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| author | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2025-11-24 11:52:58 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2025-11-24 11:52:58 -0800 |
| commit | bf483de7b508cadd1af5f7595e179f810fb48c71 (patch) | |
| tree | 3f8c3d5e983a778b4fe0953746d096cb6e3fd115 /77325-h | |
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+ clear: both; } + div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; + page-break-after: always; } + div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; + line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } + .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; + margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; } + .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; + page-break-before: always; } + .blackletter {font-family: 'Old English Text MT', serif; font-weight:bold; + font-style: normal; } + .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77325 ***</div> + +<div class='tnotes covernote'> + +<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> + +<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div class='chapter ph1'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c001'> + <div>BERNINI AND OTHER STUDIES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_f002.jpg' alt='[Logo]' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div><span class='small'>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span></div> + <div><span class='small'>NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS</span></div> + <div><span class='small'>ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</span></div> + <div class='c003'><span class='small'>MACMILLAN & CO., <span class='sc'>Limited</span></span></div> + <div><span class='small'>LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA</span></div> + <div><span class='small'>MELBOURNE</span></div> + <div class='c003'><span class='small'>THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class='sc'>Ltd.</span></span></div> + <div><span class='small'>TORONTO</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_f004.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate I.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='titlepage'> + +<div> + <h1 class='c004'>BERNINI AND OTHER STUDIES<br> <span class='small'>IN THE</span><br> HISTORY OF ART</h1> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div><span class='small'>BY</span></div> + <div><span class='xlarge'>RICHARD NORTON</span></div> + <div><span class='xsmall'>MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON</span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='blackletter'>NEW YORK</span></div> + <div>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</div> + <div><span class='small'>LONDON: MACMILLAN AND COMPANY</span></div> + <div class='c003'>1914</div> + <div class='c003'><span class='xsmall'><i>All rights reserved</i></span></div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c001'> + <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Copyright, 1914,</span></span></div> + <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.</span></span></div> + <div class='c003'><span class='small'>Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1914.</span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='small'><span class='blackletter'>Norwood Press</span></span></div> + <div><span class='small'>J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.</span></div> + <div><span class='small'>Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> + <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The essays presented in the following pages are the product +of no hasty thought. I am grateful to the kind friends +who have encouraged their publication, and to the publishers +for giving them so attractive a form.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The choice of illustrations has been difficult. It has +seemed best, however, to reproduce in full the little-known +sketches of Bernini showing the development, in his mind, of +the design for the Piazza of St. Peter’s, and the sculptor’s +models wrought by his own hands. For the rest I have +thought that it would be more serviceable for the reader to +have a few typical examples illustrating the main points of +the text rather than a larger, and perhaps more confusing, +selection of subjects from the almost inexhaustible wealth of +available material. I am under deep obligation for the generous +permission to include among the illustrations material +in the Brandegee Collection (at Faulkner Farm, Brookline, +Massachusetts) hitherto unpublished. The heliotype plates +were prepared and printed under the direction of Mr. William +C. Ramsay, of Boston.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>RICHARD NORTON.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'><span class='sc'>London</span>, July, 1914.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span> + <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>BERNINI</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>I.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>An Estimate of Bernini</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>II.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>A Collection of Sculptor’s Models by Bernini</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>III.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Bernini’s Designs for the Piazza of St. Peter’s</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>ASPECTS OF THE ART OF SCULPTURE</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>I.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>The Art of Portraiture, particularly in Sculpture</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>II.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Pheidias and Michael Angelo</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>III.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>A Head of Athena found at Cyrene</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>GIORGIONE</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>I.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Paintings attributed to Giorgione</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>II.</td> + <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>The True Giorgione</span></td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013' colspan='2'>INDEX</td> + <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span> + <h2 class='c005'>PLATES</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES I AND II. PORTRAITS OF BERNINI</td></tr> + <tr> + <th class='c010'>NUMBER</th> + <th class='c011'> </th> + <th class='c014'> </th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>I.</td> + <td class='c011'>Bernini. Pencil Drawing, by himself (p. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>); Brandegee Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><i>Frontispiece</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='c010'></th> + <th class='c011'> </th> + <th class='c014'>FACING PAGE</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>II.</td> + <td class='c011'>Portrait, formerly thought to be of Velasquez, probably of Bernini (p. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, footnote 3); Capitoline Gallery, Rome</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES III-X. WORKS OF BERNINI</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>III.</td> + <td class='c011'>Æneas and Anchises (p. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>); Borghese Collection, Rome</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>IV.</td> + <td class='c011'>David (p. <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>); Borghese Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>V.</td> + <td class='c011'>Proserpina and Pluto (p. <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>); Borghese Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>VI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Apollo and Daphne (p. <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>); Borghese Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>VII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Angel with the Crown of Thorns (p. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>); Church of S. Andrea delle Fratte, Rome</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>VIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Angel with a Scroll (p. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>); Church of S. Andrea delle Fratte, Rome</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_24'>24</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>IX.</td> + <td class='c011'>Saint Theresa (p. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>); Church of S. Maria della Vittoria, Rome</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>X.</td> + <td class='c011'>Louis XIV (p. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>); Versailles</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES XI-XXVII. SCULPTOR’S MODELS BY BERNINI; BRANDEGEE COLLECTION</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Female figure in relief, with helmet (p. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, No. 1)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Figure of Longinus, for St. Peter’s (p. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, No. 2)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Putti, for the decoration of the piers in St. Peter’s (p. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, Nos. 3 and 4)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XIV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Two saints, for the Ciborio in the Cappella del Sacramento in St. Peter’s (p. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, Nos. 5, 7)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Two saints, for the Ciborio in the Cappella del Sacramento in St. Peter’s (p. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, Nos. 6, 8)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XVI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Bas-relief with half-figures (p. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, No. 9)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'><span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>XVII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Half figure of a Triton holding a woman on his shoulders (p. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, No. 10)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XVIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Study for the head of the St. Jerome in the Duomo of Siena (p. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, No. 11)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XIX-XXIV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Models of Angels (pp. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, 48, Nos. 12–21)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Standing male figure in high relief (p. <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, No. 22)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXVI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Oval bas-relief of the Virgin (p. <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, No. 23)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXVII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Standing female figure, and standing Angel (p. <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, Nos. 24, 25)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES XXVIII-XL. BERNINI’S DESIGNS FOR THE PIAZZA OF ST. PETER’S; BRANDEGEE COLLECTION</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXVIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Orb, surmounted by a cross; outline of a crucified figure (p. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, Nos. 1, 2)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXIX.</td> + <td class='c011'>Outline plan of St. Peter’s church correlated with a figure on a cross above lines suggesting the colonnades (p. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, Nos. 3, 4)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXX.</td> + <td class='c011'>More complete correlation of the crucified figure with St. Peter’s church (p. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, Nos. 5, 6)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Outline elevation of north half of the facade of St. Peter’s, with the colonnade (p. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, No. 7)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Sketches of the north colonnade (p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, No. 8)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>More elaborate sketch of the north colonnade (p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, No. 9)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXIV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Outline sketch of the outer end of the north arm of the colonnade, treated as if in two stories (p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, No. 10)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Interior of inner end of north arm of colonnade (p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, No. 11)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXVI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Plan and elevation of the Cortile di S. Damaso (p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, No. 12)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXVII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Façade of St. Peter’s, with both colonnades treated as if in two stories (p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, No. 13)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXVIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>View looking east from the front of St. Peter’s (p. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, No. 14)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XXXIX.</td> + <td class='c011'>The Borgo, looking toward St. Peter’s (p. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, No. 15)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XL.</td> + <td class='c011'>Correlation of the Piazza with the Orb (p. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, No. 16)</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES XLI-LI. PORTRAITS</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Sheik-el-Beled, statue of wood, Fourth Dynasty (p. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>); Boulak Museum, Cairo</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span>XLII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Sheik-el-Beled, head of statue shown in plate XLI</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Portrait, so-called Scipio type, now identified as priest of Isis (p. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>); Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLIV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Pericles (p. <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>); British Museum</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLV.</td> + <td class='c011'>So-called Menander (p. <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>); Brandegee Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLVI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Periander (p. <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>); Vatican Museum</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLVII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Unknown Roman, terra-cotta (p. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>); Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLVIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Unknown old man, Roman (p. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>); Brandegee Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>XLIX.</td> + <td class='c011'>Antoninus Pius (p. <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>); Brandegee Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>L.</td> + <td class='c011'>Roman girl (p. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>); Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Sabina? (p. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>); Brandegee Collection</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES LII-LIX. PHEIDIAS AND MICHAEL ANGELO</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Caryatid from the Erechtheum, Athens (p. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>); British Museum</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Madonna and Child, by Michael Angelo (p. <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>); Bruges</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LIV.</td> + <td class='c011'>The Victor, by Michael Angelo (p. <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>); National Museum, Florence</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Bacchus with Satyr, by Michael Angelo (p. <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>); National Museum, Florence</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LVI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Eros, by Michael Angelo (p. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>); South Kensington Museum</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LVII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Ares and other Divinities (p. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>); Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LVIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>So-called Athena Medici (p. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>); École des Beaux-Arts, Paris</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LIX.</td> + <td class='c011'>Madonna and Child, by Michael Angelo, unfinished (p. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>); Church of S. Lorenzo, Florence</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES LX, LXI. CYRENE ATHENA</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LX.</td> + <td class='c011'>Profile view of head (p. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>); Cyrene</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXI.</td> + <td class='c011'>Front view of head</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_144'>144</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c009' colspan='3'>PLATES LXII-LXIX. PAINTINGS BY GIORGIONE</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXII.</td> + <td class='c011'>The Judgment of Solomon (p. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>); Kingston Lacy, England</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Adoration of the Magi, or Epiphany (p. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>); National Gallery, London</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xii'>xii</span>LXIV.</td> + <td class='c011'>Shepherd’s Offering (p. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>); in the Lord Allandale Collection, London</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXV.</td> + <td class='c011'>The Storm, gypsy woman and soldier in the foreground (p. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>); Giovanelli Palace, Venice</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXVI.</td> + <td class='c011'>The Three Philosophers (p. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>); Vienna</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXVII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Head of Christ bearing the Cross (p. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>); Gardner Collection, Boston</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXVIII.</td> + <td class='c011'>Portrait (p. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>); Wood Collection, Temple Newsam, England</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c010'>LXIX.</td> + <td class='c011'>Madonna and Child (p. <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>); Vienna</td> + <td class='c014'><a href='#Page_204'>204</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='chapter'> + <h2 class='c005'>BERNINI</h2> +</div> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> + <h3 class='c004'>I. AN ESTIMATE OF BERNINI</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>During the last hundred years there has come a great +change in the feeling of most people towards the art of the +different epochs of the Renaissance. Whereas our grandfathers +and our great-grandfathers held Carracci and Guido +and others of the same time in high esteem, we are now +taught that these later men are of little value or interest in +comparison with the artists of the fifteenth century, and even +the most halting and stuttering “Primitive” is held of more +worth than the more able masters of the seventeenth century. +This change is natural enough, but betokens a lack of true +understanding of the purpose and powers of the fine arts.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The altered mental attitude in religious matters which renders +most people incapable of feeling the appeal of the mystical +fervour of the seventeenth century explains in a measure +why the earlier work is preferred; and added to this is the +effect of the development of archæological training which has +given rise to an interest in the mere search for origins—a +search that has done infinite harm in blinding the eyes of +students to the fact that, for the world at large, it is far more +important to see whither life is carrying us than from what +slow, groping, and inexplicable protoplasm and haphazard +chance it sprung. The teachers of our universities go on +in their dull round, like Dervishes, repeating that the Parthenon +<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>was the most perfect expression of Greek art, and there +are those who cannot see the beauty of the silver vases from +Boscoreale because they choose to call them Roman. Without +doubt there are many sound reasons for the purely archæological +study of classic art, and recently a small but perceptive +band of scholars has raised Roman art from the +ignorant neglect into which it had fallen and given it the +proper position due to any such able expression of great ideas; +this justifies the hope that the worth of the later Italian +schools will become once more manifest, not again to be forgotten.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The idea that the art of any civilized people rises by a +steady and constantly more perfect progression to one glorious +peak of perfection and then falls by rapid and recurring +blunders to a waste of meaningless effort is, I believe, due to +the too frequent mistake of considering the monuments of +the arts as separate entities and as self-ordained rather than +as indices of vital currents of thought and life. The English +dictionary is not synonymous with English literature. Nor +does the will-o’-the-wisp phrase “art for art’s sake” mean +that each work of art is a unique and inexplicable phenomenon. +Its true meaning is that the artist, be he poet or sculptor or +musician—no matter what form his art takes—finds the only +adequate expression of himself in the forms and under the +governance of the laws of the art which he follows. By so +far as he follows these laws is his work intelligible to other +men; by so far as he finds new combinations for the forms +and new adaptations of the laws to meet the new circumstances +of ever changing life is he original and great. When +Shakespeare or Keats wrote a sonnet the verses were not produced +by them merely for the sake of using a certain complicated +formula of fourteen lines to make certain statements, +nor when Pheidias carved the Athena or Praxiteles the Hermes +was it merely with the idea of reproducing the human form in +stone.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p004a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate II.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>Had such been the motive of these poets and sculptors +their results would have had small value; but each one of +them had something to say that he could best express in +the form chosen, some feeling towards life he wished to +share with others, and in this outgiving he steadily sought +to perfect the form that held his idea. The care he lavished +on the verse and marble so that the expression of this thought +might be the completest possible and truest to his idea, the +delight in making his chosen art conform to the laws of +language or of gravity, while at the same time it held the +thought as a nest holds an egg, <i>that</i> was art for art’s sake, and +a very different matter from mere technical dexterity.</p> + +<p class='c007'>All the arts are alike means of conveying ideas from +brain to brain and from the past and forgotten generations to +those not yet thought of. No one school ever told the whole +truth, but only that part of it maybe which local circumstances +enable it to see. Each of them, from the earliest which faded +away before recorded time, to the latest which looks eagerly +forward to to-morrow with the hope of new accomplishment +and absorption in new truths discovered, is but as the searchlight +casting its sharp-defined ray through the immeasurable +dark. The flames of Priam’s pyre crimsoning the night which +hung over the “topless towers” were not marked on the Argive +hills, but the message was flashed hither and yon over the +star-tracked sea, raising now hopes now fears, till at Mycenæ +<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>no answering flame was lit, but instead the young Phœnix was +born.</p> + +<p class='c007'>And as no one school can answer all the questions, so +no one single pundit can tell all the truth even of his own +school. In each honest, unshamming workman there is something +of truth, something others long ago thrilled to or that +others yet to come may also feel, something that he knows +with a clarity and conviction not to be equalled by any other. +In a sense he does express his time, but neither the artist nor +any man else is merely the product of his time, and the truly +great ones go ahead of it, following the gleam of the divine +spark which each man is born with to shelter in his heart as +best he may. If it keep alight, by God’s grace, his life becomes +in truth art for art’s sake, and he is one of the successful runners +in the torch race across the great divide of life that separates +the hopeless past from the hopeful future.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of such there are many to spur on the weary and to guide +the strayed back to the beacon path. In every man who has +appealed to the masses, whose ears have rung and whose heart +has swelled with the loud cries of “well done,” there is, be +sure, something of the ultimate divine truth—some no mockery—some +sincerity which heated in the fires of his +soul and beaten with long pain and trouble on the anvil of his +heart, shall be, if we can grasp it, a treasure undiminishing so +long as we have breath to live.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such an one was Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, whose life was +almost coterminous with the seventeenth century (1598–1680). +Honoured during life by three courts, and at that +time court patronage was a very different thing to what it is +now, he has of late been treated with a disregard which is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>unjustified, and has been blamed for faults which were not his. +These false judgments can be traced back to the envy of some +of his contemporaries, who on the one hand accused him of +ignorance of the mechanics of his art and of stupidity of design, +and on the other, oftentimes, did their best to copy him. But +it gives us pause when we consider that notwithstanding the +forces of jealousy backed by powerful influence that were +brought to bear on him he remained in the eyes of artistic +Italy during his sixty and more working years the “Michael +Angelo of the seicento.” And this estimate of him, if we lay +aside preconceived notions and formulas handed down to us +by our parents, and look at his work with our own eyes and +study it in the light of our own knowledge, will turn out to +be the right one. Only the rash and heedless dare say of +one who acquired such admiration in his own day that his +work was poor and unworthy. And yet this is what is said. +His style is said to be extravagant and artificial and his violent +material effects are said to show that he was unable to express +thought. Even the group of Apollo and Daphne is held to +exhibit his ignorance of the proper domain of sculpture. It +seems to me more likely that the judgment of the artists and +critics of the seventeenth century is apt to be the correct one.</p> + +<p class='c007'>What would be artificial in an artist to-day was not so in +Bernini, but was, if we could see it and free our hearts from the +bonds of tradition, the most honest and simplest expression of +a genius who had a new message for those who would take the +trouble to understand. Frequently his work is criticised for +not conforming to the “severe laws” of good sculpture and +in this criticism lies the common fallacy of letting personal +taste usurp the place of critical judgment. There are, of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>course, laws of gravity, and of stress or strain to which a sculptor +must conform because they are in the nature of the material +he uses, just as there are optical laws which the painter +should know; but there are no laws to fix what the artist +may or may not represent or the forms which he should give +to his representations. Personal taste is very well in its place, +but it is not criticism; and severe laws are good training for +our powers, but dependence on them leads to stagnation and +not to discovery. Because the stage-coach follows the old +gray road is it artificial of the aeroplane to soar through the +trackless ether? Probably most critics, when they speak of +severe laws as fixed and irrevocable, have in mind those followed +by the Greeks of the fifth century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>—surely of no +later time, for what of the violent material effects of Pergamon? +But suppose portraits of the present-day business +kings were carved according to the one-time valid classic +laws? Strangely unlike the subject would such portraits be!</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is nothing ultimately right in severity nor ultimately +wrong in violence. The money-changers were not led from +the temple by a ribbon round their necks. The pioneer and +path breaker must be violent. This was Bernini’s work and +purpose, and it is no more reasonable to blame him for the insincerity +and stupidity of his followers than to blame Columbus +for lynch law. As of many another, Bernini’s fame has +been dimmed by the follies and shams of his would-be imitators. +Many tried to imitate and surpass him, but it was not +to be done. He had the quality of genius which is more than +the power of taking infinite pains. That his pupils had, but +they merely exaggerated the form of the outer husk of his +work till it lost all semblance of truth and became nothing +but untruth and error. In him was the divine spark, the light +of which showed new worlds for sculpture to work in and the +heat of which moulded his material into the eternal forms of +beauty.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p008a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate III.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>The study of Bernini is established on very strong foundations, +and the misinterpretation of his aims is inexcusable; +for we have sure records of every kind concerning him. From +his surprising youth to his busy old age we can trace his progress +and the development of his powers. Of all his numerous +works scarcely one is lost, and such as have disappeared are of +no importance whatever in comparison with what remains. +The full account of his life was written by two contemporaries, +one of them his son, and this is amplified by many letters and +other papers—accounts of payments for his work, stories of +his doings, plans for work sometimes never undertaken and +other times finally accomplished by himself or his pupils, +that have been turned up into the light after long sleep in +Italian archives.<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a> It is all before us, and each chapter of his +life can be recalled from the Elysian fields. We grow eager +with the same hopes, we feel despondent at the same broken +faith and pledges, we grow interested in the same companionships, +we rest after the same magnificent accomplishments, +and to the end we are keen in search of new worlds to open up.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Even the look of him we know; what the appearance was +as he moved among the Popes and Kings, the Cardinals and +Princes of Europe. What it was for a man they saw we too +can see. What it was of a heart he felt dragging him on with +<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>engine throbs we can guess when our amazed eyes rest on the +Saint Theresa, the bust of Louis XIV, or the throne in St. +Peter’s. A strongly built, dark man, his thick hair whitening +in old age, but the quick eye never losing its brilliancy and +piercing glance. Of simple fashion in dress, as the pictures +and drawings by himself and others show him, for all his love +of rich stuffs and floating draperies. A ready and pleasant +wit made him the best of company, though at times withdrawn +into himself by some mystical absorption. For just as the +great religious leaders, so the great artists are at times lifted +by some ecstasy away from actual surrounding fact and lost +in worlds only visible to their inner eye, and though visible +never to be told of. At other times his spirits broke forth +in irrepressible gaiety which though it might form itself as +satire was never malevolent. Generous to a fault, and always +ready to lift up a friend, he was implacable towards his enemies, +and rightly showed them no mercy. He had the strength +to be a good hater,—not feebly excusing hypocrisy and meanness +because the hypocrite was weak or knew no better, but +hating, not the poor miserable individual, but his qualities, +and, to the best of his own power, destroying them. Proud +and self-confident, but willing to answer questions or to explain +what might seem faults. A lonely man; one with many acquaintances +but few friends. Too sincere not to be shocked +by the heartless brutishness of the woman he loved, too honest +a workman not to be hurt by the attacks of envy, but never +losing heart, always following his ideal and seeking to eternize +the beautiful visions of his bright soul.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are many portraits of him, some done with pencil +or pen or graver, others more elaborate oil paintings. They +<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>are the work of his friends, or done by himself, and show him +at various periods of life from young manhood to old age. +Naturally they vary in many ways, but the variance is for +the most part in the details of the outer shell of the man. The +thick dark locks of the youth give place to the thin gray hairs +of the old man; the full cheeks grow sunken and wrinkles +frame the piercing eyes; but in all the portraits certain characteristics +remain constant. A pencil drawing in the Galleria +Nazionale in Rome is the best of the youthful portraits.<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a> It is +by himself, done when he was some twenty years old. It +shows a finely shaped head with thick, waving hair. The face +is strongly modelled, and all the features noticeable; the nose +large and slightly bent, the chin square and strong. Lips full +and sensitive, but vigorous. Most noticeable of all are the +eyes, large and dark, set rather deeply under heavy brows, +looking straightly and sadly but imperturbably on the world. +A face of power yet of sweetness. A man to ask after and to +watch what he will do in this world. Rather older we see +him in two drawings in the private collection of Prince Chigi +in Rome.<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a> Life was testing him severely we know, but the +eyes are still steady, are still bright with the inner light that +was leading him on, and the mouth is still sweet and undrawn.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of about the same time, or a little later maybe, is the oil +portrait supposed to be by himself (though for this there is +little proof), in the Uffizi.<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c015'><sup>[4]</sup></a> No change yet in the character +except in a strengthening and making permanent the good +qualities of his youth. The man has found himself. Many +years go by before we again see him face to face.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>In the Gallery of St. Luke<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c015'><sup>[5]</sup></a> and in the possession of Count +Andreozzi in Rome<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c015'><sup>[6]</sup></a> are portraits of him in his last years, and +a very fine pencil drawing by himself in the Brandegee Collection +(Plate I). All his works were completed, his visits to the +courts of Europe were over, he is the “Michael Angelo of the +seicento,” and yet he is just as simple in his dress and pose +as ever. Obviously a great man whose ideals were so much +greater to him than what he had accomplished that no possible +flattery could disturb the balance of his mental poise. One +change there is in the face more to be remarked than the +higher forehead and the fuller chin. The eyes are still bright +and level, the mouth still as soft and strong, but the sadness +of expression has gone. Had he realized, I wonder, that soon +all the sorrows of life would be hidden and lost under the +gray church floor? Though the glad light of the sun no +longer shone upon his life his face is bright with a mystical +light as of the ranging stars which for countless thousands +of years have guided the feet of man.<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c015'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p012a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate IV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>It may be thought that I have given a fanciful interpretation +<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>to the change that came in his face from youth to old age, +but it can be shown that some such thoughts as I have suggested +moved him. About 1650, at a time when his enemies +had attacked his work in St. Peter’s and caused him great financial +damage and still greater hurt to his natural and proper +pride, the idea came to him to carve an allegory that should +show the ages what his feeling towards his critics, towards +art and towards life truly was. Allegories in painting or +sculpture are usually, owing to the fixed limitations of these +arts, unintelligible, but no artist ever lived who could have +done as well as Bernini in making clear his idea with the material +he used. Even if we did not have his own words about +this group his thought would be seen, for his amazing command +of technique and his knowledge of statics made it possible for +him to combine figures with a freedom rarely equalled, and +thereby to express himself with an ease and fulness beyond +the powers of most sculptors of any time. Only one of the +two figures which were to form the group was ever finished, +but there is a sepia sketch showing the whole composition.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In it we see the winged figure of Time hovering above a +beautiful woman from whose nude body he lifts a mantle. She +is Truth; in her hand she holds an image of the Sun darting +bright rays in all directions. This group meant much to him; +was perhaps the most personal and truly expressive work he +ever made, and till his death he kept it by him. In his will +he says that not without reason has he kept this statue of +Truth unveiled by Time which he wishes to remain for ever +in the possession of his descendants who, as they look on it, +may remember that the most lovely of the virtues is Truth +and that if one works under her guidance Time in the end +<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>reveals her. Are the “severe laws” of the ancients any more +severe than this rule Bernini held before himself and wished +his descendants never to forget, and is it sensible because at +first sight his work seems strange and unaccountable to +damn it with such words as “fantastic” or “baroque”?</p> + +<p class='c007'>The group was never finished, but in a dirty courtyard off +the Corso in Rome, neglected as only the Italians know how +to neglect such things till some outsider stirs their jaded appreciation +to new interest, is the Discovered Truth. Time on +hasty wings flies by, but as Bernini knew, Truth stays always, +heedless of neglect, the fixed pole for all those who set their +aim beyond the bounds within which their earthly eyes would +prison them. And knowing this, it came to pass that his +old face was lit with a peaceful smile as he came to the evening +of life.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Bernini’s work is of unusual variety, but the best of it falls +into four classes. There are the wonderful groups illustrating +old world myths that he produced in the full joy of life in his +youth; there are the amazing religious monuments in which +he embodied with unrivalled skill the mystical intensity of +the religion whose chief priests he served; there are the superbly +joyous settings for fountains which though the waters +might dry up and cease to flow will still, so long as the stone +lasts, echo their murmuring music; and there are the long series +of magnificent busts on which he was employed from his very +earliest days to his latest. He was besides author, painter, +illustrator, and architect. I have no intention of cataloguing +the long series of work his never idle hand produced, but wish +merely to point out some of the forgotten beauties that he +brought into being. In a measure, it is possible to trace the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>source of his inspiration and in lesser degree to foresee its +outcome.</p> + +<p class='c007'>His father, Pietro, a Florentine, was a sculptor of no mean +power before him. His mother was of Naples, and in that +southern, passionate city Gian Lorenzo was born in 1598 and +there he passed his first years. Some day another Mendel +may be able to establish what were the forces of Florentine +and Neapolitan blood that lay dormant in his young brain, +but for us is no such certainty, and we can only guess at the +effect of the father’s artistic occupations and the mother’s +quick blood. In 1604, when the boy was but six years old, +his father moved to Rome, the city his son was destined to +impress with his genius as no city but Athens has ever been +impressed by a single artist. Working at first for his father, +he was only fourteen years old when he drew to himself the +attention of all the <i>connoscenti</i> by two busts which, as Annibale +Carracci said, any artist after years of work might have +been proud to make. The admiration Bernini won for these +works, to which I shall return, led, as was the good habit +of those days, to the patronage of the Borghese pope, Paul V.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the Borghese villa, the ruined grandeur of which is still +the chief pride of Rome, the young Bernini was surrounded +by beautiful antique marbles, some of which he was called +upon to restore. This familiarity with ancient sculpture, +and this subjection in the task of restoration of his own spirit +to that of classic masters, had a very marked effect on him—an +effect which in its deepest sense lasted throughout his long +life, though its more obvious and visible manifestation soon +waned and faded away. That is to say, while his work at all +times showed a perfect comprehension of some of the fundamental +<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>laws of the material out of which sculpture is formed, +laws that were first clearly expounded by the Greeks, it is +only in a few of his earliest, and for a youth miraculous, +works that he shows a tendency to imitate classic form.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Four wonderful works were produced for the Borghese +family. The Æneas and Anchises (Plate III), the David +(Plate IV), the Rape of Proserpina (Plate V), and the exquisite +group of Apollo and Daphne (Plate VI). All these were +finished when he was only twenty-seven. Realizing this, +the comparison of him with Michael Angelo no longer seems +exaggerated, but one sees further that no such comparison can +perform the ordinary service of all such juxtapositions, which +is to afford a scale of better or worse, for the two masters +are supreme, each in his own individual and original way, +and incomparable.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p016a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate V.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Opinion may easily differ in regard to the first three of the +works just mentioned. To me the Æneas is the least pleasing +and the David the least successful artistically. The faults +of both may be in part due to the fact that in each case Bernini’s +imagination was to a certain degree hampered by work +of other men which he seems to have set himself to surpass, +and even though it may be granted that he did surpass his +models, he would have done better, as in the Proserpina and +Daphne, to let his own genius lead him whither it would and +ignore other suggestion. The models I refer to are, in the +case of the Æneas, the Christ by Michael Angelo in Santa +Maria sopra Minerva and for the David the Borghese Warrior +now in the Louvre, both works of small merit.<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c015'><sup>[8]</sup></a> The reason +<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>the Æneas seems to me unpleasing is because of the weakness +and unheroic look of the faces and figures, but others may not +feel this, and the skill of the group is undoubted. The lack +of success in the David is due to a slight failure in understanding +the Greek motive that Bernini was copying. Whether +or not he had in mind the Borghese Warrior as he carved this +figure is a matter of slight importance. He was in any case +representing a single figure in a position of strongly marked +action, a problem that Myron magnificently solved in the +Discobolus. The Borghese Warrior is by no means so successful. +The David would rival the Discobolus had Bernini +not made one mistake. The figure is turned to the wrong +side. As he stands, the right arm drawn back, the left hand +holding the stone in the sling in front of the body, the sling +must fall loose and dead, the body must again be flung forward +and the right arm swung upwards before the youth can +get the momentum to hurl the stone at his enemy. Had +Bernini turned the figure the other way with the left hand +behind and the right in front of the body, this sense of ineffectiveness +in the pose would not have existed, and the whole +body would have been tensely set at the moment of rest between +the action of drawing back for the aim and the instantaneously +following motion of the cast.<a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c015'><sup>[9]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Though such slight criticism may be passed on these +two works, the other two, the Proserpina and Daphne are not +open to any similar attack. They are magnificent, and compel +<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>admiration even from those whose training would tend to +limit their preferences to work of another type. Never was +the spirit of the two stories more fully understood or more +adequately rendered. Never was marble managed in more +masterful fashion and given such flux and flow of life. One’s +breath catches as one looks, for it seems no longer a work of +art before one’s eyes, but life itself. There is the dark, passionate +rape of Proserpine, her splendid soft body shrinking +and twisting in the grasp of the undeniable, compelling God +of the underworld. There is the sweet, sad loss of Daphne, +her exquisite springtime figure fading and changing into the +rustling silver leaves in fright at the too hasty claim of her +lover. Her face is still lovely, though the wide eyes and open +mouth show her fear, but is there nothing in her fear of loss +of her dear pursuer? And what of him? Not to be thought +of as Olympian brother to the cruel, forceful Pluto. His +face and action betoken the tenderness that would save the +woman he loves from the heartless folly she would thoughtlessly +commit. In the one group the storm and rush of passion; +in the other the tender restraint of love. Both purely +Greek and classic, and both carved with such consummate +mastery that we forget the marble and see only the dark Tartarean +glow and hear only the whispering of the sad leaves.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p018a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate VI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The perfection of technique displayed in the works of +Bernini’s youthful years is obvious to anyone with the slightest +knowledge of sculpture. His knowledge of anatomy must +have been almost instinctive, while he used the chisel with an +ease that few painters could rival with a brush. His understanding, +too, of balance and composition and of the forms the +marble could be given was a revelation, and infinitely enlarged +<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>the field of sculpture. As a mere group, the Daphne has never +been surpassed, and Bernini himself recognised that, at least +from the point of view of technique, none of his later works +were any more marvellous. The spirit and character, however, +of the later work are very different. It is worth noting that +his method of production differs greatly from that of his +predecessors. Hundreds of sepia drawings by him still exist +which show the fertility of his invention and the labour he +spent in getting the best design for his works. There are also +many terra cotta models for his statues, and in all of these we +see a directness in the way he approached his subject that differentiates +him from the forerunners in the art. Among the +Greeks, among the painters at least, it was not uncommon to +think of the body and the drapery as separate and to draw +or model the first entirely nude and then afterwards to put +drapery over it. This habit was common enough during the +Renaissance, and the studies of such men as Dürer and Leonardo +show that it was not confined to the lesser men whose +lack of skill and knowledge was helped by such double process.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But among all the hundreds of sketches on paper and models +in terra-cotta that are left us of Bernini’s work there is scarcely +a trace of this method of procedure. He visualized each work +in endless different ways, making rapid but most skilful studies +of them all, but he saw the figure each time completed. The +figures and drapery and setting were one indivisible whole to +him, and his uncommon knowledge of anatomy, and the rare +clearness of his mental vision, made it possible for him when +the final form of the work was fixed upon to work at it from the +outside inwards, and not, as in something built of blocks, from +the inside outwards. And while his sketches differ in this +<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>regard from those of most other artists, the variety of them, +especially the very numerous ones for the same monument, +show the pitch of excellence to which art had arrived, for +these sketches are no longer the record of the artist’s search +to learn <i>how</i>, but of his eager search <i>how best</i>. Not that Bernini +was unique in this. The fertility of invention of such +men as Domenico Tiepolo is as that of a tree putting forth +leaves, but no other artist illustrates these qualities and +methods more completely and masterfully than our Gian +Lorenzo.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I have mentioned above the originality displayed by men +such as Michael Angelo and Bernini. Many another name +could be added to these two, but it is not of men I wish to +speak, but of this quality of originality, this crucible from +which the old is drawn forth new, this Spring season of the +mind which clothes the old, dry stumps with fresh life. The +word is so often misused about the artists of to-day that its +real significance is lost and true originality is too often imitated +by a cheaper, rottener stuff. Every one of us is original +in some degree. No one, unless he be mentally dead, sees or +feels or believes as his father or grandfathers did before him. +It may be the old belief was more correct and the old eyes were +sharper than the new. Only the purblind and myopic think +that all the early stages were wrong and that the solitary +Present is alone right. Were this so, how hopelessly wrong +this same Present would soon be! What a hideous precipice +of error would this life’s painful course appear! As in life, +so it is in Art, and all artists are original who are genuine and +honest, who are spurred on only by their ideals and their love +for their work—who give up worshipping the xoana and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>idols of a past day. It may be suggested that there is little +difference, or perhaps even none, between one’s own ideal +and any other suggested to us by some wrought image, whether +in stone or verse is no matter. But there is. There is the +difference of life. The light of one is of the dying embers, but +the light of the other is of the rising Sun which shows the path +we follow till our feet grow slower and slower, till at the last +they halt and stop fixed. While the idol remains but the +symbol of the ideal it is right. When it becomes the God it is +wrong, or when doubt has cut its roots and sapped its strength +and we pay it service merely because to do so has become an +easy habit. So it is we come to see that the originality of +these artists was not mere novelty, but was truthfulness. It +represents their beliefs, and what you believe you believe for +yourself alone. It shows us what their real, sure-founded +and enduring hopes and aims were. Mere novelty cannot be +believed in because it is accidental. It has neither root nor +promise of flower. It is the mirage of the salt desert, and it is +this mere queerness, mere strain, mere novelty which is too +often mistaken for originality. It is the paradox masquerading +as the True Word. Just as this world whirls like a “fretful +midge” through space, ever in the same track, a recurring +course, but gradually unperceived moves elsewhither, +so do the great artists revolve, and impelled not by their own +wilfulness but by the power of the divine spark within them, +slowly move forward. And among that splendid company is +Bernini.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The terra cotta studies in the Brandegee Collection<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c015'><sup>[10]</sup></a> illustrate +clearly Bernini’s originality and the power to which +<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>I have referred above, of seeing his visions in their completeness +without having to painfully build them up. I do not +mean to imply that each separate detail of his works was the +same in his first vision of them as in their finished form. He +worked at them assiduously, and perfected them with the +greatest patience and care, but when they came into his mind +they rose before him like ghosts from the tomb—vague but +entire.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is noteworthy that most of these models are of angels, and +as such represent the religious work by which Bernini is best +known, and on which he was most often employed after his +youth was past. By the time he was twenty-five years old +he had been employed by three Popes, and before his death +five others sought his aid and depended largely on his genius +in their endeavours to beautify Rome and to render their +own fame imperishable. These undertakings were of very +various character, but the greater number of them, such as +statues of Saints, decoration of chapels, altars and tabernacles, +grave monuments of Popes and prelates, were done +with religious purpose and may be called his ecclesiastical +work. It is superb in its mastery, magnificent in effect, and +while utterly different from anything that had been done before, +gives the impression of complete and perfect sincerity. +Though unlike earlier work and though the religion that inspired +and made it possible has changed so that never again +will an artist be able to give similar expression to his ideals, +still there is no ground for considering it merely curious and +the expression of insincerity or passing error. Anything that +affected so many thousands of men, which they found beautiful +and satisfying to their souls, must be in a measure true, +must have in it some portion of ultimate wisdom. Silence or +contempt towards it, any feeling but of sympathy with it, +shows not a better knowledge but a duller understanding.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p022a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate VII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>During the sixteenth century a great change had come about +in the way men looked at life. Discoveries were made of all +sorts; on land for men’s feet to follow or in mathematics and +philosophy for their souls to reach up to. Old dogmas became +untenable and the roofs with which men had sheltered their +heads became scaffolding on which they planted their feet. +It was a time of revolution—the revolution of the wheel of +life which advances as it turns. I have called attention to +the fact that the artists in their search for the fullest possible +expression of their thought often threw off dozens of designs +for a single work before finding the one most adequate. Technique +no longer hampered them in the slightest way, and they +readily changed their mode in accordance with new views, no +longer blindly following the old guides. The work of Titian +is one of the most obvious illustrations of this. In his youth +he followed, like the Indian, the steps of his leaders, but as he +aged, he broke from them more and more, till at the end +he arrived in a world his teachers could never have imagined. +Bernini had a similar experience.</p> + +<p class='c007'>One of the commonest complaints brought against Bernini +is that he introduced the habit of decorating the archivolts +or domed roofs of the churches with figures of angels fluttering +about like great white birds, and in this complaint no distinction +is made between the idea that underlay this scheme of +decoration and the inappropriate and exaggerated use of it +made often by his imitators. From the earliest times of the +Renaissance, this scheme had been used. Bernini did not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>invent it. The Gothic portals and towers of France are +crowded with figures of saints and kings, of angels and demons. +In orderly ranks they guard the gates or singly spring +into mid air from the balconies. In Italy the shepherds of +the people stood in pulpits which rested on the strong shoulders +of Christ’s soldiers or on the steady wings of the heavenly +host, while high o’erhead (as in the Portinari Chapel in S. +Eustorgio, Milan), a ring of winged figures, hand holding hand, +danced and sang, and down the long aisles and in the dark +chapels every sleeper in his stony bed was guarded by the +faithful spirits.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Why then find fault with Bernini and think he erred in +doing what all the world found good? If Bernini is mistaken +in putting marble figures above our heads, why excuse Correggio +for the circling swarms with which he covered the +church domes, or Michael Angelo for the cataract of figures +with which he covered the Sistine Chapel? All such work +must be considered for its suggestion, not from the point of +view of its actual substance. Why, if the conventional and +halting work of the nameless early artists is good, should the +masterly work of Bernini be considered bad? Only because +the modern world thinks it foolish to believe in anthropomorphic +angels and having no belief, has lost the power of +understanding symbols. And also the antagonism Bernini’s +work arouses is due to the fad for the primitive and incomplete. +The very lack of power that every early artist tried to rid +himself of is now thought to be his chief value and grace, and +as in the daily press a missing word puzzle attracts more attention +than a sonnet so the halting early work finds more +admirers than the later perfect art.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p024a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate VIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>Perfect as they are, there is something more than anthropomorphism +in Bernini’s angels. Earlier artists, even the +best of the Florentines, when representing these heavenly +messengers, almost always make them so solid and human that +the wings are utterly inadequate, or else they suggest the body +by a thin and shapeless swirl of drapery topped by a perfectly +substantial head. In either case the result is unsatisfactory, +for though the figures conform to the usual idea of angels as +effeminate human forms with wings, the chief impression they +make is of inconsistent and impossible anatomical combinations.</p> + +<p class='c007'>They fail just as the archaic Greek centaurs with human +feet fail. When one looks at Bernini’s angels, the two done +in his youth for the altar of Sant’ Agostino, or the two for +instance which he carved in later years for the Ponte Sant’ +Angelo, but which were considered too beautiful to be exposed +in the open air and are now sheltered in Sant’ Andrea delle +Fratte (Plates VII, VIII), or at the one which kneels on the +left hand of the <i>Ciborio</i> in the <i>Cappella del Sacramento</i> in Saint +Peter’s, one has no sense of unreality. The bodies are human +in form, but spiritual in their lightness and grace. The wings +are strong and large, and yet so feathery as to seem almost +transparent. The drapery falls and clings to and fits the +body as a cloud might, and the face and action express a perfect +and soul-filling adoration that finds expression in tireless +worship and unending song of praise. These are the true +“sexless souls, ideal quires.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This same strong religious feeling is shown with equal +certainty in other figures by Bernini which are better known +than his angels. These are the figures of saints which he +<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>made in his middle and later years. The earliest of them, +that of Santa Bibiana, done in 1626, when he was still a young +man, shows in the arrangement and pose of the figure the +influence of the antique. The technique exhibits the same +magnificent ease and the same power of reproducing the +various qualities of drapery and flesh and hair that we saw +before in the Borghese groups, and there is in the face and +gesture the expression of self-effacement in religious ecstasy +that is the most noticeable quality of the later figures of this +kind. As he grows older, these two characteristics of technical +differentiation of surface and of ecstatic expression altered. +While he lost no atom of technical power he tended to lay less +stress on the appearance of the mere surface of his figures and +to pay more attention to and show forth more clearly their +mental condition. In doing this he brought into being figures +as truly representative of the religion of his time as those of +Michael Angelo or any other sculptor of any epoch.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Religious emotion must always call forth strong feeling, +but the strength is sometimes shown in terms of apparent +restraint, at others it shows itself in violent action. Athena +Parthenos is as emotional as the Santa Theresa and Savonarola, +and Luther is as violent as the Crusaders. The seventeenth +century was a time when men thought it no shame to +show their feelings. The Puritans showed them as clearly as +the Italians, though in a less pleasant form. If to-day it is +difficult to realize and sympathize with the sentiment shown +in Bernini’s Sant’ Andrea, or Daniel, or Maria di Magdala, it is not because of our superiority, but rather because we have +lost a very precious sense and power of spiritual levitation. +Look at the Habakkuk. Is it not a splendid presentation of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>the prophet who was burdened with the grievance which he +beheld, who saw for so long the righteous compassed about by +a “bitter and hasty” race that he felt the Lord would never +respond to his cry? But even as he complains the visible answer +of the Lord appears, and the Angel with playful tenderness +pulls at his hair so that his face is upturned to the light +of Heaven, not any longer dark with earth’s despair, as he bids +him write the vision of the Lord’s judgment that shall not +tarry—write it so that he may run who readeth. And +Habakkuk still points to the iniquity that blackens the world +and the angel points to the inevitably approaching woe. It +is superbly original. It is deeply felt.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The St. Jerome in the Duomo at Siena is another very +striking figure; if it seems to most observers unpleasant, +this is mainly because it does not conform to the conventional +and uncharacteristic way they are accustomed to see Jerome +represented. As a subject for artists he has been treated far +more often by painters than by sculptors, and in the paintings +the mere beauty of colour and of surroundings adds charms +which are uncharacteristic of, and distract from, the real +interest of the figure. When carved by Bernini, there is +nothing but the figure to consider—whether it be suggestive +of the real man as we know him by his writings or not. Probably +most people if asked what image the name of the saint +brought to their minds would recall the print by Dürer or +some painting such as that by Catena in the National Gallery. +But splendid as the print and the painting are, it is only by a +pleasant fiction and by refusing to regard the truth that they +can be thought to represent in any way the Saint as he was +among men. They show a very gentle old man in the neatest +<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>and quietest of surroundings, peacefully writing his comments +on the scriptures.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It can hardly be supposed that his contemporaries regarded +Jerome primarily as a peaceful and abstracted scholar. Surely +Bernini did not, but instead shows us the unhappy wanderer +and ascetic monk. Scholarship was only one phase, and +among the people with whom he lived scarcely the most important +phase of St. Jerome’s life. To his contemporaries he +showed himself chiefly as an acrid controversialist taking a +leading part in the “strife of tongues.” Unhappy in his +Pannonian home, he spent a restless youth wandering over +Europe, but instead of peace found only momentary forgetfulness +in pleasures, the remembrance of which brought deep +sorrow in his later years. Then he turned to asceticism and +sought by living as an anchorite in the desert to conform +himself to the teachings of his Lord. But the degradation of +such a life, the unnatural and disgusting view it took of the +image of his Maker and the temple of his soul, the morbid introspection +and sterility of selfish self-mortification, brought +him trouble and pain, not calm, till, at last, an old man, he +died in Bethlehem thoroughly disheartened with the iniquity +of the world and the horrors resultant on the destruction of +Rome by the barbarians.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such is the man Bernini sets before us. The battered, wayworn +feet; the strong, coarse body; the ragged, unkempt +hair show the life he led. The face bending with closed eyes +dreamily over the figure of the crucified Christ betrays his +holy, misdirected zeal. What he was, and what he stood for, +could not be shown more clearly than our sculptor has shown it +here.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>Equally fine, and in certain ways more beautiful, is the +statue of Daniel in the lions’ den, which Bernini made in +1656 for Cardinal Chigi, who placed it with the Habakkuk in +Santa Maria del Popolo. The youthful and splendidly built +figure rests on one knee, his hands upraised in attitude of +prayer, his head bent back with eyes wide open gazing upwards. +From one shoulder, beside his body and over his legs, +falls in wind-blown folds a single heavy mantle. A great +lion crouches behind him, licking his foot. In its perfect +physical beauty, in its not over-emphasised anatomy and in +its entirely successful composition, by which great movement +is given the appearance of completeness and stability, the +figure is more closely allied to Bernini’s earlier works than to +the mystical passionate figures such as the Jerome or Mary of +Magdala or others of this period. It is unnecessary to dwell +on the beauty of the figure and the technical skill it displays, +for these can be seen by anyone whose eye and hand have been +trained at all.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is one less obvious point, however, to which I wish +to draw attention, for it is as good an example as could be of +what I have mentioned above. I refer to the way the legs +show through the heavy drapery that covers them. The +mantle does actually clothe the leg. It is not a mere addition. +It takes its shape and movement from the leg beneath it. +The one cannot be thought of without the other. Were the +statue destroyed, and did only the right hip or left knee +remain, one would instantly recognise what parts of the figure +these were. But classic though the figure is in general appearance—it +might almost be one of the Niobids—the +feeling of absolute ecstatic faith is very clearly given in the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>upturned face and the reaching arms.<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c015'><sup>[11]</sup></a> Now there have been +times—great and noble times—when men did believe that +God would send angels to shut the mouths of lions, and when +men felt no fear, but only a carefree trust in His help if true +innocency could be found in them.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such work is not baroque, nor decadent, nor over-emotional, +as it is commonly and thoughtlessly said to be, but it is a +very adequate and convincing representation of a powerful +and uplifting spiritual condition. It is just as fine as the +graver and more sombre figures of Greece, or as the sad and +ponderous figures of Michael Angelo.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of all the figures of this period in Bernini’s development the +most famous is the Saint Theresa (Plate IX). It is hopeless to +express in words the great beauty of this figure. This can no +more be done than the full perfection of any great poem can be +rendered in a translation. The work is perfect in itself, and +what of this kind can be shown in sculpture is here expressed +with complete and ultimate adequacy. That most people +are startled and shocked when they first see the figure is due +to the fact that they do not think of what the scene really +means, and they are not accustomed to seeing scenes of divine +significance treated with perfect simplicity and pure faith.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p030a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate IX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Not that such scenes ought not to be so treated, but few +are the artists who feel deeply enough or whose technique is +finished enough to enable them to represent a scene of this +sort so clearly and beautifully. As a result, the artist falls +back on forms which have been repeated so often that they +have become conventional and no longer can give the beholder +<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>the full impression of their meaning. No one is offended on +seeing the Son of God bleeding on the cross around which +surges a host of idle spectators, or at seeing Him in the manger +before which all the nobles of Florence kneel in various theatric +attitudes. But Saint Theresa is a figure new to them, and +to have her shown in the crisis of her ecstasy with other figures +looking on from the walls of the chapel, offends their “sense +of propriety” and seems “paradoxical,” “perfervid” and “inconsequent.”<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c015'><sup>[12]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Were this a fair criticism, a large number of the most +beautiful works of Christian art would fall under the same +condemnation. Far more paradoxical than Bernini’s figure +are the representations of the Marriage of Saint Catharine, +and they are quite as unpleasing if thought of in their literal +sense. As for the figures looking at the Saint from the “opera +boxes” at the sides of the chapel, it must be remembered that +at this time most of the drama in Italy was founded on religious +subjects, and such dramatic representation made a +very deep appeal to men’s minds. The critics who find the +Saint Theresa in bad taste do not hesitate to form part of the +audience when Christ’s Passion is played among the hills of +Oberammergau, and they will no longer be afraid to render +Bernini the homage that is his due when they cease lazily to +measure his work by conservative standards. The glory of a +comet is not measured by the Eddystone Light nor a miracle +by the conventions of ordinary society.</p> + +<p class='c007'>One other point concerning this statue remains to be considered. +A recent critic<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c015'><sup>[13]</sup></a> says that “there are many ecstasies, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>and Bernini has chosen something that borders closely on +the most displeasing.” In this he expresses a common opinion, +based, I believe, on a misconception, and on ugly, puritanical +prudishness. Possibly there are many ecstasies, but religious +ecstasy, the ecstasy of the Saint in joining herself to the +spiritual existence of Christ, and the pure and natural ecstasy +of love when self is lost in the future of the race, are as nearly +as possible identical. The Venus de Medici is far more displeasing +than the Saint Theresa.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In one portion of the group Bernini certainly did fail, and +in a way that is surprising. Usually his figures of angels are +successful, but the one standing over Saint Theresa is assuredly +very bad. Its figure is unconvincing, and its face, with tilted +nose and silly smile, is more that of a Greek <i>paniskos</i> than of +a heavenly messenger. But notwithstanding this blemish, no +work by Michael Angelo or any other sculptor ever made the +beholder forget so completely the substance out of which it is +carved, and think only of the scene represented as Bernini has +done here. He has given the softness of life to the snow-white +stone. His hand and mind worked in perfect accord and +produced a work unrivalled in technique and of very great +beauty.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Another statue of similar character is the Beata Albertona. +It is a little less delicate in treatment and more emphatic in +expression than the Saint Theresa, but is, none the less, of very +great beauty and power.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Were a man’s failures as worth study as his successes, I +could mention works by Bernini which are distinctly bad. +The Maria di Magdala is one. Though full of feeling, the +figure of the Saint is coarse and clumsy. But though a man’s +<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>defeats show, of course, the principles for which he stood, his +victories are more worth considering and are the fairest test +of him. A very false estimate of Michael Angelo would result +if one considered the Rondanini Pietà, the David, or the +Christ in Santa Maria sopra Minerva as of equal importance +with his other works.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It was not only in works in marble that Bernini showed his +power as a sculptor. He handled dark, impressive bronze +with the same complete understanding of its qualities and +possibilities that he showed in carving the gleaming Carrara +marble. Such a work as the <i>Baldacchino</i> in St. Peter’s is +beyond any words to praise. It is enormous, but not clumsy, +and sumptuous without being ornate. The most stupendous +of his bronze works is not, however, the <i>Baldacchino</i>, but the +Throne, the <i>Cattedra</i> in the apse of St. Peter’s. It was in 1657, +during the pontificate of Alexander VII, that Bernini was +ordered to carry out his design for this work, and eight years +later it was finished and uncovered to the admiration of all +Rome.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This monument is too well known to need detailed description +here, but it is well here to recall its purpose, which was +not for actual ceremonial use by the Popes, but to serve as a +frame, or strong-box, for the ancient chair of carved ivory on +which tradition said, and the whole Catholic world then believed, +St. Peter had himself sat. There in the heart of the +greatest Christian Church, raised above the soiling earth, +high in air for the thronging worshippers to behold, was to be +the visible and material sign of infallibility. Bernini alone +had the feeling that made him capable of such a task. Four +magnificent figures of Doctors of the Church support the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>chair—two of the Western church, Saint Augustine and +Saint Ambrose, and two of the Eastern, Saint Chrysostom and +Saint Athanasius. Stately great figures; on their outstretched +hands they hold the Throne with the ease that comes of perfect +faith, raising it up even as sixteen hundred years before +the Apostles had raised up this earth for the glory of God.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In all these religious works by Bernini there is beside the +expression of the faith that begot them the expression of a +decorative sense, something dramatic. He delighted in movement +and expression for the mere sake of beauty of active +form, and this feeling of joy in life, in the spirit of movement, +whether in Nature or in Man, Bernini reproduced in a series +of works which by themselves would make him unique among +all sculptors and which give Rome a distinction and character +far more decisive than her ruins or palaces and set her alone +and apart from all other cities. These are the fountains.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The list of fountains is of amazing length. The Barcaccia +in the Piazza di Spagna, one in the Villa Mattei, one in the +Vatican Gardens, another in the Barberini Gardens, the +Triton in the Piazza Barberini; the lovely shell which used +to be on the corner of the Via Sistina, but has been destroyed +to make way for modern improvements so called; in the +courtyard of the Palazzo Antamoro, in the Piazza Navona, +and the broad pool of the Fountain of Trevi. They have the +infinite variety and infinite pleasantness of Nature herself. +By the side of the placid pool whence the <i>ciociaras</i> draw the +water for their flowers, or where the sparkling stream of the +Triton shoots heavenward from the gray pavements like a +white crocus from the frosty ground in Spring; where the +Nile, the Ganges, the Plata and the Danube pour forth their +<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>incessant floods, or where Neptune shepherds his foaming +steeds over the rocks as they dash down into the pool that if +we once drink from our hearts evermore yearn for the Eternal +City—by each and all of his fountains our ears are filled with +the pleasant voices of the waters and our eyes with the sight +of the nymphs and nereids who gambolled among the watercourses +when the world was young.</p> + +<p class='c007'>What the secret of their charm? No one ever understood +the artistic value of water as Bernini did. No one else ever +held in check the full stream and gave it back again the ripples, +and spurts and sudden rushes of its upper course and of its +source. The angels must have washed his spirit in the fountain +of eternal youth to enable him to express the joy which +flowed through his veins in the undying music of the waves, +moulding and combining them to his intention as a musician +makes the rough strings of his instrument sing of the life +that lies hidden in them till his knowing touch gives them +voice.<a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c015'><sup>[14]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>I have spoken of the groups representing classic myths, +of the innumerable statues motived by religion and of the +fountains, but even this huge mass of work does not come near +completing the list of Bernini’s output. The numerous portraits +remain to be considered. Some, such as the Constantine +in St. Peter’s, were ideal, but most were of his patrons +and friends and were of very varied types. There were colossal +equestrian statues, ordinary busts, full-length figures +and groups for tombs, and they show that he possessed just +<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>as great skill in direct portraiture as in more purely imaginative +work.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To carve or paint a successful portrait, two powers are +absolutely essential to the artist. On the one hand he must +have the sympathy that will enable him to comprehend the +sitter’s character, and to see what lines and expressions of the +face express that character most clearly; on the other he must +have the power of suppressing his own individuality and of +lending his hand and eye, as it were, to the sitter to make the +portrait himself. If the artist lacks sympathy, he will produce +a work which may be correct in all detail of colour, line +and modelling, but it will only be a sort of mask; if he lacks +the power of self-suppression, the work will be unlike the sitter, +even though true in detail, because it will show not his character, +but that of the artist. Bernini illustrates these points +with perfect precision, and as a result his portraits are unsurpassed +by those of any other artist of the Renaissance and are +far finer than the quaint efforts of the earlier sculptors which +many students of art admire with the enthusiasm of decadence +and a fatuous misunderstanding of both the value of art +and the aim of the artist.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Just as it was fortunate for Turner that in his early years he +was forced to draw with painstaking accuracy, so was Fate kind +to the young Bernini in giving him to do, when he was but fourteen +or fifteen years old, the portraits of two well-known Prelates. +Success in these meant fame and an assured future for +the boy. Like every genius he must have felt, with perfect +simplicity, with no conceit, his power; but what must have +been his feelings of tremulous satisfaction when, the busts unveiled, +the crowd of Cardinals and Prelates who were gathered +<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>to see his work, broke into enthusiastic applause? The cheering +words of those long since silent voices echo again in our hearts +as we look at these busts of the Bishop Santoni and of Monsignor +Montoya, for two more perfect portraits can hardly be +found.</p> + +<p class='c007'>A mere child made them; a boy whom one could more +easily think of playing at marbles in the sunlit street; but +instead his playground is the Temple of the Lord and his toys +the souls of men. The mere knowledge of anatomy and the +technical skill they show is most unusual for one so young, but +what shall be said of the spiritual insight of the artist who +carved these two bowed heads with their sweet, strong, grave +faces? The excellence of the ancient Greek, in certain forms +of sculpture, has given us his name as an adjective to express +one kind of superlative merit and these two busts can, with +perfect accuracy, be called Greek. They are as like as can +be to the bronze bust by some unknown Grecian sculptor +which in the Museo dei Conservatori bears the name of Brutus.</p> + +<p class='c007'>As in his other work, so in the making of portraits Bernini +soon broke away from traditional methods and gave his own +spirit full sway. This is evident in the bust of Costanza +Buonavelli, his mistress, which is one of the treasures of the +National Museum in Florence. It is not only the technical +skill with which he gave the different qualities of the pleated +dress, the round soft neck and cheeks and the blown tresses +of waving hair that make this portrait so remarkable, but +beyond this one sees in it the artist’s own human love for the +actual woman and his delight in her as a suggestion of a beautiful +work of art. This bust is unique among his works, for the +woman who inspired it then, with thoughtless animal selfishness, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>killed the inspiration she had begotten. The bust is +the tombstone for the most sensitive part of Bernini’s heart.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Among the other busts of his early years are one of his +great patron Paul V (Borghese) and two of his steadfast friend +Cardinal Scipio Borghese.<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c015'><sup>[15]</sup></a> They are all of them noteworthy, +but the finest is the first one he made of the Cardinal. In +this the growth of Bernini’s dramatic feeling is very plain and +is shown in a technical way which he repeated many times +thereafter. It is this. He carves not alone the head and a +small portion of the breast, but he gives the whole upper part +of the torso and arms and skilfully suggests by the turn and +position of this part the action of the whole body, so that as +one looks at this bust of Scipio Borghese, one has the feeling +of seeing not his head alone but his whole figure. The wonderful +realism with which Bernini has rendered the crinkly +silk cape and the rolling flesh of the fat face with the lips just +parted as though the burly Cardinal were whistling for breath +is obvious to the most casual observation; but realistic though +the bust is, Bernini was skilful enough to give chief emphasis +to the character of the sitter so that the impression that one +takes away with one is not of the external appearance of the +figure so much as of his nature and quality as a man. In many +ways it closely resembles the portrait of Pope Innocent by +Velasquez.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p038a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate X.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Other portraits are to be seen not only in Rome, but in +Modena, at Versailles and even at Windsor; for, as Bernini’s +fame spread, the great people all sought him and even Louis +XIV and Charles I were delighted to have the artist give them +<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>that immortality which neither their deeds nor position could +assure them. One of the quieter and less dramatic works is +the beautiful bust of Monsignor Francesco Barberini. It is +realistic like the Cardinal Borghese, but the realism is made +subordinate to a higher aim and only used to emphasise the +ideal character of the work.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Numerous as are these effigies by Bernini of Popes and lesser +men, there are two which stand out above all the rest as unsurpassed +in art and as combining and illustrating more fully +than any others the character of the time, of the sitter and of +the artist which, all together, made them possible. They are +of Francis I of Este, now in Modena, and of Louis XIV (Plate +X), at Versailles. The first was made in 1651, the second during +Bernini’s visit to Paris in 1665. Only Bernini was capable +of representing these two proud princes in all their splendour +of ornamental wig, and lace and armour. It demanded technique +such as his to make anything but a great lump of +complex and ugly form out of such settings for the head as +these; and he succeeded, to the unquestioned admiration of +all time.</p> + +<p class='c007'>That was an epoch when men liked theatrical display of +all sorts, when what in these colder days seems exaggerated +expression was natural and pleasing to people. Bernini knew +and understood this, had often himself been employed in +writing plays or arranging stage scenery, and has represented +the two rulers just as they delighted to show and think of +themselves, adorned with all that was rich and splendid, +haughty and disdainful as was the nature of those endowed +with the divine right of Kings. Even more than in the case +of the portrait of Cardinal Borghese do these two busts seem to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>make us see the whole figure and yet they have an appearance +of lightness that is most surprising. Not to be made again +such busts—nor such men. Democracy, and a belief in +equality as absurd as that in Kingship was overweening, have +snuffed out all such pretensions, and have snuffed out the art +too. But thanks to Bernini we have the record of them. We +see them in their moment of splendid satisfaction and self-confidence, +and made beautiful through mere enjoyment of +their bubble reputation.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The final value of portraiture is that it should be characteristic +of the person depicted. No matter how great the skill +shown in giving Napoleon the appearance of a Greek athlete +or Washington that of Olympian Zeus, such works are only +folly and waste. Bernini made no such mistake, but with +deep insight and unrivalled skill proved himself one of the +greatest portraitists of all time.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I have spoken of Bernini’s versatility. I have considered +in some detail the sculpture by which he is best remembered. +Of his painting not much is left, and what remains is naturally +not of any great value as art. Still less is left of his work as +an organiser of plays and arranger of processions or carnival +displays. A few drawings and engravings and some slight +accounts by contemporaries give us an idea of this work of +his, but it was the occupation of his more idle hours and is +of little moment. Of his architectural work a good deal is +still to be seen, though in many instances later workmen have +added to or altered the original structure, which was almost +always skilful and big in conception, though occasionally he +made a mistake, as when he put the towers—asses’ ears his +contemporaries called them—on the Pantheon.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>The structure by which Bernini is best known is the double +colonnade of the Piazza of St. Peter’s. Of this his original +sketch book still exists.<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c015'><sup>[16]</sup></a> It is an intensely interesting record +of the different schemes and plans which Bernini worked at till +in the end he produced the splendid simple and grand design +which gives Rome the finest public square in the world.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are several sheets of drawings in the book, some showing +Leonardesque studies of the relations between the proportions +of the human figure and those of architecture, others show +views down the Borgo from the church or looking up towards +St. Peter’s with plans for the rearrangement of the district, +and some are views and designs of various types of colonnade +showing deep study of their perspective appearance. But +of all these sketches, there is one of far greater interest than +all the others, for it shows that insight into the deeper meaning +of things which made Bernini the supreme genius he was +(Plate XXX).</p> + +<p class='c007'>On this sheet are two similar drawings showing St. Peter’s and +the colonnade. Over these, as though they formed the head +and arms of a cross, is drawn a bearded figure, his head crowned +by the dome of the church, his arms outstretched on the colonnades +and with his feet crossed slightly one above the other +and resting just where, at the beginning of the Borgo, Bernini +intended, as another of the sketches makes plain, to put a +building. There can be no doubt, after seeing this drawing, +that Bernini’s intention was to make the Piazza symbolic of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>Christ and the Crucifixion. Evidently not a mere builder +of houses this man Gian Lorenzo Bernini, but somehow, and +somewhence, he has got a poet’s vision and he makes his mark +in the world not merely by moulded clay and shaped stones, +but by shaping men’s hearts and moulding their ideas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such was Bernini, one of the great artists of the world. +It is true that he was revolutionary, but he destroyed not +through ignorance or envy. He destroyed merely that he +might then create. The arts in his day were strangled by +academic rules and had become cold and lifeless. The intensity +with which he felt things gave him strength to break +these bonds and to make sculpture once more a means of +conveying living thoughts and emotions. He was like the +butterfly which tears away the stiff-plated chrysalis before +it can spread its wings in the free air. It is useless to try to +explain his technical skill; he was born with it, just as others +are born with a keen sense of colour or a musical ear, but it is +certain that without it he could never have carved such figures +as the Saint Theresa or the portrait of Fonseca<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c015'><sup>[17]</sup></a> which show +intense emotion brought on by loss of all sense of self in the +contemplation of the mystical meaning of the Passion. Such +feeling could not be shown by restrained action and quiet +faces. Much movement was necessary and the works are +successful and beautiful because the feeling shown is perfectly +simple and natural and not forced and put on for the sake of +effect.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Bernini’s technical power made him, however, a bad master +for others to imitate. Not that the work of his followers is +any more inane than that of the copiers of Michael Angelo +<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>or of those of any other great man, but his peculiarities were +such as are at least superficially easy to see. Where he quite +easily and simply distinguished between the appearance of +silk or flesh, his imitators wasted their energies on elaborate +arrangements, the only object of which was to show technical +dexterity. Where he carved figures that are racked and torn +with feeling, the imitators gave forms that are contorted and +as unemotional as gymnasts. But he is not to be blamed for +their work. By no means was he one of the blind leading +the blind. He was the seer, the prophet, by odd chance honoured +in his own home, whose visions were so believed by +his followers that they vainly tried to see the like. What +their eyes strained towards and failed to see, his heart yearned +for and gained. To them praise was a prize to win, to him it +was a spur to renewed effort and further advance. He had +faults, as who has not, but they were due to his being a pathbreaker +and having to find out for himself ways to carve and +show figures such as no sculptor before him had ever dreamed +of; they were not the faults of ignorance or stupidity. If it +be well for us that we judge not lest we be judged, so too is it +well, should we judge Bernini or other men, to judge not what +there is in him of weakness or failure, but what there may be +of noble intention and high endeavour. Doing this we shall +see that Bernini, working always with bowed heart, but with +uplifted spirit, broke down the middle wall of partition between +art and life.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span> + <h3 class='c004'>II. A COLLECTION OF SCULPTOR’S MODELS BY BERNINI</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The clay models by Bernini, descriptions of which follow, +form one of the most interesting artistic records left us of +the sculpture of the Renaissance. Drawings made by the +painters of that period to serve as studies for their pictures +are not uncommon, but the sketch-models made by the +sculptors are rare.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This is because sculptors carved the marble without any +previous models, as Michael Angelo frequently did, or else +that the models, being cumbrous and of material that was +easily destroyed, have, in the course of years, been got rid of +either intentionally or by accident. It may seem strange to +suggest that the clay of which the sculptors may have made +their studies is more liable to destruction than the paper +used by the painters, but it must be remembered that while +nothing is more durable than baked clay, air-dried clay is +extremely perishable. Wax was also used by the sculptors +for their preliminary sketches, but this, owing to expense, +could never have served for work of any great size or quantity; +and even if less apt to complete disintegration than +unbaked clay, it is very liable to injury.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p044a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p044c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p044e.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>What precisely was the origin of this collection of Bernini’s +models we cannot tell; but it is our great good fortune that +when they were made there was some one, perhaps one of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>Bernini’s pupils, who cared for them and saw to their being +properly dried or baked so that they have preserved their +pristine freshness. It is also extremely fortunate that their +present owner realized their great beauty and extreme interest +and added them to the artistic treasures stored in America, +where they will serve in the ages to come to show students +and sculptors a clear reflection of the mind of one of the +world’s greatest artists.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the Museum at Berlin are other models by Bernini, but +there is, so far as I know, no other collection, either public +or private, that approaches the Brandegee Collection in number, +variety or excellence of these works. In America I know +of but one other model purporting to be by Bernini. It is +in the Morgan collection and represents Pope Urban VIII, +but it does not show a single touch by the master; it is an +imitation, copied from the statue in the Campidoglio at +Rome. In the collection of the late Mme. Edouard Aynard, +sold in Paris, December 1–4, 1913, were two terra-cotta models +of angels (lot 307) “<span lang="fr">attribuées au chevalier Bernin, d’après +les originaux du port Sant Ange, à Rome</span>,” and one equestrian +statuette in the same material (lot 308), said to be the “esquisse +originale de la statue en marbre de Louis XIV, dans +le parc de Versailles, par le chevalier Bernin.” The two +angels are certainly not by Bernini; the portrait may be.</p> + +<p class='c007'>From the artistic point of view these models are of the +highest importance, for they show with startling clearness +the great fertility of invention which characterized Bernini +and the vivid way in which he visualized the creations of his +brain. There is not a trace of effort in them, there is not a +sign of rubbing out or doing over, but each group or figure +<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>was obviously seen by him with the sharpness of a dream +and reproduced by his skilful fingers in the fresh clay while +the impulse and uplift of the vision was still on him.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The knowledge of the purely technical side of the art of +sculpture which the models reveal is magnificent. The way, +for instance, in which the various planes are treated in the +oval relief of the Virgin and Child (Plate XXVI) is as subtle +as, and very similar to, that of the reliefs on the ancient +vases from Arezzo, while the relation of draped portions +of the figures to the parts left nude, and the manner in which +the body beneath gives life and meaning to the covering +drapery, is as fine as any work by Pheidias.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But the most fascinating and interesting characteristic +of these terra-cotta figures is that one sees in every least +portion of them how Bernini’s fingers, trained by long years +of hard practice, played over the wet clay like wavering flame +and moulded the dead material to enduring forms of beauty. +Once more the old mythology comes true, and Pygmalion, +taking the rough material offered him by Mother Earth, fondled +it, and, warming it with the fires of his brain, gave it back the +life that lies asleep till the lover’s kiss wakes it once again.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'>DESCRIPTION OF THE MODELS</h4> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 1.—<span class='sc'>Plate XI</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Seated female figure in high relief, wearing helmet, and heavily draped; +the left cheek rests on the back of the raised left hand. Feet missing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>For the tablet in memory of Carlo Barberini in Santa Maria d’Aracoeli, +Rome.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Width 10 inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 2.—<span class='sc'>Plate XII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Figure of Longinus, in St. Peter’s. In the round, and gilded.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 20¾ inches.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p046a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XIV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p046c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p046e.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XVI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p046g.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XVII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p046i.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XVIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span> + <h5 class='c016'>No. 3.—<span class='sc'>Plate XIII</span>, <i>a</i></h5> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Two <i>putti</i>, for the decoration of the piers in St. Peter’s. High relief. +The scale of measurement is scratched on the right edge. The wings are +broken from the lower figure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11⅛ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 4.—<span class='sc'>Plate XIII</span>, <i>b</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Another two <i>putti</i>, also for St. Peter’s. The scale of measurement is +scratched on the left edge. The wings are broken from the upper figure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11⅜ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8.—<span class='sc'>Plates XIV, XV</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Four heavily draped bearded male Saints, for the <i>Ciborio</i> in the <i>Cappella +del Sacramento</i> in St. Peter’s.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The figures stand on thin, square plinths, one of which (Height 10⅜ +inches; <span class='sc'>Plate XIV</span>, <i>a</i>) is unmarked, but on the other three are the names +<i>Bartolomeo</i> (Height 10¼ inches; <span class='sc'>Plate XV</span>, <i>b</i>), <i>Tomaso</i> (Height 10⅜ inches; +<span class='sc'>Plate XIV</span>, <i>b</i>), and <i>Filippo</i> (Height 10 inches; <span class='sc'>Plate XV</span>, <i>a</i>).</p> + +<p class='c008'>The heads of all four are turned to the left, and the figures rest their +weight on the right leg. The left arm of the Bartolomeo is gone, but was +outstretched; the others all stretch out their right arm.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 9.—<span class='sc'>Plate XVI</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Bas-relief with half-figures of four men, and traces of architectural background.</p> + +<p class='c008'>For the side wall of the <i>Cappella Borghese</i> in Santa Maria della Vittoria, +Rome.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Width 17¼ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 10.—<span class='sc'>Plate XVII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Half figure of a Triton holding a draped woman on his shoulders.</p> + +<p class='c008'>For a fountain. The head and arms of the woman are gone.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 19½ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 11.—<span class='sc'>Plate XVIII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Front part of the head of a bearded man.</p> + +<p class='c008'>For the Saint Jerome in the <i>Cappella Chigi</i> in the Duomo of Siena.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 13½ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 12.—<span class='sc'>Plate XIX</span>, <i>a</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Model (head missing) for the kneeling Angel on the left of the <i>Ciborio</i> +in the <i>Cappella del Sacramento</i>, St. Peter’s.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11 inches.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span> + <h5 class='c016'>No. 13.—<span class='sc'>Plate XX</span>, <i>a</i></h5> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Another model for the same figure. Tip of right wing missing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11¼ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 14.—<span class='sc'>Plate XX</span>, <i>b</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Angel on the right of the <i>Ciborio</i> in the <i>Cappella del Sacramento</i>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Other models for these two Angels are mentioned by Fraschetti (p. 394), +who also suggests that this angel on the right is not by Bernini, but “perhaps +by Paolo Bernini, touched up by his father.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>I do not feel tempted to agree with this idea of Signor Fraschetti; there +is no doubt whatever that this model of the right-hand angel is by Gian +Lorenzo himself. Height 13⅛ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 15.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXI</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Nude figure of an Angel holding the Crown of Thorns. The head and +feet are gone. The weight rests on the right leg.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Sant’ Andrea delle Fratte, Rome.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 13¼ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 16.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Angel holding the Crown of Thorns.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This is the final model of the figure in Sant’ Andrea delle Fratte.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The action of the legs is the reverse of that in 15. Height 17½ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 17.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXIII</span>, <i>a</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Model for the Angel holding the Scroll. The tips of the wings are missing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In Sant’ Andrea delle Fratte.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11¾ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 18.—<span class='sc'>Plate XIX</span>, <i>b</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Another model for the same figure as No. 17; lacks the right leg, the +head and most of the wings.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11⅛ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 19.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXIV</span>, <i>a</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Angel, perhaps for the ecstasy of Saint Theresa in <i>Santa Maria della +Vittoria</i>, Rome. Right hand missing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11½ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 20.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXIII</span>, <i>b</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Angel, draped, right leg bare, turning to the left. Part of right wing +missing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11½ inches.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p048a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XIX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p048c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p048e.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p048g.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p048i.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p048k.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXIV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p048m.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p048o.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXVI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p048q.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXVII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span> + <h5 class='c016'>No. 21.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXIV</span>, <i>b</i></h5> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Angel, draped, kneeling, head turned to right, right arm (hand missing) +raised, left arm with open hand stretching downwards and outwards.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11¾ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 22.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXV</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Standing male figure, in high relief. Drapery hangs from the right +shoulder, leaving torso bare but covering the legs with heavy folds. The +left arm hangs down, and there was a palm branch in the now missing +hand. The right arm is bent up with the hand over the chin. The head +bends down and to the right. The figure rests its weight on the left leg.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The right side of the plaque is curved; the left side is straight, and on it +is scratched a scale of measurements.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 16⅝ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 23.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXVI</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Oval bas-relief of the Virgin seated and looking down to right while +holding the Child in her lap. High relief.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Very sketchy, but the most masterly of all these models.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 11 inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 24.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXVII</span>, <i>b</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Draped, standing female figure. She bends forward, turning to the +left with arms (right arm missing) raised to support a slab that rests across +her shoulders. The weight rests on the left leg. At her feet suggestion +of a cuirass.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Study for the base of some monument such as the obelisk in the Piazza +della Minerva. (Cf. Fraschetti, pp. 300–303.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 8½ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 25.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXVII</span>, <i>a</i></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Standing angel, heavily draped; the left knee is bent sharply backwards. +The right arm is bent across the breast, the left arm (forearm missing) +bent across the body lower down. The wings are missing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 8⅝ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 26</h5> + +<p class='c017'>The Magdalen kneeling, and grasping the foot of the Cross.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This figure is not by Bernini, and shows clearly the difference between +the work of a master and that of an imitator.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Height 10 inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 27</h5> + +<p class='c017'>Study of a hand.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Length 8 inches.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span> + <h3 class='c004'>III. BERNINI’S DESIGNS FOR THE PIAZZA OF ST. PETER’S</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The pen and ink sketches by Bernini for the construction +and adornment of the piazza in front of the Vatican, together +with the surrounding buildings, deserve to be more widely +known than they are at present.<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c015'><sup>[18]</sup></a> Any details regarding the +history and growth of this part of Rome are of the deepest +interest to those who study the intellectual development +of mankind. Did we possess any record of the reasons why +Pericles and his advisers placed the temples and other buildings +on the Acropolis of Athens just as they did, we should +have a clearer understanding of the character and ideals of +Athens than we now have. So a study of these drawings by +Bernini will show very distinctly that the present form of +the piazza is due to no mere thoughtless and haphazard erection +of colonnades and fountains, but is the result of a deeply +considered plan and illustrative of a very large idea.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The drawings are carefully done with pen and ink on fourteen +sheets of paper which were numbered by some old-time +owner. These sheets have had the edges trimmed. Ten are, +with slight variations, 14 by 6¾ inches. The others are, as +will be noted later, of different sizes. All, however, judging +by the paper and method of drawing, belong unquestionably +to the same series. The drawings were mounted and bound +together by the previous owner.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p050a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXVIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p050c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXIX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p050e.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>The history of the drawings can only be guessed at. In +this connection the following facts are to be noted. Bernini +was officially appointed architect of the <i>Fabbrica</i> of St. Peter’s +in 1680. After him Luigi Vanvitelli was head architect. +With Vanvitelli there worked Andrea-Vici. In 1817 Vici +left by his will to his friend the sculptor Canova drawings by +Bernini representing the burial of the Countess Matilda, +and Louis XIV on horseback. This legacy shows Vici to +have owned original drawings by Bernini, and it is not improbable +they had been given him by Vanvitelli. By the +same will Vici left to his grandson Busiri his name and his +studio, with all the original drawings by various masters +therein contained. Consequently it is not a rash hypothesis +that these drawings of the piazza came from Vanvitelli to +Vici, and so to Busiri-Vici. Finally they were sold at auction +in Rome in 1903. They are now in the Brandegee Collection.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'>DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS</h4> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 1.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXVIII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>This drawing shows the Orb; the Christian symbol of the world, surmounted +by a cross.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The cross with the head and arms ending in curves like apses suggests +the plan of a church, and the following drawings show clearly that the +Orb and Cross were the fundamental idea in Bernini’s mind when he +planned the <i>piazza</i>.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 2.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXVIII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>This is on a square piece of paper, similar in size to No. 1, and at present +mounted on the same sheet at the left of No. 1. It shows the figure of +a bearded man with arms outstretched as though on a cross. A curved +dotted line stretches from hand to hand over the head and drops about an +inch perpendicularly below each hand. This dotted line is a suggestion of +the existing colonnades.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>That the figure is thought of as being on a cross is borne out by sketches +that follow and also by the dot in the palm of the left hand which possibly +represents a nail.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The sharp, broken lines with which the figure is drawn are characteristic +of Bernini.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 3.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXIX</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>An outline plan of the church with the colonnades in front. It is to +be noted the latter start at the corners of the façade of the church and +project a short distance parallel to the main axis before curving to each +side.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 6½ × 8¾ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 4.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXIX</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Similar to No. 3, but in greater detail. The figure of a bearded man +represented within the plan of the church in the attitude of crucifixion. +In the left arm of the colonnade is drawn the sun and in the right arm the +moon and stars.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This is pasted in the book at the left of No. 3.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 6⅝ × 8¾ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 5.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXX</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>This shows the same crucified figure as before. Over the head and +below each hand is the dotted line seen in No. 2. Behind the head and +arms is drawn with dots the elevation of St. Peter’s, the Vatican and the +colonnades.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 6.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXX</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Similar figure to the preceding, but with the arms contorted so as to +follow the straight portion of the colonnade (shown in No. 3) before following +the curve. Behind the head the dotted outline of St. Peter’s and +behind the figure’s left arm the colonnade and Vatican buildings laid in +with dots and a few lines.</p> + +<p class='c008'>No. 5 is at the right of No. 6, and the size of the sheet is 14 × 6¾ +inches.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It should be noted that the figure is so placed in these two drawings +that the dome of the church suggests a bishop’s mitre.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 7.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXI</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Outline elevation of the north half of the façade of St. Peter’s and the +north colonnade, rising behind which is shown the Vatican Palace.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the left half of the sheet are faint pencil lines showing the south +side of the colonnade and façade.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The sky is touched in with bluish white.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 14¼ × 6½ inches.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p052a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p052c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p052e.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p052g.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXIV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p052i.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>No. 8.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXII</span></p> + +<p class='c008'>Two drawings of the north colonnade. These are similar to the preceding, +but more elaborate (with shadows washed in in gray), as shown +by dotted lines drawn to the eyes of outlined figures from various points.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We find here the architect’s intention regarding the view from different +positions.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 14⅜ × 6¾ inches.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the back of the sheet is a sketch of the door of St. Peter’s with the +balcony where the Pope used to appear. I do not feel sure that this is by +Bernini. There is also another sheet with a more detailed drawing of this +door.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 9.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXIII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Similar to No. 8, but still more elaborate and larger; there is only one +drawing on the sheet.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In this design Bernini has altered the line of the colonnade. Instead +of having, as in the preceding drawing, a straight portion projecting from +the church, he has here drawn the colonnade in one large curve from the +church outwards, putting an elaborate entrance to the Vatican Palace +near the church. This entrance would have led to the Cortile di San +Damaso.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 14 × 6⅝ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 10.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXIV</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Slight outline sketch of the outer end of the north arm of the colonnade, +which is here made two-storied.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 13⅝ × 6⅜ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 11.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXV</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Interior of inner end of north arm of colonnade, showing the stairway +as it exists at present. Size 14½ × 6⅜ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 12.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXVI</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Two sketches; one showing the plan, the other the elevation, of the +Cortile di San Damaso.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 13⅝ × 6⅝ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 13.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXVII</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>View of the façade of St. Peter’s with both colonnades, which are two-storied. +The sky is touched in with bluish white.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The buildings of the Vatican are also shown,—those on the right exist, +those on the left are imaginary.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 14⅝ × 6¾ inches.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span> + <h5 class='c016'>No. 14.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXVIII</span></h5> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>View looking east from the front of St. Peter’s.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On each side are the ends of the colonnades; they are in two stories, +that on the right crowned with low clock-towers similar to the “asses’ +ears” once placed by Bernini on the Pantheon.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Beyond the piazza is the <i>Borgo</i> much reconstructed and made symmetrical. +In the distance the Castel Sant’ Angelo.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 14⅜ × 6⅝ inches.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 15.—<span class='sc'>Plate XXXIX</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Two sketches in pen, washed with sepia, of the Borgo, looking towards +St. Peter’s.</p> + +<p class='c008'>These show different methods of treating the north arm of the colonnade. +The one on the right shows the colonnade closing the view up the Borgo, +the other shows an opening carrying the eye beyond and between St. Peter’s +and the Vatican.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 14½ × 6½ inches.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The buildings shown exist in much the same form to-day. Even the +fountain still serves.</p> + +<h5 class='c016'>No. 16.—<span class='sc'>Plate XL</span></h5> + +<p class='c017'>Plan of the piazza showing how it was intended to symbolize the orb +of the world suggested on No. 1.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In this sketch we see the circle within which is a dotted square. Within +the square is a figure with arms and legs outstretched along the diagonals. +At the top is written over a faint pencil outline of the church (perhaps +not original) <i>San Pietro</i>. At the bottom is written twice <i>Piazza Rusticucci</i> +and on a piece of paper pasted on is the plan of a building shown in No. 14,—one +of the buildings intended for the reconstructed <i>Borgo</i>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the right and left of the figure are indicated the <i>Porta Angelica</i> and +the <i>Porta Cavalleggieri</i>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The dotted square within the circle is divided into quarters in which is +written <i>Asia</i>, <i>Europa</i>, <i>America</i>, <i>Affrica</i>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Size 7¾ × 8⅝ inches.</p> + +<p class='c018'>These are the plans showing Bernini’s ideas regarding the Piazza of +St. Peter’s. From a study of them we see how the circular piazza itself +was intended to represent the world at large, while the colonnade symbolized +the arms of the Cross. Crowning all was the great Church, founded +by Him whose arms could embrace the whole earth, and from whose doors +should stream to every quarter the promise of hope and love for which He +died.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p054a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXVI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p054c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXVII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p054e.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXVIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p054g.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXIX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p054i.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XL.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span> + <h2 class='c005'>ASPECTS OF THE ART OF SCULPTURE</h2> +</div> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span> + <h3 class='c004'>I. THE ART OF PORTRAITURE</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>All students have noticed the similarity in style between +certain Egyptian portraits and other works by ancient Roman +as well as Florentine artists, and the resemblance in style that +exists between Greek and Venetian portraits. Also there is +a marked dissimilarity between the Egyptian-Roman-Florentine +Group on the one hand and the Greek-Venetian Group +on the other; and these two facts suggest the conclusion that +the art of portraiture consists in something more than the +mere photographic imitation in stone, or with paint, of the +human face or figure. Were such imitation the essential +factor in the art the only differences in portraits of different +epochs would be those of ethnographic character. The special +characteristics of portraiture as of the other arts at any given +period are the result of the intellectual and material condition +of the people to whom the artist belongs. Style, that is the +distinguishing quality of the work of art, the quality which +differentiates it from a work of another period or race, is the +result, largely unconscious, of the relation of the artist to life +and its effect upon him. The material, the means by which he +gives expression to his endeavour at creation or representation, +is of minor importance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Sheik-el-Beled (Plates XLI, XLII) and the bust of +Scipio so called (Plate XLIII) might almost be portraits of +brothers; and the family is increased by a little Egyptian head +<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>in the museum in Venice, and by some of the men immortalised +by Donatello. So too Pericles as we see him in the bust by +Kresilas seems separated by but a narrow margin from Giorgione’s +Knight of Malta. And yet in blood, traditions, circumstances +and hopes these men were the poles asunder.</p> + +<p class='c007'>How then is this likeness of certain portraits to one another +to be explained unless by the existence of some connection +dependent on the temper of the artist?</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is still another curious likeness and another difference +to be noted among the carved and painted portraits of various +epochs and schools. While the head of Corbulo is unlike that +of Pericles in the æsthetic impression it gives, and that of +Angelo Doni by Raphael also is æsthetically unlike the Duke +of Norfolk by Titian, still the carved heads have a common +bond as have also the painted ones.<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c015'><sup>[19]</sup></a> They do not make the +two broad groups into which I have, for the sake of making +plain a general idea, divided portraits æsthetically similar, +but they make plain when understood that painted portraits +are necessarily different from carved ones—different in more +than the mere fact that one is round and the other flat. The +difference springs deep down from what is possible to attain +by either art. The sculptor of the Pericles and the painter +of the Norfolk both set before us the grave, elegant and +stately face of a bearded man in middle life. Neither artist +distracts our attention by bravura or technique or by realistic +emphasis of detail. Though stylistically similar, these works +still do not impress our minds in the same way. The following +pages will be clearer if I say at once that this differing +mental impression arises because in busts our attention is +drawn chiefly to the mouth while in painted portraits it is +turned on the eyes. This is due to the special laws of the +technique by which the works are produced; given a painter +and sculptor with the same point of view and the same mental +tendencies, the portraits produced by them, even of the same +person, though evidently expressing the same intellectual qualities +both of artist and of sitter, are in modes of expression +and certain external aspects necessarily unlike. In pursuing +this investigation and in discussing the existence and nature +of the various laws the governance of which I have suggested, +the history of the rise and spread of portraiture must +be kept in mind.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p058a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>Before the intention of the maker of portraits can be comprehended +the motives that lead to the desire of the public +or of private individuals to possess such work must be understood. +In the main they are two,—one religious and one +historic; to these may be added a third, that of sentiment +and friendship. The religious cause is best illustrated by +Egyptian statues, of which a large proportion were made +to be placed in tombs. These are the earliest portraits of +western origin which exist in sufficient numbers to afford a +sound basis of criticism. The well-known dependence, in that +country, of these works on religious prescriptions needs hardly +more than passing mention. That the soul of dead mortals +might, returning to this earth and to the tomb, find its accustomed +corporeal dwelling place, portrait statues of the +deceased were placed in the sepulchral chamber.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Holding this belief, it was only natural that the sculptors +often made statues life-size, and as closely resembling +<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>the dead original as possible, in order that the soul might +find a shelter exactly similar to its original living one. Had +they not been so made, the soul would have been troubled in +its search. Work such as this was of course expensive and +the mass of the people had to content themselves with smaller +and less elaborate figures or with mere glazed figurines. +But the more rare elaborate works show the ideal and serve +as a sure guide in studying the conceptions and hopes of this +or any people—just as the gold treasure from Mycenæ is of +much greater value than all the terra-cotta vases in showing +the life and thoughts of the time.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Other portraits of Pharaohs and their queens, of priests +and generals, were carved on temple walls or set up to commemorate +striking events, and these also were made realistic +because of the egotistic idea that called them into being. Unless +the person portrayed was carved realistically the commemorative +value of the monument was lessened. These +religious and commemorative ideas influenced the sculptors +in their choice of material. Both the desire to make an enduring +image of the dead for the sake of the soul that might +return and the wish to make the memory of the person as +enduring as possible led the sculptors to make use of the hardest +stones; stones such as do not lend themselves to sculpture +and such as are never used where the art develops in accordance +with cultivated taste rather than special demand.<a id='r20'></a><a href='#f20' class='c015'><sup>[20]</sup></a> But +though exactness of likeness was tirelessly sought for by the +Egyptians (I refer of course to the earlier epochs before the +influx of Greek or Roman ideas), it was not attained with the +same success as in later days by the Romans and Florentines.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p060a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>This failure was in part due to the use of unyielding material, +such as granite and basalt. Successful representation, in +such stone, of the finer details of facial form, was practically +impossible, and furthermore, owing to the dark and variegated +colour of these stones, would have been scarcely noticeable +could it have been attained. Hence the sculptors were led to +practise a certain broadness of treatment that makes their +work seem, to careless observation, like the Greek; but +though one of the chief charms of Greek work is broadness, it is +the outcome of very different causes and, if carefully studied, +is seen to produce a very different effect from that of Egyptian +work.<a id='r21'></a><a href='#f21' class='c015'><sup>[21]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Any phenomenon is due to mixed causes, and it must +not be supposed that the use of hard materials alone led to +breadth of treatment. The conventional position of the +figures in Egyptian art (due in large measure to various non-æsthetic +causes) was suited better by a broad and conventionalised +treatment of the face than by more particular niceness +in the rendering of its detail.<a id='r22'></a><a href='#f22' class='c015'><sup>[22]</sup></a> Religious feeling led to the +placing of quietly posed statues in the tombs, and as regards +<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>the figures of the great rulers whose word was law, attitudes +expressive of the calm that results from absolute power were +best fitted to express the current beliefs. These attitudes were +also restrained in consequence of the refractory nature of the +stones used.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is interesting to consider what would have been the development +of sculpture in Egypt had the art been freed from the +necessity of conforming to the demands of religion and contemporary +history. One searches in vain among the masses of +Egyptian sculpture for the expression of the individual sculptor’s +emotions. We do not even know the names of the sculptors. +They were not noted by their contemporaries nor did interest +in their work lead them to sign it. Sculpture in that antique +land was not a fine art in the sense of being chosen by men of +special tastes and feeling to express the enjoyment felt by +them in certain forms. It was a highly developed handicraft, +a technique pursued by rule. As illustrative of the character, +the life and the thought of the people portrayed it is allied to +Roman work rather than to Greek.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Religion is seen to influence portraiture in another way. +Many pictures, the subjects of which are religious, by Botticelli, +Ghirlandaio and others, are filled with portraits, but these +are essential to the composition, and are thought of as figures +first, as portraits afterwards. But there are many sacred +pictures of the Renaissance in which, with varying degrees +of simplicity and frankness, a portrait of the donor of the +painting is inserted not as an essential part of the composition +but because of the desire of the donor to secure lasting recognition +of the fact that he had fulfilled his religious vows and +duties. It was an accepted proof of respectability in this +<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>world and might possibly help in the next. Neither in Egypt +nor in this class of pictures of the Renaissance are the works +thought of primarily from the point of view of being artistic +reproductions of the human face, but they are means to an end. +They are in fact symbols. Work of this sort is so rare in +Greek or Roman art that it may be considered as practically +non-existent.<a id='r23'></a><a href='#f23' class='c015'><sup>[23]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The personal portrait, the portrait made for the sake of +gratifying the self-esteem of the person represented, is well +exhibited in Egyptian work in the bas-reliefs illustrating the +conquests of the Pharaohs and in the colossal statues erected +in a spirit of pride and self-glorification such as was exhibited +again by the Romans. Such portraits as these are a certain +indication of the all but universal desire for glory and fame. +They are an expression of the same confident spirit that leads +the owners of great buildings to carve their names over the +entrance and are produced in large numbers only during periods +when individuals seek eagerly for personal recognition.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such periods occur when large stores of money are possessed +by private persons; then religious beliefs grow faint, in men’s +if not in women’s<a id='r24'></a><a href='#f24' class='c015'><sup>[24]</sup></a> minds, and the quiet and enduring appreciation +of a few objects gives way to the excited pursuit of constant +novelty in enjoyment. Consequently instead of being +content with philosophic moderation men attribute an untrue +value to mere possession, and, since money can buy many +<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>material things, come to the false conclusion that he who +has the most is to be ranked among the world’s greatest +sons.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But the qualities needful for amassing riches are by no means +rare and in the main are correlated with lack of interest in the +Past and with undeveloped imagination. Hence ignorant +of, or at least not sympathetic with, the more subtle but more +effective types of men who work not with money but with +personal character, the wealthy naturally come to think of +themselves as individually interesting and important, and in +consequence their portraits are made in every shape and size. +Such works cannot, as regards the person portrayed, be of +much interest, and are usually ugly, because the lives and occupations +of people invariably affect the forms and expressions +of their faces. The exceptions to this rule are the portraits +of such men as Lorenzo dei Medici, or others of our own day +who use their inherited or acquired wealth in the patronage of +the arts and sciences—who use their powers indirectly for +the cultivation of ideals.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such portraits as these are of varying character. They may +be public, put up, that is, by a grateful and flattering people +to commemorate a ruler or chief citizen, as in the case of +Gattamalata in Padua and Colleone in Venice; or they may +be of purely private interest and intended only for the eyes of +the successive generations of the family to which the person +depicted belongs. But public or private, in the one case as +in the other, the desire for them being due to personal regard +and love of fame, an accuracy in the reproduction of feature +is sought that distinguishes them clearly from portraits +made with other less worldly motives.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p064a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>It is known of course that this desire for fame stirred the +hearts of oriental potentates long centuries before the beginning +of connected history. But in that classic part of the +ancient world with which we are intimately related, it does not +become specially noticeable till the time of Alexander. It +was an active factor in life during the existence of the Roman +world, and again in the Renaissance. One of the phenomena +most indicative of this aspiration is the character of the monuments +placed on graves, and particularly the inscriptions on +such stones. On the Greek grave stones we find often enough +the name of the deceased but rarely if ever any intimate notice +of his life. On Roman and Renaissance monuments, on the +other hand, the length of life, and the honorific offices held, are +all given with wearisomely full detail.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Portraits made for friendship’s sake are uncommon and do +not, I believe, occur before the time of the Renaissance. +Then one hears of friends sending their portraits to one another. +In Rome a somewhat similar custom was practised to +a certain extent, as is shown by the portraits on rings and +cameos. Such work, meant as it was for personal adornment, +must have been, at least in part, inspired by the tender regard +of friend for friend. But it seems not to have been a common +custom in the ancient world; just why it would be hard to +tell, for no more inviolable friendships have ever been known +than those told of in ancient history and drama, nor more +tender feeling than is expressed in many of the inscriptions +on ancient tombstones. Perhaps it was that the house +architecture of those days was but little adapted to the displaying +of such objects, and the collection by private individuals +of things was but little practised except in Rome, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>even there collectors were comparatively few. However +this may be, the fact remains that the portraits of the +ancient world were in the main religious or commemorative, +and the idea of friendship being maintained or strengthened +by the possession of the dumb semblance of absent dear +ones seems to have grown and spread with the Christian +religion.</p> + +<p class='c007'>At first sight it appears as if there were three ways of making +portraits—the sculptor’s, the painter’s, and the writer’s. +It is not however in any true sense a portrait that a writer +sets before us. This is beyond his power to accomplish. He +is unable, that is, to give various readers such impression of +the look and carriage of the person described that they can inevitably +recognise him in the passing crowd. Continuous +and sequent events may be described by words, but they cannot +show instantaneously isolated images. Masters of style +can call up visions to the mind by well-selected epithets, but +such visions are typical rather than actual; and they are +of scenes of considerable scope, or of actions of dramatic +quality, rather than accurate images of facial form and expression +such as in the only true sense of the word, can be +called portraits.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So far as art in the sense of reproduction is concerned, it is +evident that language can be used for description, for suggestions +of moods and general conditions, but not for showing +in a sharp and quickly defined manner a given scene or object +at a given moment. When Shelley speaks of</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The obscene ravens, clamorous o’er the dead;</div> + <div class='line'>The vultures to the conqueror’s banner true</div> + <div class='line'>Who feed where Desolation first has fed,</div> + <div class='line'>And whose wings rain contagion,—</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p066a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLIV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>he calls to mind most vividly conditions consequent on war, +but before no two readers of the lines will the same visions +rise. To see such horrors as Shelley writes of, presented so +that all beholders will regard them in the same way, we must +turn to such a work as Turner’s Rizpah.<a id='r25'></a><a href='#f25' class='c015'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The Greeks, it is interesting to note in this connection, recognised +this limitation of the power of words and rarely tried +to delineate the actors in their poetry and drama by other +means than the description of traits of character. It may be +said that the Greeks also did not attempt landscape in their +writing. True, but we have every reason to know that the +Greek mind was not interested seriously in beauties of landscape, +while we know that it was deeply concerned with the +characters and actions of individuals. Landscape was not +studied by the Greeks as an end in itself, whereas portraiture +was. Hence the absence of an attempt at portraiture in their +literature by other means than description of character is the +natural result of their mental tendencies. Such description +can of course be accomplished by language with greater certainty +than by sculpture or painting. It can give such an +impression of the nature of a person that there is no more +room for doubt concerning the qualities that constitute that +nature than there is concerning the colour of eyes that have +been put on canvas by some painter. Take any example +and it will appear that when an author tries to stir the imagination +to form an image of a character, he does it mainly by +describing carefully his nature rather than his personal appearance, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>and when he attempts to do more than this, he suggests +inevitably a different vision to every reader. Shakespeare’s +sonnets are sufficient evidence of the truth of these +statements.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I should not wish to imply that writers, even the greatest of +them, do not sometimes attempt to depict persons by elaborate +descriptions, but a comparison of any two illustrated editions +of an author will show my contention to be correct. The inefficiency +of the means and the inadequacy of the result has +been recognised by the masters of literature. And it needs +but to compare a word portrait with a painted one of the same +person to be convinced of the painter’s greater power in this +work. Take Shelley’s lines describing the crazed musician:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>There the poor wretch was sitting mournfully</div> + <div class='line'>Near a piano, his pale fingers twined</div> + <div class='line'>One with the other, and the ooze and wind</div> + <div class='line'>Rushed through an open casement, and did sway</div> + <div class='line'>His hair, and starred it with the brackish spray;</div> + <div class='line'>His head was leaning on a music book,</div> + <div class='line'>And he was muttering, and his lean limbs shook;</div> + <div class='line'>His lips were pressed against a folded leaf</div> + <div class='line'>In hue too beautiful for health, and grief</div> + <div class='line'>Smiled in their motions as they lay apart—</div> + <div class='line'>As one who wrought from his own fervid heart</div> + <div class='line'>The eloquence of passion, soon he raised</div> + <div class='line'>His sad meek face and eyes lustrous and glazed</div> + <div class='line'>And spoke—sometimes as one who wrote and thought</div> + <div class='line'>His words might move some heart that heeded not</div> + <div class='line'>If sent to distant lands.—</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>As a portrait the failure of these verses lies in the fact that +the attention of the reader is hurried on from point to point +like a storm-driven bird and never allowed to rest. Look, for +half the time it takes to read the lines, at Titian’s Concert, and +you have a much more definite image of a musician. It is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>just because of this unrest of the attention, due to continued +introduction of some new feature of importance, that poets +and writers of prose are much more successful when they endeavour +to reproduce a landscape, for it is a natural tendency, +as we look at any scene of nature, for the eyes to wander over +the hills and far away. They cannot seize the essential +points instantaneously and they cannot apprehend the interrelation +of the details as when they look at a person’s face and +figure.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Sometimes the poet—it is generally a poet, for the epithets +that poets use are apt to be more carefully chosen and so +have greater graphic force than those of prose writers—seems +to succeed in portraiture, but if you will consider closely, it +will be seen that the success is fictitious. It is due to our +having a ready-formed picture of the character of the person +described which is suited by the poet’s words, as in Browning’s +lines:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>You know we French stormed Ratisbon,</div> + <div class='line in4'>A mile or so away</div> + <div class='line'>On a little mound Napoleon stood</div> + <div class='line in4'>On our storming day</div> + <div class='line'>With neck outthrust, you fancy how,</div> + <div class='line in4'>Legs wide, arms locked behind,</div> + <div class='line'>As if to balance the prone brow</div> + <div class='line in4'>Oppressive with its mind.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>But to one who had never seen a picture of Napoleon what +image would these lines give? Or, take Lowell’s lines on +Lincoln. Not a word in them concerning the outward appearance +of the Martyr Chief; but the attempt, successful to +the uttermost, is made to impress on the reader’s mind what +there was of him to think of, not to look at:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Wise, steadfast in the strength of God and true.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>These epithets offer no suggestion that can be visualised, nor +is there when we note</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>... that sure mind’s unfaltering skill</div> + <div class='line'>And supple tempered will</div> + <div class='line'>That bent like perfect steel to spring again and thrust.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c020'>And then finally, to sum up:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Here was a type of the true elder race,</div> + <div class='line'>And one of Plutarch’s men talked with us face to face.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c020'>Vivid and eloquent as all this is, it offers no picture of the tall, +gaunt President. It is but a suggestion of mental conditions. +It does not show the deep-set eyes, sorrowful with the sorrows +of two races, or the firm mouth lined with the humour that +helped him to bear his burden of care. Plutarch himself does +not show us Cæsar, or Pericles, or Demosthenes or any other +worthy, as the sculptors do.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Possibly it might be suggested that in such poems as those +quoted the writer had no intention of giving a suggestion of +the outer husk that hides the inner man; but there is one class +of poems—the love lyrics—in which the passion-driven bard +would surely, could it be accomplished, give the immortality +of portraiture to the beloved. But those “dear dead women,” +the ever-renewing Spring brood of Sappho, Chloris, Lesbia, +Lalage and Doris, are but the vague dwellers of dreamland. +Sometimes they are dark and sometimes fair; they have cheeks +that shame the rose, and eyes whose glance overwhelms as +does the bolt of Jove; their brows are white as driven snow, +and a nest for little loves is in their bosom—but can we ever +be sure that we recognise from such description each particular +Lesbia as, waiting and watching at the corner, we hopefully +murmur “She comes, she’s here, she’s past”? Such +<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>words as these form a portrait only for that one love-stung +heart that beats the overtone to the note of Lesbia’s +footfall.</p> + +<p class='c007'>No, the writer cannot, in any adequate sense, place before +us portraits.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Literature being excluded as a means of portraiture, it +remains to consider sculpture and painting. In order to +understand why painted and carved portraits showing similar +types with equal distinctness and emphasis produce very +different effects on the observer and hold his attention in +different ways, study must be made of the different results +possible to attain by these arts. If these general propositions +in regard to the two arts be true, the demands and characteristics +of portraiture will become plainer.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The fundamental distinction between sculpture and painting +lies in the fact that the former concerns itself not always, but +primarily, with light and shadow and fully modelled forms, while +the latter deals chiefly with colour. Furthermore, painting +works in two dimensions, while sculpture exercises herself +with three. Hence, figures in positions that are much contorted +or groups that are complexly organised in retreating +planes are unsuitable subjects for a painter, inasmuch as he +cannot represent them clearly except at the expense of infinite +labour. If the sculptor, on the other hand, chooses +such subjects, he is not hampered by the difficulties that +block the painter’s path. His finished work can be looked at +from all sides, and he is not liable to the painter’s risk that his +final effect may, perhaps, be ruined by a misuse of light and +shade or by faulty drawing and perspective.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The advantage, however, is not altogether on one side. The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>sculptor has this other difficulty to contend with, that the +appearance of his work will change with every change of light. +The painter can fix whatever light he pleases on his canvas. +As the appearance of the sculptured work will vary with the +light, the sculptor can attain but partial success in the representation +of figures or scenes in which much active emotion +is shown in the faces. But in such scenes as these a painter’s +power can well be shown, since, owing to his ability to paint +any power of light (except, of course, direct sunlight), and his +power of placing the various figures of a group in various +lights, and by means of varied tints and lights being able to +bring sharply into notice any expression of the face, he can +well depict most violent emotion. It will be found, I think, +that the sculpture which is most successful deals with groups +or figures whose meaning is made clear by action and by the +form of the body as a whole, and the paintings that are most +successful are those in which effects of chiaroscuro, colour and +facial expression are the most satisfactory method for making +the figure intelligible. Several facts which will be readily +acknowledged show the truth of this statement. For instance, +Veronese, Rubens, Tintoretto, Velasquez when painting scenes +the interest of which depends on the individual figures appearing +in them (not such scenes as Paradise, Hell or battles +where the interest is in the masses and spaces), compose them +mainly in one plane. Also if single heads be taken from pictures +and from sculptured groups, it will usually be found that +the former give a fuller impression of the artist’s intention +than the latter.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p072a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Every rule has exceptions and among Michael Angelo’s +sculptures are works in which he sought to reproduce effects +<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>of light and shade and expression that if given by painting +would have been more successful because the latter would +have expressed the artist’s intention more clearly; and in +certain of his paintings he attempted effects of form that +could be given more satisfactorily by sculpture. Done by any +less a genius than Michael Angelo, such work would be either +ineffective or laboured. Done by him one can but marvel +at his mastery over the sister arts that enabled him to approach +so closely to the effects proper to the one while using the means +offered by the other. But such success as he attained does not +prove soundness in the principles that led him to make the +attempt. A <i>tour de force</i> is but the attempt to attain a result +by means other than the best. It may be successful, but it +must be unsatisfactory. It is unreal, impractical; it is a +form of jugglery!</p> + +<p class='c007'>To see how similar scenes are treated in the two arts, compare +the group of Niobe and her Children with the Massacre +of the Innocents as painted by the Renaissance artists.<a id='r26'></a><a href='#f26' class='c015'><sup>[26]</sup></a> In +such comparison trivial details must not be too much regarded, +for of the Niobe group there consists but one incomplete set +of copies of the original figures and of the Massacre of the +Innocents each one of us probably considers a different artist’s +conception of the scene most effective. But the general +impression given by Niobe and her children is that of bodies +driven into violent motion by fright, what might be called +frightened motion; the figures are rushing from one spot to +another in search of safety; they bend and cower in terror of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>the peril. They are the incarnation of dread of physical +suffering. The impression of the Massacre of the Innocents +is one of faces contorted by horror. The action of the bodies +is of less concern. The attention is drawn to the eyes, the +mouths, the hands, the three chief outlets of mental feeling. +The sufferers in the scene are moved by the horror of unjustifiable +slaughter. They are the incarnation of anger, revolt +and despair induced by the sight of pitiless massacre.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In portraiture the painter and sculptor are drawn together +because the greatest interest of the work is centred in the +face, which is the clearest index of thoughts and emotions. +Both sculptors and painters even when making figures of life +size are limited in portraiture to seeking their chief effects in +the treatment of the face. But though so far working in +common, the painter and sculptor still have different aims; +for that part of the head the expression of which can be more +strongly accented and more completely reproduced by the +use of colour and a chosen shade and light, is the eyes; while +that part the expression of which can be most adequately +rendered by modelling is the mouth. This is the reason why +portraits similar in style, such as those above mentioned, the +bust of Pericles, and the painting of the Duke of Norfolk, +attract our attention in different ways. In the bust the most +noticeable feature is the firm but sensitive mouth, in the painting +it is the steady, but vivid, eye.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Mindful of these conditions that govern the art of portraiture +we find it easy to see how the artists of various epochs +have conformed to them. This may seem to be putting the +cart before the horse; to be fitting the facts to the theory. +But it is not so,—it is merely searching for proof of a working +hypothesis. The theory was suggested by the phenomena +and it will be seen to explain these phenomena.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p074a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLVI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>The study of Greek sculpture is at present seriously hampered +by statements and beliefs concerning it which arose +at a time when its place in the history of art was very inaccurately +understood. These have been repeated so often that +they are frequently accepted without being critically weighed +in the light of recent knowledge. It is a unique and very +perfect art, but the causes and qualities of its perfection are +sometimes misunderstood. Justifiable admiration has out-weighed +the critical faculties. It is generally thought to be +more imaginative and ideal than is in fact the case. The +quality of realism is not usually attributed to such a work as +the portrait bust of Pericles. And yet this bust is quite as +realistic, though not so prosaic, as that of the Roman general +Corbulo. I mention these two because they are very generally +known; but many others such as the Demosthenes, Sophocles, +Cæsar, Caligula would do equally well. The word realism is +reserved too much for those works in which the artist has +represented the forms that would be first noticed by the casual +observer and, in this limited sense, the Corbulo is far more +realistic than the Pericles; but realism is just as truly displayed +in works in which the forms, while reproducing those of +the model, may perhaps not be the most obvious ones and +though the juxtaposition of them be not their most common +combination. In this sense the Pericles is as realistic as the +Corbulo. Greek realism in portraits deals chiefly with faces +and figures in repose; Roman realism deals in the main with +faces and figures in action.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is noteworthy that portraiture was a late development of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>sculpture in Greece. We know, for instance, of no contemporary +portraits of Solon or Peisistratus, and there exist in +museums and private collections extremely few busts or statues +of the period preceding the middle of the fifth century +<span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, that have the character of portraits. One reason of this +doubtless was the feeling that the success which brought fame +in its train was due more to the Gods than to the individual. +The individual was an accident in the exhibition of beneficent +power by the Gods, and consequently, so far as form and feature +are concerned, was of no special interest. Furthermore, +there was the feeling that the fame of individuals was due to +and a part of the fame of the whole state; hence the individual +was not apt to overestimate his own value nor to be thought of +by his neighbours with any such feeling of special respect as is +expected by, and often granted to, those who are “self-made.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Over and above these causes was another which must +have been largely responsible for the late development of +portraiture and for its character when it began to be common. +This was the Hellenic love of beauty. Divided though the +Greeks were into numerous states, they were held together +by bonds of language, tradition, religion and politics. But +the bond that united them more strongly than all others, even +than their hatred of barbarians, was their love of beauty. +“Beauty the first of all things” says Isocrates “in majesty and +honour and divineness. Nothing devoid of beauty is prized. +The admiration of virtue itself comes to this, that, of all manifestations +of life, virtue is the most beautiful.” The consequence +of this feeling was to make the individual and imperfect +man uninteresting to the artist while the general and typical +figure became his supreme aim. When at last in the fifth century +<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span><span class='fss'>B.C.</span> portraiture became more frequent than it had previously +been, the perfect portrait was the one which gave most +completely the impression of the general character of the man +and not the one which gave the most vivid and striking representation +of the separate features of his face.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Curiously enough the first portrait we hear of in Greece +was a caricature of the poet Hipponax by Bupalos and Athenis, +artists of the sixth century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> While caricature was attempted +as early as this, as is shown by the drama, by terra-cotta +figurines and by vases such as those from the sanctuary +of the Kabeiroi in Bœotia, it may be questioned whether such +a portrait of Hipponax ever existed. The details of the story, +such as the suicide of the artists owing to the satirical attacks +of the poet, are scarcely credible, and if we remember the very +strange and unlifelike appearance of archaic art it seems not +improbable that the story arose in the attempt to explain +some rude statue the true intention of which had been long +forgotten or had not been clearly indicated. Even were it +certain that such a caricature did once exist, the knowledge +would be of no great interest, because caricatures are but a +debased form of art. They are only the exaggeration of accidental +physical peculiarities. If the traces of a warped or ill-developed +character show in the face or figure, the representation +of them may be made a caricature, but almost all +so-called caricatures show not oddities of character but deformities +of person. It is in literature, in the works of Molière +or Shakespeare, rather than in sculpture or painting, that we +find true caricatures. Not that they do not exist in the plastic +arts, but the literary art lends itself more readily than the +others to this mode of representation.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Whatever the actual facts regarding the reported portrait +of Hipponax may have been, it is not till about the first quarter +of the fifth century (circ. 500–475) that we have undoubted +evidence of portraiture. To that time belongs the bust of a +bearded man wearing a helmet, in the Glyptothek in Munich. +A replica of this work exists in the collection of Barrone Barracco +in Rome. These two heads may well be copies of a +statue of some victor in the games. As is known, portrait +statues were allowed only to thrice victorious athletes, and +they were erected not so much as an honour to the victor +as to keep fresh the memory of one who had thrice been +cherished by the Gods. But this rule governing the making +of statues of athletes clearly shows what deep significance +a statue was considered to express and the secondary +importance to the Greek mind of keeping a record of personal +appearance. Whether of a victor or not, the bust referred to +belongs to the early period of development of the technique +of sculpture, before it had been perfectly mastered, when the +artist was able to represent not what he wanted to but what +he was able to. Hence it is conventional; so much so that +were it not for the helmet and the absence of any attribute of +Divinity we could hardly be sure that it was intended as a +portrait.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p078a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLVII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Probably the best known example of portraiture produced +during the period when the technique of sculpture was thoroughly +understood and mastered, is the head of Pericles by +Kresilas to which I have already made reference (Plate XLIV). +It is a work of special importance owing to the interest attaching +to the character of Pericles, but more particularly from the +artistic point of view; and fortunately there exist several +<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>careful copies of it. These make us sure what its artistic +character was,<a id='r27'></a><a href='#f27' class='c015'><sup>[27]</sup></a> and furthermore Pliny has handed down to us +an estimate of the original work by a critic of the ancient +world. This critic expressed concisely and epigrammatically +the intention that is manifest in all Greek work of the best +time, in saying that the bust of Pericles by Kresilas shows how +art can make a noble man still nobler.<a id='r28'></a><a href='#f28' class='c015'><sup>[28]</sup></a> Now this can only +be said of the best Greek and Italian work. And all work, no +matter where or by whom produced, if wrought in the spirit +which was shown more by Greek sculptors and Venetian +painters than by other artists, may be described by such words. +Such a criticism could not be made of most Roman or Florentine +work. It can only be said of work in which the attempt +is successfully made to suggest a perfected type by the improvement +of an individual example, not of work the intention of +which is to represent the individual example as the embodiment +of special peculiarities with indifference as to their +excellence or defects.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The method adopted by Kresilas is not difficult to analyse. +The character of Pericles was a rare and happy mixture of +calmness, foresight, perseverance and sensitiveness. His +power of understanding men and conditions, together with his +quiet and steady pursuit of his aims, is shown by the course +of his political policy. His sensitiveness is made clear by his +<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>unselfish ambitions, by his delight in works of the fine arts and +by his chivalrous conduct towards Aspasia, whom general +opinion, not confined to the ancient world, would have allowed +him to disregard and forget, when for the sake of giving +offence to him the populace attacked her character. Such was +the man whom Kresilas had to portray, and with high artistic +perception he chose his means.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Kresilas, we can well understand, might have shown us Pericles +the warrior, or Pericles the orator, or Pericles the lover of +philosophy and the arts, and in doing so might have given a more +striking impression of one or more of the special qualities by +which his contemporaries were impressed. Instead of this he +succeeded in setting before us the complex of all these qualities, +and many more, that formed Pericles the man. The helmet +lifted back from the face reminds us of his military career but +does not force this on our attention.<a id='r29'></a><a href='#f29' class='c015'><sup>[29]</sup></a> The expression of the +face is not in the least dreamy but is thoughtful and grave; +an expression which, considering his life and friends, must +have been habitual when he was in repose. It should not be +forgotten that the attitudes assumed by the body when at +rest show the presence or lack of inborn grace and dignity, +and the expression of the face when in repose is an index to +the mental nature. The expression of the eyes is open; the +gaze is steady; the brow is undisturbed. The impression +given by the eyes is of clear, highly developed intelligence. +In the mouth which, as pointed out above, is the most indicative +<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>single feature in portrait sculpture, may be seen +even more markedly than in the eyes, the man’s character. It +is a very noticeable mouth, with full and softly modelled lips, +lips such as usually suggest a weak and sensuous character. +But this mouth is neither insignificant nor weak. Its great +sensitiveness passes into firmness in the closure of the lips and +the strong jaw, and shows itself not as that of an ungoverned +and libitudinous nature, but of a reserved and, in the best +way, sensitive quality. It is a mouth that implies vigour +but not self-will; the mouth of a very sensitive and appreciative, +but not a sensual man.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Besides the character of eyes and mouth, the treatment of +the whole head must be studied in order to understand what +the critic meant when he wrote that this work made a noble +man still nobler. The treatment is broad. The minor and +accidental details are disregarded that the general effect may +be clearer. The curling hair of head and beard, for instance, +is not tossed about in disordered masses, as so often in later +works, but is conventionalised. The artist realised that he +could not imitate hair, and consequently sought for the best +graphic symbol by which to suggest curls. In the modelling +of the face he chose an expression of quietness and not one +of any fitful, momentary emotion; and by not representing +any slight irregularities of surface or structure, he emphasised +and made more inevitably noticeable that expression which +was most completely indicative of the man’s essential nature. +He has given us not alone Pericles the leader of the state, nor +Pericles the patron of the fine arts, nor Pericles the impassioned +orator, but the Pericles of history, the embodiment of +all the best qualities bred in Athens.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>It must not be thought that the Pericles head alone exhibits +the qualities of both artist and sitter which I have +attempted to suggest. In their various ways the portraits of +Sophocles, Euripides, Demosthenes, the so-called Menander +(Plate XLV), Periander (Plate XLVI) and many another +famous Greek show similar æsthetic feeling.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It was but a short time after the death of Pericles that the +intellectual conditions of Greece underwent a great change. +Beliefs that, heretofore, had been universally held by the +Greeks began to be questioned, and the conditions of state-craft +passed into a new phase. The rise and fall of the Macedonian +power was of lasting effect on the Greek character. +Alexander exhibits the type, which became common again +in the Renaissance, of the selfish despot who maintained his +power by having the money to maintain his personal influence. +His thoughts were set chiefly on his own personal glory as +expressed in his empire. He tried, but unsuccessfully, to +make his court the centre of the artistic life of the day. He +was not a patron of the arts but of artists. To Lysippus +alone was granted the right to carve his portrait. No natural +development of the arts was possible under such conditions.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The granting of such a monopoly to Lysippus shows that +Alexander was merely interested in producing on posterity +a good effect so far as his portraits could help him to do so. +Copies of some of these portraits exist. They are fine in many +ways and, to a high degree, lifelike, but they and other similar +works of the epoch lack the quietness and repose of the works +of earlier times. There is a melodramatic feeling in the looser +treatment of the hair, and, oftentimes, an attempt to give a +superhuman expression to the face.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>These qualities, as critics have often noticed, are to be +found in all the forms of art of the time, so far as we now +have the means of judging. Even in architecture there is +a noticeable change. Stone is not laid so carefully, the cutting +of details is coarser and mouldings are heavier; masses +are less finely proportioned and the effects of light and shade +are made more definite and striking. The miniature portraits +on gems and coins show the same characteristics as the +large busts, and the mere fact of putting portraits of contemporary +rulers on the coinage shows that the relation of the +individual to the state had changed and that, on the one +hand, the desire for personal fame was spreading over the +world—a desire which became still more marked in the Roman +and Renaissance epochs; while on the other the worship +of rulers, introduced from the Orient, had firmly entrenched +itself. In fact, these Hellenistic portraits are not simple. +While the technique is still Greek, there is something else in +them than the desire of the artist to show the sitter as he appeared +to his contemporaries, even in a rightly idealised +manner,—they manifest the desire of the sitter to be admired.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The tendencies of the time were all towards exactness of +representation of existing forms, and this was soon attained. +Perhaps it would have been reached even sooner had it not +been for certain interests which held the sculptors partially +to the old-time aims. One such conservative influence is +shown in the work of Silanion, who became famous for his +portraits of persons dead long before his day. Such work, if +it was to satisfy a large public, and this was what it aimed at +and succeeded in doing, had to be of a broad, general and unemphasized +character, for the nature and appearance of persons +<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>known only by tradition is necessarily more vaguely and +variously observed, less easily and surely grasped, than that +of the living. Hence, if Silanion had made portraits that suggested +strongly what seemed to him the most vital characteristic +of the person represented, he would probably have +found that many of his contemporaries considered some very +different characteristic the most essential. To please the +many it was needful for his work to embody only those ideas +that were generally accepted. Such work cannot be realistic +in the sense of attracting attention to detailed peculiarities.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Greek portraiture became rapidly more and more prosaically +realistic. But even in its last stages, when Greek +artists were still employed by Greek patrons, the realism is +generally restrained. The old conventionalism and typifying +of the model is gone, and there is greater frankness in the +rendering of special peculiarities of hair or skin; but the +work is generally quiet and dignified, calm in expression and +reposeful in action. The artist puts before us not the type and +idea suggested by the man, nor, except in special cases, the +man’s own desire regarding his appearance, but the real daily +aspect of the man, dressed up not at all, treated in accordance +with the essential rules of sculpture as a fine art.</p> + +<p class='c007'>That there were, however, some artists who amused themselves +and a thoughtless public with portraits that were vulgarly +realistic—realistic, that is, in the representation of +ugly and unessential details—is shown by what we know of +Demetrius of Alopeke. He is noted solely for his successful +rendering of ugliness. But there was too much cultivated +taste in what remained of the Greek world, and too much vigour +and good sense in the growing Roman world, for such work to +become popular. To see realism developing in a strong and +healthy manner, we must turn to Rome where, though the +actual carving was done, with few exceptions probably, by +Greek workers, still the character of the work itself was controlled +by Roman ideas (Plate XLVII).</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p084a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLVIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>The dry, matter of fact quality of Roman portraiture as +opposed to the more imaginative work of the Greeks, has long +been recognised. Its direct and unadorned presentation of +the human face is noted by the most careless observer and is +to most people pleasing. It makes them feel at ease; they +have the sensation of being with real people; it does not demand +of them a mental effort to analyse the appearance +before them in order to understand it. But notwithstanding +the facility with which one derives very definite, and it may +be lasting, impressions from these Roman busts, they are by +no means as simple and artless as they seem at first sight to be. +They are the product of complex influences and a highly developed +art and are as difficult to understand and properly +appreciate as are the earlier Greek ones.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We may illustrate what has been said by glancing a moment +at a portrait of an unknown old man<a id='r30'></a><a href='#f30' class='c015'><sup>[30]</sup></a> (Plate XLVIII). +This is a superb example of Roman portraiture of the time +of the Republic. It cannot lay claim to any beauty of form +or feature; it is uncompromisingly homely. Nevertheless it +has a certain fascination for the beholder. The sculptor was +a great master. The way in which he has rendered the signs +of old age in the withered neck, the irregular wrinkles of the +brow, and the uneven mouth is magnificent. It is realism of +a perfect kind, for the evidence of the wear and tear of life is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>subdued by and made minor to the splendid and enduring +vigour of the mind and character behind the cheerful old face. +What an old age! The sap may be running slow, the +body may show the blows dealt by life, but the stiff, short +hair is still thick, the head is still held upright and forward. +It is a face of a clean-living, plain-thinking man, one who had +“held both hands before the fires of life,” and seems to +scarcely suppress a smile at the thought that any one should +want the portrait of his old face.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Roman art, as a whole, was practical and uninspired, and +far from imaginative. In large measure it served either to +answer some definite practical end or to satisfy (as in the +decoration of palaces) the Roman taste for grandeur and display. +It shows the influence of a less full-hearted and unquestioning +religious inspiration than that which had such +marked effect on the early art of Greece and again in the +Renaissance. The work of all the various branches of art +produced in the Roman territory before the importation of +Greek artists was of the rudest. It was necessary to employ +Etruscans to decorate the temple of the Capitoline Jove and +until the first century before Christ the artistic product of +Rome seems to have been scanty. The energies of the people +were expended in war and colonisation. They were essentially +a commercial race. The existence of their city was derived +from and depended on their control of foreign trade. The +first necessity of such a city was to master the business of +political organisation and not to cultivate the tastes that +minister to affluence and ease. Pride of race and the acquisition +of great wealth were results of the transformation +of the small republic into the great empire, and with pride +and money came luxury, and the arts, with the desire for +portraits.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p086a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLIX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>Pliny tells of portraits made of wax, owned by the various +families, which were carried in funeral processions,—how +these were considered as belonging to the house and in case +of the sale of the latter passed with it to the new owner; +such portraits as these would, like the earlier Egyptian ones, +tend to the purest realism of external appearance. He mentions +also the muniment rooms filled with records of ancestors. +Stress was laid on the actions of the illustrious dead in order +that the ensuing generations might be stirred to ambitious +effort. Very different is this from the Grecian sinking of the +individual in the state. Roman tombstones exhibit the same +pride in great deeds and the same interest in details. They +are entirely different from the Greek grave monuments. The +Greek gives the name of the deceased, and sometimes a greeting +to the living wayfarer who may pass by and note the tomb; +or, sometimes he inscribed a plaintive verse—the expression +of a broken heart—but nothing more. How old were the +dead? What had they done? No one now can tell. Their +course was run and the restless curiosity of later ages must +remain unsatisfied. On Roman tombstones all this is very +different. They tell us the age and family of the deceased, +their occupation, what offices they had held and their age +even to days. In the cases where a portrait of the dead person +is added, it is treated in no general and typical way; but the +individual is set before us with unsparing accuracy.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This interest in the events of each individual life led to the +chief difference between Roman and Greek portrait busts. +The Roman thought of the great men of his country as the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>persons who had done such and such things rather than as the +leaders of such and such policies. Consequently, the Roman +portraits suggest activity and not repose,—action and not +thought. The idea embodied in the bust is not of a placid +and meditative but of a positive and active cast. The portraitist +seems almost always to represent his sitters at the +moment when they were accomplishing the great deed that +brought them fame. The eyes are made expressive by being +distinctly focussed, and this expression is emphasised by the +treatment of the brow, which oftentimes is more or less wrinkled +or contracted in a way that suggests vigorous, passing, mental +action. In many cases the ball of the eye is cut so as to produce +a strong shadow and thus to suggest the pupil. This also +makes the fixed look more intense, but unless the light is +exactly right it is apt to produce an unpleasant appearance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>That an artist should do this shows the desire for dramatic, +restless effects. The treatment of the lips and the part of the +face about the mouth also suggests an expression not typical +of any general trend of thought so much as of some momentary +and strong emotion. Then the way the head is set on the neck +and turns sharply to one side or the other can be understood +only by supposing that the artist represented the sitter as he +appeared when employed on some one active and characteristic +piece of work. There is, for instance, in Corbulo none of the +Greek treatment of the individual as a type, but everything +is done to make more prominent the individualities of the man. +And just as the Pericles is not alone in its class, so too the +Corbulo is matched by many others, such as the Julius Cæsar, +the Augustus, Caracalla or Antoninus Pius (Plate XLIX).</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p088a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate L.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>As one looks at these Roman portraits one frequently +<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>feels that the persons are on the point of moving. But +notwithstanding this quality of life which has led to their +being called realistic, the best of them are no more merely +superficial in their realism than the best Greek busts. Neither +class is vulgarly realistic and imitative solely in the external, +but both depend for their effect on the correct comprehension +and presentation of actual phenomena of form and facial expression. +The different effect they produce is due to the fact that +the Greek desired an expression of the inner man, the man as +he was to himself, while the Roman desired the expression +of the man as he showed himself to others. Putting the case +concisely, and remembering that such conciseness does not +express the completest truth, we may say that one was the +portrait of man as a thinker, the other of man as a doer.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the foregoing explanation of the nature of Roman portraits, +no account has been taken of the numerous beautiful +busts of children and women that were carved by the sculptors +of the Eternal City. At first sight these seem to contradict +the contention that the almost universal intention of the +Roman sculptor was to make a portrait of a single sharply +defined phase of his sitter’s personality. They seem to be +done rather in accordance with Greek taste; but closer study +will reveal that they are not truly Greek,—that their real +nature is Roman and their seeming Grecian spirit is an illusion +due to accident and not to intention.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Busts of children or women made to show character in +action could never resemble the Roman busts of men. The +qualities that make the character of men are non-existent, or +at least undeveloped, in the child, and in the woman take another +form. The Greek by his generalising and typifying +<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>process which brought about the production of placid figures +was led to express chiefly those qualities which produce similar +effects in all faces. The Roman, though searching for +active expression still noted in the child as the most beautiful +and characteristic qualities, softness, roundness and breadth +of modelling, and the dignity of infantine demeanour. Hence +the Roman heads of children have a somewhat Greek look, +but in every part, as for example the hair, where stress can be +laid on accidental and purely individual appearance, this is +done (Plate L). The Greek appearance was inherent in the +object; the most suggestive symbol to express curled or +straight locks was sought, but to carve hair in all its fairness +of strand, in all its waving masses or its fantasticalities of +fashion, was not the aim of the sculptor. In Roman work the +hair is scarcely ever conventionalised in a Grecian manner but +shows the fashion of the day. Usually, the head is not symmetrically +placed, but is turned to one side or the other, implying +that the child’s attention was attracted to some special object.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The same points are to be noted in the portraits of women. +In their faces as in children’s the beauty and softness of feature +led to something like a Greek breadth of modelling, but the +hair and the action of the head are purely Roman (Plate LI).</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p090a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The Florentine portraits show these same characteristics. +Among them also the children and women seem at first glance +to be Grecian or Venetian in character, but, when looked at +more closely, one sees that those features which are not mere +copies of nature but which show artistic intention are not +Venetian, nor Greek, in character, but Roman. Yet another +class of Florentine monuments which are at first sight misleading +in the same way are the recumbent statues on tombs. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>In these the Greek quality of quietness and repose is very +marked and is due to the artist being called upon to represent +faces modelled by the stilling touch of death and no longer to +be thought of as showing active forces. But even in these +figures the intense actuality of feature, the lack of conventionalising +and typifying, is noticeable. In fact there is little +doubt that oftentimes the artist did his work not from sketches +of the living model but from a death mask.</p> + +<p class='c007'>If now we consider from a more general point of view this +art of portraiture and its relationship to times and peoples, +certain things become clear. Portraiture may be due, as in +Egypt, to some religious motive, but this is uncommon. +Where it develops as an art, simply for its æsthetic value, +we note that it becomes a general practice only as ideal +and imaginative work loses ground. While the Greeks never, +in a certain sense, showed much imagination in their sculpture, +it is unquestionable that towards the end of the fifth century +B.C., when portraiture becomes prominent, the idealising and +religious works decrease and deteriorate. The same truth +holds good in Italy during the Renaissance, when much more +imagination was shown than in Greece.<a id='r31'></a><a href='#f31' class='c015'><sup>[31]</sup></a> Portraiture is due to +a family interest in its own members or to a people’s interest +in an individual. It is not practised (for artists such as Silanion +are not true <i>portraitists</i>) by the artist to please himself.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But whatever may be the interests, private or public, that +call for portraiture, the art becomes common only in times of +centralisation, times when large fortunes, and hence great +<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>power, are possessed by individuals. Furthermore, no matter +who may be the persons represented (setting aside women and +children) it is not possible to carve or paint them except in +one of two ways, as an embodiment of thought, or as an +embodiment of action. The former method appealed to +Greeks and Venetians,—the latter better pleased the Romans +and Florentines. Both are realistic because both strive to +show in one way or another actually existent forms and expressions. +It depends on each man’s natural temperament +which will give him most satisfaction. Other methods are +frequently adopted in the modern struggle for originality, +but it is safe to say that they will exert little influence on the +development of art, for, while they may be clever devices, +while they make certain effective features particularly prominent, +they are still unsatisfactory because they produce at +best but a partial likeness. If it be granted that there are but +two great methods of portraiture, there is yet no reason to fear +that dulness will ensue. The interest excited by the individual +man comes from the character shown.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are just double as many portraits, potentially, as +there are individuals, and the interest of portraiture lies in +what the artist makes us comprehend of the nature of the +man. Too often the public is deceived into thinking that +the work of handicraftsmen, with little or no power of reading +and understanding character, is to be judged as true portraiture. +Such work may be decorative in chiaroscuro, it may be +pleasant as colour; but the mere drawing of a face, even if +what is called a good likeness is produced, is not portraiture. +It is but the outer husk and dead wrapping hiding the vital +germ within.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span> + <h3 class='c004'>II. PHEIDIAS AND MICHAEL ANGELO</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>Different as were the lives and works of the two sculptors +whose names are more familiar to us than those of any others, +there were, nevertheless, many circumstances of closely related +character that affected their careers. But apart from +such circumstances the consideration of even those influences +which were absolutely different in the one case and in the +other, exhibits clearly some of the broader laws of the art +practised by them both. In truth, it is the art rather than +the individual style of the sculptors that is worth study, for +the art is a language, the works but the expression of single +ideas; the one is a perpetual and constantly varying power, +the other but separate thoughts expressed.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Naturally the two interests, one that of becoming more +familiar with the products of the “fine intelligence of noble +minds,” the other the more abstract one of a more intimate +knowledge of the powers and possibilities of one of the fine +arts, are inextricably combined. The study of the two sculptors +mentioned is particularly interesting owing to the ever-increasing +production of sculpture in our own day; and owing +to various conditions in modern life, there is a close relationship +in many important matters between us and these two +masters of days long past. Therefore, whatever can be certainly +learned about them will help us to appreciate more +truly the work and workers of to-day and to-morrow. Nothing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>can help more to attain this appreciation and sympathy +than the study of the great workers of past ages, even when +they may to a casual glance seem to be of somewhat remote +interest.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The work of men such as Pheidias and Michael Angelo cannot +be considered by any serious student as in fact remote +from our time and interests. The study of the Past, particularly +that part filled by Greece, becomes every day more +and more general and the influence of the Renaissance in +Italy upon modern thought and work is seen on every hand; +here we come to the first noteworthy fact regarding these two +sculptors. It is not going too far to say that all the best +Greek sculpture, that is to say, what was produced during the +latter half of the fifth century before Christ and the fourth +century, was strongly influenced by Pheidias and that his +influence shows itself intermittently until the end of the ancient +world.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It would of course be too much to claim Pheidias as the +originator of all the qualities in sculpture which are apt, nowadays, +to be named Pheidian, but as the master who most adequately +expressed the ideals held in his time so far as sculpture +allowed of their expression, he may be used as the type; and +among the varied interests which Michael Angelo and the +other students of the Renaissance found in Greek work were +several that may properly be called Pheidian.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This influence of Greek work on the Renaissance can hardly +be over estimated. It shows itself in many ways and with +varying force,—sometimes producing direct imitation of +ancient works, then again becoming manifest in new work +done with the intention of reviving the spirit of the ancient +<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>world. Michael Angelo did not fall under the spell as completely +as many of his less vigorously original contemporaries, +but it was no more to be entirely avoided by him +than one of the laws of nature. Thus with the work of +the Greeks directly affecting us to-day in a very similar way +to that in which it affected the Italians in the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries, and with the work of the later period, deeply +tinctured with the Grecian dye, also influencing us, it becomes +deeply interesting to find in what the greatest artists of the +two periods were alike and wherein they differed one from +the other.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The influence of Pheidias on the art of his race was not so +much that of the originator or inventor as it was that of the +poet, who gathering the various and unconnected beauties +that are felt by all, though less keenly than by him, binds +them together by the indefinable power of his genius and gives +back to the admiring world not separate things of beauty but +a standard of the beautiful and perfect. And this power of +genius deals with such finenesses, is so subtle, that oftentimes +it is almost beyond the power of words to make clear the manner +of its working. As the sensitiveness of the photographic +plate is greater than that of the eye, so the trained and perceptive +eye notes much that can only with difficulty be expressed +by words. The genius is felt, it thrills and vivifies +the observer, but it cannot be expounded like a problem in +mathematics.</p> + +<p class='c007'>For this reason, we must believe, the few great writers on +these matters are oftentimes scoffed at by persons whose eyes +have not been trained to see nor their hearts to understand. +Not that the scoffers can be blamed for this unhappy sterility +<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>of their powers, for in most cases the circumstances of life +have not been of that fortunate kind which would enable them +to acquire the finer faculties. They are only to be blamed +in so far as either through envy or stupidity they refuse to +believe that others may be endowed with power which is +lacking to them—power dependent upon long and arduous +training. It is a curious but familiar phenomenon that the +person who will not hesitate an instant to admit that the +trained rider or sportsman or oarsman can ride, shoot or row +better than he can, will energetically claim for himself as fine-seeing +an eye, or a mind as keenly interpretative, as the practised +artist or the scholar. That is, he asserts that the exercises +of the body need training, but those of eye and brain +do not, a theory manifestly absurd.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The genius of Pheidias is so ultimate in its fineness that it +needs long training before it can be properly appreciated. If +this is doubted, one has but to consider the fact, that among all +the numerous references to him and his work which are preserved +for us in ancient writers, not one mentions him, as his +elder contemporaries Myron, Pythagoras, Kalamis or many +others are mentioned, as having been the first to institute any +particular detail of carving. No new treatment of the hair, +no new way of representing the body, no special scheme of +proportion are attributed to him, and yet the absolute consensus +of opinion was that he was the unrivalled master of +them all. Fashions changed, and a new one, that of making +collections, arose, which demanded the satisfaction of individual +tastes, but Pheidias’s fame knew no eclipse.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p096a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Besides this subtle quality in his genius, this weaving of the +various beautiful threads spun by others into one consummate +<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>stuff, there are other qualities that render his work difficult +to appreciate. One is that the ideals both of religion and +of life were very different from those of to-day, so that we have +to lay aside all preconceived notions and at first regard him as +children who wonder but do not understand. This is the +hardest task the student ever has to master, to free himself +from the bonds of the conventions, beliefs and circumstances +common to his own day and study the work of another time +with (so far as he can accomplish it) an understanding sympathy +with the conventions, beliefs and circumstances belonging +to those other days. Still a further difficulty lies +in the fact that there does not exist in the world one single +work of which we can say: this is truly and completely by +Pheidias. The marble figures from the Parthenon show his +quality in many respects clearly but these we know were +worked upon by assistants. Other works by him exist in +copies, but for the most part these copies can be shown to be +bad and should be used as evidence only with the utmost +care. Yet, notwithstanding these difficulties, the image that +we have of him is, it can scarcely be doubted, clearly defined +in the main outlines.</p> + +<p class='c007'>How different is all this in the case of Michael Angelo! +Here our embarrassment is of a character diametrically opposed +and comes from the fact that we are so burdened with +details about his life and work that the really important +matters are partially obscured by trivialities. Contemporaries +and fellow-workmen wrote his life; his letters and poems +have been preserved; documents of all sorts regarding his +works exist, and the works themselves are where they can be +easily seen.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>Beyond all these aids to our knowledge of the man we +have, again, the more vital one that the age in which he lived +is almost as well understood as our own, and many of the +greater currents of thought and action were but little different +to those of the present time. Unlike the Pheidian time, but +like to-day, his was not a period when governments deeply +believed in the protection of their Gods nor one in which the +individual was scarcely considered except as a detail of the +state, nor when portrait statues were almost unknown. Conquest +for the love of gain, and commonwealths subdued to +one will, were the rule. The truly Greek period in the development +of Italy, the time of the blossoming of Venice, of Siena, +of Florence had given way to the Alexandrian epoch. Though +the idea that the will of the masses should govern the state +was fortunately not yet formulated, the development of individualism +was well under way, and instead of men governing +their lives by general ideals they all sought to raise themselves +on the shoulders of their less fortunate brothers to enjoy a +little while the glory of a special and peculiar fame. Hence +called as he was to lend his power to the satisfaction of such +desires as these, Michael Angelo’s work was in many cases, +in those, that is, where he was working for a master other +than his own instinct, tinged with a character utterly out of +accord with that of Pheidias, and yet curiously enough even +in these works there are signs of a strong undercurrent of +feeling which would have bound him and Pheidias together as +the most sympathetic friends, thus showing that at bottom +art is not governed by circumstance of time or place.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There were however certain very important aspects in which +life as Michael Angelo saw it in Italy, and particularly in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>Florence, was curiously similar to what it was in Athens in the +fifth century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> The climate and general appearance of the +two countries is even now not unlike, and it must have been +much less so in the time when the hills of Greece were so forest-grown +that Pan and the nymphs could really live in comfort +there, and before modern improvements had eradicated many +of the individual peculiarities of Italy. Then too the habits +of the cultivated classes were similar. Under very different +forms the principles of education seem to have been the same. +The schooling shown in Castiglione’s Cortegiano is like that +given the Grecian youth. It was an education which comprised, +both in Greece and in Italy, music, drawing, a knowledge +of the thought and actions of past generations and a mastery +of all those exercises that conduced to self-defence or to the +more perfect development of the body. Similar training +naturally taught the men of these two worlds to see life in +very similar ways, and although the teachings of the Catholic +Church were very different from those of the Greek religion in +regard to the relations between men and women, yet life and +instinct were stronger than the holy teachings, and in this +point too the simplicity and naturalness of the Greek found +its counterpart in Italy.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is easy to see that the power exerted by these various +influences on the art of sculpture was very great, more so even +than on the sister art of painting, for it is on the realisation +of what constitutes a fine body, on the equal simplicity of +treatment of the woman’s form and the man’s, and the knowledge +of what ideas can be best interpreted in terms of form, +that the art of sculpture depends. Art is but the translation +of emotion, and each particular art has a particular way of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>accomplishing the translation; and in this, painting and sculpture +are more closely connected than any two other arts, so +much so that sculptors in the two greatest periods—the +Greek and the Renaissance—rarely considered their work as +finished until the power of colour had been used to heighten +the effect, and often practised the two arts coincidently. But +during these two periods the limits imposed by the materials of +the various arts were clearly recognised and closely adhered +to, and in the best sculpture of the Renaissance there is no +more attempt to represent landscape or other purely colour +effects than in the Parthenon. Sometimes, however, as in +the drapery of the Moses or the modelling of the Pietà in St. +Peter’s, Michael Angelo does seem to overstep the limits of +sculpture and to seek for effects which could be more simply +and much more intelligibly given in painting than in stone; +effects that need the manifold devices of light and shade and +colour which are at the disposal of the painter rather than the +sculptor.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This is, however, a rare weakness in the works of Michael +Angelo, and one that apparently never entered those of Pheidias. +One reason for this is that the art of painting was more +completely comprehended in Italy than in Greece, and the +Italian artists, more commonly than the Grecian, practised +both arts. Hence, great painter as well as great sculptor, +endowed with a readiness of hand, such as scarcely any other +artist ever had, to reproduce whatever his mind imaged, it +is no wonder that Michael Angelo at times went beyond the +bounds of one art and seemed magically to interfuse the beauties +of both of them. It would have been a greater wonder +had he not done so. It was not a sign of his weakness so much +as of his strength, of the inability of any one art to satisfy +the artist’s desire and ideal. In this greater complexity, +which shows at times in the detail of his work, Michael Angelo +differed from Pheidias, but, almost invariably, the two artists, +while differing in their feeling for line, or gesture, or substance, +treat the human figure and its accessories in the same way. +In both one sees a distinct and necessary dwelling on the +nude.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p100a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>Where the human figure is chosen as the object of a work +of art, there are but two chief means by which to represent +the emotions it contains, one the expression of the face, one the +action of the body as a whole. It is in the representation of +the face, the most palpable index of the emotions, that painting, +with its power over almost infinitesimal lights and shades, +finds fullest scope for its power, while it is in the greater lines +of the frame and the larger gestures that sculpture satisfies +herself. So it is that in the sculptural work of both Michael +Angelo and Pheidias one finds drapery treated not, as was +distinctly the case in the statues of Praxiteles, for its own +special beauty apart from the whole work, but as a means of +emphasising the beauty of the body whose details it hid.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Look at the group of three women from the western pediment +of the Parthenon, or the Lemnian Athena, or the Caryatids +of the Erechtheum (Plate LII)—for these are utterly +Pheidian in character even if not by the master himself—or +the figures on the frieze of the Parthenon (Plate LVII) or the +Hegeso relief. In all these the drapery ripples over the +shoulders and breasts, breaking in great falls around the waist +and legs to disappear and fade away in little curling waves +around the feet, not hiding the soft details of the figure +<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>underneath but serving rather as a frame to emphasise the +beauties and set them in true relation to the surroundings. +That there was any ethical need of hiding the figure would +have seemed the height of absurdity to the Greek or the +Italian. Out of the dark it comes and back to the dark it +goes in this Adamite condition, so why should the artist not +use it so if it serves his purpose?</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus it has been used in all times when there was a vital +art, and such times have been distinguished for greater sanity +of thought and health of body than when art was governed +by mediæval fanaticisms. Michael Angelo’s figures are as +distinguished for this quality as are those shaped by the +Grecian chisel. His feeling for the value of the nude is so +strong that he can hardly suffer the drapery at all. The +Moses, the Madonnas, the Medici Princes are to all intents +in large measure undraped. Considered as draped figures +they distinctly lack the temperance and quiet nobility of the +Greek figures, for the reason that although his feeling towards +the relation of draped and nude parts is the same, Michael +Angelo does not attain his end in as consummate a way. He +makes too sharp a distinction between the parts that are +really draped, the parts that are but seem not to be, and the +nude. But in one point of this same nature the two artists +are completely alike. They both regarded the human figure +from the purely artistic point of view as a means to suggest +certain ideas. The religious meaning, the question as to its +sanctity or unhallowedness, no more occurred to them than to +question the advisability of warming themselves before the +fire when they were cold because there were fires in Hell. +They were completely natural.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>In regard to the lack of complexity and to the greater repose, +it may be admitted that Pheidias has the advantage over +Michael Angelo whose works, true index as they are of his +character, suffered from the time in which he lived—his +character suffered and hence his work. His was a time of +scepticism and hence of worry. The tranquillity that marked +the Greek mind was rarely found in his day. Aretino was +planting the destructive roots of modern journalism, and except, +in a way marked by strong affectation, at certain courts, +one would have had to go far to find Platonic Symposia or +Olympic gatherings. The cloudy brow of Michael Angelo +himself as well as of many of his figures is a sign how the perplexity +of the times preyed upon the sculptor and in turn +affected not only the chief motive of many of his works but +also their very details.</p> + +<p class='c007'>And, if we admit the truth, this worry and perturbation is +more natural to us than is the Greek grace and calm which, to +those who do not understand the time, seems unnatural and +forced. It was not so, however. The Greek was never +forced, but though he felt intensely, he considered that the +possession and exercise of control over emotion was as much +to be desired as the power which found expression in beating +back barbarian hordes. The tenderness of Greek friendships +is proverbial, but the whole tone of Greek tragedy is of passion +held in check,—carried in the heart rather than worn on +the face. Slaves and servants gave way to noisy grief, but +not their masters. A Greek of the Periclean age could scarcely +have understood the worn, wearied, soul-troubled look of the +Pensieroso. It was not that the Greek was unimpassioned, +but he never let his passions govern him. He guided them as +<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>a rider guides a restive horse—as the youths on the Parthenon +guide theirs—calming and soothing them lest the animal +become the master and break away from the chosen path.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This difference in the character of the two races was due +largely to religion, which had the most marked effect on the +work produced in the two countries. One is apt to think, +when one sees the limitless mass of churches, decorated by +painter and sculptor, in Italy, and the unending array of lesser +works of distinctly religious intent, that no art could be more +religious than that of Italy. But just as in the conduct of +individuals it is the spirit rather than the form of action that +is the true index to their character, so in art it is the feeling +the work shows, and not merely its outer form, which indicates +its true nature and value. Now not merely in the number of +religious works was Greece in the Periclean days as distinguished +as ever Italy was, but she was far more noteworthy, +in that her religion was a much more vital impulse than that +of Italy. This is certainly true of the Periclean as opposed +to the Medicean age.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the light of present knowledge the circumstances that led +to these conditions are discernible. Like every innocent race +the Greeks had a firm belief in the Gods, beings developed in +their minds by very varied influences, and for the most part not +of a character to serve as guides to ideal conduct after the +race had once gained the capacity for using its mind in a logical +way. One or two of these beings were, however, as noble +as any such conceptions at any time. This power to use the +mind rationally was not yet a national possession when Pheidias +grew up. It was just becoming so. The development of +the mind, the strength of it, was there, but for a few decades +<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>circumstances turned the thoughts of the people away from +philosophic consideration to more ecstatic modes in which old +conceptions were clung to with passionate fondness and made +more beautiful, but a change of belief was the work of a following +generation.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These circumstances were chiefly a consequence of the +Persian Wars. Greece was threatened with destruction. +Athens was harried, and the glories of the Acropolis were +razed to the ground. Phœnix-like they disappeared in fire to +have an image of themselves more splendid in its youth and +vigour rise as a light to all the world. But though the barbarian +had for a moment seemed master of the situation, the +Greeks had, with the active help of the Gods, been the final +victors and it was in the service of thanks to their divine +helpers that Pheidias found his chief employment. It was +only in the very early years of the Renaissance that the Italians +experienced any such miracles as those which Pheidias’s +elder contemporaries had known—as, for instance, at the +battle of Ravenna—and the effect on them then was much the +same as it had been on the Greeks. It was the actual presence +of the Gods at critical moments that stirred the Greeks. In +Athens Athena’s snake led them to safety, at Salamis the +Aiakidoi inspired the heroes with their battlecry, and Pan +himself urged the weary messenger over the mountain passes. +The Greeks no more doubted that their victory was due to +assistance lent them by the Gods than that there had been a +war. One event was as real to them as the other, so it was +natural for them, as soon as their hearths were once more lit, +to render thanks to their Divinities by raising images of them +on all sides, that they might never forget them, and by building +<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>for the houses of their Gods as beautiful temples as could by +any possible means be made.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We may frankly concede that the grandeur of this work, +the generousness of it, can only be understood when one fully +grasps the fact that a Greek temple was, what the Christian’s +is not, the house of the Lord. In it but few and most private +services were performed,—no processions, no crowds of more or +less attentive worshippers, no expounding of the word, nothing +whatever of that sort. The temple was the sacred dwelling +place of the deity, and the curious no more thought of entering +it than of opening uninvited their fellow-citizen’s door. It +was a free gift to the God and not to be thought of as a source +of satisfaction to the builders except in the same way as it +pleases a lover to have his mistress accept some gift at his +hands. This feeling is repeated frequently in Pindar and in +other poets inspired by the ‘golden muse.’ So it was that, +flushed with the excitement of a great cause nobly won, the +Greeks turned the full force of their keen, glad energy to +works that showed their own greatness by manifesting with +the sharpness of full understanding the form of their ideals.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In our day, animated by so different interests and ambitions, +it is hard to sympathise with this natural idealistic work done +in Athens, and it is perhaps even harder to understand why it +was that Pheidias and the other artists were not called on to +erect portrait statues of the great leaders of the war as were +the artists of the Renaissance. There is mention of a statue +to Miltiades, and this is all. The reason becomes clear immediately +we consider well what were the fundamental principles +of conduct as taught by the poets, who were in those +days in large measure the formulators of public opinion. Pindar +is as clear-spoken about this as need be, and he but repeats +what one finds in the fragments that are preserved of Solon’s +writings and of other earlier writers. He tells us that what is +natural is best and that the deed done without the deity is +best left unspoken (Olym. IX), and again (Nem. I) that +each of us has his special power and we must earnestly endeavour +according as Nature shows the way. This is to be +the moral of our action, while that of our thought is that man +is as nothing (Nem. VI), ephemeral creature naught knowing +what he is or what he may be, nothing but a mirage-dream +(Pyth. VIII).</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p106a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LIV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>Under the spell of such stern teaching as this it is no wonder +that Pheidias was not employed, as was Michael Angelo, +in depicting for an inquiring posterity the outer husk of the +protagonist of his day. Nor was it merely when he was called +on to decorate Athens with his accomplished powers that +Pheidias found guiding principles of this stern sort, but even +in his other great work, the Olympian Zeus, he was governed +in the same way. By the Greek, victory in the games was no +more to be aspired to without the help of the Gods than was +victory in battle, and it was not praise for the winner but gratitude +to the Gods that was mete when Nike laid the ‘golden +crown’ upon the athlete’s brow. For it is the Gods who, as +Pindar sings, guard the deep-breasted plain of Sparta and +grant success in the great games. Fame is to be sought +but it is to be the fame of honourable deeds (Pyth. VIII), +but even this is of less value than happiness and only he who +has won both has attained the acme of bliss (Pyth. I). +Such men are almost unknown, for the soul of honour is +tarnished by lust of gain (Nem. IX). Thus were the athletes +<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>in that “age of heroic prize-men” taught that physical power +was of value, but only as it was a stepping-stone to moral +purity. No portraits of such youths as these unless the Gods +marked them as their own with the triple crown. The deep-delved +researches of epigraphist and excavator show us how +rare was that event.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Called upon to embody for the chosen youth of Greece +their idea and image of the guardian deity who meted out +unquestioned justice to their strife, Pheidias had to depict +as it were a masculine counterpart to the Goddess who made +Athens her own. That he was as successful in the one task +as in the other is instantly apparent to one who notes the +quality of the praise bestowed upon his work by the highly +trained critics of the classic period. None speak of his figures +as they do of Myron’s, for instance, as deceiving the beholder +by their realism. There is no question as to the mastery over +the material as with Kalamis and Pythagoras,—no suggestion +of conventionalism as with Polykleitos, none of overrefinement +as with Praxiteles,—but all agree that his works +were such nobly adequate representations of the divine beings +that they added a new glory to the religion of which they were +the perfected expression.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Still another noteworthy peculiarity of this religion in its +effect on his work remains to be mentioned. Both he and +Michael Angelo had at different times now mere mortals, now +deities, to represent. In the case of the Attic master this led +to a greater unity of performance than was possible with the +Florentine. Between the dwellers on Olympus and those on +the broad-bosomed Earth there was to Pheidias’s mind only a +difference in degree, whereas to the believer in the Roman +<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>doctrines there was no real similarity between the heavenly +hosts and the inhabitants of this vale of tears; and where such +was suggested, it was so as a symbol, not as a representation. +To the Greek the Gods were merely his grander, nobler, more +powerful brethren, blessed with the same virtues and troubled +by similar faults, differing principally from the dwellers on +earth by usually escaping the results due to giving way to +passion. Even they were not blessed with absolute immunity +and freedom of action. Zeus himself was subject to Fate, +but in the main the Gods, at least in their outward form, were +but more beautiful men and women. Hence when called +upon to carve the most noble being whom he could imagine, +and equally when carving ideal youths and maidens on the +Parthenon, he could only carve the same forms he saw about +him every day idealised by his imagination. Whichever +branch of his art he followed trained him for the other.</p> + +<p class='c007'>That such conditions and beliefs as these were very different +from those under which Michael Angelo had to work needs +no elaborate exposition. How different they were in their +effect on the art of Pheidias and the happiness of the period +for such an artist becomes clearer the more one studies. There +is still another point to consider, however,—what might be +called a more practical one than the influences of religion, and +in this regard, too, Pheidias was the more favoured. I refer +to the political conditions of the time, and the relations of +Pheidias to his employers.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The lack of original documents makes it impossible for us +to follow the course led by Pheidias from its fortunate rise to +its unhappy close, but that in most ways he was much to be +envied by Michael Angelo cannot be questioned. Athens +<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>was at the height of her prosperity; freed from foreign or +internal foes, she was at liberty to pursue her ends as occasion +demanded or as consideration showed was best. It was a +time of thanksgiving and hope. No such condition of government +as this was known to Michael Angelo, nor did his country +have the advantage of being led by as high-minded a statesman, +and probably as wise a one, as ever lived. So long as +Pericles was leader of the state, Pheidias was his friend and +helper. Here was no worry for the artist, no change of master, +no blighting of cherished hopes, all which ills were suffered +by Michael Angelo; on the contrary, existence in the +midst of a most highly cultivated community—a community +moved by a common search after ideal ends, a community +which must have been a constant inspiration to the sculptor +to equal the expectations it had of him. With the rise of +mob rule brought on by the momentary successes won by +certain demagogues came the downfall of Pericles and in his +train Pheidias. But his great work was finished then. He +had nothing to fear when he laid aside his chisel, and fortunately +he was not left long to mourn the fast vanishing nobility +of his city and race. The time of calm self-confidence had +passed and the time of trouble was threatening. Only a +short time elapsed before the tide of disaster engulfed the +whole country, and if we would seek a counterpart to the +worn and restless spirit that sometimes appears in Michael +Angelo’s work, we can find it in the later Greek masters—even +Praxiteles shows traces of it. But it is not mere likenesses +we are in search of, so much as explanations and the +clarification of certain phenomena of art.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The effect of these conditions of life and thought on Pheidias +<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>was more strong than on other sculptors of the time because the +greater sensitiveness and impressibility of his nature rendered +him a more encompassing recipient for ideas and feelings +than most of his contemporaries. But the qualities that show +in his work with especial sharpness are found diffused throughout +all the work of the period, and there is one very noticeable +characteristic of this work which distinguishes it markedly +from the work produced by Michael Angelo’s fellow-workmen. +It is the emphasis laid on youth. Donatello, Verrocchio, +Desiderio and many others often represented youthful figures; +but the representation of youth and early manhood could +scarcely be said to distinguish the work of the Florentine from +other epochs, yet this is exactly what can be said of the product +of the early Greek and particularly the Attic School.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Look at the statues of youths and maidens, the never-fading +ghosts of past days, which the Attic chisel carved and the +Attic soil has preserved for us. Look at the young Apollos +and their not less glorious brethren, the athletes. Look at the +guardians above the temple porches—incarnations of youthful +vigour even when the bearded head or matronly form give +sign of elder years. Look at the vases “with brede of marble +men and maidens overwrought.” Finally look well at the +statues of God and Goddess—even these have youth eternal +moulded in their full, strong figures.</p> + +<p class='c007'>And it is pleasant to reflect that it is not the sculptor’s +art alone which found satisfaction in thus dwelling on the +most beautiful forms of human life, but the painters and +the poets too immortalise the entrancing splendours of the +youthful form. Greek art of this time presents us with the +indubitable evidence of a belief, rooted deep as life itself, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>that the everlasting joy of completest beauty was to be found +in the well-conditioned body of youth or maiden. What a +degradation the ascetic interpretation of the Holy Writ +brought in the art of the Renaissance! Many youthful +figures do we find there, but they were chosen as much for the +sake of the quaintness of extremely youthful forms as for the +beauty inherent in vigorous development. The place of the +fine-drawn, well-groomed figures of the Greek youths and +maidens is taken by jolly, pot-bellied babies. Over the altars +and among the graves they scramble, and up the marble +columns, to launch themselves, heedless as screaming swallows, +over the groined ceiling. From North to South and +across Italy from Sea to Sea this breed of fascinating babies +spread—their father the Church, their mother the great +human heart of the Italian race. And then, dulling the +pleasant impression that such figures make upon the mind, +we are met on all sides by haggard figures of men and women +expressive only of a bitter ardour to seek salvation by pain.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The wanness of Botticelli, the pain and trouble of Michael +Angelo, the mere ordinarily healthy look of Ghirlandaio, these +are what take the place of the deep-breasted, broad-shouldered, +strong-pulsed, magnificent Greeks—some repetition among +these latter, ’tis true, but marvellous in their vigour and constancy +and impulsiveness. Or what poets can the Medicean +time show who sing of ideals and principles in the same full-throated, +calm, incisive way as Pindar or Sophocles sang +them? We have instead a scornful wrath or playful fancy. +The deity is no longer friendly but terrible, and dainty mistresses +usurp the place of the God-compelling Aphrodite. +The momentary, not the eternal, is the interest of the day.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p112a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>Some there were, Greek in spirit and in deed: Dante in +part of his later work, so far as a Catholic could be. The Vita +Nuova in its heart-broken passion, the Convito in its complexity, +are purely Italian, but passages of the Divine Comedy +and the Letters might be the work of one of the Attic dramatists, +so intense are they, so cool, so assertive of the power of +right over wrong. But an artist much more Greek than Dante +and one who is often, but very mistakenly, thought to resemble +Michael Angelo, was Tintoretto. His was a Greek sense of +form, his was a Greek sense of beauty, and his was a completely +and absolutely Greek sense of what constituted true +portraiture. There were others too of this group, but they +are rare and far between; men who seem to have been born +two thousand years too late, or else just in time to save the +world from a worship of what was mentally warped and +physically unsound.</p> + +<p class='c007'>When one considers that the art of sculpture has found +its chief employment in the service of religion, it becomes +plain why living among a people whose religion led to asceticism, +even though the age was largely sceptical, Michael Angelo +should impress his work with a feeling quite opposed to that +found in the works of Pheidias. Scepticism there was in +ancient Greece too, but not strong enough to free Pheidias +entirely from the bonds of the religion to which he was from +infancy accustomed. Furthermore, a scepticism that found +much fuel for its flames in the misconduct of the Vicar of Christ +and his less powerful imitators would have a very dissimilar +effect on the mind from that which was based on true mental +development. The one was the natural sloughing of the +skin, the other the amputation of a diseased member.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>The conditions at Rome had more effect on the formation +of character in those days than anything else, and they cannot +have seemed much less rotten to Michael Angelo than +to Hildebrand five hundred years earlier. The feeling that +Christ was essentially the man of sorrows, which affected the +early artists, had passed from men’s minds, and in regard to +his comeliness there was nothing to prevent an artist working +in a Greek spirit; but employed though Michael Angelo +was by the Popes, they used him by no means always on religious +work.</p> + +<p class='c007'>And Michael Angelo also suffered, as Pheidias did not, from +having many masters. These were causes to destroy any +Pheidian-like unity in Michael Angelo’s work, but causes +much more potent to work him injury were the characters of +the men for whom he worked, prince as well as Pope. It +was, doubtless, in many respects fortunate for a young artist +to have the freedom of the court of Lorenzo de’ Medici, but +while Lorenzo might help such a man as Michael Angelo at +the beginning of his career, he was hardly the man to inspire +his more mature years. At any rate he died while Michael +Angelo was still young, and thenceforth the latter worked for +men with whom he can have had but little sympathy. Men of +great energy they were, but with the exception of Alexander +VI, in the main corrupt or stupid. To work for such men +under any circumstances must have been trying, but when +one thinks of their refusal to allow Michael Angelo to work as +he saw fit, one does not wonder that at times he was nervously +irritable.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Obviously such a life would have been trying to a man of +more ordinary clay than Michael Angelo, but to him, endowed, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>as he was, with enormous powers of mental application and +sensitive as only poets are, it must at times have been little +less than torture. He knew that the golden age of his country +had passed. He saw Florence humbled and Rome sacked. +The statesmen were men of mean ambition and the clergy +men of lax morals. Nothing could stop the degeneration. +Political reformers and saintly enthusiasts had matched themselves +against the ever-increasing debasement of Italy, and one +after another they had all been overcome. From the days of +the doubtful reforms of Crescentius or Cola da Rienzi through +the period of the passionate recalling of Christ by Francis of +Assisi to the time of bitter invective of Savonarola, reformers +had given their lives in the attempt to save their beloved +Italy from the error of her ways, and all had failed. It was +not a time for hope but for sorrow, and it needed a firm belief +in the Divine Word to save one from despair—or at least +discontent.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is from his sonnets and letters rather than from his sculpture +that we can obtain a view of Michael Angelo’s thoughts +and feelings. Not that the latter does not show certain moods +of the artist very clearly, but, as in the Pietà, it is more ideal +than personal, more the expression of dreams than of his +actual experience. In the sonnets, on the other hand, he gives +vent to his own innermost feelings. In them we find frequent +expression of deep despair, but bitterly as he grieved for the +death of Savonarola, there is no evidence that he thereat lost +faith in humanity. It may well have been his admiration of +Vittoria Colonna that saved him from misanthropy. As his +intercourse with her was undoubtedly the purest joy and her +death the keenest sorrow of his later years, so there may have +<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>been some similarly sweetening influence during the summer +of his life. The knowledge of his career that we possess is +great, but it does not tell us this. It is for our purposes, +perhaps for all, better that this should be so. At least it +makes it easier to compare him with Pheidias, of whose life +we have no such details whatever.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such were some of the general conditions affecting the point +of view of these two men. The effect they had on particular +work becomes evident with the study of the separate monuments. +One point is, to begin with, very noticeable. It is +that of the eight works by Pheidias mentioned distinctly +by ancient writers seven are representations of deities, and +the eighth of an ideal being. There can be no question that +he made other works, but that these alone were preserved by +tradition certainly affords safe grounds for the deduction that +his genius was most congenially employed and most fully +displayed in such work. In the case of Michael Angelo, while +we know of work like the statue of Julius or the Battle Cartoon +(not to mention his youthful efforts) that have nothing to do +with religion, yet his mind also turned to religious subjects +and his greatest works are entirely of this character.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Curiously enough it is when employed on subjects drawn +from the ancient world that Michael Angelo is most unlike +the great Greek. His Pietà, the Madonna of Bruges (Plate +LIII) and Victor (Plate LIV) are more Pheidian than his +Bacchus (National Museum, Florence; Plate LV) or his Eros +(South Kensington Museum; Plate LVI). These are Greek +of a kind, but they are Alexandrian rather than Pheidian. +They are as foreign to any conceptions of the fifth century as +they are to those of the Catholic Church. The drunken, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>tottering Bacchus is as different from the early conception of +the God, who was thought of almost more as the sunshine +that makes the grape than as the juice itself, as the shrinking +and self-conscious Venus of the Capitol is from the Venus of +Cnidos. In his sensuality the Bacchus is un-Pheidian and in +the humour introduced in the group by the presence of his +companion he is equally so. Humour was not lacking to +the Athenian, as the drama shows, but the fields of sculpture +and painting were not considered the proper place for its +display.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In still another point is the statue of Bacchus comparable not +to the early but to the late Greek work, and that is in the realism +of the modelling and the action of the figure. Such modelling +bears no relation to the broad treatment of Pheidias. The +latter shows no such <i>morbidezza</i>, nor would he have dwelt on +the repulsive unsteadiness of the pose. Whoever it was that +carved the famous Borghese Anacreon, and it was some contemporary +of Pheidias, shows us how the earlier Greek artist +felt towards drunkenness. The figure is under the influence +of his much-sung God Dionysos, but he is shown in attitude of +mental ecstasy not of physical uncontrol. What stamps the +Bacchus and the Eros (and much of his other work) as non-Greek +is a lack not exactly of beauty, but of delicacy and refinement, +of charm. But each of these characteristics that +differentiates Michael Angelo’s work from that of the Greek +stamps it as a work of the Renaissance. The pleasure in +technical excellence, the realism and the representation of +unpleasantness are all qualities that recur over and over again +in the work of this vigorous, capable, unflinching, unbelieving +period.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>Similar un-Pheidian qualities show in the figure of Eros in +London, which if not by Michael Angelo, is at least made entirely +in his spirit. The same realism of modelling is seen in +the treatment of the head and face, the same choice of an +action inexpressive of the deepest meaning of the figure. It +is still less Pheidian in the vividness and intentness of the +action and expression which are not explained by the figure +itself, but the meaning of which is left to the imagination of the +beholder to discover. Dramatic quality of this sort is rarely +found in Pheidian work. The statues carved in that time +were self-explanatory. Single figures were often represented +as intent or as full of movement as the Eros, but their action +is not motived by something outside themselves. Hence +they do not puzzle the beholder. The Anacreon, the Discobolus +need no explanation, but Michael Angelo’s Eros needs +to be grouped (at least in imagination) with some other figure +before it can be understood. It is like Myron’s Marsyas, +splendid and suggestive but incomplete.<a id='r32'></a><a href='#f32' class='c015'><sup>[32]</sup></a> Separate figures +of the Parthenon pediments are as dramatic as the Eros, but +then they form part of a group and as such their meaning was +perfectly clear.</p> + +<p class='c007'>An instance is found in one of the group of Gods on the +eastern end of the frieze of the Parthenon (Plate LVII). The +figure is commonly called Ares. He is seated forward on his +throne, and holds one raised knee between his clasped hands. +Such an attitude, so lacking in grandeur, so suggestive of restlessness, +is well suited to the fiery God of Battles and shows +how free and ungoverned by conventions Pheidias could be. +The group as a whole is a perfect expression of the power of +the master, to be simple as a child in this treatment of the +Olympians and yet never to fail to produce work of supreme +beauty.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p118a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LVI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>This simplicity one notices in all Pheidian work, separating +it sharply from the later work in Greece and from most +of the work in Italy, particularly from that of Michael Angelo. +Pheidias is not in the least affected, but at the same time he is +not actualistic. Of the hundreds of figures in the full round +and in relief that decorated the Parthenon there is not one, nor +even a group, that does not seem absolutely and utterly simple +and real. And yet there is not one of them which close study +does not reveal to be a marvellous composite of actions and +forms and draperies and expressions which all bear the stamp +of idealisation (Plate LVIII). The effect of perfection that the +work conveys is due perhaps to Pheidias not having tried to +idealise in any vague or artificial way, but to his combining an +absolute dependence on Nature for his models with a capacity +of seeing, and solely representing, their essential beauties. So +while his figures are ideal in the sense that they are more +perfect than average mortals, yet they do not seem unapproachable +and unaccountable.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now this, we may freely grant, cannot be said of Michael +Angelo’s work. His figures are simple, yet it is not the simplicity +of Nature but of Art. A passing glance may find them +equal to the Pheidian works, but a more careful study shows +that though true to Nature and possible in action, they are, +in respect to both body and attitude, improbable. They are +composed, and hence in a way untrue. The Pheidian beings +seem those of the Golden Age—perfect and unconcerned; +<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>while the others oftentimes seem interested in their own +perfection and desirous that it should be admired. One knows +enough of Michael Angelo to know that though self-conscious, +such thoughts were far from his mind and if, as I think, they +are to be seen in his work, it only shows that the time was +stronger than the man, for he lived in a period when affectation +was not uncommon. The grandeur of the Greek figures, +as manifest in figurines as in colossal works, is due to the +beauty dependent on a mental poise; that of the Florentine +figures is due to their size and suggestion of physical strength +and to their facial and bodily expression that imply the capacity +of untold depths of passion—quite as physical a consideration +as that of size.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of course it may be said that the Eros is merely a study of +the human frame in a rather complicated position, but even so, +my contention that the figure is un-Pheidian still remains +true.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The strength of the action exhibited by this figure of Eros, +the tremendous play of muscle while at the same time the +figure is thought of not as in motion but as at rest, is what one +finds in very many figures painted and carved by Michael +Angelo and forms one of the most distinctive characteristics +of his work. It shows in the Slaves, in the Medici figures, +in some of the sacred groups, in lesser measure but yet distinctly +in the David and Moses, and as clearly as possible in +the paintings of the Sistine Chapel. It is due to this in large +degree that these works are so well known, for they strike the +eye of the casual and impatient sightseer and they are remembered +with much greater vividness than work of a quieter +and less excited character. In the hands of a genius like +<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>Michael Angelo such treatment of the human figure, and the +choice of such positions, seem natural and give no sense of +exaggeration or restlessness.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is commonly held that genius is limited by no law, and in +so far as is meant thereby to imply that no bounds can be set +to the concepts of great minds, this is true; in the attempt to +express such concepts to others, however, the genius equally +with less endowed mortals must be limited by the laws that +govern the material in which he seeks to find expression. +The penetration of a Sophocles or a Shakespeare into the +mysteries of life can have no measure set to it, but when they +tell us their thoughts, their words are bound by the laws of +verse. No final explanation can be given for the teeming +imagination of Michael Angelo, but some of his works may +be criticised for not conforming to the laws of space or +material that govern the arts of painting and sculpture. He +sometimes shows a lack of <i>taste</i>.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Genius shows in every touch of Michael Angelo’s hand, +whether with brush or chisel, but at times his work is unsatisfactory +owing to its exaggeration. No admiration is too +great for specific qualities in everything he did, but it is clear +that the conception of beauty was not held by him as essential. +To Pheidias, on the other hand, it was of primal importance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>A comparison of the Parthenon pediments with the ceiling +of the Sistine Chapel may make clear my meaning. This +is not the place for fine analysis of either composition. Suffice +it to say that in each case the space has been filled by the +decoration with a perfection and adequacy that has never +been again approached, but I think it will be generally admitted +<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>that the chief impression of the pediments, shattered +though they are, is of beauty, while that of the ceiling is of +power. Michael Angelo tried at times to express in paint and +stone what cannot be clearly expressed in those substances. +This was what I have referred to as lack of taste. His Last +Judgment is a striking case in point. He attempted in that +work to do what Milton or Dante succeeded in doing better +with more suitable means. Even the Chief Actor in the scene +lacked the quality of grandeur which Michael Angelo seems +usually to have found no difficulty in suggesting. It is perhaps +because he felt the inadequacy of stone or paint for the +full expression of his ideas that he left so many works uncompleted.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Michael Angelo’s figures of Night and Dawn and certain +figures in the Sistine Chapel may be criticised for the exaggeration +of their pose, though how extraordinarily successful +they are can be seen by comparing them with similar figures +by Vasari or other imitators of the master, which invariably +appear to be insecure and in danger of falling. The difference +in the kind of imitators who followed Pheidias, and those who +succeeded Michael Angelo, shows well one difference in their +genius and the effect on art in general that the two men had.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Both men had numerous pupils and followers, but in the +earlier time such men served to keep Greek sculpture at its +highest level, in the later they brought on a rapid degradation +of the art in Italy. The reason for this different result is +plain. Just as most people now see nothing in Michael +Angelo’s work but strongly modelled figures and vigorous +poses, not knowing enough of his life to comprehend what +were the thoughts he desired to express, so the artists in his +<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>own day thought the magnificence of his work lay in its +exterior form. Imitating this they succeeded in producing +only figures with unnaturally protuberant muscles placed in +uncomfortably contorted positions. Vasari and Bandinelli +are two instances in point. The painted figures of the former +are as foolish in their assertion of would-be grandeur as is +possible to conceive, and there are few things uglier or coarser +than the group of Hercules and Cacus by the latter.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In Michael Angelo this insistence on the muscular development +of figures is an accident perhaps due to his delight (a +pure Greek delight) in mere physical strength, such as he +himself possessed, but it is not the most telling characteristic +of his work. The truly essential part of his work is the thought +which his figures embody. His followers, being men of little +originality, as is shown by their trying to assume his peculiarities, +naturally succeeded not in making work like his, but +work which in reality serves to show their dissimilarity to +their master. It was unfortunate, also, that the very qualities +which attracted them were of a nature that if misunderstood +lead to a more rapid debasement of art and life than +almost any other, for a love of mere physical strength is a +love of what allies one to the beasts of the field. Their work +unites them not so much to Michael Angelo as to the maker +of what (with the exception of the Laocoon) is probably the +ugliest and most brutal work preserved to us from antiquity—the +Farnese Hercules.</p> + +<p class='c007'>All this was very different in the case of Pheidias and his +school. In his work there was nothing superficial to catch +the eye, no peculiarity except the perfection and beauty that +one feels instantly and yet cannot, without much care, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>explain on what it depends. What was there then for other +artists to do if they felt his was perfect sculpture and they desired +to work towards it? His figures were calm and stately. +His greatness lay in his conception of the being he was called +upon to represent—in his point of view, that is. This showed +itself not in a technical skill superior to that of his fellow-workers, +for the artists then as in the Renaissance were in the +main equally skilful, but in a mass of infinitesimal details +which not so much by themselves separately as by their combination +gave his work its everlasting charm. It would not +have taken a quick-witted Greek long to realise that to produce +Pheidian works he must look at life in a Pheidian way, +and the more successful his imitations the more calm, restrained +and careful would they be. This Pheidian point of +view was such that his followers were turned toward spiritual +repose as the source of inspiration for their works rather than +toward restless activity.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The complexity of the attitudes of Michael Angelo’s figures +is scarcely more noticeable than the multiplicity of the subjects +he was called upon to produce. Life was more complicated +in his day than in that of Pheidias, and there were more +varied demands made upon the artist than in the ancient +times. While Pheidias, so far as we know, had to make works +solely for the state or for some public purpose, Michael Angelo +was forced to gratify the whim of various powerful employers. +Oftentimes such work, as for instance the Sistine Chapel, was +of public character, but more often it was not, so that in place +of striving to embody the ideals of the state whose greatest +artist he was, he had to bend and mould his genius to satisfy +the personal ambitions of his masters. The story of the +Julian tomb illustrates this sad and thwarted part of his +career. Not only was he prevented from carrying out work +already undertaken in the way which he considered best, but +also he was forced to do that for which he felt himself unprepared +by previous training and unfitted by lack of interest +in the subject.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p124a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LVII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>That this was his mood at the time when, notwithstanding +his arguments, Pope Julius II compelled him, in 1508, to begin +the work in the Sistine Chapel, is known. If, when working +against his will, he produced the most wonderful bit of decorative +and architectural painting the world knows, one can +but wonder what limit his talent would have reached had he +ever carried to completion any of his great sculptural undertakings. +Just as his capacity for mingling in his figures deep +thought and powerful action shows not a greater but rather +a more varied genius than that of Pheidias, so his capacities +as painter, as architect, as engineer show that circumstances +led him to much greater variety of activity than probably +any ancient artist ever experienced. Not that this varied +activity must needs imply the possession of greater powers. +It implies merely the capacity of using an intellect highly +trained in one way for the accomplishment of purposes of +more than one kind. That is, it implies the possession by the +artist of adaptability and of common sense in its finest form, +and the possession of these qualities was not a rare characteristic +in the Renaissance. Men of all kinds showed it, but +it is most marked when it appears as part of the mental outfit +of painters and of sculptors, men who too often adopt a pose +of what they consider simplicity and lack of knowledge of the +world, as though ignorance were the stepping-stone to great +<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>art. This was not the condition of things in the Renaissance, +nor, so far as the little evidence we have allows us to judge, in +Greece. It created no surprise when Van Eyck and Rubens +were considered as proper persons to be entrusted with affairs +of state, nor when the military protection of his city was put +into the hands of Michael Angelo, nor when Leonardo laid out +the irrigation system of Lombardy. Life is more complicated +now and in many lines work has to be more specialised—but +this is no reason why artists should be stupid.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The fact that the talents required for painting and sculpture +are not incompatible is clearly shown by Michael Angelo’s +works. The most common criticism passed on them, and one +that is in part true, is that his sculptures are at times too pictorial +while at others his paintings are too sculptural. Certain +it is that parts of the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel look, at +first sight, more like sculptured figures than like painted +decorations. Michael Angelo was unquestionably aware of +this, and the effect was intentionally sought by him. To state +as a rule of art that work on the flat should always look flat +is a mistake. There is no law of optics or of architecture +which demands this.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The application of the laws of art must depend on the +individual practitioner.<a id='r33'></a><a href='#f33' class='c015'><sup>[33]</sup></a> In treating the figures in the Sistine +Chapel in a sculpturesque way Michael Angelo produced +a work more like the Parthenon in the perfection with which +the decoration is adapted to its position than is elsewhere to +be seen. He has used painting, that is to say, in much of his +design to suggest sculpture, which is the richer and more +suitable adjunct to most parts of architecture,<a id='r34'></a><a href='#f34' class='c015'><sup>[34]</sup></a> and thereby +produced a complex architectural work instead of producing +merely a painting which, like many of those in Venice, might +equally well be placed anywhere else.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p126a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LVIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>A comparison will make the point plain. Take most modern +decoration of a similar sort and how infinitely feeble and +accidental it seems! Look at the decorations of the Pantheon +in Paris, of the Boston Public Library, and the difference may +be seen. Great painting one may see there, but not great +decoration of architectural works; and ceiling or wall paintings +are nothing else. Any one of these paintings taken from +its present position would look equally well on any other wall +large enough to hold it, or in any gallery, and would also have +equal meaning there. Not so Michael Angelo’s work. As +a whole it could be put nowhere except where it is, and if cut +in pieces each bit would cry out in its solitude and demand the +juxtaposition of the other parts. The work is as perfect a +finishing of the Chapel as though it were some natural growth. +This is equally true of the sculptures of the Parthenon. How +inconsequent and unmeaning they look when taken from their +natural place is shown in the British Museum by the Athenæum +Club and Hyde Park Gate in London.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Michael Angelo’s other paintings also have a sculpturesque +look. This is partly due to the fact that the foreground, +where atmosphere has little effect, is more studied than the +background. To him as to Pheidias the human figure was +<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>of the deepest interest, but its natural surroundings of little +or none, so the figures are drawn with a distinctness and +illumined with an intensity of light which make them look +more solid and material than many a painter’s work. It +does not mean that Michael Angelo failed to understand the +function of painting as a Fine Art. The true function of art +is the presentation of the ideal and this is done by the translation +of emotion. This translation of emotion, when accomplished +with the motive of giving pleasure by pleasing the +senses or elevating the mind, produces the noblest art, for this +search for pleasure is in healthy minds but the search for +beauty, and beauty is the suggestion of the ideal. This being +the general function of Art each one of the Fine Arts follows in +ways individual to itself the search after beauty in the translation +of emotion. Music is the most subtle and architecture +is the most general of the arts, and poetry the most commonly +understood, while painting and sculpture, the terms of which +are hardest to define, are the most closely related. As an art +architecture is an expression of man as a social animal. Painting +and sculpture are its proper adjuncts. Painting ought +to be merely the representation by colour of three dimensional +spaces in two dimensions, while sculpture should attempt +nothing but the rendering of forms in full or partial relief. +Each art <i>per se</i> has special powers, but when used as a detail +of work of another kind, its peculiarities must then be suppressed +till it is in accord with the work of which it is a portion +or detail.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now this is exactly what Michael Angelo accomplished. It +is natural for painting, since it cannot represent figures in the +round, to lay most emphasis on the face, but when it is used +<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>to ornament the separate parts of an architectural work, it +must generalise its own peculiarities and use them to enrich +the architectural scheme. For in so far as painting thus used +impresses the beholder with its excellence as painting, by just +so far has the architecture become a frame for the painting +and the painting failed to be a glory added to the architecture. +Michael Angelo was a great enough genius to be able to use +painting perfectly as an additional splendour to his architecture.</p> + +<p class='c007'>You do not think of the figures or pictures on the Sistine +ceiling as separate works—in large measure the composition +is such that you cannot—so much as the finishing ornament +of the Chapel. This is because the artist did not put the +greatest amount of expression into the faces, it permeates +equally the whole body. Thus these grand creatures look like +sculpture, which is in fact, as more similar in its permanence +to architecture, the noblest means of decorating a building. +Ceilings cannot, it is true, be covered with carved figures, and +great care should be chosen in the scenes depicted on them, for +they do not offer a suitable position in which to hang pictures +that are primarily conceived as pictures. This was a common +mistake of the Venetians, who covered the ceilings of the Ducal +Palace, Santa Maria del’ Orto and countless other buildings +with elaborate paintings of subjects that have no architectural +significance and cannot be thought of as scenes taking +place in the heavens. They are in fact large easel pictures +and as such would be better seen if hung upright on the wall +than in their present position.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the Sistine Chapel Michael Angelo showed his complete +understanding of painting as an ornament and finish to architecture, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>and in his easel paintings he manifests, if not as +complex effects as some painters, at least as full a knowledge +of what constitutes painting, from its roots of drawing and +composition to the full blossom of colour and expression. +Perhaps the most marked peculiarity of his paintings is the +lack of complex backgrounds of any sort, whether of landscape, +or drapery, or architecture. This again allies him to +the Greeks, not to those of any one age in especial, but to all, +for the most marked difference (leaving the less important +matters of medium and technique aside) between their paintings +and those of modern times is, that they did not consider +backgrounds as a part to be treated with much elaboration +or care.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Greek painter, we know, presented his scene with only +enough suggestion of the surroundings in which the figures +stood for the beholder to understand the general character of +the spot where the action was taking place. He lavished his +care on the figures, and did nothing to distract the full attention +of the beholder from them. Michael Angelo did the same. +In so far as he rivets your whole attention to the figures on +the canvas, his painting is sculpturesque, but this word cannot +be applied to his work in the sense that he was ignorant of +the principles of painting as an art of expression. That in +his painting as in his sculpture he tended to overstep what are +generally considered the proper limits of the art is true, but +this was due rather to great knowledge than to any imperfect +understanding. At such times he was striking out into the +unknown realms of discovery and searching for new possibilities +for the arts of which he was the most accomplished master +of the time.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p130a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LIX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>I have tried to show how the general beliefs and ideals of +the people among whom they lived would have tended to differentiate +these two artists one from the other in certain ways +and to ally them in certain others. But different or similar, +can it be said of either: this one is the greater? I think not, +even though one recognises that Michael Angelo certainly +gave more varied expression to his genius. Neither of them +shows a more complete understanding of the arts, or embodies +a fuller realisation of the ideal in his figures, than the other.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Take for example Pheidias’s statues of Athena and Michael +Angelo’s of the Madonna. No artist could express all each +of these beings suggests in one figure, but it would be a hard task +to find anything that they did not show in one or the other +of their several presentations. We know with considerable +accuracy what was the grandeur of the Athena Parthenos, the +guardian of her chosen people, and we also know the divine +rage felt by Athena the warrior Goddess driving Poseidon +from the sacred citadel; and finally we know by literary and +probably by ocular evidence with what consummate grace +Pheidias represented Athena the ideal of Attic maidenhood. +There are many other statues of the Goddess by other artists +and from other periods but none I believe that add to the +realisation these three give us of what Athena was to the +Athenians.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the same way Michael Angelo shows us the feeling of +his time towards the Virgin. In the figure at Bruges we see +the youthful figure—the Virgin of the Visitation. In the +partially finished group in Florence there is more trouble in +the face, the feeling expressed in the words “behold, thy +father and I have sought thee sorrowing” and “they understood +<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>not the saying that he spake unto them” (Plate LIX). +In the Pietà in St. Peter’s her heart is numb with grief—the +flood of sorrow that has whelmed her is</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Such a tide as moving seems asleep,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Too full for sound or foam,</div> + <div class='line'>When that which draws from out the boundless deep</div> + <div class='line in2'>Turns again home.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c020'>Her figure as shown us by other lesser men seems trivial or +incomplete when these are remembered.</p> + +<p class='c007'>If one considers the larger undertakings of the two men, +the Parthenon and the Sistine Chapel, one cannot say that +either surpasses the other, though one can say with absolute +security that neither has ever been approached. In these +works they show themselves the masters of all craftsmen. +Note the way in which the composition of the Parthenon +groups suits the long, low triangular space in which they are +placed, each group, taken as a whole, being made up of numerous +lesser groups which are quite perfect by themselves and +so interwoven by means of upraised arms or turned bodies or +bits of floating drapery, that it is only after careful observation +that one sees how the artist made various parts unite +into one perfect whole. It is the acme of architectural sculpture. +It seems simple, but one searches in vain among the +pediment groups that have been made since for one that can +approach it even distantly in merit. It is this same intertwining +of simple, unforced separate parts into one grand, +living completeness that marks out the ceiling of the Sistine +Chapel as a thing apart and unequalled.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To compare the more private, perhaps more personal works, +of the two men is impossible, for the reason that nothing of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>this sort made by Pheidias has been preserved for us. There +are a few such by Michael Angelo, some from his earliest years, +as the Battle of the Centaurs, others like the David or perhaps +the Eros. From these we get a suggestion regarding the ideas +which Michael Angelo thought were to be expressed by sculpture. +The bas-relief showing the Battle of the Centaurs can, +however, scarcely be taken into consideration, for it is a work +of his mere boyhood and shows little except unusual power +for a youth and an interest, which apparently did not last, +in subjects drawn from ancient art. The man’s unconventional +and powerful nature is shown by the fact that in his +mature years he did not ever, as most contemporary painters +and sculptors did, try to copy the antique in any way. His +own mind was too active for him to adopt either the subjects +or modes of other men’s work. So, too, in the case of Pheidias, +his work does not suggest that of any predecessor, but in later +periods of Greek sculpture the figures which hark back in +some way to Pheidian originals are innumerable.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the David, in the figures in the Medici Chapel and those +for the Julian tomb one sees the same strained look: physical +calm and great strength combined with a marked expression +of mental restlessness and trouble, undoubtedly significant +of Michael Angelo’s own feeling of weariness and +of the ‘powerful trouble’ that beset the world. Pheidias +came just at the acme of a great period. Michael Angelo, on +the other hand, felt that the light in the sky was that of the +waning day, not of the sunrise. His figures are sad; those by +Pheidias are quiet and peaceful. Society and the artist were +in harmony in the case of the Greek; they were not in accord +in the case of the Florentine.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>Every point we study brings us to the same conclusion, that +while each of these men was the supreme master of his time +and of incomparable capacity, Pheidias had less to struggle +against than Michael Angelo; and through being able to carry +out his ideas unhampered, he had a better effect on his followers +than Michael Angelo, whose works are in the main +monuments of thwarted purpose. Each sought unceasingly +to embody in his work ideals of beauty beyond the influence +of contemporary events. In the one case this was possible, +in the other not. To the Greek, contemporaneity was nothing, +to the Italian, it was all. Where Pheidias was called on to +decorate the chief public building of Athens with scenes of +war which were known only by popular tradition and which +were instinct with poetry, Michael Angelo had to depict a +battle that was a mere incident of border warfare. Each of +these men, however, enriched the world with works that are +unsurpassed, and similar work will never again be accomplished.</p> + +<p class='c007'>With the passing of the Greek world passed the ideals +that inspired Pheidias. Others came and faded away again +with Michael Angelo. Their works are immortal in the sense +that in their kind they cannot be superseded. But the arts +themselves are not immortal, for this would mean that they +could not advance and develop. It is in this power of growth +and change and adaptation that art is allied to science, and we +turn to the most recent exponent of either with the incommensurable +hope that he may have found the master key to +beautiful new worlds.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span> + <h3 class='c004'>III. A HEAD OF ATHENA FROM CYRENE</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>In the first, and, as it was destined to be, the last report +on the excavations by the Archæological Institute of America +at Cyrene,<a id='r35'></a><a href='#f35' class='c015'><sup>[35]</sup></a> I published a marble head of Athena which we found +a few inches below the surface on the top of the Acropolis.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The spot where it was found afforded no clew to its origin. +It came to light in a small room constructed probably in the +later Ptolemaic times, and had obviously fallen and been lost +to sight, by one of those inexplicable accidents familiar to all +excavators, on the spot where our picks discovered it. No +temple stood near; no trace of pedestal could be found and +no other fragment of marble came from the torn covering +of protecting earth to help answer the eager questioning +the quiet face aroused. Except for a flake off the hair, the +tip of the helmet projecting over the brow, the edge of one +ear and the point of the nose, the marble was as fresh as the +day the figure was first unveiled to the worshipping multitude. +(Plates LX, LXI.)</p> + +<p class='c007'>The perfect head alone is left us to solve the riddles the archæologist +and artist may ask. Doubtless when in the oncoming +years the Italians have the satisfaction of finishing +the work which we inaugurated and made possible, further +discoveries will dispel whatever doubts now harass our minds, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>and students, forgetful of the time and circumstances under +which we wrought, will wonder why we hesitated, why we did +not see, why the closed lips did not speak to us with as clear +a note as to them. Doubtless, but still it seems likely that +many years must elapse before others will be able to finish +our work, and in the meantime it is well to bring this lovely +bit of sculptor’s art more adequately to the attention of students +than seemed wise before the hope of continuing the +excavation was blighted by the careless hand of war.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Before studying the special characteristics of this head of +Athena and showing how, notwithstanding the very numerous +representations of the warrior Goddess which we possess, it is +entirely individual and unlike any other, we may do well to +recall certain facts regarding Cyrene as a centre of Greek life +and thought, facts that are not open to question, being proved +by historical and other positive evidence. The accounts +given by the ancient historians and poets of the foundation +and rapid rise to wealth of Cyrene were sufficient to make us +certain that the archæologist’s spade would find in plenty +those beautiful monuments of a long-since vanished spirit +which make the work of the excavator on Greek soil so entrancing +and satisfying.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Even at inaccessible Cyrene, however, we were not the +first. In the early sixties of the last century, Smith and +Porcher, two fine examples of men of English breadth of +view combined with well-trained and persistent capacity, +had brought to light a considerable number of bits of sculpture +which showed clearly that Cyrene, like every other +Greek city, had once been a kindly nurse to artists. True +though it be that these broken fragments now sheltered in the +British Museum were, with the exception of a magnificent +bronze head, of second-rate quality, still they dispelled all +doubt regarding one very important point; that is, they showed +that at Cyrene itself there were large numbers of sculptors +whose technical skill was of a high order. That there were +numerous sculptors was proved by the fact that the works +found by Smith and Porcher embraced a long stretch of +years.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p136a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>At first sight this fact may appear little noteworthy, and +its bearing on our Athena head may not be perceived. It +takes on a fresh aspect, however, when we realise that there +is no marble to be found within hundreds of miles of Cyrene, +and, in consequence, the stone must have been imported +to the city. It might be suggested that not the +marble but the finished carvings were imported, as we know +from literary evidence was sometimes done in other parts of +the Greek world. Had the English and ourselves found only +one or two examples of supreme merit, this theory might be +tenable. No one, however, will attempt to uphold it in the +face of the numerous busts, statues, bas-reliefs, grave monuments +and inscriptions, many of which are of very little +importance, which were dug up by the Englishmen and ourselves. +Portrait busts alone show that Cyrene had her own +sculptors who, even though they lacked the advantage their +<i>confrères</i> of many Greek cities had in near-by quarries, managed +to overcome the difficulties Nature put in their way and +struggled to a mastery of their chosen art. The bearing of +this on the Athena will become manifest as we go further into +the study of the subject.</p> + +<p class='c007'>If only another Pausanias, one might suggest, had gone sightseeing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>and note-taking along the surprising shores of Libya, +our work of interpretation had been far simpler. But though +we are not helped by such written evidence, we can still discover +the essential qualities and meanings of these sculptures, +and the diggers who in years to come drive our trenches deeper +into the ground will find nothing more unexpected than the +Athena, for she is the drifted seaweed that proves the still +invisible land. In fact, I for one am glad we have no Pausanias +to dull the edge of our wits with his bald and often +erroneous statements. He has helped much in making it +possible to draw up chronological tables and schedules of +all sorts regarding the development of Greek sculpture, +yet had he never written, the true understanding of the art, +the comprehension of the forces that moulded it from the +days of its early promising effort through its bloom of unchallenged +perfection on to its phosphorescent decay, would have +been not less full and possibly even more intelligent than it +is to-day. Pausanias and others of his kind have handed +down many names which mean, in truth, no more to us than +the titles “master this” or “master that” of the mediæval +German school of painting. Such facts and data are of +infinitely little importance. Even without them the razor-sharp +critical powers of a Heinrich Brunn or an Adolf Furtwaengler +(before he gave up his energy to acrimonious and +petty dispute) were not to be denied and without any fictitious +aid of names would have interpreted Greek art to us. That +there are always blind souls who, when they see the Hermes +of Praxiteles, think it Roman, and consider the Maiden of +Anzio a work of the time of the Antonines, and who find other +blind souls to follow them, does not delay the Brunns and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>Furtwaenglers when they make their rare appearance in the +world of scholarship.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus with no help or suggestion derived from information +given us by ancient travellers we start on our study of the +Athena with the knowledge that the technique of the art +of sculpture was so well understood, and the practice of it +so common, at Cyrene, that we need not, unless forced by internal +evidence, look elsewhere for the nameless sculptor who +carved this masterpiece. The result will show that all the +internal evidence is in favour of its Cyrenean origin.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Since, then, sculpture was at Cyrene, as everywhere else +in the Greek world, one of the common modes of expression, +it remains for us to study the influences to which it was +subjected. We meet here the strange phenomenon that the +millennial-old civilisation of Egypt exerted apparently no influence +whatever on the young Greek town to the west. That +towards the end of the latter’s career, when she had fallen +under Ptolemaic control, she should be unaffected by Egyptian +thought is not surprising, for Egypt herself had at that time +submitted to the spell of Greece, and the true Egyptian art +must have seemed to the fellahin who then cultivated the +Nile valley almost as strange as it does to us. If, however, +the often-expressed theory, supposed to be borne out by +certain statues found on the Acropolis of Athens and elsewhere, +that the archaic sculptors of the Greek mainland were +more or less governed by Egyptian ideals, be true, then it is +odd that even the most archaic art of Cyrene, represented by +statuettes of the sixth century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, does not exhibit a similar +tendency. But this belief in the Egyptian influence on the +artists of Greece is based, it seems to me, on unsound evidence.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>There are obviously two, and only two, chief points to consider, +if one would fully understand a work of art. One is its +outer form, the other what it is trying to express; for even the +childish and misdirected efforts of the “Futurists” are an +endeavour to express something—how futile these efforts +are is shown by the fact that were it not for the titles given +the works by the Futurists themselves no one, no matter how +capable an artist or how mystical a dreamer, could possibly +guess what they were intended to represent. The works +show an even greater confusion of mind than that of Father +Castel who in the early part of the eighteenth century attempted +to make instruments which he called <i>clavecin des +couleurs</i> and <i>clavecin des odeurs</i>, instruments intended to produce +by means of changing colours and perfumes the same +effects as music.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now one thing in very truth Greek art never was, either +in poetry, sculpture, painting, or in any other form: it +was never confused, but had always perfect lucidity. In +sculpture, for instance, the composition of the groups and +figures, though often displaying an intricacy almost as great +as that of a knot by Leonardo, is never anything but clear +to the trained eye. To understand the value of this quality +one need only look at the work of Rodin, which, no matter +what elements of greatness it may be thought to have, certainly +has not one slightest atom of Greek quality. Besides +the evil of confusion another failure sculpture may show is the +stagnation of formalism. This is one of the most noticeable +features of Egyptian art. Notwithstanding the wonderful +technical dexterity of the workers in that land, hieratic influences +were too strong for them and their natural impulses +<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>were shackled by the bonds of dogma. This blight, too, the +Greeks avoided. What then is the ground for maintaining that +their early art was influenced by Egypt? That the early sculptors +may have learnt many technical processes from Egyptians +I would neither deny nor affirm. They may even have had +Egyptian teachers, just as later the Romans had Grecian ones, +but that does not mean that Greek art was of necessity +moulded in accordance with Egyptian feelings and ideals.</p> + +<p class='c007'>True it is that there are certain Greek statues which resemble +in pose and stiffness certain Egyptian statues, but there +is a fundamental difference between the two groups. The +pose is an accident and can be duplicated in work from other +parts of the world. The fundamental difference is that the +stiffness of the Greek work does not represent the formalism +of Egypt, but it is due to the awkwardness of inexperience. +Take, for instance, the “Aunts” found on the Athenian +Acropolis. They are by an unpractised, stiff hand and in that +sense they are formal; but they are far more, delightfully +spontaneous. Such work would have been inconceivable to +an Egyptian and would have seemed to him irreligious and +indecent. It is not to be thought that Greek art even in its +period of fullest bloom was not formal; it was. It was the +wonderful talent of the Greek clearly to understand the laws +proper to the various arts, but he was always spontaneous and +original, and his work exhibits formality but not formalism.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These qualities are seen in the earliest work found at Cyrene, +the terra-cottas already mentioned. That they should +be so manifested is but another proof of the amazing force and +individuality of the Greek mind. Any other race would almost +surely have felt the influence of Egypt. Her territory joined +<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>that of Cyrene on the eastern border and the land between +the city and the Nile offered no barriers of mountains or +desert to hinder easy and comparatively rapid communication, +yet the outer form and inner content of these early Cyrenean +figures is completely and unmistakably Greek. That traders +passed back and forth from one region to the other cannot +be doubted. Caravans plodded their slow way from the +sacred fountain to the mysterious river, coastwise boats skirted +the inhospitable shore even as they do to-day. The Greek, +then as now the costermonger of the Mediterranean, made +his money, but he kept his individuality. Throughout the +centuries, until at last spiritual aloofness was trampled down +by a ruder and more powerful race, at Cyrene as completely +as at Athens, the Greek maintained his own standards and +beliefs. As the clumsy terra-cottas, wrought not very long +after the first settlers were guided to the spring which made +a great city possible, show this, so also does the Athena. +Individual she is, and unique, but she is pure Greek. The +reasons for some part of her individuality will become clear +as we study her still further.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We see, then, that the Athena is a work expressing with unveiled +distinctness the Greek spirit, and also that there is no +reason to suppose that the sculptor was other than Cyrenean; +it remains to find out at what date the figure was carved. +Often a mere fragment like this exhibits some detail that +makes it easy to fix the date of its origin with considerable +accuracy. In this case the question is complicated by both +technical points and general considerations. Had this head +been found in Greece itself or in any part of the Greek portion +of Asia Minor, the history of which is well known and the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>art of which has been laid bare by the archæologist, we should +have various well-established criteria by which to test and +estimate the head. But the definite historical records of +Cyrene are very scanty, and though what is probably in general +a fairly accurate idea of the development of the city can +be built up from the verses of poets, the accounts of historians +and other sources of various kinds, still there is little to help +us date a single work of art. There is, however, no reason +to suppose that the deeper currents which gave the course +to the life of Cyrene were very different from those which +guided the life of other colonies. Pindar’s odes alone would +serve to show that the African city was in pretty constant +relation with the mother country. Hence it is safe to assume +that the arts developed in Cyrene very much as they did +elsewhere in the Greek world.</p> + +<p class='c007'>At the present time surely enough is known of the +various parts of that world to make us realise that all advance +did not spring from Greece herself. Though the Greek spirit +was bound to express itself in similar forms wherever Greeks +settled, still sometimes one region, sometimes another, was +in the lead. Hence any chronological scale as applied to art +must be elastic, and one must not give way to the temptation +to judge every new find by the standards set by the artists +of Greece herself. Provincialism and archaism often take +similar external forms. So, too, it is a general law that colonies +develop more rapidly than the country from which +they spring. A rapid development may be brought about +also by geographical and climatic conditions in places which, +at first sight, do not appear to be conducive to the advancement +of art.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>In years to come it will be proved beyond a doubt, I believe, +that Cyrene was such a place. Her distance from the regions +in which we are accustomed to think of the Greeks as working +out their destiny saved her from the wastage of those wars +which it is hard to regret because they have given us immortal +pictures of Greek courage and devotion. What her relations +with the native powers were we do not yet know, but had +they led to any such struggles as made the pride of Athens +and the other cities of the mother country, surely some echo +would have reached our ears. So we may think of Cyrene +as waxing fat from the moment when the first settlers, after +their long wanderings to find a habitable spot, climbed the +rocky hillsides and quenched their thirst at the spring which +with its bright arms still holds a small settlement. It is for +these general considerations of easy colonial growth, and freedom +from external distractions, that I think the Athena can +be safely dated rather earlier than we should be tempted to +date her had she been found, let us say, in Athens or Sparta.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The technical point which I mentioned as making it difficult +to date the head, is the helmet. It is of the Corinthian +type, but there is nothing in its general shape or details of +form by which a date can be fixed. Furthermore, it covers +the head so completely that only a few waving locks of hair +over each ear and the heavy braid resting on the nape of the +neck are visible. This concealment of the hair takes away in +large measure one of the most helpful methods of dating +statuary.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p144a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>In the case of female figures, nevertheless, the treatment of the +hair is less helpful, perhaps, than in statues of the rougher sex +because in the former the more severe and orderly dressing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>of the bound locks gave less chance for individuality of treatment +than did the crisp and wind-tossed curls of youths and +men; still, even in the women’s figures the hair very often +betrays the date of the sculptor. Few though the tresses +are which escape the stern covering of Athena’s helmet, they +are sufficient to help us in our elusive pursuit. The general +method in which the hair is arranged, parted over the brow +and drawn closely back above the ears to a knot or short +doubled up braid at the back, is one that suffered but little +change during several centuries. In the archaic time the +locks fell more loosely behind, while in the fourth century +they were more knotted, but these slight variations occur now +and again throughout the whole period of great Greek art +and were due more to individual fancy of artist or model than +to the stifling rules of fashion.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But though we must finally conclude that the mode of wearing +the hair does not assist us, as the cut of the dress most +certainly would have done had we been fortunate enough to +find the body of the statue, still the tresses between the temple +and the ear have a quality of their own which points to a definite +time. They suggest the loose waving form of life with +noteworthy success. The sculptor belonged to a period when +the special nature of marble was thoroughly understood. +The period had passed when bronze and marble were treated +in almost identical fashion, and the time had come when sculptors +could manage various materials with complete understanding +and were enabled to reproduce surfaces or substances +in the way best suited to malleable metal or to friable +stone.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The most perfect example of this understanding of substance +<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>which we possess, and one that has never been surpassed, +is the head of Hermes by Praxiteles made in the first +half of the fourth century before Christ. The hair of the +Athena is handled in much the same way. The locks and +strands are not sharply outlined and separated one from another +but flow from brow to neck in subtly broken masses +among which the light plays in and out as softly as in nature. +This naturalistic treatment became common after it had once +been arrived at, but the tendency after the end of the fourth +century was to try for purer realism. This could not be +attained by greater skill in modelling and carving but only +by polishing or engraving the surface. The Athena exhibits +neither of these signs of decadence but the surface still shows +that lovely dusty softness which is characteristic of the best +work of the late fifth and early fourth centuries, a softness +which would not have been imperceptible and lacking in +effect even when the figure was tinted with colour, as, probably, +all Greek sculpture was.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is not only the hair which suggests the date of the early +fourth century as the time when the Athena was made. The +broad chin, projecting well away from the neck, a chin that +would be heavy, were it not for the exquisiteness of its outline, +which seems to have the living force of a coiled steel +spring, is such as was common in the fifth and early fourth +centuries. So, too, are the broad set, wide opened eyes overhung +by the long low curve of the brow. Not a sign in these +of the sentimentally dreaming eyes with their melting lower +lids which we associate with the work of the imitators and +followers of Praxiteles; not a trace of the furrowed brow and +the eye gleaming, like a live coal, from the deep shadowed +<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>socket such as we see in the work of Scopas and the superb +masters of Pergamon.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In discussing such a fragment as this Athena it cannot be too +clearly remembered that the sculptor, like the poet, does but +express his own day, and if Praxiteles was delicate and sentimental +or Scopas forceful and passionate, it was because +these were characteristic qualities of their periods. These +are, furthermore, exactly the qualities one would expect at +a time when old standards were beginning to be doubted and +the future offered nothing so substantial to take their place.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The same phenomenon is seen in the seventeenth century +of our era. In both periods thoughtful people either clung to +a sentimental repetition of old ideas which no longer had life-giving +and creative force, but were loved and dwelt on for +the sake of old association, or else they were driven to a passionate +striving after new and dimly seen hopes and ideals. +Sentimental dreaming took the place of good hope and assurance +while mystical passion took that of intelligent piety. +In the face of the Athena there is seen no sign of a troubled +spirit, she is calm and steadfast with the strength of perfect +self-poise, which could hardly be, were she sprung from a later +time than the early fourth century.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It has been insisted that there is in this head no trace +of sentimentality, and it may be thought that I have failed to +notice, or to give due weight to, the curious pose, drooping +over slightly to one side. This is one of the most noticeable +points about the head, but, to my mind, it expresses a feeling +common in the fifth and early fourth centuries and is not +motived in the slightest degree by the later sentimentality. +In the old man seated on the ground in the Olympia pediment, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>in the Mourning Athena at Athens, in most of the grave +steles of the late fifth and early fourth centuries, in the portrait +bust of Pericles, is to be seen, in the pose and expression +of the figures, the expression of a deep sentiment of combined +gravity and tenderness. Again and again this sentiment is +expressed by the great dramatists in words that ring down +the centuries like distant bells. It is the recognition of +suffering and sorrow but also of the self-control that meets +them undismayed. When the Greeks lost their faith, at the +same time they lost this control. In the Demeter of Cnidos +and the portrait of Mausolus there are unmistakable signs +of lack of control,—in the former the startled pose, and in the +latter the look of distress plainly visible in the fine and vigorous +face. The Athena resembles the Pericles and the grave +steles in this respect. The head leans over as though bent by +the wind (a position which emphasises the exquisite shape of +the neck), but in the steady, quiet eyes and in the sensitive +closed lips one sees plainly that simple directness that distinguished +the Greeks of the period to which I attribute this +head, from all the other peoples who have inhabited this +earth.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I have just mentioned the mouth of the figure, and this is +the feature to which I referred before as showing, possibly, +the effect of local circumstance on the sculptor. It is a very +noticeable mouth; large with unusually full and richly modelled +lips—lips that could send the battle cry echoing across +the scarred and rock-strewn hills or could whisper like the +brook beneath the rosy-plumed oleanders. In shape it is +by no means a typical Greek mouth, but has a trace of the +fuller form common to the Libyans with whom the Cyreneans +<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>were in constant and close intercourse. While it is true that +history fails to note a single case of an individual of pure +black blood accomplishing anything of note except in a military +way, such do often possess great beauty of form and +feature, and this fact has been seized upon by the sculptor +of the Athena. With great skill he has softened the somewhat +savage shape and given it the lines that are consequent +upon a higher civilization.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have come now to the end of our study of this bit of +sculpture. It could be compared indefinitely with other +heads, and the similarities or differences could be pointed out. +Little would result, however, from such comparisons. What +is needed is more sculpture from the same region with which +to study the Athena. But till this is forthcoming, we are left +to the general conclusions derived from this single example. +These conclusions are that the Athena was carved by some as +yet unknown artist at Cyrene in the first half of the fourth +century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> and that the work differs from the Greek work we +are accustomed to in showing local characteristics both in +special features and in method. This may seem to be of small +importance and the head to be unworthy so elaborate a discussion; +such would be the case were we to think of it merely +as an archæological remnant of a forgotten city and time. +But this head is more than a mere bit of flotsam. It is not +a dead and meaningless fragment, but has still the suggestive +and creative power of any true work of art. This vitality +and artistic veracity are shown by the extreme clearness with +which it illustrates two of the fundamental characteristics +of the Greek genius—humanism and directness.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The simplicity and directness of the Greek showed itself +<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>in all he did or made. He never attributed human emotions +to nature and never bound himself with dogmatic conventions. +For these reasons he was never sentimental and never +dry or false. He saw ugliness, moral as well as material, in +the world around him, but recognising that it in no way added +to happiness, he did not wallow in it and proclaim himself a +“realist.” When he came to consider religion he was straightforward +in his treatment of the Gods as he was with himself. +They were but a superior race born from the same great mother +Earth (Pindar, Nem. VI. 1). Athena, the Goddess, is but a +woman and nothing more. He saw beautiful women in the +cities where he dwelt and in form of their physical perfection +he represented the bright-eyed Goddess. He sought no imaginary +qualities, he attempted to express no hazy, mystical +dreams but finding beauty in mankind, he was satisfied to reproduce +it so well as might be.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Ordinary everyday life was the chief interest of the thoughtful +Greek. He had the same circumstances of existence around +him as we have to-day, and knew just as much of the origin +or the end of it all. Life, death and the passing show of time +were his schoolmasters as they are ours, and from them he +learnt humanism. He thought of the world not as a blind accident +nor as a mystical promise but merely as the setting for +man and hence the conduct of life became his chief interest.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Greek sought for all means whereby he might avoid the +pitfalls of youth, secure the comforts of well-rounded growth +and minimise the weaknesses and griefs of old age. To +attain this ideal certain things were seen to be necessary, +and from Solon, who considered that the man was happy +who had health, good fortune, good looks and children, to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>Aristotle, who (Rhet. 1360 b, 14) gave the same definition in a +more amplified form, the ideal did not alter. Even to-day +there is but one part of this that seems strange to us. That +is the stress laid on personal beauty. Good fortune, health, +wisdom, children and particularly wealth go to form the +general ideal of the modern world, but there can be only few +who would admit that the desire for physical beauty was part +and parcel of their ideal. The Greek on the other hand +frankly desired it almost more than anything else and showed +his perfectly simple and entirely pleasant belief in its value +by his games and by many a story which he told as illustrative +of enduring truths. One of these tales has a bearing on the +Athena of Cyrene. It is that of Peisistratus, who in order to +become ruler of Athens came there accompanied by a beautiful +woman in regard to whom he told the credulous citizens +that she was the Goddess Athena herself.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus we see that it is due to no mere partiality for the pleasing +form on the part of the unknown sculptor that this head +from Cyrene is beautiful, but because his brain and hand were +guided by ideals that were second nature to him. As we grow +familiar with the head, the loveliness of every feature, the sharp +insistence on sweet feminine beauty make one wish destruction +might fall on the vague and dreamy and contorted realisms with +which many of the modern artists would attract our attention. +The calm and steadfast eyes look at us across the centuries +and question our mysticism. The straightforward, immediate, +perfect humanity gives us pause in our mad search for +novelty, and should we conclude that this is perfect art, though +we may lose the sympathy of our contemporaries, we shall +win the companionship of those whose laurels are immortal.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span> + <h2 class='c005'>GIORGIONE</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span><i>Although in the following Study of Giorgione I express certain conclusions +which seem to me certain, it is nevertheless probable that there will never be +absolute agreement about his works. The indubitable facts concerning him are +so very few that no two critics can be expected to see the matter eye to eye. I +disagree in many points with the pathbreakers Morelli and Berenson, but it +should not be forgotten that the knowledge of such men gives an added keenness +to the innate powers of perception of those who come after them. Their torch +lights ours, and so the path is pursued.</i></p> + +<p class='c007'><i>The publication of Justi’s valuable work on Giorgione (Berlin, 1908), in +which all the pictures still in existence that have bearing on Giorgione are reproduced, +makes full illustration of this Study quite unnecessary.</i></p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span> + <h3 class='c021'>I. PAINTINGS ATTRIBUTED TO GIORGIONE</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c022'>A great upheaval and destruction of old traditions has +taken place of late years in regard to paintings, and while +much truth has been brought to light, a great deal of fancy +has been given the semblance of veracity. The name of +Morelli is familiar to all who take a serious interest in the +paintings of the Italian schools, and though he was not the +first to practise what not inaptly has been dubbed the ‘toe-nail’ +method of criticism, yet his writings are more voluminous +than those of other authors, and exemplify this method +of criticism more completely, so that he may be taken as the +protagonist of the school. It was the development of photography, +and the vast increase in the number of pictures of +which photographs could be procured, which gave rise to the +Morellian school. The writers of earlier days who could not +have before them on their tables, or carry with them to the +galleries, a large quantity of reproductions of the works of +any one master, were in a large measure prevented from studying +the comparative likenesses or dissimilarities of such pictures.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But, as was natural, with this intensive study of photographs +has come about a microscopic method of looking at +pictures which often disregards the larger and more unquestionable +qualities, and satisfies itself with tricks of drawing and +the painting of details. It is as though instead of considering +<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>the structure and content of a book, one should measure +the lines and number the punctuation points. It is within +the realm of possibility that the day has passed for treatises +based on such thorough study and acute perception of the +qualities expressed by the Italian painters as were written +by Crowe and Cavalcaselle, or such magnificently imaginative +and poetic interpretations as the enduring verities first +enunciated by Ruskin.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Not that these men did not make mistakes. Had they +never done so we should not be able to give a true valuation +to their work. Stupidity is not demonstrated by the making +of blunders but by the spirit that animates the person at the +moment of their commission. Ruskin, to illustrate by means +of the brightest example, realised that paintings are expressions +of thought just as much as are printed books, and that +they are to be read and understood not by adding the vowels +together in one heap and the consonants in another, but in +their entirety.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Morelli and his followers, on the other hand, are obviously +in large measure satisfied by an analysis of external forms and +if they discover that each of two pictures presents the same +number of curved and straight lines, no further proof is needed +to satisfy them that the same author is responsible for both +works. It is true that details of style must be studied and +were often neglected by the earlier critics, but the famous proof +of the identity of Moses and Melchisedek—“you take off +the -<i>oses</i> and add the -<i>elchisedek</i>”—will never satisfy many +people. Morelli forgot that it requires no special perception +to discover that Botticelli gave his figures square nails on +their toes and fingers, or that the knuckles of Rosselli’s figures +<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>are apt to be swollen. But it is exactly this kind of observation +which copyists possess. By the observation of such +points one is able to say only that such and such a work is +externally like the works of this or that artist, but that it is +by him depends on quite other proofs.</p> + +<p class='c007'>One or two examples will show the fallacy of such a method +of argument. There is in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts +a picture representing the Virgin and Child with St. John. +The name of Botticelli is on the frame. So far as finger nails +or shape of nostril or locks of hair or position of fingers go +(and all these details are peculiarly treated by Botticelli), the +work might be considered to be by him. It is, however, +certain that Botticelli was not the painter of the panel. +Among several circumstances that demonstrate this, such as +the method of painting employed by the artist, there is one +that has to do with the spirit of the work, and which in itself +is sufficient proof: I refer to the figure of St. John. We have +enough works by Botticelli, the authenticity of which is established +beyond all question, to know that he could never at +any period of his career have represented this character with +a simper that reminds one of Francia’s sentimental figures.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The picture is by a feeble imitator of the master. The works +of Botticelli and his imitators offer, because of the very marked +peculiarities of the master, extremely good examples to show +what mistakes arise by relying too exclusively on the Morellian +method, and in both public and private collections are +many pictures showing the mannerisms of the Florentine but +which are certainly not by him.<a id='r36'></a><a href='#f36' class='c015'><sup>[36]</sup></a> Take another master, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>Leonardo. There has lately gone to America<a id='r37'></a><a href='#f37' class='c015'><sup>[37]</sup></a> a panel representing +the head of a woman. It was left by Morelli when +he died to Donna Laura Minghetti. To the followers of +Morelli, the picture seemed for a long time genuine enough, +but when the style of the headdress, the tone of the colour +and character of the painting, and lastly the position of the +head on the panel itself, had been studied, it became evident +that the painting was a modern forgery, and this was further +proved when an attempt was made to clean the panel.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These illustrations are sufficient to show that the final +judgment of a picture should be based on more than its technical +peculiarities. The observation of these is good to begin +with, but it does not suffice. That even Morelli himself +instinctively felt the weakness of his method is shown in a +most humorous way in his description of his “discovery” of +the author of a portrait of a woman in the Borghese Gallery.</p> + +<p class='c007'>He tells us how before he looked at this canvas with +<i>kritischem Auge</i> he had first thought it to be by Dosso Dossi +and then by Sebastiano Luciani. The rest is too naïve to translate, +it must be given verbatim. “Eines Tages jedoch, als ich +wieder fragend und entzückt vor dem mysteriösen Bilde stand, +begegnete mein eigener Geist dem des Künstlers, welcher aus +diesen weiblichen Zügen heraussah und siehe da, in der gegenseitigen +Berührung zündete es plötzlich wie ein Funken +und ich rief in meiner Freude aus: Nur du, mein Freund, +Giorgione kannst es sein, und das Bild antwortete: Ja, ich +bin’s”; and then follows analysis and dissection of the +portrait.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The still small voice of his soul having interpreted the riddle +<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>of the picture he <i>then</i> saw that the eye, the expression, the +mouth were such as only Giorgione could paint. In a critical +case like this Morelli had to look first to something other than +anatomical or sartorial shapes. Unfortunately, in this particular +case, he has convinced but few students by this sudden +and mysterious interpretation of the picture, and only his +most ardent apostles see in the ill-drawn portrait anything +but a feeble imitation of certain of the less subtle qualities of +the great Venetian.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Morelli made, however, other discoveries in regard to +Giorgione of greater import than this; but before taking them +up in detail it will be worth while to fix clearly in our minds +what we know about the Venetian’s work from contemporary +or approximately contemporary writers. Vasari and Ridolfi +do not, indeed, fail to give the name of Giorgione to many a +picture that had never felt the artist’s brush, but they saw +many a picture that has since disappeared and what they tell +us is the basis of all modern criticism of this most poetic of +all the Venetians. I believe it can be shown that much which +the earlier writers said of him, and which has since been forgotten +or unwisely disregarded, is true.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I will say nothing of the life that Giorgio Barbarelli Giorgione, +Zorzone as his comrade Venetians called him, led. +That has little to do with us. I wish merely to show which +pictures now labelled with his name may in my opinion be +confidently accepted as his, and which ones we are justified +in taking from him. In his early days he painted, says +Vasari, in the second edition of the “Lives”:</p> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>1. Many pictures of the Virgin. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>2. David, armed and with long hair, holding the head of Goliath. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>3. Warrior with a red cap, a fur cloak and a silk jacket. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd><span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>4. Child. (2, 3, and 4 were owned by the Patriarch of Aquileia.) + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>5. Portrait of Giovanni Borgherini and his master. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>6. Head of a warrior, owned by Anton de’ Nobili in Florence. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>7. Portrait of Consalvo Ferrante. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>8. Portrait of the Doge Leonardo Loredano. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>9. Many other portraits. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>10. Frescoes on the Ca Soranzo in Venice—one representing a figure of Spring. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>11. Frescoes on the front of the Fondaco de’ Tedeschi—the scenes were apparently + fantastical or allegorical. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>12. Christ carrying the cross, in the church of San Rocco. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>13. A nude figure to show that by means of reflections painting is able to show all parts + of a thing at once. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>14. Portrait of Catharine, Queen of Cyprus. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>15. Portrait of one of the Fugger family. + </dd> + </dl> + +<p class='c007'>This list suffices to show that Vasari’s knowledge of Giorgione’s +work was slight—and we can prove furthermore it was +also imperfect. This is disheartening enough, but a still greater +disappointment comes from the fact that of this list of fifteen +numbers (including of course many more than fifteen pictures) +there are but five of which either the originals or copies are +preserved to-day. These five are Nos. 2, 5 (?), 11, 12, and +15. Numbers 5 and 15 are certainly not by Giorgione. The +former is not improbably the picture in Berlin (No. 152) of +which a replica is in the Louvre (No. 1156), both pictures attributed +merely to the Venetian school, and the latter hangs in the +Munich Gallery (No. 1107) under the name of Cariani.<a id='r38'></a><a href='#f38' class='c015'><sup>[38]</sup></a> No. 2 +is usually thought to be the picture in Vienna, but Justi (Georgione, +p. 182) shows that it may be a picture in Brunswick.<a id='r39'></a><a href='#f39' class='c015'><sup>[39]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>Ridolfi gives a much longer list of Giorgione’s works:</p> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>16. Madonna enthroned, in the church of San Liberale in Castelfranco. Portraits. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>17. The dead Christ held by angels, at Treviso. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>18. Frescoes on Giorgione’s own house in Venice. Figures and fantasies. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>Frescoes on the Ca Soranzo (same as No. 10). Destroyed all but a woman with flowers in + her hand and Vulcan who whips Cupid. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>19. Fables from Ovid; among them Apollo and Daphne, and Zeus as a bull with Europa on his + back. These showed strong landscape feeling. Gigantomachia. Deucalion and Pyrrha. Apollo + and the Python. Apollo and Daphne. Io. Phaethon. Pyrrhus and Phlegon. Eos. Diana and + Callisto. Mercury stealing Apollo’s herds. Jove and Europa. Cadmus and serpents’ teeth. + Actæon. Venus and Mars caught by Vulcan. Niobe. Jove and Mercury at the house of Baucis. + Ariadne. Alcides. Achelous. Deianeira. Loves of Apollo and Hyacinth. Venus and Adonis. + Those owned by Sig. Vidman were: birth of Adonis, Adonis and Venus, Adonis’s death. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>Portraits (cf. No. 9): Agostino Barbarigo, Catharine Cornaro (perhaps the same as No. + 14), Consalvo Ferrante. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>20. Frescoes on the Ca Grimani alla Servisa (Nude woman of beautiful form); on a house on + the Campo di Santo Stefano, near S. M. Giubenico (Bacchus, Venus and Mars, half figures, + grotesques and <i>putti</i>); and on the Fondaco de’ Tedeschi (same as No. 11), + <i>trofei</i>, nudes, heads, allegorical figures measuring the world. Man on horseback. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>21. A concert (now in the Pitti). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>22. Allegory of human life in Casa Cassinelli, Genoa (Nurse holding crying child, and a + knight; Youth disputing with Philosophers, and an old man). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>23. Celius Plotius attacked by Claudius. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>24. Family group—un vecchio in atto di castrare un gatto. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>25. Naked woman and shepherd. She smiles at him as he plays his pipe. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>26. David, a knight and a soldier, owned by And. Vendramin. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>27. Naked Venus “ignuda dormiente,—è in Casa Marcella è a piedi è Cupido con augellino in + mano.” + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>28. Woman dressed as a gipsy, in house of Gio. Batt. Sanuto. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>29. Saul holding by the hair the head of Goliath brought to him by David. Owned by the + Signori Leoni di San Lorenzo. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>30. Judgment of Paris, owned by the Signori Leoni di San Lorenzo. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>31. Judgment of Solomon, in Casa Grimana di Santo Ermacora; the figure of the executioner + unfinished. (Now at Kingston Lacy, England.) + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>32. Virgin, St. Jerome and other figures, owned by Signor Gussoni. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd><span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>33. Warrior, owned by Signor Ruzzini. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>34. Knight with black armour, owned by Signori Contarini da S. Samuello. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>35. Half figure of St. Jerome reading, owned by Signori Malipieri. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>36. Portraits of Luigi Crasso, seated, with spectacles in his hand. Owned by Nicolo + Crasso. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>37. Story of Psyche. Twelve pictures. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>38. St. Sebastian, in the Chiesa della Annunciata, Cremona. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>39. St. Sebastian,—three-quarter length, owned by Prince Aldobrandini. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>40. David, owned by Prince Borghese. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>41. A youth with a curious fur cloak, owned by Signori Muselli in Verona. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>42. Christ led to Calvary, with Mary and the virgin Veronica, figures half life size. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>43. Head of Polyphemus. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>44. Portraits of women with strange ornaments and feathers in their hair. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>David with long hair, dressed in a corselet and with the left hand in the hair of the + head of Goliath (same as No. 2). This was a portrait of himself. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>45. A general. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>46. Youth with soft hair and armed. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>Portrait of one of the Fuggers (same as No. 15). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>47. A nude figure with a green cloth over his knees and armour beside him, owned by Van + Veert in Antwerp. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>48. ‘Some say that he began’ the picture of Pope Alexander III and Frederick I in the + Sala del Maggior Consiglio in Venice. + </dd> + </dl> + +<p class='c007'>This list is disappointing in the same way as the previous +one, but, nevertheless, several of the numbers may be added +to the list of pictures which are preserved. Besides those +already noted in Vasari’s list Nos. 16, 17, 19 (?), 21, 23, +26, 27, 30, 31, 38, 40, exist in one form or another, but +Nos. 17, 21, 23, 38 and 40, though still preserved, are not by +Giorgione. No. 17 has nothing whatever to do with Giorgione, +and is attributed by Crowe and Cavalcaselle to Pordenone. +Whether this is by him is more than doubtful; I +will speak of it in detail and also of 21 later. No. 23, called +The Bravo, is in Vienna and is perhaps by Cariani; 30 is +probably by Campagnola and is known by copies.<a id='r40'></a><a href='#f40' class='c015'><sup>[40]</sup></a> No. 38 is in +the Brera and is by Dosso Dossi, who was also the painter of +40, which is still in the Borghese Gallery. No. 48 was probably +the same picture as that mentioned in the Venetian archives +under date of August 14, 1507, and was probably destroyed in +the fire of 1575.<a id='r41'></a><a href='#f41' class='c015'><sup>[41]</sup></a></p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p162a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>Another author from whom we are able to gather more and +important information, is Marc Antonio Michiel, more commonly +known as the Anonimo Morelli. Among the pictures +which he saw in Venice and neighbouring towns were several +attributed to Giorgione:</p> + +<p class='c007'>/# +49. Head of a boy holding an arrow. Owned by Ant. Pasqualino, who +obtained it from Zuanne Ram.</p> + +<p class='c007'>50. Head of San Giacomo holding a pilgrim’s staff. Owned by Ant. +Pasqualino.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Anonimo states that this was either by Giorgione or by one of +his pupils and that it was copied from the Christ in the Church of +San Rocco.</p> + +<p class='c007'>51. St. Jerome, nude, seated in a desert place in the moonlight; “copied +from a work by Giorgione.” Owned by And. Odoni.</p> + +<p class='c007'>52. Three Philosophers. Owned by Taddeo Contarino.</p> + +<p class='c007'>53. Hell, with Æneas and Anchises. Owned by Taddeo Contarino.</p> + +<p class='c007'>54. Landscape with the birth of Paris. “One of his early works.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>55. Portrait of Geronimo Marcello, armed,—the body turned away +from, and the head towards, the spectator. Owned by Geronimo +Marcello.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Nude Venus, sleeping in the open air. “The landscape and the +Cupid were finished by Titian.” Owned by Geronimo Marcello +(same as No. 27).</p> + +<p class='c007'>58. St. Jerome reading. Half figure (same as No. 35?). Owned by +Geronimo Marcello.</p> + +<p class='c007'>59. Soldier armed, but without a helmet. Half figure. Owned by +Zuanantonio Venier.</p> + +<p class='c007'>60. Head of a shepherd. In his hand a fruit. Owned by Zuanne Ram.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Head of boy. In his hand an arrow. Owned by Zuanne Ram +(same as No. 49).</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>61. Stormy landscape with a gipsy and a soldier. Owned by Gabriel +Vendramin.</p> + +<p class='c007'>62. Dead Christ and an angel holding him above the tomb. Finished +by Titian. Owned by Gabriel Vendramin.</p> + +<p class='c007'>63. Nude figure in a landscape. Pen drawing. Owned by Michiel +Contarini.</p> + +<p class='c007'>64. Finished picture of No. 63. Owned by Michiel himself.</p> + +<p class='c007'>65. Portrait of Giorgione’s father. Owned by Piero Servio. +#/</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of this list, the particular value of which lies in the fact that +it was made by one whose early years were probably contemporary +with the close of Giorgione’s life, Nos. 52, 54, 61 and +perhaps 62<a id='r42'></a><a href='#f42' class='c015'><sup>[42]</sup></a> are still (either the originals or copies) in existence. +No. 59 suggests a picture in the Colonna Gallery in +Rome which has much Giorgionesque feeling, but is in a ruined +condition.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Still another writer who mentions several pictures by the +master is Giacomo Barri. I quote the passages from the English +translation of his book:<a id='r43'></a><a href='#f43' class='c015'><sup>[43]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>Page 106. Castelfranco. “Here is an admirable Picture of the <i>Blessed +Virgin with her Son</i>, the work of <i>Giorgione</i>. There are likewise divers +Palaces near adjacent where you will find works of the same <i>Giorgone</i> as +also of Paulo Veronese.” (Same as No. 16.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Venice, page 52. “And upon a front of a House near the house of the +<i>Pisani</i>, and the Palace of the <i>Flangini</i>, in <i>S. Maria Gibenigo</i>, there are +painted by the hand of <i>Giogone</i>, many <i>Freezes</i> in <i>Chiaro Scuro</i>, in Yellow, +Red, and Green, with rare fancies of <i>Boys</i>, in the middle of which are four +Half-figures, <i>viz.</i>, A <i>Bacchus</i>, a <i>Venus</i>, a <i>Mars</i>, and a <i>Mercury</i>, coloured +after the usual manner of the Author.” (There is a note added to the +words “the usual manner” which reads: “Which was not to paint in +above two or three colours.”) (Cf. No. 20.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Page 56. The ‘Fontico de Todeseti’ is mentioned. (Same as No. 11.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Page 56. “In the field or place before S. Pauls you plainly see upon the +Front of the House of <i>Soranzo</i> several Figures of Giorgone, most beautiful +things.” (Same as No. 10.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Page 67. “The <i>albergo</i> of the said school [School of St. Marks]. As +you enter, the first square on your left hand is by <i>Giorgone</i>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>Page 84. “<i>The Church of the</i> Hospital <i>of the</i> Incurabili.” “And over a +side Door of the Church you may observe a little Square of our <i>Saviour +carrying the Cross</i> and an Executioner drawing him along, by the hand of +<i>Giorgone</i>.” (Same as No. 12.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Treviso, page 97. “The Mountain of Piety <i>in the aforesaid</i> City.” “Here +they preserve a <i>Christ</i> with a little <i>Angel</i>, a most singular work, by the +hand of Giorgone.” (Same as No. 17.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Cremona, page 114. “Here is a picture of S. <i>Sebastian</i> and two <i>Angels</i> +by the hand of Giorgone.” (Same as No. 38.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>67. Parma, page 126. In the Palace of the <i>Fontana</i>. “There is also the +picture of <i>Fra Sebastiano del Piombo</i>, a Painter, the work of <i>Giorgone</i>.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Only two pictures (66, 67) not mentioned by the other +authors are given in this list, and one of these, the portrait of +Sebastiano del Piombo, has, I believe, been lost sight of. The +picture that was in the School of St. Marks now hangs in the +Academia in Venice. It represents the story of the calming +of a storm by the saints Nicholas, George and Mark. Some +students consider this picture to be a work by Giorgione much +repainted by Palma or Paris Bordone. Others, with whom I +agree, fail to see in this ugly work the slightest suggestion of +Giorgione.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These then are the chief early sources for our knowledge +of the subjects painted by Giorgione. If the list of his works +seems small, it must be remembered that the painter was only +some thirty-three years old when he died. The inaccuracy of +the attributions made by these writers shows how careful one +must be in dealing with the information they give us, and suggests +the reflection that probably they were as careless in +failing to speak of works that were certainly by the master +as they were in mentioning others which unquestionably were +not by him. All new attributions must, however, be based on +a comparison with the few works which unbroken tradition +and common consent give to Giorgione, and not with those +<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>about which trained opinion differs. Individual judgment as +to the likeness one picture bears to another is very different +from convincing proof. Before criticising individual works +we must consider the basis for discussion that the lists present.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of the sixty-seven different items mentioned, the following +are known to us.<a id='r44'></a><a href='#f44' class='c015'><sup>[44]</sup></a> 1 (?), 2, 5 (?), 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19 (?), +21 (?), 23, 26 (?), 27, 29 (?), 30, 31, 38, 40 (?), 42 (?), 52, 54, +61, 62 (?), 66. Of these only 2, 5 (?), 11, 12, 16, 21 (?), 22 (?), +26 (?), 27, 31, 52, 54, 61, 62 (?) need be considered as being +related in any close way to Giorgione. The claims of Cariani, +Licinio, Della Vecchia, and the host of other, generally feeble, +imitators of Giorgione to the other pictures may be studied +in Crowe and Cavalcaselle, or later works. Even some of the +works included in the small list just given are not accepted as +genuine by all the critics, but a few there are the authenticity +of which could only be questioned by bringing much more +serious evidence against them than I have ever seen adduced. +These rare, choice works are:</p> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>2. David, armed, holding the head of Goliath. Now in Vienna. This is not the original, + but, as noted by Crowe and Cavalcaselle, a late copy. I own another copy, on panel, which + shows the lower part of the picture better than the Vienna copy. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>11. Frescoes on the Fondaco dei Tedeschi. Preserved, except a fragment only, in Zanetti’s + engravings. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>12. Christ carrying the Cross, in the Church of San Rocco, Venice. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>16. Madonna enthroned, in the Church of San Liberale in Castelfranco. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>27. Naked Venus, asleep, in Dresden. Some critics still hesitate to accept Morelli’s + attribution of this canvas to Giorgione, but the greater number have, I believe, given a + ready assent. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>31. The Judgment of Solomon. Now at Kingston Lacy (Plate LXII). This, the Castelfranco + Madonna, and the Three Philosophers, are in certain ways the most important works of the + painter now existing. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd><span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>52. Three Philosophers. In Vienna (Plate LXVI). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>54. Landscape with the Birth of Paris. A fragment of a poor copy of this is preserved in + Buda-Pesth. An engraving by T. van Kessel from a copy of the picture by Teniers shows + what the whole composition was. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>61. Stormy landscape, with a gypsy and a soldier. In the Palazzo Giovanelli, Venice + (Plate LXV). + </dd> + </dl> + +<p class='c007'>To these nine unquestioned works by Giorgione are to be +added others that have no early literary evidence to bear +out their claims to a Giorgionesque origin, but which unbroken +tradition resisting even the assaults of modern criticism has +assigned to this category. Such are:</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Judgment of Solomon, in the Uffizi.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Fire-test of Moses, in the Uffizi.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Knight of Malta, in the Uffizi.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Head of Christ carrying the Cross, formerly in the Palazzo Loschi Vicenza, +and now in Mrs. Gardner’s Collection in Boston (Plate LXVII).</p> + +<p class='c023'>Study for the figure of San Liberale, in the Castelfranco picture, in the +National Gallery, London.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So far as the giving of any certain knowledge of Giorgione’s +technique is concerned, the first three of these pictures are very +disappointing, for all of them have been so thoroughly repainted +that the original work is much injured. While most +critics follow the tradition and believe Giorgione to have been +the painter of these pictures, there are those who do not hold +this opinion. For instance, Dr. Bode, one of the keenest +judges of pictures, does not think the Judgment of Solomon, +and the Trial of Moses, to be by him.<a id='r45'></a><a href='#f45' class='c015'><sup>[45]</sup></a> Others there are who +think that the judgment passed by Crowe and Cavalcaselle on +the Knight of Malta is very sound and satisfactory. They +<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>say: “Giorgione’s work was altered by later retouching, or +the painter is a skilful imitator of Giorgione’s manner.” +Personally, I believe all these to be by him.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Taking now these fragments of written evidence and of +tradition, let us see what the modern writers of most repute +have considered to be examples of Giorgione’s work. To +begin with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, they give as true Giorgiones +the following:</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Fondaco de’ Tedeschi.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Christ in San Rocco.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Judgment of Solomon at Kingston Lacy.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Chaldæan Sages (the Three Philosophers).</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Family of Giorgione (the picture in the Giovanelli Palace).</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Castelfranco Madonna.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The David in Vienna, of which they say “this is a late copy, perhaps +after the original noted by Vasari.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of the traditional pictures they consider as the master’s work:</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Judgment of Solomon, in the Uffizi.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Trial of Moses, in the Uffizi.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Knight of Malta (?), in the Uffizi.</p> + +<p class='c007'>They add:</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Shepherd’s Offering in the Beaumont (now Lord Allandale’s) Collection, +London.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Adoration of the Magi, in the National Gallery, London; formerly +owned by Sir William Miles, of Leigh Court.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These last two pictures are much less well known than the +others. I shall endeavour to show that the later attributions +of them to Catena or others are based on a mistaken idea of +Giorgione’s style (not to mention Catena’s), and that Crowe +and Cavalcaselle were perfectly right in their estimate of them. +Other pictures which are often thought of in connection with +Giorgione and which they, quite rightly I believe, refused to +acknowledge, are:</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p168a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c023'><span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>The Concert, in the Pitti.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Fête Champêtre, in the Louvre.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Madonna and Saints, in the Louvre.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Nymph and Satyr, in the Pitti.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Head of a Boy, at Hampton Court.</p> + +<p class='c023'>The Madonna and Child with St. Brigida, in Madrid.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To take more modern writers, we find a very different list +of works attributed to Giorgione by Morelli.<a id='r46'></a><a href='#f46' class='c015'><sup>[46]</sup></a> It consists of +the following:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-l'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Trial of Moses.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Judgment of Solomon.<a id='r47'></a><a href='#f47' class='c015'><sup>[47]</sup></a></div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Christ bearing the Cross.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Madonna of Castelfranco.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Gypsy and the Soldier (Giovanelli Palace).</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>* The Madonna and Child with Sts. Antony and Roch. (Madrid.)</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Knight of Malta.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>† * Daphne and Apollo. This is in the Seminario of St<sup>a</sup> Maria della Salute in Venice. Crowe and Cavalcaselle (II. 165) attribute it to Andrea Schiavone, and with their opinion I agree.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>* The Three Ages of Man, in the Uffizi, ascribed usually to Lotto.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Concert, in the Louvre. (Same as Crowe and Cavalcaselle’s Fête Champêtre.)</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The Fragment of the Birth of Paris, in the Esterhazy Gallery, Buda-Pesth.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>* Portrait of a Man, in the Esterhazy Gallery.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>* Portrait of a Woman, in the Borghese Gallery, Rome.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>† Nymph and Satyr, in the Pitti.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>† Portrait of a Youth, in Berlin.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>† Head of a Boy, in Hampton Court.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Three Philosophers, in Vienna.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>* Venus in Dresden.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>† Allegory, in Dresden.      { These Morelli considers copies</div> + <div class='line'>† Judith, in St. Petersburg. { of Giorgione’s work.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The pictures I have marked with an asterisk are those which +Morelli was the first to claim with insistence for Giorgione, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>and with the exception of the Venus not one of these attributions +has been generally accepted. Those marked with a dagger +are attributions of older or younger date. About all of them, +certain doubts, and about most of them doubts of very serious +nature, must be dispelled, before the attribution can be +accepted.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The two points most noticeable in Morelli’s list are the +differences in the style of the pictures included and the absence +of others. It would be difficult to combine works more +dissimilar than the Berlin portrait of a youth and the portrait +of a woman in the Borghese, and even if one grants that an +artist working at the time when Giorgione flourished was subjected +to influences so strong and varied that the character +of his work altered from time to time, it can only be explained +by a miracle that the same man painted the Castelfranco +Madonna and the Daphne and Apollo. Even the last dashing +works of the century-old Titian differ hardly more from his +calmer earlier canvases than do these two pictures, which +Morelli would have us believe were painted by a man who died +at the age of thirty-two or thirty-three. This curious, one may +not unfairly say erratic, combination of Morelli may perhaps +be explained by supposing, as is true in other parts of his work, +that he was so taken up with the similarity of certain details +that he forgot to study the larger and more telling characteristics +of the pictures. But what explanation is there +of his strange silence regarding the Benson<a id='r48'></a><a href='#f48' class='c015'><sup>[48]</sup></a> and Beaumont +pictures, the Judgment of Solomon at Kingston Lacy, the +Vienna David, and the Christ bearing the Cross in San +Rocco?</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>A later and slightly different form of the Morelli list is given +by Berenson.<a id='r49'></a><a href='#f49' class='c015'><sup>[49]</sup></a> It is as follows:</p> + +<p class='c023'>Berlin, Portrait of a Man.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Buda-Pesth, Portrait of a Man.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Castelfranco, Duomo, Madonna with Sts. Francis and Liberale.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Dresden, Sleeping Venus.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Florence, Uffizi, Trial of Moses; Knight of Malta; Judgment of Solomon.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Hampton Court, Shepherd with Pipe.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Madrid, Madonna with Sts. Roch and Antony of Padua.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Paris, Fête Champêtre.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Rome, Villa Borghese, Portrait of a Lady.</p> + +<p class='c023'>St. Petersburg, Judith (?).</p> + +<p class='c023'>Venice, Academy, Storm calmed by St. Mark. Finished in small part +by P. Bordone. (In the edition of 1894, Berenson attributed this to +P. Bordone, saying that perhaps it was begun by Giorgione.)</p> + +<p class='c023'>Venice, Seminario, Apollo and Daphne; Giovanelli, Gypsy and Soldier; +S. Rocco, Christ bearing Cross.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Vicenza, Casa Loschi, Christ bearing Cross. (Now in the Gardner +Collection, Boston.)</p> + +<p class='c023'>Vienna, Evander showing Æneas the Site of Rome. (Often called the +Three Philosophers.)</p> + +<p class='c007'>In an article<a id='r50'></a><a href='#f50' class='c015'><sup>[50]</sup></a> published since the appearance of his book, +Berenson has added to the above list several pictures which he +considers to be copies of Giorgiones. They are:</p> + +<p class='c023'>Bergamo, Orpheus and Eurydice. The copy made by Cariani.</p> + +<p class='c023'>Buda-Pesth, Two men walking. Fragment. (This is what Morelli +calls the Birth of Paris.)</p> + +<p class='c023'>Milan, Portrait of a lady, belonging to Signor Crespi.</p> + +<p class='c023'>St. Petersburg, Judith.</p> + +<p class='c023'>London, Portrait of a man formerly belonging to Mr. Doetsch; now +owned by Colonel Kemp.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span> + <h3 class='c004'>II. THE TRUE GIORGIONE</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>A superficial study of the lists which have been given suffices +to show that the various critics have very different +standards by which to judge Giorgione and his works. I +much doubt whether entire order can be brought out of the +chaos that now rules, but a sounder basis for future study +can be derived from a combination of the best points of the +work of these very differently endowed critics than any one +of them by himself offers.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So far as Crowe and Cavalcaselle go, they are, I believe, +entirely right. Among the twelve pictures which they unhesitatingly +ascribe to Giorgione, only three have been questioned +by any one. These three are, the Judgment of Solomon, +at Kingston Lacy, the Epiphany, in the National Gallery, and +the Beaumont Shepherd’s Offering. The only possible +explanation of the fact that Morelli does not mention the +picture at Kingston Lacy is that he did not see it.<a id='r51'></a><a href='#f51' class='c015'><sup>[51]</sup></a> It is one +<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>of those works that in every touch show the author. Even +if we did not have Ridolfi’s evidence for the existence of such +a work, it is difficult to understand how hesitation could arise +in the mind of any one undisturbed by theories as to the author +of the picture. The figure of the executioner is, as Ridolfi +says, unfinished. So, too, is practically the whole picture +(Plate LXII).</p> + +<p class='c007'>What strikes one at first sight is the similarity to Bellini’s +work at the same time that one realises a development of +dramatic power greater than he ever attained. The fine +restraint of composition is his, the serious and painstaking +technique is his, but the dramatic energy displayed in the +action of the several figures is a step beyond anything which +Bellini ever accomplished. And the few undoubted works +show that Giorgione was great enough to compose with the +same grandeur, and work with a similar perfection to Bellini, +and yet give more dramatic intensity to his figures. But if +any one is blind to the spirit that permeates this wonderful +bit of poetry, let him study the details. The head of the +youth standing upright on Solomon’s right hand is most +closely allied to that of the seated figure in the Three Philosophers. +The old man on the left of Solomon is in his turn +very similar to the oldest of the Three Philosophers. Compare +the hand of the second figure from the right with the left +hand of the last-mentioned Philosopher: it is the same.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The tight drawn hair of the women is the same as that of +the Castelfranco Madonna and the Gypsy in the Giovanelli +Palace picture. The strong, broad, full-toed, carefully drawn +feet are what we see in the Three Philosophers, and the St. +Francis of the Castelfranco picture. The full-lipped, small, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>quietly closed but expressive mouths of the figures are such as +distinguish Giorgione’s other unquestioned works and show a +master’s touch. The draperies massed in grand, simple style, +broken only by folds that truly show the quality of the stuff or +its arrangement—that are not merely put in out of pure fancy—are +like those that characterise the Castelfranco Madonna +and the Three Philosophers. There is no refuting the judgment +passed by Crowe and Cavalcaselle. This is a true +Giorgione and in certain ways the finest of them all.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I have refrained from comparing it with the Dresden Venus +for the reason that this discovery of Morelli’s has been, though +I believe on insufficient grounds, disputed, and some critics +question whether the Venus is not a work of Titian. The +evidence with which Morelli maintained the Giorgionesque +origin of the work is very convincing, but there is a quality +of the work upon which he did not lay sufficient stress. I +refer to the lack of sensuousness in the figure. It is the lack +of this mundane quality, the abstractness of the figure, that +renders it ideal, which allies this work with the finest Greek +sculpture, with figures of the Periclean epoch. The nude +female figure is thought of not from a sexual standpoint, but +from that of pure beauty of form. To represent such feeling +was unlike Titian even in the most earnestly ideal of his youthful +days. His work in almost every case has a glow of passion; +Giorgione’s, on the contrary, suggests loveliness that deserves +the deepest admiration, but does not suggest actual human +life and action. The two ideals are the poles asunder. +Titian’s is that of the man, Giorgione’s that of the woman. As +Coleridge said, “Man loves the woman, but woman loves the +love of the man,” and when one looks at Titian’s Venuses or +his other female figures, one is inevitably more vigorously +self-conscious and one’s attention is more indissolubly bound +to the body than when one’s eyes rest on the statuesque +beauties of the Castelfranco painter’s imaginings.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p174a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXIV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>The method by which these effects are depicted is unmistakable +and clear. In Titian’s figures of nude women the glance +of the eye is often distinctly and sharply focussed in the eye +of the beholder, and the action of the figure is motived by the +presence of the beholder. The painted image is the corollary +of the being that looks upon her. It is not so in Giorgione’s +work. His Venus is self-contained, self-centred and thoughtless +of the outer world. The eyes (cf. the Giovanelli picture) +do not strongly draw yours to themselves, and the action does +not imply a realisation of the presence of any interested gazer. +For exactly these reasons, plain simple reasons, but of deepest +import, the Venus of Praxiteles is of inestimably greater +worth than that later impersonation of female vigour and +physical delight, the Venus de’ Medici. And in similar manner +Giorgione proves himself a man and an artist who attained +to the adequate presentation of an ideal of beauty of +the female figure far more elevated and uplifting than that +held by his more famous contemporary Titian. The Venus +may, as Morelli said, be safely considered as a true Giorgione.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The case is not so clear, though I believe it is not less unquestionable, +when we consider the Epiphany<a id='r52'></a><a href='#f52' class='c015'><sup>[52]</sup></a> of the National +Gallery (Plate LXIII). The criticism passed by Crowe and +Cavalcaselle on this picture and the Shepherd’s Offering in +the Beaumont Collection is, so far as it goes, sound. They +<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>say of these pictures “that the style coincides with that which +historians attribute to Giorgione; that most of the characteristics +which predominate recur in canvases registered by +the oldest authorities as those of Barbarelli; and that the +landscapes in every case resemble each other and recall the +country of Castelfranco.” There is much more proof, however, +that can be adduced to show that only Giorgione could +have painted these works. But first the attribution of them +both to Catena<a id='r53'></a><a href='#f53' class='c015'><sup>[53]</sup></a> must be shown to be groundless.</p> + +<p class='c007'>A word, however, in regard to logical reasoning about pictures, +the lack of which constitutes a great weakness in Morelli +and some of his followers, may perhaps be deemed not inappropriate +here. Circumstantial evidence is at best only partially +conclusive. Morelli did some brilliant work by its +means in correcting the names under which many pictures +had masqueraded. Such work must, it is self-evident, be +founded on the signed works of the masters or on works whose +authorship is proved by literary evidence of the strongest +character. But he and his followers seem to forget that others +may refuse adherence to the belief in one or more of these +attributions and yet not be utterly foolish. Many minds are +convinced by evidence which to other equally capable and +well-trained intelligences does not carry the force of conviction, +or may even seem to be based on a misapprehension of +fundamental facts. Grant, however, that a given attribution +of an unsigned work seems reasonable, still there are in most +such cases parts of it that are to a certain extent dissimilar +to the certified works of the master to whom it is attributed—otherwise +it would never have been falsely named.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>Were this not true, how had doubt ever arisen in men’s +minds as to who wrote the Rhesus, or when the Apollo +Belvedere was made? Suppose now that in studying a picture +and attributing it to an artist one finds a second or a +third or a fourth picture that seems to be by the same painter. +One sees that each has certain points in common with the +signed works and others common only to the unsigned work +which was the first of our new attributions. To deduce from +the similarity which any two of the unsigned works bear to each +other in their <i>differences</i> from the signed works of the author +to whom it is desired to attribute them, that they must be by +this author, is an absolutely illogical and unreasonable method +of argument. One can ‘prove’ anything in this way, which +could without difficulty enable one to show that the Two +Loves of the Borghese Gallery was painted by Perugino. +All that is needed is a sufficiently large list of works each differing +slightly from Perugino’s true masterpieces. It is but +another form of the old game of turning one word into another +by adding and subtracting syllables. Thus one turns <i>drama</i> +into <i>odious</i>: drama, melodrama, melodious, odious.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Unfortunately Morelli did not realise the weakness of this +system. Had he done so, he would never have attributed to +Catena the Epiphany of the National Gallery, and his followers +would not consider the same artist as the painter of +the Benson Holy Family and the Beaumont Shepherd’s +Offering.<a id='r54'></a><a href='#f54' class='c015'><sup>[54]</sup></a> I do not mean to imply that he would have considered +<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>Giorgione as their author, but, it is only by strained +and extravagant reasoning that they can be claimed for Catena. +They bear no resemblance in either composition, colour +or idea to any of the unquestioned works by this second-rate +pupil of Bellini, the imitator, <i>par excellence</i>, of the work of his +greater contemporaries.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So far as a careful analysis enables one to make out from the +context of the whole passage in which Morelli speaks of these +works,<a id='r55'></a><a href='#f55' class='c015'><sup>[55]</sup></a> he seems to have convinced himself that Catena was +the painter of the Epiphany because of the similarities that +exist between it and the Knight adoring the Infant Christ +and the St. Jerome in his Study in the same Gallery. The +first thing to notice is that the likeness which the Epiphany +bears to the St. Jerome is almost entirely imaginary. The +chief difference between the two works is that the Epiphany +is not only painted in a very different manner technically, +but it is much less laboured. It shows vastly greater facility +of draughtsmanship; the execution is very much more easy; +the colour is fuller and purer; the chiaroscuro is more varied, +and, finally, it is much more imaginatively conceived. It gives +one, in fact, the impression of being by a master, whereas the St. +Jerome seems nothing more either in imagination or in technique +than the work of a careful, serious, arid-minded student.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The St. Jerome in fact may well be by Catena, for these are +the qualities with which we know he was endowed. The similarity +between the Epiphany and the Knight adoring the +Infant Christ is greater, but still not very great.<a id='r56'></a><a href='#f56' class='c015'><sup>[56]</sup></a> But here +<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>too we must remember that the attribution of the Knight +to Catena is based not so much even on good circumstantial +evidence as on the fairly unanimous belief among those capable +of judging what certain phases of Catena’s changing style +probably resembled. But the points wherein the Epiphany +surpassed the St. Jerome are just those in which it shows +greater mastery than is exhibited in the Knight. The same +stiffness and awkwardness of drawing mark the Knight as +by an artist of much less capacity than him of the Epiphany.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So too does the clumsy, empty composition. The small-featured +faces, the lack of appearance of real substance in the +bodies, the dull and uninteresting chiaroscuro, the laboured +technique are characteristic of Catena, but not one of them +shows in the Epiphany. Catena may well have painted +the beast like a hobby horse which the Knight’s page holds, +but it was an abler hand than his which drew the horses from +which the Magi have dismounted. The crinkly, crushed +draperies in the Knight are similar to Catena’s work, but +there is nothing like them in the Epiphany, where the glowing +coloured garments are cast in simpler and grander and +at the same time more natural lines. Can any one really +imagine that the same man painted the dull, hard, conventional +<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>head of St. Joseph in the Knight and the much more +thoughtful and original face of the same figure in the Epiphany? +or how can any one believe that the same artist +designed heads of such different shape, eyes and noses and +mouths so unlike in the one and the other work; hands in +the Knight so like turtles’ feet, and so vigorous and human +in the Epiphany? It is surely improbable, and Crowe and +Cavalcaselle were right when they recognised a great difference +between the two works and saw in the smaller, richer +one the hand of Giorgione. The reasoner who is calm and +unpolemically minded must agree with them.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The next picture for us to consider is the Beaumont Shepherd’s +Offering which Crowe and Cavalcaselle give to Giorgione, +but which is by Berenson and others considered a +Catena.<a id='r57'></a><a href='#f57' class='c015'><sup>[57]</sup></a> If the Epiphany were a Catena, then the Shepherd’s +Offering would be also, for not only the treatment and +colour as a whole, but the details, more particularly the group +of the Holy Family, is distinctly alike in both. The same +reasons that show that it is impossible that Catena ever +painted the Epiphany apply with even greater force to the +Shepherd’s Offering. Both pictures are utterly unlike Catena’s +work in all essential points, all those, that is to say, +which are the expression of character. Certain Giorgionesque +qualities show more strongly in the Shepherd’s Offering than +in the smaller work. I will not analyse the details of form, +substantiality of masses and richness of colour, for every unprejudiced +eye will see that they are the same in each of these +two works as they are in the unquestioned works by Giorgione. +But there is a quality more difficult to analyse and to express +in fixed terms, that stamps the Shepherd’s Offering not only +as a work by Giorgione, but as a very characteristic expression +of his genius. I refer to the impression given by the quietness +of the scene, by the slight vagueness of it all, and to the colour +and chiaroscuro that remind one of an evening landscape +(Plate LXIV). All these points taken together make the +scene seem mysterious and dreamlike.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p180a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXV.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>Now, clearly enough, this romantic quality occurs to a greater +or less extent in all the unquestioned Giorgiones. It is the +deep religious ardour of Bellini turned to a broader field. It is +the sharp focussed passion of Titian transmuted into an abiding +love for all things beautiful. In the Giovanelli Landscape +(Plate LXV) you see it in the strange combination of soldier +and nude woman under the lightning-riven skies and the trees +heavy and white with the storm. In the Three Philosophers +you see it in the contrast of the three men of different ages +and the quiet forest where they sit with the city in the distance +that seems to be asleep (Plate LXVI). In the Virgin +of Castelfranco you see it in the throne placed in the open +meadows peopled by visionlike figures, in the deeply impressive +silence and contrast of the monk and warrior, and in the +still blue sea lapping the templed shores beyond. You see +it in the Venus,—not any one woman so much as the presentation +of everlasting feminine beauty—sleeping under the open +sky across which roll great summer clouds rising from the +distant sea. It is present almost invariably in his work and +forms the chief richness of the Beaumont picture, in which the +strangely silent group under the trees, the empty shepherd’s +<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>hut beyond and the deep distance of rolling, castelled hills +and meadows, golden in the light of the low sun, is like a vision +that one sees in those rare moments when one’s eyes pierce +the husk of this world and we seem for one treasured instant +to have passed the borders and be wandering in El Dorado.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In none of Catena’s authentic works does he attain to such +a height of imaginative presentation of daily phenomena. +He could appreciate it, as is shown by his attempt in the +Knight to paint in the manner of Giorgione, but that picture +alone would be sufficient to show his incapacity to attain +the goal at which he aimed. Nor is this feeling which we +derive from Giorgione’s works imaginary and based on preconceived +ideas. It is distinctly due to certain indubitable +facts. No one questions the mystery and inexpressible beauty +of the light of early dawn or evening, and it is this rather +than the full, hard, mid-day glare that is the light of all Giorgione’s +pictures. Nor is there doubt of the impressiveness of +gloom, be it of forest or of storm, and such mystery as this was +dear to the hill-born artist. Nor, further, can one hesitate to +admit the visionary, mirage-like appearance of vigorous action +that takes place in silence and of which the anatomical details +are suppressed. Such is the action of Giorgione’s figures. +They are plainly deeply interested in the scene of which they +form part, but their faces (even in the Judgment of Solomon +at Kingston Lacy) show their interest rather by the eyes than +by the lips. They look, but do not speak. Like Greek Gods +they act, but with terrible great silence.</p> + +<p class='c007'>And so, too, though the bodies of his figures are full of life and +action, yet they rarely show the tense and emphasised muscles +appropriate to such action, but appear rather, having acted, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>to be now at rest. A similar peculiarity is to be observed in +the draperies which, just as I have tried to show in regard to +the figure of the Venus, are of the same nature as the best +Greek work. They are completely motived, that is, by the +bodies beneath them. They are a positive component part +of the figure, not merely an accidental addition, and they +rest and move with it. Thus, as the bodies seem to be resting +after motion, so the draperies seem to be also. They show +none of the little, trifling, momentary folds that express +actual motion, but merely those larger, more essential lines +and masses that are truly expressive of the vitality and movement +of the figures, whose beauty they enhance, so far as +such life and activity can be expressed by woven stuffs.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Let us turn now to Catena, his Sta. Caterina, or his Virgin +Enthroned, in Venice, and we see draperies that are in large +measure as merely studio studies of cloth as any to which +Albert Dürer ever attached hands and feet and a head and +called it a human being. The folds do not carry out the action +of the figure, but crinkle and ripple and break in meaningless +profusion from shoulder to ankle. Giorgione was a richly +imaginative, deeply thoughtful genius, and such a personality +as this is indelibly stamped in the Epiphany, the Shepherd’s +Offering, and the Benson Holy Family. Catena was +a fashionable plagiarist and moderately successful imitator +of the manner of his master Bellini and of his great contemporaries; +such a character as his is completely foreign to the +spirit of these three pictures.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Holy Family,<a id='r58'></a><a href='#f58' class='c015'><sup>[58]</sup></a> one of the many treasures of Mr. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>Benson’s collection, is also given by Berenson, and by others, +to Catena. The Virgin and Joseph are, as one sees at first +sight, the same figures as in the two preceding works. I will +not unfold the argument again. The picture is to be attributed +to Giorgione for the same reasons that show the two +other pictures to be his. One proof may be added to those +adduced before, and this is the pebbly surface of the ground. +The same treatment is to be seen in the Judgment of Solomon, +and the Trial of Moses, in the Uffizi, in the Three +Philosophers, in the Giovanelli Landscape; and in this +last picture the painting of the brick work below the column +is the same as that of the building beside which the Holy +Family are seated in Mr. Benson’s picture. Catena could +as easily have painted Bellini’s Loredano as this head of St. +Joseph, as fine a head in its grandeur of mould and simple +earnestness of expression as was ever given to this too often +maligned Saint. It is a Giorgione, and a fine one.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The picture of Christ carrying the Cross in the Church +of San Rocco in Venice is by Morelli<a id='r59'></a><a href='#f59' class='c015'><sup>[59]</sup></a> said to be “gewiss ein +ganz frühes Werk” of Titian. Considering that he does not +give a single proof of this assertion, we may be forgiven if +we fail to see the <i>Gewissheit</i> of the attribution. It is true +that Vasari was not sure whether Giorgione or Titian was the +author, but tradition, as can be traced by guide books, certainly +leads us to consider the former as the author. The condition +of the picture is such that it gives one no help in solving the +problem, but so far as the drawing of details goes we meet +no contradiction of the traditional authorship. The shape of +the head of the Christ and the drawing of the eyes and brow +<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>are met with in the certain works. In believing this ruined +picture to be by our master, I am following the opinion held +by Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and in more recent days by +Berenson.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The difficulties that are met in trying to discover a decisive +proof of the origin of the Knight of Malta are similar to +those which confuse the argument about the ‘Christ’ of +San Rocco. The picture has been so maltreated that there is +little left to study but the shadow of the original. A magnificent +original it must have been, one of those rare works, +commoner in Venice than elsewhere, that truly make the +corporal substance conform to the nature of the hidden soul, +so that one thinks not so much of the person shown to us as of +his manner of thought and life. There is much about the +portrait that makes its attribution to any one but Giorgione +next to impossible, and nothing, I believe, that throws any +doubt in the way of our considering him the author. He was +capable of such a portrait, and in its earlier days it was unquestionably +worthy of him. This is, of course, the usual +opinion, though Crowe and Cavalcaselle felt that the repainting +had so altered the work as to destroy its character.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Head of Christ bearing the Cross, formerly in Vicenza, +and now, fortunately for our country, in Boston, is +another of the works the authorship of which cannot be absolutely +proved, but of which the character is so marked that +there is little or no diversity of opinion about it.<a id='r60'></a><a href='#f60' class='c015'><sup>[60]</sup></a> It is one +<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>of the pictures that Crowe and Cavalcaselle thought worthy +of Giorgione, and which since their day Morelli and others +have not hesitated to regard as his. Still strongly tinged with +the influence of Bellini, it contains the promise of a freer, +broader treatment of religious subjects than even Bellini had +attained, and shows us unquestionably the young Giorgione. +The hand and eye of Bellini guide him as he works, but his +own genius cannot be utterly suppressed, and he adds to his +master’s style something that marks the picture, when it +leaves his easel, as the true expression of a great genius and not +as that of a merely facile and unoriginal pupil (Plate LXVII).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Closely connected with the Madonna of Castelfranco is +the study for the figure of San Liberale in the National +Gallery. It is true that such studies by the fifteenth-century +Italian masters are extremely uncommon, but the differences +between this study and the large picture are such as we +can hardly imagine being introduced by a copyist, and the +painting, considered solely from the technical point of view, +is so masterly that we are, I believe, justified in considering +the figure as the product of Giorgione’s brush.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of the six pictures (Pitti, Concert, and Nymph with +Satyr; Louvre, Fête Champêtre, and Madonna and +Saints; Hampton Court, Shepherd; Madrid, Madonna +with Sta. Brigida) which, though traditionally ascribed to +Giorgione, Crowe and Cavalcaselle refused to consider as +his, the Madonna and Sta. Brigida and the Madonna and +Saints in the Louvre are now less often thought of in connection +with his name.<a id='r61'></a><a href='#f61' class='c015'><sup>[61]</sup></a></p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p186a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXVI.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>Of the Madonna and Saints in the Louvre it is interesting +to note that even a century ago there were those who judged +the work at its true value. It is of this work, I believe, that +J. B. P. Lebrun<a id='r62'></a><a href='#f62' class='c015'><sup>[62]</sup></a> says: (p. 71) “<span lang="fr">Attribué au Giorgion. Un +Concert de figures vues à mi-crops et de grandeur naturelle, +très-mauvais ouvrage dans le genre de cette école, d’environ +4 pieds et demi de hauteur, sur 6 de largeur, sur toile. Je +tairai ce qu’en dit Lalande. Vient de Milan, bibliothèque +Ambrosienne.</span>”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Concerning the four other pictures there is considerable +diversity of opinion. The Head of a Boy at Hampton Court +is thought by Morelli to be an original Giorgione, but as the +light was bad when he saw the work, he is not sure. Berenson, +however, does not doubt the genuineness of the picture. Considering +the fact that the head is a copy of the Vienna David, +we may very seriously question whether it is by Giorgione. +One can scarcely suppose that he would have repeated his +pictures and made the head of his David answer for a Shepherd. +Morelli was right in recognising the Giorgionesque +spirit of the work, but it is only a copy of the head of the +original David, with certain details altered.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Nymph and Satyr<a id='r63'></a><a href='#f63' class='c015'><sup>[63]</sup></a> in the Pitti, which used to be +called a Giorgione and which Crowe and Cavalcaselle thought +to be by some imitator of him and of Titian, bears now, I +believe, the name of Dosso Dossi. Morelli considered it a +youthful work of Giorgione, though it certainly shows few signs +<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>of youth, and the Giorgionesque details which he enumerates +are exactly those which an imitator would easily acquire. +The idea and the energetic freedom of composition are more +like the work of men who came after Giorgione, and the colouring +is unlike his. We have no reason to believe that he +ever painted subjects embodying just such trivially sensual +and commonplace ideas, and as there is no marked and characteristic +likeness in the figures to any of his known works, +it is safer to consider it the product of a would-be imitator, +such as we know Dosso Dossi to have been.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To decide the question of the Concert in the Pitti is by +no means easy. Crowe and Cavalcaselle felt sure it could not +be by Giorgione, or else that “he did not execute what we are +fond of attributing to him,” for it seemed to them more advanced +and to surpass his true works. Morelli, too, did not +regard Giorgione as the author, but the youthful Titian,<a id='r64'></a><a href='#f64' class='c015'><sup>[64]</sup></a> and +to this Berenson agrees. The interrelation of the complex +sensations expressed in the deeply moved but quiet faces is +certainly more like the work of the painter of the Two Loves +than that of him of the Three Philosophers. The likeness, +too, of the middle figure in the Concert to the Man with the +Glove in the Louvre—a likeness found not only in the expression +of the two heads, but also in the wonderfully wrought +modelling of them—is most noticeable. How the same artist +can have accomplished so dull and stupid a face as the one to +the left is a question only to be answered by the vandals who +have repainted and thereby ruined this very splendid work. +It certainly does remind one of Giorgione, but so does the +Two Loves. Titian we know well was, in his early days, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>much influenced by his fellow-worker, but we know also that +he became the more accomplished artist of the two and attained +a power of technique and of representation of facial +expression beyond that of his too early dead contemporary. +As just such an artist is shown us in the Concert, one can but +agree with Morelli in regarding it as the work of Titian—as +one of his finest, for he rarely reached such mastery of subtle +expression as shown in the central figure.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I come now to the discussion of a picture so well known +that I feel scarcely justified in doing more than simply express +my opinion of it, but the picture is so important that I must +be excused for arguing about it in close detail. It is the +Fête Champêtre in the Louvre; a picture which almost +every one unhesitatingly attributes to Giorgione, but which I +cannot believe to be by him and think can have been painted +only some years after his death. As in regard to other true or +false Giorgiones, the opinion held by Crowe and Cavalcaselle +is worthy of more attention than later writers have seen fit +to give it. What the former say about the picture is this:</p> + +<p class='c007'>“We cannot say that Giorgione would not have painted such +a scene; but, as far as we know, he would have treated it with +more nobleness of sentiment, without defects of form or neglect +of nature’s finenesses, without the pasty surface and +sombre glow of tone which here is all pervading: he would +have given more brightness and variety to his landscape.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>They were surely not far wrong when they suggested some +imitator of Sebastiano del Piombo as the painter. There is +certainly a Giorgionesque quality in the scene, but that only +means that the painter puts before our eyes the varied and +mingled charms of green fields enlivened with the faint murmur +<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>of shepherds tending their distant flocks, of woods and +rivers, and of strong men and lovely women making music +beside a fountain overhung by trees. It used to be the fashion<a id='r65'></a><a href='#f65' class='c015'><sup>[65]</sup></a> +to call every portrait of a dark-eyed man with long abundant +locks by Giorgione’s name, and those who believed in +such things also thought that he was the only painter of Fêtes +Champêtres.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We may freely concede that Giorgione did do much to introduce +and skilfully display a class of subjects that had been +little cared for until this day. But he was not the only artist +to feel the charm of such scenes. Sedate Bellini himself +showed in such a picture as the Bacchanal in Alnwick Castle +that he too felt them, and rapidly they became more and more +common. But in the earlier years of this development such +scenes were generally given on a small scale or else were intended +to illustrate, even though in many cases the clue is +lost to us, some more distinct and concisely expressable idea +than mere Arcadian life among the trees. It is not alone the +emptiness of thought that forces us to decide upon some later +author than Giorgione for this work. Forms of details, manner +of design and method of painting, all are different from +his certain works.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The first thing that strikes the attention is that the soft, +dull drawing of the figures, and the clumsy, baggy modelling +of the women, is unlike anything found in any of the undoubted +Giorgiones.<a id='r66'></a><a href='#f66' class='c015'><sup>[66]</sup></a> Compare the delicate shape and clear +drawing of the figures in the Uffizi panels, or the Venus +or the Gypsy, with these heavy, ill-proportioned, clumsily +<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>posed figures, and then say if you think Giorgione could have +sunk so low. Or, if you will seek proof in fingers and toes, +hands and feet, where in Giorgione’s work are such a shapeless +leathery ear, so thick-lipped a mouth, so short-toed and thick +a foot, or such spidery hands to be found? Nowhere. Look +at the landscape. The trees are much more massy and less +flat and feathery, their surface is more broken by flickering +spots of light, they show, in fact, a more advanced stage in +the rendering of the appearance of Nature, than is shown in +Giorgione’s work.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is instructive to notice, too, the way that the grass is +painted in the foreground, the thick mat of it, and the long +bright blades and tufts. Giorgione never reached such realism +as that, as you can see by the primitive way in which +he seeks to render the effect in the picture of the Gypsy. +Consider further the treatment of the sunlight as it floats +over the hillsides and glows among the trees. In the Castelfranco +Madonna, in the Three Philosophers, in the Gypsy, +in the Beaumont Shepherd’s Offering, large, smooth, unbroken +surfaces of light and shade, seeming almost more +like some woven stuff than rough earth, are contrasted, but +here all is broken, enriched perhaps, but less simple and less +telling.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In and out by the river and over the hill, Nature’s wrinkles +are embossed by the soft light, and nowhere is there restful +certainty of sun or shadow. In among the trees behind the +shepherd, the hot, misty light that one sees only in the forest +is radiant with summer colour and seems to murmur with the +voice of the woods. Such effects were unknown to Giorgione, +but they were not unknown to Titian, for he was the first great +<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>landscapist, and in the Vierge au Lapin and the other Virgin +seated under the trees, which used to hang opposite in +the Long Gallery of the Louvre, we see exactly these technical +peculiarities and these effects of nature done with the sure +stroke of the master. Not only has the author of the Fête +Champêtre followed Titian in these ways, but his thick pasty +colour is taken from him. Not a stroke of this picture displays +original talent, there is not one that resembles Giorgione, +not one that does not betray the skilful imitator of ideas and +manner of other well-known men, chiefly of Titian.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But to make assurance doubly sure, something remains to be +pointed out that even if all the rest could be accommodated +to what we know of Giorgione, would render it incredible that +he should be the author. Morelli and others have noted the +curious similarity between the two musicians and certain +figures in one of Titian’s frescoes in Padua. One cannot say +that Titian would not have taken hints from Giorgione, but +he was scarcely the man to need any one’s suggestions, especially +if it was in the shape of such commonplace figures as +these. There are those, however, who think he did. But +now let me add that the two women bear the most striking +and unquestionable likeness to the two women in Tintoretto’s +(?) Rescue in Dresden, though they have lost the purity of +Tintoretto’s figures. Surely no one will maintain that this +at best only fanciful and pretty, but in no way striking, Fête +Champêtre was the source of inspiration to the two greatest +Venetian painters in their days of prime and finished power? +It is impossible. The idea must be given up, and though there +is no denying the charm of the musicians under the trees, let +us cast the scales from our eyes and recognise its complete +<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>dissimilarity to the work of the Master of Castelfranco, and +that it is merely a perfectly charming <i>pasticcio</i>.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I have now discussed the pictures spoken of by Crowe and +Cavalcaselle, and there are left for us to consider those to +which Morelli first drew marked attention. Such are the +Madonna with Sts. Antony and Roch in Madrid, Daphne and +Apollo in Venice, Three Ages of Man in the Uffizi, Birth of +Paris and Portrait of a Man in Buda-Pesth, Portrait of a +Woman in the Borghese Gallery, Portrait of a Youth in Berlin, +Allegory in Dresden, and Judith in St. Petersburg. I +have already spoken of the Venus, Nymph and Satyr, and +the Shepherd at Hampton Court.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Madonna in Madrid has generally been called by the +name of Pordenone, while Crowe and Cavalcaselle thought it +by Francesco Vecelli. It is certainly not a Giorgione, but a +mere <i>pasticcio</i> like the Fête Champêtre. We cannot be +blamed for asking some more decisive evidence of its Giorgionesque +origin than Morelli gives before we agree with him. +He satisfies himself with saying<a id='r67'></a><a href='#f67' class='c015'><sup>[67]</sup></a> “Doch ich muss gestehen, +dass es für mich keine geringe Freude war, bei meinem Besuche +von Madrid dieses Wunderwerk venetianischer Malerkunst +sogleich als Schöpfung unsers Giorgione erkannt zu +haben.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This, on the surface, is too rapid and absolute a statement +to be admitted without question, and as there are excellent +reasons why Giorgione could not have painted the work, we +may confidently strike it from the list. The composition in +the main is borrowed from the picture at Castelfranco. Giorgione +was hardly the man to repeat his own works. The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>heavy, thick, coarse painting is absolutely different from Giorgione’s +work. The clumsy draperies show none of his fine +feeling. The thick-set figures of the Saints do not exhibit his +elegance and refinement of form. The infant, more like a +Hercules than a Christ, is quite unlike his poetic and dreamy-looking +children. The manner in which the foot of St. Roch +is raised is awkward and unmeaning, while the fat hands, thick +ears and coarse features bear no resemblance to Giorgione’s +work. The work is not only crude, it is unintelligent. The +wall behind the Virgin cannot be explained, the chiaroscuro +is harsh, the attitude of St. Anthony, turning as he does from +the main group, is senseless, and the flowers are scattered +about in a childish way. It is based on Giorgione’s work, but +must have been painted by an inferior artist many years after +his death.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Daphne and Apollo in Venice has been injured by repainting +and by having lost the left-hand end, but one can +easily see that it will take much more than a mere assertion +by Morelli<a id='r68'></a><a href='#f68' class='c015'><sup>[68]</sup></a> to convince anyone that Giorgione painted it. +Crowe and Cavalcaselle think the painter was probably Andrea +Schiavoni. If it was not Schiavoni, it was someone of an almost +precisely similar nature and talent. The generally loose drawing +and painting remind one of him. The bad drawing and perspective, +the proportions and shapes of the figures (note the +chunky Apollo drawing his bow and the head of the woman in +the middle distance), the clawlike hands and clumsy feet, and +the stupid confusion of scale in which the figures are drawn, +all show without any possibility of question, that neither Giorgione +nor any other artist of the first rank painted the picture.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p194a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXVII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>There are in Padua two other cassone pictures representing +the fables of Myrrha and of Erysichthon as told by Ovid in the +“Metamorphoses” (VIII fab. 7 and X fab. 9). They are Giorgionesque +in feeling, but are plainly derived from the woodcuts +in the 1497 Venice edition of Ovid (Cf. Justi, <i>Giorgione</i> +p. 191 f). It is possible that these are two of the pictures referred +to by Ridolfi (see above, No. 19).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of the Three Ages it is perhaps sufficient to say that +Morelli’s attribution has not found general acceptance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Allegory in Dresden in times gone by has been and +by some still is considered, as Morelli thought, a copy of a +work by Giorgione. There is, I believe, no real evidence in +favour of this theory, which seems to me to depend solely on +personal feeling.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Judith in St. Petersburg, where it goes by the name of +Moretto, presents a more difficult problem. Morelli, though +he seems to have had no doubt that Giorgione was the painter, +was not sure whether the picture was a copy or not. That it +is a copy is Berenson’s opinion.<a id='r69'></a><a href='#f69' class='c015'><sup>[69]</sup></a> The lack of modelling and +the bad drawing of parts are the reasons why Berenson and +others think it a copy, and Berenson finds a trace of copyist’s +work in the fact that the head is better done than the rest of +the figure. Personally, I do not recognise this superiority of +the head, and considering the numerous faults which he points +out, I do not understand his last sentence: “En somme, la +<i>Judith</i> de l’Ermitage me parait une bonne copie, mais après +<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>tout, ce n’est qu’une copie.” If one believes these numerous +faults to be due to the copyist, I should say that they proved it +to be a pretty poor copy. Study of the work itself will, however, +convince anyone that it is not a copy, but the original +picture, and the artist can be no other than Giorgione. The +panel on which it was painted was originally broader on the +right side.<a id='r70'></a><a href='#f70' class='c015'><sup>[70]</sup></a> The uncertain drawing is what one would expect +to find in an early work. The drapery is not so simple as +usual in its folds, and at first sight the way it is drawn aside, +leaving one leg bare, seems affected. But when one thinks +of the bleeding head on the ground, this action is seen to be +natural and the contrast of nude and draped parts is of the +same unexpected and original character as one sees in the +woman of the Giovanelli picture.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The fragment in Buda-Pesth which Morelli thought was part +of the picture representing the Birth of Paris is, as Berenson +points out in the article already referred to, only a copy, and a +poor one at that. But even poor copies of lost Giorgiones +are works to be carefully cherished.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Morelli also thought he knew of three portraits by Giorgione. +Of these three (the Woman in the Borghese, the +Man in the Buda-Pesth Gallery, and the Youth in Berlin), +the first two may be seriously questioned. To my eye the +Borghese portrait is by no means so strikingly Giorgionesque +as Morelli considered it. While it is true that a brow here +and a mouth there can be found scattered among the figures +in the true Giorgiones that resemble the features of this woman, +the type of face shows little likeness to Giorgione’s work. +Nor does the muddy colour indicate the palette of an artist +<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>of more than mediocre ability. Who will look at Giorgione’s +masterpieces and then say he thinks the same artist produced +two such shapeless hands holding such a formless swab of +cloth? Have we any reason to think Giorgione had so poor +an understanding of perspective as to be unable to draw correctly +the line of the parting of the hair? Such sloping +shoulders were never natural and the fashion of drawing them +so is not characteristic of Giorgione’s work. Could not +Giorgione paint better drapery, or would he ever have been +satisfied with such a shoelace-like ribbon round the waist? +Finally, were such gauze caps known in Giorgione’s day? It is +the purest fancy that discovers a shadow of greatness in this +dull work. Drawing, colour, design, all proclaim it the product +of a commonplace artist. The work is unlike Giorgione’s +in every particular except the shape of the brow.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Morelli’s judgment about the portrait in Buda-Pesth is a +perfectly sound one. It occurs only in the English translation +and not in the original German.<a id='r71'></a><a href='#f71' class='c015'><sup>[71]</sup></a> “The picture,” he says, +“has suffered much, and the master is not to be recognised +in the technical qualities of the painting, but the whole feeling ... +and the conception seem to point to Giorgione. The impression +which it made upon me ten years ago was that of a +thoroughly Giorgionesque work, but one executed by a later +hand rather than by the master himself. Competent critics who +have examined the picture in the meantime insist, however, that +it is a true original by Giorgione. I must leave the final decision +of the point to others.” Unfortunately it is next to impossible +to arrive at final decisions in such matters. For one, I +<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>believe that Morelli’s idea, that the work was executed by a +follower of Giorgione, is borne out by its main characteristics, +particularly by the self-conscious pose of the head, and +by the gesture of the hand—both much like what is found +in portraits by the men of the generation after Giorgione.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Then, too, the cold ashen colour is very unlike Giorgione’s +palette, but I would not lay great weight on this fact as the +picture has been much repainted. The picture is of further +interest because it shows the fallacy of one of Morelli’s most +firm statements. In the Introduction<a id='r72'></a><a href='#f72' class='c015'><sup>[72]</sup></a> to his chapters on the +Borghese Gallery he says: “Ich erlaube mir bei dieser Gelegenheit +sogar zu bemerken, dass die den <i>grossen Meistern</i> +eigenthümliche <i>Grundform</i> der Hand und des Ohres nicht nur +auf ihren Bildern, sondern selbst auf den von ihnen nach dem +Leben gemalten Porträts sich vorfindet.” With these words +in one’s mind one looks at the Buda-Pesth portrait and finds +neither hand, ear, eye, nose or mouth exhibiting the <i>Grundform</i> +shown in the unquestioned pictures. Morelli was carried +away by his theories in this point, for while every one will +readily admit that many cases, especially among the works of +the primitive and early masters, can be found to fit his rule, +yet the numberless exceptions to this rule, particularly among +the fully developed masters, make it quite plain that, at best, +its application requires to be strictly limited.<a id='r73'></a><a href='#f73' class='c015'><sup>[73]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The Portrait of a Youth at Berlin is the last of the Morellian +<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>Giorgiones to be studied. As was too often the case, +Morelli speaks off-hand of this work as “ein glänzendes Porträt +des Giorgione,” as though it was so manifestly by him +that he was absolved from the labour of adducing proof; but +the matter is not so simple. It is surely enough Giorgionesque, +but do the details bear out the general impression so strongly +as to make the attribution beyond all reasonable doubt? +Not one of the master’s certain works shows a head like this. +It is sharper and harder than anything of his except the Uffizi +panels, but between these, sharp and hard as they seem to +have been, and the Berlin portrait, there is an important and +essential difference. The figures on the panels are not only +hard, they are stiff; that is, they show one of the chief +characteristics of youthful work.<a id='r74'></a><a href='#f74' class='c015'><sup>[74]</sup></a> If now the portrait be by +Giorgione, it is self-evidently an early work. That is, there +are among his undoubted works some that show vastly greater +ease than this. But this portrait does not show any stiffness.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The attitude is easy, and the painting, particularly of the +drapery, is distinctly free, one might even say sketchy. The +work shows, perhaps, not so much the characteristics of a +young artist of great power as those of one who has attained +some facility but not the complete and all-round ease of the +greatest masters. Then what do the letters V. V. mean, +painted on the shelf behind which the figure stands? Is it +not possible they are the initial letters of the artist’s name? +<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>Can they stand for an as yet unknown imitator, another <i>Vincentius +Venezianus</i>? As Morelli said of the Portrait in Buda-Pesth, +“I must leave the final decision of the point to others”—others +better qualified than myself. Whoever the artist, +the picture is a splendid one, and may well be regarded as +showing the Giorgione point of view in portraiture, which, +however, is a very different matter from being a work by him.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I have already had occasion to refer to an article by +Berenson in the <i>Gazette des Beaux-Arts</i> in which he speaks of +pictures he considers as copies of lost Giorgiones. These are:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The David in Vienna.</div> + <div class='line'>The Judith in St. Petersburg.</div> + <div class='line'>The Birth of Paris in Buda-Pesth.</div> + <div class='line'>Orpheus and Eurydice, a cassone at Bergamo.</div> + <div class='line'>Portrait of a Man, formerly in the Doetsch collection.</div> + <div class='line'>Portrait of a Lady, belonging to Signor Crespi at Milan.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Of the first three I have already spoken. To maintain his +thesis about the Orpheus and Eurydice, Berenson mentions +only vague sentiments such as “Qui donc, autre que lui, a su +traduire, comme nous le voyons ici, un mythe grec dans +l’esprit de la Renaissance?” We might reply that Bellini, +Titian, Tintoret, to mention merely Venetians, all showed a +rather marked ability to do this very thing, so it was not a +personal peculiarity of Giorgione. “Qui donc, autre que lui, +avait le don de fondre le paysage et les figures dans une aussi +charmante harmonie?” Again the ability to do this was +possessed by many artists, and so vague a phrase as <i>aussi +charmante</i> proves nothing whatever. Continuing, he finds +many details which betray very certainly the work of Cariani +(an undoubted imitator of Giorgione), and decides that the +work is a copy by Cariani of a lost Giorgione. But when +<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>much is admittedly unlike Giorgione and everything suits +Cariani, why not consider Cariani the artist? Apparently +because “si nous étions nous-même des artistes très doués, +nous pourrions remplacer chaque détail <i>carianesque</i> par un +détail <i>giorgionesque</i>, emprunté aux œuvres du maître les plus +voisines.” This has no force. We might as well “remplacer +chaque détail <i>carianesque</i> par un détail <i>michelangelesque</i>,” +and what would be shown thereby? Nothing.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The reasons given for believing the Portrait from the Doetsch +collection<a id='r75'></a><a href='#f75' class='c015'><sup>[75]</sup></a> to be a copy of a Giorgione are quite as vague and +undefinable as those for the Orpheus and Eurydice. The +consideration of details is no more convincing than the sentiments +and fanciful writing that precede. “Si l’auteur de +l’original en question n’était pas Giorgione, ce devrait être +quelque imitateur servile du maître, comme Licinio ou Beccaruzzi. +Mais ces peintres de second ordre ne pouvaient +qu’imiter et non créer, et le portrait de la collection Doetsch +est bien une création,” and yet he has just said that this portrait +“est le même type que celui du jeune homme de Buda-Pesth,”—the +picture mentioned by Morelli. Berenson’s +definition of ‘création’ must differ from that ordinarily employed; +and Licinio at his best was not so uncreative as Berenson +would have us believe. He gives one, however, further +surprises in asserting that this portrait agrees in all details +with the one in Berlin! Not only the same head and brow, +but “le même sentiment dans la bouche!”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Even were this all so, and I cannot see that it is in the least, +what would be proved? To compare one doubtful work to +another of a similar nature does not, as I have said above, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>prove the authorship of either. Furthermore, though one +can find strong likenesses to the Berlin head in the true +works by Giorgione, in these same works one cannot find any +likeness whatever to the Doetsch portrait. To compare +this overemphasised portrait, this person who seems half +brigand and half Shylock, to the sad, poetical-looking man +at Buda-Pesth, or to the clean, vigorous, manly youth in +Berlin, is going pretty far, and the limit is plainly over-stepped +in the endeavour to attach to the picture a value it +does not possess by giving to it the name of one of the +greatest artists.</p> + +<p class='c007'>For the painter of the Crespi Portrait of a Lady we shall +do better to look in the direction of Titian than Giorgione. +The owner, Signor Crespi, believes, according to Berenson, +that Titian was the author, and certainly the likeness which +the figure bears to other women by Titian, and the initials +T. V. make it difficult to admit any other origin. Neither +ecstasies nor comparisons serve to show any likeness to Giorgione’s +work.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of all the portraits attributed to Giorgione the finest by far +is the one owned by the Hon. Edward Wood of Temple Newsam. +Attention was first drawn to this by Cook and his attribution +has been accepted by every one. It is a masterpiece +of the greatest beauty (Plate LXVIII).</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have now reviewed the most important criticisms that +have been passed on Giorgione’s work; and though it is only too +evident that as yet there is no really sound common standard +by which to govern our judgments, we can come very near to +forming one if we accept the more sober part of the work of +these criticisms and disregard their more extravagant and +hypothetical attributions.<a id='r76'></a><a href='#f76' class='c015'><sup>[76]</sup></a> The following list, I venture to +think, embraces works differing much less among themselves in +regard to style than the lists of the critics that I have discussed.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id002'> +<img src='images/i_p202a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXVIII.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt> </dt> + <dd><span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>1. Vienna—David (copy). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>2. Venice—Fondaco dei Tedeschi (fragment still visible, but compare Zanetti’s engraving). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>3. Venice—Chiesa di San Rocco, Christ carrying the Cross (much damaged). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>4. Venice, Giovanelli Palace, Soldier and Woman, known as The Tempest. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>5. Castelfranco, Madonna Enthroned. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>6. Dresden, Venus. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>7. Kingston Lacy, Judgment of Solomon (unfinished). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>8. Vienna, Three Philosophers. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>9. Buda-Pesth, Birth of Paris (fragment of a copy). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>10. Florence, Uffizi, Judgment of Solomon. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>11. Florence, Uffizi, Fire-test of Moses. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>12. Florence, Uffizi, Knight of Malta. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>13. Boston, Mass., Mrs. Gardner’s Collection (formerly Vicenza), Head of Christ. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>14. London, National Gallery, Study for the San Liberale of the Castelfranco picture. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>15. London, National Gallery, Epiphany. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>16. London, Mr. Benson, Holy Family. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>17. London, Lord Allandale, Shepherd’s Offering. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>18. Temple Newsam, Hon. Mr. Wood. Portrait of a Man. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>19. St. Petersburg, Judith. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>20. Berlin, Portrait of a Youth (?). + </dd> + </dl> + +<p class='c007'>Excluding the last one as being open to doubt, nineteen +pictures, two probably copies, remain as our heritage +of this most noble painter’s work. With these nineteen in +our mind, it becomes more evident than ever why such +works as the Louvre Concert, the Borghese Lady, or the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>Doetsch Man are not to be thought of in connection with +Giorgione’s name.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There yet remains something more to be said of Giorgione. +I think that there are still some pictures to be added to this +list. The first to which I desire to call attention is the so-called +Gypsy Madonna in Vienna. This picture is spoken +of by every one as a Titian, but the longer I study it the more +strong becomes my conviction that Giorgione was the artist; +that it is one of his early works; that it is one of the “many +pictures of the Virgin” of which Vasari speaks. The Giorgione +spirit seems to me to underlie the whole feeling just as +the Giorgione technique underlies the completed performance, +that is, wherever the repainting allows it to be seen (Plate +LXIX).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Evidently, from the lack of decision of the drawing, the coarse +modelling of the drapery, and the heavy, undetailed landscape +the picture is an early work of the master, be he Titian +or Giorgione. To my mind the likeness between this and +unquestioned early Titians is a superficial one. This picture +shows none of the ease that is a characteristic of even his +early works, nor does it exhibit any of the dramatic quality, +expressed either by the actions or in the faces of the figures, +that is another most noticeable feature of his work. If, on +the other hand, one seeks for similarities to Giorgione’s work, +they are most readily found. Details and style coincide +closely with his pictures. The shape of the Virgin’s head and +the manner in which the hair is drawn over the brow are +nearly identical with what one sees in the Uffizi panels or +the Castelfranco picture. The sharply marked eyelids, the +richly modelled mouth and long nose, are strongly resemblant +to the same features in the Castelfranco Madonna, the Giovanelli +Gypsy, the Uffizi panels, and the Knight of Malta.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_p204a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><span class='sc'>Plate LXIX.</span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>Notice, too, the large hand, the feet of the child with the +strongly developed toes which are just what one finds in Giorgione’s +works. So, also, the landscape with its plumelike trees, +and the slim figure seated on the grass is such as one finds in +many of his works, but not so often in those of Titian. Finally, +and of more importance than separate details, is the fact +that the peaceful spirit of the group, the undramatic, unTitianesque +quality, is exactly what is most characteristic +of Giorgione. Titian, when he painted the Christ Child, +even in his earliest days, painted a figure more representing +the infant Hercules than the Salvator Mundi. Invariably, +He leaps about in his Mother’s arms, and though the small +chubby face may be keenly intelligent, there is hardly ever a +suggestion of the imaginative powers and prophetic instinct +of the Reformer. It is here that Giorgione shows his very +exceptional genius, for he was able to depict a purely human +man child in such wise that were the figures cut from his canvases, +no one could mistake them for mere ordinary offspring.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Giorgione used none of the affected graces or sentimentalities +of Raphael, nor did he depend upon such weirdness as +Leonardo chose; as a result, his figures are as much more +satisfying to the inquiring intellect as a living fountain is +compared with the mirage of the desert. His means are simple. +There is no exaggeration of action, as in the Titian Child, +but all is essentially delicate and infantine. There is no exaggeration +of expression, but a slightly dreamy, far-away +look as of powers still unwakened, and one feels, as before no +other representations of the Child, that such as He might +<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>attain to even Calvary. Taken in connection with the +agreement of the details, this spiritual similarity of the work +to others that we know are by Giorgione must give him pause +who should think to name Titian as the author.<a id='r77'></a><a href='#f77' class='c015'><sup>[77]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Another picture which, I believe, deserves more attention +than has yet been given it hangs, under the name of Giovanni +Bellini, in the <i>Museo Correr</i> in Venice. The picture represents +the dead Christ, seated on the edge of the tomb, upheld +by three angels. In the background is a landscape, with a +church on the right. It is painted on a panel about four feet +high. The Anonimo Morelli says that in the year 1530 in +the house of Gabriel Vendramin: “El Cristo morto sopra el +sepolcro, con l’Anzolo che el sostenta, fu de man de Zorzi da +Castelfranco, reconzato da Tiziano.” The picture in the +Correr Museum represents this same scene, but there are +three angels instead of one. This difference between the +picture and the description need not make us hesitate to consider +the question whether Giorgione was the author of the +work, if there are other reasons to render such authorship +possible.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Any one, however, who has used early books such as the +Anonimo knows how very inaccurate the authors often were +and any one who has studied Italian painting knows that to +represent the dead Christ held by only one angel is entirely +contrary to precedent and practice. The present condition +<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>of the work is such that it is impossible to say whether it was +ever <i>raconzato da Tiziano</i> or not. It is a mere wreck. That +there are distinct resemblances to Bellini’s work is not to be +denied, but, if I mistake not, there exist even stronger ones +to that of Giorgione. A slight stiffness in drawing, a certain +archaism in drapery, is just what one would expect to find in +the work of Bellini’s pupil. In the modelling and action of +the figures, however, there are evidences of an attempt at +freedom of design such as are rare in Bellini’s work. Four +works of Bellini occur at once as criteria for judging the +quality of the one under discussion—the Pietà in the Brera, +one in the Mond collection in London, one in Rimini, and one +in the Berlin Gallery.<a id='r78'></a><a href='#f78' class='c015'><sup>[78]</sup></a> None of these show the slender, +rather unmodelled hands of the Correr picture; none presents +so vivid a picture of Death. In none except the one at Rimini +are the secondary figures really supporting the Christ,—the +body does not show, as in the Correr picture, the relaxation +of death, and in the Rimini picture the angels are much more +playfully treated than in the Correr panel. The Bellini pictures +are deeply touching, but to me there seems an even +nobler and more moving sentiment in the work which I fain +would attribute to Giorgione, and it is just such a sentiment +as the painter of the Vicenza Christ might have suggested.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The heads of the figures of the dead Christ in the works of +Bellini are without exception represented as <i>asleep</i>. In the +Correr picture one sees more than sleep in the closed eyes and +drawn mouth of the Saviour. There is death—but death, +the tragedy, so combined with a yearning, soul-compelling +<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>sadness, that the face can never be forgotten by whoso once +has seen it, and this is spiritual life. Scarcely any other +artist ever equalled Giorgione, and none certainly ever surpassed +him, in the power of representing the members of the +Holy Family. There are many fine presentations of Christ +bearing the Cross, but none so imaginative as the Vicenza +picture. For there we see in the sensitive face, the direct +eye, and steady earnest mouth, the signs of completed power +over self, while in the tear drop that sparkles on the cheek +is the sign of suffering that broke the body, whose soul it +could not quell—for neither brow nor eye are those of one +who weeps. The Correr painting contains a similar double +suggestion. Two details there are also which bear out the +idea that Giorgione is the author. One is the technique which +so far as can be seen is of the rich, smooth, carefully shaded +kind, peculiar to Giorgione’s work. The other is the landscape +in which the low horizon line and the plumy trees correspond +closely to his certain works. Wreck though it be, +and possibly only a copy of the original, it is worth study by +students.<a id='r79'></a><a href='#f79' class='c015'><sup>[79]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>A smaller, but fortunately much more perfectly preserved, +work hangs in the London Gallery under the name of School +of Giorgione. It represents a bearded man on a throne and +other figures in an open landscape. Whoever, unafraid of finding +something unexpected, looks at this picture with critical +eye, will, I think, realise that it is not a school work, but by +the master himself. It is very carefully wrought in design and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>execution, as a youthful work would be likely to be, and as the +two Florence panels are. The rich clear colours and the bright +sunshine spread over the scene, are such as are found in the +Florence panels, the Kingston Lacy picture, those in Vienna, +and the Virgin of Castelfranco. The landscape is typically +Giorgionesque, closed in as it is in the foreground, and opening +into a middle distance of rich meadows, enlivened here and +there with tall steep-roofed houses. The rich detail and +broad chiaroscuro find their counterpart over and over again +in Giorgione’s work; and finally, who but Giorgione ever +presented to our delighted eyes a scene so simple, so dreamlike, +so poetic, so defined, and yet so difficult to understand? +It is a dream picture, rendered with the utmost clearness of +vision. It is only the masters who can do this—only Giorgione +and Keats and such rare spirits who can put in terms +for the ordinary plodding mortal to grasp, the evanescent +visions of the mind.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of very different character is the portrait of a youth in a +large hat in the Vienna Gallery. Crowe and Cavalcaselle +attribute this to Morto da Feltre. It was impossible for me +to see the original when I was in Vienna, but study of an excellent +photograph makes me doubt this attribution. If I +mistake not, the picture might be a copy of a portrait by +Giorgione. The treatment of the landscape is sufficient to +show that Giorgione’s hand did not touch the work itself, +but scarcely any other than Giorgione can have originated +this grave sweet face with the steady eyes.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To close this necessarily unsatisfactory part of my subject, +there is the etching by H. van der Borcht which quite possibly +is copied from a lost Giorgione. It represents a woman +<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>seated upon a dead warrior, and below the figures are the +words <i>Giorgione inv</i>.<a id='r80'></a><a href='#f80' class='c015'><sup>[80]</sup></a> It seems not unlikely that it preserves +for us one of the frescoes long since faded from some +palace wall in Venice. It is but the echo of a voice that is +still, but even as such it means much.</p> + +<p class='c007'>If now my arguments, in the foregoing discussion, are based +upon sound reason rather than upon theory, it results that the +following are the works by which we must judge Giorgione’s +genius, and that these must serve as a standard for further +study of his work:</p> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>1. Vienna, David (copy). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>2. Vienna, Three Philosophers. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>3. Vienna, Gypsy Madonna. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>4. Vienna, Portrait of a Youth (copy?). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>5. Venice, Fondaco dei Tedeschi. (The engravings can be used in giving suggestions of + Giorgione’s methods of composition.) + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>6. Venice, Chiesa di San Rocco, Christ carrying the Cross. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>7. Venice, Giovanelli Palace, Soldier and Woman. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>8. Venice, Correr Museum, Pietà (copy?). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>9. Castelfranco, Madonna Enthroned. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>10. Dresden, Venus. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>11. Kingston Lacy, Judgment of Solomon. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>12. Buda Pesth, Birth of Paris (copy). + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>13. Florence, Uffizi, Judgment of Solomon. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>14. Florence, Uffizi, Fire-test of Moses. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>15. Florence, Uffizi, Knight of Malta. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>16. Boston, Mrs. Gardner, Head of Christ. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>17. London, National Gallery, Study for figure of San Liberale. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>18. London, National Gallery, Epiphany. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>19. London, National Gallery, David and Solomon. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>20. London, Mr. Beaumont (Lord Allandale), Shepherd’s Offering. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>21. London, Mr. Benson, Holy Family. + </dd> + <dt> </dt> + <dd>22. St. Petersburg, Hermitage, Judith. + </dd> + </dl> + +<p class='c007'>At first sight it may seem that there is more variety of +style in these pictures than the works of any one artist would +<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>show, especially one who died young. There are, however, +certain general considerations to be clearly remembered. +Giorgione was born and grew up in a time of great discovery, +when long-established thoughts and habits were rapidly +changing, so that we should commit a serious error were we to +expect him to paint the same subjects, or in the same manner, +as his predecessors. His works would necessarily be different +from theirs. He would naturally show greater variety and, +owing to his youth, his style would not have become fixed. +What is certain is that his contemporaries regarded him with +the greatest admiration, so the best way to fit ourselves to +judge him is to study the life of Venice in his day.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is not much that is left us of the great man’s life work, +but it suffices to show what he was, not only as a painter, but +as a man; and why his influence was so great on his contemporaries, +and why so long as the human heart stays young his +spirit will continue to call loudly to it. That he was a perfect +colourist, that is to say, that he understood how to juxtapose +the rich oriental colours of the Venetian palette in such +wise that each tint emphasised the effect of all the others, +or that as a draughtsman he could adequately portray the +images in his brain, does not explain the effect he has on those +who care for him. These are merely technical qualities that +are not difficult to acquire, and that many a man has possessed.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is the spirit of Giorgione’s work that makes him what he +is. He spoke in the simplest, broadest way to the deeper +side of our nature. Not so imbued with the ceremonies of +religion as his master Bellini, nor so given over to the full-blooded +joy in the beauties of this world as his comrade Titian, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>he recognised that fanaticism or sensuality are equally spiritual +death, and that the whole and perfect soul must be tempered +in the fires of the heart, and cooled in the breezes of +Nature. No such loveable Madonna had been painted as +she of Castelfranco,—no purer presentation exists of the +compelling beauty of the human figure than his Venus. Unabashed +“he held both hands before the fire of life,” not +warming first one and then the other, but with true poetic +feeling combining every beauty that he perceived in one +harmonious song.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Always steadily reaching for the same goal, this even-poised +master did not one day paint such exalted figures as +Bellini’s Virgin and Companion Saints in the Frari, and on +another such heathen festivities as the same master’s Bacchanal. +But, as he loved music and pleasant company and +such pleasantnesses of life, so in his painting he shows us grace +and harmony and good breeding. And as these things are +hard to find in our daily course and harder still to fix long +enough to paint their semblance, he fashioned for himself a +world, an Arcadia, where men and women, surrounded by +beautiful Nature, lived together, enjoying a life where there +was both work and play. In all temperate reason they employ +their energies now on problems of deep thought, and now +in the satisfaction of health and natural bodily enjoyment, +and it is just because of the reasonableness of this balance +of mind and body that his pictures seem poetic, dreamlike +and difficult to explain. As Keats, more than any scientist +or idle dreamer, tells how the nightingale entrances the soul, +so Giorgione depicts the Virgin and her Child guarded by +attendant Saints, or adored by kings and slaves, with greater +<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>persuasiveness than any theologian. But he does this neither +as one diverted only by the pageantry, nor as an historian. +Endowed with a poet’s instinct, he saw the deeper meaning of +the scene and depicted those parts that truly illustrate it.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Other artists there have been endowed with this same instinct, +but their works do not obtain from us of to-day as full +response as from our forefathers who lived when they were +painted, and this because they do not give visual form to +matters of lasting import, but to those fleeting affairs that +constitute fashion. This is not so of Giorgione. The glory +of his work will never fade, for his appeal is to the spirit of +youth—that spirit which is compounded of a pure and natural +love in all things beautiful, be they physical or spiritual, +natural or divine, and with energy sufficient to urge it forward +to the acquisition of, and the becoming part of, each and all +of these various perfections. Such was Giorgione: neither +utterly pagan, nor completely christian, but absolutely human +in the finest sense, in that his perceptions were clear enough +to see the special value of all things beautiful and his technical +powers adequate to give due expression to that which he +perceived.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span> + <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2> +</div> + +<ul class='index c002'> + <li class='c024'>Alexander, portraits of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c024'>allegory of Time and Truth, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c024'>archæological study of art, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c024'>art as an index of life, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a> + <ul> + <li>function of, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Athena, head of, from Cyrene, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a> f. + <ul> + <li>date of, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> + <li>local work, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c002'>beauty, Greek love of, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Bellini and Giorgione, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Bellini, Bacchanal, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Berenson, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Bernini, an estimate of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> f. + <ul> + <li>architectural work, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a> f.</li> + <li>classes of his work, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li>clay models, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a> f.</li> + <li>contemporary honour for, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li>designs for piazza of St. Peter’s, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> f.</li> + <li>early life of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li>estimate and characterization of, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> + <li>expression of religion, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li>influence of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li> + <li>multiplicity of sketches, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li>originality of, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> + <li>portraits of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a> f.</li> + <li>sculptor’s models, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a> f., <a href='#Page_44'>44</a> f. + <ul> + <li>list of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>technique of, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a> f.</li> + <li>versatility, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Bernini, works of, + <ul> + <li>Æneas and Anchises, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li>angels, used in architecture, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a> f.</li> + <li>Apollo and Daphne, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li>Baldacchino in St. Peter’s, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li>Beata Albertona, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> + <li>Cattedra in St. Peter’s, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li>Daniel in the lions’ den, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li> + <li>David, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li>fountains, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li>Habakkuk, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> + <li>Maria di Magdala, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> + <li>portraits, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a> + <ul> + <li>Bishop Santoni, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li>Costanza Buonavelli, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li>Francis I, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> + <li>Louis XIV, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> + <li>Mons. Francesco Barberini, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> + <li>Mons. Montoya, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li>Paul V, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Proserpina, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li>saints, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> + <li>Santa Bibiana, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> + <li>St. Jerome, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> + <li>Saint Theresa, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li>Truth, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Borghese pope, patronage of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Borghese warrior, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Botticelli, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a> + <ul> + <li>Virgin and child in Boston, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Brandegee Collection, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Browning, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Brunn, H., <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Bupalos and Athenis, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c002'>Carracci, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Cariani and Giorgione, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Catena and Giorgione, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a> + <ul> + <li>draperies of, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> + <li>St. Jerome (National Gallery), <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li> + <li>Knight adoring Infant Christ, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Corbulo, portrait of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Cyrene, sculpture of, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a> f.</li> + <li class='c002'>Dante, Greek spirit in, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Demetrius of Alopeke, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> + <li class='c002'>Egyptian portraiture, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a> + <ul> + <li>sculpture, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>emotion controlled in Greece, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c024'>evolution of art, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>Farnese Hercules, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Florentine portraits, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Furtwaengler, A., <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Futurists, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c002'>Ghirlandaio, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Giorgione, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a> f. + <ul> + <li>draperies of, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> + <li>life, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> + <li>list of works, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a> + <ul> + <li>Anonimo Morelli, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> + <li>Barri, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> + <li>Berenson, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li>Crowe and Cavalcaselle, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li>Morelli, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li> + <li>Ridolfi, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li>Vasari, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>paintings attributed to, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a> f.</li> + <li>romantic quality of, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> + <li>spirit of his work, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> + <li>the true Giorgione, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> f.</li> + <li>treatment of landscape, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Giorgione, works of, + <ul> + <li>Birth of Paris (copy, Buda-Pesth), <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li> + <li>Christ carrying the Cross (San Rocco, Vienna), <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> + <li>David and Solomon (National Gallery), <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li> + <li>Epiphany (National Gallery), <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li>Gypsy Madonna (Vienna), <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li> + <li>Head of Christ (Gardner Collection, Boston), <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> + <li>Holy Family (Benson), <a href='#Page_183'>183</a> f.</li> + <li>Judgment of Solomon (Kingston Lacy), <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> f., <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li> + <li>Knight of Malta (Uffizi), <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> + <li>Madonna Enthroned (Castelfranco), <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> + <li>Pietà (Venice), <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li> + <li>Portrait (Temple Newsam), <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> + <li>Portrait (Vienna), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li> + <li>San Liberale (National Gallery), <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> + <li>Shepherd’s Offering (Lord Allandale), <a href='#Page_180'>180</a> f.</li> + <li>The Tempest (Venice), <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> + <li>Three Philosophers (Vienna), <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> + <li>Venus (Dresden), <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Giorgione, works attributed to, + <ul> + <li>Allegory (Dresden), <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> + <li>Cassone pictures (Padua), <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> + <li>Concert (Pitti), <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> + <li>Daphne and Apollo (Venice), <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li> + <li>Fête Champêtre (Louvre), <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> + <li>Head of Boy (Hampton Court), <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li> + <li>Judith (St. Petersburg), <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> + <li>Madonna (Madrid), <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></li> + <li>Madonna and Saints (Louvre), <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li> + <li>Nymph and Satyr (Pitti), <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li> + <li>Orpheus and Eurydice (Bergamo), <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li> + <li>Portrait (Berlin), <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li> + <li>Portrait (Borghese), <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li> + <li>Portrait (Buda-Pesth), <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> + <li>Portrait (from Crespi Collection), <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> + <li>Portrait (from Doetsch Collection), <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Guido, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c002'>hair as a means of dating sculpture, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Hipponax, caricature of, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c024'>humanity of the Greek gods, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> + <li class='c002'>Kresilas, portrait of Pericles, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a> f.</li> + <li class='c002'>Laocoon, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Laws of sculpture, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Leonardo, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li> + <li class='c024'>logical reasoning about pictures, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Longinus, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Lowell on Lincoln, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> + <li class='c024'>lucidity of Greek sculpture, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Lysippus, portraits of Alexander, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c002'>“Massacre of the Innocents,” <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c024'>materials for sculpture, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Michael Angelo and Bernini, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a> f. + <ul> + <li>affectation of the period, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> + <li>complexity of his work, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li>feeling for the nude figure, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li>muscles emphasized, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> + <li>period of, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> + <li>pupils of, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> + <li>sonnets and letters, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>Michael Angelo, works of, + <ul> + <li>Bacchus, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a> f.</li> + <li>Battle of the Centaurs, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li>David, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li>Eros, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> + <li>Madonna of Bruges, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> + <li>Moses, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li>Night and Dawn, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> + <li>Pietà in St. Peter’s, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> + <li>Sistine Chapel, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> f., <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> + <li>Victor, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Morelli on Giorgione, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a> f.</li> + <li class='c024'>Mourning Athena, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Myron’s Discobolus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li class='c024'>mystical fervour in art, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c002'>Niobid group, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c024'>nude figure felt under drapery, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a> f.</li> + <li class='c002'>Oberammergau, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> + <li class='c024'>origins of art, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c002'>Pausanias, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Pericles, portrait of, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a> f.</li> + <li class='c024'>Pheidias and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a> f.</li> + <li class='c024'>Pheidias, age of, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a> + <ul> + <li>and Pericles, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li> + <li>influence of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> f.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>Pheidias, work of, + <ul> + <li>Athena Parthenos, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> + <li>Lemnian Athena, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> + <li>Parthenon, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a> + <ul> + <li>frieze, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li>pediments, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Zeus, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c024'>photography and art criticism, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li> + <li class='c024'>physical beauty prized by Greeks, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> + <li class='c024'>portraits of women and children, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> + <li class='c024'>portraits made for friends, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> + <li class='c024'>portraiture, art of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a> f. + <ul> + <li>commemorative, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li>Egyptian, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li> + <li>Florentine, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> + <li>Greek and Roman, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li>in language, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li>in large compositions, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> + <li>in painting and sculpture, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> + <li>motives for, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> + <li>religious, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> + <li>summary, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c002'>Raphael, Angelo Doni, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> + <li class='c024'>realism, in sculpture, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> + <li class='c024'>realism, Greek and Roman, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> + <li class='c024'>religion and art, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Roselli, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Roman art, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Ruskin, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> + <li class='c002'>Scipio, so-called bust of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Sheik-el-Beled, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Shelley, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Silanion, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li> + <li class='c002'>technical peculiarities in paintings, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a> f.</li> + <li class='c024'>temple, significance of the Greek, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Tintoretto, Greek spirit of, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Titian, Duke of Norfolk, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Triton, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> + <li class='c024'>“Truth unveiled by Time,” <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c024'>Turner’s Rizpah, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> + <li class='c002'>violence in art, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c002'>wealth and art, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='c002'>youth in Greek art, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> +</ul> + +<hr class='c025'> +<div class='footnote' id='f1'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. Filippo Baldinucci Fiorentino. <cite>Vita del cavaliere Gio. Lorenzo Bernini.</cite> +Firenze. 1682.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Domenico Bernino. <cite>Vita del cavaliere Gio. Lorenzo Bernino.</cite> Roma. 1713.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Stanislao Fraschetti. <cite>Il Bernini.</cite> Milan. 1900.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f2'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Fraschetti, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 47.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f3'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. Fraschetti, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 425, 426.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f4'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. Fraschetti, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 428.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f5'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. This portrait (Fraschetti, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 434) is probably a copy of one owned by +Baron Geymüller in London.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f6'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Fraschetti, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 429.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f7'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. In the Museum at Weimar is a portrait on which is written that it was done by +Bernini himself, and as an <i>autoritratto</i> it has been published by Fraschetti (p. 433). +It is a wretched performance, done not by Bernini, but by someone who had neither +an observant eye nor a well-trained hand.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is still another portrait which I think is very probably of him. It hangs in +the Capitoline Gallery in Rome (Plate II), where it is called “Portrait of Velasquez, +by himself,” an attribution which no student of Velasquez would maintain to-day. +The shape of the head and face and the expression are extremely like Bernini. +Even the different shape and angle of the two eyebrows is the same as in his portraits. +The quality of the hair is the same, and the way it grows over the temples. +In the earlier portraits of him the hair is parted on the right side as in the Capitoline +picture. The nose is very nearly the same as in the pencil portraits by himself +in the National Gallery in Rome and in the Chigi collection.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f8'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. The Borghese Warrior was found at Anzio at the beginning of the seventeenth +century. See Friederichs-Wolters, <cite>Gipsabgüsse</cite>, 1885, p. 541 f; Vulpius, <cite>Vetus +Latium</cite>, 1726, Vol. III, p. 28.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f9'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. It is not improbable that the statue of St. Lawrence, in the Strozzi palace in +Florence, which Bernini made at this time, was influenced by the Dying Gaul. +The two statues resemble each other closely in many ways. There is a tradition +that Michael Angelo restored certain small portions of the Gaul, but the character +of the work of the restorations suggests Bernini rather than Michael Angelo.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f10'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. In Brookline, Mass.; see p. 44 and Plates XI-XXVII.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f11'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. The head reminds one of the Capitoline Alexander, which Bernini may have +seen.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f12'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. Balcarres, <cite>The Evolution of Italian Sculpture</cite>, p. 333–334.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f13'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Balcarres, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 334.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f14'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. In relation to the influence of ancient work on Bernini, it is worth note that the +four great figures in the Piazza Navona are very Hellenistic in character and would, +if turned into reliefs with their surrounding trees and animals, resemble closely the +fountain-reliefs of the Græco-Roman world.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f15'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. The one of Paul V is in the Villa Borghese, Rome; the other two are in the +National Gallery, Venice.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f16'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. In the Brandegee Collection. It was published by Signor Busiri-Vici in +his work <cite>La Piazza Vaticana</cite>, Rome, 1890, and by Fraschetti, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 307. +The latter gives reduced and poor reproductions of the drawings. We have +thought it worth while therefore to reproduce them on a larger scale; see Part III +of this Study.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f17'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. In San Lorenzo in Lucina, Rome.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f18'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. They were exhibited in Rome by the then owner Sig. Andrea Busiri-Vici at the +Bernini Exposition in 1879 and are spoken of and reproduced in small form by +Fraschetti in his book on Bernini.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f19'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. And these bonds are dependent, I believe, on fundamental laws of sculpture +and painting.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f20'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. It is true that wood was sometimes made use of, but for serious work only in +the early times before the art had been developed. Nor can it be supposed that +the lack of marble in Egypt was the effective cause that led to the use of granites +and basalts. The Egyptians were energetic traders and might have obtained +marble had they desired it, but the fact is they preferred the harder sorts of stone, +though alabaster was sometimes used.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f21'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. That there may be no misunderstanding of the terms employed, I will say that +by breadth of treatment I mean that the sculptor or painter leaves the various +surfaces of the object reproduced by him in large measure unbroken by small lights +and shades which, however true to nature, are apt in art to distract the attention +from the general effect. Though small differences are disregarded there may be, +as Greek work shows, exquisite modulation of surface.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f22'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. I refer of course to statues in the round. The bas-reliefs show much free action +due partly to the technique, partly to their being in softer stone and partly to the +fact that the figures in them are illustrations to historic chronicles and not primarily +portraits. So too figures and groups in wood, faience or metal are freer.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f23'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. The bas-relief of the potter in the Acropolis Museum in Athens belongs to this +class.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f24'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. Though no woman has ever reached the highest rank in any art, her influence +has been enormous. It is a subject to be studied by itself, but it must be constantly +kept in mind that no people who have regarded woman from any but the highest +point of view has ever produced the noblest art. It may be a fallacy to regard her +so, but it is the most powerful and helpful ideal the western mind has yet conceived.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f25'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. When kept to its true course, the magnificent effects attained by language in +perpetuating landscape are splendidly seen in Ruskin, when, for example, he describes +the Roman Campagna (Preface to 2d ed., <cite>Modern Painters</cite>) or Verona +(<cite>Joy Forever</cite>, sec. 76 ff.).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f26'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. In speaking of Niobe I refer naturally to the group in Florence and not to the +less well known and understood earlier groups at St. Petersburg and elsewhere; +typical examples of the massacre are those by Matteo di Giovanni, in the church +of the Servi at Siena, and by Fra Angelico in the Academy at Florence.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f27'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. The copies known to me are (1) in the British Museum, (2) in the Vatican, +(3) in the collection of Barrone Barracco, Rome, and (4) a fragment in the collection +of Alden Sampson, Esq., Haverford, Penn.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f28'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. This is not the place to discuss the meaning of the Latin word <i>nobilis</i>. Suffice +to say that if it is translated in this passage by its more commonplace equivalent +of <i>famous</i>, the criticism has little point, since it is self-evident that an enduring +monument, whether a statue or bust, adds to the fame of the individual in whose +honour it is erected.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f29'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. It is a long-standing error to suppose that Pericles’s skull as shown in these +busts is peculiarly domed. The shape of the tilted helmet makes it seem to be so, +but comparison with other heads covered by the Corinthian helmet shows that +his is in no way abnormal when thus represented, however it may have been when +uncovered.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f30'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. In the Brandegee Collection.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f31'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. One instance will suffice to show what I mean by this. Far more pure imagination +is shown in the Italian representations of the Creation or the Last Judgment +than in the Greek scenes of the lives of their Gods with which they decorated pediment +and frieze.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f32'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. The recent discovery of a life-size marble copy of the Athena of the Marsyas +group has made Myron’s character much clearer than before. See Pollak in the +<cite>Jahresheften des Oesterreichischen Archaeologischen Institutes</cite>, 1909, p. 154.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f33'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. The modern theory that wall paintings should be flat, that they should not give +the impression of an opening beyond the wall they are on, is contradicted by all the +practice of the Renaissance. Lippi, Gozzoli, Leonardo, Raphael, Michael Angelo, +Veronese, Correggio, to recall but a few, all used wall painting as a means of suggesting +larger dimensions and more ample space than the rooms they decorated +actually afforded.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f34'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. To illustrate by an example: the low relief work of the Tempietto at Rimini +is a more perfect form of decoration (partly because of its permanency) than +painting would have been.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f35'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. In the <cite>Bulletin of the Archæological Institute of America</cite>, Vol. II (1910–11), +Plates 47 and 79, and p. 162.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f36'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Mr. Berenson has done much to correct the attributions in his studies on the +artist he calls, since his real name is unknown, the <cite>Amico di Sandro</cite>. Berenson’s +<i>amico</i> was, I believe, several <i>amici</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f37'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. In the gallery of Mr. Davis, in Newport, R.I.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f38'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. An inscription of the seventeenth century on the back of this picture reads: +<cite>Giorgon De Castel Franco</cite>, F. Maestro De Titiano. The picture was engraved by +Wenzel Hollar in 1650, as the portrait of Buffalmacco by Giorgione.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f39'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. The picture in Brunswick, a poor replica of which is in Buda-Pesth, is, or is +derived from, a picture engraved by Hollar in 1650 and called by him a “portrait +of Giorgione by himself.” This is possible, but the picture is a mere wreck. See +Justi, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f40'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. Larpent, “Le jugement de Paris attribué au Giorgione,” Christiania, 1885.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f41'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. See Gronau, <cite>Repertorium für Kunstwissenchaft</cite>, 1908, p. 405. His comment +on p. 407 seems to me an error.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f42'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. Cf. p. 52 f.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f43'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. <cite>The Painter’s Voyage of Italy.</cite> Englished by W. Lodge. Written originally in +Italian by Giacomo Barri, 1679.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f44'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. I put a question mark after those which by general consent are no longer +attributed to Giorgione, and those which I doubt and shall discuss in the following +pages.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f45'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. It is noteworthy that the backs of these two panels have patterns painted on +them showing that the pictures once formed part of some piece of furniture, and +it was in decorating such objects that much of Giorgione’s time, according to +Ridolfi, was employed. For Bode’s remarks cf. Burchardt’s <cite>Cicerone</cite>, Vol. II, 913.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f46'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. <cite>Die Galerien zu München und Dresden</cite> (Leipzig, 1891), p. 270 f.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f47'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. Morelli adds the following note: “Weder die Herren Crowe und Cavalcaselli, +noch Herr Director W. Bode lassen diese zwei Bildchen alz Werke des Giorgione +gelten, sondern sehen dieselben als Schülerarbeiten an.” So far as Crowe and +Cavalcaselle are concerned, this statement is an error, as one can easily see by reading +what they say on pp. 128–9 of the second volume of their <cite>History of Painting +in North Italy</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f48'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. I have not yet mentioned this picture, but shall speak of it in detail later.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f49'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. <cite>The Venetian Painters of the Renaissance</cite>, p. 107.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f50'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. <cite>Gazette des Beaux Arts</cite>, October, 1897.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f51'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. Berenson in the first edition of his little book on Venetian Painting did not +mention it either, but in the third edition he passes it by with these words: “The +scarcely less famous picture belonging to Mr. Banks is by the hand which painted +the Christ and Adulteress, of the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, and that hand +is Giovanni Cariani’s. To repeat, I would have preferred to publish opinions so +divergent from those usually received, in a form adequate to the importance of +the theme; but I console myself with the belief that the merest indication suffices +the competent. As for the others—Procul o procul este, profani.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Such statements can only be excused by supposing the writer to have been pressed +for time. Unless they are of sufficient importance for the author to make them intelligible, +they are not entitled to our consideration. No critic is justified in making +an arbitrary statement which he will not take the pains to make clear.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f52'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. This picture was formerly called a Bellini. It comes from the collection of +Sir William Miles of Leigh Court. See Redford, <cite>Art Sales</cite>, I, pp. 364–5.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f53'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. Berenson, <cite>Venetian Painters of the Renaissance</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f54'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. See <cite>Archivio Storico dell’ Arte</cite>, 1895, I, p. 77. In this passage the writer (Miss +Ffoulkes) speaking of an exhibition in London mentions the Benson picture and the +Epiphany. She thinks them by neither Giorgione, nor Catena, but offers no suggestion +as to the painter except that there is another picture by him in the Venice +Accademia attributed (wrongly) to Cordegliaghi.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f55'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. <cite>Die Galerie zu Dresden</cite>, p. 266 f.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f56'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. It is noteworthy that Morelli claimed (as is shown by the + with which the +attribution is marked) to be the first to show that this picture of the Knight +was by Catena. Crowe and Cavalcaselle had already written of the picture as by +Catena. Considerable care must be exercised in the use of Morelli’s writings to +distinguish between his true discoveries (which were many) and his agreements +with earlier authorities. It may be that these agreements were based on his own +private study, but there is a great difference between the result of one’s study leading +to our giving assent to what others have perceived before us and our discovery +of what had never been imagined by our predecessors. <i><span lang="la">Pereant qui ante nos nostra +dixerint</span></i>, but still honesty and justice are of greater value than fame. Nor does +a pleasant temper show in the implied sarcasm of Morelli’s words about this picture +which he calls a “<span lang="de">herrliches Werk des Catena, obwohl es im Galeriekatalog noch +immerfort blos der Schule des Giambellino zugetheilt wird (+).</span>” It is surely not +so very inaccurate to describe a work by Catena as of the ‘Schule des Giambellino.’</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f57'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. A copy of this picture hangs in the Vienna Gallery and I was told by the Director +in 1901 that he considered it the original; but this seems to me impossible, for +it is much less good in every way than the Beaumont picture. A drawing of a portion +of it is at Windsor.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f58'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. Parts of Mr. Benson’s picture have suffered from repainting. This is especially +true of the landscape, which seems to have lost its original form.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f59'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. <cite>Die Galerie zu Dresden</cite>, p. 297, n.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f60'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. The inaccurate copy in the Rovigo Gallery is a wretched daub that is not +worth preserving. There are other poor replicas of the picture; one owned by Count +Lanckoronski in Vienna is considered by Venturi to be the original. The other +picture in the Rovigo Gallery (No. 11), sometimes spoken of in the same breath +with Giorgione’s name, is equally worthless. It is nothing but a wretched copy of +the head of the Vienna David.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f61'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. The picture in Madrid is by Titian; the one in the Louvre is said by Crowe and +Cavalcaselle to be by Pellegrino da San Daniele, while Berenson attributes it to +Cariani.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f62'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. Examen | Historique et Critique | Des Tableaux | Exposées Provisoirement +| Venant des premier et second envoies de Milan, Crémone, Parme, Plaisance, +Modène, Cento et Bologne, auquel on a joint le detail de tous les Monumens +des Arts qui sont arrivés d’Italie.—An VI<sup>e</sup> de la Republique.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f63'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. A good replica is in the Corsini Gallery, Florence.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f64'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. <cite>Die Galerie zu Dresden</cite>, p. 276.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f65'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. And still is in some galleries, as Hampton Court.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f66'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. The picture has been much restored, but the faults pointed out here are not due +to the restorer.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f67'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. <cite>Die Galerie zu Dresden</cite>, p. 282. A copy of the picture is at Hampton Court.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f68'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. <cite>Die Galerie zu Dresden</cite>, p. 282.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f69'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. <cite>Gazette des Beaux Arts</cite>, Oct. 1897, p. 270. Berenson in this suggestive article +has mixed ecstatic and girlish talk inextricably with sound argument. In his +criticism of the Judith he says: “Il faudrait le talent d’un poète de premier ordre +pour exprimer dans la plénitude tout ce qu’on devine dans la <i>Judith</i> de Saint Pétersbourg.” +True, but though such sentiments fill the page, they do not have the same +effect on our mind as the picture.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f70'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. See the engraving published by Justi in his <cite>Giorgione</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f71'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. <cite>Italian Painters: Critical Studies of their Works.</cite> By Giovanni Morelli. <cite>The +Galleries of Munich and Dresden.</cite> Translated by C. J. Ffoulkes (London, 1893), +p. 218.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f72'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. <cite>Die Galerien Borghese und Doria-Pamfili in Rom</cite> (Leipzig, 1890), p. 99, n. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f73'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. Not only did Morelli weaken his writings by exaggeration—which, however, +was quite natural—but in the less excusable way of giving illustrations that are +misleading. The woodcuts which serve to show the <cite>Grundform</cite> of hands and ears +are only partially exact, and in one case, the Bonifazio ear, a positive caricature. +The process cuts of the paintings are too miserable to consider. This is unfortunately +as true of the translations as of the original editions.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f74'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. Nothing shows better the distinction between the work of the Renaissance and +that of to-day than the fact that the careful training to which the earlier artists +were accustomed led them to produce in their youthful and undeveloped period +finished works and sketches that are stiff, whereas nowadays the majority of the +works of young artists show not so much stiffness as laxity. The one developed +from hardness to easy restraint, the other advances from looseness to a mastery +generally much less even.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f75'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. Reproduced in the <cite>Burlington Magazine</cite>, 1895–6, p. 338.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f76'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. The reason I have not discussed in detail the list given by Cook in his +book on Giorgione (London, 1904) and in various articles in the <cite>Burlington +Magazine</cite> (1905–1906) and <cite>Gazette des Beaux Arts</cite> (1902) is due to no careless +disregard of his work but to the fact that his point of view in regard to Giorgione +and the principles of criticism are so utterly dissimilar to mine that no good would +be gained from pointing out in detail my disagreement with his judgment.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f77'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. Since writing the above I have been pleased to have Signor Venturi tell me that +he, too, considered the work to be by Giorgione. He does not agree with me about +the Benson, Beaumont and National Gallery Holy Families, but he does not +share the Catena theory of their origin. His full views will unquestionably be propounded +in his forthcoming edition of Vasari’s <cite>Life of Giorgione</cite>. Cook also thinks +this Virgin is by Giorgione. Venturi’s views on Giorgione are indicated in the +<cite>Galleria Crespi</cite>, p. 133 f.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f78'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r78'>78</a>. I leave out the one with the forged monogram of Albert Dürer in the Correr +Museum, for it is, I believe, by no means sure that Bellini was the painter.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f79'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r79'>79</a>. Before the earthquake I saw in the Gallery at Messina a picture by Antonello +da Messina the composition of which is practically identical with, and must be the +origin of, the Correr panel. Whether the Messina picture still exists or was destroyed +I do not know.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f80'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r80'>80</a>. Justi’s book contains a reproduction of the engraving. A copy of the engraving +is owned by Mr. C. F. Murray of London.</p> +</div> + +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c003'> +</div> +<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c001'> + <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + + <ul class='ul_1 c002'> + <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + + </li> + <li>Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77325 ***</div> + </body> + <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57e (with regex) on 2025-10-17 19:01:15 GMT --> +</html> diff --git a/77325-h/images/cover.jpg b/77325-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4eae26e --- /dev/null +++ b/77325-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/77325-h/images/i_f002.jpg b/77325-h/images/i_f002.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c65e15d --- /dev/null +++ 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