr. Clark (1905) figures out that +this is the course they would take, if they flew with a beam wind, +across the prevailing winds. Of their course after landing in British +Guiana, he says: + + From this point their course is not accurately known; + but if we apply this theory, they would follow down the + northeastern tributaries of the Amazons until they came + within the influence of the southeast trades, which would + carry them southwest, over central Amazonia toward Peru and + Bolivia. Somewhat northwest of the Matto Grosso region, the + birds would come under the influence of the easterly winds + on the southern border of the trades, which would turn them + south, and gradually (as they became more northeasterly) + southeast, which would bring the plover into the prairie + region of the Argentine. Here the prevailing westerlies + of the pampas region would be felt, and the birds would, + under their influence, continue down the eastern part of + Patagonia toward Tierra del Fuego. + +To add strength to his theory he says that there are specimens in the +British Museum from Mount Roraima and the Maroni River, Surinam, and +from Peru taken in September and October. + +Some birds on the fall migration wander as far north and east as Baffin +Island and northeastern Labrador. Lucien M. Turner refers in his notes +to several adults which he saw and two which he collected, near the +mouth of the Koksoak River, between July 24 and August 19, 1882; and I +have a specimen in my collection taken near Hopedale, Labrador, a young +bird. Hantzsch found this plover breeding on Baffin Island. + +Edwin Beaupre (1917) writes: + + In September, 1906, a great flight of plover passed over + the city of Kingston, which is located on the extreme + eastern end of Lake Ontario. The flight was first noticed + about 8 o’clock in the evening, and to one familiar with + the soft, sweet piping of the golden plover, there was no + difficulty whatever in recognizing the bird. A record of + the flight showed that eight flocks passed over the city, + flying very low, at intervals of about 10 minutes. Toward + midnight it was impossible to enumerate the flocks, the + flight being continuous. This must have been the main + migration for that year, and it continued until 4 o’clock + in the morning, covering eight hours. Allowing a speed of + 25 miles an hour--a conservative estimate--the distance + between the leading flocks and the rear guard must have + been approximately 200 miles. What a sublime spectacle + this would have been had one the privilege of seeing it in + the open light of day! The vanguard of this great aerial + aggregation must have reached almost to the Atlantic + seaboard, while the rear flocks were trailing their + wonderful way over the eastern waters of Lake Ontario. They + no doubt began their ocean journey some miles south of + the coast of Nova Scotia, but not far enough to seriously + affect their regular route to Argentina, in which country + they escape the hardship of a Canadian winter. + +The above quotation and the fact that William Brewster (1925) recorded +the golden plover as visiting the Umbagog Lake region in Maine +“regularly and rather plentifully not so many years ago,” suggests the +idea that some of the birds we used to see in New England came by an +overland route. However, our big flights were probably birds that came +in from the sea under stress of bad weather, either before or during +easterly storms accompanied by heavy rains or thick fog. According to +Mr. Mackay’s (1891) records, covering a period of 32 years from 1858 to +1890, the last week in August seems to be the best time to look for a +flight, though he says “it is unusual to see any but scattering birds +before the 10th of September.” My earliest record for adult birds is +August 9; practically all the birds which come in August are adults. +The young birds come in September; my latest date is October 7. The +appearance of either adults or young on our coast has always been very +uncertain and irregular, dependent on the necessary weather conditions +coming at the proper time. + +Mr. Mackay (1891) says: + + While I have continually shot the young birds on Nantucket, + and in other parts of Massachusetts, their arrival is a + much more uncertain event than that of the older birds, + there being some years when I have seen none, and others + only a few. I have never known a year when they were + anything like as numerous as I have seen the older birds. + +During some years large flocks of golden plover pass over the Bermudas +in September and October, according to Capt. Savile G. Reid (1884), +“but, unless in stormy weather, they do not alight in any great +numbers. Numbers appeared in September, 1874, frequenting the grassy +slopes of the north shore--their favorite haunt--and even the parade +grounds, during the continuance of a three day’s revolving gale.” + +Col. H. W. Feilden (1889) writing of conditions in Barbados, the +easternmost of the West Indies, says: + + Stragglers arrive as early as July and the beginning of + August, but the main flights come with the first heavy + weather after the 27th of August, and long experience and + observation proves that this date is kept year after year + with wonderful accuracy. The course of all the migratory + Charadriidae across Barbados in the autumn is from the + northwest to southeast, and if the wind blows from + southeast the birds are brought down to the island, for it + appears to be a tolerably well established observation that + birds prefer migrating with a “beam” wind. A shift of wind + from the northeast, with squally weather to the southeast, + is ardently longed for by the Barbados sportsmen toward the + end of August, as this forces the migratory hosts to alight + instead of passing over at a great height, as they are + seen to do when the wind is from the northeast. The first + arrivals of this species are invariably black-breasted + birds, showing that the old birds precede the young, and + the first comers are nearly all males. The young birds + without black on the breast appear about the 12th of + September, and continue to pass till the end of October, + sometimes stragglers are as late as November. Even in the + most favorable seasons, only a fraction of the immense + flights that pass over the island ever alight. + +Much has been written about the Atlantic flight of the golden plover +and remarkably little has been said about the southward flight in the +interior, but such a flight occurs regularly, though in much smaller +numbers. Professor Rowan (1926) says that in Alberta: + + We have notes of hundreds going south in a single day in + mid September, when the main movements occur annually. + An interesting feature of the fall migration of golden + plover is that it consists entirely of young birds. The + earliest record we have is August 18 and the next August + 24. These are rather early, September being the chief + month of arrival. The fall movements are protracted, and + we may have small flocks with us till toward the end of + October. Another feature of the autumn migration is a + change of habit. The birds, while often noted on pasture + (particularly if in large flocks) more usually frequent the + muds and behave like the majority of other waders. They + associate freely and habitually with other species. They + behave like the strays of the spring. Being birds of the + year there is no doubt in their case that they are sexually + undeveloped. + + We have a single record of an adult bird in the fall + collected by Harrold on August 22. It was noted the + previous day, but not secured, and proved to be a female + well advanced in its moult. There is one other reliable + autumn record for an adult golden plover from the Province, + seen at Sullivan Lake in July by Mr. T. E. Randall. Until + we have spent the whole of July at our lake or some other + suitable observation station, it will be impossible to say + that adults never--except accidentally as strays--come + south through the Province, but all evidence available + indicates that they do not do so. + +I can not wholly agree with Professor Rowan’s evident belief that all +the birds that migrate through the interior are young birds and that +very few young birds take the Atlantic route. However, the dates given +by numerous observers in the Mississippi Valley and in Texas would seem +to indicate that they were nearly all referable to young birds, as they +are generally late dates. The main migration route for both adults and +young is evidently the Atlantic route; the species is comparatively +rare in the interior, south of Canada. It is still rarer on its +southward migration along the Pacific coast; the dates are mostly late, +probably for young birds; D. E. Brown has sent me two records from +Washington. October 7, 1917, Gray’s Harbor County, and November 14, +1915, Clallam County. Apparently most of the adults take the Atlantic +route; the young birds are spread out over the whole country, but are +much more inclined to the eastern route. + +_Game._--The golden plover has been a famous game bird. It was a most +desirable table bird, as it was usually very fat and its flesh had a +delicious flavor on account of its clean, upland feeding habits. The +uncertainty of its appearance and its enormous numbers at favorable +times made its pursuit most interesting. During the years of its +abundance it was slaughtered in almost incredible numbers. Audubon +(1840) writes: + + While at New Orleans, on the 16th of March, 1821, I was + invited by some French gunners to accompany them to the + neighborhood of Lake St. John to witness the passage of + thousands of these birds, which were coming from the + northeast and continuing their course. At the first + appearance of the birds early in the morning, the gunners + had assembled in parties of from 20 to 50 at different + places, where they knew from experience that the plovers + would pass. There stationed, at nearly equal distances from + each other, they were sitting on the ground. When a flock + approached, every individual whistled in imitation of the + plover’s call note, on which the birds descended, wheeled, + and, passing within 40 or 50 yards, ran the gauntlet, + as it were. Every gun went off in succession, and with + such effect that I several times saw a flock of a hundred + or more reduced to a miserable remnant of five or six + individuals. The game was brought up after each volley by + the dogs, while their masters were charging their pieces + anew. This sport was continued all day, and at sunset, when + I left one of these lines of gunners, they seemed as intent + on killing more as they were when I arrived. A man near the + place where I was seated had killed 63 dozens. I calculated + the number in the field at 200, and supposing each to have + shot 20 dozen, 48,000 golden plovers would have fallen that + day. + +John C. Cahoon (1888) describes a method of shooting golden plover +employed by old gunners on Cape Cod, as follows: + + Several weeks before the time for the flights to occur, + they go to an old field or pasture that they know the birds + usually come into and burn off the old grass and bushes + for quite a space. Then a hole is dug large enough for one + or two persons to sit in comfortably, with only the top of + their heads above the surface. In a few weeks the grass + springs up and the green patch is easily distinguished from + its duller surroundings by the plover flying about, and + they are sure to come to this place. The gunner, with his + decoys out, sits in his pit with only the top of his head + out, which is covered with a green cap. A flock, before + alighting to the decoys, will usually circle about several + times, often flying directly over the gunner’s head only a + few yards away. An experienced gunner will not shoot when + they are so near and scattered, as he could kill but one or + two, but will wait for them to bunch at the right distance, + which they are sure to do while turning, and seize that + opportunity to fire, killing many at one shot. + +Mr. Mackay (1891) says: “They are extremely gregarious, and I have had +the same flock return to my decoys as many as four times after some of +their number had been shot each time.” This remark probably refers to +adult birds, which come readily to decoys or in response to skillful +whistling; I have seen a single bird whistled up from so far away +that it was hardly visible. Professor Rowan (1926) says that he has +“found it practically impossible to whistle them within gun range.” He +probably refers to young birds, of which Mr. Mackay (1891) writes: + + These young birds invariably appear wild and wary, much + more so than the old ones. They are also very erratic in + their movements and flight when with us. They usually will + not pay so much attention to the decoys or call whistle as + do the old birds; and I have seen them, when very shy and + after being disturbed, mount up into the air and nearly + turn over on their backs while flying with great velocity. + It is a noteworthy fact that when a flock of these young + birds is approaching no dependence can be placed on their + movements. They may sometimes sweep down within a few yards + of the sportsman, passing with great rapidity over his + head, all scattered; or down close to the stand and then + up into the air; or they may turn suddenly. My experience + has taught me not to wait, as is my custom with the older + birds, to get them together before shooting, but fire at + them whenever and wherever I can if they are within range. + The older birds rarely indulge in any similar antics. + +During the days of spring shooting in the west golden plover were often +shot, without decoys, by making a blind or selecting some natural +hiding place within their regular fly ways, which were generally quite +well established and known. It was always difficult to stalk them on +foot, but where there were no fences they could be stalked successfully +by a hunter on horseback or in a wagon. + +_Winter._--The golden plover arrive in their winter home early in +September, or rarely late in August, where they remain until February +or March. W. H. Hudson (1920) writing of the days when these birds were +plentiful, says: + + The American golden plover is abundant and well known to + every one by its native name, _Chorlo_, throughout southern + Argentina. Its wild, clear notes are first heard about + the last week in August, and among the first comers many + individuals are seen still wearing the nuptial dress. + After their long journey from the Arctic regions they are + lean and not worth shooting; two months later they become + excessively fat, and are then much appreciated by gourmets. + But although so regular in their arrival, they do not + regularly visit the same localities every season; the bird + may be abundant in a place one year and scarce or absent + altogether the next. During the spring, from September to + December, they prefer open plains with short grass and in + the neighborhood of wet or marshy ground; at the end of + December, when the giant thistle (_Carduus mariana_), which + often covers large areas of country, has been burnt up + by the sun and blown to the ground, they scatter about a + great deal in flocks of from one to four or five hundred. + At noon, however, they all resort to a lagoon or marshy + place containing water, congregating day after day in + such numbers that they blacken the ground over an area of + several acres in extent, and at a distance of a quarter of + a mile the din of their united voices resembles the roar + of a cataract. As population increases on the pampas these + stupendous gatherings are becoming more and more rare. + Twenty-five years ago it was an exceptional thing for a + man to possess a gun, or to use one when he had it; and if + Chorlos were wanted a gaucho boy with a string a yard long + with a ball of lead attached to each end could knock down + as many as he liked. I have killed them in this way myself, + also with the bola perdida--a ball at the end of a long + string thrown at random into a cloud of birds. + +Doctor Wetmore (1926) saw golden plover on migration in Paraguay +during September; they “came to the open shores of lagoons with other +sandpipers, but were more often seen in flocks of 30 or 40 scattered +over open savannas where the grass was not too long.” He saw them also +in Argentina during November and December, where they seemed “to be +restricted during the resting period to the better watered grass-grown +eastern pampa.” + +Again (1927) he says: + + The golden plover in the south has been most common on + open plains, but ranges to some extent on the mud flats of + the coast. It is in this last area that the species may + be expected to survive as the pampas become more closely + occupied by man. These birds are hunted extensively and + so many have been killed both in the north and south that + their numbers have been greatly reduced. Though recorded + in its nesting range as only fairly common at best, the + region where the golden plover is found at this season is + extensive, so that the number of birds in existence is + still considerable. Careful watch should be kept on its + abundance. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and South America, accidental in Europe. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the American golden plover +has not been definitely separated from that of its western relative +(_Pluvialis d. fulva_). It has, however, been found that in Alaska +_fulva_ is more nearly confined to the northwestern coastal regions, +while _dominica_ is in the interior and on the northern coast. + +The breeding range may be defined as extending north to Alaska (Point +Barrow, Collinson Point, and Demarcation Point); Baffin Island +(Kangianga, Tikerakdjuak, and Kangidli); and Franklin (Walker Bay, Bay +of Mercy, Winter Harbor, Wellington Channel, and probably Igloolik). +East to Baffin Island; Franklin (probably Igloolik and Winter Island); +and northeastern Keewatin (Whale Point). South to Keewatin (Whale +Point); Mackenzie (Casba River, Lac de Gras, Bernard Harbor, Rendezvous +Lake, Fort Anderson, and Fort McPherson); and Alaska (Gens de Large +Mountains, Beaver Mountains, and probably Nushagak). West to Alaska +(probably Nushagak and Point Barrow). + +It also has been detected in summer in Greenland (Jacobshavn and +Godthaab), but there is no evidence of breeding in that region. + +_Winter range._--The winter range of the American golden plover extends +north to rarely Chile (Arica); and rarely Brazil (Villa Maria, Matto +Grosso, and Rio de Janeiro). East to rarely Brazil (Rio de Janeiro +and Santa Catarina); Uruguay (Montevideo); and Argentina (La Plata, +Cape San Antonio, and Bahia Blanca). South to Argentina (Bahia Blanca, +Sierra de la Ventana, Carhue, and Mendoza). West to western Argentina +(Mendoza); and rarely Chile (Arica). On rare occasions individuals may +pass the winter season at more northern points as Nauta, Peru (Sharpe), +and Old Harbor, Costa Rica (Carriker). Winter occurrences at other +northern localities probably refer to crippled birds or erroneous +identifications. + +_Migration._--The main migration route of the American golden plover is +of an elliptical nature. In late summer, after the breeding season, the +birds move southeast across northern Canada to the coasts of Labrador +and Nova Scotia, from which points they fly, apparently without +stopping, to the northeast coast of South America, passing thence +through the interior to the pampas region of Argentina. The northward +flight in spring is made farther west, through Central America, up the +Mississippi Valley to the prairie Provinces of Canada. + +Individuals and small flocks are, of course, noted more or less +regularly in both spring and fall, both on the Atlantic coast and +in the interior, but the main route should be borne in mind when +considering the following dates of arrival and departure. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of arrival in the spring are: Porto +Rico, Mameyes, February 16; Bermuda, March 9, 1852 (only spring +record); New York, Long Island City, April 17, and Fair Haven Light, +May 3; Massachusetts, Revere, March 6, and Somerville, March 20; Nova +Scotia, Pictou, May 17; Quebec, Godbout, May 31; Franklin, Igloolik, +June 14; Louisiana, New Orleans, March 16, Avery Island, March 28; +and West Baton Rouge, April 2; Arkansas, Fayetteville, March 20; +Missouri, St. Louis, March 23, Kansas City, April 11, and Kings Lake, +April 12; Illinois, Mount Carmel, March 12, Lebanon, March 17, and +Chicago, March 22; Indiana, Terre Haute, March 22, Greencastle, March +28, and Muncie, March 30; Ohio, Sandusky, March 26, West Liberty, +April 2, and Columbus, April 4; Michigan, Pittsfield, April 20; Iowa, +Scranton, March 25, Newton, March 27, and Keokuk, April 14; Wisconsin, +Clinton, April 9, and Racine, April 14; Minnesota, Heron Lake, April +12, Waseca, April 21, and Wilder, April 24; Texas, Gainesville, March +7, Mont Belvieu, March 8, Boerne, March 9, and Indianola, March 15; +Oklahoma, Caddo, March 11; Kansas, Richmond, March 22, Lawrence, March +29, Manhattan, April 4, and Emporia, April 18; Nebraska, Kearney, April +8; South Dakota, Fort Sisseton, April 13, Huron, April 25, and White, +April 26; North Dakota, Larimore, May 2, and Grafton, May 3; Manitoba, +Aweme, April 23, Treesbank, May 1, Portage la Prairie, May 8, and +Margaret, May 8; Saskatchewan, Osler, May 8, and Indian Head, May 9; +Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 15, and Fort Resolution, May 23; Alberta, +Alliance, May 5, Mundare, May 12, Camrose, May 7, and Red Deer, May 9; +and Alaska, Beaver Mountains, April 29, Sitka, May 5, Flat, May 11, +Fort Reliance, May 13, Fairbanks, May 17, and Point Barrow, May 21. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Argentina, Rio Negro, February 18, +Mendoza, March 23, and Tucuman, April 5; Guatemala, Duenas, April 12; +Louisiana, Avery Island, May 3, and Breton Island, May 13; Kentucky, +Crab Orchard, May 10; Missouri, Hunnewell, May 18, and Boonville, May +31; Illinois, Addison, May 10, Rantoul, May 12, and Chicago, May 17; +Indiana, Lebanon, May 23; and Michigan City, June 2; Ohio, Sandusky, +May 19, Bay Point, May 23, and Wauseon, May 27; Iowa, Gilbert Station, +May 16, Cedar Rapids, May 17, and Clear Lake, May 20; Wisconsin, +Racine, May 4, and Madison, May 30; Minnesota, Hallock, May 20, Wilder, +May 22, and Twin Valley, May 30; Texas, Corpus Christi, April 28, +Gainesville, May 12, and Point Isabel, May 15; Kansas, Manhattan, May +4, Paola, May 7, and Lawrence, May 8; Nebraska, Valentine, May 25; +South Dakota, Sioux Falls, May 23, White, May 25, and Harrison, May 27; +North Dakota, Devils Lake, May 23, Jerusalem, June 1, and Larimore, +June 7; Manitoba, Aweme, May 29, Margaret, June 3, and Shoal Lake, June +6; Saskatchewan, Indian Head, May 22, Winston, May 29, and Churchill +River, June 2; Colorado, Denver, May 17; Alberta, Mundare, May 26, +Sedgewick, May 30, and Fort Chipewyan, June 1; and British Columbia, +between Shusicap Falls and Mabel Lake, May 29 (only spring record). + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of arrival in the fall are: British +Columbia, Graham Island, July 27, Sumas Lake, August 19, and +Chilliwack, August 26; Keewatin, Cape Eskimo, August 4; Manitoba, +Aweme, August 6, Shoal Lake, August 21, and Margaret, August 27; North +Dakota, Fort Berthold, September 16; South Dakota, White, September 12, +great bend of the Missouri River, September 18, and Harrison, September +20; Nebraska, Nebraska City, August 3, and Ames, August 22; Minnesota, +St. Vincent, August 29, and Hibbing, September 13; Ontario, Toronto, +August 25, and Brighton, August 28; Michigan, Houghton, September 5, +Charity Island, September 9, and Detroit, September 10; Ohio, Columbus, +August 23, New Bremen, September 1, Youngstown, September 2, and +Cleveland, September 8; Indiana, Waterloo, August 25, and Lebanon, +September 29; Illinois, Rantoul, August 6, Glen Ellyn, September 10, +and Chicago, September 13; Louisiana, mouth of Mermentau River, August +11; Mississippi, Bay St. Louis, September 26; Newfoundland, St. George +Bay, August 17; Quebec, Gaspe Peninsula, August 29, and Montreal, +August 31; Prince Edward Island, Malpeque, August 23; New Brunswick, +Scotch Lake, August 21; Nova Scotia, Sable Island, August 20; Maine, +Portland, August 12; Massachusetts, Ipswich, July 18, Plymouth, +August 7, Nantucket, August 12, Cape Cod, August 15, and Monomoy +Island, August 18; Rhode Island, Newport, August 12, and Kingston, +August 19; Connecticut, Bridgeport, August 14, and Guilford, August +27; Rhode Island, Point Judith, August 21; New York, Montauk Light +Station, August 9, Long Island City, August 12, Syracuse, August 22, +and Shinnecock Bay, August 29; New Jersey, Great Bay, July 19; Cuba, +Guantanamo, September 30; Lesser Antilles, Barbados, July 24, Grenada, +August 24, St. Croix, August 31, and Sombrero, September 2; British +Guiana, Auni, August 30; and Paraguay, Puerto Pinasco, September 6. +Specimens also have been detected at Bermuda as early as July 25 +(Hamilton). + +Late dates of departure in the autumn are: Alaska, Nome, September 14, +Baranof Island, September 18, Kenai River, October 7, and St. George +Island, October 18 (there is a strong possibility that all of these +Alaskan records refer to the Pacific form, _Pluvialis d. fulva_); +British Columbia, East Kootenay, October 13, Chilliwack, October 14, +and Comox, November 4; Alberta, Edmonton, September 23, delta of the +Athabaska River, October 10, and Beaverhill Lake, October 22; Montana, +Terry, September 23, and St. Marys Lake, October 1; Wyoming, Rock +Creek, October 25; Colorado, Newcastle, October 5; Mackenzie, Manito +Islands, September 14, Lower Slave River, September 29, and Fort Liard, +October 5; Saskatchewan, Indian Head, October 2, and Quill Lake, +October 11; Manitoba, Aweme, October 16; South Dakota, Fort Pierre, +October 21, and Fort Sisseton, October 26; Nebraska, Lincoln, November +14; Kansas, Emporia, October 22, and Lawrence, October 23; Minnesota, +Madison, October 22, St. Vincent, October 26, and Lanesboro, November +2; Iowa, Bronson, November 9, and Keokuk, November 9; Ontario, Toronto, +October 23, Brighton, November 3, and Ottawa, November 4; Michigan, +Gibraltar, October 12, Mainstee, October 17, and Detroit, November 4; +Ohio, New Bremen, October 23, Painesville, October 31, and Youngstown, +November 11; Indiana, English Lake, November 15; Illinois, Morgan Park, +October 28, Hinsdale, November 4, and Urbana, November 8; Arkansas, +Crocketts Bluff, October 22; Greenland, August 7; Franklin, Baffin +Bay, September 3; Quebec, Koksoak River, September 19, Kamouraska, +October 19, Montreal, November 8, and Quebec City, November 10; Nova +Scotia, Sable Island, October 22, and St. Marys Bay, October 23; Maine, +Lewiston, October 16, and Portland, November 15; Vermont, Wells River, +October 14; Massachusetts, Monomoy Island, October 13, Plymouth, +October 24, and Provincetown, November 19; Rhode Island, South Auburn, +October 12, and Newport, October 24; Connecticut, West Haven, October +25, and Hartford, October 24; New York, Ithaca, October 29, Rockaway, +October 30, Orient Point, November 5, and Auburn, November 8; Bahamas, +Cay Lobos, October 25; Porto Rico, Anegada Lagoon, November 4; West +Indies, Barbados, December 7; and Costa Rica, San Jose, December 15. + +_Casual records._--South of New Jersey on the Atlantic coast, this +species has been recorded on a few occasions, among which are: District +of Columbia, Washington, one about 1860; Virginia, Smiths Island, +September 28, 1897, and Wallops Island, several occurrences between +August 12 and October 3 (Warren); North Carolina, several records in +spring between April 15 (Waterlily), and May 10 (Currituck), and in +fall between August 29 (Martins Point), and September 29 (Churchs +Island); South Carolina, Chester County, September 19, 1877, Christ +Church Parish, November 27, 1912, and Charleston, November 4, 1911, and +December, 1880; and Florida, Miakka, November 19, 1901, and December, +1900. + +On the Pacific coast of the United States it is only casual: +Washington, several records in the fall between September 9 (Port +Townsend), and November 14 (Dungeness); Oregon, Netarts Bay, September +7, 1912; and California, Playa del Rey Lagoon, October 4, 1923, Santa +Cruz, October 22, 1888, and possible at Coronado, January 12–20, 1908 +(Torrey). Suckley reported it from the vicinity of San Francisco, +and Kobbe from Menlo Park and Vallejo, but both of these records are +indefinite. + +The American golden plover has been obtained a few times in Great +Britain, Essex, August, 1896, Perthshire, August, 1883, Leadenhall +Market, fall of 1882, and Mayo County, September, 1894; while a single +specimen was taken on Heligoland, December 20, 1847. + +_Egg Dates._--Arctic coasts of Alaska and Canada: 176 records, June 1 +to July 15; 88 records, June 25 to July 2. + + + PLUVIALIS DOMINICA FULVA (Gmelin) + + PACIFIC GOLDEN PLOVER + + + HABITS + +The Pacific golden plover is a smaller and more brightly colored +subspecies of the American golden plover. It breeds on the Arctic coast +of Siberia from the Yenesei River to Bering Strait and on the Bering +Sea coast of Alaska. On the coast of Alaska north of Bering Strait +it intergrades with the American form, and there is some evidence +that it intergrades or hybridizes with the European golden plover at +the western end of its range. It is known as the Asiatic or eastern +golden plover by European writers. It winters from India and China to +Australia, New Zealand, the Hawaiian Islands, and many other islands in +the southern Pacific Ocean. + +_Spring._--This plover makes even more wonderful migratory flights than +its American relative, for between its winter and its summer homes it +travels twice each year over thousands of miles of trackless ocean; +many individuals may become lost or perish, but the majority of them +seem to find their way by some marvelous sense of direction. The reader +is referred to an excellent paper on the migration of this plover to +and from the Hawaiian Islands by Dr. Henry W. Henshaw (1910). Of the +spring migration he writes: + + During the last two months of their stay in the Islands + both the migrating plover and turnstones get very fat, + and it is probable that individuals that are not in good + condition do not attempt the flight, or if they do do not + survive the attempt. Toward April most plover seem to be + in full breeding plumage, and I feel sure that none of the + birds assuming the breeding dress remain behind unless sick + or wounded. There is, however, a small contingent, both + of plover and turnstones, that summer in the islands, and + these appear to consist wholly of immature individuals, + which, as a rule, are thin and not in good trim. + + When the time to migrate comes, small parties, from a dozen + or even less to flocks of 200 or more, strike boldly out + to the northward, apparently without hesitancy or doubt of + the result. Mr. Haswell, of Papaikou, which is on the coast + about 15 miles north of Hilo, soon after daybreak during + the early days of April, 1900, saw several flocks rise + to a great height and, after widely circling about a few + times as if to orient themselves, finally disappear in a + northerly direction. + + It is probable, however, that day migration is not the rule + with plover and other shore birds. Apparently it is more + usual for the flocks to feed by day and leave just before + nightfall, as do many other birds in different parts of the + world. Mr. R. C. L. Perkins states that several times he + “witnessed these departures always late in the afternoon or + just before dark.” + +How fast the birds fly or how long it takes them to make the 2,000 +mile flight across the ocean to the Aleutian Islands, we do not know. +If they fly at the rate of 40 miles an hour without stopping, it would +take over two days. They probably can not sustain such a prolonged +effort without food. Practically all shore birds are known to alight on +and arise from the water at will; so the chances are that they stop to +rest on the way. They probably obtain some food from floating masses +of seaweed, from the refuse left by whales, or from the numerous forms +of minute animal life to be found on the surface. These birds have +frequently been seen migrating at sea hundreds of miles from land, and +one observer has actually seen one resting on the water. Evidence that +they do so is furnished by the fact that native gunners in Trinidad, +according to some notes sent to me by Julian Lyder, detect the newly +arrived birds by a salty taste on the feathers. + +The plover leave the Hawaiian Islands during April and May. We have no +data as to when they reach the Aleutian Islands, but they arrive in the +Commander Islands about the middle of May, and the first arrivals were +noted at Nijni Kolymsk, Siberia, on May 30. On the Pribilof Islands +they have been known to arrive as early as April 18, but they usually +come about the first week in May. A. H. Twitchell tells me that he has +seen them at Bethel, Alaska, as early as May 8, and Herbert W. Brandt +says in his notes from Hooper Bay: + + When the first small flocks of this noble Asiatic visitant + appeared on Point Dall on May 16 the receding snow seemed + to emphasize its golden splendor. It never became really + common like its larger relative, the black-bellied plover, + but numerous individuals and small bands were observed + which, however, proved to be transients, for they all + departed by early June. They usually associated with the + gaudily attired ruddy turnstone and the combined lavish + color effect of these two feathered gems was lovely indeed + to behold. The Eskimos claim that, when seal hunting off + Point Dall, they often encountered birds of the present + species flying shoreward, so perhaps many of these + long-flighted migrants moved directly from the western + section of the Aleutian Islands across Bering Sea to their + Alaskan summer homes. + +_Nesting._--Mr. Brandt has sent me the following notes on the nesting +habits of this plover: + + The breeding realm of the aristocratic golden plover in + the Hooper Bay region is confined to a narrow belt on + the mountain slopes well above brush line in the Askinuk + Range. Here at an altitude of from five to eight hundred + feet dwells a pair nearly every half mile, or about the + same relative distance apart that the black-bellied plover + families maintain between themselves on the tundra below. + + The only nest of the Pacific golden plover to come under + my observation was found on June 27 at an altitude of 600 + feet on the Bimute spur of the Askinuk Range. On this + upper mountain slope amid the scattered rocky outcrops + exists a grim Arctic flora of mosses and lichens which + in patches is mottled black and grayish white. On one of + these velvet-like spots a little top moss is removed by the + birds so as to make a slight depression in which the four + beautiful eggs are placed. The lining of the nest is simply + a few short unarranged stems of the reindeer moss that no + doubt grew on the site. The nesting cavity is 4 inches in + diameter and only half an inch in depth, thus making it + notable as perhaps the most meager of the limicoline abodes + we found. The parti-colored eggs and their environs blend + as one in coloration, so, even in that jaeger-ridden land, + they enjoy unusual protective security. The male bird alone + was present during my stay in the vicinity of his abiding + place and failed to exhibit either the extreme timidity or + the agitation so characteristic of the black-bellied plover. + +Henry Seebohm (1901) gives the following account of finding a nest near +the banks of the Yenesei River in Siberia: + + On the top of the bank I found myself on the real tundra. + Not a trace of a pine tree was visible, and the birches + rarely exceeded 12 inches in height. There was less grass, + more moss and lichen, and the ground was covered with + patches of yellow mud or clay, in which were a few small + stones, that were apparently too barren for even moss or + lichen to grow upon. The tundra was hilly, with lakes, + swamps, and bogs in the wide valleys and plains. As soon + as I reached the flat bogs I heard the plaintive cry of a + plover, and presently caught sight of two birds. The male + was very conspicuous, but all my attempts to follow the + female with my glass, in order to trace her to the nest, + proved ineffectual; she was too nearly the color of the + ground, and the herbage was too high. Feeling convinced + that I was within 30 paces of the nest, I shot the male, + and commenced a diligent search. The bird proved to be + the Asiatic golden plover, with gray axillaries, and I + determined to devote at least an hour looking for the nest. + By a wonderful piece of good fortune I found it, with four + eggs, in less than five minutes. It was merely a hollow in + the ground upon a piece of turfy land, overgrown with moss + and lichen, and was lined with broken stalks of reindeer + moss. The eggs more resembled those of the golden than + those of the grey plover, but were smaller than either. + +Miss Maud D. Haviland (1915_a_) had considerable experience with this +plover on the Yenesei and took some excellent photographs of it; she +writes: + + I first saw a few birds at Dudinka, where they were + probably on migration, and afterwards the species was + common all the way down to Golchika. Each pair occupied + perhaps 2 furlongs of tundra. I should think that every + acre of moss and lichen from the Yenesei to the Lena in + summer is thus parceled out. Your progress across the + tundra in July is heralded and attended by a chorus of + plaintive cries. Both birds meet you a quarter of a mile + from the nest and never leave you until you are at the + boundaries of their own territory, and they can safely hand + you over to their next neighbors for espionage. Covert, of + course, there is none--but it is needless to say more. The + suspiciousness and patience of the golden plover are the + same all the world over; and I will not dwell upon them to + those who themselves have no doubt walked vainly for half a + day about the bird’s breeding grounds in this country and + listened to its maddening but at the same time most musical + protests. + + The first nest was found on July 4. It was a shallow + depression, lined with dry lichen haulms on a slope of the + tundra. The bird, which must, I think, either have been + deaf or else exceedingly stupid, did not move until I was + well over the hill and within 60 yards of her, when she + jumped up and feigned a broken wing. + +_Eggs._--The eggs are similar to those of the American golden plover; +the ground colors average paler. In three sets they run from “light +buff” to “cream color”; Mr. Brandt’s eggs run from “ivory yellow” to +“vinaceous buff”; and in two eggs figured by Mr. Poynting (1895) the +ground colors are in shades of “olive buff.” Mr. Brandt says in his +notes: + + The eggs of this bird are no doubt subject to much + variation for the two sets are very different. On one the + surface markings are distinct and elongated longitudinally + while on the other clutch large blotches almost cover the + larger end. These spots are brownish black to black where + the pigment is rich, but when occasionally it is thin, as + on a few outlying edges, it becomes brick red. Pursuant to + the usual rule with many of the boldly marked eggs of the + shore birds the underlying spots are few and ill defined. + These are in lavender tones from pale mouse gray to grayish + lavender. + +The measurements of 34 eggs average 48 by 33.2 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =51.8= by 32.5, 48.5 by =34.9=, +=45.2= by 32.4, and 46.4 by =31.5= millimeters. + +_Young._--The incubation period is probably the same as it is for the +European bird, 27 days; both sexes incubate the eggs and care for the +young. Thayer and Bangs (1914) write: + + Mr. Koren watched the habits of the birds closely and found + that the males appear to do all the incubating in the early + stages, the female at that time never being near the nest. + Later on, when the eggs are nearly ready to hatch, she + appears again and takes her turn with the male. When the + young are hatched, both parent birds are always with them. + At Cape Chelakhskai, August 27, 1912, large flocks of young + birds were seen ready to migrate. + +Miss Haviland (1915_a_) says: + + As soon as the young ones were able to run alone, which, + roughly speaking, was about July 20, the birds left the + higher ground and began to collect into flocks in the + marshy places of the tundra. I am inclined to think that + the young birds must need to wash and drink a great deal, + as otherwise it is not easy to understand why all the + waders of the tundra should leave the nesting sites so + early and wander down to the sphagnum swamps. Some of the + Asiatic golden plover even crossed the mud hills and came + down to the banks of the river. + +_Plumages._--The downy young Pacific golden plover is like the American +bird of the same age except that the yellow is rather brighter, about +“lemon chrome,” and decidedly more extensive; it predominates over the +black on the crown, back, and rump; there is very little white anywhere +except in the patch under the eye and on the chin, throat, and under +parts. Miss Haviland (1915_a_), however, says: + + The white tract between the homogeneous mottling of the + crown and nape, and the successive black and yellow + bands which lie above and behind the eye, and which in + _C. apricarius_ is sometimes hardly discernible, is very + pronounced in _C. fulvus_ and has enlarged at the expense + of the colored bands below it. The nape and upper part of + the body are more spotted with white, and there is little + or no yellow on the cheek below the eye. + +Subsequent plumages and molts are apparently similar to those of the +other golden plovers. Doctor Henshaw (1910) writes: + + It is of interest to note that in fall this plover migrates + before it molts; in spring it molts before it migrates. + The first birds to reach the archipelago in August are, + as stated, adults, and while they are practically in full + breeding dress they begin to molt into the winter dress + almost at once. The molting season for the species is + long, and many individuals, doubtless birds of the year, + may be found the last of December still molting into the + fall and winter dress. By the middle of February numerous + individuals are already beginning to molt a second time + and to assume the distinctive nuptial plumage, which, in + the case of these early birds, is practically completed + during the month of March, though individuals continue to + moult far into April and some no doubt complete the final + stages in Alaska. Doubtless the individuals to molt first + in spring are the adults which arrive first, and finish + the fall molt first; and doubtless, too, these are the + birds first to leave Hawaii for their breeding grounds in + Alaska. So protracted is the molt of the species that it + is probably true that during the stay of this plover in + Hawaii--from middle August till May--there is not a month + when some individuals are not molting. + + There is no reason for believing that the plover summering + in the islands which, as before stated, are chiefly if not + wholly immature birds, participate in the spring molt. At + all events the Hawaiian summer plover and turnstones that I + have seen were, without exception, in the winter garb. + +_Food._--Lucien M. Turner (1886) says that, on their first arrival in +Alaska, the plover “feed principally on berries of the _Vaccinium_ and +_Empetrum_, as many of these berries do not dislodge until succeeding +growths push them off.” Others have noted the same habit in late summer +and early fall. Some observers on the Pribilof Islands have noted +that they frequent the killing grounds and feed extensively on the +blowfly maggots there. But Preble and McAtee (1923) say that in the two +stomachs that they examined “none of these larvæ were found, their food +contents consisting of beetles, 72.5 per cent; flies, 22.5 per cent; +Hymenoptera, 4 per cent; and seeds of crowberry (_Empetrum nigrum_), 1 +per cent.” + +Doctor Henshaw (1910) writes: + + During its stay in the islands the plover, as also the + turnstone, feed chiefly in the upland pastures and + clearings, up to 6,000 or 7,000 feet, and on newly + plowed cane land. Both the sugar planter and the stock + raiser have much to thank the plover for, since, while + the birds feed on small seeds to some extent, they live + chiefly on insects, and according to Perkins, on insects + of much economic importance, since they depend largely + on the caterpillars of two of the most widely spread and + destructive of the island “cut worms.” These insects are + most abundant when the grass on the island pastures is + green and luxuriant, and this usually is in winter, when + rains are most copious. + +_Behavior._--The general behavior of the Pacific golden plover is not +different from that of its commoner relatives. My personal acquaintance +with it was made on the high rolling tundra and the foothills back of +Nome, Alaska. Here we found it quite common during the middle of July, +where it was evidently breeding or had been breeding; and we collected +quite a series of adults, juvenals, and even downy young. As we walked +over the tundra, we frequently heard their rich, melodious, whistling +notes, or saw a richly colored adult, in full nuptial plumage, standing +like a sentinel on some little hummock or ridge. Occasionally one would +try to entice us away by running slowly through the hollows or by +fluttering along the ground as if injured; but eventually it would take +wing and circle back to where its young were probably hidden. + +Mr. Brandt says in his notes: + + The Pacific golden plover’s adroit movements in + approaching his nest, made to deceive the hostile eye, + were interesting, and well illustrate the tactics of the + members of the plover family found about Hooper Bay. He + would run rapidly without visible bodily effort, and then + stop abruptly and remain motionless, not even turning his + head. His course always lay across the little ridges, never + along them, and he would follow the slight depressions, but + usually came to a halt on a little eminence. When close to + me, in order to get a wider range of vision, he would raise + himself on the terminal joints of his toes and stretch up + his neck, all with a jerky motion, the whole reminding me + somewhat of the action of the burrowing owl. If agitated + he ran rapidly to and fro, uttering an occasional piping + note, but seldom taking wing. + +_Voice._--John T. Nichols describes the notes of this plover very well +as follows: + + I have met this western race of the golden plover only on + its breeding grounds (at Nome, Alaska) where its notes + are quite unlike the flight note of the eastern bird in + migration, though some have almost an identical quality + with that call. Running about on the ground, voicing noisy + protest at the invasion of its ground, it has two unlike + cries used interchangeably, _peep!_ etc.; _toodlee_, + etc.; the first plaintive, the second mellow. Other less + frequent notes are _tudleu_ and _tdlu-eep_ suggesting the + semipalmated plover. When the two members of a pair alight + together for a moment a note of greeting suggests in form + the whip-poor-will’s call, _piterweeu, piterweeu, piterwit_ + or _peeperwip, peeperweeu, peeperwip_. + + A different, striking note is associated with what seems + to be nuptial display. A bird circles at moderate height + waving widespread wings in slow, measured, tern-like + manner, meanwhile uttering a loud, long-drawn, sweet + _pee-er-wee_, and in a few minutes dives to the tundra + and alights. The form of this call is rather that of the + black-bellied plover though its tone is that of the golden. + +Miss Haviland (1915_a_) describes similar notes and observes that, +“roughly speaking, the alarm note of the common golden plover is +monosyllabic; that of the Asiatic golden plover is dissyllabic; and +that of the gray plover is distinctly trisyllabic in character.” + +_Fall._--The plover which breed in Alaska migrate over Bering Sea, +stopping on the Pribilof Islands; the first birds, probably adults, +come during August; the young birds come later, mainly in September and +October, with one very late date, November 5. The few available dates +for the Aleutian and Commander Islands are also late, September and +October, probably young birds. The first birds to reach the Hawaiian +Islands are adults in breeding plumage; they arrive about the middle or +latter part of August; and Doctor Henshaw (1910) says “that they are +invariably in good flesh and that some are very fat. Later arrivals, +however, no doubt young of the year, are comparatively poor in flesh +and require considerable time to fatten.” This flight to these islands +is a most remarkable feat, for, even granted that they can rest and +feed to some extent on the surface of the ocean, it still remains a +mystery how they can find this little group of islands in the middle +of such a vast expanse of ocean. Doctor Henshaw (1910) makes some +suggestions which throw some light on the subject; he says: + + About September the wind that prevails in the North Pacific + immediately south of the Aleutians is from the northwest. + It is generally believed that migrating birds prefer to + fly on a beam wind. By heading southwest, birds migrating + to Hawaii might have the northwest abeam till about the + neighborhood of latitude 30° where they would be almost + sure to pick up the northeast trades. By then changing + their course to southeast they would be enabled to fly with + wind abeam till they sighted the islands. The Hawaiian + Archipelago with the chain of low islands and sand spits to + the northwest afford a reasonable chance for a successful + landfall, since unitedly they stretch away in a very thin + line for some 2,200 miles. Moreover the islands are close + enough together so that migrants high in air would not be + likely to miss them by passing between. + +The birds which breed in Siberia are probably those that migrate +through Mongolia and Japan and spend the winter in India, Burma, the +Malay Archipelago, and Australia. + +_Winter._--Maj. G. Ralph Meyer has sent me the following notes on this +plover in the Hawaiian Islands: + + The plover are very plentiful and I see them passing over + every day. They usually arrive about the middle of August + and remain until the middle of March. Along about that + time of the year they seem to congregate on the flats on + the northeast end of the island and probably leave from + there on the long flight to Alaska. During the winter they + alternate between the plains of the high central plateau of + the island and the lowland on both sides of the island. On + the east side there is some low grassy land and they are + common there. On this side they frequent tide flats during + the low tides and then go up into the central plateau + during the high tides. They perhaps spend some of the time + in sheltered ponds on this side and wherever they can find + muddy flats on which to feed. + + The call note when flying is usually a whistled _too-whee_, + easily imitated. They answer to the call note very readily + and we use this when hunting them. We use plover decoys, + placing them in the mud flats during high tide, and then at + the turning of the tide the birds come from the direction + of the mountains to feed. The decoys are placed on the + highest part of the flats, so that the birds will have no + other place to alight. We face the decoys up the wind, as + the birds usually face that way when they are feeding. As + they come near we call to them, merely imitating their + call. They will circle around and finally decoy very nicely + if they are not alarmed by any sudden movement. When + circling around decoys they make a sort of chuckling noise, + which I can not describe except as a chuckling whistle. + Occasionally a wandering tattler will decoy and very often + we get turnstones. On one occasion last year I saw a flock + of about 20 to 30 birds, apparently turnstones, flying in a + “V” or semicircle formation, and the leader was undoubtedly + a plover. The birds were a couple of hundred feet in the + air, so I could not be sure of the turnstones, but I was + sure of the plover. He was leading them, for they followed + him wherever he went. On a visit to Hawaii in July, 1916, + I found plover on the slopes of Mauna Loa, one of the high + mountains of the island. I have never seen them on this + island during the summer. + +W. B. Alexander tells me that this plover is-- + + a common visitor to Australian coasts, especially in + summer, though some appear to be present at all seasons. + While in Australia this species is usually found in small + flocks and is partial to reedy swamps and the margins of + lakes, as well as to estuaries fringed with mangroves. In + fact, it evidently likes cover, though it may be met with + on the open sea beach. + +In his notes from Australia, Charles Barrett says: + + All parts of the Commonwealth receive their quota of golden + plover, and in the southern portions of the country the + birds are seen about the end of October (early summer). + The species is nowhere very plentiful (A. J. Campbell), + but I have seen it often, singly, or in small flocks, in + different localities, chiefly along the seashore and on + swampy land, seeking small shellfish, etc. Sometimes it + associates with the black-bellied plover (_Squatarola + squatarola_). In the Capricorn Group I met with it in fair + numbers on the Masthead Island beaches. Like other migrants + observed among the isles, the plover were fresh arrivals, + and each day their numbers increased. They were in poor + condition and seemed to be exhausted after their great + migratory flight. Some of the specimens taken by collectors + in our party still retained some of the breeding plumage; + in one example the breast was almost black. + + In New South Wales I observed this species on the sand + spits at the sea entrance to Wallis Lake in October, 1921. + They were wary, but through field glasses we could see + them busily seeking for food. In my own State, Victoria, + specimens have been taken both in the summer and winter + plumage. The birds frequent open grass country, as well + as the seashore; in fact, they are more abundant often + in country of this class than elsewhere in a district. + Frequently, however, they are seen along river banks and on + sea beaches, feeding in company with other species. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Alaska, Asia, Australia, and Oceania; casual in Europe and on +the Pacific coast of North America. + +_Breeding range._--The Pacific golden plover breed mainly in Siberia +but, as mentioned under _Pluvialis d. dominica_, they range also to +western Alaska, where they apparently meet and intergrade with their +eastern relatives. The breeding range may be stated as extending north +to eastern Siberia (Yenisei River, Cape Chelyuskin, Liakhof Island, +Nijni Kolymsk, Cape Baranof, Chaun Bay, and Cape Serdze); and Alaska +(Wainwright). East to Alaska (Wainwright, probably Point Hope, probably +Cape Blossom, Cape Prince of Wales, Nome, St. Michael, and Igiak Bay). +South to Alaska (Igiak Bay); and Siberia (Bering Island, Kamchatka, and +the Yenisei River). West to western Siberia (Yenisei River). + +_Winter range._--The winter range extends north to India, China, Japan, +and to Hawaiian Islands (Midway, Kauai, and Maui Islands). East to +the Hawaiian Islands (Maui), Polynesia, and New Zealand. South to New +Zealand and Tasmania. West to Tasmania, Australia, Melanesia, Java, +Borneo, and India. + +_Migration._--The migration of the Pacific golden plover nesting in +Alaska, appears to be entirely oceanic, the flight in both directions +being without intermediate stops. Nonbreeding individuals frequently +remain all summer in the Hawaiian Islands and at other points in +Oceania. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of arrival are: China, Soochow, April +18, Shanghai, April 21, and Canton, April 30; Japan, Hakodate, May 7; +Siberia, Bering Island, May 15, and Nijni Kolymsk, May 30; and Alaska, +St. Michael, May 2, Bethel, May 8, Portage Bay, May 13, Hooper Bay, May +16, and Cape Prince of Wales, May 19. + +_Fall migration._--Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, mouth of +the Yukon River, October 12, St. Paul Island, October 25, and Attu +Island, October 31; and Siberia, Bering Island, October 28. + +_Casual records._--This species has been reported as a casual from +Algeria, Malta, Italy, Spain, Heligoland, Poland, and the British +Isles (B. O. U.). In North America, specimens identified as this race, +have been collected in British Colombia, Comox, November 2, 3, and 4, +1903, and Masset, August 10, 1920; Washington, Kahlotus, December 19, +1924; Idaho, Lake Chatcolet, October 1, 1923; and Maine, Scarborough, +September 11, 1911. + +_Egg Dates._--Bering Sea coast of Alaska: 15 records, May 23 to July 1; +8 records, June 11 to 27. Siberia: 5 records, June 30 to July 5. + + + OXYECHUS VOCIFERUS (Linnaeus) + + KILLDEER + + + HABITS + +_Contributed by Charles Wendell Townsend_ + +It may be said of the killdeer that it is probably the most widely +distributed and best known of all our shore birds. Unlike most of +the group, it is not confined to the borders of lakes and of the +sea but is found in meadows, pastures, and dry uplands often many +miles from water. Unlike, also, the majority of our shore birds, +its sojourn here is not limited to the migration periods, for it +breeds and winters throughout a large portion of the United States. +It is not of a retiring disposition, and it often makes its presence +known by loud calls and cries, to which it owes both its common and +scientific names--killdeer and _vociferus_. Its strikingly marked +and handsome plumage makes it very conspicuous when it is in motion, +as is nearly always the case. In all these respects it resembles the +European lapwing, a resemblance to which both Wilson and Audubon called +attention. Wilson (1832) says that “this restless and noisy bird is +known to almost every inhabitant of the United States.” + +During the latter part of the last century and early in this +persecution by shooting brought down the numbers of the killdeer so +that in certain parts of the country where it formerly bred it became +extremely rare. Thus, Forbush (1925) says: + + The killdeer was once a common breeding bird in New + England. Early in the present century it became so reduced + in numbers that it was believed to have been practically + exterminated as a breeding species. * * * Legislation + protecting it perpetually has resulted in a gradual + increase of the species which is now nesting locally but + not uncommonly in the coastal region and river valleys of + southern New England. + +Other evidence of a similar nature is that of W. J. Brown (1916), who +says: “Ten years ago the killdeer was a rare summer resident in the +Province of Quebec. During the past five seasons the bird has become +very numerous and is now a common breeder.” + +The killdeer is one of the most beneficial of birds; it is a delight +to the eye as it runs along the field or swiftly flies and skims the +ground, and its familiar calls are pleasing. Long may it flourish +unharmed by man! + +_Spring._--The migration of the killdeer is not as marked as is that of +other shore birds whose winter station is far removed from the summer +breeding grounds, for it breeds in many places where it winters. As a +spring migrant it is one of the earliest of shore birds; indeed, there +are few land birds that precede it, coming generally in small scattered +flocks, which are augmented if the birds loiter on the way. Prof. +William Rowan writes of its migration at Edmonton, Alberta: + + It is the first wader to come North in the spring and the + last to go South in the fall. It may arrive as early as the + middle of March and stay till the middle of November. These + are remarkable dates for a shore bird in this country, + since the lakes remain frozen as a rule till the end of + April and exceptionally right into May. Even the rivers may + remain solid till the middle of April. + +Lynds Jones says that the killdeer, robin, and bluebird arrive about +the same time in Ohio. M. P. Skinner writes of the killdeer in the +Yellowstone Park that-- + + Usually this bird arrives on warm mornings, but on one + occasion they came on a morning when the thermometer + registered below zero, but a few hours later at 10 o’clock + there was a sudden change and the temperature shot up above + 40° F. + +The killdeers migrate by day and also by night, their calls proclaiming +them during the darkness. + +_Courtship._--The most noticeable courtship performances of the +killdeer are those that take place in the air--the nuptial flight--but +those that occur on the ground, although less often seen, are also +spectacular. + +Of the courtship in the air Dwight Isely (1912) says that in Kansas +“during the first month or six weeks after their arrival killdeers seem +to spend a large part of their time in courtship. The male will fly +back and forth over a field giving its cry sometimes for over an hour +without intermission.” + +Arthur T. Wayne (1910) says of the bird near Charleston: “During very +cold weather the killdeer rises several hundred yards in the air, +hovering on almost motionless wings and uttering its far-reaching +notes. I have known a pair to remain in the heavens for fully an +hour during the coldest weather.” M. P. Skinner of the Yellowstone +Park writes: “Although the killdeer is not a song bird I have heard +some quite musical notes and even tuneful sequences from him. On the +4th of April one was heard singing while flying low in a circle over +the nesting ground, and the performance was strongly suggestive of a +nuptial flight song.” + +S. F. Rathbun of Seattle has communicated the following interesting +account of his observations on the subject: + + The evolutions were participated in by both birds of the + pair that I watched on several occasions, and, as my + knowledge goes, very early in spring prior to nesting. At + this time these birds were evidently mated. As they fed + about the margin of a small pond, one invariably following + the other, suddenly the bird In the lead would spring into + the air and mount upwards by a succession of wide, sweeping + spirals, with its mate in pursuit constantly uttering its + notes in a short and hurried manner. Higher and higher was + the flight, but restricted over the certain area of the + pond until both disappeared from one’s vision, although + the note continued to be faintly heard. As I continued to + watch, the birds’ cry ceased and down from the sky I first + noted a speck falling, then both came into plain sight, one + following the other, and then both alighted. This descent + was as quickly made as if the birds fell out of the ether. + After alighting the former actions were again indulged in, + and shortly after the high flight was again made. These + actions were repeated several times during my stay of over + two hours in the vicinity. + +From these reports it is evident that the courtship flight is performed +in various ways, and, as Audubon (1840) says, “It skims quite low over +the ground, or plays at a great height in the air, particularly during +the love season, when you may see these birds performing all sorts of +evolutions on the wing.” + +Of courtship display on the ground Theed Pearse (1924) writes: + + On two occasions that I saw one getting up he ran a short + distance and then went through what looked like a sexual + display. Crouching on the ground and leaning toward one + side with wings lowered and then opening the tail in fan + shape over the back so that the cinnamon tail coverts + came conspicuously into view, at the same time uttering a + trilling note. + +Aretas Saunders (1926) thus describes the display: + + Two birds would crouch side by side but facing in opposite + directions. Then they would droop the tips of the wings + so that they exposed the ochraceous patch of the lower + back, spread the tail, and tip the breast forward, slowly + lifting the wing tips till they came way above the back, + but never covered it from view. All the while they kept up + a continual call, the long-trilled note _t-r-r-r-r-rrrrr_. + The displaying birds would often begin the performance or + end it with a little fighting. + +Ira N. Gabrielson (1922) reports a case where-- + + the male had taken his station some distance from the + female and at intervals whirled rapidly about, uttering a + curious stuttering note as he did so. Every few seconds the + female advanced a few steps toward the male, but when he + stopped to observe the effect of this display she quickly + turned her back and appeared perfectly indifferent. This + was repeated several times until the female suddenly flew + away. + +This behavior of the female is very characteristic and common in avian, +as well as in other courtship. In whirling about, the brown tail +coverts must show prominently and the “stuttering note” may be another +term for the “trilling note” used by other writers. + +_Nesting._--The killdeer nests in the open, generally in a situation +that gives the bird on the nest an extended view. The nest may be +close to water--river, lake, or pond more often than the sea--but it +is generally in fields a few feet to several hundred yards or even a +mile or two from water. Pastures, meadows, cultivated fields, and bare +gravelly ground are favorite nesting places for this bird. Gravel roads +and the spaces between the ties of a railroad and even a graveled roof +have all been chosen by this bird for laying its eggs. + +As a rule, the ground is slightly hollowed out for the eggs and a +few chips of stone, wood, or weed stalks are placed in and about the +hollow. Within narrow bounds there is considerable variation, and +I have here set down some of the numerous nests described. Ira N. +Gabrielson (1922) says: + + In this region [Oregon] the favorite nesting place was + at the base of a hill of corn. As usual, little or no + attempt was made to build a nest--a few pebbles and bits of + corn husks being the usual type. This material is seldom + concentrated into a nest but is scattered over an area of 1 + or more square feet, the eggs being deposited on the ground + at some point within this area. * * * A rather unusual + nest was found. It was placed in a small depression and + carefully lined with shredded corn husks. + +Harold C. Bryant (1914) reports in Merced County, Calif.-- + + Another nest found May 15 was unique in the fact that it + was placed in a small grassy knoll surrounded by water, and + that the cavity was well lined with short stems of devil + grass. + +J. M. Bates (1916) says of nests found in Nebraska: + + The dirt is scooped out the size of my hand and is laid + with thin, flat scraps of magnesian sand shale averaging + an inch long. While a few dead stems lie with the stones, + there is no appearance of design in their presence. + +Charles R. Stockard (1905) says of the killdeer in Mississippi: + + The eggs are never hidden in the grass or weeds but are + placed in slight depressions on the bare ground or on + short grass turf. The saucerlike depression of a nest has + scattered in it bits of shells, small pebbles, short pieces + of weeds or sticks, and often small bits of crayfish armor. + This rubbish is never arranged so as to form a real nest, + since only a few bits of it are scattered in the depression. + +M. P. Skinner writes as follows of this bird nesting in the Yellowstone +National Park: + + All the nests I have found were on high, dry land, although + never more than two or three hundred yards from water, + while some were within 20 feet of it. One nest was in a + depression in the meadow grass, but not otherwise lined + or showing any construction. All the other nests were + on knolls or ridges, either on gravel soil or on gray + formation; they were in depressions varying from a shallow + saucer-shaped hollow to one that was 2 inches deep by 3 + inches in diameter; and in each case the birds appear + to have taken possession of a previous hollow, although + possibly deepening and otherwise forming it to their + purpose. All nests were unlined, although one had a few + sprays of sage and phlox around the edge and another had a + few shreds of dried and bleached wood scattered about. + +John G. Tyler (1913), writing of the nests in Fresno district, +California, says: + + A typical nest throughout the cultivated sections is + composed of a handful of white pebbles about the size + of peas and very uniform in size, mixed with an equal + number of dry shells of melon seeds of the previous year. + Frequently a few dry, broken-up pieces of melon stems are + used also, the whole being spread out over a space the size + of a saucer, with the eggs resting in the center * * *. On + the summer-fallow fields only a few dry grass blades line + the place where the eggs rest, while around the ponds of + the west side, the eggs generally lie half covered in the + powdered alkali dust without a scrap of nest lining. + +W. J. Brown (1916) speaks of finding many attempts at excavating nests +in the ground not far from the real nest. He suggests they may be decoy +nests. Mrs. Henry W. Nelson (1900) reports a case where the eggs were +laid in the bare gravel driveway and were moved by the gardener to +the edge of the turf out of the way of carriages. The bird continued +to incubate. W. Lee Chambers (1901) relates the case of a killdeer’s +nest between the ties on a used railroad track; F. W. Aldrich, of one +between double tracks of a well-used railroad, and notes of a similar +case to the latter have been sent by F. A. E. Starr. + +Gayle Pickwell (1925) found near Lincoln, Nebr., the nest of a killdeer +in a rubbish heap of broken glass, old bottles, and other material with +which the dark mottled eggs harmonized so closely in color that they +were invisible until closely approached. In fact killdeers’ eggs are so +protectively colored for the usual surroundings that the instinct of +nest concealment by furtive abandonment is exhibited by the killdeer as +in the case of most shore birds. + +The most unusual case of the nesting of the killdeer is that observed +by Mr. Pickwell (1925) in the same locality on the gently sloping +tarred and graveled roof of a race-track grandstand, some 50 feet above +the ground. The eggs were laid in a slight cup-shaped depression among +the crushed stones. Close observation showed that the relative position +of the eggs in the nest was changed daily between 10.30 a. m. and 3 p. +m., and it was not unusual to find them with their points away from +the center of the nest. The young were found on the ground near the +building while still but feeble walkers. In what manner the old ones +transferred them from the roof was not observed. + +_Eggs._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: The number of eggs in a set is almost always +four, but five and three have been found. Mr. Pickwell (1925) says the +roof-nesting killdeer “laid at least three clutches of eggs during the +season extending from early April to the last of June, and she may have +raised two broods.” The eggs are ovate pyriform in shape, usually quite +pointed, and they have no gloss. The ground colors vary from “light +buff” or “cream color” to “cartridge buff” or “ivory yellow.” They are +irregularly spotted, blotched, or scrawled, often quite boldly, with +blackish brown or black; some eggs have “sepia” blotches and some a +few underlying spots of “pale drab gray.” The measurements of 92 eggs +average 36.3 by 26.6 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes +measure =41.5= by 27, 39.5 by =28= and =33= by =25= millimeters.] + +_Young._--The incubation period according to the observations of J. A. +Spurrell (1917) is from 24 to 25 days; according to Ira N. Gabrielson +(1922) it is 25 days. J. M. Bates (1916) found it to be 26 days and +Althea E. Sherman (1916) found that 28 days elapsed between the laying +of the last egg and hatching. + +Both sexes incubate (F. L. Burns, 1915), and both take care of the +young. Robert B. Rockwell (1912) relates the following: + +“Mr. [L. J.] Hersey was fortunate enough to see one set of eggs hatch. +He says the parent birds carried every bit of shell away from the nest +within two hours after the hatching.” As soon as the moisture has dried +from the down, the young are on their feet and leave the nest and the +parents often lead them to the nearest water. They bob and call at an +early age. Althea R. Sherman (1916) had watched a nest very closely +from the beginning, but she says of the young: “So protective was their +coloration, so adroit was parental management that they were not seen +after leaving the nest until they had attained the size of adult house +sparrows.” The young often escape notice by lying motionless on the +ground. At such times they may sometimes be picked up without showing +signs of life. + +Both parents play the usual wounded-bird act to beguile the intruder +from the eggs or young. The following detailed account by Ira N. +Gabrielson (1922) is worth giving here: + + It is impossible to approach the nest on foot without + alarming one or other of the birds, as one was always on + guard some distance away. At the appearance of a person + walking, the one on guard would fly in a circle about the + nest, giving the alarm, at the first note of which the one + on the nest ran rapidly until some distance away and then + took wing to join its mate in circling about the intruder. + A man ploughing corn was viewed with absolute indifference + by both birds, the team often passing down the row next + to the nest without disturbing the sitting bird. At an + alarm, however, both birds flew about the field unless + the intruder persisted in approaching the nest. In such + a case one of the birds dropped to the ground near the + person, invariably on the side away from the nest, and + fluttered about apparently in the greatest distress. The + attitude most frequently assumed was as follows: one wing + was held extended over the back, the other beat wildly in + the dust, the tail feathers were spread and the bird lay + flat on the ground, constantly giving a wild alarm note. + This performance continued until the observer came very + near when the bird would rise and run along the ground in a + normal manner or at most with one wing dragging slightly as + long as pursuit was continued. If the observer turned back + toward the nest, however, these actions were immediately + repeated. When the parents had succeeded in luring the + intruder about 100 yards, they seemed satisfied as they + then flew away. + +M. P. Skinner found that when he scared one bird from the nest, the +mate was apt to steal around behind him and take its place on the nest. +He says that + + In addition to their broken-wing tactics, both of the + killdeer at times would pretend to brood anywhere on the + foundation, evidently to lead me to think that that was + where their nest was. * * * On one occasion I found an + adult with one young about four days old. The youngster ran + under the old one and into its feathers; then the old bird + squatted down, covering it. Just then I saw the other bird + come running and exchange with the first parent, nestling + down over the youngster. + +While the broken wing tactics are used by the birds for man, dogs, +and other predatory animals, in order to draw them away from the eggs +or young, quite different tactics are used for browsing animals that +might step on them. Thus Howard Lacey (1911) noticed that a flock of +driven goats divided. “I walked up to the place expecting to find a +rattlesnake, and found instead a killdeer standing over her eggs with +upspread wings and scolding vigorously.” Norman Criddle (1908) writes +“If the danger came from a cow or horse, the tactics were changed +and the birds with both wings and feathers spread out would run into +the animal’s face, and so by startling it drive the intruder away.” +This habit of scaring away a browsing animal probably accounts for +the following experiences related by M. P. Skinner. The change to the +broken-wing tactics appears to show great discernment and intelligence +on the part of the bird. + + Twice when riding near two different unsuspected nests, the + birds got up with startled cries and faced me with their + tails spread horizontally and quivering, although I was on + horseback and towered high above them. After a few moments + they made off with pretended broken wings, limping, falling + down and fluttering. + +Aretas A. Saunders (1926) observed a parent very zealous in the care of +its young: + + This brood of young was accompanied by a parent. They + occupied a certain section of the shore of the pond, where + the young hid beneath the rushes when danger approached, + and ran over the mud flats at other times. The parent + remained near, and drove all other birds from the vicinity. + While shore birds and marsh birds were abundant all around + the Mill Pond, at this point they kept away because of the + parent killdeer. The parent was extremely belligerent, and + I watched it attack other killdeers, yellowlegs, spotted + sandpipers, soras, and song sparrows that happened to + wander in the vicinity. All birds seemed glad to leave the + vicinity. + +_Plumages._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: The most distinctive feature of the downy +young killdeer is the long, downy tail, black above and elsewhere +barred with “pinkish buff” and black, with long, hair-like, buffy down +below protruding beyond the rest of the tail; the forehead, chin, +throat, a ring around the neck and the under parts are pure white, +except for a tinge of pinkish buff in the center of the forehead; a +broad, black stripe above the forehead extends around the crown to +the occiput; a black stripe extends from the lores, below the eyes to +the occiput; there is a broad black stripe entirely around the neck, +below the white; the crown, auriculars, back and inner half of the +wings are grizzled “vinaceous buff” and dusky; there is a black space +in the center of the back and a black band across the wing between the +grizzled inner half and the white distal half. + +The juvenal plumage is similar to that of the adult, but the head +markings are less distinct; the feathers of the nape are tipped with +“amber brown” and those of the back, scapulars, wing coverts and +tertials are more or less broadly tipped or edged with the same, more +broadly on the scapulars and wing coverts and more narrowly on the +upper back and tertials; the intermediate white band on the breast is +always more or less suffused with brownish. + +The postjuvenal molt is apparently very limited and the first winter +plumage is largely the juvenal plumage modified by wear. It is much +like the adult except for the worn and faded edgings of the wing +coverts, and some of the scapulars and tertials and the tail, which +are retained. At the first prenuptial molt, which may take place from +February to June, the plumage becomes practically adult. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, mainly in August and +September, and a partial prenuptial molt of the body plumage in early +spring. Nuptial and winter plumages are practically alike.] + +FOOD.--The killdeer is man’s friend. It consumes great quantities of +insect pests. The most complete study of its food by examination of +stomachs has been made by W. L. McAtee (1912) who sums up as follows: + +“In all 97.72 per cent of the killdeer’s food is composed of +insects and other animal matter. The bird preys upon many of the +worst crop pests and is a valuable economic factor.” Of this +large proportion he finds that beetles constitute 37.06 per cent; +other insects--grasshoppers, caterpillars, ants, bugs, caddis +flies, dragon flies, and two-winged flies, 39.54 per cent; other +invertebrates--centipedes, spiders, ticks, oyster worms, earthworms, +snails, crabs, crawfish, and other crustaceans, 21.12 per cent. The +2.28 per cent of vegetable matter is chiefly made up of weed seeds such +as button weed, smart weed, foxtail grass, and nightshade. He found +that various kinds of weevils were eaten such as those of alfalfa, +cotton boll, clover, rice, white pine, etc. In a single stomach he +counted 41 alfalfa weevils. + +Harold C. Bryant (1914_a_), during an outbreak of grasshoppers in +California, found that the contents of one stomach was 100 per +cent grasshoppers, and he estimated that each killdeer averaged 33 +grasshoppers daily. Arthur H. Howell (1906) has found that the killdeer +is among the most important of the birds that eat the cotton-boll +weevil. Samuel Aughey (1878) found 258 locusts and 190 other insects +in the stomachs of nine birds taken in Nebraska. E. R. Kalmbach (1914) +found in the stomach of a killdeer taken in a western alfalfa field +316 weevils; in another 383. C. W. Nash (1909) has found the stomachs +of killdeers taken in orchards completely filled with weevils. E. +R. Kalmbach (1914) has also found May beetles both in adult and +grub form in the stomachs, wireworms, and insects that attack sugar +cane, corn, carrots, grape vine, sweet potato, tobacco, and sugar +beets. Caterpillars, he found to be a favorite article of diet, also +grasshoppers and crickets, crane flies and their larvae. One stomach +contained hundreds of larvae of the salt marsh mosquito. He adds: + + The killdeer thus befriends man, but it does something also + for the domestic animals, not only by eating horseflies + and mosquitoes, as just mentioned, but also by preying on + ticks, including the American fever or cattle tick, which + has caused such enormous losses in some parts of the South. + +Arthur T. Wayne (1910) says: “This species is very partial to fields +which are being ploughed, and at this time they are always very tame, +following each furrow as soon as it is turned over in order to secure +the worms which are exposed.” I have watched a killdeer in a ploughed +field swallowing a large earthworm. Several strenuous gulps were needed +before the act was accomplished. + +_Behavior._--The interesting behavior of this bird during courtship and +in the care of the eggs and young has already been detailed under the +appropriate headings. In general it may be said that the killdeer has +the usual plover habits when feeding of alternately running and then of +standing still, as if to listen or look, always with head up, and of +dabbing suddenly at the ground for its food. Like some other species +of plover, it occasionally bobs or “teeters” in a nervous manner. This +varies from a slight bob of the head, which is first hitched up and +then brought down, to a bob combined with a tilting up and down of the +whole body on the hips. In swift running they excel, and this serves +them to good purpose in the pursuit of insects. + +M. P. Skinner writes: “When they get out on bare ground their speed +is really astonishing. I have had them run along the road ahead of my +horse for quite a distance.” In plover fashion and unlike sandpipers, +the killdeer in feeding does not keep in a compact flock but spreads +out irregularly. John F. Ferry (1908) writes: “A curious sight was that +of numbers of these birds scattered about the lawns at Leland Stanford +University while the sprinklers were in operation. This recalled the +robins on the lawns of the Eastern States.” + +Sometimes a number fairly close together may be found crouching on the +sand or gravel asleep, or they may sleep standing, often on one foot. +One or more are awake, however, watching, all from time to time open +their eyes and look about. Notwithstanding their striking coloration, +one may walk almost to a flock under these circumstances without +noticing them. The “ruptive” marks about the head and neck break the +continuity of the surface and the bird is not recognized as such. + +The flight of the killdeer is rapid, generally close to the ground when +the bird is on the lookout for food, but at other times, especially +in courtship, as stated above, the flight may be at a great height. +They usually fly about singly in a wavering and erratic manner, but +sometimes in considerable flocks. Widely scattered birds when startled +usually unite into a compact flock and fly away together. W. L. Dawson +(1923) says: “I have seen flocks of 50 killdeers bunch closely and turn +in silence and disappear in perfect order.” + +Whenever the killdeer is unmolested, as is the case now under +protection, it becomes very tame, as is shown above in the account of +the birds at Stanford University. N. S. Goss (1891) writes: + +“In Coatapec, Mexico, a pair came daily to feed and dress up their +feathers beside a little run or gutter in the center of the narrow +paved street opposite my room in the hotel, regardless of the people on +the sidewalks, only running or dodging to avoid a person crossing or to +keep out of the way of a pack of mules, etc.” + +_Voice._--The killdeer is at times the noisiest of birds and is hated +by the gunner, for its alarm cries disturb every bird within a long +range. The “song” has been described under courtship. F. M. Chapman +(1912) well characterizes some of its cries as “half-plaintive, +half-petulant.” _Kill-deé kill-deé_ is the common cry from which it +takes its name, for it omits the _r_ at the end. But it has a great +variety of other cries with which it rends the air, and I find in +my notes the following: _kee-kee_; _eet-eet-eet_; _kee-ah, kee-ah_; +_dee-dee-dee_; _tsee-he, tsee-he_; _tso-he, tso-he_; _ker, ker, ker_, +and piercing _tee-ars_. It is, of course difficult to express these +cries properly on paper, and a great variety of syllables have been +recorded by different writers. + +Aretas A. Saunders (1926) gives the following excellent description: + + The calls are mainly of three sorts. The first is the + common call heard when one approaches one or more birds, or + the vicinity of a nest: _dee dee dee dee-ee kildee dee-ee_, + etc., the notes usually slurred slightly upward at the end, + at least the longer ones. A second call is the long trilled + _t-rrrrrrrrrrrrrr_, often heard when the nest or young are + threatened, and when the birds are fighting or displaying. + The third call is one from which the bird evidently has + derived its name. It is usually indulged by birds flying + about in the air in loose flocks, particularly early in the + morning or toward evening. A number of observers or writers + on the notes of this species seem not to have separated + this call from the first one. It differs always by the fact + that the notes slur downward, instead of upward, on the + end. I should write it _kildeeah kildeeah kildeeah_, at + least in those forms where the first note is lower in pitch + than the second. It is often rendered, however, when the + first note is highest in pitch, when it sounds more like + _keedeeah keedeeah_. + +The name _chewekee_ by which it has long been known on the Carolina +coast, according to Arthur T. Wayne, is probably descriptive of its +cries. + +_Field marks._--The killdeer is a marked bird in the field, both on +account of its plumage and on account of its voice. Its plover ways, +its long straw-colored legs, its long tail with buff-colored upper +coverts and rump and the two black bars on the breast are all good +field marks. It can not be mistaken for any other bird if these points +are borne in mind. + +_Fall._--The fall, for the same reason as the spring migration, is not +as marked with the killdeer as with our other shore birds. William +Rowan (1926), writing of Alberta, says: “The latest killdeers have been +noted in the fall weeks after the freeze-up.” Dr. Arthur P. Chadbourne +(1889) recorded a memorable reverse flight of killdeer in fall on +the Atlantic coast, due to the great November storm of 1888, which +distributed them within a mile or two of the coast as far north as Cape +Sable, Nova Scotia. + +_Game._--Fortunately the killdeer is now on the protected list from +which it should never be removed, for it is too valuable and attractive +a bird to be shot for sport. Before this protection occurred, the +birds, as we have seen, were almost exterminated in some parts of the +country. In other parts, luckily, they seem to have come under the +protection of food prejudice. Thus W. L. Dawson (1909), writing of the +birds of Washington State, says, “Fortunately for them, the flesh of +the killdeer is not esteemed for food by humans, so they are allowed to +gather in peace in full companies.” + +_Enemies._--Besides man, now happily pacified, the killdeer has little +to fear in the way of enemies besides a few of the larger hawks and +owls. H. H. Kopman (1905) relates a curious case where he found a +killdeer caught by the leg at a crayfish hole, with one toe already +eaten off. He released the bird and cared for the wound. The bird was +able to stand and to fly away the next morning. + +_Winter._--It is a pleasure to have this bird wintering throughout +the southern parts of our country. B. W. Williams (1919), writing of +these birds wintering in Florida, says: “They mingled freely with other +shore birds on the beach, mud flats, and oyster beds.” M. P. Skinner, +of the birds observed at Pinehurst, says: “All through the winter, the +killdeer seemed to be roughly paired. They might separate two or three +hundred feet while feeding, but they always came together again soon, +and any intruders were promptly chased off. The first actual mating +that I saw was on January 28, 1927.” + +With enlightened public opinion, a knowledge of the beneficial +character of this fine bird and its perpetual protection, there seems +to be every prospect that the killdeer will always remain a joy to +nature lovers and an aid to farmers. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and Central America, casual in South America and the +British Isles. + +_Breeding range._--The killdeer breeds north to probably Mackenzie +(Fort Resolution); Alberta (Fort Chipewyan); Saskatchewan (Buffalo +Lake and Churchill River); Manitoba (probably Fort Churchill); Ontario +(probably Moose Factory and Ottawa); and Quebec (Montreal, Godbout, and +Magdalen Islands). East to Quebec (Magdalen Islands); Maine (Bangor +and Saco); New Hampshire (Portsmouth); Massachusetts (Harvard, Cape +Cod, and Chatham); Connecticut (West Haven); New York (Plum Island, +New York City, and Staten Island); New Jersey (Red Bank and Sea Isle +City); Delaware (Lincoln); Maryland (Cambridge); North Carolina (Pea +Island and Fort Macon); South Carolina (Ladys Island and formerly +Frogmore); Georgia (Savannah and St. Simons Island); eastern Florida +(Gainesville, Fruitland Park, Indian River, and Kissimmee); and the +northern Bahama Islands (Little Abaco and New Providence). South to the +northern Bahama Islands (New Providence); the west coast of Florida +(Tarpon Springs, and probably James Island); Alabama (Leighton and +Greensboro); Louisiana (State Game Preserve and Mermenton); Texas +(Houston, Brownsville, Hidalgo, Eagle Pass, and Fort Hancock); Durango +(Sestin); Chihuahua (Pachico and San Diego); and Lower California +(Cape San Lucas). West to Lower California (Cape San Lucas, Victoria +Mountains, San Quentin Bay, and Volcano Lake); California, (Poway +Valley, Escondido, Santa Monica, Santa Barbara, Santa Cruz, San +Francisco, probably Cahto, and Fort Crook); Oregon (Tule Lake, Link +River, Fort Klamath, Bandon, Dayton, and Portland); Washington (Yakima, +Fort Steilacoom, Tacoma, and probably Lake Chelan); British Columbia +(Okanagan Landing and Cariboo District); and probably Mackenzie (Fort +Resolution). + +There also is a somewhat questionable breeding record for the killdeer +in Yucatan (Sisal). The breeding range in the northeastern United +States became greatly restricted when this region was extensively +developed, but the birds now seem to be increasing in numbers in this +area. + +_Winter range._--The winter range of the killdeer extends north +to British Columbia (Chilliwack and probably Okanagan Lake); Utah +(Antelope Island and Provo); Colorado (Mesa County, Boulder, and +Denver); rarely Kansas (Harper and Onaga); rarely Iowa (Wall Lake +and Grinnell); Illinois (Knoxville, La Grange, and Chicago); rarely +Indiana (Vincennes, Bicknell, La Fayette, and Indianapolis); rarely +Ohio (Hillsboro, probably Oberlin and Salem); and rarely Massachusetts +(Marblehead). East to rarely Massachusetts (Marblehead, Boston, and +Monomoy Island); rarely Connecticut (Jewett City, Meriden, and North +Haven); rarely New York (Long Island and New York City); New Jersey +(Atlantic City and Five-mile Beach); District of Columbia (Washington); +Maryland (Cambridge); Virginia (Broadwater, James River, and Back Bay); +North Carolina (Pea Island and Ocracoke); South Carolina (Waverly +Mills, Mount Pleasant, and Frogmore); Georgia (Savannah, Blackbeard +Island, Darien, and St. Marys); Florida (Amelia Island, St. Augustine, +Daytona Beach, Titusville, and Upper Matecumbe Key); the Bahama +Islands (Nassau, Cat Island, Watling Island, and Acklin Island); Haiti +(Monte Christi, Sanchez, Samana, and El Valle); and Porto Rico (San +Juan). South to Porto Rico (San Juan, Caguas, and Mayaguez); rarely +Panama (Davila); and Costa Rica (mouth of the Diquis, San Jose, and +Miravalles). West to Costa Rica (Miravalles); Guatemala (Atitlan and +Coban); Jalisco (Ocotlan); Sinaloa (Mazatlan); Lower California (San +Jose del Cabo, La Paz, San Quentin, and the Colorado River delta); +California (Escondido, Los Angeles, San Fernando, Santa Barbara, San +Francisco, and Napa); Oregon (Corvallis, Rickreall, and Netarts Bay); +Washington (Camas, Tacoma, Dungeness Spit, and Bellingham Bay); and +British Columbia (Chilliwack). + +The killdeer winters also in Bermuda, and is of casual occurrence at +this season in southern New Hampshire (Isle of Shoals) and in Michigan +(Plymouth). + +The West Indian killdeer has been described as a distinct subspecies +(_Oxyechus vociferus rubidus_), and is resident. The North American +form does, however, regularly migrate to those islands, and it may +winter there in larger numbers than is now known. Extensive collecting +at this season will be necessary to decide this matter. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: New York, +Montauk Point, February 17, New York City, February 20, Branchport, +March 1, Albany, March 3, and Rochester, March 5; Connecticut, New +Haven, February 24, Jewett City, March 2, Fairfield, March 3 and +Carrollton, March 4; Rhode Island, Block Island, February 27, Westerly, +February 28, Newport, March 4; Massachusetts, Muskeget Island, +February 28, and Amherst, March 10; Vermont, Rutland, March 27; Maine, +Waterville, March 11, and Farmington, March 28; Quebec, Montreal, +March 25; Michigan, Petersburg, February 4, Ann Arbor, February 14, +Vicksburg, February 21, and Kalamazoo, February 28; Ontario, Point +Pelee, March 2, London, March 4, Hamilton, March 8, Toronto, March 20, +and Ottawa, March 26; Iowa, Bentonsport, February 22, Keokuk, February +28, Iowa City, February 28, Fairfield, March 3, and National, March 5; +Wisconsin, Unity, March 1, Camp Douglas, March 2, and Racine, March 3; +Minnesota, Heron Lake, March 5, Jackson, March 10, Red Wing, March 12, +and Lanesboro, March 13; Kansas, Harper, February 4, Wichita, February +7, Topeka, February 15, Onaga, February 22, and Independence, February +25; Nebraska, Omaha, February 19, Dunbar, February 21, and Falls City, +February 23; South Dakota, Yankton, March 10, Huron, March 11, and +Rapid City, March 12; North Dakota, Argusville, March 15, Fargo, March +18, and Bismarck, March 23; Manitoba, Margaret, March 23, Aweme, March +23, Pilot Mound, March 25, Treesbank, March 28, and Winnipeg, April 12; +Saskatchewan, Indian Head, March 27, Eastend, March 27, Lake Johnston, +March 30, April 2, and Carleton House, April 6; Wyoming, Yellowstone +Park, March 12, and Laramie, March 16; Idaho, Neeley, February 1, +Meridian, February 3, and Rathdrum, February 19; Montana, Wisdom, March +5, and Missoula, March 12; and Alberta, Flagstaff, April 2, Nanton, +April 8, Veteran, April 10, Red Deer, April 11, and Edmonton, April 15. + +Late dates of spring departure from the southern part of the winter +range are not numerous, but killdeers have been observed in spring in +Panama, March 3; Costa Rica, San Jose, March 15, and Porto Rico, San +Juan, March 26. + +_Fall migration._--The arrival of these birds in that part of the +winter range that is south of the breeding range, likewise has not been +carefully recorded. Arrivals at this season have been reported from +Porto Rico, Aguadilla, October 7; Guatemala, San Geronimo, October +29, Costa Rica, San Jose, October 15; and Nicaragua, Escondido River, +November; and Panama, November 26. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alberta, Veteran, September 15, +Innisfree-Mundare, September 17, and Edmonton, September 22; Montana, +Missoula, December 25 (possibly winters occasionally); Idaho, +Meridian, December 14, and Rupert, December 23; Saskatchewan, Eastend, +October 10; Manitoba, Treesbank, October 11, Winnipeg, October 12, +Aweme, October 15, and Margaret, October 15; North Dakota, Charlson, +October 8, and Fargo, October 15; South Dakota, Forestburg, October +30, Sioux Falls, November 7, and Yankton, November 11; Nebraska, +Nebraska City, November 10, Beatrice, November 16, and Lincoln, +November 18; Kansas, Hayes, November 3, Onaga, November 8, Lawrence, +November 11, and Harper, November 25; Minnesota, Correll, October 23, +Hutchinson, October 25, Elk River, October 26, and St. Paul, November +26; Wisconsin, Genoa Junction, November 13, Madison, November 14, and +Racine, November 16; Iowa, Emmetsburg, November 13, Grinnell, November +15, Keokuk, November 17, and Coralville, November 20; Ontario, Reaboro, +November 4, Port Dover, November 8, Listowel, November 10, and Harrow, +November 15; Michigan, Croswell, November 4, Sault Ste. Marie, November +5, Jackson, November 9, Livonia, November 13, and Ann Arbor, November +19; Quebec, Montreal, October 26; Maine, Phillips, October 24, and Cape +Elizabeth (exceptional), December 25; New Hampshire, Hampton Beach, +December 25; Vermont, Bennington, November 12; Massachusetts, Harvard, +December 5, and Chatham, December 17; Connecticut, Meriden, November +22, and Hartford, November 30; and New York, Collins, November 22, +Rhinebeck, November 24, Branchport, November 29, and Montauk Point, +December 10. + +_Casual records._--The killdeer has been taken both north and south of +its normal range in the Western Hemisphere, and casually in the British +Isles. In Nova Scotia it was reported from Halifax Harbor on December +5, 1876, and at Meaghers Beach, on January 1 (Downs); Macoun (1909) +notes it as a rare migrant in Newfoundland without further details; and +a specimen in the British Museum was taken in the Hudson’s Bay region. +In Alaska, one was reported as seen in August, 1898, on the Kuskokwim +River (Hinckley), and a specimen was collected on the Stikine Flats, +May 10, 1907 (Willett). + +In South America specimens have been reported from several countries +but so few in number it does not appear likely that any part of that +continent should be included in the regular range. Among these records +are: Chile and Paraguay (specimens in the British Museum, date and +exact locality of collection unknown); Peru (Tambo Valley, October +25, 1867, Callao [Cassin], Pacasmayo, June, 1877 [Taczanowski], and +Arequipa [Sclater and Salvin]); Ecuador (Chaupi, in June [Salvadori and +Festa], and Sical, specimen in British Museum); and Colombia (specimen +from Medellin in the British Museum). + +This species has been taken or observed on a few occasions in England +and Scotland (Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, 1867, near Christchurch, Hanto, +April, 1857, Kent, April, 1908, Hampshire, April, 1859, and the Scilly +Islands, January, 1885), and in Ireland (County Dublin, January 12, +1928). + +_Egg dates._--California: 73 records, March 15 to July 2; 37 records, +April 3 to May 13. Michigan and Wisconsin: 15 records, April 5 to +July 6; 8 records, April 29 to June 13. Pennsylvania and New Jersey: +29 records, April 1 to July 17; 15 records, May 2 to 29. Florida: 11 +records, May 3 to June 30; 6 records, May 22 to June 9. Texas: 11 +records, March 3 to June 2; 6 records, April 3 to June 1. + + + CHARADRIUS SEMIPALMATUS Bonaparte + + SEMIPALMATED PLOVER + + + HABITS + + _Contributed, by Charles Wendell Townsend_ + +This charming little wader, familiarly known as ring-necked plover +or ringneck, is, during migrations, an abundant frequenter of our +seashores as well as of the shores of lakes and rivers. But it was not +as abundant in the latter part of the last century and in the beginning +of this, for, as William Brewster (1925) says: “Both ringnecks and +peeps began to diminish appreciably in numbers soon after 1890, and +have since continued to do so, no doubt because of the ever-multiplying +gunners.” Fortunately the Federal law for migratory birds, passed in +1913 and extended to Canada in 1916, enforced by the enabling act +in 1918, has since protected the ringneck at all times, and he has +responded markedly. Flocks of several hundred are now common where +flocks of 30 or 40 were becoming rare. Their confiding nature and +handsome plumage make them most interesting and attractive. + +_Spring._--Like most of the shore birds, the semipalmated plover seems +to be in a great hurry to visit the breeding grounds. While, in the +region of Massachusetts he leisurely wends his way southward from about +July 12 to the end of October, a period of four months, the spring +flight rarely lasts little longer than a month, from May 7 to June 14. +Wells W. Cooke (1912) says: “At least four-fifths of the dates on the +spring migration of this species fall in May. This is true for the +entire district between the winter and summer homes, and the dates +indicate that the migration in the United States occurs chiefly between +May 10 and June 1.” + +Migration occurs both by day and by night. Flock after flock may be +seen on favorable days flying north along a beach, and the distinctive +calls of the bird may be heard at night. I have recognized them clearly +on a foggy May night when the birds were passing over the city of +Boston. There are also records of the striking of lighthouses by these +plover during the night. + +It is evident that late migrants flying north in the spring must be +late in returning, if they rear families, while those that return early +in July must have been the early ones to migrate north. On July 30, +1918, I saw three semipalmated plover flying north along the shore at +Ipswich. They were in full cry, and I wondered whether they were very +late spring migrants or early autumn migrants temporarily turning back, +or sterile birds that had no interest in the breeding grounds. + +_Courtship._--In the latter part of May and early in June on the +southern Labrador coast I have seen this bird flying about in circles +uttering its loud and rapidly repeated courtship song. The song, which +is entirely unlike the call note, may be heard, and the courtship +performance watched, not only in the spring but in the autumn +migrations, for there is a recrudescence of the amatory instinct at +this season in most birds. The song, if such it may be called, is then +generally given from the ground and may be likened to a whinny or to +the sound of a bouncing ball. The notes are at first slowly repeated, +but the speed increases until the notes follow one another so rapidly +that they nearly run together. The birds that utter this song crouch +low with tails spread and slightly cocked, wings partly open, and +feathers, particularly of the breast and flanks, puffed out. Sometimes +one walks in this way around another, sometimes two face each other, +crouched motionless and then spring at each other and up into the air +like fighting cocks. Sometimes one runs after another which, on taking +flight is followed by the first, but the most amusing form of this +courtship is where two, thus flattened, spread, and puffed, walk slowly +side by side as if they were doing a cakewalk, all the time uttering +their clucking song. + +H. S. Swarth communicates the following notes regarding courtship +seen in northwestern British Columbia: “On as late a date as June 25 +a male bird was seen going through with the mating antics, following +the female about with head lowered and breast puffed out to an absurd +degree, uttering frequently a low call note.” + +_Nesting._--A mere depression in the sand without lining or with +only a few bits of shells or grass generally constitutes the nest +of this species. P. B. Philipp (1925), writing of his experience in +the Magdalens, says: “A nest as such is not constructed. A shallow +hollow is scratched in the sand, and this is lined with bits of dead +eel-grass, or a hollow is scratched in a bunch of dead seaweed.” H. S. +Swarth sends the following notes of his experience with the nesting of +this bird in the Atlin region of northwestern British Columbia: + + A pair or two are pretty sure to be found where favorable + conditions exist, but as the species requires an expanse + of sandy or gravelly beach and as such beaches are not + the rule about the lakes of the region, there are long + stretches of shore line where the plovers are not found. + They avoid rocky or stony beaches that are so favored by + the spotted sandpipers. + +He found his first nest, an unusual one, on the shore of Lake Atlin on +June 10, and thus describes it: + + The “nest” was in hard-packed gravel in a hole about 1 inch + deep and with practically vertical sides. This depression + was nearly filled with small chips and a very few straws. + The eggs were nearly perpendicular in the nest, points + down. It must have been some little labor for the bird to + make this excavation, for the gravel was hard enough to + retain the shape of the hole throughout the rest of the + summer. I returned to the spot in September and found the + cavity still sharply defined. + +Audubon (1840) says of his experience in Labrador that this plover +forms no nest, but makes a “cavity in the moss, in a place sheltered +from the north winds and exposed to the full rays of the sun, usually +near the margins of small ponds formed by the melting of the snow, and +surrounded by short grass.” + +_Eggs._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: The semipalmated plover lays four eggs, often +only three. They are ovate pyriform to subpyriform in shape, with +little or no gloss. The ground colors vary from “buckthorn brown” or +“clay color” to “cartridge buff,” “olive buff” or “pale olive buff.” +They are boldly and irregularly marked with small or large spots or +blotches of black, brownish black or very dark browns; some eggs +are heavily blotched with “warm sepia” or “chestnut brown”; there +are usually a few small underlying spots of “pale drab gray.” The +measurements of 100 eggs average 33 by 23.5 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =36.2= by 24.3, 35.5 by =25.5= and +=29.5= by =22= millimeters.] + +_Young._--The duration of incubation is not known. In the allied ringed +plover of Europe the period of incubation is stated by Dr. W. H. +Bergtold (1917) to be 22 and 23 days. + +In the past it has generally been assumed that, with the exception in +the case of the phalaropes, the female among the shore birds incubates +the eggs and takes charge of the young. Joseph Dixon (1927) says: +“After several seasons’ experience with breeding shore birds in the +north the writer has come to believe that in more of our Limicolae +than is generally known it is a common practice for the males to take +a leading part in domestic duties not only in incubation but also in +the care and training of the downy young.” With specimens in hand +during the breeding season, he found incubating patches in the male +semipalmated plover, and he says that “the males did a large part of +the incubation and that it was the males that were the most fearless in +the face of danger when caring for their young.” + +P. B. Philipp (1925), on the other hand, studying the nesting bird +in the Magdalens, writes: “I judge that the female does most of the +incubating, three birds shot off the nest being of this sex.” H. S. +Swarth also sustains the side of the female, for he writes: “With +binoculars it is often possible to distinguish the sexes of the +plovers, and it could be seen that it was the male who tired first in +such efforts [shamming injury] to deflect danger from the nest. Even +when he withdrew entirely, the female continued her protests until we +were well out of her territory.” Dr. L. B. Bishop (1900), however, +reconciles both points of view, for he says: “Bare pectoral spaces +showed that both sexes assisted in incubation.” + +The young leave the nest and run after the parents almost as soon as +they are hatched. Bishop (1900) in the Yukon River region found an egg +that was already pipped. He says: “I removed the young bird from the +shell, and within half an hour the down was almost dry, the eyes were +open, and it could hop about on its ‘knees.’” + +Dr. W. H. Osgood (1909) reports the following observation by N. +Hollister on a downy young of this species: “Although it was perfectly +able to run about as fast as the adults, it at once lay flat to the +ground when approached, with head extended forward in the sand, making +it very difficult to see, so closely did it match the ground in color.” + +The actions of the parent incubating the eggs when a human intruder +appears is well told by H. S. Swarth in a communication, as follows: + + The breeding bird skulked from the nest at the first + appearance of an intruder, and, after performing an + unobtrusive retreat to a distant point, launched out in + conspicuous protest at the trespass. The call notes served + to summon the mate, and sometimes even another pair of + birds, all hovering about overhead or racing close by + over the sand. A liquid call note, not particularly loud, + was uttered constantly, and both birds of a pair would go + through the form of pretended injury, dragging themselves + over the sand with drooping wings and spread tail. + +In another case-- + + A bird was flushed, as it had been many times before, at + a point 300 yards or more above the water line, and I sat + down quietly to watch her from the shelter of a scrubby + willow. She flew to a distance, but returned in a few + minutes, to run aimlessly about over the gravel nearby. + Gradually she drew away, running over and between logs and + other drift, her manner changing from one of noisy protest + to furtive withdrawal behind any available cover. Finally, + about 20 minutes after I began to watch, she settled down + on the gravel, as it developed, upon the eggs. + +At Seal Island, off the southern point of Nova Scotia, I found +several breeding pairs of semipalmated plover, here, probably, at +its most southern breeding place. On one occasion I came upon a bird +that performed the usual wounded bird act, falling on its side and +fluttering its wings as if badly injured. Presently it made off, +fluttering and dragging its spread tail on the ground, keeping up this +method of progression for over a hundred yards, although I had stood +still. I then walked in the opposite direction and found a downy young +running off in company with the other parent. + +On another occasion at Great Caribou Island, Labrador, one of these +birds appeared greatly excited at my presence, alighting near me, +bobbing nervously, and protesting in conversational tones. Then it flew +away, but immediately returned and flew by several times within a few +yards, apparently in great fury, but not daring to hit me. + +_Plumages._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: In natal down the young semipalmated +plover is darkly colored above. The entire upper parts, from forehead +to rump, are mottled with “deep olive buff” and black. The auriculars +and a broad band encircling the back of the head are velvety black; +there is a distinct black stripe from the bill to the eye and from the +lores to the auriculars. A spot under the eye, a ring around the neck, +and the entire underparts are pure white. + +In fresh juvenal plumage the crown, back, rump, scapulars, and wing +coverts are “buffy brown,” narrowly edged with creamy or buffy white, +the edgings broadest on the wing coverts; the lores, cheeks, and a +broad band across the chest are “buffy brown” to “sepia”; the forehead, +throat, a ring around the neck, and the entire underparts are white; +the tail is like the adult, but tipped with “pinkish buff.” The buffy +edgings mostly wear away before the partial postjuvenal molt, which +occurs in late fall. The first winter plumage is like the adult winter +plumage, except that some of the juvenal wing coverts are retained and +the head is as in the juvenal. At the next molt, a partial prenuptial, +the plumage becomes practically adult; only a few old wing coverts +remain. + +Adults have a partial prenuptial molt in the spring involving the body +plumage, some scapulars and wing coverts, and a complete postnuptial +molt from July to December; I have seen the wings molted as early as +July 30 and as late as December 10. The sexes are alike in immature +and winter plumage and not very different in spring, when the black +markings of the female are duller or mixed with grayish brown. In both +sexes in winter the black markings are replaced by grayish brown.] + +_Food._--The semipalmated plover is an active feeder and in this way +is sometimes beneficial to man. In the stomachs of 12 birds shot on +beaches I have found worms, small mollusks (_Litorina_, _Mytelis_), +various crustaceans (_Orchestia_, _Gammarus_, _Limnoria_), and insects. + +W. L. McAtee (1911) says that this bird eats the larvae of the salt +marsh mosquito (_Ædes sollicitans_). Samuel Aughey (1878) investigated +the relation of birds to insects in Nebraska during the great invasion +of Rocky Mountain migratory locusts on the western prairies and plains +of the United States from 1873 to 1876. Of 11 stomachs of this species +examined, he found the average number of locusts in each was 38; of +other insects, 19. Junius Henderson (1927) states that this plover “on +coast, feeds largely on crustaceans, mollusks, eggs of marine animals, +and insects; interior, feeds on locusts and other Orthoptera, and many +other insects.” Audubon (1840) says: “At this period (September) they +are now and then observed on plowed lands, where they appear to procure +different species of seeds and insects.” + +_Behavior._--The behavior of this bird during courtship and in the care +of the eggs and young has already been described. On beaches and mud +flats it is sometimes difficult to see, notwithstanding its strikingly +marked plumage. As the piping plover matches the dry sand, so the +semipalmated plover matches the wet sand, its favorite feeding grounds. +Here one may walk almost onto them without seeing them if they stand +motionless, as they often do. While sleeping on the dry sand, even with +the black and white markings in plain sight, they are also difficult +to see. W. V. Praeger (1891) writes as follows of a wounded bird he +observed hiding in a hollow in the sand: + + While admiring the perfect blending of its brown shades + with the surroundings I saw in its white rings one of the + commonest objects of the seashore--the empty half of a + bivalve shell. The white about the base of the bill was the + “hinge,” the collar the outer rim, and the top of the head + the cavity of the shell filled--as they usually are--with + sand. + +Gerald H. Thayer (1909), writing of the very similar ringed +plover of Europe, speaks of the “eye-masking and ‘obliterative’ +shadow-and-hole-picturing pattern.” + +Although this bird migrates and feeds both by day and night, it often +happens that a flock is discovered at sunset out of reach of the tide, +clustered together as if they had settled down for the night. That +they spend the night there in some cases at least is shown by William +Brewster (1925), who says: “I have repeatedly observed them standing +motionless, singly or in clustering groups, on some mud bar to which +they had thus returned, keeping them in view until it was too dark to +see them longer and finding them all there the next morning.” + +During high tide, when their best feeding grounds are covered, these +birds, like many other shore birds, are very apt to be found sleeping +on the upper beach above the reach of the waves. The flock is generally +huddled closely together, some standing but many squatting with their +breasts resting on the sand, often in the lee of bunches of seaweed. +While some sleep with heads turned to one side and bills thrust into +the feathers of the back in the usual manner of birds, others sleep +with heads sunk down between the shoulders. Generally some of the flock +are awake and on the lookout, while the others open their eyes from +time to time. + +In flight the flocks are often compact, twisting and turning as if +animated by a single thought, but they also fly in loose order. On +alighting they at once spread out on the sand in true plover fashion, +and do not, like sandpipers, keep together and move along close to the +wave line. Another plover habit which at once distinguishes them from +sanderlings or other sandpipers of a similar size, is that of running +about with heads up and dabbing suddenly at the ground from time to +time instead of moving along with heads down diligently probing the +sand. With erect figures they run about in various directions, often +pausing and standing still as if in thought, occasionally jerking or +bobbing their heads and necks and ever and again swiftly dabbing at +some morsel of food. + +The semipalmated plover associates most frequently with the least and +semipalmated sandpipers, but it also flies with sanderlings and other +larger waders. Sometimes these birds fly in mixed flocks, but as a rule +the ringnecks keep by themselves in flight, but readily join other +species on the ground. + +On the seacoast the ringneck frequents the outer beaches, the shores +and mud flats of estuaries and tidal pools, and the sloughs in the +salt marshes. Inland it visits similar regions on the shores of lakes +and rivers as well as upland fields in search of food. As I have said +elsewhere (C. W. Townsend, 1905): + + Like all shore birds also, the ringneck is often + exceedingly fat in the autumn, and I have known the fat + of the breast to split open when the bird struck the + ground after being shot when flying at a height. The fat + is not only everywhere under the skin, but it develops + all the viscera, and the liver is often pale from fatty + infiltration. How birds under these circumstances are able + to fly so vigorously on their long migrations, or even to + fly at all, is certainly a mystery. + +_Voice._--The courtship song has already been described. The common +call note is a clear, rather plaintive, whistle of two notes, very +distinctive and frequently emitted while the birds are on the wing. It +is expressed by Hoffmann (1904) by the syllables _chee-wee_; Nichols +(1920) writes it _tyoo-eep_. It is cheerful and businesslike compared +with the sweet and mournful whistle of the piping plover. When calling +to others as they alight, or when standing on the sand, they often emit +a single note, sweet and clear, but at times harsh and rasping. + +_Field marks._--The semipalmated plover is easily distinguished in the +field from the killdeer by its smaller size, its single neck ring, +and by the absence of the rufous color on the rump. Its darker colors +distinguish it from the piping plover. From the sandpipers, even at a +distance on the sand, it is distinguished most readily by its plover +behavior, as already described. In flying they show a faint white line +on the wings which contrasts with the general brown of the upper parts. +The neck ring is noticeable both in the flying and walking bird, and +the orange yellow of the tarsi and base of the bill can be made out +with glasses. In the young, which arrive on the Massachusetts coast +about a month behind their elders in the autumn migration, the ring is +gray instead of glossy black, and the tarsi are pale yellow. It may be +distinguished from the Wilson’s plover by the fact that that bird has a +much longer bill, wholly black. + +_Game._--Although this little plover was formerly shot as game in +the same manner as is described under the least and semipalmated +sandpipers, it is now protected at all seasons. Besides its value as a +destroyer of harmful insects, its greatest value is aesthetic. On the +beaches of the sea and lakes its graceful flight, handsome plumage, +and confiding ways are a source of great pleasure, and on this account +alone it is worthy of protection for all time. + +_Fall._--The fall migration, as stated above, is a long and leisurely +one, differing markedly in this respect from the spring migration. +When a favorable spot is found, abounding in food and free from +disturbances, these birds are apt to tarry there for some time. Here +they grow fat and here they indulge in courtship performances as if it +were the spring of the year. On beaches and marshes, where in former +times gunners, hidden in blinds, were lurking to destroy them, all is +now peace and quiet for these little birds, and their journey southward +is undisturbed. + +Of the fall migration Wells W. Cooke (1912) writes: + + At one of the most southern breeding places near York + Factory, Keewatin, in 1900, the most advanced young were + still in the downy stage July 10 (Preble), and yet by this + time the species is already in full fall migration, and the + earliest individuals have appeared several hundred miles + south of the breeding range. * * * Though most semipalmated + plover migrate early, a few stay until freezing weather. + +The adults migrate first, while the young rarely arrive on the +Massachusetts coast before August 15. + +_Winter._--Although the majority of the species winter south of the +United States, as is shown under “winter range,” some are to be found +at this season on the shores of the Southern and Gulf States earning +their living in pursuit of their small prey. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--North and South America. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the semipalmated plover +extends north to Alaska (Morzhovia Bay, Hooper Bay, and the Colville +delta); northern Mackenzie (Mackenzie delta, Lower Anderson River, +Franklin Bay, Horton River, and Bernard Harbor); Keewatin (Whale +Point); Franklin (Annanostook and Kingnite Fjord); Victoria Land; +Baffin Island; and western Greenland (Disco). East to western Greenland +(Disco); Labrador (Port Burwell, Okak, and Tessiujaksoak); Newfoundland +(Straits of Belle Isle); eastern Quebec (Upper Hamilton River, +Wapitagun Island, Magdalen Islands, and Mingan Islands); and Nova +Scotia (Sable Island). South to Nova Scotia (Sable Island and Yarmouth +County); probably rarely New Brunswick (Grand Manan); northern Ontario +(Moose Factory); Manitoba (Hayes River and Fort Churchill); southern +Mackenzie (Artillery Lake); Yukon (Lake Marsh); and British Columbia +(Graham Island). West to British Columbia (Graham Island); and Alaska +(Berg Bay, Glacier Bay, and Morzhovia Bay). + +In common with several other shore birds, nonbreeders remain throughout +the summer in southern latitudes. At this season they have been taken +or observed south to Venezuela (Margarita Island), Galapagos Islands, +Costa Rica, the West Indies, and Jalisco (Ocotlan), while they +frequently are fairly common on the coasts of the United States and +at points in the interior, Ohio (Lakeside and Oberlin), and Michigan +(Detroit). + +Kumlien and Hollister report obtaining young not yet able to fly +at Lake Koshkonong, Wis., but if their identification was correct, +this record must be considered accidental. The species also has been +reported in summer from eastern Siberia (East Cape), where it may breed. + +_Winter range._--The winter range extends north to California (rarely +Palo Alto); Texas (Brownsville and Corpus Christi); Louisiana (State +Game Preserve); Mississippi (Biloxi); probably Alabama (Coffee Island); +South Carolina (Dewees Island); and Bermuda (Somerset). East to Bermuda +(Somerset); South Carolina (Port Royal); Georgia (Savannah, Blackbeard +Island, and Darien); Florida (Amelia Island, Mayport, Daytona, Mosquito +Inlet, Upper Metacumbe Key, and Key West); the Bahama Islands (Abaco, +New Providence, Watling Island, and Great Inagua); Haiti (Monte Cristi, +and Samana); Porto Rico; the Lesser Antilles (Anegada, Sombrero Key, +St. Bartholomew, Carriacou, and Trinidad); Guiana (Abary River and +Cayenne); Brazil (Island of Mixiana, Cajetuba Island, Pernambuco, +Bahia, Abrolhos Island, Peranagua, and Santa Catarina); and Argentina +(Puerto Deseado). South to Argentina (Puerto Deseado and Jujuy); and +Chile (Calbuco). West to Chile (Calbuco, Coquimbo, and Moreno Bay); +Peru (Chorillos, Ancon, Trujillo, and Payta); Ecuador (Puna Island, +Guayaquil, and Santa Elena); Galapagos Islands (Albemarle and Narboro); +Costa Rica; Honduras (Manatee Lagoon); Guatemala (Chiapam); Oaxaca (San +Mateo); Sinaloa (Mazatlan); Lower California (La Paz); and California +(San Diego, San Pedro, Saticoy, Pacific Grove, and rarely Palo Alto). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: Virginia, +Arlington Beach, April 30; District of Columbia, Washington, May 3; +Pennsylvania, Wayne, May 5, and Erie, May 8; New Jersey, Cape May, +April 24, Camden, May 5, and Long Beach, May 10; New York, Long +Island, April 19, Orient, May 2, Geneva, May 5, and Rochester, May 16; +Connecticut, New Haven, May 1, and Fairfield, May 4; Rhode Island, +Newport, April 15; Massachusetts, Rehoboth, April 21, Monomoy Island, +April 28, and Dennis, May 5; Maine, Saco, May 5; Quebec, Quebec City, +May 6, Montreal, May 19, Godbout, May 28, Eskimo Point, June 3, and +Fort Chimo, June 11; Nova Scotia, Pictou, May 9, and Antigonish, May +15; Franklin, Winter Island, May 31; Missouri, St. Louis, April 2, +and Kahoka, April 4; Illinois, Rantoul, April 9, near Chicago, April +25, and Cantine, April 26; Indiana, Denver, May 1, Terre Haute, May +5, and Bloomington, May 9; Ohio, Sandusky, April 20, Cleveland, April +21, and Oberlin, April 24; Michigan, Ann Arbor, May 5, Jackson, May +8, and Grand Rapids, May 9; Ontario, Toronto, April 21, Hamilton, +April 24, Ottawa, May 9, and Guelph, May 15; Iowa, Sioux City, April +22, Ogden, April 24, and Emmetsburg, April 27; Wisconsin, Madison, +May 5; Minnesota, Heron Lake, May 8, and Minneapolis, May 11; +Kansas, Lawrence, April 22, Emporia, April 25, and McPherson, May 3; +Nebraska, Lincoln, April 27; South Dakota, Vermilion, April 20, and +Brookings, May 8; Manitoba, Brandon, April 28, and Reaburn, May 9; +Saskatchewan, Lake Johnston, May 10; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 16, +and Fort Resolution, May 23; Alberta, Veteran, April 24, Camrose, +May 6, Tofield, May 12, Peace River, May 20, and Fort Chipewyan, May +23; northern California, Eureka, April 17; Nevada, Smoky Creek, May +4; Washington, Destruction Island, April 24, and Grays Harbor, April +30; British Columbia, Ucluelet, April 28, and Comox, May 3; Yukon, +Forty-mile, May 23; and Alaska, Admiralty Island, May 8, Bethel, May +10, Bristol Bay, May 15, Coronation Island, May 15, and Hooper Bay, May +19. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Brazil, Cajetuba Island, April +18; Colombia, Sabanilla, March 27; Porto Rico, Luquillo, March 5, and +Vieques Island, March 30; Haiti, Samana, April 13; Bahamas, Abaco, +April 28, and Green Cay, April 29; Florida, Daytona Beach, May 25, +Punta Rassa, May 25, and Pensacola, May 30; Georgia, Savannah, May +13; South Carolina, Kiawah Island, June 2, and Bulls Bay, June 7; +North Carolina, Pea and Bodie Islands, May 17; Cape Hatteras, May 20, +and Raleigh, May 22; Virginia, Cape Charles, May 24, Smiths Island, +May 25, and Wallops Island, May 30; District of Columbia, Alexander +Island, May 22, and Washington, May 25; Maryland, Patapsco Marsh, May +29; Pennsylvania, State College, May 30, Wayne, June 1, and Erie, June +2; New Jersey, Cape May County, May 23, Elizabeth, May 30, and Camden, +June 1; New York, Canandaigua, June 7, Geneva, June 9, Orient, June +10, and New York City, June 14; Connecticut, New Haven, June 1, and +Fairfield, June 8; Massachusetts, Lynn, June 5, Harvard, June 9; and +Dennis, June 10; Maine, Portland, June 3; Louisiana, Lobdell, May 18; +Missouri, St. Joseph, May 13, and Corning, May 18; Illinois, Chicago, +May 29, Morgan Park, May 30, and Rantoul, June 2; Indiana, Lake County, +May 27; Ohio, Columbus, May 28, Oberlin, May 29, and Lakeside, June 2; +Michigan, Detroit, May 30, Sault Ste. Marie, May 31; Ontario, Ottawa, +May 31, Hamilton, June 3, and Toronto, June 6; Iowa, Emmetsburg, +May 20, and Sioux City, May 30; Wisconsin, Shiocton, May 28, and +Madison, May 30; Minnesota, Lanesboro, May 23, Hallock, May 29, and +Minneapolis, June 4; Texas, Corpus Christi, May 18; Kansas, Lawrence, +May 18; Nebraska, Lincoln, May 20; South Dakota, Vermilion, May 19, +Dell Rapids, May 22; and Forestburg, May 27; Manitoba, Lake Winnipeg, +June 7, and Shoal Lake, June 12; Lower California, San Geronimo Island, +April 13, Cerros Island, April 17, and Gardeners Lagoon, April 24; +California, San Diego, April 23, Alameda, May 14, Fresno, May 15, +and Santa Barbara, May 22; Washington, Tacoma, May 18; and British +Columbia, Indian Cove, May 29. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of arrival in the fall are; British +Columbia, Nootka Sound, July 23, Tahsis Canal, July 26, and Okanagan +Landing, July 28; Washington, The Olympiades, July 16; California, +Alameda, July 8, and Santa Barbara, July 12; Lower California, Santa +Rosalia Bay, August 16, and San Jose del Cabo, August 23; Saskatchewan, +Big Stick Lake, July 19, and Cochrane River, July 23; Manitoba, Red +Deer River, July 22, Lake Winnipegosis, July 22, and Oak Lake, July +28; North Dakota, Kenmare, July 18; South Dakota, Forestburg, July 27, +Nebraska, Lincoln, August 9; Texas, Tivoli, September 2; Minnesota, +Minneapolis, July 17; Iowa, Sioux City, August 5, and Marshalltown, +August 10; Ontario, Toronto, July 22, Coldstream, July 29, and +Brighton, July 31; Michigan, Charity Island, July 25, Jackson, July +25, and Detroit, July 31; Ohio, Bay Point, July 3, Oberlin, July 6, +Cedar Point, July 8, and Lakeside, July 17; Indiana, Bass Lake, August +1; Illinois, Chicago, July 22, and La Grange, August 7; Missouri, St. +Louis, August 20; Mississippi, Beauvoir, July 22; Louisiana, Bayou +Chene, August 29; Maine, Portland, July 18, and Squirrel Island, +July 31; Massachusetts, Lynn, July 18; Marthas Vineyard, July 20, +and Harvard, July 26; Rhode Island, South Auburn, July 23, and Block +Island, July 25; Connecticut, New Haven, July 30; New York, Long Beach, +July 3, Orient, July 6, and Brockport, July 28; New Jersey, Long Beach, +July 19, Brigantine Beach, July 25, and Elizabeth, July 31; North +Carolina, Myrtle Sound, July 10; South Carolina, Frogmore, July 20, and +Charleston, July 21; Florida, Palma Sola, July 10, Daytona Beach, July +19, and Pensacola, July 26; Bermuda, August 12; the Bahama Islands, +Long Island, July 17; Cuba, Batabono, August 26; Lesser Antilles, +Grenada, August 24, and Dominica, August 29; Panama, Toro Point, July +23; Brazil, Santa Catarina, August 4; and Colombia, Santa Marta region, +September 13. + +Late dates of fall departure are: British Columbia, Chilliwack, +August 23, Atlin, August 24, and Okanagan Landing, September 3; +Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, September 1, and Fort Resolution, September 1; +Saskatchewan, Indian Head, September 2; Manitoba, Shoal Lake, September +14, Aweme, September 14, and Oak Lake, September 20; Nebraska, Lincoln, +October 14; Minnesota, Lanesboro, September 15; Iowa, Emmetsburg, +September 24, and Grinnell, October 22; Ontario, Toronto, October +26, and Point Pelee, October 29; Michigan, Portage Lake, October 25, +and Detroit, October 29; Ohio, Oberlin, October 21, and Youngstown, +November 2; Indiana, Hobart, September 24, and Peru, October 2; +Illinois, Rantoul, October 15, and Chicago, October 28; Kentucky, +Lexington, September 17; Missouri, St. Louis, September 25; Prince +Edward Island, North River, October 27; Nova Scotia, Wolfville, October +22; New Brunswick, Scotch Lake, September 23; Quebec, Montreal, October +20; Maine, Lewiston, October 13; Massachusetts, Lynn, October 12, +Cambridge, October 26, and Dennis, October 27; Connecticut, Fairfield, +October 22, Norwalk, October 26, and New Haven, October 31; New York, +East Hampton, October 22, Port Chester, October 25, and Long Beach, +October 28; New Jersey, Sandy Hook, October 25; and Pennsylvania, Erie, +November 2. + +_Casual records._--The semipalmated plover is more or less rare in the +southern Rocky Mountain region where records are so few that it can be +considered only as casual. Among these records are: Utah, Salt Lake +City (reported by Nelson); Colorado, Denver, April 27, 1907, Loveland, +May 6, 1890, and Grand Lake, Middle Park (Carter Collection); and +Arizona, Fort Verde, September 8, 1884, Colorado River, September and +October, 1865 (Coues), and Tucson, April, 1883 (Scott). + +_Egg dates._--Labrador and Ungava: 42 records, June 7 to July 7; 21 +records, June 18 to July 1. Quebec to Nova Scotia: 33 records, June 5 +to 29; 17 records, June 15 to 23. Arctic coast of Canada: 18 records, +June 16 to July 20; 9 records, June 23 to July 4. Alaska and British +Columbia; 19 records, May 27 to July 6; 10 records, June 1 to 9. + + + CHARADRIUS HIATICULA Linnaeus + + RINGED PLOVER + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The ringed plover breeds both on the east and west coasts of Greenland, +ranging north to Sabine and Clavering Islands and Denmark Harbor on +the east side and to Inglefield Gulf on the west. It is also said to +breed near Cumberland Sound in Baffin Land, but this may refer to the +semipalmated plover, _Charadrius semipalmatus_, and it has occurred +casually in Barbados, Chile, and southern Alaska. + +The subdivision of the ringed plover into geographical races is +attended with considerable difficulties owing to the presence of +passing migrants on many of its breeding grounds. The Siberian form, +_Charadrius hiaticula tundrae_ is generally recognized, but is only +distinguishable with certainty in summer plumage. Probably the +Alaskan specimen belongs to this race. E. Lehn Schiöler, with fine +series of carefully sexed birds before him, separates the Greenland +breeding birds from the typical race under the name of _Ch. hiaticula +septentrionalis_, but material with accurate data is too scarce in +other collections to enable us to hazard an opinion. + +_Spring._--In northeast Greenland, where Manniche found this species +breeding plentifully, the birds arrived about the end of May or the +beginning of June, at the same time as the other waders. Icelandic +birds arrive early: April 22 to 28 (Faber). + +Dr. W. Elmer Ekblaw says in his notes: + + The ringed plover is one of the most noticeable birds of + the shorelands of northwest Greenland. Few beaches are + unoccupied by these noisy little birds, and rarely is one + out of sound of their shrill piping. They are quite as + common about the streams and pools of the interior and + along the seepage swales of the ground moraines. They come + to the land as early as May 29 and stay until the last week + in July. Almost invariably they are mated when they arrive + and only rarely does one see more than a pair together, + except where they congregate about swales or shallow pools + to feed. They are sociably inclined and do not hesitate to + make their nests near the Eskimo villages, probably feeling + more secure from Arctic foxes when near dogs and human + habitation. + +_Courtship._--The courtship of this species has been well described by +Farren, Selous, and Stanford. The former (1910) says: + + Ringed plovers may be seen in pairs skimming low over the + ground, circling to a far height and descending again + like a flash, almost touching the ground as they do so. + They do not follow each other, but each describes similar + evolutions, overlapping and crossing the other’s line of + flight. Their long pointed wings, showing much white, give + a fictitious impression of size and as they alight on the + ground after skimming a short distance with curved drooping + wings they seem suddenly to vanish from sight as they touch + ground; in place of the long-winged graceful flyer is a + little plump-shaped gray bird, very difficult to see as it + runs with short quick steps over the sand. + +Edmund Selous (1901) also describes a male as advancing toward the +hen a few steps at a time, and moving his legs with a rapid vibratory +motion during the pauses. Stanford (1927) remarks that the courtship is +by no means easy to observe even with the aid of a powerful glass. + + In one party on the beach on March 20, where at least + two males were contending for one female, the males ran + backward and forward with short, quick steps, and when + another male was near the feathers of the back and the tips + of the closed wings were elevated, the tall depressed and + spread out to its full extent to show the white tips of the + feathers, and the whole body arched with the head and neck + drawn in, the black gorget being puffed out to nearly twice + its normal size. In this crouching attitude the males ran + aimlessly to and fro for half an hour at a time, but making + no real attempt to attack each other. + +Another male-- + + kept running in front of the hen and sinking down on the + beach every few yards exactly as if settling down on a + nest. Occasionally while brooding in this way he would + tilt himself forward onto his breast with the closed wing + tips pointing up almost vertically over his back, the tail + depressed, and the legs scratching out sand and stones + behind him. The indifference displayed by the hen to this + performance was as noticeable as it usually is in the case + of lapwings’ “rolling” on the ground. On several other + occasions in April I saw cock ringed plovers settle down + and appear to brood for several minutes exactly as if they + were on a nest; in one case the bird kept turning round + and round on one spot, and twice at least this action was + followed by an attempt at coition. + +The love flight often covers nearly a mile of ground, and both birds +take part--crossing and recrossing with their bodies twisting from +side to side and soft beats of the wings. The double note, according +to Stanford, has a remarkably vibrant quality at these times and the +throat appears to be swelled out. + +_Nesting._--Both nesting sites and the nests themselves of this species +vary considerably. The commonest site is among the sand and shingle +above high-water mark on the seashore. In some cases the eggs are +laid in a hollow scratched in the sand with no lining of any kind, in +others small fragments of cockle shells and small stones are collected +and imbedded, while other nests are more or less substantially built, +from a few dead bents carelessly arranged to well-made cups in which +almost any material available is utilized, such as driftwood, rabbits’ +droppings, stems of leaves, and shore plants, etc. On some beaches +where there is no sand the eggs may be found lying on the bare pebbles, +while on the north Norfolk coast they are often placed under shelter of +sea heath, and nests have been met with in cornfields, several miles +from the sea, or on open grassland in sewage farms inland. + +_Eggs._--Normally four in number, occasionally three on late layings, +while instances of five are rare. In color they vary from stone color +to ocherous or clay yellow sometimes with a warm tinge, spotted as a +rule rather sparingly with brownish black. Occasionally varieties with +large blotches of sepia are met with and white eggs have been recorded +as well as bluish eggs, without markings. The shell is deep green when +viewed from within. The measurements of 100 British eggs, made by the +writer, averaged 35.9 by 25.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =39= by 26.5, 37 by =28.5=, =32.2= by 25 and 32.7 by +=24= millimeters. Eggs from Iceland and other northern localities are +decidedly smaller. + +_Young._--Incubation is shared by both sexes which relieve one another +at short intervals and the period is variously estimated at from 22 to +25 days; probably 24 or 25 days represents the average. The young are +hatched within 24 hours and leave the nest as soon as the down is dry. +Apparently a second brood is reared in some cases, but many of the late +nests may be second or third layings. + +Doctor Ekblaw writes: + + The old birds were wildly agitated whenever I approached, + and by the customary simulation of injury attempted to + lead me away from the nest. The fledglings ran about as + soon as hatched, and like all little shorebirds were quick + to respond to a warning signal and sink into pebble-like + immobility. The weather was so cold that the old birds did + not leave the young, for when the brood was separated both + parents sheltered some of the little ones. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920). + +_Food._--Insects, including Coleoptera (_Apion_, _Aphodius_, +_Haliplus_, _Hydroporus_, etc.), Crustacea, especially the smaller +species (Gammaridae, Amphipoda, etc.), Mollusca, chiefly small marine +univalves, such as Littorina, Annelida (earthworms), and vegetable +matter (seeds of _Polygonum_, etc.). + +_Behavior._--This is an attractive and inoffensive species, sociable +in its habits and met with in flocks of considerable size out of the +breeding season, when their simultaneous maneuvers on the wing are +a very characteristic feature of the great estuaries, the flocks +appearing to change from light to dark as the upper or under surfaces +are exposed. They may also be seen on the mud flats, making short runs +at intervals, when the movements of the legs and feet are so rapid that +the eye can not follow them. + +_Voice._--John T. Nichols contributes the following: + + A rather clear, not very loud, low-pitched whistle, given + on the ground as much as in the air, rather infrequent. + This may be written _kruip_ or _puik_, occasionally + distinctly two syllabled and suggesting the semipalmated + plover’s call, but lower pitched. It was heard in late + September from several birds loosely associated with a + larger number of scattered dunlin on tidal sands north + of Liverpool. They usually took wing in silence, and the + species seems to be a rather silent one as seen here + and elsewhere on British shores in September. They were + very likely not traveling, and their voice therefore not + comparable with that of the semipalmated on home shores. + Also the note described is very likely not analogous with + the full, loud-flight note of the transient semipalmated + plover. + +_Enemies._--During the autumn and winter months the flocks are +occasionally harried by a migrating merlin (_Falco columbarius +aesalon_), and some clutches of eggs are annually destroyed by +marauding Corvidae (crows) and Laridae (gulls). On some parts of the +coast which are much exposed, great damage is done by exceptionally +high tides, as many nests are built close to the high-water mark. + +_Fall._--In Greenland Manniche (1910) observed that the old birds left +in pairs about the first week in August, as soon as the young were +grown up. The young birds immediately went to the shores and estuaries, +consorting with young sanderlings and turnstones and leaving for the +south early in September. At the Westmann Isles in south Iceland they +leave between September 20 and October 10. + +_Winter._--In the British Isles the wintering birds are to be met +with in flocks on most of our larger estuaries. When on the wing they +sometimes associate with dunlin and also occasionally with redshanks. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--In the Old World, commonly in the British Isles and +sparingly in the Faroes and Iceland; also probably on Bear Island and +a few pairs in Spitsbergen as well as on Waigatz, Kolguev, and Nova +Zembla. On the European Continent, from the Arctic Ocean south to the +Mediterranean, chiefly on the seacoasts, and only locally by lakes and +rivers. In the Mediterranean it is local on some of the islands and +nowhere plentiful. The north Asiatic race has been separated, while in +the New World its breeding range includes both coasts of Greenland and +perhaps the east coast of Baffin Land, unless the last statement is due +to confusion with the semipalmated plover. + +_Winter range._--Many remain in the British Isles through the winter, +but birds from northern Europe migrate to the Mediterranean region and +Africa, where they have been recorded as far south as Cape Province and +Natal, the majority wintering south of the Sahara. The Atlantic Isles +(Canaries, Madeira, and Azores) are visited on passage, and Asiatic +birds have been recorded from the Indo-Malayan archipelago and even +Australia, though some doubt has been cast on this. + +_Spring migration._--The principal passage at Gibraltar takes place in +March, the latest birds leaving in April. From about mid March to mid +April old birds are on passage northward and the breeding ground in +Norway is reached in April, and in Sweden from late March onward. + +_Fall migration._--In northern Europe (Norway and Sweden) the southward +movement takes place in September and at the Straits of Gibraltar the +passage lasts from September to November. At Heligoland young birds +begin to pass as early as the end of June and the beginning of July. + +_Casual records._--In Jan Mayen it apparently occurs in some numbers, +but is not known to breed. Barbados, one, Chancery Lane, September +10. Gould’s record of one from Port Stevens, Australia, is a somewhat +questionable one. One obtained at Sultanpur, south of Delhi, November, +1878; another at Gilgit, October, 1879. (These records must refer to +the Siberian race, as also probably the Chilean occurrence and that +from Sitka, Alaska.) + +_Egg dates._--In northeast Greenland Manniche found eggs from June 17 +to July 18, while in Nova Zembla the young were recently hatched at the +beginning of August and eggs probably laid late in June or early in +July. In the British Isles eggs have been met with in March, but most +eggs are laid from the end of April onward. April 16 to 30 (5 dates), +May 1 to 14 (10 dates), May 15 to 31 (21 dates), June 1 to 30 (23 +dates), July 1 to 30 (7 dates). + + + CHARADRIUS DUBIUS CURONICUS Gmelin + + LITTLE RINGED PLOVER + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +The little ringed plover owes its place in the American list to a +casual occurrence at Kodiak Island, Alaska. It is noteworthy that in +J. F. von Brandt’s paper in the Journal für Ornithologie, 1891, the +Alaskan specimen is recorded as “_Charadrius alexandrinus_ Pall.” There +is also a specimen in the United States National Museum (No. 39523) +which is said to have been taken at San Francisco, but some doubt +appertains to the latter record. + +_Spring._--The range of this species does not extend far to the north +in western Europe and it is only a rare straggler to the British Isles. +In northern Germany it appears in fair numbers on the larger rivers and +at lakesides, about the middle of March, but except in southern Sweden +few cross the Baltic to breed. + +_Courtship._--H. F. Witherby (1919) has some interesting notes on +this species which was breeding in company with the Kentish plover +(_Charadrius alexandrinus_) near Dunkerque, in northern France. + + On April 28 the little ringed plovers were flying round + after each other, with a beautiful slow, long, flap of + the wings, much like the flight of a large butterfly and + uttering a pleasing little song. This was evidently a + “courtship” action and we found many “scoops” in the sand, + but no eggs. + +Liebe describes the song flight as beginning with a zigzag oblique +ascent, followed by short horizontal flights at various angles over +the gravelly bed where the hen is sitting, uttering meantime his +musical whistle, which is answered by the bird beneath, and ending +in a sharp descent in a curve toward the water’s edge and thence +with low, skimming flight to the hen. The little ring plover is a +much more demonstrative and noisy species than the ringed plover and +when its breeding haunts are approached instead of running off with +a low whistle and then flying a short distance ahead, it flies round +and round the intruder with loud repeated whistling notes. Naumann +(1887) expresses the pairing song by the words “_duh, du dull lull +lullullul_,” taken in slow time and ending with a wonderful trill only +to be heard on the breeding ground. + +_Nesting._--Continental writers lay much stress on the fact that this +bird by preference always makes the nest in gravelly patches rather +than in sand. This is not invariably the case, as the bird builds +freely on sand banks in rivers where there is no shingle or gravel, +and at times also on dry mud. It may be found nesting far inland, +but nearly always in the neighborhood of water and shows a decided +preference for the shores of fresh-water lakes and the larger rivers +rather than the seashore. + +_Eggs._--The normal clutch is four, though three is not an uncommon +number, and generally they are readily distinguishable from those of +the other sand plovers. They are more pyriform in shape than those of +the Kentish plover, and average less in size than either of the two +other common European species. In color the ground color is often +grayish when fresh but dries out to a yellowish stone or pale reddish +ocherous, with many fine streaks and spots of dark brown and numerous +small ashy streaks or spots. On the whole the markings are paler and +scantier than with the Kentish plover, but in rare cases large blotches +of rich brown and ash colors are found in some sets, and others show an +approach to the normal type of Kentish plover. The eggs are laid in a +mere hollow without lining in the gravel. The measurements of 100 eggs +(68 by the writer and 32 by Rey) average 29.8 by 22.08 millimeters; the +eggs showing the four extremes measure =32.8= by 23, 30.1 by =23.5=, +=27.3= by 21.1, and 28.6 by =21= millimeters. + +_Young._--Incubation is said by Naumann (1887) to be apparently +performed by both sexes, but in warm and sunny weather the eggs are +left for long periods uncovered. The period is over 22 days, probably +23 or 24 (not 16 or 17 as erroneously given by Naumann). Only one brood +is reared in the season as a rule, but some dates are extremely late +and point to an occasional second brood. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920). + +_Food._--Definite records are scanty, but it is evident that the main +food consists of insects, including the smaller Coleoptera and their +larvae; Diptera and larvae; Neuroptera (Phryganeidae or caddis flies +and larvae). Naumann also found a small worm in one case in the stomach. + +_Behavior._--Witherby (1919) writes: + + The little ringed plover is even more demonstrative than + the Kentish and it is shyer and more difficult to mark onto + its nest or young. Both species have a very plaintive alarm + note which they utter constantly as they fly round the + intruder, but the Kentish is less fussy and less noisy than + the little ringed. When one is near the young both species + go through various outcries, such as running along the + ground crouching low with head stretched out, lying on the + side with one wing up, the legs stretched out and the tail + spread, or with the breast on the ground and both wings + half spread, but the performance of the Kentish is much + less abandoned than that of the little ringed. + +P. W. Munn (1921) also writes: + + The behavior of the birds at their nest is totally + different from Kentish plovers, which are not demonstrative + whilst they have eggs; but the little ringed plover flies + wildly round and round, twisting and doubling and uttering + its wild whistle, or else runs frantically about on the + ground, whistling plaintively. + +_Enemies._--The eggs are occasionally taken by Corvidae, and the birds +themselves sometimes fall victims to Accipitres. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--Central and southern Europe, from France, Denmark, +southern Sweden, southern Finland and 64° N. in Russia, south to the +Mediterranean and its islands and Africa north of the Sahara. In Asia +its range extends across Siberia to the Pacific and includes also +Japan. In India and the Philippines, Hainan, and Formosa it is replaced +by other subspecies. It does not breed in the British Isles, but nests +in Madeira and the Canaries. + +_Winter range._--Winters in tropical Africa, south to the Gold Coast, +Fernando Po, the lower Niger, Lakes Rudolf, Albert and Victoria Nyanza, +and the Red Sea coast; in Asia to Arabia and India and also to the +Sunday Islands and perhaps New Guinea. + +_Spring migration._--In south Spain it arrives about mid March and is +widely distributed in April, while in the eastern Mediterranean the +passage takes place in Crete and Corfu in April. On Heligoland it is +only a rare straggler. + +_Fall migration._--The north German breeding birds leave for the south +at the end of September. Farther south the presence of immigrants from +the north among the breeding birds is seldom noted. + +_Casual records._--In the British Isles there are about 10 +well-authenticated records; April (2), August (4), and October (1 +or 2). The supposed records from Iceland and the Faroes are not +authenticated. Gaetke only records 2 at Heligoland in 50 years. + +_Egg dates._--In northern Africa eggs have been found from March +onward; in Spain and the Balearic Isles, March 16 (1 date), April 15 to +30 (3 dates), May 1 to 14 (4 dates), 15 to 30 (3 dates); late dates, +June 12 and July 11. In France and Germany, May 3 to 17 (7 dates), 18 +to 31 (8 dates); June 1 to 15 (5 dates); late dates, July 19 and 22. + + + CHARADRIUS MELODUS Ord + + PIPING PLOVER + + + HABITS + + _Contributed by Winsor Marrett Tyler_ + +Wilson and Audubon were familiar with the piping plover as a common +summer resident on the sandy beaches of the Atlantic coast. Audubon +found it breeding as far north as the Magdelen Islands and wintering +abundantly on the coast of Florida. + +During the years between the time of these early writers and the +present, the species has been subjected to many seasons of spring and +autumn shooting which, in the closing years of the nineteenth century, +brought the bird nearly to the point of extinction. + +It is readily seen why persistent shooting threatened this bird’s +existence. Its breeding range on the coast extends for hundreds of +miles in a northerly and southerly direction, but owing to the bird’s +very restricted nesting site it is narrowed in many places to a strip +of beach only a few yards wide. Fortunately legislation intervened and +removed the smaller plovers from the list of game birds, so that at +the present time the piping plover is fast becoming one of our common +summer residents again. + +_Spring._--Compared to most of the waders, the piping plover has a +short and safe migration route. Moving along the coast where spring is +further advanced than in the interior of the country, and having to +pass over no large bodies of water on its way to its breeding ground, +the bird pushes northward early in the season, often arriving in New +England during the last days of March, the first of the shorebirds to +reach our beaches. + +_Courtship._--In his notes A. C. Bent describes the courtship thus: +“I saw and heard the nuptial flight and song of this bird. He flew in +large circles or figure 8s low over the back beach near the marsh for +several minutes, giving constantly a peculiar twittering whistling +song.” Another entry in his notes under date, May 20, reads: “Saw +piping plover mating, two males following one female. They were running +around her in crouching attitude, with wings spread and trailing and +with tail spread in display, uttering whistling notes.” + +I once saw a male bird come up behind a crouching female and stand at +full height close to her with his breast feathers puffed out and head +held high, his neck stretched upward so that it was long and slim, +the bird both in posture and shape resembling an upland plover. For +a minute or two he stood thus while his feet beat a rapid tatoo on +the sand. In this attitude of display he appeared bright colored and +conspicuous in contrast to the female and the band across his breast +(complete in his case) stood out sharply defined against the adjacent +snowy feathers. + +_Nesting._--The typical nesting site of the piping plovers is the belt +of sand bordering lake or ocean well above high-water mark, where the +surface is becoming diversified and pebble strewn and wisps of beach +grass begin to grow. Here they lay their eggs, commonly with little +preparation for their reception other than a slight hollowing of the +light sand, but not infrequently they collect small stones, bits of +shell, or driftwood and line their nests with them or lay them near by. + +The following quotations indicate differences in the appearance of +the nests. In a letter to Mr. Bent, Allen H. Wood describes a very +unusual nest. He says: “The nest was a hollow scooped in a mass of +sand which had been piled up to a height of nearly 10 inches. Whether +the birds formed the pile or not, I do not, of course, know, but a +very careful examination failed to show how else the pile could have +been formed.” A. C. Bent speaks in his notes of finding at Dartmouth, +Mass., “three nests containing four eggs each, all on a high, sandy and +pebbly beach in the heart of a tern colony. The nests were hollows in +the sand, profusely lined with broken pieces of white shell and were +quite conspicuous.” E. W. Hadeler found on the shore of Lake Erie, at +Painesville, Ohio, a paved nest. He says in his notes that there were +“four eggs, almost the same color as the ground and stones, laid in a +slight depression on some very small flat stones and around the nest +were stones of all shapes and sizes.” Philipp and Bowdish (1917) in +New Brunswick “found a small colony of breeding birds, five nests, +each containing four eggs, being located. The nests were on sandy +beach, some in the open, others among sparse clumps of beach grass. +They were slight hollows in the sand, some quite unlined, others with +a well-formed rim of bits of broken shell or slate.” In a letter to +Mr. Bent, Edward R. Ford calls attention to some birds nesting in an +unusual environment. He says: + + At Dune Park, Ind., the piping plover, to the number of + five or six pairs, has taken advantage of the widening of + the beach (through the operations of a sand company which + has removed part of the dunes) and lays its eggs at a + considerable distance from the water’s edge. The old ridges + formed by the tramway beds, from which the rails have been, + for the most part, removed; the old cinder heaps, bits of + scrap iron and other odds and ends of human labor, with + here and there patches of vetch and coarse grass, seem well + suited to its requirements. + +In common with some of its near relatives, the piping plover has the +habit of making additional hollows in the sand in the vicinity of the +hollow in which its eggs are laid. These hollows have been termed cock +nests and have been compared to the nests which the male of some of the +wrens builds while his mate is sitting. + +My notes, taken on Cape Cod in the company of Charles A. Robbins in mid +April, refer to this subject: + + After some 10 minutes, during which time the two birds + stood motionless on the sand facing the wind, they began to + move about, the male taking visible interest in the female + and following her as she walked away. They came to a place + back of the beach where stones lay sparsely scattered on + the dry sand and little bunches of beach grass and patches + of Hudsonia were growing. Here the male stopped at a spot + between two stones, lowered his breast to the ground and + kicked out alternately with his legs scratching the sand + from beneath him. Then moving off a little way he did the + same in another spot while the female came to the place + between the stones and continued the hollowing process + which he had begun. Nearly, if not quite, in time with + their rapidly moving legs, the birds uttered a series + of short, high-pitched whistles, all on the same note, + having the piping quality of their common call. When the + scratching stopped, the notes stopped. + + During perhaps a quarter of an hour the birds continued + to scratch and pipe until several little hollows had been + begun and abandoned. The female, however, scratched for the + most part in the hollow between the stones, digging it out + to a depth of an inch. Soon this phase of activity passed + off and the birds began to feed. + + During the hour the birds were under observation neither + one made its bobbing motion. + +_Eggs._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: Four eggs are the almost invariable rule with +the piping plover; rarely only three are laid in second sets, and I +have found one set of five. They are ovate to short ovate in shape and +have no gloss. The ground colors vary from “light buff” to “cartridge +buff” or buffy white. They are sparingly, but quite evenly, marked with +small spots, or fine dots, of blackish brown or black, and sometimes +with a few underlying spots of “pallid purplish gray.” They are almost +invisible on the sand or among small pebbles. The measurements of +71 eggs average 31.4 by 24.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four +extremes measure =34.4= by 25.3, 31.8 by =26.4=, =29.2= by 23.8 and 30 +by =23= millimeters.] + +_Young._--Gayle Pickwell (1925) describes in detail the hatching of an +egg and ascertained that the young birds may leave the nest a few hours +later. He says: “It soon refused to remain in the nest. Finally, it +left, and while it was tottering insecurely away the parent bird came +running up with little chuckles of solicitude.” + +Alexander G. Lawrence, of Winnipeg, Manitoba, says in his notes: + + Careful search of the sand spit revealed a number of small + white moving points, which later search proved to be baby + piping plovers. While I was chasing one it tripped, fell on + its back, and lay as if stunned, deceiving me so completely + that I turned to get my camera to make a close-up picture + of the little fellow. No sooner had I moved away than he + sprang up and ran pell-mell over the sand, and the chase + commenced again. + +C. A. Bobbins (1919) describes further the behavior of the young birds +thus: + + Of course it frequently happens that there is no time for + concealment. Then the young birds attempt to escape by + running, the tiny legs working with surprising rapidity and + carrying them over the ground so swiftly and smoothly that + they looked like balls of down blowing before the wind. + Also, if their escape up the beach is cut off and they + continue to be closely pressed, they do not hesitate to + take to the water. Even those only a few hours out of the + shell swim well and navigate their frail craft, if not with + intelligence, at least in a direction away from the source + of danger. + +_Plumages._--[AUTHOR’S NOTE: The downy young piping plover is sand +colored above. The crown, back, wings, rump, and thighs are variegated +with “cream buff,” “cartridge buff,” and grayish white, sprinkled +or peppered with browns; on the wings the color deepens almost to +“chamois.” The forehead is buffy white; there is a more or less +distinct V-shaped mark of dark brown in the center of the crown and +a circle of small brownish tips around the edge of it. The wings and +thighs are marked with brown spots. A white collar encircles the hind +neck, and the entire under parts are white. The juvenal plumage appears +first on the scapulars and sides of the breast, then on the remaining +underparts, back, and crown; the last parts to become feathered are the +throat, belly, and rump; then the wing quills appear, and lastly the +tail. In fresh juvenal plumage the feathers of the crown and mantle are +“drab gray” or “smoke gray,” broadly tipped with “pinkish buff,” giving +a decidedly pinkish tone at first; but these pink tips soon fade and +wear away, leaving a dull-gray crown and mantle, faintly mottled with +pale tints of buffy and dusky. The black bands on the forehead and neck +are entirely lacking. + +The first winter plumage is acquired by a limited body molt early +in the fall and by wear and fading of much of the plumage that is +retained. It is like the adult winter except for the worn and faded +edgings on what juvenal feathers are retained, mainly wing coverts and +scapulars. A partial prenuptial molt early in the spring produces a +nuptial plumage which is practically adult. + +Adults have a complete molt in late summer and fall--August to +October--and a partial prenuptial molt in late winter and spring, +mainly in March. In winter plumage the crown and mantle are “pale ecru +drab,” without the pale edgings, with no black frontal band, and with a +restricted brownish instead of black collar. The black frontal band and +the black collar, characteristic of the nuptial plumage, are usually +acquired in March; the extent of the black collar increases with age +and the complete collar probably indicates an old bird.] + +_Food._--Arthur H. Howell (1924) says: “The food of this plover, as +indicated by the contents of four stomachs secured in Alabama, consists +principally of marine worms, fly larvae, and beetles.” E. H. Forbush +(1925) lists the following: “Insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and other +small marine animals and their eggs.” + +The feeding habits of the piping plover as it hunts for food along our +beaches are characteristic. In marked contrast to the nervous haste of +the sanderling and the rapid darting about with lightning-like thrusts +of the bill of the smallest sandpipers, the behavior of the plover +is leisurely, and as they pick up food from the sand the movements +of the head are deliberate. Three or four may sweep down the beach +together, close to the sand, but when they alight, after a moment of +stillness, they separate, each bird running a little way, isolating +itself from its companions (another point of difference from the +sanderling, etc., which in migration tend to keep close in a flock +while feeding). Generally they begin at once to hunt for food. They +run a short distance, then pause and stare at the sand with neck a +little outstretched, head tilted a bit to one side, perhaps looking for +a movement to show where food is, for often, leaning farther forward, +they pick something from the sand. As they run over the beach--a run +and a pause, another run and another scrutinizing pause, often changing +direction to catch up a bit of food--the birds suggest very strongly a +robin feeding on a lawn and the resemblance is strengthened when the +plover seizes a 3-inch-long worm and drags it from beneath the sand, +pulling slowly and carefully lest it break, and swallows it whole. + +_Behavior._--Their actions while feeding are apparently identical with +those of the semipalmated plover, and the flight of the two birds is +similar if not exactly the same. Their flight is wilder than that of +the sanderling, for example, which drives steadily along; they twist +and turn more often and tilt from one side to the other, giving the +impression of extreme swiftness and agility. + +Descriptions of the action of the sitting bird when disturbed differ +very little. The bird is invariably wary and steals off before the +intruder comes near, leaving him in doubt as to the existence of +a nest. After the eggs are hatched, however, their actions change +completely, and the parents display the utmost concern for the safety +of their young. In the following quotation from his notes, E. H. +Forbush describes graphically this behavior, and also shows that even +in the early days of the young bird’s life the parents do not feed +them. Mr. Forbush says: + + A colony of piping plovers on the same beach had been much + reduced in numbers but the behavior of one pair showed + that they had young on the beach. We saw one plover and + then another fluttering along the ground like young or + crippled birds. Their actions might deceive a novice, but + by watching them with a glass, we soon saw that they were + adult birds. They threw themselves on the ground, breast + downward, and, drooping the flight feathers or primaries, + raised and agitated the shorter secondaries, until the + motion resembled the fluttering pinions of young or wounded + birds, meantime pushing themselves along over the sand + with their feet. As the wings were not spread, the long + primary quills were not noticeable, and so the imitation + of the struggles of a helpless bird was almost perfect. + Immediately we began a careful search for the nest, looking + in all the usual hiding places in or under the tufts of + beach grass, but no nest could we find. As the old birds + continued their plaintive cries and circled about, we + extended our search, expecting to find some half-grown + young flattened out somewhere on the beach. Finally, by + hunting over the sand we found on the open beach, a nest + exactly like that of the least tern. A few little pebbles + had been grouped in a slight hollow, and there, partly + beside and partly on the pebbles, lay three lovely little + downy chicks and one egg. We attempted to photograph the + parents, but they would not come to the young; and, as the + little ones had already begun to run, about, we sunk an old + barrel in the beach, and put them and the egg in it, that + we might know where to find them on the morrow. + + The day was foggy and cold, and during the night a + thunderstorm drenched the earth; but the next morning the + egg had disappeared, and four lively youngsters were + running around in our barrel. They were now so active, that + if one were liberated it would be rather difficult to catch + it, while if hidden, it would be almost impossible to find + it. + + We kept them there two days, until we made sure that the + parents never fed them. They brooded them quite constantly, + but brought no food whatever, and we made certain that the + young were able and willing to find their own food within + 24 hours after they were out of the shell. It was seen that + unless they were liberated from the barrel they would soon + starve to death. + +C. A. Bobbins (1919) in a study of a colony of piping plovers breeding +in Massachusetts lays stress on the communal feeling that he noted in +the birds. He says that the feeling-- + + manifests itself in a marked degree; as when, at a threat + of danger, more than two adults join in driving a single + brood up the beach and into the safety which the concealing + color of the dry sand furnishes. + + It is shown again by the number of old birds that attempt + to distract attention from the same brood or even from a + detached individual by feigning; creeping off with wings + outstretched and fluttering, tail fanned and dragging or, + if the need requires more extreme measures, collapsing + utterly a short distance away as if completely exhausted. + +_Voice._--The piping plover’s home is blue and gray and white; on one +side is the long line of the horizon over a large lake or the sea, on +the other the long line of the sand hills. It is a land the same the +world over, wherever the sea meets the white, shifting sand. The sea +slides back and forth over the hard smooth wet shining beach; above the +reach of the tide is the dry, pale gray, pebbly upper beach with here +and there a few strands of beach grass growing in it, and higher up are +the dunes which mark on the land side the boundary of the plover’s home. + +Walk along the water’s edge and, although the sea may be pounding on +the shore and a northerly gale howling about our ears, we shall hear +the plover’s voice; a soft musical moan, we can not tell from where, +but clear and distinct above the sound of waves and wind. The note has +a ventriloquial quality and it is often our first intimation that a +piping plover is near, for the soft gray of the bird’s plumage matches +the sandy background, whereas the note is pervasive and attracts our +attention by its strangeness. + +Aretas A. Saunders sends me the following summary of this plover’s +notes. He says: + + The commonest call I have noted is the one rendered in the + books as _peep-lo_. It is lower pitched than most of the + shore-bird voices, a clear melodious whistle, and generally + rendered _peep peep peeplo_. The _peep_ is usually a + tone or a tone and a half higher pitched than the _lo_ + and I have one record where it is three tones and a half + higher. I have one or two records where the second note + slurs upward, the effect like _peep-loay_ and suggesting + the _peeawee_ of the wood pewee. Another sort of note I + have several records of I do not find described in books. + This is a series of short sweet notes, more rapid than the + others, nine or ten notes in a series. They are either all + on the same pitch, or grading slightly downward in pitch + toward the end, and they are sometimes followed by the + peep-lo notes, at least in flight. + +J. T. Nichols says in his notes: + + When nesting the piping plover is rather noisy. The thought + of its plaintive, rather mellow whistled notes, _queep_, + _queep_, _queeplo_, etc., which perhaps have an analogy + with song, takes me back to the sand dunes of Cape Cod + standing in the dazzling sunshine, where I first became + familiar with this species a number of years ago. At other + times of year piping plover are rather silent. Their + whistled flight note _hee-hu_, with falling inflection at + the end, is not loud or striking, and suggests that of the + semipalmated plover, reversed. + +Gayle Pickwell (1925) in a study of the breeding habits “on a strip of +sandy beach at Capital Lake near Lincoln” [Nebraska] says: + + The most interesting thing about the piping plovers was + their activities when one was near the nest. As an observer + approached the nest he would be met by one of the plovers + dropping down out of nowhere, uttering its sharp _kee-wee, + kee-wee_ and striving its utmost to lead one away. It would + then run briskly across the sand and disappear suddenly + from sight when it stopped to crouch down and utter its + long-drawn _whooaah, whooaah_. + +The variety of their cries and calls was amazing. + + At almost any period, while we were in the neighborhood, + one of the birds could be observed flying here and there + with slow, wide wing beats, uttering a rapid _kuk, kuk, + kuk, kuk_. It would shortly alight and wind it up with a + long-drawn, weird _whooaah, whooaah_ that seemed to come + from nowhere in particular. The distress cries while one + was near the nest were confined chiefly to a sharp _kee-ah, + kee-ah_. The reason for their name of “piping” became very + apparent at such times. + +The _kuk_ mentioned by Mr. Pickwell is seemingly analogous to a +common note which the semipalmated plovers use as they carry on their +harmless running flights along the beach--a sort of rattling cackle of +short notes somewhat suggesting the call of the red crossbill. These +utterances are evidently expressions of a heightening in the emotional +state of these closely related plovers. + +John A. Farley (1919) describes a mating song accompanying courting +activities. He says: + + I noticed a group of three, two of which chased each + other around just like two robins fighting over a female. + Some flew around rather low over the beach (some of them + rather close to me), in apparent sexual excitement, and + uttered notes while on the wing. These were different from + the usual mellow, rather low notes which the birds were + uttering more or less all the time while on the sand. Their + notes on the wing were higher in tone and rather long drawn + out, and mixed in with them were some little chuckles. The + whole might be described as some sort of a mating song. + +_Field marks._--J. T. Nichols says in substance in his notes that the +bird-- + + may be recognized by its exceedingly pale colors which + nearly match the dry sand of the beach above high-water + mark. The white in the wing shows so little contrast to + the general tone of the plumage that, although in flight + a pattern on the wing is visible, it Is very faintly + indicated. A flying sanderling sometimes appears to be + about the same color, but has bolder wing pattern than the + plover. + +The bobbing motion characteristic of several of the plovers is a +common habit of the piping plover. This is a single hitching motion by +which the body is tilted up and down on the legs as a fulcrum. It is +apparently identical with the bob of the semipalmated plover and is +made frequently as the birds stand about on the beach. + +_Enemies._--The piping plover is shielded from its enemies by +remarkable protective coloration which renders the bird nearly +invisible as it stands motionless on the gray sand, especially when +among scattered stones. The eggs, the young, and the adult bird are +alike protected, so now that man is no longer its deadly enemy there is +little to check the species from repopulating its breeding haunts in +its former numbers. + +E. Beaupre speaks in his notes of a local condition in eastern Ontario. +He says: “Owing to the destructive work of crows [in eating the +plover’s eggs] some are obliged to lay a second clutch, and this no +doubt accounts for some of the nests containing fresh eggs in June.” + +_Fall._--The piping plover moves southward soon after its nesting +activities are over, following the habit of its relatives, the +Limicolae which breed during the short summer about the Arctic Circle. +Early departure from its nesting ground is not imperative in the case +of this southerly breeding bird, but the habit is undoubtedly of long +standing and dates back to the time when the species bred close to the +edge of the glacial ice field and summer passed quickly. + +_Winter._--W. E. D. Scott (1892), speaking of the bird in Jamaica +on its winter quarters, says: “In October, 1887, piping plover were +abundant among the lagoons and mangrove swamps at the Palisades; +they moved about in large flocks which, when once alighted on the +shell-bestrewn beaches, it was impossible to detect.” + +We leave the little plover covered by the helmet of invisibility. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Eastern North America and the West Indies. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the piping plover extends +north to Saskatchewan (Big Stick Lake and Quill Lake); Manitoba (Birch +Island in Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipeg); Michigan (Big Beaver Island +and Charity Island); Ontario (Toronto and Brighton); Quebec (probably +Natashquan); and probably Newfoundland (Stephenville Crossing, St. +George Bay). East to probably Newfoundland (Stephenville); the Magdalen +Islands; Prince Edward Island (North River); Nova Scotia (Sable +Island and Yarmouth); Massachusetts (Ipswich, Monomoy Island, and +Marthas Vineyard); New York (Gardiners Island and Shelter Island); New +Jersey (Barnegat Inlet, Beach Haven, Sea Isle City, and probably Cape +May); Maryland (probably Ocean City); Virginia (Chincoteague Island, +Cobb Island, and Cape Charles); and North Carolina (Pea Island and +Beaufort). South to North Carolina (Beaufort); northern Pennsylvania +(Erie); northern Ohio (Painesville, Cleveland, Oberlin, and Sandusky); +northern Indiana (Millers); northern Illinois (Waukegan); southern +Wisconsin (Milwaukee and Lake Koshkonong); and Nebraska (Lincoln, +Dannebrog, and Doss). West to Nebraska (Goss); South Dakota (Miner +County); North Dakota (Stump Lake, Minnewauken, and Kenmare); and +southern Saskatchewan (Big Stick Lake). + +There are many gaps in the range above outlined and the species also +has been extirpated from parts of its breeding grounds. + +_Winter range._--Almost entirely the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts of +the United States. North to southern Texas (Padre Island, Aransas River +and High Island); Louisiana (Vermilion Bay); Alabama (Petit Bois Island +and Dauphin Island); and Georgia (Savannah). East to Georgia (Savannah +and Darien); eastern Florida (Amelia Island, Mayport, St. Augustine, +Sebastian, and Miami); probably the Bahama Islands (Eleuthera and Great +Inagua); and probably rarely Porto Rico. South to probably rarely Port +Rico; Cuba (Matanzas and Habana); southern and western Florida (Cape +Sable, Key West, Sanibel Island, Fort Myers; mouth of the Withlacoochee +River, and probably Pensacola); and southern Texas (Padre Island). West +to southern Texas (Padre Island). The species has been detected in +winter occasionally in Bermuda. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: South Carolina, +Frogmore, March 20; North Carolina, Pea Island, April 7; District of +Columbia, Washington, March 25; Pennsylvania, Erie, April 16; New York, +Shinnecock, March 24, Montauk Point, April 1, and Gardiners Island, +April 7; Rhode Island, Newport, March 24; Massachusetts, Marthas +Vineyard, March 18, Dennis, March 24, and Nantucket, March 26; Nova +Scotia, April 24; Illinois, Colona, April 9, and De Kalb, April 18; +Indiana, Waterloo, April 14, and Frankfort, April 15; Ohio, Lakeside, +April 7, and Oberlin, April 15; Michigan, Port Sanilac, April 15, +Ottawa Beach, April 23, and Detroit, April 26; Ontario, Point Pelee, +April 10, Listowel, May 1, and Toronto, May 8; Iowa, German Center, +April 10; Wisconsin, Whitewater, April 29, and Elkhorn, May 13; +Minnesota, Waseca, May 11, and Heron Lake, May 11; Kansas, Lawrence, +April 27, McPherson, May 3, and Topeka, May 7; Nebraska, Lincoln, +April 26, Gibbon, May 4, Nebraska City, May 8, and Doss, May 11; South +Dakota, Sioux Falls, May 5, and Vermilion, May 8; North Dakota, +Harrisburg, May 23, and St. Thomas, May 29; Manitoba, Shoal Lake, May +15, and Killarney, May 25; and Saskatchewan, Indian Head, May 14, +Qu’Appelle, May 23, and Lake Johnston, May 23. + +Late dates of spring departure are: Florida, Amelia Island, April 20, +Daytona Beach, May 1, and Peninsula Point, May 11; and South Carolina, +Sullivans Island, May 11, and Mount Pleasant, May 18. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of arrival in the fall are: Texas, +Rockport, August 12, and St. Joseph Island, August 14; Mississippi, +Bay St. Louis, August 29; South Carolina, Mount Pleasant, August 2; +Florida, New Smyrna, July 15, Fernandina, August 3, and Daytona, August +10; and Alabama, Dauphin Island, August 16. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Manitoba, Shoal Lake, September 7; +South Dakota, Forestburg, September 24; Nebraska, Bellwood, September +19, and Doss, September 24; Iowa, Grinnell, October 28; Ontario, +Point Pelee, September 22; Michigan, Newbury, September 18; Ohio, +Cleveland, September 24, Painesville, September 26, and Port Clinton, +September 28; Indiana, La Fayette, September 18; Prince Edward Island, +North River, October 20; Nova Scotia, Pictou, October 8; Vermont, +Bennington, October 2; Massachusetts, Lynn, October 3, Dennis, October +12, and Boston, October 26; Rhode Island, Block Island, October 24; +New York, Fair Haven Light, September 28, and Long Beach, November 7 +(exceptionally late date); New Jersey, Cape May, September 13; and +Pennsylvania, Erie, September 26. + +_Casual records._--The piping plover has been detected outside of its +regular range on very few occasions. A specimen in the British Museum +from the Lake of the Woods, Ontario, may indicate breeding in that +locality. One was obtained at Cheyenne, Wyo., on May 30, 1892. + +_Egg dates._--Quebec and New Brunswick: 55 records, June 1 to 29; 28 +records, June 5 to 18. New England to New Jersey: 48 records, May 22 to +June 29; 24 records, May 28 to June 23. Dakotas: 13 records, May 26 to +July 1; 7 records, May 28 to June 6. + + + CHARADRIUS NIVOSUS NIVOSUS (Cassin) + + SNOWY PLOVER + + + HABITS + +The charming little snowy plover of the Pacific coast is the +counterpart of our familiar piping plover, found in similar haunts, +perhaps even tamer and more confiding, but not equal to our eastern +bird in melody of voice. It is a child of the sand, with which its +colors blend so well that when crouched in some hollow or against some +bleached piece of driftwood or half buried clam shell it seems to be +just one more of the numerous, inconspicuous objects which one passes +unnoticed on the beach. Its favorite haunts are the broad expanses of +flat, dry sand above the ordinary wash of the tides on ocean beaches. +Such places are usually strewn more or less thickly with shells, +pebbles, and various bits of débris, among which the little plover, +or its eggs and young, are surprisingly inconspicuous. Here it was +born and has always lived; here it woos its mate and rears its little +family; and hence it seldom strays except to feed along the water’s +edge on the ocean beach or on the bare flats along some near-by tidal +creek. There are, however, a few places in the interior where the snowy +plover has been found along the shores of salt or alkaline lakes. But +it is mainly a bird of the ocean beaches. + +_Spring._--The snowy plover wanders north in the spring as far as the +coast of Washington. D. E. Brown tells me that he saw it in Grays +Harbor County from April 7 to 13, 1918, and from May 14 to 16, 1914, in +Pacific County. But apparently no one has ever found it breeding there, +although several good observers have looked for it. + +_Nesting._--The nesting grounds of the snowy plover have been briefly +described above, but a better description is contained in the following +quotation from W. Lee Chambers (1904): + + The nesting ground is a white sandy cape or narrow strip + of land between Ballona Swamp and the ocean about 2 miles + long and 200 yards wide. This place during the fall high + tides is completely flooded and deposits of small rocks + and broken shells are left there. Among these the plovers + place their nests. On approaching it one may be attracted + by noticing the little fellows running about on the sand in + front of him or occasionally flying in low, wide circles + uttering a pleading whistle so characteristic of this + species. This whistle I have learned is a danger signal + that I am near their nests, and on looking over the ground + carefully I may be able to notice fine bird tracks in the + white sand or in the patches of white sand between the + shells and rocks. + + In going over the ground carefully where the tracks are + the thickest a nest will generally be found. Sometimes the + birds will build among the small rocks, where the tracks + can not be seen, and here the eggs are safe, as their + coloration protects them, for they look exactly like small + rocks. The nests are, as a rule, found by a mark of some + kind, a bone of some animal, a small dead weed, or a bit + of driftwood, and are slight depressions in the sand. Some + are completely lined with broken shells or fish bones with + the eggs pointed toward the center, very close together and + about half buried in the nest lining. A pair of birds will + build several nests during the season and use only one, for + I have found nests all fixed up and completely surrounded + with tracks. This I noticed especially in 1901, for I found + about three times as many unused nests as used ones. During + this season I visited Ballona about three times a week and + gave the birds careful study. + +While J. Eugene Law was helping me to get acquainted with the birds of +southern California, we spent a delightful day, May 29, 1914, among +these birds with Mr. Chambers at Del Rey, Los Angeles County. This was +once a typical nesting place of this species, a broad stretch of sand +flats above an ocean beach, backed by sand dunes and bordered on the +inner side by a sluggish stream meandering through a marsh and some +brackish lagoons. But civilization was encroaching on the plover’s +paradise, for several cottages had been built on the beach and it was +much frequented. Some four pairs of snowy plover still clung to their +ancestral home; we found three nests with three eggs each and one empty +nest, in open spaces among the houses. The nests were mostly on little +mounds of sand and scattered pebbles or among low sand dunes covered +with low weeds and vines. They were deep hollows in the sand, profusely +lined with finely broken white and pink shells, among scattered small +stones, bits of wood, or other rubbish. Amid such surroundings the eggs +were not easily detected; but we could usually locate the nests by the +multitude of little footprints in the sand converging toward the nest. +All but one of the birds were shy and sneaked off the nests before we +drew near. They watched us from a distance, running about very swiftly, +whistling their soft, plaintive notes of protest. One bird was very +tame; I gradually walked up very close to her and finally photographed +her within 3 or 4 feet. This gentle and confiding little bird, after +running about with drooping wings and spread tail, came slowly up to +the nest and settled down on the eggs right in front of me, spreading +out her plumage to cover her treasures. As a reward for her bravery we +did not disturb her further. + +Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) write that: + + In the vicinity of the salt works near Alvarado, on the + Alameda County shore of San Francisco Bay, L. R. Reynolds + found that a great many pairs had in the summer of + 1914 selected nesting sites on the dike separating the + salt ponds. The workmen, in traversing the dikes with + wheelbarrows, reported having broken many eggs. + +_Eggs._--The snowy plover ordinarily lays three eggs, but often only +two. Mr. Chambers (1904) says that out of 44 sets which he collected 11 +were of two eggs and 33 were of three. The two egg sets were complete, +as he left them long enough to make sure. The eggs were laid about +three days apart. The extended nesting season, April to July, would +seem to indicate that two broods are raised, but I believe that this +has not been positively proven. The eggs are short, ovate in shape, +and without gloss. They are colored to match the sand--“olive buff” to +“pale olive buff,” or “cartridge buff.” They are more or less evenly +but not thickly covered with small spots, dots, or little scrawls of +black and a few small inconspicuous spots of “pallid mouse gray.” The +measurements of 51 eggs average 30.4 by 22.3 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =32.5= by 23.5, 30 by =24=, and =28= +by =20.5= millimeters. + +_Young._--Apparently both sexes share the duties of incubation and care +of the young, at which they prove devoted parents. When the young are +approached the parents use all the artifices known to similar species +to distract the attention of the intruder, fluttering along as if both +wings and legs were helpless, or grovelling in the sand as if wounded. +Such tactics often succeed in fooling a dog and enticing him far enough +away but to human beings they are only an incentive to look carefully +for the tiny balls of down that, obedient to their parents’ note of +warning, are crouched immovable and well-nigh invisible in some little +hollow in the sand or under or against some object on the beach. And +there the little one remains “frozen” until touched or until sure that +he is observed; when, presto, off he goes, running at a marvelous pace +on his strong little legs. We watch him for some time as he scampers +away for a long distance until suddenly he vanishes; then, unless we +have marked him down exactly and kept our eyes on the spot, we had +better give up hope of finding him again. + +_Plumages._--The downy young snowy plover is quite unlike the young +piping plover. The entire upper parts are pale buff, “cream buff” to +“cartridge buff,” mixed with grayish white. The crown, back, rump, +wings, and thighs are distinctly and quite evenly spotted with black. +The under parts are pure white. + +In the juvenal plumage the crown, mantle, rump, cheeks, and a space +in front of the wing are “drab,” or “light drab,” with a pinkish buff +tinge on the tips of the feathers; the forehead and all under parts are +white. The first winter plumage is similar, without the buffy edgings. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in late summer and fall, and a +partial prenuptial molt in early spring. Males in nuptial plumage have +the crown and nape “pinkish buff,” and a broad band above the forehead, +an auricular patch and a patch in front of the wing abruptly clear +black. In females the crown is pale drab, like the back, and the dark +markings are more restricted and more brownish. In winter the sexes are +alike, similar to the spring female, but the dark markings are even +duller, about the same tone as the back. + +_Food._--Snowy plover feed mainly on the sandy beaches, foraging on the +wet sand and at the surf line, where they are expert at dodging the +incoming waves and very lively, running up and down the beach as the +waves advance or recede. Here they often forage in compact bunches, +picking up small crustaceans, marine worms, or other minute marine +organisms. Inland they feed along the muddy or alkaline shores of ponds +or lakes, on various insects, such as beetles or flies. Dr. A. K. +Fisher (1893) says: + + This handsome little plover was observed by the writer + on the shores of Owens Lake, near Keeler, May 30 to + June 4, where it was common in small flocks of 5 or 10 + on the alkaline flats which border the lake. Like most + other birds in the vicinity, it fed extensively, if not + exclusively, on a species of small fly (_Ephydra hians_ + Say), which was found in immense masses near the edge of + the lake. Many of these swarms of flies were four or five + layers deep and covered an area of 15 or 20 square feet. + Some idea can be formed of the inexhaustible supply of food + which this insect furnishes for birds when it is known + that colonies of equal size occurred at close intervals in + suitable localities all around the lake, which has a shore + line of between 40 and 50 miles. + +_Behavior._--Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) write: + + When searching for food they move about a great deal, + with a distinct trot, and on occasion have been seen to + hop along on one leg as Torrey has observed sanderlings + to do at Santa Barbara. Their movements are rapid and + their strides exceedingly long. At Netarts Bay, Oreg., + Jewett says that when running fast the strides of one of + these birds proved to measure 6 inches. One of the birds + will start, run 3 or 4 feet, and stop suddenly, the whole + performance occupying but a second or two. There is an + abrupt upward tilt of the body at intervals, and with the + return movement the quavering note is often uttered. In + flight the birds may travel in open formation, or closely + massed, and the flight may be either direct, or in zigzag + course as with the small sandpipers. Both in flight, and on + the ground, their chunky appearance helps to distinguish + them from the small sandpipers. They are quite tame and + will usually permit a close approach, preferring apparently + to trot along in front of the observer, or off to one side, + rather than to take wing. + +Florence Merriam Bailey (1916) observes: + + Besides the large waders, the godwits, willets, and surf + birds, there were flocks of little sanderlings and snowy + plover, looking like small chickens on the beach among the + bigger birds. The snowy plover, plump, squat little fellows + with head markings that suggest wide foreheads and backs + that match the sand on which they love to sun themselves, + when feeding on the beach would hurry back ahead of the + foam, their short legs making them more in danger of + getting wet than the long-legged godwits. When resting, + the plump little sandy-backed fellows kept by themselves. + Sometimes as I walked along above the line of the tide, + bits of sand would take legs ahead of me, the brown forms + that squatted in my path having been entirely overlooked. + When I saw them before they got up, and stopped to talk to + them, the confiding little fellows flatteringly sat still + or went on fixing their feathers, looking very comfortable + in the warm sand. To me they seemed the most winning and + attractive of all the lovely little sandpipers. When they + were surprised and ran from me they did it in a comical + crouching way as if knowing their backs were sand color and + trying to hide their black legs and plump white bodies. + Their habit of bobbing the head is doubtless useful at + times, but the motion often catches the eye when without it + they would not be separated from the sand. + +_Voice._--Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) say: “Snowy plover are +exceptionally quiet birds; but at times a low, guttural, trilling note, +_cr-r-r-r_ or _pe-e-e-et_, may be given, and when the vicinity of the +nest is invaded the birds give utterance to relatively loud cries.” + +_Field marks._--They also give the best recognition marks, as follows: + + The snowy plover is readily distinguished from most other + shore birds occurring in California by its very small size + (total length, 6–7 inches). It is but slightly larger than + our smallest shore bird, the least sandpiper. The chunky + appearance, short, thick bill (which is shorter than the + head), white collar around hind neck, uniform pale drab + upper surface, pure white under surface, and conspicuous + dark-brown or black patches at the sides of the breast + are all useful as aids to recognition. From the killdeer, + and the semipalmated and Wilson plovers, the snowy is + distinguished by its lack of complete black or dark-brown + breast band and by its smaller size, and from the least + and western sandpipers, and from the sanderling, by its + white collar around hind neck and by the dark patches at + the sides of its chest; and, in spring, from the last three + named birds by the absence of mixed coloration on its upper + surface. + +_Winter._--The snowy plover is a permanent resident throughout the +southern part of its range, though perhaps the same individuals may +not be present all the year round. It winters as far north as San +Francisco, but more abundantly from Santa Barbara southward, where its +numbers are increased in winter by migrants from farther north and +where flocks of 50 or more are often seen. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--The United States (principally the western part), the West +Indies, and Central and South America. + +_Breeding range._--The snowy plover breeds north probably to Washington +(Willapa Harbor); Utah (Bear River and Farmington); southern Kansas +(Comanche County); Oklahoma (Cimarron River); Mississippi (Horn +Island); Florida (Pensacola, and Santa Rosa Island); and Cuba (rarely +Guantanamo). East to Cuba (rarely Guantanamo). South to Cuba (rarely +Guantanamo); southern Texas (Refugio County, probably San Patricio +County, and Corpus Christi); probably New Mexico (Carlsbad); and +Lower California (La Paz). West to Lower California (La Paz, probably +Santa Rosalia Bay, and probably San Quentin Bay); California (San +Diego, probably San Nicholas Island, probably San Miguel Island, +Santa Barbara, Morro, Monterey, Santa Cruz, Pescadero, San Francisco, +and Eureka); probably Oregon (Netarts Bay); and probably Washington +(Willapa Harbor). + +_Winter range._--The winter range extends north to California (Santa +Cruz Islands); Texas (Brownsville, Corpus Christi, and Aransas Bay); +probably coastal regions of Louisiana; Florida (Pensacola, Santa +Rosa Island, Cedar Keys, Clearwater, and Fort Myers); Bahama Islands +(Riley); probably Cuba (Gundlach); probably Yucatan; and Chile +(Calbuco). South to Chile (Calbuco). West to Chile (Calbuco, and +probably Valparaiso); Peru (Chorillos, and the valley of the Tambo); +probably Guatemala (Chiapam); Lower California (La Paz, Magdalena +Islands, and San Cristobal Bay); and California (San Diego, Santa Cruz +Island, Santa Barbara, and Monterey Bay). They also were noted at +Westport, Wash., on December 19, 1927 (letter, J. H. Bowles), and so +may winter rarely in that region. + +_Spring migration._--But little information is available concerning +the migration of the snowy plover. Early dates of spring arrival are: +Kansas, McPherson, April 14, and Douglas County, April 22; Utah, Salt +Lake County, May 3; Oregon, Corvallis, March 24, and Malheur Lake, +April 20; and Washington, Grays Harbor, April 7. + +_Fall migration._--The few available late dates of fall departure are: +Washington, Point Chehalis, November 18; and northern California, San +Francisco, November 1, and Alameda, December 3. + +_Casual records._--The snowy plover has been detected outside of its +normal range on a few occasions. Among these are: Brazil (Specimen in +United States National Museum); southern Chile (Coquimbo, Straits of +Magellan in June [Sharpe]); Ontario, Toronto, one specimen in May, +1880, and another on July 6, 1897 (Fleming); Nebraska, two specimens +at Lincoln, May 17, 1903 (Swenk); Wyoming, one taken near Cheyenne +(Knight); while a specimen from Kodiak Island, Alaska, reported by +Schalow (1891) as _Charadrius alexandrinus_, may be this species. + +_Egg dates._--California: 155 records, April 2 to July 28; 78 records, +May 5 to June 14. Utah: 5 records, April 30 to June 15. + +[AUTHOR’S NOTE.--The above distribution includes both North American +races. Probably the birds found breeding east of the Rocky Mountains +and wintering on eastern coasts will prove to be referable to +_tenuirostris_, but there are not enough specimens available from these +localities to outline definitely the ranges of the two races.] + + + CHARADRIUS NIVOSUS TENUIROSTRIS (Lawrence) + + CUBAN SNOWY PLOVER + + + HABITS + +The snowy plover which breeds on the Gulf coasts of Texas, Louisiana, +and Florida, as well as in Cuba, the Bahamas, and a few places in the +interior has been separated from the Pacific coast form under the above +name. The difference between the two forms is not easily recognized, +but the eastern bird is said to be much paler and may average a trifle +smaller. The habits of the two seem to be similar. N. S. Goss (1891) +found this bird breeding on the salt plains along the Cimarron River, +Indian Territory, in 1886. Herbert W. Brandt sent me some notes on a +nest found by him in Nueces County, Tex. Francis M. Weston writes to me +that it is common and breeds near Pensacola, Fla. He says of its notes: + + When on the ground the Cuban snowy plover gives a + low-pitched, musical whistle, roughly indicated by the + words _pe-wee-ah_ or _o-wee-ah_, the accent being on the + second syllable with the first and third almost inaudible + at a distance of 30 feet. The flight note is a purring + whistle, suggestive of the rolling note of the Carolina + wren but pitched lower and not as strident. + +It was apparently common during the winter in Pinellas County, Fla., +frequenting the sandy islands and ocean beaches in the vicinity of +Tampa Bay; but we found it difficult to separate it, in immature +and winter plumages, from young piping plover, unless we were near +enough to recognize its slender bill; the difference in size was not +noticeable except by direct comparison. I can find nothing in its +nesting habits or in its behavior in which it differs from the Pacific +snowy plover. I have not seen its eggs, but presume that they are like +those of the western form. + + + CHARADRIUS MONGOLUS MONGOLUS Pallas + + MONGOLIAN PLOVER + + + HABITS + +According to the Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain: + + This species is now known to be divided into two fairly + distinguishable subspecies, the typical race breeding in + Mongolia, Kamchatka, and Eastern Siberia as well as on the + Commander Islands, and wintering from the Philippines, + Celebes, etc., to New Guinea and Australia. It is this + form which has occurred in Alaska. _Charadrius mongolus + atrifrons_ Wagler, the western race, breeds from the + Kirghis Steppes in South Russia to the Himalayas and Tibet, + wintering in East Africa, Madagascar, the Seychelles, + India, Malacca, and the Great Sunda Isles. + +Like several other Asiatic species, it occasionally wanders across +Bering Strait into extreme northwestern Alaska. Joseph Dixon (1918) +throws considerable doubt over the time-honored record of specimens +supposed to have been taken by Captain Moore of the plover on the +Choris Peninsula in the summer of 1849; his reasoning, which seems to +be sound, suggests that these specimens were probably taken on the +Siberian side. However, Alfred M. Bailey (1926) collected a male of +this species at Cape Prince of Wales on June 11, 1922, of which he says: + + The tundra was still snow covered, only a small, sandy + strip being bare along Lopp Lagoon, and there I found + this little wanderer from the Siberian shore in company + with yellow wagtails. A south wind had been blowing for a + few days previous, which changed to the north the evening + before. On these changes of winds I observed that Old World + birds were likely to drift across the channel. + +Harry S. Swarth has very kindly given me, in advance of publication +by the California Academy of Sciences, the latest records of the +occurrence of this species in Alaska. While collecting for the academy +on Nunivak Island, C. G. Harrold took two specimens, a female on +August 14 and a male on September 1, 1927. Two others were seen on +August 14, one on September 11, and one on September 13. It looks as if +this might be more than a casual straggler in Alaska. + +Dr. Leonhard Stejneger (1885) writes: + + The Mongolian plover is a very common resident on the + Commander Islands; in fact, one of the most characteristic + birds of their fauna. It is one of the brightest and + handsomest shore birds, and is always gladly welcomed + when making its appearance during the first half of May. + I used then to watch with delight these elegant runners, + wondering at the almost incredible rapidity with which they + move their legs when chasing each other over the pebbly + beach, or trying to escape the approaching hunter. Very + soon, however, the pairs retire to the place chosen for the + summer home, and, as soon as the eggs are laid, the birds + become more shy and do not expose themselves as much as + they did before. + +_Nesting._--There are three sets of eggs in the United States National +Museum taken by Doctor Stejneger in the Commander Islands “during the +first days of June.” He says that the birds “do not fly directly from +the nest but run away a distance from it before taking wing,” which +makes it difficult to find the nests. A nest he describes-- + + Was found on the islet Toporkof, on the 4th of June, + 1883, and contained three eggs. They were lying, with + their pointed ends inwards and downwards, in a slight + hollow in the ground between the stems of four _Angelica + archangelica_. Dry particles of the leaves and stems of + this plant, and numerous seeds of the same, formed the + nest, being evidently brought together by the bird itself. + The situation of the nest was about 40 feet from the line + of high water and about 14 feet above the level of the sea. + +Mr. Jourdain contributes the following: + + Interesting confirmation of Doctor Stejneger’s observations + on the breeding habits and eggs of this species have been + furnished by the recent discovery of the breeding haunts + of the western race by Messrs. H. Whistler (1925) and B. + B. Osmaston (1927) at high altitudes in the Himalayan + range. Mr. Whistler found at least five pairs breeding + on the stony wastes near the Chandra Lake in Lahul, at + 14,000 feet on July 10 to 11. Two clutches, each of three + well-incubated eggs and one brood of three downy young + were taken. Other pairs were subsequently found breeding + in Spiti (13,500 ft.) and on the northern slopes of the + Bara Lacha range. Mr. B. B. Osmaston found this species not + uncommon in South and East Ladakh in summer, between 13,000 + and 15,500 feet. It was located as breeding in Rukshu near + the Tsokar and Tso Morari Lakes at about 15,000 feet and + between the Indus and Shushal at 14,000 to 14,500 feet, by + the Pangong Lake at 14,000 and in the upper Surun Valley at + 13,000 feet. + +In every case three eggs or young were found and the nest was a slight +depression in the sand, among shingle (Osmaston, 1927), or in hollows +among the trailing stems of a small creeping ground plant with a +woodlike stem, sparingly lined with broken chips and fragments of the +plant stems (Whistler 1925). + +_Eggs._--The nine eggs collected by Doctor Stejneger vary in shape from +ovate to ovate pyriform and they show no gloss. The ground colors vary +from “cinnamon buff” to “deep olive buff.” They are quite evenly, but +not heavily, marked with small spots of very dark browns, “warm sepia” +to “bone brown,” or brownish black. There is a set of three eggs, +which seems to be the usual number, in the collection of Col. John E. +Thayer, taken at Omsk, Siberia, on June 9, 1893. These are subpyriform +in shape, without gloss. The ground colors vary from “deep olive buff” +to “pale olive buff.” One egg is uniformly covered with fine pen-like +scrawls of “sepia” and “pale violet gray.” The others are marked, +chiefly in a ring near the large end, with similar scrawls and with +irregular spots of brownish black or black. The measurements of 15 eggs +average 35.2 by 26.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes +measure =37.5= by 27, 32 by =28.8= and =30.5= by =23.2= millimeters. + +Mr. Jourdain says in his notes: + + The 12 eggs taken by Osmaston (1927) averaged 36.7 by 26.3, + while the 6 obtained by Whistler (1925) averaged 38.4 by + 26.5 millimeters, thus agreeing well on the whole with + those of the eastern race, but are as a rule rather larger. + The coloration is also similar, speckled with dark brown + spots on a ground of creamy stone. + + The parent bird slips off the nest very quietly and returns + very cautiously by short runs. It is naturally very + difficult to follow in the great waste of sand and shingle. + When disturbed on the breeding ground the old birds behave + much as other sand plovers, flying round uneasily in + circles and running about swiftly, but were less noisy than + common or lesser ringed plovers. + +_Young._--Doctor Stejneger (1885) says that the young ones are found-- + + about the middle of July. About this time the families + retire from the beach and are now met with in the interior, + where they ascend the mountains in search of tender + insects. I frequently met them at an altitude of 1,000 feet + or more above sea level. About the middle of September the + families return to the lowlands and to the beach, soon + afterwards leaving the islands. + + While at Glinka, on Copper Island, in July, 1883, a + young bird of this species, not yet fully feathered, was + brought to me alive. Allowed to run free on the floor it + immediately commenced a very animated pursuit of the rather + numerous flies, which were caught with remarkable precision + and rapidity and devoured with an unsatiable appetite. The + little fellow did not pay any attention to the presence of + several persons in the small room, but when the dog rose + from his nap in the corner, the swift-footed fly killer + suddenly dropped flat on the floor, with withdrawn neck, + making himself as small and flat as possible, and remained + thus perfectly immovable until the dog turned his head the + other way, then he ran off to the darkest corner of the + room, where he remained until the former laid down in his + old place. Then he started the fly hunting again; the dog + rose once more, and the same performance was repeated. + Within half an hour, however, he had learned that the dog + did not take any notice of him whatever, and consequently + he afterwards paid as little attention to the dog as to man. + +_Plumages._--The young bird referred to above was about half grown and +largely feathered when it died, but the specimen shows a little of the +natal down, mainly on the head, which is largely downy. The forehead +is buffy white, the crown mostly dark “bister,” and the sides of the +head are mottled with buffy and “bister”; the throat is pale buff. The +remiges are half grown and the new feathers of the mantle are “sepia,” +with “cinnamon-buff” tips; the feathers of the breast are “cinnamon +buff” or “pinkish buff” and those of the belly are white. + +Evidently the juvenal plumage soon fades, for a specimen taken on +September 22, in full juvenal plumage, is much paler. The entire upper +parts are “hair brown” or “drab,” with narrow, pale, buffy edgings; the +forehead and under parts are white, but the breast is suffused with +“pinkish buff” and invaded on the sides with the “drab” of the upper +parts. + +There is not sufficient material to show the molts and plumages +satisfactorily. Adults have a complete molt in August and September, at +which the cinnamon of the chest, neck, and head entirely disappears. + +_Voice._--Doctor Stejneger (1885) says that “the call note is a clear, +penetrating _drrrriit_.” Mr. Jourdain adds: “The call note is described +by Whistler as a soft _twip_, and the alarm note as a sort of chatter +of two syllables _corr up_, not unlike the note of a frog and compared +by Osmaston to that of a nightjar. It is uttered usually on the wing +and also occasionally on the ground.” + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Eastern Asia and Oceanica; accidental in Alaska. + +_Breeding range._--This race of the Mongolian plover breeds chiefly in +northeastern Siberia (Cape Serdze, Bering Island, Kamchatka, and the +Commander Islands); probably also in Dauria and Mongolia. + +_Winter range._--The winter range includes the Philippine Islands, the +Moluccas, New Guinea, and northern Australia. + +_Migration._--The species has been noted to arrive in spring at +Yokohama, Japan, on April 28, and at Bering Island, on May 11. A late +fall date on Bering Island is September 22. + +_Casual records._--On June 11, 1925, an adult male was collected at +Cape Prince of Wales (Bailey). Two specimens were taken by C. G. +Harrold on Nunivak Island, Alaska, in 1927, one on August 14, and one +on September 1; others were seen on August 14 and September 11 and 13. +These are the only North American records. + +_Egg dates._--Bering Island, June 4. Siberia, June 9. + + + PAGOLLA WILSONIA WILSONIA (Ord.) + + WILSON PLOVER + + + HABITS + +All along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to Florida is a broken +chain of sea-girt islands, with broad or steep, sandy or shelly beaches +on the ocean side, backed in many places by shifting sand dunes and +bordered on the inner or bay side by wide marshes of waving grass or +extensive flats exposed at low tide. Here, on the broader, more open +sand flats, among a scattered array of shells, pebbles, and other +débris cast up by the sea, or in the flat hollows among the sand +dunes, this little sand plover makes its home, within sound of the +pounding surf and fanned by the ocean breezes that carve the dunes +into fantastic shapes. Here, if we love to wander in these seaside +solitudes, we may see this gentle bird running along the beach ahead +of us, his feet twinkling so fast that we can hardly see them; he is +unafraid, as he stops and turns to watch us; the black bands on his +head and breast help to obliterate his form and he might be mistaken +for an old seashell or bit of driftwood; but, as we draw near, he turns +and runs on ahead of us, leading us thus on and on up the beach. There +is an air of gentleness in his manner and an air of wildness in his +note as he flies away. + +_Spring._--As the northern limit of the winter range extends well up +to central Florida, the Wilson plover has not far to migrate. It is an +early migrant. We saw it in Pinellas County, Fla., as early as February +7, where a few were present all winter. C. J. Pennock’s notes record +it at Charlotte Harbor on February 21 and 24, on two successive years. +Arthur T. Wayne (1910) says that it arrives in South Carolina late in +March; his earliest date is March 26. + +_Courtship._--During the month of March, when this species became +common in the vicinity of Tampa Bay, Fla., I had some opportunities +to watch its simple courtship display. A male shot on March 14 had +sexual organs developed nearly to full breeding size and many of the +birds were in pairs. In making the display the male runs around the +female in a crouching, hunchbacked attitude, with the head lowered, the +tail depressed and spread, and the wings drooping. The female seems +indifferent at first, but finally she accepts the caresses of the male. +They seem to be preoccupied in their love affairs and allow a close +approach. + +_Nesting._--On the sandy reefs and broad ocean beaches of the outer +islands about Bulls Bay, S. C., we found several nests of Wilson plover +on May 22 and 23, 1915. The nests were on the higher portions of +the beaches where the dry, sandy plains were sprinkled with bits of +broken shells, small stones, and pieces of driftwood or other rubbish +and where a few scattered weeds and grasses were the only signs of +vegetation. The nests were usually placed near some such object, or +partially sheltered by a few blades of grass, but some were out on the +open sand or in the flat sandy hollows between the dunes; they were +always beyond the reach of ordinary tides. Oyster-catchers and least +terns were nesting in the same localities and not far away willets were +nesting in the grassy places. + +Among the Florida Keys, on May 8, 1903, we found a small colony nesting +on Lake Key; there were beaches of finely broken shells surrounding a +small shallow pond, more or less overgrown with small, scattered red +mangroves. A colony of least terns were nesting here and a few pairs of +black-necked stilts. Four nests of the plover were found, one out on +the open beach among the terns’ nests and the others under the shelter +of little mangrove seedlings. These and all the other nests of Wilson +plover that I have found were mere hollows in the sand with no apparent +attempt at lining, but others have occasionally found them evidently +lined with bits of broken shell. Henry Thurston (1913) found a nest +“snuggled closely to the stump” of a “ripped up” palmetto; the eggs +were “resting in a small hole that had been scooped out in the sand +and adorned with a few twigs.” He left this nest and returned later +in an attempt to see the female leave the nest. As, he “got within a +few yards the male, unobserved before as he was facing him and was +therefore practically invisible, piped several notes. Swiftly and +mouse-like the female glided from her treasures, crouching low beside +the stump and did not stand erect until she reached the water’s edge.” + +The Wilson plover might almost be said to nest in colonies, although +the nests are usually not close together; N. B. Moore says in his notes +that they are never nearer than 20 yards apart. Oscar E. Baynard (1914) +found a colony of at least 50 pairs nesting on a bank of white sand, +probably half a mile long and barely a foot above high-water line. He +relates an interesting experience in changing eggs from one nest to +another. One of a set of three heavily incubated eggs that he had taken +hatched out in his possession; as he could not find the nest from which +they came, he hunted up another nest which contained fresh eggs; and +following is his account of what happened: + + I took these eggs and placed the young bird and my two eggs + in their place, and then moved off and sat down to watch + developments. In a few minutes the mother bird ran up to + the nest, looked hard at the young bird, which had run off + about 2 feet from the eggs, circled the nest several times, + and then squatted down on the two eggs and began calling + softly to the young bird. In a few minutes he crept up to + the old bird. She looked him over for fully two minutes, + then decided to adopt him, raked him under her out of the + sun, and settled down as contentedly as if the family were + really her own. Two days later I ran the boat close to the + beach opposite this nest. The old bird ran off, and up + jumped three young and took off up the beach after her. + +Donald J. Nicholson tells me that he once found a nest “about +three-quarters of the way up the side of a sand dune under the shelter +of a small bunch of grass.” He has also found this plover breeding on +Merritts Island, Fla., “on the exposed sandy patches along the Indian +River and around the water holes throughout the island”; here some +of the nests were sheltered among open growths of pickerel weed or +_Salicornia_. + +Dr. Frank M. Chapman (1891) found this bird breeding commonly near +Corpus Christi, Tex., and says: “A nest found April 25 was placed in +some short grass about 50 feet from the water. It was composed of a few +straws placed at the bottom of a slight depression in the sand, and +contained three fresh eggs.” + +_Eggs._--The Wilson plover ordinarily lays three eggs, often only two, +and very rarely four; I have a set of four eggs in my collection, taken +by Dr. Eugene E. Murphey on the coast of South Carolina. N. B. Moore +says in his notes that a day often intervened between the laying of +eggs, once an interval of two days occurred and in one nest the third +egg was laid on the ninth day after the first. The eggs are ovate to +short ovate in shape and they have no gloss. The ground colors vary +from “cream buff” to “cartridge buff.” They are usually thickly and +quite evenly covered with small spots, small irregular blotches and +scrawls of black, with a few similar, underlying markings of pale +shades of “Quaker drab.” The measurements of 66 eggs average 35.7 by +26.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =38.5= by +26, 37 by =27=, =31.5= by 26, and 34 by =25= millimeters. + +_Young._--N. B. Moore observed that the period of incubation is 24 or +25 days. I have no data showing that the male shares in the duty of +incubation, but he certainly shows considerable interest in the care +of the young. The young are able to leave the nesting hollow soon +after they are hatched and they are strong and swift runners, as well +as adept in the art of hiding. The female is a past master in the art +of decoying an intruder away from her young. Mr. Thurston (1913) has +described this strategy very well, as follows: + + As I approached this strip, seemingly from nowhere there + appeared a female plover, calling plaintively. Now I knew + that the season of nesting had begun. She was soon joined + by a male and another female that chorused with her their + wishes for my departure. How she coaxed me to follow her! + This I did for a time, trailing behind as she struggled + along on one leg, the other crumpled under her. Tediously + she kept ahead, calling--sobbing, I should have said--one + of the most pathetic yet beautiful notes I have heard. + Surely if ever there was a picture of parental distress + it was she. Finally, as though exhausted, she sank to the + sand and lay on her side gasping. The other two flew back + and forth overhead, whistling plaintively, but she heeded + them not, nor my approach, and lay there panting. I was + sure now that she was tired by her exertion and hurried to + catch her, only to learn that she was “playing possum.” + She allowed me to almost touch her, and fluttered off + again. Evidently she was not satisfied that her nest was + safe and she tried new tactics this time. With seemingly + broken wings that trailed as though helpless at her sides, + she started down the beach and once more I followed after, + but this time increased my speed. As I had about caught up + with her she gave a joyous whistle, sprang into the air, + and those wounded wings carried her like a bullet around a + point of wooded land and out of sight. She had accomplished + her purpose, as I had hopelessly lost the place from which + she started. Search as I might, and did, I could not find + it. + +_Plumages._--The upper parts of the downy young Wilson plover are of +about the same color pattern as the egg to make it equally invisible on +the sand. The crown, back, rump, wings, and thighs are “cream buff,” +mottled with black; the forehead, sides of the head, and under parts +are white; there is a broad white collar around the neck, and the outer +joint of the wing is white. + +The juvenal plumage, in what specimens I have seen, July 20 to 27, is +much like that of the adult female in winter, but the colors are duller +and the breast band is incomplete or only suggested. Perhaps earlier in +the season these birds might have shown buffy edgings which had since +worn away. Probably a postjuvenal molt takes place, but I have not been +able to trace it. In the first winter plumage the sexes are alike; but +at the first prenuptial molt, in February and March, the male assumes, +partially at least, the black markings on the head and breast. At the +next complete molt, the first postnuptial, the adult winter plumage is +acquired. + +Adults have an incomplete prenuptial molt, from January to March, +involving the body plumage, and a complete postnuptial molt, from July +to October. The sexes are quite unlike in nuptial plumage, the black +markings on the head and breast of the male being replaced by “wood +brown” in the female. In winter they are much alike, but I believe that +in fully adult males there is always more or less black in the breast +band. + +_Food._--Audubon (1840) says of these birds: + + They feed fully as much by night as by day, and the large + eyes of this, as of other species of the genus, seem to + fit them for nocturnal searchings. Their food consists + principally of small marine insects, minute shellfish, and + sand worms, with which they mix particles of sand. + +The stomachs of five birds taken on the coast of Alabama by Arthur H. +Howell (1924) contained “crabs and shrimps, with a few mollusks and +flies.” One taken in Porto Rico by Stuart T. Danforth (1926) contained +Dytiscid larvae and adults. + +_Behavior._--Audubon (1840) describes the behavior of this plover very +well, as follows: + + The flight of this species, is rapid, elegant, and + protracted. While traveling from one sand beach or island + to another, they fly low over the land or water, emitting + a fine, clear, soft note. Now and then, when after the + breeding season they form into flocks of 20 or 30, they + perform various evolutions in the air, cutting backward + and forward, as if inspecting the spot on which they wish + to alight, and then suddenly descend, sometimes on the + sea beach and sometimes on the more elevated sands at a + little distance from it. They do not run so nimbly as the + piping plovers nor are they nearly so shy. I have in fact + frequently walked up so as to be within 10 yards or so of + them. They seldom mix with other species, and they show a + decided preference to solitary uninhabited spots. + +_Voice._--My field notes, written over 20 years ago, refer to Wilson +plover flying about their breeding grounds, whistling their musical +call notes, somewhat suggestive of the notes of the piping plover, but +not so loud nor so rich in tone. Francis M. Weston writes to me that +“the note of anxiety, when on the ground, is a sharp _wheet_, beween a +chirp and a whistle. On the wing, it gives a low _tut-tut_, somewhat +like the alarm note of the wood thrush, but pitched lower and never of +more than two syllables.” C. J. Pennock says, in his notes, that when +they have eggs or young “they fly about close overhead, or run along +the sand, calling _queet, queet, quit it, quit it_, in a high-pitched +tone, frequently three or four birds joining in the vocal protest.” +John T. Nichols says in his notes: “The commonest note of this species +on the ground and on the wing is a ternlike _quip_, sometimes double +_qui-pip_. Less frequently, on the ground, it has a surprisingly human +whistled _whip_.” + +_Field marks._--The best field character of the Wilson plover is the +long, heavy, wholly black bill, which is very conspicuous in all +plumages; it is relatively larger and more prominent than that of +the black-bellied plover. The Wilson is decidedly larger than the +semipalmated or the piping plover; it is slightly lighter in color than +the former and much darker than the latter. I have noticed that in +flight it appears quite dark colored above, with no conspicuous white +except in the lateral tail feathers. + +_Winter._--We recorded this species as a winter resident on the +west coast of Florida as far north as Tampa Bay, but it was rare in +midwinter and did not become common until March. It frequented the sand +bars and sandy islands on the Gulf shore, together with other small +plovers and sandpipers. It was much tamer than any of the other shore +birds and less active; it was the only one of the whole tribe that +could be openly approached on the unprotected beaches. It was usually +seen singly, apart from the others, and never in flocks. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Southern United States, the West Indies, Central and South +America. + +_Breeding range._--The Wilson plover breeds north to probably Lower +California (La Paz); Texas (Brownsville, Corpus Christi, probably +Rockport, probably Matagorda Island, Houston, and Galveston); +Louisiana (probably Cameron Parish and the Breton Island Reservation); +Mississippi (Dog Key); probably Alabama (Bayou Labatre and Dauphin +Island); western Florida (Milton and probably James Island); and +formerly New Jersey (Beach Haven). East to formerly New Jersey (Beach +Haven, probably Great Egg Harbor, and Cape May); Virginia (Cobb Island +and Cape Charles); North Carolina (Pea Island, Beaufort, and Cape +Fear); South Carolina (Bulls Bay, Sullivan Island, and Frogmore); +Georgia (Tybee Island, Ossabaw Island, and Blackbeard Island); the east +coast of Florida (Fernandina, Amelia Island, Matanzas Inlet, Mosquito +Inlet, and Coronado Beach); the Bahama Islands (New Providence, Rum +Cay, and Inagua Island); and probably Porto Rico. South to probably +Porto Rico; probably Jamaica (Great Salt Pond and Port Henderson); +probably Cuba (Trinidad); and British Honduras (Grassy Cay). West to +British Honduras (Grassy Cay); Gulf of California; and probably Lower +California (La Paz). + +The status of the species in the southern part of its summer range +has not yet been definitely settled, and some alleged races have been +described, whose breeding ranges are undoubtedly included in the +summary given above. + +_Winter range._--The species has been detected in winter north to Lower +California (San Jose Island); Sonora (Guaymas); Texas (probably rarely +Brownsville and Matagorda County); probably Louisiana (Vermilion Bay); +Mississippi (Hancock County); and Florida (mouth of the St. Johns +River). East to Florida (mouth of the St. Johns River, St. Augustine, +New Smyrna, and Key West); the Bahama Islands (Andros Islands and +Watling Island); probably Santo Domingo (Samana); probably Porto Rico +(Culebra Island and Vieques Island); the Lesser Antilles (Anegada); +French Guiana (Cayenne and Rio Oyapok); and Brazil (Cajetuba, Bahia, +and Camamu). South to Brazil (Camamu); and Peru (Tumbez). West to Peru +(Tumbez); Ecuador (Puna Island); Colombia (Cartagena and Sabanilla); +Honduras (Swan Islands); Guatemala (Chiapam); and Lower California (La +Paz and San Jose Island). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are Georgia, +Cumberland, March 18, and Darien, March 19; South Carolina, Bulls +Point, March 10, Frogmore, March 20, and Mount Pleasant, March 26; +North Carolina, Fort Macon, April 15, and Pea and Bodie Islands, April +24; and Virginia, Toms Brook, April 8. + +_Fall migration._--Almost nothing is known about the fall migration of +this plover but Wayne (1910) says that it remains on the beaches of +South Carolina “until September 22, or perhaps until October.” + +_Casual records._--Wilson plovers have been noted or collected on +several occasions outside of their normal range. Most of these have +naturally been in New York and on the coast of New England. Among them +are: New York, three at Far Rockaway, May 17, 1879, one at Shinnecock +Bay, May 16, 1884, one at Good Ground, May 28, 1879, Orient, July +3, 1915, and Long Beach, July 1, 1872; Connecticut, taken once at +Stratford, and seen at Bridgeport on July 28, 1888; Massachusetts, +Gurnet Point, August 22, 1877, one at Ipswich, May 8, 1904, and about +25 reported as seen at Dennis, September 4, 1920; Nova Scotia, one at +Brier Island, April 28, 1880; and one from Halifax that is preserved in +the British Museum; and California, one taken at Pacific Beach, June +27, 1894, and another seen at Imperial Beach, May 11, 1918. + +_Egg dates._--Virginia: 22 records, May 4 to June 20; 11 records, May +27 to June 6. South Carolina and Georgia: 50 records, April 14 to June +21; 25 records, May 17 to June 10. Florida: 26 records, April 2 to July +10; 13 records, May 12 to June 11. Texas: 11 records, April 7 to June +18; 6 records, April 20 to May 19. + + + PODASOCYS MONTANUS (J. K. Townsend) + + MOUNTAIN PLOVER + + + HABITS + +The above name is not especially appropriate for this species. The +name, Rocky Mountain plover, would have been better, for its breeding +range is mainly in the Rocky Mountain plateau. It frequents elevated +ground but it is not a bird of the mountains but of the dry plains. +Coues (1874) says: + + While most other plovers haunt the vicinity of water, + to which some are almost confined, the present species + is not in the least degree of aquatic habits, but, on + the contrary, resorts to plains as dry and sterile as + any of our country--sometimes the grassy prairies, with + shore larks and titlarks, various ground sparrows, and + the burrowing owl; sometimes sandy deserts, where the + sage brush and the “chamizo,” the prickly pear and the + Spanish bayonet, grow in full luxuriance. It approaches + the Pacific, but will never be found on the beach itself, + with maritime birds, nor even on the adjoining mud-flats or + marshes, preferring the firm, grassy fields further back + from the water. + +_Nesting._--W. C. Bradbury (1918) has given us a very good account of +the nesting habits of the mountain plover in Colorado. Of the nesting +site and nest he says: + + The ground is an open, rolling prairie, above the line of + irrigation, and is devoted to cattle range. It is several + miles from natural surface water and streams, and is + covered with short-cropped buffalo or gramma grass, 2 or 3 + inches high, with frequent bunches of dwarfed prickly pear, + and an occasional cluster of stunted shrub or weed, rarely + more than a foot in height. With the six sets secured, in + no instance had the parent bird taken advantage of the + slight protection offered from sight or the elements by the + nearby cactus, shrubs or uneven spots of ground. In each + case, she had avoided such shelter, locating in the open, + generally between the small grass hummocks and not on or + in them; there was no evidence of the parent birds having + given more thought to nest preparation or concealment, than + does any other plover. In two of the sets the eggs were + all individually embedded in the baked earth to a depth + of one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, evidently having + settled when the surface of the ground was reduced to soft + mud by rain-water collecting in the slight depressions. As + the ground dried up the eggs were fixed in a perfect mould + or matrix, from which they could not roll. In fact they + could hardly be disturbed at all by the sitting birds. The + only nesting material was a small quantity of fine, dry + rootlets and “crowns” of gramma grass, the eggs in some + instances being slightly embedded in this lining. As it is + also present in all other depressions on the prairie it is + highly probable that here as elsewhere it was deposited + about the eggs by the wind and not through the agency of + the birds themselves. The protective coloration of the + nest and eggs, as well as of the rear view of the birds + themselves, even when in motion, is unsurpassed. In no + instance, except one hereinafter noted, was the bird seen + to leave the nest, nor was any nest found except in the + immediate vicinity of moving birds. + +H. G. Hoskin (1893) writes: + + The mountain plover builds its nest on open prairie. + The first egg is laid on bare ground, and as the set is + finished and incubation advances the bird gradually makes + a nest of dirt, pieces of hard grass, roots, etc. It takes + five or six days to complete set of three eggs. I have + never found more nor less than three eggs in a nest that I + thought complete. Old birds will fly off the nest while a + person on foot is 80 rods away, but will sit closely for + man on horseback or in a buggy. + +William G. Smith (1888) found three nests while traveling by wagon +across the Laramie Plains in Wyoming. “They were all placed within 50 +yards of the much-frequented roadway, and each time I saw the female +sitting on the eggs. The old birds are very white which contrasts with +the dark ground and causes them to be easily seen.” The art of feigning +lameness or injury, to entice the intruder away from eggs or young, +seems to be very highly developed in this species. Mr. Smith speaks of +one that seemed to be in a fit, as it lay on its side, within 6 feet +of him, “apparently in strong convulsions.” Mr. Bradbury (1918) tells +of one that, “spreading her wings horizontally to their extreme width +while standing, then falling flat with her neck and wings extended +their full length on the ground, at times with beak open, she retreated +as he approached, or followed closely as he returned toward the nest.” + +_Eggs._--The mountain plover lays almost invariably three eggs, +occasionally only two, and four eggs have been recorded. They are ovate +to short ovate in shape, with no gloss. The prevailing ground colors +are “deep olive buff” or “dark olive buff”; some few are “chamois” and +one pink set has a “light pinkish cinnamon” ground color. They are +irregularly marked, but chiefly near the larger end, with small spots +and scrawls of black, which sometimes form a ring near the larger end. +The measurments of 58 eggs average 37.3 by 28.3 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =40= by 28.5, 37.5 by =29.2=, =34.3= +by 28.4, and 38.5 by =27= millimeters. + +_Young._--Apparently both sexes incubate; an incubating male has been +taken. William G. Smith says in his notes: + + The young are very nimble when only a few days old, and + it is quite a task to catch them. They do not attempt to + hide. A peculiarity of these birds is, though three eggs + are generally laid, I never saw but two young with the old + birds. I lived on the prairies for six years, a mile from + any other habitation; I had every opportunity to observe + the traits of these birds. When they are well able to run + each of the old birds takes one to raise, and that method + seems the rule. + +Edward R. Warren’s (1912) observations do not agree with the above, for +he has seen a parent with three young and has seen the young attempt to +hide; but he says “it was easily seen when once found, for its colors +did not blend particularly well with the ground it was on.” + +_Plumages._--In the downy young mountain plover the upper parts +are “cream buff,” tinged with “chamois” on the crown, wings, and +rump, shading off to buffy white on the throat and under parts; the +crown, sides of the neck, occiput, back, wings, rump, and thighs are +conspicuously spotted with black; the forehead is unmarked. Young +birds, about half grown, show the juvenal plumage coming in on the +back, scapulars, crown, and sides of the breast, with the wing quills +bursting their sheaths. + +In full juvenal plumage, in September, the crown, back, scapulars, and +wing coverts are “buffy brown,” with “cinnamon-buff” edges, broadest +on the wing coverts; the sides of the head are “pinkish buff” and the +breast and flanks are suffused with the same color; the throat and +belly are white. This plumage seems to be worn without much change, +except by wear and fading, all through the first fall and winter. The +upper parts are still mainly “buffy brown,” but with only the faintest +trace of the edgings. The spring molt apparently does not involve +the wing coverts and very few scapulars, so that young birds can be +recognized by these retained feathers. + +Adults have a partial prenuptial molt in March and April, involving +the body plumage but not the wings and tail and not all the scapulars +and wing coverts. The black markings on the head are acquired and the +new feathers of the mantle are broadly tipped with “pinkish buff.” +The complete postnuptial molt is accomplished in July and August. The +winter plumage is similar to the nuptial, except that the black loral +patch is lacking and the black crown patch is replaced by dull brown. + +_Food._--Feeding on the dry upland plains and prairies, the mountain +plover’s food consists almost wholly, if not entirely, of insects. +Grasshoppers seem to be its principal food, but many crickets, beetles, +and flies are eaten. It seems to be a wholly beneficial species. +Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) quote Belding as saying “that he +often found this plover in recently sown grain fields, but was never +able to discover a single kernel of wheat in the stomachs of those he +shot.” + +_Behavior._--Coues (1874) writes: + + They were not difficult of approach, and I had no + difficulty in securing as many as I desired. On being + disturbed by too near approach, they lower the head, run + rapidly a few steps in a light, easy way, and then stop + abruptly, drawing themselves up to their full height and + looking around with timid yet unsuspicious glances. When + forced to fly by persistent annoyance, they rise rapidly + with quick wing beats and then proceed with alternate + sailing and flapping, during the former action holding the + wings decurved. They generally fly low over the ground and + soon realight, taking a few mincing steps as they touch the + ground; they then either squat low, in hopes of hiding, or + stand on tip-toe, as it were, for a better view of what + alarmed them. + +Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) say: + + This plover is a flocking species found in bands of + from fifteen to several hundred individuals. Often upon + alighting after they have been in flight, the birds will + immediately run to some distance, so that it is not always + possible to follow them up easily as with other shore + birds. The flocks fly low over the ground and are difficult + to see, except when they wheel. As they do this the under + surfaces of their wings show momentarily as silvery white + flashes. + +Aiken and Warren (1914) say: + + The mountain plover differs greatly in habits and + characteristics from its near relative the killdeer. It + shows no preference for wet ground but on the contrary + frequents mesas or high rolling prairie land, often remote + from water. Their manner is quiet; they have no wailing + cry; they run rapidly a short distance and stand silent and + motionless with the head sunk low on the shoulders. Their + unspotted plumage blends with the color of the dry grass + and parched ground and makes them difficult to discover. + But in August, when the young birds shift for themselves, + they gather in flocks and repair to the vicinity of water + holes and flooded fields. + +William G. Smith says in his notes: + + We have often foretold a hailstorm, which are very + prevalent here in summer, by these birds coming near the + house for protection; at these times they seem bewildered, + and nothing will drive them away. + +_Voice._--Coues (1874) says on this subject: + + Their notes are rather peculiar, as compared with those + of our other plovers, and vary a good deal, according to + circumstances. When the birds are feeding at their leisure, + and in no way apprehensive of danger, they utter a low and + rather pleasing whistle, though in a somewhat drawling or + rather lisping tone; but the note changes to a louder and + higher one, sometimes sounding harshly. + +_Field marks._--The mountain plover may be recognized as a medium sized +plover, dressed in plain colors. In the spring the black markings on +the head are visible at short range, but otherwise it is dull, sandy +brown above and white below, without the conspicuous markings of the +killdeer. In flight its axillars and the under sides of its wings are +conspicuously white. + +_Game._--This species once figured as a game bird and many were shot +and sold as game in the California markets. It was a fair-sized bird of +some food value, but it was not so highly prized, as a table bird, when +compared with some others. John G. Tyler (1916) writes: + + Had not the Federal law intervened these birds would soon + have disappeared forever, as their habits made them a very + easy victim for hunters. The birds feed in loose scattered + flocks, ranging over much ground, but when sufficiently + disturbed all the members of a company take wing and form + into a dense flock which, after beating rapidly back and + forth for a few moments, usually settles again within a + few yards of the intruder, a full hundred birds often + occupying a space no larger than 20 feet in diameter. As + they alight each bird flattens itself upon the ground where + its protective coloration renders it all but invisible save + for the winking of its very large eyes. + + As one old resident stated, a favorite method of hunting + was to drive with a horse and buggy among the scattered + birds and cause them to take wing, whereupon the horse was + brought to a standstill until the birds had again settled + on the ground, and in nearly every case this was within + easy gun range. The hunter immediately “ground sluiced” + them with one barrel just as they “squatted” and fired + again as the survivors took wing. My informant stated that + he once killed 65 birds with two shots, and this method + very rarely netted less than 30. I was informed that this + plover was rated as the best table bird in this part of the + State and that parties sometimes came from points as far + away as San Francisco to hunt them. Verily, as my friend + remarked, “they don’t seem to be as plentiful as they were + 25 years ago.” + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Western United States and Mexico; accidental in Florida and +Massachusetts. + +_Breeding range._--The mountain plover breeds north to Montana (Great +Falls, Fort Benton, Big Sandy, and the mouth of Milk River); and North +Dakota (Stump Lake). East to North Dakota (Stump Lake and probably +Hankison); western South Dakota (Edgemont); Nebraska (probably +Harrison, probably Marsland, North Platte, and Kearney); Kansas (Colby, +Oakley, probably Hays, Garden City, and probably Fort Dodge); and +Oklahoma (probably Camp Supply and Fort Cobb). South to Oklahoma (Fort +Cobb); Texas (Washburn, Hereford, and probably Fort Davis); New Mexico +(Otero County and Socorro County); and probably Arizona (Fort Whipple). +West to probably Arizona (Fort Whipple); Colorado (probably Del Norte, +Denver, Barr, and Loveland); Wyoming (Cheyenne, Laramie, probably Fort +Bridger, and probably Dubois); Idaho (Pahsimeroi Valley); and Montana +(Three Forks and Great Falls). + +_Winter range._--The mountain plover has the curious habit of occupying +a winter range that is farther west than its summer home. North to +California (probably rarely Marysville); Arizona (Santa Rosa, Buenos +Ayres, and Allaires Ranch); and Texas (San Antonio). East to Texas +(San Antonio, Eagle Pass, Aransas River, and Brownsville); Tamaulipas +(Matamoros); and Zacatecas (Zacatecas). South to Zacatecas (Zacatecas); +and Lower California (La Paz). West to Lower California (La Paz); +Sonora (Santa Rosa and Hermosillo); and California (San Diego, Santa +Ana, Los Angeles, Fort Tejon, Alila, Paicines, probably Stockton, and +probably rarely Marysville). + +_Spring migration._--Sufficient data are not available to clearly +define the migratory flights of the mountain plover but among early +dates of spring arrival are: Oklahoma, Norman, March 15; Colorado, +Loveland, March 18, Burlington, March 22, Barr, March 23, Springfield, +March 29, Denver, April 6, and Colorado Springs, April 19; Wyoming, +Cheyenne, April 5, Big Piney, April 12, and Fort Sanders, April 21; +South Dakota, Huron, April 16; and Montana, Big Sandy, May 4, and Fort +Custer, May 12. + +A late date of spring departure from California is Santa Ysabel, April +3. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival in California are: +Firebaugh, September 11, and Montebello, September 15. + +Late dates of fall departure are Montana, Sun River, September 4, Camp +Thorne, on the Yellowstone, September 13, and Big Sandy, September +18; South Dakota, Forestburg, September 20; Nebraska, Monroe Canyon, +September 27; Wyoming, Efell, September 4, and Sweetwater, September +13; Colorado, Barr, October 12, and Beloit, October 15; and New Mexico, +Santa Rosa, September 27, and Stinking Spring Lake, October 1. + +_Casual records._--The mountain plover has been detected outside of its +normal range on but few occasions, three of which, curiously enough, +were in Florida. A flock of six was noted on December 1, 1870, at Key +West, and one specimen obtained (Maynard); R. W. Williams records +several at St. James Island between July 20 and August 1, 1901; and +on December 17, 1927, R. J. Longstreet secured a specimen at Daytona +Beach. The only other record is one for Massachusetts, an immature +male, taken at North Beach, near Chatham, on October 28, 1916, and +preserved in the collections of the Boston Society of Natural History +(Brooks). + +The species is unknown from Canada. During the international boundary +survey, Doctor Coues found mountain plover on Frenchman Creek and +obtained a specimen that is now in the British Museum. This is reported +as being labeled “forty-ninth parallel,” but the point of collection +was probably well within the present State of Montana. + +_Egg dates._--Colorado and Kansas: 74 records, April 30 to June 16; 37 +records, May 14 to 26. Montana and Wyoming: 4 records, May 22 to July 9. + + + + + Family APHRIZIDAE. Surf birds and Turnstones + + APHRIZA VIRGATA (Gmelin) + + SURF BIRD + + + HABITS + +From its summer home in the mountains of central Alaska the surf bird +migrates down the Pacific coasts of North and South America as far as +the Straits of Magellan. Twice each year some individuals make this +long journey, while others are scattered along the coasts from southern +Alaska southward. Consequently it may be found, chiefly on migrations +but occasionally at other seasons, by those who seek it on the outlying +rocky ledges, reefs, and promontories all along the Pacific coast. As +its name implies, it is a bird of the surf line, associated in its +rocky habitat with turnstones and wandering tattlers, unmindful of the +flying spray. It well deserves its generic name, which is taken from +two Greek words, _aphros_, meaning sea foam, and _zao_, I live. + +_Spring._--The spring migration is directly north along the coasts of +both continents. It is difficult to trace the dates, as the winter +range is so extensive. The latest recorded date for the Straits of +Magellan is March 3; and the earliest date of arrival at the Kobuk +River, Alaska, is May 29. The main flight along the California coast +seems to come in March. Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1909) reports a flight +at Admiralty Island, Alaska, on May 12, “a flock estimated to contain +300 waders, fully two-thirds of which were of this species.” Harry S. +Swarth (1911) says that, at Kuiu Island, Alaska, between April 25 and +May 6, “it was abundant and in large flocks, feeding in company with +the numerous other waders frequenting the mud flats.” H. B. Conover saw +it only once at Hooper Bay, Alaska, on May 18. + +_Nesting._--The breeding grounds and the nesting habits of the surf +bird long remained unknown. The birds vanished from the coast of Alaska +about the first of June and were not seen again for six weeks or more, +when they appeared again with their young. Rumors suggested that they +bred in the mountains in the interior. O. J. Murie (1924) gave us the +first definite information, when he discovered the breeding ground +of the species in the Mount McKinley Park region of central Alaska. +On July 13, 1921, he was descending a slope above timber line, “when +two surf birds were flushed and circled about making an outcry.” He +was “presently rewarded by seeing a downy young one striding away +bravely over the rough ground.” The young bird was secured and one of +the parents, which proved to be the male, thus establishing the first +breeding record for the species. + +Five years later Joseph Dixon (1927) spent considerable time in this +same region and succeeded in finding, on May 28, 1926, the first +nest of the surf bird. He took some excellent photographs and made a +thorough study of the bird and its habits, thus completing the picture +very satisfactorily. I shall quote freely from his excellent published +account of it. Regarding the nesting site and the nest he writes: + + One of the most striking things about the surf bird is + the remarkable difference between its winter and summer + habitat. Near the end of their northward migration in the + spring these birds abandon the seacoast and take up their + summer residence far in the interior, from 300 to 500 miles + from salt water. This involves a great altitudinal shift. + Instead of living at sea level as they do at other seasons, + during nesting time they are to be found on barren, + rocky mountains high up above timber line. During the + entire summer we never found these birds below 4,000 feet + elevation. + + The rocky character of the surf birds’ surroundings appears + to remain fairly constant throughout the year. In summer + the birds are to be found most frequently near the summits + of the rock slides where the broken rocks are much the + same as the rugged reefs they inhabit during the winter. + We found in the Mount McKinley district that the summer + range of the surf bird was almost identical with that of + the mountain sheep and that it was useless to look for surf + birds outside of “sheep” country. + + When standing on a barren wind-swept ridge late in the + afternoon of May 28, searching a nearby hillside with + binoculars, Mr. Wright’s attention was attracted to a + grayish bird that was sneaking hurriedly along over the + rocky ground. As he watched, the bird apparently faded + out of sight some 600 feet away. Marking the point of + disappearance he hurried over to the spot where the bird + was last seen and, falling to find the bird, began to think + he was mistaken. But, upon his taking one more step, the + bird flew up suddenly right into his face, startling him + mightily. As the bird flew away, the large white rump + patch, together with a white patch on either wing, brought + realization that this was the long-sought-for surf bird. A + hasty glance at his feet revealed the nest and contents of + four eggs. Another step forward and he would have placed + his foot directly in the nest! To George M. Wright belongs + the honor of being the first white man, of which we have + any record, to lay eyes on the nest and eggs of this rare + bird. + + The surf bird’s nest was located 1,000 feet above timber + line on a rocky ridge that faced southwest and lay fair to + the sun and hence was relatively free from snow. The nest + site was on dry rocky ground and not on the wet tundra + which was plentiful nearby. The rocky ground about the nest + was clothed with a thin carpet of alpine-arctic vegetation, + the tallest of which were a few creeping arctic willows + less than 2 inches high. The most conspicuous plant about + the nest was the white-flowered _Dryas integrifolia_. The + nest was entirely out in the open with no bushes that + afford the least concealment. In fact it was almost “out + in the street,” since the eggs were within a foot of a + frequently traveled trail of the white Alaska mountain + sheep (_Ovis dalli_). There was no fabricated nest such + as the wandering tattler makes. Instead, the eggs were + deposited in a natural erosional depression, the sides + of which had been lined with a few bits of dried-up + grayish-green lichens and caribou moss. The bottom of the + nest was composed of the dead emarginate leaves of _Dryas + integrifolia_, which only partially covered the crumbling + serpentine outcrop that formed the backbone of the ridge. + The nest, which was barely large enough to hold the four + eggs, which were placed as close together as possible, with + little ends down, measured 4 inches in diameter and an inch + and a half in depth. The eggs in the nest blended so well + with the reddish brown moss of the tundra that it became + difficult to make them out at a distance of more than 8 or + 10 feet. + +The nest was found at nearly 9 o’clock in the evening. They built a +crude shelter of rocks near it and kept a careful watch over it all +that night and half of the next day. During this time Mr. Dixon (1927) +made these observations: + + When it began to rain the surf bird merely fluffed up and + then spread out the feathers on his back so as completely + to cover the nest. This proved an effective method, + because the melting snow and the rain ran readily off the + surf-bird’s back and was absorbed by the moss outside the + nest. We were not so well protected and were soon shivering + and wet to the skin. + + At 4 o’clock a female mountain sheep appeared, silently, + like a ghost, out of the mist that came drifting over the + mountain peaks in great white swirls. She did not see us + at first, but when she was within 6 feet of and headed + directly toward the surf-bird’s nest she became suddenly + aware of our presence and took a step or two forward. + When the ewe was about to step on the nest the surf bird + suddenly “exploded” right in the astonished animal’s face. + This unexpected movement and the sudden noise and flash + of white of the bird’s spread wings and tail caused the + mountain sheep to jump back quickly; then she whirled + around and bounded off back up the trail. This sudden + movement of the surf bird at the critical moment doubtless + serves to prevent sheep and caribou from trampling upon its + nest and eggs. We found through repeated experiments that + this was the bird’s regular reaction. When we approached, + whether fast or slow, the bird would stay on the nest until + the last minute, and then, instead of sneaking off low to + the ground like most birds do, would fly directly up into + our faces. Even after we knew that the bird would do this + the psychological result on our part was the same. A person + would involuntarily recoil when the bird “exploded” like a + firecracker right in his face. + + When first frightened off the nest by Mr. Wright the + previous afternoon the bird, which we later thought might + have been the female, after “exploding,” ran away with + wings half spread and the tail spread out fanlike and + dragging on the ground. This displayed conspicuously the + white rump patch. Now and then this bird would nestle down + as though covering a nest. When about 100 yards distant + from the nest the bird began to wander about, pretending + to feed. It exhibited no concern whatever when Mr. Wright + returned to the nest and examined the eggs. It made no + attempt to return to the nest even after the observer + had retired to a distance and waited for a period of 10 + minutes, during which interval rain began to fall. + + In marked contrast with this rather indifferent attitude, + the bird which was watched on the nest for 16 hours, + behaved in an entirely different manner. This second bird, + when forced off the nest, would fly directly up into the + intruder’s face, and then run off to one side, a distance + of 8 or 10 feet, where it would perch on a rock, fluff out + its feathers like a “sitting” hen and utter a low plaintive + call, _tee-tee-teet!_ The call would often be repeated + two or three times after a slight pause of half a minute + between calls. When we started after this bird it would + lead us adroitly away from the nest; but if we stood still + it would soon hustle directly back, even when we were + standing only 10 feet distant. In going on to the nest the + bird was very careful not to step directly upon the eggs. + It would trot up to within a foot or so of the eggs and + then sneak cautiously down to the edge of the nest. Here it + would stop, inspect the eggs, and reach out with its bill + and turn the eggs about, keeping them little ends down. + Following this inspection the bird fluffed out the feathers + on its breast and sitting down gently on the edge of the + nest, slid its body forward with great care, until the eggs + were completely covered. + +_Eggs._--I have not yet seen these eggs, so I will quote Mr. Dixon’s +(1927) excellent description of them: + + The eggs of the surf bird are not easily confused with the + eggs of any other North American sandpiper or plover. In + shape they are pyriform but, though similar in form to eggs + of other birds of the order Limicolae, in color they appear + more like eggs of the falcons, particularly certain eggs of + the sparrow hawk and prairie falcon. + + In the type set, which is now safely housed in the + well-known Thayer collection, there is considerable + variation both in the ground color and in the markings of + the eggs. Three eggs of this set have an intensely buffy + ground color, while the fourth egg is of the same color + but decidedly lighter. The markings on the three eggs are + bold, varying in color from fawn to bay. The markings + on the fourth egg are small and evenly distributed. The + four eggs may be described as follows: The first egg has + a light ground color which equals tilleul-buff. In this + egg the marking consists of fine splashes, one-half to + two millimeters in length. There is but slight tendency + for the markings to form a wreath on the larger end. A + few small dark brown spots on its larger end identifies + this egg, which resembles slightly certain eggs of the + yellow-billed magpie. In egg number two the ground color + is rich tilleul-buff, while the markings consist of bold + bay-colored spots and splashes from one-half to three + millimeters in length. These spots are concentrated about + the larger end of the egg, where in places they are so + dense as completely to obscure the ground color. A few + deep-seated lavender under-shell markings are apparent + on this egg. Egg number three is similar both in ground + color and in markings to egg number two, except in egg + number three the heavy bay markings form a decided wreath + 21 millimeters in diameter about its larger end. Egg + number four has the richest ground color of all, while its + markings are fawn, but the markings are not so sharply + defined as in the other eggs. + +The four eggs measure =43.7= by 30.5, 41.5 by =31.5=, 43.3 by 31.2, and +=42.4= by =31=, and they average 42.7 by 31 millimeters. + +_Young._--Mr. Dixon (1927) demonstrated most conclusively that the male +does most, if not all, of the incubating. The bird that they had under +observation for 16 hours and the only one seen near the nest proved +to be the male. All of the five males collected had bare incubation +patches, while none of the females had these. Mr. Murie (1924) found +both parents attending the young bird which he captured; and the one +shot, probably the more solicitous one, was the male. Evidence is +accumulating all the time to show that with more shore birds than we +realize, perhaps with all, the males perform the greater part of the +domestic duties. + +_Plumages._--The young bird taken by Mr. Murie is still in the downy +stage. The upper parts are variegated and mottled with “cinnamon buff,” +brownish black, “sepia,” and buffy white; the forehead and sides of +the head are buffy white, boldly spotted and striped with black; the +crown is mainly spotted with black; the buffy tints are mainly on the +upper back, wings, thighs, and rump; the under parts are grayish white, +whitest on the chin and belly. + +When the young birds come down to the coast of Alaska, in August, +they are in full juvenal plumage. In this the crown is streaked with +“fuscous” and brownish black, the feathers having white edgings; the +chin and throat are white, with shaft streaks of “hair brown”; there +is a broad band of “hair brown” across the breast, with white edgings, +running into spots below, which are lacking on the white belly; the +mantle is “hair brown,” with very narrow whitish edgings, giving a +scaled appearance; the scapulars also have a subterminal “fuscous” bar; +the lesser and median wing coverts are broadly or conspicuously edged +with grayish white. + +A partial postjuvenal molt in the early fall produces a first winter +plumage which is like the adult winter, except that there are fewer and +smaller spots on the under parts; and the juvenal wing coverts and some +scapulars are retained. + +Two specimens, collected in Peru on June 30, illustrate the first +nuptial plumage. These are doubtless birds which do not migrate north +to breed during their first year. Apparently a nearly complete molt +has taken place, as the wings and tail appear fresh, but some of the +old scapulars and wing coverts are retained. The adult nuptial plumage +is suggested, but all traces of cinnamon are lacking; the feathers of +the mantle are “fuscous” or “hair brown,” broadly edged with grayish +white and subterminally bordered with brownish black; the crown is +grayish white, streaked with dusky; the scapulars are “fuscous” to +brownish black, broadly tipped, notched, or spotted with pale grayish; +the breast and flanks are less heavily marked than in the adult. I have +not seen this plumage described elsewhere. At the next molt the adult +winter plumage is assumed. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in August; I have seen one +with primaries and secondaries molting as early as August 27. In +adult winter plumage the upper parts are uniform “fuscous,” with only +slightly lighter (“hair brown”) edgings; the chin and throat are white, +spotted with “hair brown”; there is a broad band of “hair brown” across +the chest and below it the under parts are marked on the breast and +flanks with hastate spots of “fuscous.” + +A partial prenuptial molt of the body plumage takes place in April and +May, but some of the old winter feathers are generally retained. In +full nuptial plumage the head and neck are grayish white, everywhere +boldly streaked, or spotted, with black and slightly suffused on the +crown with “pinkish cinnamon”; the feathers of the back are centrally +black, broadly edged with white and tinged with “pinkish cinnamon”; but +the most striking features of this plumage are the scapulars, boldly +patterned with “pinkish cinnamon” and black, with narrow whitish tips; +the white under parts are boldly marked, especially on the breast and +flanks, with hastate, subcordate, or crescentic spots of brownish +black. The cinnamon colors fade during the breeding season to pale buff +and eventually to white in July birds. + +_Food._--On its breeding grounds in summer the surf bird feeds almost +entirely on insects, mainly flies and beetles. The analysis of the +stomach contents of eight birds, taken in Alaska and examined by the +Biological Survey, shows the following proportions: Diptera, 55.2 per +cent; Coleoptera, 36 per cent; Lepidoptera, 3.8 per cent; Hymenoptera, +3.3 per cent; Phalangidea, 1 per cent; snails, 5 per cent; and seeds, 2 +per cent. Mr. Dixon (1927) says of its feeding habits: + + Three days later seven surf birds were found feeding in + company at midday near this same spot. This time they were + foraging near the top of a very steep talus slope that lay + fair to the sun. Only a few scant flowers grew amid the + rocks, but insects were numerous and active. One surf bird + which, when later collected, proved to be a male stood + guard while the others fed. The slightest movement on my + part was sufficient to cause a warning note to be given + by this sentinel. When feeding, these birds ran hurriedly + over the rocks, traveling as fast or faster than a man + could walk. When an insect was sighted the pursuing surf + bird would stretch out its neck as far and as straight as + possible. Then moving stealthily forward the bird would + make a final thrust and secure the insect in its bill, much + in the same manner that a turkey stalks a grasshopper. + +At other seasons the surf bird feeds along the water line on ocean +beaches, preferring the rocky or stony shores, or reefs exposed at +low tide; here it extracts the soft parts of barnacles, mussels, or +other crustaceans and small mollusks, or picks up other minute forms +of marine life. It also feeds to some extent at the surf line on +sandy beaches or on mud flats, where it picks up similar food from +the surface without probing for it. At such times the birds are quite +pugnacious unless sufficiently scattered. + +_Behavior._--Mr. Dixon (1927) writes: + + On June 18 three surf birds were seen close under the + summit of a mountain. Here they occasionally ran about + and picked up insects, but more often they stood still on + exposed rocks and preened their feathers. One of these + three birds frequently raised both wings willet fashion + over its back until they almost met. These individuals + were exceedingly shy and would not allow the naturalist to + approach closer than 100 yards. We found that this timidity + was customary during the nesting season, when the birds + were encountered away from the immediate vicinity of the + nest. + + At 8 o’clock on the evening of June 24 I climbed to the + crest of a sharp ridge of one of the lower spurs of the + main Alaskan Range. As I reached the highest peak four + surf birds flew in from a distance. As they circled about + the peak they called, _tee, tee teet_ loudly. Their flight + was swift and plover-like. As they turned the white basal + portions of their tails together with the white bars of + their wings formed four white V’s which stood out vividly + in the strong glow of the evening sun. They circled the + peak several times, calling loudly and evidently seeking + for others of their kind. Soon there was an answering call + from the ground and the four birds settled down on a rocky + spur where three other surf birds were already feeding. + When I crawled up to within 50 yards of them all seven + birds ceased feeding and began to call loudly. After a + period of several minutes they began to feed again, one + remaining on guard while the others ran hither and thither + chasing insects over the rocks and tundra. + +Florence M. Bailey (1916) says of the behavior of surf birds on the +California coast: + + At high tide one day two of the surf birds were standing + on the sand ridge just above the water resting from their + labors, one with its back to the incoming waves staring + ahead of it as if lost in reverie. On the beach one of the + silent, solitary _Aphrizas_ would often stand facing me, as + if studying me intently, when, though I could not read its + innermost thoughts, I had a good chance to note its light + forehead and eye line, its white underparts, and streaked + chest. Two of the droll birds were found one day engaged + in an amusing performance that suggested the sparring of + boys. One turned sideways to the other as if on guard, then + dropped the wing on that side and spread its tail till the + white rump showed. The other in turn spread its tail and + they hopped over each other, doing this a number of times. + They would also dip their bills menacingly, and one of them + sat down several times as part of the play. As they flew + off they gave their wild _key-wé-ah_. + + When wanting to move down the beach one often flew close + along under the green wall of the combing surf. When it + alit its wings would be held out for an instant showing + the clear white line down their length and the broad + white base of the tail with the dusky tip. When on shore + they stood around so much with their preoccupied dreamy + gaze that, when one took wing and flew with swift strong + wing strokes out across the surf and over the ocean, a + disappearing white spot, you stood bewildered. Your idle + dreamer was a child of the sea! Perhaps when it stood on + the sandy beach with preoccupied gaze it was dreaming of + its rocky surf-dashed home to the north, or of its rocky + surf-dashed winter home to the south. How well its wild, + keen, plaintive _key-ah-wee_ tells the story! + +_Field marks._--While standing on rocks, at a distance or when the +light is poor, surf birds might be mistaken for black turnstones, but +they are somewhat larger. They are more stockily built and generally +darker colored than other shore birds. But in flight they may be easily +recognized by the broad white band in the wing, and by the white upper +tail coverts and basal half of the tail; they lack the broad white +patch in the center of the back and white stripes, which distinguish +the turnstones. + +_Fall._--The birds apparently leave their breeding grounds in July and +move down to the coast of Alaska; some reach Oregon before the end +of July and California early in August. Apparently the adults come +first. Young birds have been taken on the coast of southern Alaska as +early as August 27 and have been noted at St. Michael up to the last +of September. During the fall they move gradually down the coast, +lingering for the winter at favorable places. + +_Winter._--The surf bird winters in small numbers, occasionally if not +regularly, as far north as Wrangell, Alaska. Carl Lien has sent me the +following notes from the coast of Washington: + + Destruction Island lies 50 miles south of Cape Flattery + and 3 out from the mainland. It is 35 acres in extent + and surrounded by extensive reefs which are uncovered at + low tide. There are numerous rocky ridges that are well + above the water at high tide, these ridges forming little + protected bays and harbors. + + I first went to this island in December, 1910. On nice days + when the sea was smooth it was my custom to row around the + reefs observing the birds. I found the surf birds generally + in company with Aleutian sandpipers and black turnstones. + There would be a half dozen on this reef and similar + bunches on neighboring reefs. Their actions were very + lively, now running to a higher point on the rock as the + wash from the swell came rushing up, now running down again + as the water receded, feeding busily. The only thing I ever + found in their stomachs was small mussels about an eighth + of an inch long, occasionally up to a quarter of an inch. + The following autumn they returned though I did not note + the date. I saw them from time to time during the winter + in the winters of 1912–13, 1913–14, 1914–15, 1915–16, + 1916–17. They would arrive the last week in October or the + first week in November. The flock on its first arrival + would number about 200 birds. They would begin to leave + the island the 1st of April and by the 1st of May there + would be none left. They did not visit the high parts of + the island but confined themselves to the reefs and gravel + bars. They were very wary and hard to approach on foot + though they would sometimes allow a boat to come within 10 + yards. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Western North and South America. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the surf bird is evidently +in the higher mountains of the interior of Alaska. The nest and eggs +have been found on one occasion only, in the Mount McKinley district +(Dixon, 1927), but Murie (1924) found young, apparently about a week +old, at the headwaters of Forty-mile River. There also seems a strong +probability that the species breeds in the Selawik Range on the south +side of the Kowak Valley (Grinnell, 1900), and in the region around the +head of the Savage River in the Alaska Range (Murie, 1924). + +Sharing a trait with other shore birds, some nonbreeders frequently +remain through the summer at points far south of the breeding +grounds. During this period they have been noted in California (Santa +Barbara and the Farallone Islands); Oregon (Newport); and Washington +(Destruction Island and Camp Mora, Clallam County). + +_Winter range._--In winter the surf bird is found on the Pacific coast +both of North and South America. It has been detected south to the +Straits of Magellan (Van Island in Trinity Channel), and at other +points on the coast of Chile (Valdivia, Paposo, and Atacama); and Peru +(Pisco Bay). At this season in North America it has been collected +or observed in California (Monterey and probably San Francisco Bay +region); Oregon (Cape Meares, Cannon Beach, and the entrance to Yaquina +Bay); Washington (Jefferson County and Destruction Island); and Alaska +(Wrangel and Craig). These latter records would appear to indicate that +some individuals are only partially migratory. + +_Migration._--Because of the extensive areas that may be occupied by +the species, particularly in winter, and in view of the scarcity of +existing data, it is difficult to present an adequate picture of its +migrations. The following dates may, however, throw some light on its +movements. + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of arrival are Lower California, San +Geronimo Island, March 15; California, San Diego, March 19; Oregon, +Newport, March 21; Washington, Puget Sound, March 8; and Alaska, +Admiralty Island, April 17, Forrester Island, April 20, Kuiu Island, +April 25, Craig, May 9, and Kobuk River, May 29. + +Late dates of spring departure are Chile, Van Island, March 3; Lower +California, San Geronimo Island, April 13, Turtle Bay, April 14, +and Abreojos Point, April 19; California, Los Angeles, May 1, Santa +Barbara, May 4, Point Pinos, May 10, and San Nicolas Island, May 15; +Oregon, Newport, May 3; and Washington, Jefferson County, April 28. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: Alaskan coast, +Sitka, July 21, and Nushagak, August 9; British Columbia, Porcher +Island, July 12, and Queen Charlotte Islands, August 2; Oregon, +Newport, July 24; and California, Monterey Bay, August 3, and Point +Pinos, August 5. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, Craig, September 4, Sitka, +September 5, and Nome, September 9; British Columbia, Comox, September +2; Oregon, Netarts Bay, November 19; and California, Berkeley, October +24. + +_Egg dates._--Alaska: One record, May 28, 1926. + + + ARENARIA INTERPRES (Linnaeus) + + TURNSTONE + + + HABITS + +The above species is cosmopolitan; it has a circumpolar breeding range, +and its migrations extend over nearly all of the Northern Hemisphere +and a large part of the Southern. It has been split into two, or +possibly three, geographical races. In the author’s opinion only two +races should be recognized; the Palaearctic form, _interpres_, averages +slightly larger, and is decidedly darker, the black predominating over +the rufous on the upper parts; the Nearctic form, _morinella_, averages +slightly smaller, is decidedly lighter, the rufous predominating on +the upper parts; these two races are well marked and are generally +recognized. The Pacific race has been described under the name +_oahuensis_, from specimens taken on Oahu Island in the Hawaiian group. +It is supposed to breed in Alaska and spend the winter in the Hawaiian +and other Pacific islands. It seems to be strictly intermediate, both +in size and color, between _interpres_ and _morinella_. Some of the +best authorities have not recognized it in nomenclature, which seems to +be a wise course. For the purpose of this life history the species as a +whole will be considered. + +_Spring._--The northward migration of the ruddy turnstone through the +United States is accomplished mainly during May, but many linger along +through the first week in June. I have seen turnstones in Louisiana +as late as June 17 and 23, but some that I shot were immature birds, +apparently 1 year old, which probably would not breed that season. +Arthur T. Wayne (1910) has seen high plumaged birds in South Carolina +on June 11 and 12, which were doubtless late migrants; but he says that +birds in immature or winter plumage are seen in June more frequently +than adults. These latter illustrate the well-established fact that +many shore birds do not attain their full plumage and do not breed +during their first year, but remain within their winter ranges or far +south of their breeding ranges all summer. + +Many observers have stated that turnstones do not migrate in large +flocks in the spring, but I have seen some very large flocks on Cape +Cod containing several hundred. On the coast of New Jersey during +the latter part of May, 1927, we saw a wonderful flight of this and +other shore birds; on the 20th we counted 3,600 turnstones, on the +26th 4,500, on the 27th 5,000, and on the 28th 7,000; many of these +were in immense flocks of this species only, but more often they were +associated in large flocks with black-bellied plovers; one enormous +flock of the two species was estimated to contain 3,500 birds. + +The main migration route is along the sea coast. Migrants have been +known to reach Massachusetts as early as May 1, and my latest date +is June 5; but the main flight comes during the latter half of May. +Dr. W. Elmer Ekblaw tells me that it reaches its breeding grounds in +northwestern Greenland during the first week in June. + +There is a regular migration northward through the interior, but +in much smaller numbers. Pierce Brodkorb and Frank Grasett give +me dates for northeastern Illinois from April 30 to June 18. We +collected specimens in Nelson County, N. Dak., on June 5, and at +Lake Winnipegosis, Manitoba, on June 1 and 2; but we did not record +the species at all during the two seasons spent in southwestern +Saskatchewan. Prof. William Rowan tells me that it is rare in his +section of Alberta. The route is evidently northward from Manitoba +through the Athabaska-Mackenzie region. Samuel F. Rathbun has sent me +the following notes on the former abundance of turnstones in Manitoba: + + In that Province we spent the greater part of the spring + and summer of 1889, and on one occasion went to Lake + Manitoba driving as directly as possible across what was + then an unsettled country. We clambered up one of the dunes + and looked over its top, and right in front of us and up + and down the beach almost as far as could be seen, were + countless numbers of shore birds. On the sands nearly all + of these were in constant motion, while over the surface of + the lake flocks were flying to and fro. By far the greater + number of the birds were turnstones and the flocks of these + were always very large. I hesitate to give my estimate + of the number seen, but I made many counts and forming a + rough guess from these judged at the time that there must + have been somewhere near eight or ten thousand of the + turnstones. And I have always believed this estimate to be + somewhere near correct. This was on the 30th of May and it + may have been that we were fortunate to have happened to + witness the height of the movement of these birds. + +The ruddy turnstone is a rather uncommon migrant on the Pacific coast +in April and May. Mr. Rathbun says in his notes that it-- + + appears to be a regular spring migrant along the ocean + coast of Washington, first being seen in early May. The + earlier birds seem to arrive in small numbers, to be + followed by flocks of fair size, but at no time are the + turnstones as common as are most of the other species of + shore birds that migrate along the coast. + +From its winter home in Australia the turnstone makes an early start +for its long flight over the ocean; W. B. Alexander tells me that his +latest record is of a pair seen April 25, 1914, on the estuary of the +Lost River on the south coast of western Australia. The Pacific form +of the turnstone has been named _oahuensis_ from a specimen taken on +the island where Honolulu is situated. The birds leave the Hawaiian +Islands in May and probably make a 2,000-mile flight over the Pacific +Ocean to the Commander and Aleutian Islands. Dr. Leonhard Stejneger +(1885) says that they make their appearance in the Commanders “early in +May (in 1883 the first ones were observed on the 7th), and the beach, +especially on the north shore of Bering Island, fairly swarms with +them. In June they disappear, and only a few remain during the summer.” +In his notes from Hooper Bay, Alaska, H. B. Conover says: “On May 15 +Du Fresne shot the first bird of this species. He had found it sitting +humped up on a log showing through the snow. The next day a pair was +seen, and after that date they were noticed constantly. On May 28 the +migration still must have been going on, as a flock of about 20 was +seen mixed with 6 golden plover.” + +_Courtship._--Doctor Ekblaw has sent me the following notes: + + The ruddy turnstone is almost if not quite as common as + the ringed plover along the beaches and about the gravelly + moraines and terraces of northwest Greenland. It comes to + the land the first week in June, frequenting the drifts of + kelp along the shore when the ice foot has melted away. + There they probe about the shells and seaweed, turning the + long drifts over to a depth of 3 inches. Where they have + worked, the shore looks as if a drove of tiny pigs had + rooted about. + + They begin mating as soon as they arrive, and many a + bitter struggle and amorous courtship takes place among + these birds during the first two weeks of June. The males + outnumber the females, so the rivalry is keen. As the + lowering sun of the day sinks nearest the midnight horizon + the wooing antics are at the height. Frequently two males + pursue the same female, seeking to win her favor, the while + they are combating one another for the advantage. In giddy, + reckless flight they sweep back and forth along the shore, + rarely rising more than 3 feet above the beach, usually but + a foot. When alighted the pursuit is just as eager, the + female racing about to escape the insistent attentions of + the males, the males eagerly pursuing her and struggling + between themselves for supremacy. The more pugnacious + usually wins out, though the other never gives up hope. + +The Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain contributes the following notes on the +subject: + + A study of the published records of the breeding habits of + the turnstone discloses the fact that practically nothing + has ever been written on the courtship and song of this + species. The only apparent exception is a passage by A. + Trevor-Battye (1895), who says: “This lovely bird has a + far more elaborate song than that of any wader I know. You + really may call it a song. I put it down at the time as + _chewah, chewah, chewecki, ki-ki-ki kee kee_, and he sings + it _con amore_ from any little mound.” My first experience + with the turnstone dates back to 1921, when with Mr. A. + H. Paget Wilkes we found the nests of some 19 pairs in + Spitsbergen. It was then late in the breeding season; every + pair had incubated eggs or young, but directly one arrived + within range of a breeding pair the cock would fly out to + meet us and greet us with his little challenge song. As a + rule attempts to describe the notes of birds by means of + letters are chiefly remarkable for their discrepancies, + but if Mr. Paget Wilkes’s version of the “attack note” is + compared with that of Mr. Trevor-Battye, the resemblance is + striking, _tche-wick ... tsche-wick, tche-wi-i-i-i-i-i-ck_. + Obviously the two “songs” are the same, yet we heard this + challenge daily from birds far advanced in incubation + and even with newly hatched young. It continued as long + as we remained in the neighborhood of the nest, and was + sometimes repeated in a weaker form by the female. When + the young were being brooded by the male and the female + was on guard this challenge note was uttered by her. + There is, of course, a strong element of challenge in all + bird song, and the turnstone is a born fighter. No foe is + too formidable to be attacked and driven off. It is most + amusing to see a male chasing a bird ten times as big as + himself and returning complacently to his sentry duty until + the approach of another probable enemy brings him again to + the attack. + + There is little doubt that all the “singing” males met with + by Trevor-Battye were really breeding birds defending the + territories and, as they fondly imagined, driving him away. + Of course the cheery little _chirrup_ of the turnstone has + no claim to musical excellence in spite of Trevor-Battye’s + exaggerated praise; no one could possibly compare it to + the sweet wild notes of the curlew or even the flutelike + notes of the purple sandpiper. Apparently in this species + the fighting instinct has replaced the tendency to display + on the wing before the female; and while many other waders + utter musical notes during the love flight the turnstone + reserves his for the attack. + +_Nesting._--Comparatively few nests of the ruddy turnstone have +ever been found, as the bird nests in the far north, where few +ornithologists have been. A set of three eggs in my collection, taken +by Capt. Joseph Bernard on Taylor Island, Victoria Land, on August +1, 1917, possibly a second laying, was in a hollow on the tundra. +MacFarlane found only two sets on the lower Anderson River, which were +precisely similar to those of the other waders, consisting of a few +withered leaves placed in a depression in the ground, each containing +four eggs. Eggs collected by Rev. A. R. Hoare at Point Hope, Alaska, +were laid “in depressions on mossy ridges of the tundra.” Herbert W. +Brandt has sent me the following notes on the nesting habits of these +birds in Alaska: + + At Hooper Bay the ruddy turnstone like the indigenous + plovers is an open-nesting bird and it depends for + concealment of its eggs upon the similarity of the shell + coloration to its surroundings. Near a limpid pool in + the low-rolling dunes the bird makes a shallow, circular + depression in the brownish green, velvetlike moss and this + it lines, haphazardly, with a few moss stems and often with + small crisp leaves of low-creeping woody plants. The range + of measurements of five nests is: Inside diameter, 3¾ to 4½ + inches; inside depth, 1 to 1½ inches; and depth over all is + 1 to 1¾ inches. The pied parents follow the habits of the + open-nesting birds, for they are wild and unapproachable + while breeding; so that in spite of its exposed location + the nest is anything but easy to find. Incubation patches + were present on both sexes and they did not employ, to + lure the intruder from the nesting area, the usual wounded + tactics of the other shore birds. + +In the Eastern Hemisphere numerous nests have been found and +considerable has been published on the subject. Henry J. Pearson +(1904), during his three summers in Russian Lapland, found several +nests of the turnstone. On June 13, 1899, on Little Heno Island, he +found a nest with four fresh eggs on a low sand spit. “The nest was +placed in a patch of dwarf sallow, 10 inches high, and near the edge of +a bank, the slight depression being lined with a few dry grasses and +dead leaves.” Another nest was found on June 27 on Great Heno. After +watching the bird in vain for a long time on “a bare stretch of peat, +with scarcely a scrap of vegetation and full of puffin holes,” they +returned the next day and flushed the turnstone out of a puffin hole; +“and there was a nest 18 inches from the mouth, containing three eggs +more than half incubated; a few dead sorrel stalks had been taken in to +form the nest.” On June 19, 1901, on Medveji Island, a nest was found +“placed under a large overhanging shelf of peat, in such a position +that the bird could slip on and off in two different directions +according to that from which danger was threatened. The young were +formed in the four incubated eggs.” He refers to two other nests found +on a sand spit, which were “on the open ground with no protection +beyond a few blades of grass.” + +W. C. Hewitson (1856) found a nest on the coast of Norway on “a flat +rock, bare except where here and there grew tufts of grass, or stunted +juniper clinging to its surface”; the nest “was placed against a ledge +of the rock, and consisted of nothing more than the drooping leaves of +the juniper bush, under a creeping branch of which the eggs, four in +number, were snugly concealed.” + +A number of nests of the turnstone were found by the Oxford expedition +to Spitsbergen, about which A. H. Paget-Wilkes (1922) has given us +considerable information. He says that “in spite of the presence of +large and small boulders and stones the turnstone in Spitsbergen does +not lay its eggs under the shelter of this somewhat scanty cover or +in the small holes or pockets in the soil, but chooses perfectly +open and bare, wind-swept places for its breeding sites.” Some seven +nests were found on islands and one of these is described as “a very +flat depression among small stones on a small ridge of dry, red mud.” +Other nests were scattered along the shore at intervals of about +three-quarters of a mile; but in one place five or six pairs were +nesting within a radius of half a mile. One nest was on a little island +of hard mud, only three yards by two yards in a stream. The turnstones +are very active and aggressive in defending their nests against +the jaegers; these marauders are persistently harried, desperately +attacked, and finally driven away. + +Ralph Chislett (1925) gives an interesting account of finding the +turnstone breeding on a Baltic isle, where the nests were hidden among +the dense herbage. He says: + + Against the sky, not more than 30 yards away, appearing + over the top of a rise in the ground, as seen from the + hiding tent, was a group of chervil flower heads. One of + the turnstones, on taking wing, flew directly to these + flower heads and appeared to settle in the midst of them. + After giving the bird time to get settled on the eggs (I + hoped) I crawled out of the tent, and keeping low was + within 6 yards of the chervil clump when the turnstone took + wing from a point 2 yards on the other side, repeating its + cry much more meaningly than hitherto. I had been prepared + to find the nest under shelter of some sort, but had not + expected the eggs to be so completely hidden from view as + proved to be the case here. The nest lay on the seaward + side of the clump. To obtain a view for the camera, a tall + chervil stalk, some leaves, and grasses had to be removed. + The definite scrape was lined with bits of seaweed and dry + grass stems to a depth of more than 1 inch. + +_Eggs._--Mr. Brandt has sent me the following good description of the +turnstone’s eggs collected by his party in Alaska: + + The ruddy turnstone lays four eggs and these may justly + claim rank as some of the handsomest of all the delightful + Hooper Bay limicoline series. They are subpyriform to + ovate in shape and lie points together in the shallow + nest. The shell is glossy and smooth and is quite strong. + The markings seldom cover more than half the area of the + eggs and in consequence the ground color is prominent. The + latter is quite variable, ranging from “yellowish glaucous” + to “olive buff” and even “deep olive buff.” The surface + markings are usually bold and are most heavily concentrated + on the larger end, but one striking type is known for its + beautiful marbled effect as the spots which are large and + clouded softly fade into the glossy ground color. These + spots are irregular in outline and are often slightly + elongate, twisting into a pronounced clockwise spiral. The + usual color of the primary spots is “warm sepia,” but in + the greenish setting they are “olive brown” while in the + marbled type “citrine drab” is the prevailing shade. When + the underlying markings are given prominence their soft + tones add to the beauty of the eggs. The colors of these + partially hidden ornaments range from “pale mouse gray” to + “mouse gray.” The additional markings of brownish black + to black are sparsely scattered over the larger part of + the egg usually in the form of small spots or pen-like + scratches. The vitality of the shore birds is attested by + the fact that four turnstone’s eggs laid in four days weigh + 2½ ounces, while the parent bird herself weighs but 3½ + ounces. + +Most of the turnstone’s eggs that I have seen are easily recognizable, +though the distinctive features are more easily seen than described. +The markings are usually quite evenly distributed and the egg well +covered with them. The 12 eggs so well illustrated on Frank Poynting’s +(1895) beautiful plate, all taken from European eggs, show some +variations not mentioned by Mr. Brandt. The buffy ground colors range +from “dark olive buff” to “olive buff”; and greenish ones from “water +green” to “yellowish glaucous.” One plain-looking egg is “dark olive +buff” with faint markings of a slightly darker shade. Another is +“water green” with numerous, small, almost black spots, and underlying +small spots of “light mouse gray.” The measurements of 100 European +eggs furnished by the Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain, average 40.5 by 29.2 +millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =44.5= by 30.4, +43.2 by =31.3=, =36= by 28.2 and 40.5 by =26= millimeters. Mr. Brandt’s +44 eggs, from Alaska, average slightly smaller, 39 by 28 millimeters; +the extremes of his and all other American and Greenland eggs that I +have measurements of fall within the limits given above for European +eggs. Egg measurements would seem to indicate that Alaska birds should +be referred to _morinella_, the smaller race. + +_Young._--The period of incubation does not seem to be known, but it is +a well-established fact that both sexes share in this duty, as well as +in the care of the young. Mr. Paget-Wilkes (1922) says: + + Both sexes incubate, but when the eggs are fresh or partly + incubated the hen seems to brood and the cock stands on + guard. When the eggs were within a day or two of hatching + or were just chipping we invariably found the cock + incubating, and when the young were out we always found the + cock looking after the family and the hen, with her duller + plumage and weaker notes, on guard. These characteristics + observed in the cases of 19 pairs should form a useful + basis for further research. + + On flushing the cock bird from four young in down on the + Mouettes Islands I was shown an example of his tenacity and + intelligence. I had taken the young birds away in my pocket + and had run back to the boat across a neck of land some + 300 yards broad. The cock chased me a little way and then + disappeared. On reaching the sea, however, on the other + side of the small peninsula, I immediately saw the cock fly + around the point and make straight for me, and he stood and + chattered at me until we rowed away in the boat. The hen + put in no appearance at all. + + Again, on one of the islands we watched a pair whose + behavior puzzled us, but soon discovered that there were + four young birds being looked after by the cock. The moment + he was flushed the young birds scattered in all directions, + and on our lying down again came back under the fatherly + wing. Before I discovered that the cock incubated in the + last stages I patiently watched a hen running about quite + unconcernedly for almost an hour, and then suddenly jumped + to the conclusion that the cock was sitting. When I got up + the hen gave the alarm note and I flushed the cock from + four chipping eggs. + +A. L. V. Manniche (1910) writes: + + The parents are very watchful against danger in the + breeding time and when the young ones are small. One of + them will keep a lookout from the summit of a large stone + or a rock while the other is brooding or guiding the young + ones. The bird on guard will discover an approaching enemy + at an incredibly long distance and rush toward him uttering + furious cries. Especially the skua (_Lestris longicauda_) + is a detested enemy of the turnstone. Every day I could + observe the hunting skuas pursued by turnstones. When one + pursuer returned to its district another would appear and + thus every skua was almost always accompanied by at least + one turnstone. Also toward the polar fox the turnstones + would betray great fear, and they would often join from + afar and swoop down on the hated enemy, uttering their + sharpest and most violent cries. + + Toward the end of July the young ones were able to fly but + were, however, generally accompanied by the old female. The + young ones would often resort to the upper part of rather + high rocks while the old female incessantly crying and + anxiously flapping tried to divert my attention from them. + When the old female had left her offspring and the country, + these would immediately take to the coast and the mouths of + rivers like other young waders. + +_Plumages._--The young turnstone in natal down is not brilliantly, yet +distinctively, colored. The upper parts, including the sides of the +head and neck, wings and thighs, vary from “cream buff” or “chamois” on +the crown and wings to “olive buff” on the neck and flanks. The crown, +back, wings, rump, and thighs are heavily spotted or broadly striped +with black; the center of the crown is largely black and so are the +lores; a broad space above the eyes and the forehead are “cream buff,” +with a black streak in the middle of the latter. There is some whitish +in the center of the back and the entire under parts are pure white. + +In full juvenal plumage, Alaska birds in July, the crown and mantle +are dark sepia or blackish brown, the feathers of the crown edged +with sandy brown, those of the back broadly edged with “pinkish buff” +or “cream buff” and the wing coverts still more broadly edged with +“cinnamon buff”; the tertials are edged with “cinnamon”; the feathers +of the rump, the tail coverts, and the tail are tipped with a buffy +wash; the under parts are similar in pattern to those of the adult, but +the black patches are browner and often show buffy tips. The sexes are +practically alike in juvenal and winter plumages. + +The first winter plumage is acquired by a partial body molt between +August and November; it can be distinguished from the adult winter +plumage by the presence of some retained tertials, scapulars, and +wing coverts; also it is not so uniformly dark as the adult, is more +streaked with buffy and whitish edgings on the head, neck, and back, +and it has less black in the gorget. The two races are distinguishable +in this plumage, _interpres_ being darker. + +The first prenuptial molt begins in January; it is similar to that of +the adult but is much less complete. I have seen a young bird in full +wing molt in January and think that young birds renew their flight +feathers before the first spring. The first nuptial plumage is, I +believe, a nonbreeding plumage, as it is worn by birds which spend +the summer far south of the breeding range. I have seen birds in this +plumage, collected in Florida and Louisiana, in every month from April +to August. This plumage resembles the adult nuptial, but the head is +more streaked with dusky or black; and in the mantle, scapulars and +wing coverts there is a mixture of new rufous feathers and both old +and new blackish brown feathers. The sexes are recognizable in this +plumage, the males being much brighter. A complete molt in August +produces the adult winter plumage. + +Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, from July to October, but +mainly in August, when the wings are molted. They have a partial +prenuptial molt from February to June, mainly in March and April, +involving the body plumage, but not all the scapulars or wing coverts. + +_Food._--The turnstone is mainly a maritime species and its favorite +feeding grounds are the stony and sandy beaches along the seashore and +the rocky promontories and islets on the coasts. But on its inland +migrations it finds its food on the shores and beaches of the larger +lakes and rivers. The turnstone derives its name from its well-known +and conspicuous habit of turning over, with its short, stout bill and +sturdy muscles, stones, shells, clods of earth, seaweed, and other +objects in search for the dainty morsels of animal food that it finds +beneath them. If the object is not too large the bird stoops down and +overturns it with a quick jerk of the head and neck; but against a +larger obstacle it places its breast and pushes with all its strength; +it is surprising to see how large a stone or clod it can move. It also +has a peculiar habit of rooting like a pig in piles of seaweed or in +the open sand. Windrows of seaweed and other rubbish are generally full +of sand fleas and various worms and insects and their larvae, where +the turnstones and other waders find an abundant feast. Frank T. Noble +(1904) has described this very well, as follows: + + He would select a likely spot on the loosely packed moss + and go at his work with a vim and rapidity entirely + different from the other species. Underneath the bits of + weed, moss, and fragments of shell his sharp upturned bill + would swiftly go and a perfect shower of these would soon + be falling in front and beside him. Finding a morsel to his + taste he would devour it in much less time than it takes to + relate it, and the rooting and tossing of the bits into the + air would continue. At times quite sizeable fragments of + shell and pieces of moss more than an inch in length would + be thrown fully 7 or 8 inches above the bird’s head, and + this he would keep up, with scarcely an instant’s pause, + for a quarter of an hour and until he had excavated a pit + large enough to almost conceal his plump, mottled body. + Occasionally he would turn about in his tracks, but as a + rule he worked in one direction. + +I have seen a similar method employed on a sand flat laid bare at +low tide, where four or five turnstones were feeding, accompanied by +sanderlings and peeps. The turnstones were digging holes in the wet +sand, throwing out the sand for a distance of several inches, until +the holes were big enough to admit the whole of a man’s fist and deep +enough to conceal the bird’s head and neck. Meantime the sanderlings +were standing close by and picking up some small objects thrown +out, until driven away by savage attacks of the turnstone. On close +examination I found a number of small, black snails and other minute +mollusks in the sand thrown out. The stomach of one shot contained only +the minute mollusks and some coarse sand. + +Doctor Stejneger (1885) found turnstones feeding in large numbers on +the killing grounds in the Commander Islands, “where thousands of +putrified carcasses of the slain fur seals swarm with myriads of the +white larvae of the flesh fly,” on which they grow very fat. Francis H. +Allen tells me he has seen them feeding on rocks which are bare only at +low tide and covered with barnacles. One that he watched-- + + sometimes simply picked its food up from among the + barnacles and rockweed, and sometimes it hammered away in + one spot like a woodpecker before getting its morsel. The + object hammered was evidently fixed. After the bird had + flown, I visited the spot and found many empty barnacle + shells--empty of barnacles, that is--some entirely empty + and others containing small snail-like mollusks with + dark-colored shells. + +On the coast of South Carolina I have seen turnstones feeding on the +beds of coon oysters and have watched them busily engaged in chasing +the small fiddler crabs on the muddy banks of tidal creeks and on the +mud lumps; they had to run very fast to catch the spry little animals +and probably had to pick out the smallest ones. Mr. Wayne (1910) says: +“On Capers Island it frequents live oak trees which are covered with +small mussels, upon which it eagerly feeds. If some of the mussels +happen to be on an inclined limb the birds walk, instead of flying, to +reach them. I have seen as many as four of these, one behind the other, +on a small limb out in the surf.” + +Mr. Manniche (1910) says that just after their arrival in Greenland +the turnstones feed mainly on vegetable food; the stomach of a bird +taken on May 22 contained only remains of plants. Dr. Paul Bartsch +(1922), referring to his visit to Midway Island, writes: “It was a +decided surprise to us to find waders in bushes feeding upon berries, +and yet this was the case here. Again and again we flushed bunches of +turnstones from the dense _Scaevola_ thickets and watched them circle +about for some time, only to realight in the tops of another clump +of bushes. Specimens shot on Sand Island were filled with _Scaevola_ +berries.” + +C. J. Maynard (1896) says that they sometimes resort to marshes and +feed on grasshoppers. Their main food supply evidently consists of +small crustaceans, small mollusks, insects, and their larvae, all +of which they consume in large quantities and in great variety. In +Massachusetts it is sometimes called the “horse-foot snipe,” because of +its fondness for the eggs of the horse-foot crab. John T. Nichols tells +me that it scratches up the eggs by “jumping in the air and striking +with both its feet at once into the sand, thus making a hole about 3 +inches deep and 1½ inches across.” + +Dr. Alexander Wetmore contributes the following interesting notes: + + The greatest surprise came when on Laysan Island it was + found that these and other shore birds were persistent + enemies of the sooty and gray-backed terns, as they + destroyed the eggs of the terns at every opportunity. For + the first few days when turnstones were seen greedily + eating terns’ eggs I supposed that they were merely + finishing eggs that had been opened by other birds, but + on further observation found that these shore birds were + bold marauders that drove their bills into the eggs of + terns at every opportunity and were only prevented from + attacking the nests of boobies and man-o-war birds by the + fact that the shell of the egg in these species was so + hard that they could not break it. As we moved through the + great colonies of sooty terns the birds near at hand rose + before us from their eggs, often communicating the alarm + to neighbors so that at times clouds of birds arose to + fill the air. At our heels, 15 or 20 feet behind us, came + little groups of turnstones well aware that this uproar + among the sharp-beaked terns meant unprotected nests, where + they could attack the eggs with impunity. The turnstones + ran quickly about driving their bills into the eggs without + the slightest hesitation, breaking open the side widely and + feeding eagerly on the contents, sometimes two or three + gathering for an instant to demolish one egg and then + with this one half consumed running on to attack another. + The havoc wrought among the terns was so great that we + forbade the sailors from approaching the colonies, and + made it a rule among the naturalists to keep away except + when necessity for some observation made it imperative to + disturb the birds. + + The densely packed colonies of aggressive sooty terns were + open to attack mainly along the borders except when the + birds were disturbed, but the little scattered groups of + gray-backed terns (_Sterna lunata_) on the open beaches + were entirely at the mercy of the turnstones, so that + it seemed that the gentle terns could not hope for a + successful nesting until the close of May carried the horde + of their marauding persecutors away to northern homes. + So bold were the shore birds that on one occasion I saw + two actually push aside the feathers on the sides of the + incubating tern, drag her egg from beneath her breast, and + proceed to open and devour it within 6 inches of the nest. + The tern remained in incubating pose, plainly troubled by + such unexpected boldness but seemingly not comprehending + its portent, nodding her head with that of her mate + standing beside her, and finally reaching out to draw the + half-empty shell of her treasure again beneath her, while + the robbers, temporarily satisfied, pattered away in search + of other prey. On several occasions when, in walking along + the beaches above high-tide mark I flushed gray-backed + terns from their nests, I saw that they carried with + them as they flew away shells of broken eggs, which not + understanding that they had been destroyed they had covered + while the hardening albumen flowing over the outside of the + shell had glued the whole to their feathers. + +The Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain contributes the following notes on the food +of this species: + + As it is almost invariably found near the coast the food + is chiefly marine in character: Mollusca, chiefly small + univalves such as _Litorina_ (L. Florence records 134 + opercula of small molluscks); small Crustacea, especially + Gammaridae; A. H. Clark records fry of a small fish + (_Sicydium plumieri_) up to 1½ inches in length; insects, + including Coleoptera, Diptera (_Tipulidae_ and larvae of + _Chironomidae_), Lepidoptera (_Argynnis charidea_ and + _Dasychira groenlandica_) recorded by H. C. Hart and + _Hymenoptera_. Also Arachnida and Acaridea (Feilden). Also + some vegetable matter (seeds of _Draba alpina_, pieces of + seaweed, etc.). + +_Behavior._--When migrating turnstones fly in large flocks by +themselves or with black-bellied plovers, often in immense flocks; +at such times they usually fly high. But, while sojourning on the +way, they are usually in small numbers and very often seen singly. +One or two birds are often associated with mixed flocks or scattered +gatherings of semipalmated plover, sanderlings, or other small waders. +Their flight is strong, swift, and steady, usually direct, but +sometimes in a semicircle, out from the shore and back again; when +not traveling they generally fly low. There is something peculiar +about their flight which can be recognized at a long distance, but I +can not describe it satisfactorily. They are essentially shore birds, +frequenting the stony, rocky, or sandy beaches of the seashore or +the larger lakes. They are not particularly shy, and sometimes very +tame. When they first alight they stand and survey the landscape +until sure that they are safe. They then mingle freely with the other +small waders, feeding unconcernedly, and treating their companions +with indifference until one comes too near. Then the turnstone shows +its jealous and pugnacious disposition; it will allow no competition, +in the spot where it is feeding, from another bird, even of its own +species, but with lowered head, drooping wings, and hunched up back +it rushes at the intruder in a threatening attitude and perhaps gives +him a few jabs with its sharp bill. Many a miniature cockfight or sham +battle is enacted and the turnstone is generally the aggressor, though +once I saw a sanderling drive away a turnstone. It appears like a big +bully that is attracted to the feast that others have found and then is +unwilling to share it with them. + +Turnstones can swim well and probably alight on the water to rest while +making long flights over the ocean. Dr. Donald B. MacMillan (1918) saw +“a large flock alight upon the water in Kennedy Channel.” They love +to bathe in shallow water, squatting down and fluttering their wings, +sometimes partly rolling over; then they spend much time preening and +dressing their pretty plumage. N. B. Moore says in his notes that “this +species alights on the dead branches of mangroves, stumps, and stakes +that stand in the water near the shore from 2 to 6 feet above it and +sits in the manner of a Carolina dove.” + +_Voice._--John T. Nichols has contributed the following on the ordinary +notes of the turnstone: + + The common flight note of this species is an unloud + polysyllabic one, something like a cackle, which does not + carry far. It is usually given by birds that are leaving + the vicinity, but not so frequently heard at other times + as are the flight notes of various species. This note + is sometimes three syllabled, _ketakek_, or may be of a + single syllable, _kek_, on taking wing. A much rarer, loud, + plover-like _kik-kyu_ has been heard from a turnstone when + coming to decoys or flying along the edge of favorable + marshes. The cackle of the turnstone is almost impossible + to imitate, but they will decoy readily to a whistled + imitation of the cry of their associate the black-bellied + plover. + +The song of the turnstone as heard on its breeding grounds few have +been privileged to hear. Mr. Brandt calls it “a loud but not unpleasant +note, rapidly repeated--_kye-ute-cat-tat-tah_.” Mr. Jourdain has +given us, under courtship, his impressions of it and those of Messrs. +Trevor-Battye and Paget-Wilkes. + +_Field marks._--The turnstone is a conspicuous and well-marked +bird, not likely to be mistaken for anything else. It is a stout, +short-legged bird with a short neck and a short, straight bill. In its +brilliant spring plumage the white head, black throat, red legs, and +rufous back are unique field marks. But the best field marks, most +conspicuous in the nuptial plumage, but present in all plumages, are +the five white stripes on the upper surface, which show very plainly +as the bird flies away; these are a broad central stripe on the back, +separated by a black patch on the rump from the white area in the tail, +a narrow stripe on the outer edge of the scapulars and a band across +the wing on the secondaries and primaries. Unfortunately for observers +on the Pacific coast, the black turnstone has somewhat similar white +stripes, but the pattern is a little different. + +_Fall._--Adult turnstones begin to leave their summer homes in +Greenland about the middle of July, with the knots and sanderlings, +and before the end of August the last of the young birds have left. +Lucien M. Turner obtained an adult from Davis Inlet on July 25; but +the species apparently avoids Ungava, for the only bird he saw there +was a young male taken on August 20. Probably the birds which breed +in western Greenland migrate coastwise along the Labrador coast and +Nova Scotia to New England. We saw the first turnstones at Cape Sable, +Nova Scotia, on July 30 and 31; but my earliest record for adults +in Massachusetts is on August 1; adults are common here all through +August; the young birds come along late in August, and I have seen them +here as late as October 12. + +There is a heavy migration down the west coast of Hudson Bay. Edward A. +Preble (1902) saw the first turnstones at Fort Churchill on July 30; +and on August 10 to 13 he “observed many small flocks about 25 miles +south of Cape Eskimo”; August 21 to 26 he saw “many flocks daily.” From +the Hudson Bay region the main flight seems to be southeastward through +the Great Lakes region to the Atlantic coast. It seems to be very rare +in the fall west of eastern Manitoba and Ohio; and it extends as far +east as the Bermudas and the West Indies. + +Some of the birds which breed in Alaska migrate down the Pacific +coasts of North and South America at about the same dates as the +Atlantic coast birds; but large numbers pass down the Asiatic coast, +through Japan and China, to islands in the Southern Hemisphere. Doctor +Stejneger (1885) says that in the Commander Islands during the latter +part of July large flocks return from the north. + + From this time until late autumn enormous masses of + them may be seen on the killing grounds, near the seal + rookeries, where thousands of putrified carcasses of the + slain fur seals swarm with myriads of the white larvae of + the flesh fly, upon which the pretty turnstones feed and + grow exceedingly fat. At sunset they retire to the beach, + where they pass the night, not, however, without having + performed a soldierlike drill by flying up and down the + endless tundra, now in full body, now again in detached + divisions, and with admirable precision turning and + maneuvering as if obeying the command of a leading officer. + +As to the migration on the Pribilof Islands, William Palmer (1899) +writes: + + On July 12, 1890, I saw probably the first bird that landed + on St. Paul during the fall migration. From that date they + daily increased rapidly until by the end of July they + swarmed everywhere. They reach the island by way of the + northeastern shore and in straggling flocks or singly fly + southward through the island during the day, banking up in + large numbers when the village killing ground is reached. + They spread out on the slopes, resting on the rocks and + little hillocks during the day. They soon find the feast + awaiting them on the killing ground, and the marks of their + work around nearly every seal carcass is soon noticeable. + As the water disappears by soakage and evaporation in the + village pond they turn up the black sand in thousands of + little hillocks, each with a narrow depression made by + their bill beside it. At low tide the lagoon beaches are + a favorite resting and feeding place. By the end of July + many become so fat that they are run down and captured by + the young Aleuts. Their departure from St. Paul is quite a + feature of the avifaunan exhibition. About 6 in the evening + a small flock of perhaps 40 birds will rise into the air + from about the village pond and uttering loud, shrill cries + will fly up to near the head of the lagoon. Here making a + wide sweep they return, gathering fresh recruits on their + way, until the vicinity of the pond is again reached. + Sweeping around in a constantly ascending course they + return up the lagoon, and turning once more, screaming as + they go, and adding to their numbers, they make a straight + course high over the village hill and on out to sea over + the reef point. This invariably took place every evening + during the latter part of my stay on the island. It was + always the rule that a dense fog bank hung all around + the island at that time, so that even the reef point was + not visible, but the birds went into the fog without the + slightest hesitation. They left their landmarks behind. + Several flocks averaging about a hundred birds left nearly + every evening from the end of July until I left on August + 10. The first arrivals on the island were always adults; + the young were not noted for at least 10 days. According + to Elliott they all leave the islands after the 10th of + September. + +Many of these birds must make the 2,000-mile flight over the ocean from +the Commander or Aleutian Islands to the Hawaiian Islands. They have +repeatedly been seen in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, hundreds of +miles from land. This does not seem so remarkable, now that we know +that they can alight and rest on the water and rise from it easily. +They must go a long time without food or find a very scanty supply of +it, as it must take 40 or 50 hours to make the trip. But Dr. Henry W. +Henshaw (1902) says that some of the first arrivals on these islands, +which he shot about the middle of August, “were all of them plump and +in fine order for the table.” + +_Game._--The turnstone has never attained great importance as a game +bird, though it was formerly counted in the list of “big birds” in the +gunner’s bag. It was plump and generally fat, so that it made a good +table bird. It has a variety of local names, such as chicken plover, +calico bird, brant bird, etc. It decoys well to almost any decoys and, +although its own note is difficult to imitate, it will respond readily +to the call of its favorite companion, the black-bellied plover. + +_Winter._--The ruddy turnstone spends the winter on the coasts of +the southern States and on both coasts of South America, from South +Carolina to Brazil and from southern California to Chile. The larger, +Old World form, _interpres_, apparently does not winter anywhere in +the Western Hemisphere, but occupies the coasts of southern Europe and +Asia, much of Africa, some of the oceanic islands, and Australia. If we +are to recognize the Pacific form, _oahuensis_, there is yet much to +be learned about the limits of its winter and summer ranges and where +it intergrades with _interpres_. The island of Oahu in the Hawaiian +Islands is the type locality of _oahuensis_; and it probably has a wide +range among Pacific islands. + +Dr. Alexander Wetmore says in his notes: + + In the remote islands of the Hawaiian bird reservation the + turnstone is common during the period of northern winter, + and a few sterile or injured individuals may remain through + the summer. Though common along the sandy beaches and the + shores of lagoons, as is usual, at times they exhibited + curious habits, as on Ocean Island they ran back from + the open shore beneath the thickets of beach magnolia + (_Scaevola_), penetrating the entire island in cover as + dense as that ordinarily chosen by woodcock. It was always + a surprise when one, attracted by some sound, flew up from + under the bushes and perched on a dead branch to look at + me. On Midway turnstones ran about on the lawns at the + cable station like robins, with so domestic and contented + an air that it was at times difficult to recall that they + were here merely as transients, and that soon they would be + nesting in arctic tundras. + +Charles Barrett writes to me from Australia, as follows: + + One of our most interesting summer visitors, the turnstone + frequents open beaches on the mainland generally in small + flocks, and also favors reefs and coral strands among the + tropical and subtropical islands. When camped, with other + members of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ Union, on + Masthead Island, Capricorn Group, Queensland, in October, + 1910, I observed many turnstones on the white coral-sand + beach. Apparently, with waders of other species, they had + recently arrived, after the long flight from their breeding + grounds. They were active enough, but in poor condition. + During migration, they can have little chance to obtain + food, and the strain of flying thousands of miles affects + even the healthiest birds. But they obtain abundance of + food in their Austral haunts, and soon become plump again. + Many localities in Australia are admirably suited to the + turnstone’s needs, and it is not a rare bird with us, + indeed, on islands of the Great Barrier Reef, northeastern + Queensland, it may be termed a common species. + +W. B. Alexander tells me that the turnstone is “a fairly common visitor +to Australian coasts. My earliest record is of a pair seen on the beach +at Oyster Cay, Great Barrier Reef, North Queensland, on August 27, +1925, and my latest record a pair on the estuary of the Lost River on +the south coast of Western Australia on April 25, 1914.” + + + DISTRIBUTION + + ARENARIA INTERPRES INTERPRES + +_Range._--Mainly in the Eastern Hemisphere. + +_Breeding range._--The turnstone breeds on the Arctic coasts of both +hemispheres, but its exact status in North America is still somewhat +indefinite. The known breeding range extends from probably Greenland +(Disco Bay, Tuctoo Valley, and Bowdoin Bay); east to Iceland; Norway +(Smolen Islands); Sweden; Lapland; Finland; Nova Zembla; Siberia +(Balagansk, and Plover Bay); Kamchatka; probably the Commander Islands; +and Alaska (St. Lawrence Island, St. Michaels, Takshagemut, Port +Clarence, probably Cape Lowenstern and Point Barrow). + +_Winter range._--In winter the turnstone is found on the coasts of +Europe and Asia north to the British Isles; Japan and Hawaii. They +range south at this season to South Africa (Cape of Good Hope); +Madagascar; the Mascarene Islands; Australia; New Zealand; and Chile. + +_Migration._--In North America, early dates of spring arrival are: +Alaska, St. Michael, May 15; and Greenland, north of latitude 81° 30´, +May 27. Late dates of fall departure are Greenland, north of latitude +81° 31´, September 11; and Alaska, Nushagak, September 21. + +_Casual record._--The turnstone can be considered only as a casual or +accidental visitant anywhere in North America south of the breeding +grounds. A specimen taken at Pacific Beach, California, September 8, +1904, was identified as the European race, but the record also has been +questioned (Grinnell). Four specimens taken on San Geronimo Island, +Lower California, March 15, 1897, were considered by Oberholser as +typical of the European or Asiatic race. One was obtained at Monomoy +Island, Massachusetts on September 8, 1892 (Bishop); and Wayne took a +specimen on Dewees Island, South Carolina, May 30, 1918. + +[AUTHOR’S NOTE.--For the author’s views on the distribution of the +two forms of the turnstone, see his note on the distribution of +_morinella_. There is much individual variation in color, with a +decided sexual difference in size, which opens the question of wrongly +sexed specimens. The individual variation in size is still greater, +so much so that both extremes of both forms are very close together. +A large, dark female of _morinella_, wrongly sexed, might easily be +recorded as _interpres_. These facts cast some doubt on North American +records of _interpres_.] + +_Egg dates._--Norway and Sweden: 16 records, June 1 to 30; 8 records, +June 7 to 13. Lapland and Finland: 14 records, May 23 to July 8; 7 +records, June 8 to 18. + + + ARENARIA INTERPRES MORINELLA + +_Range._--North America; Central America; islands of the Caribbean Sea; +and South America. + +_Breeding range._--Actual breeding records of the ruddy turnstone are +not numerous, so it is difficult to accurately define its breeding +range. From information available it appears that they breed east from +Alaska (Hooper Bay, Colville River Delta, Collinson Point, and probably +Demarcation Point); to Mackenzie (lower Anderson River, Liverpool Bay, +Franklin Bay, and probably Felix Harbor); Franklin (probably Melville +Island, Victoria Island, probably King Oscar Land); probably Ellesmere +and Grant Lands; and northwestern Greenland. Specimens have been +obtained in southern Mackenzie in June (Fort Resolution and Fort Rae), +but there is not yet any evidence of their breeding in that region. +Eggs also have been reported from “Hudson Bay” (Reinecke), but the +record is too indefinite to stand careful scrutiny. + +Nonbreeding individuals have been detected in summer as far south as +Chile (Sclater); Peru (Callao); the Galapagos Islands (Baur and Adams); +Venezuela (Margarita and Aruba Islands); and the West Indies (Carriacou +and Jamaica). It also has been noted at this season on the Atlantic, +Pacific, and Gulf coasts of the United States, as Florida (Bradentown, +Passage Key, Fort De Soto, Key West, and Daytona Beach); South Carolina +(Frogmore, and Mount Pleasant); North Carolina (Beaufort); Virginia +(Hog Island, and Cape Charles); New York (Fair Haven Light, Long Beach, +and Gardiners Island); Massachusetts (Monomoy Island, and Cape Cod); +Louisiana (Chandeleur Islands, and Breton Islands); Texas (Fort Brown, +and Corpus Christi); and California (Santa Cruz). + +_Winter range._--The winter range of _morinella_ can be defined but +little better as the records are frequently confused with _Arenaria i. +interpres_, to which some of the following may refer. Their range at +this season appears to extend north to California (rarely San Francisco +Bay); Texas (Fort Brown, Point Isabel, Refugio County, and the Sabine +River); probably Louisiana; probably North Carolina (Fort Macon); and +Bermuda (Ireland Island). East to Bermuda (Ireland Island); South +Carolina (Mount Pleasant, and Frogmore); Georgia (Savannah, Blackbeard +Island, and Darien); Florida (Fernandina, St. Augustine, Daytona Beach, +Mosquito Inlet, Cocoa, Fort Pierce, and Key West); the Bahama Islands +(New Providence, and Great Inagua); Haiti (Monte Cristi, and Samana); +Porto Rico (Mameyes, and Culebra Island); Lesser Antilles (Sombrero, +St. Bartholomew, Carriacou, and Tobago); British Guiana (probably Abary +River); French Guiana (probably Cayenne); and Brazil (Para, Cajetuba +Island, Fernando Noronha, and Abrolhos Island). South to Brazil +(Abrolhos Island); and Chile (Valdivia). West to Chile (Valdivia, +Talcahuano, Paposo, and Atacama); Peru (probably Chorillos); the +Galapagos Islands (Albemarle, Hood, Indefatigable and Bindloe Islands); +Honduras (Swan Island); Guatemala (Chiapam); Mexico (the Valley of +Mexico); Lower California (San Jose del Cabo, and Magdalena Bay); and +California (rarely San Francisco Bay). Occasionally also, wintering as +far north as Sanak, Alaska (Littlejohn). + +_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: Virginia, +Accomac County, May 8, Chesapeake, May 10, and Locustville, May 11; New +Jersey, Ocean City, May 5, Cape May, May 6, and Long Beach, May 16; New +York, Fair Haven Light, May 10, Montauk Point, May 12, and Canandaigua, +May 14; Connecticut, New Haven, May 18, and Norwalk, May 19; Rhode +Island, Newport, May 13, and Sachuest Point, May 14; Massachusetts, +Nantucket, May 1, Woods Hole, May 5, and Monomoy Island, May 6; Maine, +South Harpswell, May 20, and Portland, May 22; Nova Scotia, Pictou, May +24; Franklin, Winter Island, June 10; Illinois, Northeastern, April +30, Englewood, May 22, Chicago, May 23, and Waukegan, May 24; Indiana, +Starke County, May 20, and Wolfe Lake, May 23; Ohio, Lakeside, May 11, +Oberlin, May 15, Huron, May 17, and Painesville, May 28; Michigan, +Detroit, May 13, Kalamazoo County, May 20, and Ann Arbor, May 25; +Ontario, Toronto, May 18, Kingston, May 20, Moose Factory, May 26, and +Mitchells Bay, May 31; Nebraska, Lincoln, May 18; Iowa, Burlington, +May 21; Minnesota, Lake Ann, May 20, Minneapolis, May 21, and Walker, +May 24; Wisconsin, Madison, May 22; South Dakota, Coteau des Prairies, +May 26, and Fort Sisseton, May 27; Manitoba, Shoal Lake, May 25; +Saskatchewan, Île à la Crosse, May 22, and Orestwynd, May 23; Alberta, +Tofield, May 15, and Fort Chipewyan, May 25; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, +May 29; California, San Nicolas Island, April 7; Oregon, Mercer, +May 14; Washington, Puget Sound, May 6, Willapa Harbor, May 11, and +Shoalwater Bay, May 17; and Alaska, Unalaska, May 19, and Nulato, May +23. + +Late dates of spring departures are: Peru, Mathews Island, April +24; Porto Rico, Culebrita Island, April 15; Bahama Islands, Andros, +April 26, and Green Cay, April 29; Florida, Punta Rassa, May 13, St. +Marks, May 22, and Daytona Beach, May 24; Georgia, Savannah, May 29; +South Carolina, Egg Bank, May 14, and Mount Pleasant, June 12; North +Carolina, Churchs Island, May 19, and Cape Hatteras, May 20; Virginia, +Wachapreague, May 24, Hog Island, May 19, and Smiths Island, May 31; +Pennsylvania, Warren, May 30, and Erie, June 2; New Jersey, Camden, May +21, and Cape May County, June 3; New York, Ithaca, June 13, Montauk +Point, June 9, and Orient, June 12; Connecticut, Fairfield, May 29, +Westport, May 30, and Norwalk, June 1; Massachusetts, Dennis, June +2, Marthas Vineyard, June 8, and Monomoy Island, June 8; Illinois, +Chicago, June 9, Northeastern, June 18; Indiana, Wolfe Lake, June 9; +Ohio, Huron, June 3, Oberlin, June 5, and Lakeside, June 5; Michigan, +Detroit, June 6, and Charity Island, June 15; Ontario, Toronto, June +17; North Dakota, Devils Lake, June 11; South Dakota, Vermilion, +May 30; Texas, Point Isabel, May 14; Minnesota, Cass Lake, May 30; +Wisconsin, De Pere, June 3; Manitoba, Dog Point, June 7, Lake Winnipeg, +June 10, and Shoal Lake, June 12; Saskatchewan, Indian Head, June 2, +and Churchill River, June 9; California, Santa Barbara, May 6, Farallon +Islands, May 7, and San Nicolas Island, May 11; Oregon, Mercer, May 14; +and Washington, Willapa Harbor, May 16. + +_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are: Washington, +Destruction Island, July 17; California, Monterey Bay, July 18, and +Santa Barbara, July 26; Lower California, San Jose del Cabo, August +31; Oaxaca, San Mateo, August 9; Saskatchewan, Quill Lake, August 7, +Bigstick Lake, August 9, and Crane Lake, August 11; Manitoba, Fort +Churchill, July 30, Shoal Lake, August 7, and Oak Lake, August 8; +Texas, Rockport, August 12; Ontario, Toronto, July 30, and Point Pelee, +August 14; Michigan, Charity Island, August 6; Ohio, Pelee Island, +July 24, Huron, August 3, and Lakeside, August 8; Indiana, Millers, +August 8; Illinois, Chicago, July 20, and La Grange, August 13; Maine, +Portland, July 28; Massachusetts, Marthas Vineyard, July 24, Harvard, +July 26, and Monomoy Island, July 27; Rhode Island, Island of Rhode +Island, July 26, and Kingston, August 11; Connecticut, Meriden, August +8; New York, Montauk Point, July 18, Orient, July 28, and Shelter +Island, July 29; New Jersey, Cape May, July 16; Virginia, Cobb Island, +August 1, and Locustville, August 7; North Carolina, Pea Island, August +11; Bermuda, Coopers Island, July 27; South Carolina, Mount Pleasant, +July 15; Georgia, Savannah, August 18; Florida, Palma Sola, July 26, +St. Marks, July 30, Pensacola, August 1, and Daytona, August 10; Bahama +Islands, Mariguana, August 5; Jamaica, Spanishtown, August 13; Lesser +Antilles, Barbados, August 22, and St. Croix, September 8; Peru, Payta, +September 20; and Chile, Talcahuano, September 9. + +Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, St. Michael, September 8; +British Columbia, Graham Island, September 5; Washington, Simiahmoo, +October 3; California, Alameda, October 15; Manitoba, Oak Lake, +September 9; Wisconsin, Sheboygan, September 1; Ontario, Point Pelee, +September 15, and Toronto, September 16; Michigan, Bay City, September +4, and Detroit, September 5; Ohio, Huron, October 18, Lakeside, +October 21, and New Bremen, October 23; Illinois, Chicago, October 13; +Franklin, Harrowby Bay, August 30, Newfoundland, September 5; Nova +Scotia, La Have Ridges, September 27; New Brunswick, Grand Manan, +September 4, and Tabusintoc, October 23; Quebec, Green Island, October +26; Massachusetts, North Truro, October 9, Woods Hole, October 20, and +(exceptional) Dennis, November 3; Rhode Island, Point Judith, September +14, and Newport, October 8; New York, Canandaigua, September 16, +Brockport, October 6, and Orient, October 7. + +_Casual records._--The ruddy turnstone is not now common anywhere in +the Mississippi Valley and has been recorded on but few occasions in +the lower part of this region and in the States west to the Rocky +Mountains. Among these last are, Arkansas, reported at Osceola by +Doctor Richardson (Howell); Missouri, St. Louis, September 7, 1897; +Kansas, Kansas River, August 16, 1898, and Greenwood County, October +1, 1911; Colorado, Denver, April 26, 1890, and May 18, 1900, and Barr, +September 9, 1907; and Wyoming, Yellowstone Park, August 30, 1922. + +[AUTHOR’S NOTE.--The above is the generally accepted theory as to the +distribution of the two forms of the turnstone. The author has examined +a few specimens from Iceland and East Greenland and a large number from +Alaska and various islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Iceland birds +are nearer _interpres_; the East Greenland birds are less typical +of _interpres_, with a more decided tendency toward _morinella_; no +West Greenland birds have been examined and perhaps they might be +nearer _morinella_; Alaska and Hawaiian Island birds, as well as those +from Polynesia, are much nearer _morinella_. Apparently the range of +_morinella_ should be extended eastward to western Greenland, and +westward to Bering Strait and to the Pacific islands. Both color and +size have been taken into account in this study.] + +_Egg dates._--Bering Sea coast of Alaska: 10 records, May 29 to June +27. Arctic coasts of Alaska and Canada: 19 records, June 19 to August +1; 10 records, June 28 to July 21. + + + ARENARIA MELANOCEPHALA (Vigors) + + BLACK TURNSTONE + + + HABITS + +The black turnstone replaces to a large extent on the Pacific coast our +well-known ruddy turnstone; both species are found there on migrations +and in winter, but the black is the commoner on that coast, to which +it is restricted. It is a characteristic bird of the barnacle-covered +reefs and rocky shores, being more often seen on the outlying islands +and ledges than on the mainland. There it lives at the water’s edge, +seeking its food within reach of the waves and often drenched with +ocean spray. As it stands motionless it is almost invisible in its coat +of dark brown and might easily be mistaken for a knob of rock or a +bunch of seaweed; but when startled into flight its conspicuous pattern +of black and white flashes out a distinctive mark of recognition. + +_Spring._--The black turnstone starts on its northward migration from +the coast of California early in April. Much of the flight is over the +ocean, as the following observation by Austin H. Clark (1910) shows: + + On the first day out of San Francisco, May 4, we saw + several small flocks of these birds on their way north; + each succeeding day they became more abundant until on the + afternoon of May 8 we saw them by thousands, in flocks of + from 10 or 20 to several hundred. At one time, about 2 + o’clock in the afternoon, the whole sea appeared dotted + with white, so abundant were they. All the birds noticed + were headed up the coast, going the same direction as we. + + In the mornings these birds were comparatively rare; they + began to appear about 11 o’clock, and increased in numbers + until about 2, when they were very abundant; shortly after + 3 there was a falling off until by half past 4 few, if any, + were to be seen. This was true every day we were at sea on + the voyage from San Francisco to Puget Sound. Whether they + spent the night and early morning on the neighboring shores + or resting on the water I am unable to say; but all we saw + were on the wing; possibly there were other shore birds in + these multitudes, but all which came near the ship were of + this species. + +Lucien M. Turner (1886) says that this is one of the earliest arrivals +at St. Michael. His earliest date is May 13. “It arrives with the +earlier geese, and for the first few weeks frequents the edges of the +low ponds, which are the first to be freed from the ice in spring. +After the sea ice has left the shores it repairs to the rocky beach +and seeks its food among the stones and seaweeds.” H. B. Conover says, +in his notes from Hooper Bay: “The first of these birds were noted on +May 16, when two were taken as they flew by a small snow-water pond +on the tundra. Two days later this species was very common. Next to +the western sandpiper it was probably the commonest, as well as the +noisiest, wader nesting on the tundra.” + +_Courtship._--Herbert W. Brandt, who has studied this species on its +breeding grounds at Hooper Bay, Alaska, says in his notes: + + The black turnstones, like many of the other shore birds + during the mating season, spend considerable time chasing + each other about. The female seems to say to the male, + “catch me if you can,” and then dashes off with such speed + that the pursuer has difficulty in following her, and she + usually returns to the same spot from which her zigzag + flight began. Often the male will mount high into the air + alone, until completely out of sight, and then will produce + with his wing or tail feathers, which of the two I have + not been able to determine, the same strange _zum-zum-zum_ + noise as made by the Wilson snipe. Before the nesting + season this feather music could be heard on the flats at + any time, and it deceived me at first, as I mistook it for + that of the snipe. Later, however, as soon as the nesting + duties began, it seemed to cease; and in this respect, the + black turnstone differs from the Wilson snipe, because the + feather music of the latter is continued throughout the + incubation period. + +_Nesting._--The same observer describes the nesting habits as follows: + + The fantastic shaped shore lines of the lowland brackish + ponds furnish ideal homesites for the vivacious black + turnstone as it usually chooses, upon which to nest, a + little projecting grass-covered point or islet. Quite near + the water’s edge the bird will hollow a depression in the + flattened dead grass and here, often upon the almost bare + mud with the eternal ice strata only a few inches beneath, + the hardy mother will successfully bring forth a brood. + Little effort is made to build a home and the only material + therein is the grass that previously grew on or about the + site and is flattened down into the basin of the nest. At + times there is almost no lining beneath the olive-hued eggs + and they are then so besmeared that they appear to have + been deliberately rolled in the mud. Occasionally, however, + the bird will nest some distance away from the water on a + dry site, but always the mode of construction is the same. + The range of measurements of 27 nests is: diameter of basin + 3½ to 4½ inches and depth 1 to 2½ inches. The undecked + nests are easy to find if bordering the pools, provided + their general location is known, but the birds keep up such + a continual clamor that it is difficult to guess their + chosen area. In favored places they breed in such close + proximity to one another that they appear to colonize. + In no case like the other Charadriidae did I observe + these birds about the nest to feign lameness or distress. + Incubation spots were found on both of the parents. + +_Eggs._--I can not do better than to quote Mr. Brandt’s description of +the eggs, as follows: + + The eggs of the black turnstone, invariably four to the + nest, are subpyriform to ovate pyriform in shape, and + unlike the glossy egg of the ruddy turnstone, reflect but + little luster. Due to the flatness of the nest, the eggs, + while they usually rest points together, do not stand as + erect while being brooded as eggs of the sandpipers. The + texture of the surface is smooth and the eggs are not at + all fragile. The eggs of the present species are unique + among the eggs of the shore birds at Hooper Bay in that + the ground color, the surface markings and the underlying + spots are in the same category of colors which are the + olive hues, but each is a different shade. The olive of + the ground color is tinged with yellowish; the surface + markings are much darker, favoring the browns, while the + feeble underlying spots are of a shade between the two. In + consequence, the spots while fairly distinctive and seldom + confluent, are not prominent, the entire egg being of an + olive-like cast. The common type of ground color is “light + yellowish olive” to “yellowish olive,” but “buffy olive” is + not rare and some are even “Vetiver green.” The small end + is often several shades lighter than the rest of the egg, + but in a large series of specimens the ground color is very + similar. The surface markings are very constant in color, + ranging from “light yellowish olive” to “olive.” These + spots are angular and fantastical and often inclined to be + streaked or faintly smeared and are not at all bold. They + are numerous, often almost obliterating the ground color, + and are densest about the larger end. The underlying spots + are very shadowy and often almost invisible and are shades + of “olive gray.” On the large end of every egg there are + scattered additional markings of brownish black in the form + of small spots and pen-like streaks. In color and style + of markings the eggs of the black turnstone, when fresh, + resemble a common olive type of the American crow, but even + these greenish colors fade considerably in time. + +The measurements of 130 eggs average 40.9 by 28.8 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =46= by 29.5, 41 by =30.5=, =38= by +28, and 40.7 by =27.8= millimeters. + +_Young._--Mr. Conover says, in his notes, that “both male and female +take care of the young.” He obtained some data which seems to show that +the eggs hatch in from 21 to 22 days. A nest was found on May 31 with +four fresh eggs; in the evening of June 21 this nest contained three +young, already dry, and one pipped egg; the next morning the last egg +had hatched. Another nest was found on May 31 with three eggs; the next +day there were four eggs; at noon on June 22 the eggs had not hatched; +but at 4 p. m. the next day the nest was empty and the young had +disappeared from the vicinity. + +Mr. Brandt says in his notes: + + We enjoyed the pleasure of seeing the downy young for + the first time on June 21, and were greatly interested + in them, as they had not been described or figured. They + are born from the egg 21 days after incubation begins, + and the mottled chick, like other shore birds, leaves its + nest at once. The downy young have a remarkably protective + coloration, and, furthermore, are distinguishable from any + of their relatives. + +Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) says that-- + + when the young are able to take wing in July they leave the + flats, to a great extent, and frequent the seacoast, where + they keep in small straggling parties searching for food + along the tide line. + +_Plumages._--I have never seen a young black turnstone in natal down, +but Mr. Conover describes it very well, as follows: + + Above mottled black and “cream buff,” the black strongly + predominating. Line from base of bill extending over and to + the center of the eye “cream buff.” Distinct loral streak + of black from base of bill to eye. (Some specimens also + have below this loral stripe a black spot at base of lower + mandible). Lower breast, abdomen and a very small area on + chin clear white. Upper throat “cream buff.” Neck and upper + breast mixed black and “cream buff,” but without distinct + mottling. Bill dark horn, iris brown, legs and feet light + horn with fleshy tint. Compared with absolutely identified + newly hatched chicks of _A. i. morinella_, downy young of + this species have a much darker appearance. On the upper + parts the buffy colors are more in the form of specklings, + while in _morinella_ these colors are more blotch-like. + _Melanocephala_ also has a very distinct dark band across + the chest, while in the other species this band is very + faintly indicated. + +In fresh juvenal plumage, in July, the head, neck, chest, back, +scapulars and wing coverts are dull, blackish brown, or “sepia,” with +an olive gloss; the feathers of the mantle are narrowly edged with +“pinkish buff”; the scapulars are more broadly edged with the same; +the median wing coverts are tipped and their white edges are tinged +with the same; and the tail feathers are tipped or tinged with the same +color. These buffy edgings have mostly worn away or faded out to dull +white before the birds migrate. Probably a partial postjuvenal molt +in the fall produces a first winter plumage, which is like the adult, +except that some of the juvenal wing coverts and a few scapulars are +retained. A first nuptial plumage appears in a young bird, collected on +March 17, which is beginning to acquire the white spots of the nuptial +plumage on the head and breast, but still has some old, worn, juvenal +scapulars and wing coverts. The young bird evidently acquires the adult +winter plumage at the first postnuptial molt the following summer. + +Adults have a partial prenuptial molt of the body plumage in March and +April and a complete postnuptial molt in August and September. The +adult nuptial plumage is characterized by the white lores, the small +white spots on the forehead, and the larger white spots on the sides +of the head, neck and chest; otherwise it is like the winter plumage, +though the latter is somewhat lighter brown on the throat and chest. + +_Food._--The food of the black turnstone has evidently not been +carefully analyzed, but it apparently consists of small marine animals +such as barnacles, slugs, small mollusks, and crustaceans, such as are +eaten by surf birds and other turnstones. Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer +(1918) mentioned one, taken in Alaska in May, that had been feeding on +heath berries. They quote Bradford Torrey (1913), as to the method of +feeding, as follows: + + They were feeding in three ways. Sometimes they followed + the receding breaker, gleaning from the surface, as it + seemed, such edibles as it had washed in. Mostly, however, + they busied themselves upon the wet sand just above the + last reach of the falling tide. + + Once they found a place where the shrimps or prawns were + evidently more plentiful than elsewhere, and it was amusing + to see how eagerly they worked, each determined to get its + full share of the plunder. Thrusting their short, stout + bills into the sand, they drew out their squirming prey, + dropped it on the sand, picked it up and shook it, and + dropped it again, till finally they had it in condition + for swallowing. These manoeuvers they repeated, all in + desperate competitive haste, till the beach within a + circle of a few feet in circumference was thickly dotted + with minute hillocks of sand, such as I should never have + attributed to the work of any bird, had it not been done + before my eyes. Then the supply seemed to be exhausted, and + they moved on in search of another bonanza. + + At other times they resorted to patches of seaweed lying + here and there a little higher on the beach, turning + them bottom side up, or brushing them aside, to feast on + such small game as had taken shelter underneath. Their + action here was like that of a dog when he buries a bone + by pushing the earth over it with his nose. They lowered + their heads, and with more or less effort according to + circumstances accomplished their purpose. If the obstacle + proved too heavy to be moved in this manner, they drew + back a little and made a run at it as men do in using + a battering-ram. More than once I saw them gaining the + needed momentum by this means. They quarrelled now and then + over the business, and once two of them faced each other, + bill to bill, like gamecocks--a most unusual proceeding + among waders, firing off little fusilades of exclamations + meanwhile. The turnstones’ disagreements were of the + briefest, however, slight ebullitions of temper rather than + any actual belligerency. + +_Behavior._--S. F. Rathbun has sent me the following notes on the +behavior of this species: + + The tide was just turning from flood, the time being about + 3 p. m. On the rocks of the jetty whose top at the edge of + the beach was just above the water’s surface and at times + submerged by incoming waves, was a small flock of black + turnstones numbering about 30. At first the birds would not + allow a close approach but as we slowly neared them would + take wing and, then coming together in close formation, + circle in unison, rising and falling, close to the water’s + surface to soon return and alight on the tops of the nearly + submerged rocks. It was a beautiful sight to see them in + flight as then the black and white of their plumage was + strongly in contrast. After a short time the birds allowed + a much closer approach for on one occasion we stood within + 20 feet of the flock. As the tide receded much more of the + surface of the rocks became exposed, although at times + the waves dashed completely over them, and whenever this + occurred it forced the turnstones to take wing. Sometimes + one of the birds would be caught by an incoming wave and + would then emerge in flight from the water, scattering the + spray in all directions. But the rapid recession of the + tide soon gave plenty of ground to search for food and in + this all the birds became busily engaged. Some of the birds + while so doing would climb the very abrupt surface of the + rocks, clinging to the moss, which adhered, while examining + with their bills the crevices of the rocks and also the + moss for crustaceans and minute molluscs. At times one or + more would rest on the side of a rock in perfect repose and + evidence that a few were paired was seen by the fact that + two often persisted in remaining in company. + + One thing proved somewhat amusing to us, that although + during the time the birds had been feeding they were + repeatedly drenched by spray from the waves striking the + rocks, when they finally ceased to feed a few at odd times + would drop into the shallow water at the base of the rocks + to bathe by dashing it over themselves, following which + they would dabble about. + +Mr. Brandt says in his notes: + + Among the shore birds breeding along the coast of Bering + Sea there is none more interesting and fascinating than + this black and white turnstone. When the mud about the + edges of the ponds and tidal sloughs begins to soften, + and the accumulated snow water starts to move, this bird + appears enlivening the bleak, cheerless marshes with its + loud-toned cries and butterfly-like appearance. In the + lowland area it is the commonest shore bird, and its + contrastive black and white figure is doubly conspicuous, + because it resents intrusion of its haunts and sallies + forth to meet the approaching stranger; whereas the rest + of the shore-bird tribe found there either skulk away + or exhibit indifference. As the Pacific godwit is the + self-appointed guardian of the upland tundra, so the black + turnstone patrols the lowlands, often to the dismay of the + hunter or the irritation of the ornithologist. In spite + of its chunky body and comparatively short wings, it is + gifted with elegance and swiftness of flight. It does + not, like the phalarope, afford an inviting target for + the young native hunters, because not only does it scold + on the wing, but it also moves so nervously while on the + ground that it is not quiet there even for a fraction of a + second. No doubt the hunting jaegers consider it the pest + of the flats, for while passing through its domain, these + freebooters are usually being annoyingly followed by one or + more of these fiery and courageous defenders. + +Mr. Turner (1886) says that-- + + The sea-otter hunters, both native and white, detest this + bird, as it frequents the places most resorted to by marine + mammals and is certain to give alarm to the otter or seal + which the hunter is endeavoring to approach. + +_Voice._--Doctor Nelson (1887) says: “It has a habit of circling around +the intruder, during the nesting season, with a fine, clear, peeping +cry like the syllables _weet, weet too-weet_, as it moves restlessly +about. When disturbed in the vicinity of its nest it also has a sharp +_peet, weet, weet_, very similar to the well known note of the spotted +sandpiper.” Mr. Turner (1886) says that when alarmed and “taking flight +they utter a rattling scream” which is quite startling. + +_Field marks._--When standing the black turnstone may be recognized by +its uniformly dark head, neck, and chest, above a white belly; it lacks +the white throat of the turnstone, and its upper parts appear all dark. +But when flying it shows white patches quite similar to those of the +turnstone, a patch in the center of the back, the base of the tail, a +stripe in the scapulars and a broad band across the wings; there is +rather more white in the wing than in the turnstone and the black tips +extend along only the outer half of the wing; the surf bird has a much +narrower white stripe in the wing. + +_Fall._--Doctor Nelson (1887) says, of the departure of these birds +from Alaska: “In autumn they move gradually to the southward, until by +the last of August they become rarer, and during the first half of +September all have gone with the exception of an occasional straggler +found along the seashore.” The migration extends down the coast as far +as Lower California. + +_Winter._--Carl Lien regards them as common winter residents on +Destruction Island, off the coast of Washington. He says, in his notes +that they “begin to arrive about July 26 and leave in the spring the +first week in May. They confine themselves entirely to the reefs +and are very sociable, keeping up a continual chatter. The Aleutian +sandpiper and a surf bird or two will nearly always be found among +them. About 75 or 100 birds winter here.” + +A. B. Howell (1917), referring to the islands off the coast of southern +California, says that “this is by far the most abundant shore bird on +the islands, much more so than on the mainland, occurring in flocks of +as many as 30 individuals, and frequenting the rockiest shores.” + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Pacific coast of North America, casual in northeastern +Siberia. + +_Breeding range._--So far as known, the black turnstone breeds only +on the Alaskan coast, the breeding range appearing to extend from +Chichagof Island on the south, north to probably Montague Island, +Ugashik, Nushagak, Hooper Bay, the Yukon Valley, St. Michael, Cape +Prince of Wales, and probably the Kobuk River. + +At this season it also has been detected on Wrangel Island, and Herald +Island (Nelson) but is not known to breed, while nonbreeders have +been noted south on the coast at British Columbia, Skidegate; Oregon, +Yaquina Bay; California, Farallon Islands, Monterey Bay, Point Pinos, +and San Miguel Island; and Lower California, Los Coronados Islands. + +_Winter range._--The winter range of the black turnstone extends north +nearly to the breeding grounds and but little south of the southern +limit of the nonbreeders. They have been noted in winter north rarely +to Alaska (Craig and Howkan). Also in southern British Columbia +(Victoria); Washington (Bellingham Bay, Smith Island, Dungeness, and +Clallam Bay); Oregon (Yaquina Bay and Netarts Bay); California (Eureka, +Tomales Bay, San Francisco, Monterey, San Miguel Island, Santa Cruz +Island, San Pedro Bay, Santa Catalina Island, San Clemente Island, and +San Diego County); and lower California (San Quintin Bay, probably San +Geronimo Island, Magdalena Bay, and Santa Margarita Island). + +_Migration._--Because of the presence of individuals throughout the +year in practically the entire range of the species, migration data are +not significant. + +The following dates of spring arrival are, however, available: Alaska, +Admiralty Island, April 17; Juneau, April 29; Forrester Island, May +6; Bethel, May 12; Craig, May 15; and Nulato, May 16. Dates of fall +departure from Alaska are Nushagak, September 22; Homer, September 26; +St. Lazaria Island, September 30; and Wrangel, November 4. + +_Casual records._--On August 15, 1912, a flock of 20 was observed at +Chaun Bay, northeastern Siberia (Thayer and Bangs). A specimen in the +collection of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences was presumed to +have been obtained in India, but the occurrence has been challenged +(Hartert) on the basis that proof is lacking that the specimen was +actually there collected. The record accordingly is eliminated for lack +of evidence. + +_Egg dates._--Alaska: 96 records, May 28 to July 5; 48 records, May 31 +to June 1. + + + + + Family HAEMATOPODIDAE Oyster catchers + + HAEMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS Linnaeus + + EUROPEAN OYSTER CATCHER + + _Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain_ + + + HABITS + +This is another species whose claim to a place in the American list +rests on its occurrence in Greenland, but, rather curiously, all the +occurrences are recorded from the west coast and not from the east +side, as might have been expected. Herbert Winge, in 1898, was able +to record six specimens obtained at various localities between 1844 +and 1898, as well as one reported in the autumn of 1893. As it is a +breeding species in Iceland, its occurrence in Greenland from time to +time may well be expected. + +_Courtship._--As the oyster catcher is an extremely striking bird, +with its strongly contrasted plumage of black and white, red bill, +and flesh-colored feet, and is also by no means scarce and very +noisy, its breeding habits challenge attention, and a good deal has +been recorded on the subject by Edmund Selous, Seton Gordon, William +Farren, and others. It is on the whole a sociable species, and one +peculiar characteristic is that in the middle of the breeding season +it is not unusual to find three birds together, either resting or in +flight, without any open signs of hostility. According to Selous, these +associations are often composed of two males and one female, and as he +observed them together not only in the early part of the pairing time +but also late in the season, it would seem that, except perhaps just +in the height of sexual activity, the social instinct is predominant. +The following account is taken from William Farren’s (1910) description +of the “Piping parties”: + + The piping of the males depends on the presence of the + female. Another male in the neighborhood hears the note, + becomes interested, pipes a little, and then flies direct + to where the performance is taking place. He places himself + by the side of the other male and the two pipe together to + the female. Generally unresponsive, the female may walk + away, when she is followed by the two males, who continue + their serenade. In one instance observed by Mr. Selous, + the female flew down to a lower shelf of rock and the two + males piped down to her from above; and when at last she + flew away they, with a few single querulous notes, assumed + their ordinary attitude and walked disconsolately about. + The flight of the female always ended the performance. + +Mr. Selous (1901), in describing the piping serenade of the male, +states that when he begins he faces her, but “having once begun he +seems more enthralled by his own music than by her and will turn from +side to side or even right round and away from her, as though in the +rhythmical sway of his piping.” This remarkable song is audible a long +way off and is described well by Selous as “an earpiercing clamor.” He +writes it as “_kee kee kee kee kervee kervee kervee kervee kervee_” +becoming fainter in its later stages and ending in a long-drawn out +quavering trill. In some cases, according to Selous, the female also +pipes, and one pair, presumably already mated, will chase another +pair, all four piping together. He also instances a case in which an +unattached male approached close to where a hen was sitting; she left +the nest, and, joining her mate, the two advanced on the intruder, +piping a warning, and put him to flight. + +Perhaps the fullest study of the subject is contained in a paper by J. +S. Huxley and F. A. Montague (1925). Here the piping is described thus: + + Any number of birds, from one to seven or eight or possibly + more, may take part in it. Typically, what occurs is as + follows: One or more birds begin the loud characteristic + piping which typically again is given in a special + attitude, the head and bill directed straight downward, + the bill held open and very slightly vibrated, the neck + thrust forward so that the shoulders show up with rather + a horsey look. Sometimes, but not always, the whole body + is bobbed up and down at intervals in the way common to so + many wading birds, but not very markedly. Frequently, but + again not always, the performers trot rapidly round when + piping, very often close side by side and usually in a + serpentine course, with short quick steps. Sometimes one of + the performers will suddenly turn right round through 180° + in the middle of its performance; one I saw turn through + the complete 360° in two spasms. + +Huxley and Montague have shown that this piping performance has not +only a sexual significance, but that it also plays a number of other +rôles in the bird’s life, as, for instance, in unilateral courtship, +mutual courtship, aggression, sexual jealousy, territorial jealousy, +and probably social excitement--that is, under all forms of strong +emotion except fear. Details are given of observed piping by large +parties, two pairs, threes (the commonest form), “twos” and “ones.” + +Another courtship activity recorded in the same paper is the +slow-butterflylike flight with the wing beats at about half the +ordinary pace carried out by a solitary bird. Coition is apparently +preceded by no preliminary ceremony whatever, the initiative coming +from the male, the female standing quite still and giving no visible +indication of readiness to pair. For a fuller discussion on the origin +and meaning of the piping ceremony the reader is referred to the paper +by Huxley and Montague (1925). + +_Nesting._--There is considerable variation in the nesting sites of +this species. Among sand dunes it is often to be met with on the summit +of a dune, a mere hollow in the sand. On shingle banks it may be among +pebbles, sometimes lined with small white stones or shells, obviously +brought by the bird. Other nests are placed in natural recesses of +rock, on grass land, when at times quite a good-sized nest is built of +any wrack or rubbish available. While in many cases the nest is placed +close to the shore it is frequently found in Scotland by the sides of +the rivers far inland, and on the continent, in level grassy meadows +in the reclaimed marshes of Holland. Exceptionally nests have been +recorded from a larch wood on an island, among bracken, etc. + +_Eggs._--The normal number of eggs is three, but two are also commonly +found, and in some districts sets of four are not at all uncommon. +Exceptionally five and six eggs have been found together. As is +usually the case where three eggs are normal, they are oval rather +than pyriform in shape and in color are yellowish stone or ochreous, +boldly marked with spots, streaks, and scrawls of blackish brown and +some ashy shell marks. There are also variations with warm rufous +tinge in the ground color, or very rarely with a pale bluish ground or +even pure white. Some sets are boldly blotched with sepia black. The +measurements of 100 British eggs, made by the writer, average 57 by +40.07 millimeters; the eggs showing the for extremes measure =70.1= by +37.4, 62.1 by =48.9=, =51.6= by 40.4, and 62.6 by =35= millimeters. + +_Young._--Incubation is carried on by both sexes, but probably the +female takes the greater share, and she has been observed to sit for +three or four hours without changing. The period is estimated at 21 +days (Paynter), 23 to 24 days from finding full set (W. Evans), and 24 +days (Faber). Probably the latter estimates are more correct. The young +when hatched remain a day or two in the nest and are attended by their +parents for at least five weeks after hatching, according to J. M. +Dewar (1908). R. H. Brown, however, estimates it as about 29 days. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical +Handbook of British Birds edited by H. F. Witherby (1920). + +_Food._--Chiefly marine mollusca; univalves, such as limpets +(_Patella_), small whelks (_Buccinium_) and periwinkles (_Litorina_) +and bivalves, including mussels (_Mytilus edulis_), cockles +(_Cardium_), etc. Also annelida, earthworms, and sandworms; crustacea +(shrimp, etc.), and insects, including Coleoptera, Diptera and their +larvae (especially Tipulidae), Lepidoptera (larvae and pupae of +Noctuidae); occasionally Holothurians and some vegetable matter (grass +seeds, grains, etc.). + +_Behavior._--The feeding habits of the oyster catcher have been +exhaustively studied by J. M. Dewar, who has given the results of +his investigations in a paper in the Zoologist for 1908. Careful +examination of the shells of mussels showed that about 78 per cent were +opened by means of a stab from the bill through the dorsal border. As +in their normal position this is the exposed portion this is perhaps +natural, but only those which have the valves slightly opened are +vulnerable and the weakest point in the shell is on the ventral border, +which is rarely exposed. The best feeding time is when the scalps are +first exposed by the ebb, before the mussels have closed their shells +and again when the tide is rising and the shells are just beginning to +open again. When the tide is up the birds rest in long lines, head to +wind. The flight of the oyster catcher is peculiar and characteristic, +the wings being rapidly moved within a very short arc, so that they +seem to be vibrated at the tips. + +_Enemies._--The oyster catcher has few natural enemies, though no doubt +occasionally a nest is destroyed by Corvidae (hooded crows and carrion +crows or rooks). + +_Fall._--The Misses Rintoul and Baxter have observed a tendency to the +renewal of spring display during the autumn months. The Shetland birds +move southward in September and do not return until March. + +_Winter._--During the winter months the oyster catcher is generally to +be met with in flocks, easily recognized by their striking coloration +and characteristic notes. The wild ringing sound of their calls, a +clear _kle-eep_, coming from hundreds of throats at once, is, as T. A. +Coward remarks, as delightful as it is harmonious. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Breeding range._--Iceland, the Faroes, the British Isles, and the +coasts of northern Europe from northwest Spain and Brittany to the +Baltic, and along the Scandinavian coast to Archangel, probably also +in the Black and Caspian Seas, south to Macedonia and Asia Minor. +Replaced by allied forms in Asia and Japan. + +_Winter range._--Some winter in Iceland, many in the British Isles, but +the main winter quarters lie in the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the +Persian Gulf, the African coast south to Mozambique, and India. + +_Spring migration._--At the Straits of Gibraltar the passage northward +takes place in April and May, according to Farrer, and in Malta in +April, but in the eastern Mediterranean it is apparently rather +earlier, for in Greece one has been noted at the end of March, and +Lindermeyer gives mid-April as the main passage date. At Corfu it has +been seen on March 20. Danish birds arrive on their breeding grounds +late in March or early in April, and in southern Sweden in March while +in Finland not till late April. + +_Fall migration._--Gaetke noted many young birds on Heligoland in +August and migrants have been recorded for Greece in mid-August. The +autumn movement is more prolonged than the spring passage, owing to the +presence of young as well as adults, so that at Malta birds have been +recorded from August to November. The main passage at Tangier takes +place in October. + +_Casual records._--Winge’s Greenland records include two dated +April 19, 1885, near Nanortalik, and one on June 16, 1888, north of +Jakobshavn. It has also been noted on Jan Mayen (A. G. Nathorst and +L. C. Masters); once north of Bear Island, July 28, 1910; and once in +Spitsbergen, July, 1906 (Mathey-Dupraz). + +_Egg dates._--From the British Islands, April 26 to June 26 (25 dates), +May 2 to 29 (14 dates), June 4 to 26 (10 dates); Holland, May 11 to 25 +(25 dates); Norway, June 10 to 27 (8 dates); Faroes, May 15 to 22 (3 +dates). + + + HAEMATOPUS PALLIATUS PALLIATUS Temminck + + AMERICAN OYSTER CATCHER + + + HABITS + +The usual impression that one gets of this large and showy wader is a +fleeting glimpse of a big, black and white bird disappearing in the +distance over the hot, shimmering sands of our southern beaches. It is +one of the shyest and wildest of our shore birds, ever on the alert +to escape from danger; I have never shot one and seldom have had half +a chance to do so. Even during the breeding season when its anxiety +for its eggs or young prompts it to be less wary, it flies around the +intruder in wide circles, well beyond gun range, yelling its loud notes +of protest. It was evidently about as shy even in the days of Audubon +and Wilson, for both mentioned its wariness. It was much commoner in +those days, of course, and enjoyed a much wider distribution. Audubon +(1840) records it at Portland, Me., and as breeding on the south coast +of the Labrador Peninsula; it seems as if he must be mistaken about the +latter locality, although it is interesting to note that the European +oyster catcher breeds as far north as Russian Lapland. + +The oyster catcher prefers the same broad, sandy beaches as the Wilson +plover and the least tern select for their breeding grounds; and at +other seasons it frequents similar resorts with all the little sand +plovers and beach birds. The small plovers are protectively colored, +but the oyster catcher is not only big, but is most conspicuously +colored. Perhaps it needs no protection against the ordinary foes of +the little fellows; and evidently its wits are sufficient protection +against larger enemies. But in spite of the fact that it is well able +to take care of itself, its range has been greatly restricted and its +numbers very much reduced during the past 50 years. It formerly bred +abundantly on Cobb Island, Virginia, but when we were there in 1907 we +saw very few and found no nests or young. + +H. H. Bailey (1913) says: + + This large, showy bird fell an easy mark to the spring + gunners, breeding as it did during the height of the spring + migration of “beach birds,” from May 10 to 25. Nesting + among the sand dunes or flat beaches back from the ocean, + over which the spring gunners tramped daily, these birds + were right in the line of travel, so to speak, and were + either killed or their nests broken up. + +Recent records from South Carolina, where we found it common in 1915, +seem to indicate that it is becoming rarer even there. And during the +whole winter of 1924 and 1925, spent on the west coast of Florida, I +saw only one. + +_Nesting._--While visiting Arthur T. Wayne on the coast of South +Carolina, we found three nests of three eggs each of the oyster catcher +on May 22 and 23, 1915. The first two nests were on the broad, sandy +beaches of Bull’s Island among numerous scattered bits of shells and +pebbles. The other was on Vessel Reef in Bull’s Bay, a low, flat, +sand reef, with small areas of marsh grass in which willets were +nesting. The oyster catchers’ nests were all on the higher parts of +the dry, flat, sand beaches, well above high-water mark; they were +mere hollows in the sand, entirely without lining, on little mounds of +sand or elevations, where the birds could have a good outlook; usually +a regular pathway of footprints in the sand led up to the nest. The +birds were never seen on or near the nests, but were flying about in +the distance making a great outcry. The nests were easily found by +following the tracks and looking for the little elevations. Several +pairs of Wilson plover were nesting near them. + +W. J. Erichsen (1921) “found a single egg deposited in a depression +on top of a wall of oyster shells on Raccoon Key,” but an unusually +high tide washed the egg away. He also found a set of three eggs “in +a slight depression on top of a bank of oyster shells which had been +thrown up by the surf”; and he says that “where nesting sites of this +character can be found, this species always selects them.” + +Oyster catchers’ nests are usually not near together, but M. H. +Burroughs has sent me some notes on some nests he found in Glynn +County, Ga., that are an exception to the rule. A set of four eggs, two +fresh and two partially incubated, was “on a slight mound, the nest +having a few broken bits of shells in it and nearly entirely surrounded +with a rim of broken bits of shells, evidently raked up by the birds.” +Six feet away, under a log “which had both ends resting on mounds of +sand,” was a set of two. There were two other nests, each about 150 +feet away in different directions. + +George B. Sennett (1879) found a nest on Padre Island, Tex., which was +quite different; he describes it as follows: + + The nest was situated on dry mud a rod or so from the + water, and was simply a slight depression, of the size of + a small tea plate, lined with shells and pieces of shells; + none of them were larger than an inch in diameter, and + most much smaller. They were chiefly small oyster shells, + and were placed more on the sides than at the bottom of + the nest. No particle of grass or anything else but shells + composed the nest. What was strange to me was that on the + island where I found it not a shell or piece of one could + be seen, and these must have been brought by the bird + itself from the adjacent shell islands or oyster beds. This + was the only nest found on the island. + +Walter J. Hoxie (1887) claims to have seen an oyster catcher remove the +eggs from a nest he was watching. Both birds were standing near the +nest, when “one flew off to a distance of about 100 yards.” He then +observed: + + After looking carefully about for a few minutes, he gave a + call, and his mate rose from her nest and joined him. They + seemed to be making a lot of fuss out there, kicking up + the sand, squatting down, and cackling like mad. In a few + minutes, though, they seemed to get over this excitement + and one bird came flying back and settled on the eggs. Now + she began to act strangely, wiggling round and squatting + down again, and I began to think she was going to lay + another egg, when off she went and joined her mate who + welcomed her coming with the most extravagant cries and + gestures. But she sat down quite still and demure. I was + about to rise and look for my third egg when I saw her + coming back. Again she went through the same operation and + her second welcome was, if possible, more exuberant than + the first. Then all was quiet; one bird sat on the sand + and the other stood silently by her, and though I waited + some time longer they showed no sign of returning again to + their eggs, and I could only conclude that they had seen me + watching them and would not come back until I went away. + So I arose from my uncomfortable position and went to pick + up the eggs, when to my surprise the little hollow in the + sand was empty. While I was watching the curious antics of + the female she had lifted the eggs between her legs and + carried them off. So without giving time for her to repeat + the offense I hurried to her new quarters and secured them + successfully. + +_Eggs._--The oyster catcher lays two or three eggs, more often the +latter I believe, and very rarely four. They are ovate to elongate +ovate in shape and have only a very slight gloss. The ground color is +usually “cartridge buff,” sometimes it is “pale olive buff” and rarely +“deep olive buff” or dull “chamois.” They are irregularly and rather +sparingly marked with spots and small blotches, occasionally a few +scrawls of black, brownish black, or very dark browns, “mummy brown” +or “bister,” and underlying spots in various shades of “Quaker drab” +or “mouse gray.” The measurements of 56 eggs average 55.7 by 38.7 +millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =62= by 38.9, +57.2 by =42.2=, =51.8= by 39.9, and 52 by =33.5= millimeters. + +_Young._--The period of incubation for the European species is from +21 to 24 days, and both sexes share in this duty, though it is mostly +performed by the female. We have no data on this subject for the +American species, but probably it is not much different. When the +temperature is just right the eggs may be left exposed to the sun, but +at night or when it is too hot or too cold they are covered by the +incubating bird, whose judgment is reliable in such matters. + +The young are able to run soon after they are hatched, and when they +become strong on their legs they can run so fast that it is very +difficult to catch them. At a note of warning from their watchful +parents, they squat in the sand, or against some convenient object, and +remain perfectly still, their protective coloring making them almost +invisible. Both parents show their anxiety by flying around, usually at +a safe distance, and yelling their loud notes of protest. Herbert K. +Job (1905) once hunted thoroughly over a barren strip of sand, where he +knew there was a young oyster catcher, without success; he was about to +give it up and go away, when he saw a little wisp of driftweed at the +water’s edge on a strip of bare wet sand; and beside it the young bird +was lying, flat on the sand and absolutely motionless. It did not move +while he was photographing it, but as soon as it was touched off it ran +as fast as it could go. + +_Plumages._--In the downy young oyster catcher the upper parts are +grizzled with pale buff and dusky; the down is dusky basally and +heavily tipped with “pinkish buff”; the crown is mostly pale buff +and the hind neck and throat are mostly dusky; the back appears more +mottled and has two quite distinct, broad stripes of brownish black; +there is sometimes a similar broad stripe on the nape; a narrow black +line runs from the bill, through the eye and to the nape; a broad +black band extends from behind the wing to the tail; below this and +the dusky throat the under parts are white. When very young, the bill +is decidedly hooked at the extreme tips of both mandibles. In a young +bird, about one-quarter grown, the primaries are bursting their sheaths +and the white greater coverts are growing; the juvenal plumage is +appearing on the back, scapulars and lesser wing coverts; these new +feathers are “sepia,” broadly tipped with “cinnamon”; the crown is +“bister,” faintly tipped with “cinnamon”; the white plumage is coming +in on the breast. + +In full juvenal plumage, when the young bird is nearly fully grown, +these colors are somewhat paler; the feathers of the back, scapulars +and wing coverts are “Saccardo’s umber,” tipped with “clay color” or +“cinnamon-buff”; the crown, sides of the head, and upper chest are dark +“bister,” tipped with “cinnamon-buff”; the chin and throat are mottled +with sepia and buffy; the upper tail coverts are white, tipped with +buffy; the tail is dark “bister,” tipped with “cinnamon-buff”; and the +under parts are white. By the end of July the buffy tips on the mantle +have nearly disappeared by wear. Early in September the post-juvenal +molt begins; this involves the body plumage, but not all the scapulars +and wing coverts and not the tail. + +The first winter plumage is like the adult, the head and neck being +“fuscous” or “Chaetura black” and the mantle “deep mouse gray.” Young +birds can be distinguished by a somewhat slenderer bill and by the +retained and worn juvenal wing coverts, scapulars, and tail feathers. +At the first prenuptial molt they become fully adult. + +Adults have a partial prenuptial molt in late winter and early spring, +involving the body plumage and most of the scapulars and wing coverts, +and a complete postnuptial molt in late summer and fall. + +_Food._--Audubon (1840) says of the feeding habits of the oyster +catcher: + + I have seen it probe the sand, to the full length of its + bill, knock off limpets from the rocks on the coast of + Labrador, using its weapon sideways and insinuating it + between the rock and the shell like a chisel, seize the + bodies of gaping oysters on what are called in the Southern + States and the Floridas “raccoon oyster beds,” and at + other times take up a “razor handle” or solen, and lash + it against the sands until the shell was broken and the + contents swallowed. Now and then they seem to suck the sea + urchins, driving in the mouth, and introducing their bill + by the aperture, without breaking the shell; again they are + seen wading up to their bodies from one place to another, + seizing on shrimps and other crustacea, and even swimming + for a few yards, should this be necessary to enable them + to remove from one bank to another without flying. Small + crabs, fiddlers, and sea worms are also caught by it, the + shells of which, in a broken state, I have found in its + gizzard in greater or less quantity. Frequently, while on + wet sea beaches, it pats the sand to force out the insects; + and in one instance I saw an individual run from the water + to the dry sand with a small flounder in its bill, which it + afterwards devoured. + +Wilson (1832) says that they probe in the sand “with their long, +wedgelike bills in search of small shellfish. This appears evident on +examining the hard sands where they usually resort, which are found +thickly perforated with oblong holes, 2 to 3 inches in depth.” He +seemed to doubt the reports of their eating oysters, but C. J. Maynard +(1896) writes: + + When the outgoing tide left the tops of the oyster bars + exposed, they would come flying silently in, at first + singly, then in pairs, while groups of a few would follow, + until, at last, they would come in flocks of a dozen or + more. They would alight among the oysters and when the + bivalves gaped open, as is their habit when the water first + leaves them, the birds would thrust in the point of their + hard, flat bills, divide the ligament with which the shells + are fastened together, then, having the helpless inhabitant + at their mercy, would at once devour it. They were not + long in making a meal, for specimens which I shot after + they had been feeding a short time were so crammed that by + simply holding a bird by the legs and shaking it gently the + oysters would fall from its mouth. + +_Behavior._--Oyster catchers are strong, swift fliers and at times +are graceful and elegant in their movements. They are striking birds +in flight, displaying to good advantage their conspicuous patterns of +black and white and their bright red bills. Their movements on the +ground are equally graceful as they walk sedately along the beach or +wade out into the water until the waves lap their breasts. They can +swim perfectly well and can even dive readily if necessary. Audubon +(1840) describes their flight evolutions as follows: + + Now wheeling with wonderful impetuosity they pass within a + hundred yards of you, and suddenly checking their flight + return, not low over the water as before, but high in the + air. Again, they form their ranks in a broad front, and, + again, as if suddenly alarmed by the report of a distant + gun, they close pell-mell, and dip towards the sands or the + waters. Shoot one at such a moment and you may expect to + kill another; but as this is done, the wary birds, as if + suddenly become aware of your intentions, form themselves + into a straggling line, and before a minute has elapsed, + far beyond reach, and fading on the view, are the remaining + oyster catchers. + +_Voice._--The loud, striking notes of protest, heard as the oyster +catcher flies around the intruder on its breeding grounds, are quite +unlike any other bird notes; they sound like _wheep, wheep, wheeop_, +and are both vehement and penetrating. John T. Nichols says in his +notes: “The oyster catcher has a creeking note, _crik, crik, crik_, +etc., used when the bird takes wing. A more striking cry, _cle-ar_, +suggests the flight calls of the willet and the black-bellied plover.” + +_Field marks._--A large wader, with black head and dark upper parts, +with a big white patch in its long, pointed, black wings and with white +under parts, can be nothing but an oyster catcher. No other bird of +strong, steady flight can be mistaken for it. One is seldom near enough +to recognize its long, red bill. + +_Winter._--The oyster catcher is resident throughout most of its range, +but it retires in winter from the northern portion of its breeding +range. Arthur T. Wayne (1910) says: + + In the winter the oyster catcher is very gregarious and + it is not unusual to see flocks containing from 20 to 75 + individuals. The majority of these birds are undoubtedly + migrants from points to the northward of South Carolina + and not the resident breeding birds, which apparently + go together in pairs or small flocks of from 4 to 6 + individuals. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, Central +and South America. The American oyster catcher has been subdivided +into several races the exact range of which it is not now possible +to define. This should be borne in mind in considering the following +outline, which undoubtedly includes the ranges of _H. p. durnfordi_, +_H. p. prattii_, and _H. p. pitanay_ (Murphy). Generally speaking, +_prattii_ is assumed to be confined to the Bahama Islands, _durnfordi_ +the South Atlantic coast of South America, and _pitanay_ the Pacific +coast of South America. + +The species is not migratory in a strict sense, although the examples +breeding at the north and south extremes of the range probably retire +short distances toward the Equator when forced to do so by climatic +conditions. + +The range may be outlined as follows: North to Texas (Brownsville, +Padre Island, Corpus Christi, and Galveston); Louisiana (Isla a Pitre); +probably rarely Alabama (Petit Bois Island); and formerly southern New +Jersey (Great Egg Harbor). East to formerly southern New Jersey (Great +Egg Harbor, and probably Seven-mile Beach); probably rarely Maryland +(Ocean City); Virginia (Hog Island, Cobb Island, and Smiths Island); +North Carolina (Cape Hatteras, Ocracoke Inlet, and mouth of Cape Fear +River); South Carolina (Waverly Mills, Raccoon Key, Bulls Bay, Sullivan +Island, and Frogmore); Georgia (Savannah, St. Simon Island, and +Cumberland); Florida (St. Johns River, Charlotte Harbor, and probably +Cape Sable); the Bahama Islands (Abaco, Andros, Long, Mariguana, and +Inagua Islands); probably Porto Rico (Desecheo Island); Venezuela +(Aruba, Curaçao, and Cumana); Brazil (Santa Catherina, Cajetuba, +Rio de Janeiro, Sapetiba Bay, and Iguape); Uruguay (La Paloma and +Montevideo); and Argentina (Lavalle, Cape San Antonio, Mar Chiquita, +and mouth of Chubut River). South to Argentina (mouth of Chubut River) +and Chile (Ancud). West to Chile (Ancud, Algarrobo, Santiago, Chanaral, +and Atacama); Peru (San Nicolas Bay, Independencia Bay, Pisco Bay, +Chilca, and San Lorenzo); Ecuador (Gulf of Guayaquil and Santa Elena); +Panama (Pearl Island); Yucatan (Cozumel Island and Merida); and Texas +(Brownsville). + +_Casual records._--The American oyster-catcher has on a few occasions +been directed north of its normal range. Among these occurrences are: +New York, a specimen in New York Harbor, May 28, 1877, one about +March 9, 1880, at Ponquogue, and one at Greenport, June 2, 1882; +Massachusetts, two in August, 1899, at Chatham, one in April, 1885, at +Monomoy Island, two seen September 10, 1924, at Eastham, a pair taken +in 1837, at Marshfield, and one in Boston harbor, killed prior to 1814; +Maine, reported by Audubon as occurring at Portland but this record +is considered doubtful; New Brunswick, a specimen has been reported +upon the authority of Boardman (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884) as +taken at Grand Manan. This last is considered unsatisfactory as being +indefinite, while Audubon’s statement that it bred in Labrador is +probably an error. + +_Egg dates._--Virginia: 37 records, April 26 to July 9; 19 records, May +21 to June 19. South Carolina and Georgia: 25 records, March 27 to June +25; 13 records, May 5 to 23. Texas: 8 records, March 29 to May 5. + + + HAEMATOPUS PALLIATUS FRAZARI Brewster + + FRAZAR OYSTER CATCHER + + + HABITS + +It now seems to be generally recognized that this Lower California +oyster catcher is a subspecies of _palliatus_, although William +Brewster (1902) originally described it as a full species and named +it in honor of the veteran collector, M. Abbott Frazar. Dr. Robert +Cushman Murphy (1925) has recently reviewed this group, in which he has +designated six subspecies of _palliatus_, inhabiting various parts of +North and South America. To _frazari_ he assigns the following limited +range: + + Pacific and Gulf coasts of Lower California and adjacent + parts of Mexico, including the islands; formerly northward + in Ventura County, Calif.; southward along the west coast + of Mexico to Tepic and Jalisco, and at least occasionally + to Guerrero. + + Ridgway lists specimens from Sihutanejo and Acapulco, + Guerrero. Contrary to former opinion, however, this race is + principally confined to the zone of generally arid shores + centering about the peninsula and gulf of Lower California. + Its range approaches or meets that of _H. p. palliatus_ on + the more tropical coast farther south, probably at a point + not far from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. + +He says of the characters of this race: + + The subspecific characters of _frazari_, which include + darker coloration of the brown upper parts than in + _palliatus_, heavy mottling on the breast along the + junction of white and black plumage, longer wing and tail + (?), and smaller bill and feet, are given fully by Ridgway. + The latter makes no mention, however, of the practical + elimination of the white blotching of the primaries, a + character which this oyster catcher shares with other + western races. In most specimens the white spots are wholly + lacking, but a few show obsolescent white or mottled + markings of the conventional pattern on the eighth or ninth + from the outermost quill. It is interesting to note that + the mottling of the breast, which is so strongly typical of + this race, appears to be carried by a genetic factor deeply + rooted in the species as a whole. Scarcely any large series + of _H. p. palliatus_, indeed, lacks one or more birds of + this type. In its maximum expression, however, when the + whole breast, sides, flanks, and under tail coverts are + heavily blotched, the character is peculiar to _frazari_. + +_W._ Leon Dawson (1923) says, in explanation of its disappearance from +California: + + By reason of its conspicuous coloration, as well as its + excessive noisiness, the Frazar oyster catcher has suffered + a fatal prominence. Its former appearances on the Channel + Islands (as far north as Ventura County) were concluded by + an early martyrdom, and the species is rare even in its + primitive fortresses on Los Coronados Islands. + +_Nesting._--Being more permanently resident than even its eastern +relative, the Frazar oyster catcher has no migrations, except its late +summer wanderings, and remains on its breeding range throughout the +year. As to the nesting habits of this bird at Scammons Lagoon, Lower +California, Griffing Bancroft (1927) writes: + + They climb up on the shell banks which are the back stops + of the beaches and there build their nests. The shell + banks are usually a yard or two above high-water mark; + they are flat and quite narrow and often have fingerlike + projections of 50 yards or so on the same level, running + toward the east. Typically, all these higher flats are + composed of nothing but shell, largely unbroken and of a + size which may be judged in the accompanying illustration. + Sand and small impurities have been garnered by the wind. + The oyster catcher likes to build her nest where she + has an unobstructed view in all directions, securing to + herself the opportunity of slipping off unobtrusively at + the approach of an enemy. But she is a stupid bird and is + easily satisfied with a makeshift which seems to her to + accomplish her purpose but in reality does not do so at + all. So on some of the earthen islands we find her nesting + on little mounds, from which, it is true, she can see, but + to only a matter of a few feet. + + In the Gulf of California the favorite site for an + oyster catcher is the end of the rather long spits of + cobblestones. These are so nearly level that a sitting bird + has an unobstructed view for a hundred yards. There she + builds a nest of fine hard material--small pebbles and bits + of shell. And as she can not have broken the larger stones + that were originally on the site she must have removed + them. I use the analogy for Scammons. Instead of breaking + the shells with her powerful bill she probably pulls them + out of the way until she has a flat circle about 10 inches + across. This clearing she lines as neatly as tile work, and + on them deposits her eggs, one, two, or three. The breeding + season seems quite long, as we found both well-developed + young and fresh eggs. I have observed parents with their + young long after the latter had taken wing, and so feel + sure that the oyster catchers raise but one brood a year. + +I have a set of two eggs in my collection, taken by W. W. Brown, jr., +May 2, 1912, on San Jose Island; the nest is described as a depression, +lined with pebbles, in a crevice on top of a jagged, weatherworn ledge, +40 feet above the surf. There are two sets in the Thayer collection, +taken by Mr. Brown near La Paz on March 24 and 26, 1909; one nest was +similarly located to mine; “it was out of reach of the surf, but the +spray, no doubt, dampened it in rough weather”; the nest from which the +other set was taken is described as “a depression in the sand.” The +eggs were laid on the bare ground, there being no lining to the nest +whatever. It was 80 feet from the surf. + +_Eggs._--The Frazar oyster catcher lays two or three eggs, sometimes +only one. These are practically indistinguishable from those of the +American oyster catcher. The measurements of 27 eggs average 57.1 by +38.8 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =60.9= by +37.8, 59.8 by =41.5=, =50.7= by 40.8, and 60.7 by =36= millimeters. + +_Plumages._--The plumages and molts from the downy stage to maturity +are apparently the same as in the American oyster catcher. Mr. Bancroft +(1927) has published some interesting notes on his observations, which +suggest that either there are two color phases in these birds or that +they interbreed with black oyster catchers (_bachmani_) and produce +hybrids; I am inclined to accept the latter theory, but quote from Mr. +Bancroft’s (1927) paper, as follows: + + Ninety per cent of the oyster catchers had white bellies, + the rest had all their underparts black, with the exception + of one, whose belly was streaked black and white. Mr. + Chester Lamb wrote me that on Natividad Island there was + a much larger percentage of mixed underparts than we + found. That there were two phases of one bird instead of + two distinct species in the lagoon was apparent to anyone + watching them. There was only one case I observed of a + black bird paired with another black; all the other blacks + had white-bellied mates. The difference between the birds + was limited to the abdomens; place a mixed series in a + row with the backs up and one could not tell one bird + from another. In their conduct, especially when their + nests were threatened, there were no differences at all. I + feel perfectly safe in saying there were no black oyster + catchers (_Haematopus bachmani_) present. I have seen too + many of them, from Monterey to Sitka, not to know by heart + every movement they will make and every note they will + utter when one trespasses on their home sites. The actions + and the cries, and especially the noise, are more unusual + and more uniform than those of any bird with which I am + acquainted. They fly customarily in a complete half circle + from the rocks on one side to those on the other, the + birds keeping near each other and almost always close to + the water. The noise is incessant, shrill, continuous, and + loud beyond belief. The contrast with the birds in Scammons + is striking. There, both the white and the black bellied + are almost as silent as plover and try to win safety by + a prodigious show of indifference. There is little or no + excitement while we tramp around the nesting sites. When + the parents find we can not be persuaded to follow them + away they take up positions 50 to 100 feet from us and + there remain motionless, usually as long as we are in the + neighborhood. There is another great difference between + _H. bachmani_ and the black phase in the south. The former + is decidedly darker than the latter, especially on the + back, whereas true _Haematopus frazari_ from both ends of + the Gulf appear to be the same as those in Scammons. + + We found and photographed a pair of downy young not over a + few days old. These youngsters are obviously of the white + and black types, respectively; we have the skins to show + that there is no photographic illusion here. So we have + very strong evidence that the black and the white phases do + mate and do produce fertile offspring and that the young + have partaken of the coloring, one of one parent and one of + the other. These little birds are not mongrels, though we + know from some adults that occasionally there are chicks + which do inherit from both parents. Comparison shows that + the white-breasted downy does not differ at all, at a + cursory glance, from a baby taken on Coronado Island in the + Gulf. + +_Behavior._--The same observer writes: + + Scammons Lagoon is a haven for oyster catchers, or appears + so to such of us as are accustomed to but an occasional + pair scattered along the various islands and rocky + projections in the more northerly Pacific Ocean. There are + at least two or three hundred oyster catchers fairly evenly + distributed over the islands we visited, with an occasional + pair or so on favorable mainland strands. When the tides + are going down vast stretches of hard flats are exposed + and become feeding grounds. The birds pursue the receding + water even to the point of wading, and there they hunt the + small marine life on which they live. When the tide turns + they use the black levels as a lounging place until driven + ashore by the sea. They are markedly indolent and slow in + movement and, when undisturbed, never appear the least bit + busy. + +Walter E. Bryant (1890) says: + + I found this oyster catcher tolerably common at Magdalena + Bay and northward, and on Santa Margarita Island. They were + mated in January. They were rather shy, running rapidly on + the beach, and if approached, taking wing with loud, clear, + whistling notes, and after flying some distance, alighting + again at the water’s edge. Their food was chiefly small + bivalves found in the gravelly beach. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Pacific coast of Mexico and southern California. The Frazar +oyster catcher is confined chiefly to Lower California (San Quintin +Bay, Cedros Island, Natividad Island, San Roque, Ascuncion Island, Los +Coronados Islands, Carmen Island, San Jose Island, La Paz, and Todos +Santos); and the mainland coast of Mexico; Sonora (Quotla); Sinaloa +(Altata); Nayarit (Maria Madre Island, Maria Cleofas Island, Tres +Marias, Isabela Island, and San Blas); and Guerrero (Sihutanejo, and +Acapulco). The species is of casual occurrence (formerly more common) +on the coast and islands of southern California (San Diego, Santa +Barbara Island, San Clemente Island, and Ventura County). Breeding +records for California are not satisfactory. + +_Egg dates._--Lower California: 39 records, March 24 to June 24; 20 +records, April 22 to May 13. + + + HAEMATOPUS BACHMANI Audubon + + BLACK OYSTER CATCHER + + + HABITS + +At the northern end of their range, in the Aleutian Islands, I first +became acquainted with these big black waders. Here we frequently saw +them at various points, as we entered or left the rock-bound harbors, +sitting in little groups or in pairs on the rocks or outlying ledges. +They were surprisingly inconspicuous on the wet and dark colored rocks, +which were often half hidden in the prevailing fogs. They seemed to +fit very well into their dark and gloomy surroundings. They were not +particularly shy, as they stood on the slippery rocks and nodded to us +with grotesque dignity, or as they flew out around us uttering their +loud and penetrating cries. + +_Courtship._--W. Leon Dawson (1909) writes: + + Left to themselves, the birds are no Quakers, and the + antics of courtship are both noisy and amusing. A certain + duet, especially, consists of a series of awkward bowings + and bendings in which the neck is stretched to the utmost + and arched over stiffly into a pose as grotesque as one of + Cruikshank’s drawings, the whole to an accompaniment of + amorous clucks and wails. + +_Nesting._--We did not succeed in finding any nests of the black oyster +catcher in the Aleutian Islands, though they undoubtedly breed there. +Dr. W. H. Dall (1873) found two nests in the Shumagins on June 23, +1872; there were two eggs “in one nest and one in another, if nest it +could be called, being simply a depression in the gravel of the beach +without even a straw to soften its asperities.” Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood +(1901) found a nest in the Queen Charlotte Islands, which “was merely a +hollow about 2 inches deep and almost perfectly round, scooped out of +a weedy turf a few feet above highwater mark. The bottom of the hollow +was covered with bits of broken stone, evidently placed there by the +old bird.” + +Referring to the rocky islands off the coast of Washington, Mr. Dawson +(1909) says: + + The eggs of the black oyster catcher, normally three + in number, are oftenest placed in the hollow of a bare + rock, lined with a pint or so of rock flakes, laboriously + gathered. Occasionally bits of shell, especially the + calcareous plates of the goose barnacle, are added by way + of adornment. Now and then the wader emulates the gull + and prepares a careful lining of grasses. One such nest + with three eggs I passed repeatedly, on Carroll, languidly + supposing it to be a gull’s until Professor Jones exclaimed + over it. + + For a nesting site the upper reaches of barren reefs or + shoulders are chosen, but on the smaller rocks, where + the waders have exclusive rights, the eggs may be lodged + on the very crest of the islet. Again, upon Destruction + Island, we found eggs on a coarse beach gravel, where to + the protection of color, stone-gray with black spots and + blotches, was added the almost perfect assimilation of form + to that of the rounded pebbles. + +_Eggs._--The black oyster catcher lays two or three eggs, occasionally +only one and more rarely four. They are very much like the eggs of +the American oyster catcher, but perhaps they will average a little +more buffy. They are ovate in shape and have a very slight gloss. The +ground colors vary from “cream buff” to “olive buff.” They are usually +quite evenly covered with small spots and scrawls of black or very dark +browns, “bister” or “Dresden brown,” and various shades of “Quaker +drab.” The measurements of 44 eggs average 56.2 by 39.5 millimeters; +the eggs showing the four extremes measure =62= by 39.5, 58.1 by =42=, +=51= by 39.5 and 54.2 by =37.5= millimeters. + +_Young._--Nothing seems to be known about the period of incubation or +whether both sexes share in it; both parents are interested in the care +of the young and are very solicitous for their welfare. Dr. Joseph +Grinnell (1910) writes: + + Dixon observed two half-grown young running about on the + beach; but as soon as the old birds, which were always + watching, saw anyone approaching a warning note was + uttered, at which the young ones promptly squatted among + the rocks wherever they happened to be, even if in the edge + of the water. They remained perfectly quiet and blended so + nicely with their surroundings that it was difficult to + locate them even when they had been previously seen from a + distance. The old birds attacked and put to rout any gulls + or ravens that approached the vicinity. + +Prof. Harold Heath (1915) says: + + The precocial fledglings very early accompanied their + parents on short journeys about the cliffs, and within + a week after hatching were observed pecking at limpets, + although it is highly probable that for several days + thereafter they depended on the old birds for the greater + part of their food supply. During this time the young + resemble diminutive ostriches, with thick-set legs, + big feet, and fluffy plumage, which, it may be added, + harmonizes to a high degree with the surroundings. + Furthermore, they have the same habit of hiding the head + when it is not possible to conceal the entire body beneath + a stone. + +_Plumages._--The downy young black oyster catcher is a swarthy little +fellow, clothed in short, thick, dark, grizzly down, a color pattern +well suited for concealment among the dark rocks where it lives. The +down of the upper parts is basally sooty black and very dark gray, but +the pale buffy tips give the bird its grizzly appearance. There is an +indistinct loral and postocular stripe and two broad, more distinct, +parallel stripes down the back of brownish black and two blackish areas +on the thighs; between the back stripes and on the rump the buff tips +produce a transverse barred effect. The underparts are dull grays, +darkest on the throat and breast and lightest on the belly; the sides +are faintly mottled or barred. + +In juvenal plumage the young bird is much like the adult, but the +feathers of the wing coverts, scapulars, tertials, and back are tipped +with narrow terminal bars of “cinnamon buff” and subterminal blackish +bars; those of the flanks, thighs, and under tail coverts are tipped +with the same color; most of these buffy tips soon wear away, and +before the postjuvenal molt there are only a few spots left on the wing +coverts, scapulars, and tertials, some of which are carried through +the winter as evidences of immaturity. I have not seen enough material +collected at the proper seasons to trace the molts of adults. + +_Food._--Mr. Dawson (1909) writes: + + Even when visiting the mainland shore, which is not often, + the bird confines its attention to the barnacle-covered + rocks and high-lying mussel beds. Its food consists of + marine worms and crustaceans of various sorts, barnacles, + limpets, and especially mussels. Its stout, chisel-shaped + beak enables it to force an entrance into the most + refractory mussel shell and to sever as by a knife the + strong adductor muscles, which hold the valves together. + Its feet also are large and strong, and the toes are + provided with an elaborate set of pectinations which enable + the bird to maintain a footing upon the most slippery + rocks. If the foothold on a sloping rock is anywise + precarious, the bird retreats backward and uphill by means + of these convenient calks. + +A. B. Howell (1917) says: + + Certain rocky points are selected by the birds, and to + these are often brought the barnacles which they pry off + the rocks. These are worked over at leisure, and at one + such depot on the Coronados, which I examined there was + fully a bushel of shells. + +_Behavior._--The flight of the black oyster catcher is strong and +direct, but it seemed to me to be rather slow and heavy. Lucien M. +Turner (1886) says: + + The flight consists of a few rapid strokes of the wing, + followed by a sail for a few yards. It is sluggish when + on the wing, and flies with difficulty, and rarely long + continued. When alarmed it flies over the water within a + few yards of the shore, and in going from one point of + rocks to another it either makes the trip in easy stages + from one large rock to another, or else follows the + indentations of the shore line. The bird is always on the + alert, and not at all shy. It generally sees the hunter + long before he suspects the presence of the bird. The bird + either squats in a depression of the rocks, or stealthily + creeps to the top of some huge bowlder, where it utters + a piercing, whistling chatter like that of a policeman’s + rattle. It causes the intruder long search to discover the + presence of the bird, for its color is so near that of the + rocks it frequents that it is not easily detected. The + note is then answered by another bird, so that in a few + minutes a dozen may be chattering hideously, making the + hunter wonder where all the birds came from so suddenly, as + all the birds within hearing assemble on the first note of + alarm. + +Carl Lien says in his notes: + + If occasion requires these birds are good swimmers and, + if pursued when crippled, will dive deep and long. A very + alert bird and always first to give alarm. + +_Voice._--My notes refer to the cries of this bird as loud, penetrating +screams, sounding like _whee-up_, or _whee-ep_. + +Doctor Dall (1873) says: + + They utter, when disturbed, a peculiar, low whistle; which + once heard, is likely to be remembered; and they have a + habit of standing on the beach or rocks a little way apart, + and whistling to one another; one calling and the other + answering; and keeping it up for half an hour at a time. + It is one of the most peculiar birds of the region, in + its motions, having a grave, solemn and stilted gait, and + bobbing its head up and down with every step. + +_Winter._--As the black oyster catcher is practically resident all the +year round throughout most, if not all, of its range, there is not much +to be said about its migrations, though there is probably some shifting +of individuals. Doctor Dall (1873) refers to it as a summer visitor in +the Aleutian Islands, but Mr. Turner (1886) records it as a permanent +resident there. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--Pacific coast of North America and Lower California. + +_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the black oyster catcher +extends north to Alaska (Atka Island, Range Island, St. Paul Harbor, +Montague Island, Hinchinbrook Island, Sitka, St. Lazaria Island, +probably Kuiu Island, Coronation Island, Prince of Wales Island, +Forrester Island, and Duke Island); south along the coast of British +Columbia (Porcher Island, Skidegate, Vancouver Island, and New +Westminster); Washington (Bellingham Bay, Waldron Island, Flattery +Rocks, Quillayute Needles, Destruction Island, and Copalis Rock); +Oregon (Three Arch Rock, Newport, and Bandon); California (probably +Prince Island, Eureka, probably the Farallon Islands, Point Pinos, San +Miguel Island, Santa Cruz Island, Anacapa Island, San Clemente Island, +and San Diego); and Lower California (Todos Santos, San Benito Island, +Cedros Island, Natividad Island, Abreojos Point, and Los Coronados +Islands). + +_Winter range._--In winter, the black oyster catcher is found +throughout its breeding range except (normally) in Alaska and +(probably) northern British Columbia. It has, however, been recorded on +one occasion at this season, in Alaska, St. George Island, January 12, +1917 (Hanna). + +_Migration._--An early date of arrival in Alaska is Unalaska Island, +April 29, while a late date of departure is St. Lazaria Island, +September 30. + +_Egg dates._--Alaska: 14 records, June 5 to 26; 7 records, June 13 to +23. British Columbia: 13 records, May 27 to June 20; 7 records, June 6 +to 12. California: 7 records, May 25 to June 10. + + + + + Family JACANIDAE Jacanas + + JACANA SPINOSA GYMNOSTOMA (Wagler) + + MEXICAN JACANA + + + HABITS + +The American jacanas are now split into three species and three +additional subspecies, six forms in all. They are widely distributed +throughout the American Tropics. All are closely related and all are +much alike in habits. The above form barely comes within the range of +our check list, as a rare straggler from Mexico into the valley of the +lower Rio Grande near Brownsville, Tex. + +I have never seen this curious bird in life, but can imagine that it +must be a beautiful sight to see it tripping lightly over the floating +lily pads, supported on its long toes, where it seems to be actually +walking on the water; and it must produce quite a surprising thrill as +it spreads its wings to fly, displaying the conspicuous yellow-green +patches in its wings, which flash in the sunlight like banners of +golden yellow. It seems like a strange connecting link between the +spur-winged plovers and the rails or gallinules. + +It is a sedentary species of decidedly local distribution and seldom +strays far from its favorite breeding haunts. Thomas S. Gillin, who has +sent me some very good notes on this bird, describes its habitat as +follows: + + I learned of a lake a few miles from Tampico and on my + first visit to this lake on April 3, 1923, I found over + a dozen birds feeding and chasing one another over the + floating vegetation. As the first sets of eggs were found + on April 25 I apparently found them right in the midst of + the mating season. The lake where I found them was about a + half mile long and from 100 to 250 yards wide, curved and + irregular in outline. Nowhere in the lake was the water + over 4 feet deep except where the alligators had their + holes; in some of these spots there was always danger of + getting in over one’s head. Scattered through the lake were + a few stunted trees similar in appearance to our sour gum, + _Nyssa sylvatica_, and in the decayed stump of one of these + trees I found a nest of the black-bellied tree duck. About + one-third of the surface of the lake was open water and the + remaining two-thirds was covered with a floating plant, + each individual plant measuring about 12 inches across + and resembling lettuce that has not headed up, though the + leaves were coarser, more like cabbage leaves. As this + did not have its roots extending into the mud the entire + mass of vegetation at times changed its position as the + direction of the winds might change and cause the entire + body of vegetation, and again only part of it, to drift to + the opposite side of the lake. The jacanas were, to all + appearances, in no way inconvenienced by these free rides, + though there was always the danger that the eggs might + be lost by the move. During my many visits to this lake + from early April until the middle of August I always found + the jacanas playing or feeding over the surface of the + vegetation. At times the green herons, little blue herons, + and an occasional gallinule, least bittern, or redwing + would be seen feeding on the surface of the lake. + +_Courtship._--He refers to the courtship, which must be a very pretty +performance, as follows: + + During courtship the birds raise their wings over their + backs very much as the Bartramian sandpipers do and flirt + their wings at each other as if they were attempting to + strike one another with the sharp spurs with which their + wings are armed. + +_Nesting._--In the above locality, Mr. Gillin found 38 nests of this +jacana between April 25 and August 15, 1923, of which he says: + + I sometimes surprised the birds on their nests, but as a + usual thing they would leave the nest at the first alarm. + The number of eggs was invariably four, though in one + case I collected a set of three. The nests consisted of + a few bits of green leaves of cat-tails and small pieces + of the green leaves of the plants on which they nested, + in all nests containing fresh eggs, though in cases where + the eggs were incubated the nest material had sometimes + turned brown. There was merely enough material to prevent + the eggs from rolling apart or falling through into the + water, though in most cases the bottom side of the eggs was + laying in the water. One day while watching the lake from + a blind I saw a jacana go to its eggs and stand over them + apparently shading them from the hot sun; this position was + maintained for five or six minutes; no attempt was made + to warm the eggs by sitting on them; at the end of this + shading of the eggs the birds went back to feeding near by. + +The late Frank B. Armstrong distributed a large number of eggs of the +jacana, taken by his collectors across the Rio Grande in Mexico, mostly +near Tampico or somewhere in the State of Tamaulipas. His data describe +the nests as made of floating weeds or trash on or under the leaves of +lilies or other floating plants, in fresh water ponds. + +_Eggs._--The jacana’s eggs are as unique as the bird itself, and can +not be mistaken for anything else. They are ovate to short ovate, +or even rounded ovate, in shape; and they are decidedly glossy. The +ground colors vary from “buckthorn brown” or “Isabella color” to +“chamois.” They are well covered with fantastic scrawls and tangled, +fine, pen-like lines of black; these markings are usually quite +evenly distributed, but they are sometimes concentrated more thickly +at either end or in the middle. The set almost invariably consists +of four eggs, but I have records of a few sets of five and of three; +Mr. Gillin’s series consists of 37 sets of four and one set of three. +The measurements of 50 eggs average 30.1 by 23 millimeters; the eggs +showing the four extremes measure =31.8= by 23.3; 31 by =24.1=, =28.3= +by 22.2, and 30.3 by =21.7= millimeters. + +=Young.=--Mr. Gillin says in his notes: + + The young run as soon as hatched, and in one case, when I + came upon a nest in which the young had just hatched, they + dived into the water and swam under the water for several + feet before they came to the surface. + +_Plumages._--The young jacana in natal down is beautifully marked +with rich colors. A narrow frontal line, the sides of the face and +the entire underparts are white; the crown and nape are “ochraceous +orange,” centrally browner, with a black “crow-foot” on the occiput, +and with a black line from the eye to the hind neck, which is dusky +black; the central area of the back and rump is “burnt sienna,” +bordered on each side by a band of “ochraceous buff,” below which is +an indistinct dusky band; the thighs and the inner joints of the wings +are “burnt sienna”; the outer joint of the wing is white; the tail and +sides of the rump are jet black; and the tibia are dusky black. The +bright colors become duller as the chick grows older. + +In fresh juvenal plumage the crown and occiput are “warm sepia,” the +feathers faintly tipped with “cinnamon”; the back and sides of the +neck are brownish black; the back, scapulars and wing coverts are from +“sepia” to “Saccardo’s umber,” the feathers broadly tipped with “tawny” +and with a subterminal dusky bar; a black stripe extends from the eye +to the back side of the neck and a broad stripe of “cream buff” from +the lores, over the eyes to the nape; the sides of the head, chin, +throat, and underparts are white, suffused with “cream buff” on the +breast. A partial postjuvenal body molt takes place during the fall, or +else the edgings entirely wear away leaving only the plain colors of +the upper parts, the juvenal wing coverts and some of the scapulars. In +late winter or early spring, from January to April, a nearly, if not +quite, complete prenuptial molt takes place, which produces a plumage +which is practically adult, including the frontal shield. I have no +data on the molts of adults. In this plumage the female is decidedly +larger, is somewhat more brightly colored and has a larger frontal +shield. + +_Food._--Mr. Gillin says in his notes: + + The food of the jacanas must consist of minute insect life + that they are able to find on this floating vegetation as + they are very active and seem to spend practically all + their time feeding, which would lead to the conclusion that + their food is secured in very small morsels or else they + require a great amount of food. + +_Behavior._--P. L. Jouy says in a letter: + + When standing in reeds or sedge they frequently stretch the + neck up straight on the lookout. They also have a curious + habit of extending the wings and raising them up over the + back until they meet. This, I suppose, is a kind of signal, + the green of the primaries being conspicuous for a long + distance when in this position. On wounding one of these + birds I found that it was a very fair swimmer, and when I + overtook it, it dived, to my astonishment, with as much + confidence as a grebe, and I never saw it again. + +Mr. Gillin writes: + + On three different occasions I had wounded birds submerge + themselves about a foot below the surface of the water for + several minutes before I could locate them and secure them + by hand. They clutched whatever was available with their + feet and from above looked just as comfortable under water + as a quail or grouse would be crouching in the leaves of a + briar patch. + +_Voice._--Mr. Jouy says that “these birds have a noisy, cackling voice +when they take flight.” Mr. Gillin refers to their note as “a plaintive +call of alarm.” + +_Fall._--In September he found them “in flocks, flying around and +feeding on ponds where” he “was sure that they had not bred.” The +records of this form in Texas and the West Indian form in Florida were +probably due to such post-breeding wanderings. + + + DISTRIBUTION + +_Range._--The Mexican jacana is found in Mexico and the lower Rio +Grande valley in Texas. The range extends north to Sinaloa (Mazatlan); +and southern Texas (Brownsville). East to Texas (Brownsville); +Tamaulipas (Alta Mira, and Tampico); Vera Cruz (Jalapa, Alvarado, +Tlacotalpan, and Cosamaloapam); Tabasco (Barra de Santa Ana, San Juan +Bautista, and Teapa); and Quintana Roo (Cozumel Island). South to +Quintana Roo (Cozumel Island); Chiapas (Tonala); Oaxaca (Zanatepec and +Santa Efigenia); and Guerrero (Acapulco). West to Guerrero (Acapulco); +Michoacan (Lake Patzcuaro); Colima (Rio Coahuayana, and Manzanillo); +Jalisco (Zapotlan, Ocotlan, and Guadalajara); Nayarit (Tepic, San Blas, +and Santiago); and Sinaloa (Mazatlan). + +In October, 1899, a specimen of jacana was killed on Pelican Bay, +Lake Okeechobee, Fla. (Mearns, 1902); and H. H. Bailey (1925) reports +another seen by his father in Osceola County, Fla., in March, 1911. +The first of these has been tentatively referred by Ridgway (1919) to +_Jacana s. violacea_, a race found in Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and Porto +Rico. + +_Egg dates._--Northeastern Mexico: 68 records, April 25 to August 15; +34 records, May 28 to July 13. + + + + + REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS + + +AIKEN, CHARLES EDWARD HOWARD, and WARREN, EDWARD ROYAL. + + 1914--The Birds of El Paso County, Colorado. + +ALEXANDER, WILFRID BACKHOUSE. + + 1926--Notes on a Visit to North Queensland. The Emu, vol. + 25, pp. 245–260. + +AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES. + + 1840--The Birds of America, 1840–1844. + +AUGHEY, SAMUEL. + + 1878--Notes on the Nature of the Food of Birds of Nebraska. + First Report U. S. Entomological Commission, Appendix + 2. + + +BAILEY, ALFRED MARSHALL. + + 1925–26--A Report on the Birds of Northwestern Alaska and + Regions Adjacent to Bering Strait. Part 6. The Condor, + vol. 27, pp. 232–238. + +BAILEY, FLORENCE MERRIAM. + + 1916--A Populous Shore. The Condor, vol. 18, pp. 100–110. + +BAILEY, HAROLD HARRIS. + + 1913--The Birds of Virginia. + +BAILEY, HARRY BALCH. + + 1876--Notes on birds found breeding on Cobb’s Island, Va., + between May 25 and May 29, 1875. Bulletin of the + Nuttall Ornithological Club, vol. 1, pp. 24–28. + +BANCROFT, GRIFFING. + + 1927--Breeding Birds of Scammon’s Lagoon, Lower California. + The Condor, vol. 29, pp. 29–57. + +BARROWS, WALTER BRADFORD. + + 1912--Michigan Bird Life. + +BARTSCH, PAUL. + + 1922--A Visit to Midway Island. The Auk, vol. 39, pp. + 481–488. + +BATES, JOHN MALLORY. + + 1907--The Bartramian Sandpiper. Bird-Lore, vol. 9, p. 84. + + 1916--Incubation Period of Killdeer. The Wilson Bulletin, + vol. 28, pp. 150–151. + +BAYNARD, OSCAR EDWARD. + + 1914--Photographing Birds’ Nests. Bird-Lore, vol. 16, pp. + 471–477. + +BEAUPRE, EDWIN. + + 1917--The American Golden Plover in Eastern Ontario. The + Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 31, pp. 29–31. + +BENNERS, GEORGE B. + + 1887--A Collecting Trip in Texas. Ornithologist and + Oologist, vol. 12, pp. 49–52, 65–69, and 81–84. + +BERGTOLD, WILLIAM HENRY. + + 1917--A Study of the Incubation Periods of Birds. + + 1926--Passerine Birds Eating Trout Fry. The Auk, vol. 43, + p. 558. + +BIGELOW, HENRY BRYANT. + + 1902--Birds of the Northeastern Coast of Labrador. The Auk, + vol. 19, pp. 24–31. + +BISHOP, LOUIS BENNETT. + + 1900--Birds of the Yukon Region. North American Fauna, No. + 19. + +BRADBURY, WILLIAM CHASE. + + 1918--Notes on the Nesting of the Mountain Plover. The + Condor, vol. 20, pp. 157–163. + +BRETHERTON, BERNARD J. + + 1896--Kodiak Island. A Contribution to the Avifauna of + Alaska. The Oregon Naturalist, vol. 3, pp. 45–49; + 61–64; 77–79; 100–102. + +BREWER, THOMAS MAYO. + + 1878--Changes in our North American Fauna. Bulletin of the + Nuttall Ornithological Club, vol. 3, pp. 49–52. + +BREWSTER, WILLIAM. + + 1887--Three New Forms of North American Birds. The Auk, + vol. 4, pp. 145–149. + + 1902--Birds of the Cape Region of Lower California. + Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at + Harvard College, vol. 41, No. 1. + + 1925--The Birds of the Lake Umbagog Region of Maine. + Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at + Harvard College, vol. 66, Part 2. + +BROOKS, ALLAN [CYRIL]. + + 1924--Two New Sandpiper Records for California. The Condor, + vol. 26, pp. 37–38. + +BROOKS, WINTHROP SPRAGUE. + + 1915--Notes on Birds from East Siberia and Arctic Alaska. + Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at + Harvard College. + +BROWN, WILLIAM JAMES. + + 1912--Additional Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. The + Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 26, pp. 93–98. + + 1916--Killdeer Plover. The Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 30, pp. + 113–114. + +BRYANT, HAROLD CHILD. + + 1914--A Survey of the Breeding Grounds of Ducks in + California in 1914. The Condor, vol. 16, pp. 217–239. + + 1914_a_--Bird Destroyers of Grasshoppers in California. The + Auk, vol. 31, pp. 168–177. + +BRYANT, WALTER (PIERCE) E. + + 1890--A Catalogue of the Birds of Lower California, Mexico. + Proceedings California Academy of Sciences, ser. 2, + vol. 2, pp. 237–320. + +BURNS, FRANKLIN LORENZO. + + 1915--Comparative Periods in Deposition and Incubation of + Some North American Birds. The Wilson Bulletin, vol. + 27, pp. 275–286. + + +CAHOON, JOHN CYRUS. + + 1888--The Shore Birds of Cape Cod. Ornithologist and + Oologist, vol. 13, pp. 121–124; 129–132; 153–156. + +CAMERON, EWEN SOMERLED. + + 1907--The Birds of Custer and Dawson Counties, Montana. The + Auk, vol. 24, pp. 241–270. + +CARROLL, W. J. + + 1910--The Eskimo Curlew or Doughbird. Forest and Stream, + vol. 74, p. 372. + +CHADBOURNE, ARTHUR PATTERSON. + + 1889--An Unusual Flight of Killdeer Plover (_Aegialitis + vocifera_) along the New England Coast. The Auk, vol. + 6, pp. 255–263. + +CHAMBERS, WILLIE LEE. + + 1901--Curious Nest of Anna’s Hummingbird. The Condor, vol. + 3, p. 105. + + 1904--The Snowy Plover. The Condor, vol. 6, pp. 139–140. + +CHAPMAN, ABEL. + + 1889--Bird Life of the Borders. + +CHAPMAN, FRANK MICHLER. + + 1891--On the Birds Observed Near Corpus Christi, Texas, + during Parts of March and April, 1891. Bulletin of + the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 3, pp. + 315–328. + + 1912--Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. + + 1926--The Distribution of Bird Life in Ecuador. + +CHISLETT, RALPH. + + 1923--The Whimbrel in Shetland. British Birds, vol. 17, pp. + 150–154. + + 1925--Turnstones on a Baltic Islet. British Birds, vol. 19, + pp. 2–9. + +CLARK, AUSTIN HOBART. + + 1905--The Migration of Certain Shore Birds. The Auk, vol. + 22, pp. 134–140. + + 1905_a_--Shore Birds Eating Small Fish. The Auk, vol. 22, + pp. 208–209. + + 1910--The Birds Collected and Observed During the Cruise + of the United States Fisheries Steamer “Albatross” in + the North Pacific Ocean, and in the Bering, Okhotsk, + Japan, and Eastern Seas, from April to December, 1906. + Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, vol. 38, pp. + 25–74. + +CLEAVES, HOWARD HENDERSON. + + 1908--Sandpiper in a Tree. The Journal of the Maine + Ornithological Society, vol. 10, pp. 85–86. + +CONOVER, HENRY BOARDMAN. + + 1926--Game Birds of the Hooper Bay Region, Alaska. The Auk, + vol. 43, pp. 162–180; 303–318. + +COOKE, WELLS WOODBRIDGE. + + 1897--The Birds of Colorado. The State Agricultural + College, Bulletin 37. + + 1912--Distribution and Migration of North American Shore + Birds. United States Department of Agriculture, + Biological Survey Bulletin No. 35, Revised. + +COUES, ELLIOTT. + + 1874--Birds of the North-West. + +CRIDDLE, NORMAN. + + 1908--Some Bird Habits. The Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 22, pp. + 153–156. + + +DALL, WILLIAM HEALEY. + + 1873--Notes on the Avifauna of the Aleutian Islands, from + Unalaska, Eastward. + +DAVIES, SUTTON A. + + 1895--In Quest of Birds on the Muonio River. Zoologist, + Third Series, vol. 19, pp. 326–335. + +DAWSON, WILLIAM LEON. + + 1909--The Birds of Washington. + + 1911--Another Fortnight on the Farallones. The Condor, vol. + 13, pp. 171–183. + + 1923--The Birds of California. + +DEWAR JOHN M. + + 1908--Notes on the Oyster catcher. Zoologist, 1908, pp. + 201–212. + +DILL, HOMER R., and BRYAN, WILLIAM ALANSON. + + 1912--Report of an Expedition to Laysan Island in 1911. + United States Department of Agriculture, Biological + Survey, Bulletin No. 42. + +DIXON, JOSEPH. + + 1918--The Nesting Grounds and Nesting Habits of the + Spoon-billed Sandpiper. The Auk, vol. 35, pp. 387–404. + + 1927--The Surf-bird’s Secret. The Condor, vol. 29, pp. 3–16. + +DOOLITTLE, EDWARD ARTHUR. + + 1923--Occurrence of Buff-breasted Sandpiper in Lake County, + Ohio. The Auk, vol. 40, pp. 691–692. + +DUTCHER, WILLIAM. + + 1892--A specimen of Numenius arquatus said to have been + taken on Long Island, N. Y. The Auk, vol. 9, pp. + 390–392. + +DWIGHT, JONATHAN. + + 1893--Summer Birds of Prince Edward Island. The Auk, vol. + 10, pp. 1–15. + + +ELLIOT, DANIEL GIRAUD. + + 1895--North American Shore Birds. + +ERICHSEN, WALTER JEFFERSON. + + 1921--Notes on the Habits of the Breeding Water Birds of + Chatham County, Georgia. The Wilson Bulletin, vol. 33, + pp. 16–28; 69–82. + +EVANS, EDWARD, and STURGE, WILSON. + + 1859--Notes on the Birds of Western Spitzbergen, as + observed in 1855. The Ibis, 1859, p. 171. + + +FARLEY, JOHN AUSTIN. + + 1919--Mating “Song” of the Piping Plover. The Auk, vol. 36, + pp. 566–567. + +FARREN, WILLIAM. + + 1910--In the “British Bird Book,” edited by F. B. Kirkman, + pp. 340–356. + +FEILDEN, HENRY WEMYSS. + + 1889--On the Birds of Barbados. The Ibis, 1889, pp. 477–503. + +FERRY, JOHN FARWELL. + + 1908--Notes from the Diary of a Naturalist in Northern + California. The Condor, vol. 10, pp. 30–44. + +FISHER, ALBERT KENRICK. + + 1893--The Death Valley Expedition, North American Fauna, + No. 7. + +FORBUSH, EDWARD HOWE. + + 1912--A History of the Game Birds, Wild Fowl, and Shore + Birds of Massachusetts and Adjacent States. + + 1925--Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States. + + +GABRIELSON, IRA NOEL. + + 1922--Short Notes on the Life Histories of Various Species + of Birds. The Wilson Bulletin, vol. 34, pp. 193–210. + +GÄTKE, HEINRICH. + + 1895--Heligoland as an Ornithological Observatory. + +GIBSON, ERNEST. + + 1920--Further Ornithological Notes from the Neighborhood of + Cape San Antonio, Province of Buenos Aires. The Ibis, + 1920, pp. 1–97. + +GIRAUD, JACOB POST. + + 1844--The Birds of Long Island. + +GOEBEL, H. + + Numerous articles on eggs of Russian and Siberian Birds + chiefly published in the Zeitschrift für Oologie (und + Ornithologie). + +GORDON, SETON PAUL. + + 1915--Hill Birds of Scotland. + +GOSS, NATHANIEL STICKNEY. + + 1891--History of the Birds of Kansas. + +GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD. + + 1916--Willets in Migration. The Auk, vol. 33, pp. 198–199. + +GRINNELL, JOSEPH. + + 1900--Birds of the Kotzebue Sound Region. Pacific Coast + Avifauna, No. 1. + + 1909--Birds and Mammals of the 1907 Alexander Expedition + to Southeastern Alaska. University of California + Publications in Zoology, vol. 5, pp. 171–264. + + 1910--Birds of the 1908 Alexander Alaska Expedition. + University of California Publications in Zoology, vol. + 5, pp. 361–428. + +GRINNELL, JOSEPH, BRYANT, HAROLD CHILD, and STORER, TRACY IRWIN. + + 1918--The Game Birds of California. + + +HANCOCK, JOHN. + + 1874--(In Natural History Transactions of Northumberland + and Durham, vol. 6 (1873), published in 1874). “A + Catalogue of the Birds of Northumberland and Durham.” + +HANNA, G. DALLAS. + + 1920--New and Interesting Records of Pribilof Island Birds. + The Condor, vol. 22, pp. 173–175. + +HANTZSCH, BERNHARD. + + 1905--Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Vogelwelt Islands. + +HART, H. CHICHESTER. + + 1880--Notes on the Ornithology of the British Polar + Expedition, 1875–76. Zoologist, 1880, p. 205. + +HARTERT, ERNST. + + 1920--Die Vögel der Paläarktischen Fauna. + +HAVILAND, MAUD DORIA. + + 1915--A Summer on the Yenesei. + + 1915_a_--Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Asiatic Golden + Plover. British Birds, vol. 9, pp. 82–89. + +HEATH, HAROLD. + + 1915--Birds Observed on Forrester Island, Alaska, during + the Summer of + + 1913. The Condor, vol. 17, pp. 20–41. + +HENDERSON, ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS. + + 1923--Nesting of the Solitary Sandpiper. The Oologist, vol. + 40, pp. 55–56. + +HENDERSON, JUNIUS. + + 1927--The Practical Value of Birds. + +HENSHAW, HENRY WETHERBEE. + + 1902--Birds of the Hawaiian Islands. + + 1910--Migration of the Pacific Plover to and from the + Hawaiian Islands. The Auk, vol. 27, pp. 245–262. + +HEWITSON, WILLIAM CHAPMAN. + + 1856--Eggs of British Birds. Third Edition. + +HOFFMANN, RALPH. + + 1904--A Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New + York. + +HOSKIN, H. G. + + 1893--Nesting of the Mountain Plover. The Oologist, vol. + 10, p. 230. + +HOWELL, ALFRED BRAZIER. + + 1917--Birds of the Islands off the Coast of Southern + California. Pacific Coast Avifauna, No. 12. + +HOWELL, ARTHUR HOLMES. + + 1906--Birds that Eat the Cotton Boll Weevil. United States + Department of Agriculture. Biological Survey Bulletin. + 25. + + 1924--Birds of Alabama. + +HOXIE, WALTER JOHN. + + 1887--An Egg Lifter. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 12, + p. 129. + +HUDSON, WILLIAM HENRY. + + 1920--Birds of La Plata. + + 1922--A Hind in Richmond Park. + +HUNTER, KATHARINE UPHAM. + + 1916--An Upland Plover’s Nest. Bird-Lore, vol. 18, pp. + 365–366. + +HUXLEY, JULIAN SOREL, and MONTAGUE, F. A. + + 1925--Studies on the Courtship and Sexual Life of Birds. V. + The Oystercatcher. The Ibis, 1925, pp. 868–897. + + +ISELY, DWIGHT. + + 1912--A List of the Birds of Sedgwick County, Kansas. The + Auk, vol. 29, pp. 25–44. + + +JEWEL, LINDSEY LOUIN. + + 1913--Some North American Birds in Panama. The Auk, vol. + 30, pp. 422–429. + + 1915--The Diving Instinct of Shore-birds. The Auk, vol. 32, + p. 227. + +JEWELL, H. W. + + 1909--Feeding Habits of the Sandpiper. The Journal of the + Maine Ornithological Society, vol. 11, p. 123. + +JOB, HERBERT KEIGHTLEY. + + 1905--Wild Wings. + + 1911--The Spotted Sandpiper. Bird-Lore, vol. 13, pp. + 221–224. + +JONES, LYNDS. + + 1903--The Birds of Ohio (Dawson and Jones). + +JOURDAIN, FRANCIS CHARLES ROBERT. + + 1907--On the Eggs of some American Limicolae. The Ibis, + 1907, pp. 517–518. + + 1912.--The Ruff, British Bird Book (Kirkman), vol. 3, pp. + 448–495. + + +KALMBACH, EDWIN RICHARD. + + 1914--Birds in Relation to the Alfalfa Weevil. United + States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 107. + +KELSO, JOHN EDWARD HARVEY. + + 1926--Diving and Swimming Activities Displayed by the + Limicolae. The Auk, vol. 43, pp. 92–93. + +KNIGHT, ORA WILLIS. + + 1908--The Birds of Maine. + +KOPMAN, HENRY HAZLITT. + + 1905--A Killdeer’s Mishap. The Auk, vol. 22, pp. 209–210. + + +LACEY, HOWARD. + + 1911--The Birds of Kerrville, Texas, and Vicinity. The Auk, + vol. 28, pp. 200–219. + +LEWIS, HARRISON FLINT. + + 1920--The Willet (_Catoptrophorus semipalmatus + semipalmatus_) in Nova Scotia. The Auk, vol. 37, pp. + 581–582. + +LITTLEJOHN, CHASE. + + 1904--The Capture of Totanus glareola in Alaska. The + Condor, vol. 6, p. 138. + + +MCATEE, WALDO LEE. + + 1911--Our Vanishing Shorebirds. Biological Survey--Circular + No. 79. + +MCATEE, WALDO LEE, and BEAL, FOSTER ELLENBOROUGH LASCELLES. + + 1912--Some Common Game, Aquatic and Rapacious Birds + in Relation to Man. United States Department of + Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin, 497. + +MACKAY, GEORGE HENRY. + + 1891--The Habits of the Golden Plover (_Charadrius + dominicus_) in Massachusetts. The Auk, vol. 8, pp. + 17–24. + + 1892--Habits of the Black-bellied Plover (_Charadrius + squatarola_) in Massachusetts. The Auk, vol. 9, pp. + 143–152. + + 1892_a_--Tryngites subruficollis. The Auk, vol. 9, pp. + 389–390. + + 1892_b_--Habits of the Hudsonian Curlew in Massachusetts. + The Auk, vol. 9, pp. 345–352. + + 1892_c_--Habits of the Eskimo Curlew (_Numenius borealis_) + in New England. The Auk, vol. 9, pp. 16–21. + +MACMILLAN, DONALD BAXTER. + + 1918--Four Years in the White North. + +MANNICHE, ARNER LUDVIG VALDEMAR. + + 1910--The Terrestrial Mammals and Birds of Northeast + Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland, vol. 45. + +MAYNARD, CHARLES JOHNSON. + + 1896--The Birds of Eastern North America. + +MEARNS, EDGAR ALEXANDER. + + 1890--Observations on the Avifauna of Portions of Arizona. + The Auk, vol. 7, pp. 45–55. + +MERRILL, JAMES CUSHING. + + 1898--Spotted Sandpiper Removing its Young. The Auk, vol. + 15, p. 52. + +MOUSLEY, HENRY. + + 1916--Five Years Personal Notes and Observations on the + Birds of Hatley, Stanstead County, Quebec, 1911–1915. + The Auk, vol. 33, pp. 57–73. + +MUNN, PHILIP WINCHESTER. + + 1921--Notes on the Birds of Alcudia, Majorca. The Ibis, + 1921, pp. 672–719. + +MUNRO, JAMES ALEXANDER. + + 1911--The Spring Migration of Birds at Fisherman’s Island, + Toronto, 1910. The Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 25, pp. + 27–31 and 43–48. + +MURDOCH, JOHN. + + 1885--Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point + Barrow, Alaska, Part 4, Natural History. + +MURIE, OLAUS JOHAN. + + 1924--Nesting Records of the Wandering Tattler and + Surf-bird in Alaska. The Auk, vol. 41, pp. 231–237. + +MURPHY, ROBERT CUSHMAN. + + 1925--Notes on Certain Species and Races of + Oyster-catchers. American Museum Novitates, No. 194. + + +NAUMANN, JOHANN FRIEDRICH. + + 1887–1895--Naturgeschichte der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Edited + by C. R. Hennicke. + +NELSON, EDWARD WILLIAM. + + 1880--An Afternoon in the Vicinity of St. Michael’s, + Alaska. Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, + vol. 5, pp. 33–36. + + 1883--The Birds of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Cruise + of the Revenue Steamer Corwin in Alaska and the N. W. + Arctic Ocean in 1881. + + 1887--Report upon Natural History Collections made In + Alaska. + +NELSON, MRS. HENRY W. + + 1900--A Pair of Killdeer. Bird-Lore, vol. 2, pp. 148–150. + +NEWTON, ALFRED. + + 1896--A Dictionary of Birds. + +NICHOLS, JOHN TREADWELL. + + 1920--Limicoline Voices. The Auk, vol. 37, pp. 519–540. + +NOBLE, FRANK T. + + 1904--Feeding Habits of the Turnstone. Journal of Maine + Ornithological Society, vol. 6, pp. 57–59. + +NUTTALL, THOMAS. + + 1834--A Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and + Canada. Water Birds. + + +OSGOOD, WILFRED HUDSON. + + 1901--Natural History of the Queen Charlotte Islands, + British Columbia. North American Fauna No. 21, pp. + 7–38. + + 1907--Probable Breeding of the Wandering Tattler in the + Interior of Alaska. The Auk, vol. 24, p. 340. + + 1909--Biological Investigations in Alaska and Yukon + Territory. North American Fauna No. 30. + +OSMASTON, BERTRAM BERESFORD. + + 1927--Notes on the Birds of Kashmir. Journal of the Bombay + Natural History Society, vol. 32, pp. 147–148. + + +PAGET-WILKES, ARTHUR HAMILTON. + + 1922--On the Breeding Habits of the Turnstone as Observed + in Spitsbergen. British Birds, vol. 15, pp. 172–179. + +PALMER, WILLIAM. + + 1899--The Avifauna of the Pribilof Islands. The Fur-Seals + and Fur-Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean. Part + 3, pp. 355–431. + + 1909--Instinctive Stillness in Birds. The Auk, vol. 26, pp. + 23–36. + +PATTEN, CHARLES JOSEPH. + + 1906--The Aquatic Birds of Great Britain and Ireland. + +PEARSE, THEED. + + 1924--Display of the Killdeer Plover. The Canadian Field + Naturalist, vol. 38, p. 193. + +PEARSON, HENRY JOHN. + + 1896--Notes on Birds Observed in Russian Lapland, Kolguev, + and Novaya Zemlya, in 1895. The Ibis, 1896, pp. + 199–225. + + 1904--Three Summers among the Birds of Russian Lapland. + +PHILIPP, PHILLIP BERNARD. + + 1910--Birds Observed in the Carolinas. The Auk, vol. 27, + pp. 312–322. + + 1925--Notes on Some Summer Birds of the Magdalen Islands. + The Canadian Field-Naturalist, vol. 39, pp. 75–78. + +PHILIPP, PHILLIP BERNARD, and BOWDISH, BEECHER SCOVILLE. + + 1917--Some Summer Birds of Northern New Brunswick. The Auk, + vol. 34, pp. 265–275. + +PICKWELL, GAYLE. + + 1925--Some Nesting Habits of the Belted Piping Plover. The + Auk, vol. 42, pp. 326–332. + +POPHAM, HUGH LEYBORNE. + + 1897--Notes on Birds Observed on the Yenisei River, + Siberia, in 1895. The Ibis, 1897, pp. 89–108. + + 1898--Further Notes on Birds Observed on the Yenisei River, + Siberia. The Ibis, 1898, pp. 489–520. + + 1901--Supplementary Notes on the Birds of the Yenisei + River. The Ibis, 1901, pp. 449–458. + +POYNTING, FRANK. + + 1895–96--Eggs of British Birds. + +PRAEGER, WILLIAM EMILIUS. + + 1891--Protective Coloration In the Genus _Aegialitis_. The + Auk, vol. 8, p. 236. + +PREBLE, EDWARD ALEXANDER. + + 1902--A Biological Investigation of the Hudson Bay Region. + North American Fauna No. 22. + +PREBLE, EDWARD ALEXANDER, and MCATEE, WALDO LEE. + + 1923--A Biological Survey of Pribilof Islands, Alaska. + North American Fauna No. 46. + + +RAINE, WALTER. + + 1904--Discovery of the Eggs of Solitary Sandpiper. The + Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 18, pp. 135–141. + +REID, PHILIP SAVILE GREY. + + 1884--The Birds of Bermuda. Part 4 in Contributions to + the Natural History of the Bermudas. Bulletin United + States National Museum No. 25. + +REY, EUGENE. + + 1905--Die Eier der Vögel Mitteleuropas. + +RICH, WALTER HERBERT. + + 1907--Feathered Game of the Northeast. + +RIDGWAY, ROBERT. + + 1919--The Birds of North and Middle America, vol. 8. + +ROBBINS, CHARLES ALBERT. + + 1919--A Colony of Cape Cod Piping Plover. The Auk, vol. 26, + pp. 351–355. + +ROBERTS, THOMAS SADLER. + + 1919--Water Birds of Minnesota Past and Present. Biennial + Report of the State Game and Fish Commission of + Minnesota, for the Biennial Period Ending July 31, + 1918. + +ROCKWELL, ROBERT BLANCHARD. + + 1912--Notes on the Wading Birds of the Barr Lake Region, + Colorado. The Condor, vol. 14, pp. 117–131. + +ROOSEVELT, ROBERT BARNWELL. + + 1884--Florida and the Game Water Birds of the Atlantic + Coast and the Lakes of the United States. + +ROWAN, WILLIAM. + + 1926–27--Notes on Alberta Waders included in the British + List. British Birds, vol. 20, pp. 2–10; 34–42; 82–90; + 138–145; 186–192. + + 1923--Migrations of the Golden and Black-bellied Plovers in + Alberta. The Condor, vol. 25, pp. 21–23. + + +SAMUELS, EDWARD AUGUSTUS. + + 1883--Our Northern and Eastern Birds. + +SANDYS, EDWIN. + + 1904--Upland Game Birds. + +SAUNDERS, ARETAS ANDREWS. + + 1926--The Summer Birds of Central New York Marshes. + Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin, vol. 3, pp. 335–475. + +SCOTT, WILLIAM EARL DODGE. + + 1892--Observations on the Birds of Jamaica, West Indies. + The Auk, vol. 9, pp. 9–15. + +SEEBOHM, HENRY. + + 1884--History of British Birds. + + 1888--The Geographical Distribution of the Family + Charadriidae, or the Plovers, Sandpipers, Snipes, and + their Allies. + + 1890--On the Birds of the Bonin Islands. The Ibis, 1890, + pp. 95–108. + + 1901--The Birds of Siberia. + +SELOUS, EDMUND. + + 1901--Bird Watching. + + 1906–1907--Observations on Sexual Selection in Birds. + Zoologist, 1906, pp. 201–219, 285–294, 419–428; 1907, + pp. 60–65, 161–182, 367–381. + +SENNETT, GEORGE BURRITT. + + 1879--Further Notes on the Ornithology of the Lower Rio + Grande of Texas. Bulletin of the United States + Geological and Geographical Survey, vol. 5, pp. + 371–440. + +SHELLEY, LEWIS O. + + 1925--A Sandpiper’s Wooing. Bird-Lore, vol. 27, p. 107. + +SHERMAN, ALTHEA ROSINA. + + 1916--“Incubation Period of Killdeer.” The Wilson Bulletin, + vol. 28, pp. 195–196. + +SHICK, CHARLES SAMUEL. + + 1890--Birds found breeding on Seven Mile Beach, New Jersey. + The Auk, vol. 7, pp. 326–329. + +SILLOWAY, PERLEY MILTON. + + 1900--Notes on the Long-billed Curlew. The Condor, vol. 2, + pp. 79–82. + + 1903--Birds of Fergus County, Montana. Bulletin No. 1, + Fergus County Free High School. + +SMITH, WILLIAM GILBERT. + + 1888--Breeding Habits of the Mountain Plover. Ornithologist + and Oologist, vol. 13, pp. 187–188. + +SNYDER, LESTER LYNNE. + + 1924--Peculiar Behavior of the Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis + macularia). The Auk, vol. 41, pp. 341–342. + +SPURRELL, J. A. + + 1917--History of a Killdeer’s Nest. The Wilson Bulletin, + vol. 29, pp. 101–103. + +STANFORD, JOHN KEITH. + + 1927--Field Notes from East Suffolk. British Birds, vol. + 21, pp. 75–80. + +STEJNEGER, LEONHARD. + + 1885--Results of Ornithological Explorations in the + Commander Islands and in Kamtschatka. Bulletin of the + United States National Museum No. 29. + +STOCKARD, CHARLES RUPERT. + + 1905--Nesting Habits of Birds in Mississippi. The Auk, vol. + 22, pp. 146–158. + +STREET, JOHN FLETCHER. + + 1923--On the Nesting Grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and + the Lesser Yellowlegs. The Auk, vol. 40, pp. 577–583. + +SUTTON, GEORGE MIKSCH. + + 1925--Swimming and Diving Activities of the Spotted + Sandpiper (Actitis macularia). The Auk, vol. 42, pp. + 580–581. + +SWAINSON, WILLIAM, and RICHARDSON, JOHN. + + 1831--Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. 2, Birds. + +SWARTH, HARRY SCHELWALDT. + + 1911--Birds and Mammals of the 1909 Alexander Alaska + Expedition. University of California Publications in + Zoology, vol. 7, pp. 9–172. + +SWENK, MYRON HARMON. + + 1915--The Eskimo Curlew and its Disappearance. Annual + Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1915, pp. + 325–340. + + 1926--The Eskimo Curlew in Nebraska. The Wilson Bulletin, + vol. 38, pp. 117–118. + + +TAVERNER, PERCY ALGERNON. + + 1919--The Birds of the Red Deer River, Alberta. The Auk, + vol. 36, pp. 1–21. + + 1926--Birds of Western Canada. + +TERRILL, LEWIS MCIVER. + + 1911--Changes in the Status of Certain Birds in the + Vicinity of Montreal, P. Q. The Ottawa Naturalist, + vol. 25, pp. 57–63. + +THAYER, GERALD HANDERSON. + + 1909--Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom. + +THAYER, JOHN ELIOT, and BANGS, OUTRAM. + + 1914--Notes on the Birds and Mammals of the Arctic Coast of + East Siberia. Birds. Proceedings of the New England + Zoological Club, vol. 5, pp. 1–66. + +“THOMPSON, ERNEST EVAN,” SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON. + + 1890--The Birds of Manitoba. Proceedings of the United + States National Museum, vol. 13, pp. 457–643. + +THURSTON, HENRY. + + 1913--Wilson’s Plover. The Warbler, vol. 7, pp. 22–24. + +TORREY, BRADFORD. + + 1885--Birds in the Bush. + + 1913--Field Days in California. + +TOWNSEND, CHARLES WENDELL. + + 1905--The Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts. Memoirs of + the Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. 3. + + 1913--Some More Labrador Notes. The Auk, vol. 30, pp. 1–10. + + 1920--Supplement to the Birds of Essex County, + Massachusetts. Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological + Club, No. 5. + + 1920_a_--The Willet in Nova Scotia. The Auk, vol. 37, pp. + 582–583. + +TREVOR-BATTYE, AUBYN. + + 1895--Icebound on Kolguev. + + 1897--The Birds of Spitsbergen, as at present determined. + The Ibis, 1897, pp. 574–600. + +TROTTER, SPENCER. + + 1904--Some Nova Scotia Birds. The Auk, vol. 21, pp. 55–64. + +TUFTS, ROBIE WILFRED. + + 1922--Willet Census in Nova Scotia. The Canadian Field + Naturalist, vol. 36, pp. 152–153. + + 1925--Further Notes on the Willet in Nova Scotia. The + Canadian Field Naturalist, vol. 39, pp. 116–117. + +TURNER, LUCIEN MCSHAN. + + 1886--Contributions to the Natural History of Alaska. + +TYLER, JOHN GRIPPER. + + 1913--Some Birds of the Fresno District, California. + Pacific Coast Avifauna No. 9. + + 1916--Migration and Field Notes from Fresno County, + California. The Condor, vol. 18, pp. 167–169. + +VAN DENBURGH, JOHN. + + 1919--Nesting of the Western Willet in California. The + Condor, vol. 21, pp. 39–40. + +VAN ROSSEM, ADRIAAN JOSEPH. + + 1925--Observations on the Spotted Sandpiper. The Auk, vol. + 42, pp. 230–232. + + +WARREN, EDWARD ROYAL. + + 1912--Some North-central Colorado Bird Notes. The Condor, + vol. 14, pp. 81–104. + +WAYNE, ARTHUR TREZEVANT. + + 1910--Birds of South Carolina. Contributions from the + Charleston Museum, No. 1. + +WETMORE, ALEXANDER. + + 1916--Birds of Porto Rico. United States Department of + Agriculture Bulletin, No. 326. + + 1926--Observations on the Birds of Argentina, Paraguay, + Uruguay, and Chile. United States National Museum, + Bulletin 133. + + 1927--Our Migrant Shorebirds in Southern South America. + United States Department of Agriculture. Technical + Bulletin No. 26. + +WHEELWRIGHT, HORACE WILLIAM. + + 1864--“An Old Bushman.” A Spring and Summer in Lapland. + + 1865--Ten Years in Sweden. + +WHISTLER, HUGH. + + 1925--The Birds of Lahul, N. W. Himalaya. The Ibis, 1925, + pp. 203–205. + +WHITTLE, CHARLES LIVY. + + 1922--Miscellaneous Bird Notes from Montana. The Condor, + vol. 24, pp. 73–81. + + 1928--A Lapwing Recovery in Newfoundland. Bulletin of the + Northeastern Bird-Banding Association, vol. 4, pp. + 69–70. + +WICKERSHAM, CORNELIUS WENDELL. + + 1902--Sickle-billed Curlew. The Auk, vol. 19, pp. 353–356. + +WILLETT, GEORGE. + + 1912--Birds of the Pacific Slope of Southern California. + Pacific Coast Avifauna, No. 7. + +WILLIAMS, ROBERT WHITE. + + 1919--Winter Birds of Goose Creek, Florida. The Auk, vol. + 36, pp. 45–46. + +WILSON, ALEXANDER. + + 1832--American Ornithology. + +WITHERBY, HARRY FORBES. + + 1919--Notes on Birds observed near Dunkerque, Nord, France. + British Birds, vol. 12, pp. 194–205. + +WITHERBY, HARRY FORBES, and OTHERS. + + 1920--A Practical Handbook of British Birds. + +WRIGHT, ALBERT HAZEN, and HARPER, FRANCIS. + + 1913--A Biological Reconnaissance of Okefinokee Swamp: The + Birds. The Auk, vol. 30, pp. 477–505. + + +YARRELL, WILLIAM. + + 1871--History of British Birds. Fourth edition, 1871–85. + Revised and enlarged by Alfred Newton and Howard + Saunders. + + + + + _Plates_ + + + + +[Illustration: PLATE 1. UPLAND PLOVER. Belleville, Mich., June 17, +1923, presented by Dr. Frank N. Wilson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 2. SOLITARY SANDPIPER _Upper_: Nesting site of +solitary sandpiper, near Belvedere, Alberta, presented by Mr. Richard +C. Harlow. _Lower_: Solitary sandpiper, Staten Island, N. Y., presented +by Mr. Howard H. Cleaves.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 3. SOLITARY SANDPIPER _Upper_: Nesting site of +solitary sandpiper, Red Lodge, Alberta, May 29, 1923. _Lower_: Nest and +eggs in above locality. Both photographs presented by Mr. J. Fletcher +Street. Referred to on page 3.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 4. WILLET _Upper_: Nesting site of a colony of +willets. _Lower_: A nest in above colony, Bulls Island, S. C., May 22, +1915. Both photographed by the author. Referred to on page 29.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 5. WILLET. _Upper_: Nest of willet in an open +situation, Bulls Island, S. C., May 23, 1915; photographed by the +author. Referred to on page 30. _Lower_: Willet on its nest in a still +more open situation, Sandy Point, S. C., June 7, 1927; presented by Mr. +Roger T. Peterson. Referred to on page 30.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 6. WILLET. _Upper_: Willet watching the passing +of a boat down a tidal creek, near Bulls Bay, S. C.; presented by Mr. +Howard H. Cleaves. _Lower_: Nest of willet, Merritts Island, Fla., June +2, 1927; presented by Mr. Donald J. Nicholson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 7. WILLET. Willet on its nest, among sand dunes, +near Bulls Bay, S. C.; presented by Mr. Howard H. Cleaves. The grass +pattern is well illustrated.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 8. WESTERN WILLET. Western willet on its nest, +near Salt Lake City, Utah; presented by Mr. Clark Blickensderfer. +Notice the protective coloration.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 9. WESTERN WILLET. Nest of western willet, near +Salt Lake City, Utah; presented by Mr. Clark Blickensderfer.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 10. WANDERING TATTLER. _Upper_: Nesting site +of wandering tattler, on the gravel in the foreground, upper Savage +valley, Alaska, July 1, 1925. _Lower_: Nest of wandering tattler in +above locality. Both photographs presented by Mr. Olaus J. Murie, by +courtesy of the Biological Survey. Referred to on page 43.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 11. WANDERING TATTLER. _Upper_: Young wandering +tattler, about 12 days old, Mount McKinley, Alaska, July 8, 1926; +presented by Mr. Joseph Dixon. _Lower_: Wandering tattler on its nest, +upper valley of Savage River, Alaska, July 1, 1925; presented by Mr. +Olaus J. Murie, by courtesy of the Biological Survey. Referred to on +page 43.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 12. WANDERING TATTLER. _Upper_: Male wandering +tattler feeding in shallow water. _Lower_: Same bird brooding and +talking to chick. Both photographs presented by Mr. Joseph Dixon and +taken by him at Mount McKinley, Alaska, June 22, 1926.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 13. UPLAND PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest of upland plover, +Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., May 26, 1900. Referred to on page 58. +_Lower_: Nest of upland plover, near Maple Creek, Saskatchewan, June +11, 1906. Referred to on page 58. Both photographs by the author.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 14. UPLAND PLOVER. Nest of upland plover, +Columbus, Ohio; presented by Mr. Edward S. Thomas.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 15. _Upper_: UPLAND PLOVER. Young upland plover, +Holt County, Nebr.; presented by Mr. Frank C. Pellett. _Lower_: SPOTTED +SANDPIPER. Nest of spotted sandpiper, at the base of a mullein stalk, +on the bank of a creek, Bear Creek, Oreg.; presented by Mr. J. E. +Patterson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 16. SPOTTED SANDPIPER. _Upper_: Nest of spotted +sandpiper, Branchport, N. Y., June 24, 1914; presented by Mr. Verdi +Burtch. _Lower_: Nest of spotted sandpiper, Columbus, Ohio, June, 1925; +presented by Mr. Edward S. Thomas.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 17. SPOTTED SANDPIPER. _Upper_: Immature spotted +sandpiper swimming. It propelled itself by wings alone while beneath +the surface and by use of the feet, like a phalarope, on the surface. +Presented by Mr. Howard H. Cleaves. _Lower_: Young spotted sandpiper, +Jamestown, N. Y., June 20, 1925; presented by Mr. Roger T. Peterson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 18. SPOTTED SANDPIPER. _Upper_: Adult spotted +sandpiper in spring plumage, Staten Island, N. Y.; presented by Mr. +Howard H. Cleaves and by courtesy of Collier’s Weekly and Mr. Edward +H. Forbush. _Lower_: Immature spotted sandpiper, Staten Island, N. Y.; +presented by Mr. Cleaves.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 19. LONG-BILLED CURLEW. _Upper_: Nest of +long-billed curlew, Bear River marshes, Utah, May 2, 1927. _Lower_: +Adult curlew on above nest. Both photographs presented by Lieut. L. R. +Wolfe.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 20. LONG-BILLED CURLEW. _Upper_: Newly hatched +young and pipped eggs of long-billed curlew, near Salt Lake City, Utah; +presented by Mr. Clark Blickensderfer. _Lower_: Older young, near Crane +Lake, Saskatchewan, June 1, 1905; photographed by the author. Referred +to on page 101.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 21. WHIMBREL. _Upper_: Whimbrel approaching its +egg and chick in its nest, Shetland Islands, June 24, 1922. _Lower_: +Same bird, rising to accommodate its chick. Both photographs presented +by Mr. Ralph Chislett.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 22. WHIMBREL. _Upper_: Whimbrel on the nest shown +below. _Lower_: Nest of whimbrel, Shetland Islands, June 11, 1923; +presented by Mr. William E. Glegg.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 23. _Upper_: BRISTLE-THIGHED CURLEW. +Bristle-thighed curlew, stealing an egg from a man-o-war-bird’s nest, +Laysan Island; presented by Mr. Donald R. Dickey, by courtesy of the +National Geographic Society. _Lower_: WHIMBREL. Whimbrel settling down +on its nest, Shetland Islands, June 11, 1923; presented by Mr. William +E. Glegg.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 24. LAPWING. _Upper_: Nest of lapwing. _Lower_: +Another nest of lapwing on a beach. Both photographs presented by Mr. +C. W. Colthrup.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 25. DOTTEREL. Two views of dotterels on two +different nests, near the Yenisei River, Siberia; presented by Mrs. +Maud D. (Haviland) Brindley.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 26. BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER. _Upper_: Immature +black-bellied plover, Branchport, N. Y., October 3, 1911; presented by +Mr. Verdi Burtch. _Lower_: Adult male black-bellied plover, Florida +Keys, May, 1903; presented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 27. BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs +of gray plover (black-bellied plover) near Yenisei River, Siberia; +presented by Mrs. Maud D. (Haviland) Brindley. _Lower_: Black-bellied +plover on its nest, near Point Barrow, Alaska, June 20, 1917. A +photograph taken by Mr. T. L. Richardson for the author.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 28. AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER. Two nests of American +golden plover, Demarcation Point, Alaska, June 23, 1914; presented by +Mr. W. Sprague Brooks.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 29. PACIFIC GOLDEN PLOVER. _Upper_: Nesting site +of Pacific golden plover. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of Pacific golden +plover. Both photographs taken by Mr. T. L. Richardson at Unalakleet, +Alaska, for the author.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 30. PACIFIC GOLDEN PLOVER. _Upper_: Pacific golden +plover. _Lower_: Pacific golden plover brooding. Both photographs +presented by Mrs. Maud D. (Haviland) Brindley, taken by her near the +Yenisei River, Siberia.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 31. KILLDEER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs of killdeer, +Barr Lake, Colo.; presented by the Colorado Museum of Natural History. +_Lower_: Nest and eggs of killdeer, Manitoba; presented by Herbert K. +Job.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 32. KILLDEER. _Upper_: Killdeer at its nest, +near Kansas City, Mo. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of the same bird. Both +photographs presented by Dr. A. H. Cordier.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 33. KILLDEER. _Upper_: Downy young killdeers; +photograph by H. H. Pittman. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of killdeers, +Banff, Alberta; presented by Mr. Dan McCown.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 34. KILLDEER. _Upper_: Killdeer settling on +its nest. _Lower_: Young killdeer, a few days old. Both photographs +presented by Mr. Howard H. Cleaves and by courtesy of the National +Geographic Society. Taken on Staten Island, N. Y.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 35. SEMIPALMATED PLOVER. Two nests of semipalmated +plover, Magdalen Islands, Quebec, June 20, 1904; photographed by the +author.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 36. SEMIPALMATED PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs of +semipalmated plover, Atlin, British Columbia, June 10, 1924; presented +by Mr. Harry S. Swarth. _Lower_: Semipalmated plover, Santa Barbara, +Calif., May 2, 1913; presented by Mr. W. Leon Dawson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 37. SEMIPALMATED PLOVER. Nesting site of +semipalmated plover, Atlin Lake, British Columbia, June 10, 1924; +presented by Mr. Harry S. Swarth.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 38. SEMIPALMATED PLOVER. _Upper_: Semipalmated +plover brooding young, Magdalen Islands, June 20, 1904; presented by +Mr. Herbert K. Job. _Lower_: Downy young semipalmated plover, Baffin +Island, July 29, 1925; presented by Mr. J. Dewey Soper and by courtesy +of the Department of Mines, Canada.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 39. RINGED PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs of +ringed plover, presented by Mr. C. W. Colthrup. _Lower_: Ringed plover +at its nest; presented by Mrs. Maud D. (Haviland) Brindley.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 40. PIPING PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest and five eggs of +piping plover, Dartmouth, Mass., June 16, 1916; photographed by the +author. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of piping plover, Bay Point, Ohio, June, +1925; presented by Mr. Edward S. Thomas.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 41. PIPING PLOVER. _Upper_: Piping plover +incubating. _Lower_: Piping plover standing at its nest. Both +photographs taken by the author, Chatham, Mass., June 2, 1921.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 42. PIPING PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs of +piping plover, Stump Lake, N. Dak., June 15, 1901; photographed by the +author. _Lower_: Piping plover chicks, about three days old, Martha’s +Vineyard, Mass.; presented by Mr. Howard H. Cleaves.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 43. _Upper_: SNOWY PLOVER. Nest and eggs of snowy +plover, Orange County, Calif., June 11, 1916; presented by Mr. Wright +M. Pierce. _Lower_: PIPING PLOVER. Piping plover brooding young, +Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.; presented by Mr. Howard H. Cleaves and by +courtesy of the National Geographical Society.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 44. SNOWY PLOVER. _Upper_: Snowy plover on its +nest, Los Angeles County, Calif., May 29, 1914. _Lower_: Another nest, +same locality and date. Both photographs by the author, referred to on +page 248.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 45. SNOWY PLOVER. _Upper_: Downy young Cuban +snowy plover, Pensacola, Fla., June 26, 1927; presented by Mr. Francis +M. Weston. _Lower_: Downy young snowy plover, southern California; +presented by Mr. Wright M. Pierce.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 46. WILSON PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs of +Wilson plover, Bulls Island, S. C., May 22, 1915; presented by Mr. +Alexander Sprunt, jr. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of Wilson plover, Chatham +County, Ga., April 26, 1922; presented by Mr. W. J. Erichsen.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 47. WILSON PLOVER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs of +Wilson plover, Bulls Island, S. C., May 22, 1915; photographed by the +author and referred to on page 257. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of Wilson +plover among pickle weed, Merritt’s Island, Fla., June 20, 1926; +presented by Mr. Donald J. Nicholson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 48. WILSON PLOVER. _Upper_: Young Wilson plover, +just hatched, Raccoon Key, S. C, June 7, 1927; presented by Mr. Roger +Tory Peterson. _Lower_: Adult female Wilson plover, about to settle on +her nest, near Bulls Bay, S. C; presented by Mr. Howard H. Cleaves.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 49. MOUNTAIN PLOVER. _Upper_: Mountain plover at +its nest. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of mountain plover. Both photographs +taken in Colorado by or for Mr. William C. Bradbury, presented by the +Colorado Museum of Natural History and referred to on page 264.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 50. MOUNTAIN PLOVER. _Upper_: Young mountain +plover, a day or two old, June 4, 1911. _Lower_: Another, perhaps 10 +days old, June 11, 1911. Both photographs taken by Mr. Edward R. Warren +in Weld County, Colo., and presented by him.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 51. MOUNTAIN PLOVER. _Upper_: Adult mountain +plover approaching its nest; presented by the Colorado Museum of +Natural History, photographed by Mr. W. C. Bradbury, and referred to on +page 264. _Lower_: Mountain plover attending its young, Weld County, +Colo., June 4, 1911; presented by Mr. Edward R. Warren.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 52. SURF BIRD. _Upper_: Surf bird on its nest. +_Lower_: Surf bird inspecting its eggs. Both photographs taken by Mr. +Joseph Dixon in the Mount McKinley District, Alaska, May 29, 1926, +presented by him and referred to on page 271.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 53. SURF BIRD. _Upper_: Male surf bird beside its +nest. _Lower_: Nest and eggs of surf bird. Both photographs taken by +Mr. Joseph Dixon in the Mount McKinley District, Alaska, May 29, 1926, +presented by him and referred to on page 271.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 54. TURNSTONE. _Upper_: Turnstone on its nest. +_Lower_: Nest and eggs of the same bird. Both photographs taken by Mr. +Ralph Chislett, on a Baltic isle, off Öland, June 19, 1924, presented +by him and referred to on page 283.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 55. TURNSTONE. _Left_: Male turnstone on its nest +under cover. _Right_: Female turnstone. Both photographs taken by Mr. +Ralph Chislett on a Baltic isle, off Öland, June 19, 1924, presented by +him and referred to on page 283.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 56. TURNSTONE. _Upper_: Turnstone at its nest, +Spitsbergen, 1921; presented by Mr. Seton P. Gordon and referred to on +page 282. _Lower_: RUDDY TURNSTONE. Downy young ruddy turnstone, Yukon +Delta, Alaska, June 19, 1914; photographed by Mr. F. Seymour Hersey for +the author.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 57. BLACK TURNSTONE. Flock of black turnstones, +presented by Mr. Donald R. Dickey.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 58. AMERICAN OYSTER CATCHER. Two nests of American +oyster catcher, Bulls Island, S. C., May 22, 1915; photographed by the +author and referred to on page 310.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 59. AMERICAN OYSTER CATCHER. _Upper_: Immature +American oyster catcher, Cape Romain, S. C., June 8, 1927; presented by +Mr. Roger Tory Peterson. _Lower_: Adult American oyster catcher, Bulls +Bay, S. C., May, 1904; presented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 60. FRAZAR OYSTER CATCHER. Two views of Frazar +oyster catcher, Lower California, 1927; presented by Mr. Wright M. +Pierce.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 61. FRAZAR OYSTER CATCHER. Two views of young +Frazar oyster catchers, Lower California, 1926; presented by Mr. Wright +M. Pierce.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 62. BLACK OYSTER CATCHER. Black oyster catchers on +a reef, coast of Washington, June 22, 1910; presented by Mr. W. Leon +Dawson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 63. BLACK OYSTER CATCHER. Nesting site and nest of +black oyster catcher, Destruction Island, Wash.; presented by Mr. W. +Leon Dawson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 64. BLACK OYSTER CATCHER. _Upper_: Nest and eggs +of black oyster catcher, Graham Island, British Columbia, May 26, 1927; +presented by Mr. S. J. Darcus. _Lower_: Nest, eggs and young, just +hatched, of black oyster catcher, Destruction Island, Wash., July 16, +1906; presented by Mr. W. Leon Dawson.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 65. MEXICAN JACANA. Two views of Paradise Lake, +near Tampico, Mexico, nesting site of Mexican jacana; presented by Mr. +Thomas S. Gillin and referred to on page 324.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 66. MEXICAN JACANA. _Upper_: Nest and eggs of +Mexican jacana. _Lower_: Mexican jacana at home. Both photographs taken +by Mr. Thomas S. Gillin, Paradise Lake, near Tampico, Mexico; presented +by him and referred to on page 325.] + + + + + INDEX + + + Actitis macularia, 78 + + Aiken and Warren, on mountain plover, 266 + + Alexander, W. B.-- + on Pacific golden plover, 200 + on Polynesian tattler, 49 + on turnstone, 293 + + Allen, Francis H.-- + on black-bellied plover, 162 + on turnstone, 287 + + altifrons, Pluvialis apricaria, 171 + + American golden plover, 175 + + American oyster catcher, 309 + + americanus, Numenius, 97 + + Aphriza virgata, 269 + + apricaria altifrons, Pluvialis, 171 + + Arenaria interpres, 278 + melanocephala, 298 + + arquata arquata, Numenius, 109 + Numenius arquata, 109 + + Audubon, J. J.-- + on American golden plover, 187 + on American oyster catcher, 313, 314 + on Eskimo curlew, 131 + on long-billed curlew, 103 + on semipalmated plover, 219, 222 + on spotted sandpiper, 78, 81 + on Wilson plover, 260, 261 + + + bachmani, Haematopus, 320 + + Bailey, Alfred M., on Mongolian plover, 253 + + Bailey, Florence Merriam-- + on snowy plover, 250 + on surf bird, 275 + on western willet, 39 + + Bailey, H. H., on American oyster catcher, 310 + + Bancroft, Griffing, on Frazar oyster catcher, 317, 318, 319 + + Barrett, Charles-- + on black-bellied plover, 166 + on Pacific golden plover, 200 + on turnstone, 292 + + Barrows, W. B., on upland plover, 58 + + Bartramia longicauda, 55 + + Bartsch, Paul-- + on bristle-thighed curlew, 142 + on turnstone, 287 + + Bates, J. M.-- + on killdeer, 205 + on upland plover, 61 + + Baynard, Oscar E., on Wilson plover, 258 + + Beaupre, Edwin-- + on American golden plover, 176, 184 + on Hudsonian curlew, 115 + on piping plover, 244 + + Benners, G. B., on upland plover, 57 + + Bent, A. C., on piping plover, 237, 238 + + Bergtold, W. H., on spotted sandpiper, 86 + + Berteau, F. C., on Eskimo curlew, 126, 133 + + bird, surf, 269 + + Bishop, L. B., on semipalmated plover, 220 + + black-bellied plover, 154 + + black oyster catcher, 320 + + black turnstone, 298 + + borealis, Numenius, 125 + + Bradbury, W. C., on mountain plover, 263 + + Brandt, Herbert W.-- + on black-bellied plover, 157, 159, 161 + on black turnstone, 299, 300, 303 + on bristle-thighed curlew, 141 + on Pacific golden plover, 195, 196, 198 + on turnstone, 281, 283, 290 + + Bretherton, B. J., on wandering tattler, 45 + + brevipes, Heteroscelus, 48 + + Brewster, William-- + on American golden plover, 182 + on semipalmated plover, 217, 222 + on solitary sandpiper, 1, 7, 8 + on spotted sandpiper, 81 + on western willet, 36 + + bristle-thighed curlew, 140 + + Brock, S. E., on lapwing, 145 + + Brooks, W. Sprague, on American golden plover, 180 + + Brown, D. E., on wandering tattler, 42 + + Brown, W. J., on killdeer, 203 + + Brown, W. W., jr., on Frazar oyster catcher, 318 + + Bryant, Harold C., on killdeer, 205 + + Bryant, Walter E., on Frazar oyster catcher, 319 + + buff-breasted sandpiper, 69 + + Burroughs, M. H., on American oyster catcher, 311 + + + Cahoon, John C.-- + on American golden plover, 187 + on black-bellied plover, 165 + + Carroll, W. J., on Eskimo curlew, 126, 133 + + catcher, American oyster, 309 + black oyster, 320 + European oyster, 305 + Frazar oyster, 316 + + Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus, 36 + + Catoptrophorus semipalmatus semipalmatus, 27 + + Chambers, W. Lee, on snowy plover, 247 + + Chapman, Frank M.-- + on killdeer, 211 + on western solitary sandpiper, 14 + on Wilson plover, 259 + + Charadrius dubius curonicus, 233 + hiaticula, 229 + melodus, 236 + mongolus mongolus, 253 + nivosus nivosus, 246 + nivosus tenuirostris, 252 + semipalmatus, 217 + + Chislett, Ralph, on turnstone, 283 + + cinnamomea, Tringa solitaria, 13 + + Clark, Austin H.-- + on American golden plover, 177, 184 + on black turnstone, 298 + on spotted sandpiper, 86 + + Cleaves, H. H., on spotted sandpiper, 89 + + Conover, H. B.-- + on black turnstone, 300, 301 + on bristle-thighed curlew, 141, 143 + on turnstone, 280 + + Cooke, Wells W.-- + on American golden plover, 178 + on buff-breasted sandpiper, 70, 75 + on semipalmated plover, 217, 224 + on spotted sandpiper, 92 + on wandering tattler, 42 + + Coues, Elliott-- + on Eskimo curlew, 129, 130, 133 + on mountain plover, 263, 266, 267 + on solitary sandpiper, 5, 7 + on upland plover, 59 + + Cuban snowy plover, 252 + + curlew, bristle-thighed, 140 + Eskimo, 125 + European, 109 + Hudsonian, 113 + long-billed, 97 + + curonicus, Charadrius dubius, 233 + + + Dall, W. H., on black oyster catcher, 320, 323 + + Davies, S. A., on wood sandpiper, 25 + + Dawson, W. Leon-- + on black oyster catcher, 320, 322 + on Frazar oyster catcher, 317 + on Hudsonian curlew, 119 + on killdeer, 211, 212 + on wandering tattler, 45 + + Dickey, Donald R., on bristle-thighed curlew, 142 + + Dill and Bryan, on bristle-thighed curlew, 142 + + Dixon, Joseph-- + on semipalmated plover, 219 + on surf bird, 270, 271, 272, 274, 275 + + dominica dominica, Pluvialis, 175 + fulva, Pluvialis, 193 + Pluvialis dominica, 175 + + Doolittle, E. A., on buff-breasted sandpiper, 75 + + dotterel, 150 + + dubius curonicus, Charadrius, 233 + + Dwight, Jonathan, on spotted sandpiper, 81 + + + eastern willet, 27 + + Ekblaw, W. Elmer-- + on ringed plover, 229, 231 + on turnstone, 280 + + Elliot, D. G., on long-billed curlew, 105 + + Erichsen, W. J., on American oyster catcher, 311 + + Eskimo curlew, 125 + + Eudromias morinellus, 150 + + European curlew, 109 + + European golden plover, 171 + + European oyster catcher, 305 + + + Farley, John A., on piping plover, 243 + + Farren, William-- + on European curlew, 110 + on European oyster catcher, 306 + on ringed plover, 230 + + Feilden, H. W., on American golden plover, 185 + + Ferry, John F., on killdeer, 211 + + Fisher, A. K., on snowy plover, 249 + + Forbush, E. H.-- + on American golden plover, 176 + on black-bellied plover, 161 + on Eskimo curlew, 127 + on killdeer, 202 + on piping plover, 240, 241 + on solitary sandpiper, 5 + on spotted sandpiper, 86, 87, 88 + on upland plover, 64 + + Ford, Edward R.-- + on piping plover, 238 + on upland plover, 59 + + Frazar oyster catcher, 316 + + frazari, Haematopus palliatus, 316 + + fulva, Pluvialis dominica, 193 + + + Gabrielson, Ira N., on killdeer, 204, 205, 207 + + Gibson, Ernest, on Eskimo curlew, 127 + + Gillin, Thomas S., on Mexican jacana, 324, 325, 326, 327 + + Giraud, Jacob P., on solitary sandpiper, 5 + + glareola, Rhyacophilus, 22 + + golden plover, American, 175 + European, 171 + Pacific, 193 + + Gordon, Seton-- + on dotterel, 152 + on European curlew, 110 + on European golden plover, 171 + + Goss, N. S., on killdeer, 211 + + green sandpiper, 16 + + Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer-- + on black-bellied plover, 161, 163 + on black turnstone, 301 + on mountain plover, 266 + on snowy plover, 248, 250 + + Grinnell, George B., on eastern willet, 28 + + Grinnell, Joseph-- + on black oyster catcher, 321 + on Hudsonian curlew, 116, 117 + on surf bird, 269 + on western solitary sandpiper, 13 + + gymnostoma, Jacana spinosa, 324 + + + Hadeler, E. W., on piping plover, 238 + + Haematopus bachmani, 320 + ostralegus, 305 + palliatus frazari, 316 + palliatus, 309 + + Hancock, John, on wood sandpiper, 23 + + Hanna, G. Dallas, on Polynesian tattler, 49 + + Hartert, Ernst, on green sandpiper, 17 + + Haviland, Maud D., on Pacific golden plover, 196, 197, 199 + + Heath, Harold, on black oyster catcher, 321 + + Henderson, A. D., on solitary sandpiper, 3, 4 + + Henderson, Junius, on semipalmated plover, 222 + + Henshaw, Henry W.-- + on Pacific golden plover, 194, 197, 198, 199 + on turnstone, 292 + on wandering tattler, 42, 46 + + Heteroscelus brevipes, 48 + incanus, 41 + + Hewitson, W. C., on turnstone, 282 + + hiaticula, Charadrius, 229 + + Hoare, A. R., on turnstone, 281 + + Hoskin, H. G., on mountain plover, 264 + + Howell, A. B.-- + on black oyster catcher, 322 + on black turnstone, 304 + + Howell, Arthur H.-- + on piping plover, 240 + on Wilson plover, 260 + + Hoxie, Walter J., on American oyster catcher, 311 + + Hudson, W. H.-- + on American golden plover, 176, 188 + on buff-breasted sandpiper, 69 + on solitary sandpiper, 9 + on upland plover, 56, 62, 65 + + Hudsonian curlew, 113 + + hudsonicus, Numenius, 113 + + Hunter, Katharine U., on upland plover, 58, 59 + + Huxley and Montague, on European oyster catcher, 306 + + + incanus, Heteroscelus, 41 + + inornatus, Catoptrophorus semipalmatus, 36 + + interpres, Arenaria, 278 + + Iseley, Dwight, on killdeer, 203 + + + jacana, Mexican, 324 + + Jacana spinosa gymnostoma, 324 + + Janvrin, E. R. P.-- + on black-bellied plover, 163 + on Hudsonian curlew, 119 + + Jessup, J. M., on wandering tattler, 42 + + Jewel, L. L.-- + on Hudsonian curlew, 118 + on spotted sandpiper, 88 + + Jewell, H. W., on spotted sandpiper, 86 + + Job, Herbert K.-- + on Hudsonian curlew, 115 + on spotted sandpiper, 86 + + Jones, Lynds, on upland plover, 63 + + Jourdain, F. C. R.-- + on dotterel, 150 + on European curlew, 109 + on European golden plover, 171 + on European oyster catcher, 305 + on green sandpiper, 16 + on lapwing, 144 + on little ringed plover, 233 + on Mongolian plover, 253, 254, 255, 256 + on ringed plover, 229 + on ruff, 49 + on solitary sandpiper, 4 + on turnstone, 280, 288 + on whimbrel, 136 + on wood sandpiper, 22 + + Jouy, P. L., on Mexican jacana, 326, 327 + + + Kalmbach, E. R., on killdeer, 210 + + Kelso, J. E. H., on spotted sandpiper, 91 + + Killdeer, 202 + + Knight, Ora W., on solitary sandpiper, 4 + + + lapwing, 144 + + Lawrence, Alexander G., on piping plover, 239 + + Lewis, H. F.-- + on eastern willet, 29 + on solitary sandpiper, 6 + + Lien, Carl-- + on black oyster catcher, 322 + on black turnstone, 304 + on surf bird, 276 + + little ringed plover, 233 + + long-billed curlew, 97 + + longicauda, Bartramia, 55 + + Lyon, Wm. I., on Hudsonian curlew, 115 + + + MacFarlane, Roderick-- + on American golden plover, 179 + on black-bellied plover, 158 + on buff-breasted sandpiper, 72 + on Eskimo curlew, 128 + on Hudsonian curlew, 117 + + Mackay, George H.-- + on American golden plover, 182, 183, 185, 187 + on black-bellied plover, 161, 164 + on buff-breasted sandpiper, 74 + on Eskimo curlew, 130, 132 + on Hudsonian curlew, 114, 118, 119, 121 + + MacMillan, Donald B., on turnstone, 289 + + macularia, Actitis, 78 + + Manniche, A. L. V., on turnstone, 284 + + May, John B., on solitary sandpiper, 2 + + Maynard, C. J.-- + on American oyster catcher, 314 + on eastern willet, 30 + + McAtee, W. L.-- + on killdeer, 209 + on upland plover, 61 + + Mearns, Edgar A., on spotted sandpiper, 81 + + melodus, Charadrius, 236 + + Merrill, J. C., on spotted sandpiper, 90 + + Mexican jacana, 324 + + Meyer, G. Ralph, on Pacific golden plover, 200 + + Mongolian plover, 253 + + mongolus, Charadrius mongolus, 253 + mongolus, Charadrius, 253 + + montanus, Podasocys, 263 + + Moore, N. B., on turnstone, 289 + + morinellus, Eudromias, 150 + + mountain plover, 263 + + Mousley, Henry, on spotted sandpiper, 82, 89 + + Munn, P. W., on little ringed plover, 235 + + Murdoch, John-- + on American golden plover, 179, 180, 183 + on buff-breasted sandpiper, 71, 72 + + Murie, O. J.-- + on surf bird, 270 + on wandering tattler, 43, 44, 46 + + Murphy, Robert Cushman, on Frazar oyster catcher, 316 + + + Naumann, J. F., on little ringed plover, 234 + + Nelson, E. W.-- + on black turnstone, 300, 303 + on bristle-thighed curlew, 140 + on Eskimo curlew, 128 + on wandering tattler, 41, 45, 46 + + Newton, Alfred, on green sandpiper, 17 + + Nichols, John T.-- + on American golden plover, 177, 183 + on American oyster catcher, 314 + on black-bellied plover, 163 + on eastern willet, 28, 33 + on Hudsonian curlew, 119 + on Pacific golden plover, 199 + on piping plover, 243, + on ringed plover, 232 + on solitary sandpiper, 6, 7, 8 + on spotted sandpiper, 87, 90, 91 + on turnstone, 287, 289 + on western willet, 38 + on Wilson plover, 261 + + Nicholson, Donald J., on Wilson plover, 259 + + nivosus tenuirostris, Charadrius, 252 + + Noble, Frank T., on turnstone, 286 + + Numenius americanus, 97 + arquata arquata, 109 + borealis, 125 + hudsonicus, 113 + phaeopus phaeopus, 136 + tahitiensis, 140 + + Nuttall, Thomas, on spotted sandpiper, 78, 83 + + + ocrophus, Tringa, 16 + + Osgood, Wilfred H.-- + on black oyster catcher, 320 + on semipalmated plover, 220 + on western solitary sandpiper, 14 + + ostralegus, Haematopus, 305 + + Oxyechus vociferus, 202 + + oyster catcher, American, 309 + black, 320 + European, 305 + Frazar, 316 + + + Pacific golden plover, 193 + + Paget-Wilkes, A. H., on turnstone, 282, 284 + + Pagolla wilsonia wilsonia, 257 + + palliatus frazari, Haematopus, 316 + Haematopus palliatus, 309 + palliatus, Haematopus, 309 + + Palmer, William-- + on spotted sandpiper, 84 + on turnstone, 291 + on wandering tattler, 46 + + Patten, C. J., on green sandpiper, 17 + + Pearse, Theed, on killdeer, 204 + + Pearson, Henry J.-- + on black-bellied plover, 158 + on turnstone, 282 + on wood sandpiper, 25 + + Pennock, C. J., on Wilson plover, 261 + + phaeopus, Numenius phaeopus, 136 + phaeopus, Numenius, 136 + + Philipp and Bowdish, on piping plover, 238 + + Philipp, P. B.-- + on eastern willet, 34 + on semipalmated plover, 218, 220 + + Philomachus pugnax, 49 + + Pickwell, Gayle, on piping plover, 239, 243 + + Pierce, Fred J., on upland plover, 57 + + Piping plover, 236 + + plover, American golden, 175 + black-bellied, 154 + Cuban snowy, 252 + European golden, 171 + little ringed, 233 + Mongolian, 253 + mountain, 263 + Pacific golden, 193 + piping, 236 + ringed, 229 + semipalmated, 217 + snowy, 246 + upland, 55 + Wilson, 257 + + Pluvialis apricaria altifrons, 171 + dominica dominica, 175 + fulva, 193 + + Podasocys montanus, 263 + + Polynesian tattler, 48 + + Praeger, W. V., on semipalmated plover, 222 + + Preble, Edward A., on turnstone, 290 + + Preble and McAtee, on wandering tattler, 45 + + pugnax, Philomachus, 49 + + + Raine, Walter, on solitary sandpiper, 3 + + Rathbun, S. F.-- + on black-bellied plover, 156, 160 + on black turnstone, 302 + on killdeer, 204 + on turnstone, 279 + + Reid, Savile G.-- + on American golden plover, 185 + on solitary sandpiper, 8 + + Rhyacophilus glareola, 22 + + Rich, Walter H.-- + on black-bellied plover, 166 + on solitary sandpiper, 6 + + Ridgway, Robert, on western solitary sandpiper, 14 + + ringed plover, 229 + + ringed plover, little, 233 + + Robbins, C. A., on piping plover, 239, 242 + + Roberts, Thomas S.-- + on long-billed curlew, 98 + on upland plover, 56 + + Rockwell, Robert B., on killdeer, 207 + + Roosevelt, Robert B., on American golden plover, 175 + + Rowan, William-- + on American golden plover, 177, 178, 186, 187 + on black-bellied plover, 156, 164 + on buff-breasted sandpiper, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75 + on killdeer, 203, 212 + on upland plover, 58 + + ruff, 49 + + + Samuels, E. A., on eastern willet, 30 + + sandpiper, buff-breasted, 69 + green, 16 + solitary, 1 + spotted, 78 + western solitary, 13 + wood, 22 + + Sandys, Edwin, on upland plover, 62, 64 + + Saunders, Aretas A.-- + on killdeer, 204, 208, 212 + on piping plover, 242 + on spotted sandpiper, 83, 84, 90, 92 + + Scott, W. E. D., on piping plover, 244 + + Seebohm, Henry-- + on Pacific golden plover, 195 + on wood sandpiper, 23 + + Selous, Edmund-- + on European oyster catcher, 306 + on ruff, 50, 52 + + semipalmated plover, 217 + + semipalmatus, Catoptrophorus semipalmatus, 27 + Charadrius, 217 + inornatus, Catoptrophorus, 36 + semipalmatus, Catoptrophorus, 27 + + Sennett, George. B., on American oyster catcher, 311 + + Seton, E. T. (Thompson), on western willet, 37 + + Shelley, Lewis O., on spotted sandpiper, 80 + + Sherman, Althea R., on killdeer, 207 + + Shick, Charles S., on spotted sandpiper, 81 + + Silloway, P. M., on long-billed curlew, 99, 100, 104 + + Skinner, M. P., on killdeer, 203, 204, 205, 208, 211, 213 + + Smith, Wm. G., on mountain plover, 264, 265, 266 + + snowy plover, 246 + + snowy plover, Cuban, 252 + + Snyder, L. L., on spotted sandpiper, 89 + + solitaria cinnamomea, Tringa, 13 + solitaria, Tringa, 1 + Tringa solitaria, 1 + + solitary sandpiper, 1 + western, 13 + + spinosa gymnostoma, Jacana, 324 + + spotted sandpiper, 78 + + Squatarola squatarola, 154 + + squatarola, Squatarola, 154 + + Stanford, John K., on ringed plover, 230 + + Stejneger, Leonhard-- + on Mongolian plover, 254, 255, 256 + on turnstone, 280, 287, 291 + + Stockard, Charles R., on killdeer, 205 + + Street, J. Fletcher, on solitary sandpiper, 2 + + subruficollis, Tryngites, 69 + + surf bird, 269 + + Sutton, G. M., on spotted sandpiper, 83, 88 + + Swarth, H. S.-- + on semipalmated plover, 218, 219, 220 + on surf bird, 270 + + Swenk, Myron H., on Eskimo curlew, 125, 126, 127, 129, 131, 133 + + + tahitiensis, Numenius, 140 + + tattler, Polynesian, 48 + wandering, 41 + + Taverner, P. A.-- + on long-billed curlew, 105 + on spotted sandpiper, 89 + + tenuirostris, Charadrius nivosus, 252 + + Terrill, L. McI., on spotted sandpiper, 82 + + Thayer, Gerald H., on semipalmated plover, 222 + + Thurston, Henry, on Wilson plover, 258, 259 + + Torrey, Bradford-- + on black turnstone, 301 + on spotted sandpiper, 80 + on western willet, 38 + + Townsend, Charles W.-- + on black-bellied plover, 162 + on Eskimo curlew, 126 + on Hudsonian curlew, 119 + on killdeer, 202 + on semipalmated plover, 217, 223 + on spotted sandpiper, 83 + + Treganza, A. O., on long-billed curlew, 100 + + Tringa ocrophus, 16 + solitaria cinnamomea, 13 + solitaria, 1 + + Tryngites subruficollis, 69 + + Turner, Lucien M.-- + on black oyster catcher, 322 + on black turnstone, 298, 303 + on Eskimo curlew, 130, 131 + on Pacific golden plover, 198 + + turnstone, 278 + + turnstone, black, 298 + + Tyler, John G.-- + on Hudsonian curlew, 116, 120 + on killdeer, 206 + on mountain plover, 267 + + Tyler, Winsor M.-- + on piping plover, 236, 238 + on spotted sandpiper, 78 + + + upland plover, 55 + + + Van Denburgh, J., on western willet, 37 + + Vanellus vanellus, 144 + + vanellus, Vanellus, 144 + + Van Rossem, A. J., on spotted sandpiper, 80, 82 + + virgata, Aphriza, 269 + + vociferus, Oxyechus, 202 + + + wandering tattler, 41 + + Warburton, Stanton, jr., on Hudsonian curlew, 117 + + Warren, Edward B., on mountain plover, 265 + + Wayne, Arthur T.-- + on American oyster catcher, 315 + on black-bellied plover, 155 + on eastern willet, 30, 31 + on Hudsonian curlew, 115 + on killdeer, 203, 210 + on long-billed curlew, 98 + on turnstone, 287 + on Wilson plover, 263 + + western solitary sandpiper, 13 + + western willet, 36 + + Weston, Francis M.-- + on black-bellied plover, 163 + on Cuban snowy plover, 252 + on Wilson plover, 261 + + Wetmore, Alexander-- + on American golden plover, 177, 188, 189 + on bristle-thighed curlew, 142 + on buff-breasted sandpiper, 75, 76 + on spotted sandpiper, 87, 93 + on turnstone, 288, 292 + on upland plover, 56, 65 + on western solitary sandpiper, 15 + + Wheelwright, Horace W., on green sandpiper, 17, 18 + + whimbrel, 136 + + Whittle, C. L.-- + on lapwing, 149 + on spotted sandpiper, 80 + + Wickersham, C. W., on long-billed curlew, 102, 104, 105, 106 + + Willet, eastern, 27 + western, 36 + + Willett, George, on spotted sandpiper, 93 + + Williams, R. W., on killdeer, 213 + + Wilson, Alexander-- + on American oyster catcher, 314 + on killdeer, 202 + on spotted sandpiper, 78, 83, 92 + + Wilson plover, 257 + + wilsonia, Pagolla wilsonia, 257 + wilsonia, Pagolla, 257 + + Witherby, H. F., on little ringed plover, 234, 235 + + Wood, Allen H., on piping plover, 237 + + wood sandpiper, 22 + + Wright and Harper, on spotted sandpiper, 79 + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77498 *** |