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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77274 ***</div>
+
+<div class="chapter ad">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak gothic">American Historic Towns.</h2>
+
+<h3>Historic Towns of New England.</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With Introduction
+by <span class="smcap">George P. Morris</span>. Fully illustrated.
+Large 8ᵒ, $3.50.</p>
+
+<h3>Historic Towns of the Middle States.</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With Introduction
+by <span class="smcap">Albert Shaw</span>. Fully illustrated. Large
+8ᵒ, $3.50</p>
+
+<p class="center">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, <span class="smcap">New York and London</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus001" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus001.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p><i>The “Half-Moon” on the Hudson—1609.</i></p>
+      <p><i>From a painting by L. W. Seavey.</i></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[i]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage gothic">American Historic Towns</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">HISTORIC TOWNS<br>
+<span class="smaller">OF</span><br>
+THE MIDDLE STATES</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">Edited by</span><br>
+LYMAN P. POWELL</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">Illustrated</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS<br>
+NEW YORK &amp; LONDON<br>
+<span class="gothic">The Knickerbocker Press</span><br>
+1899</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1899<br>
+BY<br>
+G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</span></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller">Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller gothic">The Knickerbocker Press, New York</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In offering to the public the second volume
+of <i>American Historic Towns</i> the editor
+desires to bring three facts to the consideration
+of the reader.</p>
+
+<p>1. This being the middle volume of a series
+dealing with the older towns along, or near,
+the Eastern coast, it is hoped that the title
+<i>Historic Towns of the Middle States</i> will seem
+not inappropriate.</p>
+
+<p>2. The plan which underlay the making of
+the first volume, <i>Historic Towns of New England</i>,
+has in the main been followed. Each
+author has invariably been chosen because
+of unique fitness for his special task. The
+editor believes that in every case the enthusiasm
+of the native or the resident will be found
+wedded to the perspective of the <i>litterateur</i> or
+scholar. No effort has been made to harmonize
+divergencies in style or judgment, for obvious
+reasons. The success of the first volume
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span>has set the stamp of approval on the method
+of the series, and the editor is glad to announce
+that a volume on the Southern towns
+will shortly follow this.</p>
+
+<p>3. The chapter on Princeton first served as
+an address in 1894 before the Historical Pilgrims
+on the last day of their Pilgrimage,
+which is described in <i>Historic Towns of New
+England</i>, pp. iii.-v.</p>
+
+<p>To the making of this volume many have
+contributed in various ways. The editor is
+under special obligation to his wife, Gertrude
+Wilson Powell, for such assistance as makes
+her really a co-editor of the volume. Dr.
+Albert Shaw, and Mr. Melvil Dewey too have
+given freely of their counsel and encouragement,
+and the editor is happy to acknowledge
+their great kindness.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap" style="padding-left: 1em;">St. John’s Rectory</span>,<br>
+<span class="smcap">Lansdowne, Pennsylvania</span>,<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em;">October 17, 1899.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header2.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+    <td>Albert Shaw</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">xv</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Albany</span></td>
+    <td>Walton W. Battershall</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#ALBANY">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Saratoga</span></td>
+    <td>Ellen Hardin Walworth</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#SARATOGA">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Schenectady</span></td>
+    <td>Judson S. Landon</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#SCHENECTADY">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td>Adelaide Skeel</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#NEWBURGH">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Tarrytown-on-Hudson</span></td>
+    <td>Hamilton Wright Mabie</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">New York City</span></td>
+    <td>Joseph B. Gilder</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#NEW_YORK_CITY">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Brooklyn</span></td>
+    <td>Harrington Putnam</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#BROOKLYN">213</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Princeton</span></td>
+    <td>William M. Sloane</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PRINCETON">251</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td>Talcott Williams</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PHILADELPHIA">297</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Wilmington</span></td>
+    <td>E. N. Vallandigham</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#WILMINGTON">335</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Buffalo</span></td>
+    <td>Rowland B. Mahany</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#BUFFALO">367</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Pittsburgh</span></td>
+    <td>Samuel Harden Church</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PITTSBURGH">393</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header3.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="transnote" id="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber’s Note: The illustrations listed as “Seal of Tarrytown”
+and “Seal of New York City” were not, in fact, printed in the book.
+Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break, which
+may be on a different page.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The “Half-Moon” on the Hudson, 1609</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus001"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by L. W. Seavey.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">ALBANY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Chart of Nieu Nederlandt</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus002">5</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Albany, 1695</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus003">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Dutch Church, Erected in 1715 on Site of Original Church Erected in 1656</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus004">13</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">St. Peter’s Church Erected in 1715. Fort Frederick in the Background</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus005">15</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a water-color sketch in the British Museum.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Major-General Philip Schuyler</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus006">23</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by Colonel Trumbull.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Stephen Van Rensselaer</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus007">25</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by Ezra Ames.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Van Rensselaer Manor-House, 1765</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus008">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Schuyler Mansion, 1760</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus009">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">West Side of Pearl Street, from State Street to Maiden Lane, 1814</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus010">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">View of Albany, 1899</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus011">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">John V. L. Pruyn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus012">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Albany</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus013">37</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">SARATOGA</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Saratoga Lake, N. Y.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus014">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Map Showing Historic and Other Drives in the Vicinity of Saratoga Springs</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus015">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Saratoga Battle Monument, Schuylerville, N. Y.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus016">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">North Broadway, Saratoga Springs, 1898</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus017">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">General Philip Schuyler</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus018">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Bronze statue in niche of Saratoga monument,
+    Schuylerville, N. Y.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Congress Spring in 1820</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus019">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Kayadrossera Patent, with Great Seal of Queen Anne Pendant, 1708</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus020">55</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Original in Saratoga County Clerk’s Office.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Women of the Revolution</span>, 1776</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus021">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From tablet on Saratoga battle monument,
+    Schuylerville, N. Y.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“Old Well,” Freeman’s Farm, Battle-ground, Bemis Heights, Sept. 19, 1777</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus022">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">General Daniel Morgan</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus023">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Congress Spring, 1898</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus024">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Sign, “Putnam and the Wolf,” on Putnam’s Tavern, Saratoga Springs</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus025">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Original sign in Grand Union Hotel, Saratoga Springs, N. Y.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Saratoga</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus026">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">SCHENECTADY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Colonial House, Union Street</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus027">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">View on State Street</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus028">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“The Blue Gate” Entrance to Union College Grounds</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus029">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Glen-Sanders Mansion, Erected 1714</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus030">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">First Reformed (Dutch) Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus031">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Ellis Hospital</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus032">90</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Edison Hotel</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus033">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Union College, 1795</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus034">99</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Statue, Site of “Old Fort”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus035">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“The Brook that Bounds thro’ Union’s Grounds,” Union College</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus036">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Eliphalet Nott</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus037">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">President of Union College for sixty years.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Schenectady</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus038">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">NEWBURGH</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington’s Headquarters at Newburgh</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus039">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Joel T. Headley</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus040">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Lutheran Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus041">113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Andrew J. Downing</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus042">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Henry Kirke Brown</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus043">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Headquarters of Major-General Knox at Vail’s Gate</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus044">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Clinton’s Headquarters at Little Britain, near Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus045">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Clinton Statue in Colden Square, Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus046">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Williams House</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus047">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Monument on Temple Hill, near Newburgh</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus048">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Verplanck House</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus049">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Baron Steuben’s headquarters, where the “Nicola Letter”
+    was written.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington’s Headquarters at Fishkill</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus050">133</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Charles Downing</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus051">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus052">135</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Bird’s-eye View of Tarrytown</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus053">139</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph by F. Ahrens.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Pocantico River</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus054">149</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Manor-House (“Flypse’s Castle”) and Mill, Tarrytown</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus055">151</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Old Dutch Church, Sleepy Hollow</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus056">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a drawing by W. J. Wilson.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Interior of the Old Dutch Church, Sleepy
+    Hollow, Prior to Its Restoration in 1897</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus057">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph by F. Ahrens.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Monument to the Captors of André</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus058">159</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph by F. Ahrens.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington Irving</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus059">161</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“Sunnyside”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus060">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The home of Washington Irving.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Jacob Mott House, where Katrina Van Tassel was Married</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus061">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Now occupied by the new Washington Irving High School.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Tarrytown</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#transnote">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Sleepy Hollow Mill</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus062">167</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">NEW YORK CITY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">First Seal of the City, 1623-1654</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus063">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Map of Original Grants</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus064">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Fort in Governor Kieft’s Day</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus065">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Peter Stuyvesant</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus066">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of the City in 1686</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus067">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">John Jay</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus068">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Alexander Hamilton</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus069">180</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Fraunces Tavern</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus070">183</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Stadt Huys</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus071">191</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Stained-Glass Window in “Bowling Green
+    Offices,” Showing Green about 1760</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus072">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Government House</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus073">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Federal Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus074">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">St. Paul’s Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus075">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">City Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus076">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Grant’s Tomb, Riverside Drive</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus077">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington Arch</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus078">209</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of New York City</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#transnote">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">BROOKLYN</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">View in Brooklyn in the Olden Times</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus079">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Denyse’s Ferry</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus080">217</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The first place at which the British and Hessians landed
+    on Long Island, August 22, 1776. Now Fort Hamilton.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Bushwick Town-House and Church, 1800</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus081">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Section of Map of Brooklyn, 1776</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus082">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Brower’s Mill, Gowanus</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus083">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The Yellow Mill is seen in the distance.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Monument to Maryland’s “400”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus084">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Navy Yard</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus085">243</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">In foreground 5.5-inch breech-loading gun, with mount
+    and shield, taken from Spanish cruiser <i>Vizcaya</i>, after destruction
+    of Spanish fleet, July 3, 1898; also submarine mine from Guantanamo.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Fort Lafayette, New York Narrows</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus086">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Brooklyn Institute Museum</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus087">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Henry Ward Beecher</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus088">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Brooklyn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus089">249</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">PRINCETON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Line of Historic Catalpas</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus090">253</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">A View of the Front Campus</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus091">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">John Witherspoon</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus092">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington’s Headquarters at Rocky Hill,
+    N. J., near Princeton</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus093">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Morven</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus094">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Richard Stockton, “The Signer”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus095">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Hall in the Morven House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus096">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Battle of Princeton. Death of Mercer</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus097">277</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by Col. J. Trumbull.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Nassau Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus098">287</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">President James McCosh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus099">293</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Princeton</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus100">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">PHILADELPHIA</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Reading the Declaration of Independence</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus101">299</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an old French print.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Thomas Penn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus102">303</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a painting owned by the Historical Society
+    of Pennsylvania, copied by M. I. Naylor from the portrait in the
+    possession of Major Dugald Stuart.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Second Street, Philadelphia, Showing the
+    Old Court House on the Left</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus103">305</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an engraving by W. Birch &amp; Son.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Franklin in 1777</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus104">307</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">After the print reproduced from the drawing of Cochin.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Philadelphia Library</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus105">309</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The old building on Fifth Street, now demolished.
+    From an engraving by W. Birch &amp; Son.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Carpenter’s Hall, Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus106">313</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Wherein met the First Continental Congress, 1774.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Pennsylvania Hospital</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus107">315</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an engraving by W. Birch &amp; Son.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Independence Hall, Philadelphia, before 1876</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus108">319</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Morris House, Germantown, Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus109">321</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Dr. William Pepper</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus110">324</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Frank Thomson</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus111">326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Announcement of the Declaration of Independence</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus112">331</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus113">333</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">WILMINGTON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Christina Fort, 1655</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus114">338</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Residence of the late Thomas F. Bayard</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus115">342</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Swedes’ Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus116">345</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Rev. Eric Bjork</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus117">348</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Bishop Lee</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus118">349</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Thomas F. Bayard</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus119">351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Shipley Building</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus120">354</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Friends’ Meeting-House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus121">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">House of the Historical Society</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus122">359</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">City Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus123">361</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Newcastle County Court House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus124">363</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Wilmington</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus125">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">BUFFALO</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Joseph Ellicott</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus126">368</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Founder of Buffalo.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Lafayette Square</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus127">371</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">A Glimpse of Buffalo Harbor</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus128">375</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">St. Paul’s Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus129">379</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Millard Fillmore</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus130">383</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Beacon on Old Breakwater</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus131">386</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Delaware Avenue, Showing Bishop Quigley’s House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus132">388</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Dr. John Cronyn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus133">389</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">William I. Williams</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus134">390</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Buffalo</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus135">391</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">PITTSBURGH</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">An Early Resident of Pittsburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus136">395</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the statue by T. A. Mills in the Carnegie Museum.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Sun-dial Used at Fort Duquesne</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus137">398</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Earl of Chatham</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus138">403</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an oil painting in the possession of the Historical
+    Society of Pennsylvania.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Blockhouse of Fort Pitt. Built in 1764</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus139">406</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Fort Pitt</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus140">409</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Phipps Conservatory</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus141">415</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Coal Fleet</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus142">419</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Carnegie Institute</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus143">421</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Court House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus144">425</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Pittsburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus145">426</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[xv]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ALBERT SHAW</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The designation “Middle States” has a
+negative, rather than a positive, significance.
+In our later history, as well as in that
+of our colonizing and federalizing periods, the
+term “New England” has had a definite value
+for many purposes besides those of geographical
+convenience: and it is equally true that
+“the South” has meant very much in our
+American life besides a mere territorial expression.
+But the “Middle States” lack the
+sharply distinguishing characteristics of the
+other groups. In more senses than the strictly
+literal one, the two immense States of New
+York and Pennsylvania, with one or two smaller
+neighbors, have occupied middle ground.</p>
+
+<p>If New York, on the one hand, has been
+somewhat closely related to New England,
+Pennsylvania has had many neighborly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</span>associations with Maryland and Virginia. New
+Jersey, meanwhile, has been a close link between
+Pennsylvania and New York. The development
+of New England was dominated in
+a marvellous way by a set of ideas, religious,
+political and philosophical, that belonged to a
+certain phase of the English Reformation. Virginia
+and other settlements to the southward
+had their origins in a colonizing movement
+that was more typically representative of contemporary
+English manners, views and ways
+of living. The aristocratic system would have
+disappeared rapidly enough in the South but
+for the gradual extension of an exotic institution,—that
+of African slavery.</p>
+
+<p>The Middle States had a more varied origin,—one
+that does not lend itself so readily to the
+purposes of contrast and generalization. The
+Hudson, called by the Dutch the North River,
+and the Delaware, which they called the South
+River, were both entered by Henry Hudson,
+an Englishman in the employ of the Dutch
+East India Company, in 1609; and apart from
+an extremely limited settlement of Swedes on
+the west bank of the Delaware, it was the
+Dutch who controlled the beginnings of European
+settlement along the seaboard of what
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</span>afterward came to be known as the Middle
+States section. The Dutch colonization was
+not large, but it had a strong and persistent
+influence upon the subsequent development of
+New York and the region round about.</p>
+
+<p>The gradual predominance in New York of
+men of English speech and origin came about
+partly by infiltration from the New England
+colonies and partly by direct migration from
+England. There resulted a natural and harmonious
+fusion between the Dutch pioneers
+on the Hudson and the English-speaking colonists.
+Various Dutch institutions survived
+long after the English language had come into
+general use.</p>
+
+<p>Before the grant of Pennsylvania to William
+Penn, the settlers on the Delaware had been
+mainly Swedish, Dutch or otherwise from continental
+Europe. William Penn’s colonists
+at the outset were largely English Quakers,
+and some years later there arrived great numbers
+of Germans, some French Huguenots,
+and a good many Scotch-Irish Protestants.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, as compared with New England on
+the one hand and the Southern colonies on
+the other, the Middle States had cosmopolitan,
+rather than purely English, origins. This
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</span>cosmopolitanism has remained, as a leading
+factor in all their subsequent history. The
+spirit of compromise and tolerance that had
+been developed in the middle section by the
+contact of different nationalities was of incalculable
+value when the time came for the co-operation
+of the thirteen colonies in the struggle
+for independence, and in the subsequent formation
+of their federal union.</p>
+
+<p>If the colony which developed into the Empire
+State, and that which came to be known
+as the Keystone State, had occupied some
+other geographical position than the one they
+held as a buffer between New England and the
+South, the history of America might well have
+taken a wholly different course. For there
+was almost as much difference in institutions,
+life and points of view between the New Englanders
+and the Virginians of Colonial days as
+between the New Englanders and the Canadian
+Frenchmen across the St. Lawrence. But
+the transition from New England to New York
+was easy, and involved no violent contrasts.
+There had been a steady movement of population
+from the New England States westward
+across the eastern boundary line of the State
+of New York. On the other hand, it was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[xix]</span>comparatively easy for Maryland and Virginia
+to co-operate with Pennsylvania. In so far, indeed,
+as population had extended back from
+the tide-water districts into the hill country
+and the Appalachian valleys, the settlement
+both of Maryland and Virginia had proceeded
+very largely from Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Middle States had a great mission
+to perform in uniting and holding together the
+more extreme sections. In the development,
+after the Revolutionary War, of the country
+west of the Alleghanies, this harmonizing influence
+of the Middle States was very conspicuously
+shown in the creation of the great
+commonwealth of Ohio, and only to a less degree
+in the making of a number of other States
+in what has now come to be called the Middle
+West—the region that produced men of the
+type of Lincoln and Grant, and that joined
+with the old Middle States in later crises to
+preserve the Union and fuse its elements into a
+homogeneous nation.</p>
+
+<p>No communities in the world lend themselves
+more profitably to the study of history
+than these which are described in the present
+volume. Concrete illustration aids no less in
+the study of history than in that of the physical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">[xx]</span>sciences; and these towns of the Middle States
+illustrate not only the more recent tendencies
+that have marked the course of human
+history, but also lead us back by easy stages
+to an insight into conditions of an earlier time.
+For example, the survivals of the Dutch <i>régime</i>
+in New York quicken a sympathetic interest
+that greatly aids the comprehension of
+the international career of the Netherlands.
+On the very day when these remarks are written,
+the larger news of the world—that which
+is history in the making—concerns itself with
+two widely severed scenes of early Dutch colonization.
+From Paris comes the decision of
+the Venezuela arbitration tribunal, involving
+principally the material and legal facts as to
+the extent of Dutch exploration and settlement
+in the same general period as the Dutch
+colonization of New York. The relations of
+the Dutch and English in successions and exchanges
+of jurisdiction on the northern coast
+of South America can only be understood in
+the light of the history of the settlements at
+the mouth of the Hudson River.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner the conditions of Dutch settlement
+in South Africa in the middle of the
+seventeenth century are best comprehended
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</span>in connection with the story of contemporary
+Dutch colonization in America. The Knickerbockers
+of New York and the Boers of
+the Transvaal are of common origin,—a fact
+frankly recognized by the Holland Society
+of New York in its expressions of sympathy
+with the Dutch element in South Africa in its
+struggle against fate.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the communities of Pennsylvania
+affords a convenient initiation into much
+of the complex religious and ecclesiastical history
+of Europe. Penn brought the Quakers
+and other fine English stock from the middle
+and north of England for reasons that go to
+the very heart of the English life of the seventeenth
+century. A little later the Protestant
+Germans of the Palatinate came in great numbers,
+impelled by motives to understand which
+is to find oneself essentially comprehending
+the conditions of Church and State that so
+disturbed and harassed Western Europe for a
+long period. Thus, to study the great city of
+Philadelphia in its origins, its later accretions
+and its existing conditions, is to find inviting
+avenues leading into many fields of historical
+inquiry both of the new world and the old.</p>
+
+<p>What single spot could one find anywhere
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</span>that would more naturally stimulate the study
+of political and economic history in the nineteenth
+century than old Castle Garden at the
+lower end of New York City, through which
+millions upon millions of immigrants have entered
+the Western world to find contentment
+and prosperity? Many of these came from
+Ireland; and the municipal life of New York
+City has been profoundly affected by that fact.
+To answer the question why these people left
+Ireland and, in leaving, why their destination
+was New York rather than some port in the
+British colonies, is to review the history of
+the Irish land system, the Irish Church and
+the political administration of Ireland for several
+generations.</p>
+
+<p>An enormous element of the present population
+of New York, as well as of the country at
+large, is made up of a comparatively recent
+German immigration, to understand which one
+must learn something of the German revolutionary
+movement of 1848, the growth of German
+militarism and the conditions under which
+educational progress in Germany has outstripped
+the average material prosperity. Still
+more recently there has been a huge immigration
+of Russian Jews, with local effects of a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</span>most marked character in the city of New
+York. To know why these Jews have come
+is to look into racial, political, and economic
+conditions throughout the great empire of the
+Czar.</p>
+
+<p>To study the main routes of communication
+in a region like our Middle States is to gain an
+insight into the relations of physical conditions
+to historical development that will be of no
+little use in the study of other origins and
+remoter periods. It would be hard to exaggerate
+the importance, for instance, of the part
+that the Hudson River has played in the history
+of the Western Hemisphere since its
+discovery and settlement by the Europeans.
+The route by way of the Hudson, Lake
+George and Lake Champlain afforded in the
+early times the one interior passage to the
+St. Lawrence from the settlements on our
+seaboard.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the land adjacent to the river was
+granted in large tracts under the Dutch system
+to patroons, so called, who were virtually
+feudal lords. Upon some of these tracts there
+still survive various peculiarities of the feudal
+system of land tenure. To know something
+of what feudalism meant as respects the control
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</span>of the land, the student might find a worse
+method than to trace back the history of one
+of these Hudson River estates to the period of
+the Dutch grant, in order to get so much nearer
+to the survivals of the mediæval system in
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>At the spot where I live on the Hudson,
+and where I am now writing, the environment
+is suggestive of almost three centuries of
+American history. I look out upon the great
+stream which Hudson navigated in the <i>Half
+Moon</i> in 1609, and upon which sailing craft
+have been plying almost continually ever
+since. I see great steamers passing where
+Fulton first experimented with steam navigation.
+The highway near by is the old Albany
+post-road, this immediate part of which was
+known as Edgar’s Lane and was opened in
+1644. This morning I heard the pleasant
+notes of a coaching-horn, and looked out to
+see a stately four-in-hand on its way to the
+city, a forcible reminder of at least a century
+and a half of regular mail coaching on that
+same road. My home is a part of what was
+the old Philipse manor; and at Yonkers, a few
+miles below, one finds the manor-house, now
+in constant use as a municipal building. It
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxv">[xxv]</span>was partly built in 1682, and assumed its present
+dimensions in about 1745.</p>
+
+<p>On this very ground, and on the hills lying
+to the eastward, Washington’s army was encamped
+for a number of weeks in 1777, and
+near by is the well-preserved colonial house
+where Washington and Rochambeau sojourned
+for some time, and where the Yorktown campaign
+was planned. In the river at this point,
+on several occasions, the British frigates made
+appearance, the last of these being the final
+meeting between General Washington and
+General Sir Guy Carleton, in May, 1783, on
+the suspension of hostilities. A few miles
+farther up the road one comes to the lane that
+leads to Washington Irving’s “Sunnyside,”
+with its tablet stating that the house was first
+built in the year 1650.</p>
+
+<p>With these older historical souvenirs in
+mind, I turn to the southward, and there, as a
+reminder that the current of American history
+flows on, and that our past is in no manner
+detached from the present and the future, I
+see, standing out in bold relief on the horizon,
+the tomb of General Grant, while anchored in
+the river lies the <i>Olympia</i>, the flag-ship of
+Admiral Dewey, just now returned from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvi">[xxvi]</span>adventures as fraught with history-making
+results as was the presence of Hudson’s <i>Half
+Moon</i> in this same river two hundred and
+ninety years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The historical significance of the Hudson
+might be illustrated in some such way at many
+another point upon its banks. The location
+of Albany is particularly to be noted as one
+evidently intended by nature for an important
+rendezvous. In the earlier period Albany and
+the Saratoga district, and certain points of advantage
+in the Mohawk Valley, were of great
+strategic importance. They were natural
+gateways, which had to be held first against
+the Indians and Frenchmen, and afterward
+against the British. Their later importance
+has had to do with canals, railroads and the
+development of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>But of Albany it must be said that it has also
+the distinction of being one of the three or
+four chief law-making centres of the English-speaking
+world. In no other way has the
+State of New York exerted so wide an influence
+upon the country at large as in the
+working out of laws and institutions which
+have been re-enacted almost without change
+by a great number of the other States of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvii">[xxvii]</span>Union. Thus Albany has been a great training
+school in politics and legislation.</p>
+
+<p>Before the days of railroad building, the
+Erie Canal was the greatest undertaking that
+this country had witnessed in the improvement
+of its transportation facilities. This waterway
+connected the Great Lakes with the Atlantic
+by way of the Mohawk and Hudson valleys;
+and among other results of a far-reaching
+nature there followed the development of the
+city of Buffalo, a commercial and manufacturing
+community founded in the opening years
+of the nineteenth century, and destined in the
+twentieth to achieve such growth and splendor
+as few men are yet bold enough to anticipate.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen in our generation fierce rivalry
+for the occupation of Khartoum, at the head of
+Nile navigation, with one expedition succeeding
+another until the final success of the
+English under General Kitchener. The possession
+of Khartoum was known to carry with
+it the control of the fertile Soudan beyond, as
+well as to affect the permanent mastery of the
+valley of the lower Nile to the Delta. In
+some such manner the French and English in
+the middle of the eighteenth century appreciated
+the strategic importance of the point at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxviii">[xxviii]</span>the junction of the Alleghany and the Monongahela
+rivers, where the Ohio took its start,
+and from which navigation was unobstructed
+all the way to the Gulf of Mexico. It was in
+large part the struggle for the site of Pittsburgh
+that gave Washington the military training
+and the large perception of the future of
+America that fitted him for his great tasks of
+leadership. The development of Pittsburgh
+and the opening of the Ohio furnish most
+instructive and interesting chapters in the
+history of our country.</p>
+
+<p>The quaint or curious or heroic beginnings
+must always have their fascination; and it is
+likely enough that for a long time to come
+they will take a little more than their normal
+or proportionate share of the page of history.
+But real history is learning also to concern
+itself with other things. The story of Princeton,
+now so largely that of Revolutionary
+annals, will henceforth increasingly be the story
+of the life and work of a great university.
+That of Pittsburgh will become in expanding
+proportions the story of the development of
+the arts and crafts and of manufacturing in
+this country, and of the struggle of skilled labor
+for an ever-larger share in the advantages
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxix">[xxix]</span>made possible by the enormous increase
+in the volume of production. The story of
+Philadelphia will, to an increasing extent, be
+that of the best housed and most contented of
+all the great communities in the world, full of
+evidences of private thrift and the domestic
+virtues, while exhibiting the paradox of a
+relatively low degree of efficiency in matters of
+common concern like municipal administration.</p>
+
+<p>The historic towns of the Middle States are
+now engaged in the making of history in ways
+very different from those of the Colonial and
+Revolutionary periods, but in ways certainly
+not less important. But their future will be
+the wiser and happier for a studious devotion
+to the records of their honorable past, and
+they cannot be too zealous in the perpetuation
+of the old landmarks.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="footer" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/footer.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header3.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h1>HISTORIC TOWNS OF<br>
+THE MIDDLE STATES</h1>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ALBANY">ALBANY</h2>
+
+<p class="center">“This antient and respectable city.”—(<i>Washington, 1782.</i>)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By WALTON W. BATTERSHALL</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Albany, unlike the proverbial happy woman,
+has not only age but a history. Its
+age is indicated in its claim to be the second
+oldest existing settlement in the original
+thirteen colonies. The claim is fairly sustained,
+but we must remember that the alleged
+discoveries and settlements of those nomadic
+times are a trifle equivocal. On the other
+hand, the historical significance of Albany is
+based on two unquestioned facts: for a century
+it guarded the imperilled north and west frontiers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>of Anglo-Saxon civilization on the continent;
+for another century it has been the
+legislative seat of the most powerful State in
+the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of September, 1609, <i>old style</i>,
+the yacht <i>De Halve Maen</i>, six months from
+Amsterdam, in command of Henry Hudson,
+dropped anchor a few miles below the present
+site of Albany. Four days spent in the exchange
+of civilities with the Indians and the
+taking of soundings from the ship’s boat
+farther up the stream, convinced the speculative
+explorer that the beautiful river among
+the hills gave no promise of a water path to
+China, and the <i>Half-Moon</i>, freighted with wild
+fruits, peltries and pleasant impressions, turned
+her prow homeward.</p>
+
+<p>From the Dutch and also the English point
+of view, the English skipper of the Dutch ship
+had discovered the river. It appears however
+that in 1524 Verrazzano put a French keel, <i>La
+Dauphine</i>, far up the same stream, to which
+he gave the name La Grande, and, some time
+after, French fur traders built a rude <i>château</i>,
+or, as we would say, fortified trading-post, on
+Castle Island, just off the hills of Albany. But
+the France of Francis I. had no colonizing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>grip, and La Nouvelle France was simply a
+name which stretched along the Atlantic seaboard
+on the French charts of the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>On the return of Henry Hudson, his discovery
+was claimed by his patrons, the Dutch
+East India Company. They named the river
+the Mauritius&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> (Prince Maurice’s River), and
+the outlying country, known as Nieu Nederlandt,
+had good report in Holland for its furs
+and friendly savages.</p>
+
+<p>The Amsterdam merchants were alert, and
+other Dutch vessels, following in the wake of
+the <i>Half-Moon</i>, pushed up the river to the head
+of navigation. There they found on the west
+bank the Maquaas, or Mohawks, and on the
+east bank the Mahicans, or Mohegans, with
+whom they had profitable transactions.</p>
+
+<p>To consolidate and protect their ventures,
+a group of merchants petitioned the States-General
+of Holland for the exclusive privilege
+of traffic with the aborigines on the river.
+The elaborate map of Nieu Nederlandt which
+they presented with their petition was discovered
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>in 1841 in the royal archives at the
+Hague, and a facsimile is now in the State
+Library at Albany.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> A license for three years
+was granted. Thereupon, in 1615, the ruined
+<i>château</i> on Castle Island was rebuilt, equipped
+with two cannon and garrisoned with a dozen
+Dutch soldiers. In compliment to the Stadtholder,
+it received the name of Fort Nassau.</p>
+
+<p>This occupancy in force of Castle Island
+(now called Van Rensselaer Island) was brief,
+for the spring freshets proved too much for
+even the amphibious Dutch musketeers and
+traders, and it hardly can be called a settlement.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact, that the valley of
+the Hudson narrowly missed the honor of
+being settled by the passengers of the <i>Mayflower</i>.
+Under the November skies of 1620,
+that historic vessel, with its valuable cargo of
+religious and political seed-corn, for several
+days had been beating about the point of Cape
+Cod. Old Governor Bradford, with quaint
+spelling and phrasing, tells the story of the
+mishap:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“After some deliberation had amongst them selves and
+with yᵉ mʳ of yᵉ ship, they tacked aboute and resolved
+to stande for yᵉ southward (yᵉ wind and weather being
+faire) to finde some place aboute Hudsons river for
+their habitation. But after they had sailed yᵗ course
+aboute halfe yᵉ day, they fell amongst dangerous shoulds
+and roring breakers, and they were so farr intangled
+ther with as they conceived them selves in great danger;
+&amp; yᵉ wind shrinking upon them withall they resolved to
+bear up again for the Cape.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="illus002" style="max-width: 50.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus002.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD CHART OF NIEU NEDERLANDT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span></p>
+
+<p>Thus Plymouth Rock became the intellectual
+door-stone of the New World, and the
+banks of the Hudson inherited one of the sad
+“might-have-beens” of history. However,
+Douglas Campbell, in his trenchant and disturbing
+book, <i>The Puritan in Holland, England
+and America</i>, has told us that the distinctive
+principles of our American social and political
+life show, on critical inspection, the Dutch
+hall-mark.</p>
+
+<p>The America of 1621 was much more of a
+“dark continent” than the Africa of fifty years
+ago. The adjective applies both to the skin
+of the autochthons and the mind of the explorers.
+In the commercial circles of Amsterdam,
+Nieu Nederlandt was supposed to be a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>part of the West Indies. Therefore it was
+that the new company which was devised for
+its exploitation and chartered in the year
+mentioned, took the name of The Dutch West
+India Company.</p>
+
+<p>Under its auspices, in March, 1624, the ship
+<i>Nieu Nederlandt</i> sailed from Amsterdam by
+the accustomed route of the Canary Islands
+for the Mauritius River. She carried thirty
+families, chiefly Walloons, refugees from Belgium
+who had settled in Holland, and a few
+Dutch freemen. Some of the families were
+landed on Manhattan Island, but the majority
+proceeded up the river and selected for their
+settlement the fat meadow on the west shore
+above Castle Island. Under the shadow of
+the clay hill on which the Capitol now lifts its
+masses of sculptured granite, they built rude
+huts sheathed in bark, and a little log fort
+which they named Fort Orange. The Indians
+were friendly and eager to barter, and enthusiastic
+reports were at once sent over to Holland,
+with corroborative otter and beaver skins.</p>
+
+<p>Two years after this settlement at Fort
+Orange, the Dutch West India Company purchased
+Manhattan Island from the Indians for
+sixty guilders in high-priced goods and, planting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span>a colony and fort on the south end of the
+island, brought up the population of Nieu
+Nederlandt to two hundred souls. The Company,
+desiring to stimulate colonization, in 1629
+projected the manorial or patroon system; a
+combination of feudal idea and Latin name,
+<i>patronus</i>. Killiaen Van Rensselaer, one of the
+directors and a rich merchant of Amsterdam,
+at once obtained an extensive grant of land
+south of Fort Orange and, by the purchase of
+the land from the Indians and the planting of a
+colony, became the patroon of Rensselaerswyck.
+He never visited his “colonie,” but before his
+death in 1646, he had sent from Holland over
+two hundred artisans and farmers, and included
+in his manor a territory forty-eight by twenty-four
+miles, and also another tract of sixty-two
+thousand acres.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Albany began with a Dutch imprint,
+which to this day has given to the city its distinctive
+mark. Forty years of Dutch sagacity
+and thrift rapidly developed the colony. It
+was on the whole a prosperous period, enlivened
+by chronic disputes between the garrison and
+the manor, and disquieting rumors regarding
+belligerent Indians and the French. It throws
+on a small canvas sturdy personages and stirring
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>events. Brandt Van Slechtenhorst, the
+stiff upholder of the manor claims against
+the doughty Pieter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch
+Director-General; Domine Megapolensis, the
+first Dutch minister; and the flitting figure of
+the Jesuit missionary, Father Jogues with his
+hands mangled by the Mohawks and kissed by
+the Queen of France, would make any canvas
+picturesque. To take Washington Irving’s
+delicious bit of humor too seriously shows a
+melancholy lack of humor.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly the Dutch burghers of Albany did
+not take very seriously the English occupation
+of Nieu Nederlandt in 1664. The seizure was
+colored by an old claim of uncertain dimensions
+based upon the Cabot discoveries, which for a
+long time had strained the relations between
+England and Holland concerning colonial matters.
+The capitulation was bloodless, and to
+Albany it brought little change, save that the
+English flag, in place of the Dutch, fluttered
+over the ramparts of Fort Orange, which took
+the name of Fort Albany in commemoration of
+the Scotch title of the Duke of York, the new
+lord of the province. The great manorial
+grant was confirmed, and in all its habits of
+thought and life the colony remained Dutch.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>The happiest change and perhaps the most
+startling shock came from the fact that the
+Duke of York, bigot as he was, broke the tradition
+of the period and introduced in his
+province religious toleration.</p>
+
+<p>The English came, but the Dutch remained.
+The old Holland stock on the bank of the Hudson
+kept its root in the soil and has made vital
+contributions to the American hybrid, which
+have had scant recognition in our popular histories.
+The fact is, the Dutch were not given
+to writing books. They had fought for their
+religion and motherland, and had held them
+both against the assault of a powerful foe, but
+the recital of the story they left to the more expert
+tongues and more eloquent pens of Englishmen.
+Their type of character and social
+usage has proved its vigor and worth by its
+quiet persistence and dominance in New York
+life of to-day. In old Albany, even under English
+rule, ideas and customs which had their
+birth behind the dykes of Holland were conspicuously
+in the ascendant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus003" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus003.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PLAN OF ALBANY, 1695.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p>
+
+<p>Albany became a city in 1686 by a judicious
+charter granted by Governor Dongan. A diagram
+in the Rev. John Miller’s <i>Description of
+the Province and City of New York</i>, published
+in London, 1695, gives us an idea of the new-born
+city. It consisted of about a hundred
+houses surrounded by a stockade, which was
+pierced to the north and south by narrow gateways.
+Above the stockade the most conspicuous
+objects were the pyramidal roof of the
+Dutch church at the foot of Jonker Street (now
+State Street), surmounted by three small
+cannon, and, on the eminence at the upper
+end of the street, the bastions of Fort Frederick,
+which had inherited the responsibilities and
+honors of the dismantled Fort Orange.</p>
+
+<p>For about forty years after the peaceful
+seizure by the English, the old Dutch church,
+where the prosperous burghers worshipped,
+and a Lutheran church of somewhat intermittent
+life but hospitable to outsiders sufficed for
+the religious needs of the city. The officers of
+the garrison, however, and probably most of the
+soldiers were Church of England men. There
+was much in the service of the Dutch Church
+of that day which must have suggested pleasant
+reminiscence. Christmas, Easter and Whitsunday
+were festivals brought from Holland,
+and were duly celebrated in the church
+and at the fireside. Queerly enough, in the accounts
+of Pieter Schuyler, the deacon of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>Dutch church in 1683 and the first mayor of the
+city, we read that “the 13th of January was
+observed as a day of fasting and prayer, to divert
+God’s heavy judgment from falling on the
+English nation for the murder of King Charles,
+martyr of blessed memory,” and that the expenses
+therefor were seventeen guilders.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus004" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus004.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD DUTCH CHURCH, ERECTED IN 1715 ON SITE OF ORIGINAL
+    CHURCH ERECTED IN 1656.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But the theological coin of the Synod of
+Dort, whether acceptable or not to the English,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span>was more or less inaccessible, being hid in
+the napkin of the Dutch language. Evidently
+there was need of an English house of worship
+in Albany. In 1714, therefore, Governor
+Hunter issued letters patent granting a plot of
+ground in Jonker Street below the fort for a
+church and cemetery. The Common Council
+made protest. The point at issue was a question,
+not of doctrine, but of municipal rights.
+They issued notice to suspend the laying of the
+foundations. They arrested the workmen. They
+petitioned the Governor. They sent a messenger
+by express in a canoe to New York,—a
+journey in those days of such magnitude that
+the church was well under way by the time the
+return voyage was accomplished. Despite all
+obstacles, the work went on and in the course
+of a year the first English church west of
+the Hudson was built. The two churches,
+the Dutch at the foot and the English at the
+head of State Street, were the chief ecclesiastical
+landmarks of eighteenth-century Albany.
+Like rocks in a stream, they stood in the broad
+thoroughfare and preserved the magnificent
+approach to the future Capitol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus005" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus005.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ST. PETER’S CHURCH, ERECTED IN 1715, FORT FREDERICK IN THE BACKGROUND.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A WATER-COLOR SKETCH IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span></p>
+
+<p>Little as it was, Albany was the nest of important
+events and a maker of history in those
+troublous days. Second to New York in
+size and resources, it served as a wary sentinel
+and tremulous alarm-bell to the exposed province.
+For well-nigh a century, all beyond it
+to the west and north, except the hamlet of
+Schenectady and the French settlements on
+the St. Lawrence, was wilderness and savages.
+It occupied a post of the gravest peril and responsibility.
+We get a glimpse of the situation
+and of the current history in the scene on
+that Sunday morning, the 9th of February,
+four years after the granting of the charter,
+when Symon Schermerhoorn, shot through the
+thigh, told at the north gate of the stockade
+his breathless story of the night attack and the
+horrible massacre at Schenectady.</p>
+
+<p>Between the hostile French in Canada and
+the little frontier city on the Hudson roamed
+the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy, upon
+whose friendship and fealty in large measure
+hung the destiny of the English possessions.
+The stockade, thirteen feet high, would have
+been of little account if that living bulwark of
+savage allies had yielded to the arms or the
+bribes of the French. That the bulwark did
+not yield, that the fealty of the Indians was
+won and, through every peril, kept unbroken,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>was owing to the sagacity and honorable dealing
+of the government and burghers of Albany.
+<i>The House of Peace</i>—this is the name which
+the Mohawk sachem, at one of the council-fires,
+gave to the Albany of those olden days, and,
+in the graphic phrase of his Indian oratory, he
+pictured at a stroke its political value and place
+in history; for there, by repeated formal treaties
+and habitual friendly intercourse, were
+riveted the “Covenant Chains” which made
+the confederation of the Six Nations the guardians
+of the feeble province.</p>
+
+<p>There is a scene in <i>The History of New York</i>,
+by William Dunlap, which is illustrative. The
+date is 1746 and the central figure is the celebrated
+Col. William Johnson, Indian agent,
+whom George II. made a “baronet of Great
+Britain.”</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“When the Indians came near the town of Albany on
+the 8th of August, Mr. Johnson put himself at the head
+of the Mohawks, dressed and painted as an Indian war-captain.
+The Indians followed him painted for war.
+As they passed the fort, they saluted by a running fire,
+which the governor answered by cannon. The chiefs
+were afterwards received in the fort-hall and treated to
+wine. A good deal of private manœuvring with the individual
+sachems was found necessary to make them declare
+for war with France before a public council was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>held. The Iroquois took to the 23d of the month for
+deliberation, and then answered, the governor being
+present.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>During the French wars, Albany, from a military
+point of view, was probably the most
+animated spot on the continent. It was the
+storehouse for munitions of war and the rendezvous
+for the troops. English regulars and
+provincial militia swarmed in and about the
+city. After the unsuccessful campaigns of
+1756 and 1757, the town was filled with refugees,
+reciting the slaughter of the garrison at
+Fort William Henry, and the murder and havoc
+wrought by the Indians in pay of the French.
+Hundreds of loyal Indians, with their squaws
+and papooses, encamped under the stockade.
+The houses and barns were filled with wounded
+soldiers brought from the seat of war. In the
+pauses of the campaigns, notwithstanding the
+horrible rumors and actual disasters, the “dangerously
+accomplished” English officers made
+merry life in old Albany, picturesque details
+of which are given in that charming chronicle
+of colonial days, <i>Memoirs of an American
+Lady</i> (Mrs. Philip Schuyler), by Mrs. Grant
+of Laggan.</p>
+
+<p>In the opening of the campaign of 1758 there
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>was grief and consternation in the province.
+Tidings came that Lord Viscount Howe had
+been killed in a skirmish on the march against
+Fort Ticonderoga. The body of the brilliant
+soldier was brought to Albany by his friend,
+Captain Philip Schuyler, and was buried beneath
+the chancel of the English church. The
+stone recently unearthed in the village of Ticonderoga,
+which bears the inscription, evidently
+scratched by a knife or bayonet, <i>Mem of Lo
+Howe killed Trout Brook</i>, probably marked
+the spot where Lord Howe fell. There is
+abundant evidence that his body now lies beneath
+the vestibule of St. Peter’s Church. The
+<i>Church Book</i> of the parish contains the following
+entry: <i>1758, Sept. 5th. To cash Rt for
+ground to lay the Body of Lord how &amp; Pall
+£5. 6. 0</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year, the fateful victory of
+Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham gave Canada
+to England and ended the hard-fought duel
+between the Latin and the Anglo-Saxon for
+the sovereignty of the continent.</p>
+
+<p>Some years before this, the Stadt Huys, the
+old City Hall of Albany, was the scene of a
+significant event which was the prelude of one
+still more momentous. There in 1754 Commissioners
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>from the several provinces convened
+to renew the “Covenant Chain” with the Six
+Nations, and to discuss the best methods for
+uniting and defending the colonial interests.
+The foremost spirits and political prophets of
+the colonies composed the assembly. Numerous
+Indian sachems, with their stately bearing
+and barbaric splendor, decorated the scene of
+the deliberations. The “Plan” adopted by
+the convention was not accepted by the Crown,
+but it was the first attempt to articulate the
+idea of a colonial union, and it bore two names,
+Benjamin Franklin and Stephen Hopkins,
+which in due time were affixed to the Declaration
+of Independence.</p>
+
+<p>Before the lightning flashed in the volley at
+Lexington, there were centres of influence
+throughout the colonies breeding storm. Albany
+was one of them. The heart of the old
+Dutch town was fired with the indignations
+and enthusiasms of the time. There were
+tories of course, but the temper of the city and
+the attitude of those who controlled the situation
+are indicated by the fact that, when the
+Province of New York had fairly opened the
+fight, the old fort on the hill was extemporized
+into a tory jail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p>
+
+<p>As early as November, 1774, the freeholders
+of the city appointed a <i>Committee of Safety
+and Correspondence</i>, which proved a vigorous
+agent in propagating the war spirit and
+furnishing men and money for the Continental
+army. The following names appear on its
+lists: John Barclay, <i>Chairman</i>, Jacob C. Ten
+Eyck, Henry I. Bogert, Peter Silvester, Henry
+Wendell, Volkert P. Douw, John Bay, Gysbert
+Marselis, John R. Bleecker, Robert Yates,
+Stephen De Lancey, Abraham Cuyler, John
+H. Ten Eyck, Abraham Ten Broeck, Gerret
+Lansingh, Jr., Anthony E. Bratt, Samuel
+Stringer, Abraham Yates, Jr., and Cornelis
+van Santvoordt. In the records of the committee
+occurs this significant minute: “Pursuant
+to a resolution of yesterday, the
+Declaration of Independence was this day read
+and published at the City Hall to a large Concourse
+of the Inhabitants of this City and the
+Continental Troops in this City and received
+with applause and satisfaction.”</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of, and all through the
+struggle for independence, Albany was a strategic
+point of the utmost importance. The war-office
+in London and the British commanders
+in the field recognized that it was the key to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>the situation in the north. There is a passage
+in the oration of Governor Seymour at the
+Centennial Commemoration at Schuylerville,
+the actual scene of Burgoyne’s surrender,
+which condenses and interprets one of the
+most important chapters in the history of the
+Revolution.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“It was the design of the British government in the
+campaign of 1777 to capture the centre and stronghold
+of this commanding system of mountains and valleys.
+It aimed at its very heart,—the confluence of the Hudson
+and the Mohawk. The fleets, the armies, and the savage
+allies of Britain were to follow their converging lines to
+Albany, and there strike the decisive blow.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>As sometimes happens, the blow struck
+the striker. Col. Philip Schuyler, the young
+officer who brought the body of Lord Howe
+to its burial, was an ardent patriot and the
+most distinguished citizen of Albany. On the
+recommendation of the Provincial Congress of
+New York, he had been appointed by the
+Continental Congress a major-general in the
+armies of the United Colonies and had assumed
+command of the Northern Department. He
+was displaced in favor of General Gates, but
+he retained the confidence of Washington, and
+it was he who planned and conducted the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>campaign which resulted in the victory of
+Bemis Heights and the surrender of Burgoyne.
+This event broke the formidable menace that
+hung over the
+province and the
+colonial cause.
+The defeated
+British general
+found himself in
+the hands of a
+courteous foe,
+and for several
+months he meditated
+and mitigated
+his disaster
+amid the
+elegant hospitalities
+of the
+Schuyler mansion
+in Albany.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus006" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus006.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MAJOR-GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A PAINTING BY COL. TRUMBULL.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1797, “this antient and respectable city
+of Albany” (to quote the courtly compliment
+of Washington) became the capital of the
+State. At the close of the Revolution, New
+York had not yet determined its seat of government.
+From 1777 to 1796 it peregrinated
+between Kingston, Poughkeepsie, Albany and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>the city of New York. Not until the twentieth
+session of the Legislature was the long
+dispute settled. The geographical advantages
+of Albany finally carried the day, and for the
+last hundred years the site of the frontier fort
+has been a political arena and an illustrious
+seat of legislative and judicial power.</p>
+
+<p>The Albany of “modern times,” as the
+phrase is understood in our American life in
+which everything is new except human nature,
+has preserved few of the ancient landmarks.
+The only souvenirs are the bronze tablets
+which were devised at the Bicentennial in
+1886, and which now designate the historic
+sites in the city. If one, reverent of ancient
+and vanished things, make pilgrimage to the
+tablet near the curb on the lower edge of the
+Capitol Park (a block above the site of Fort
+Frederick), to the one on the corner of Broadway
+and Steuben Street (the site of the northeast
+gate), and to the one near the curb on
+lower Broadway two blocks from State Street
+(the site of the southeast gate), he will define
+quite accurately the girdle of the <i>palisadoes</i>
+which protected old Albany.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus007" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus007.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>STEPHEN VAN RENSSELAER.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A PAINTING BY EZRA AMES.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>If he pass the memorial of the northeast
+gateway, a place of memorable outgoings and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>incomings, and continue up Broadway about
+three quarters of a mile, he will find a bronze
+tablet bearing the inscription: “Opposite
+Van Rensselaer Manor-House. Erected 1765.
+Residence of the
+Patroons. This
+spot is the site of
+the First Manor-House.”
+It was
+an unpretentious
+one-story
+building of Holland
+brick, half
+fortress and half
+dwelling. The
+final Manor-House,
+on the
+other side of the
+road, was a structure
+of another
+fashion. At the
+time of its erection, 1765, it was considered the
+handsomest residence in the colonies. Thither
+Stephen Van Rensselaer brought his young
+bride, Catherine, daughter of Philip Livingston,
+and his babe, who became General Van Rensselaer.
+It stood amid the drooping elms of a large
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>park and was decorated with a taste and luxury
+startling to the period. In 1843 the building
+was enlarged and enriched by the elder Upjohn.
+Once a stately mansion, the scene of
+splendid hospitalities, it has shared the American
+fate of obstructive antiquities in thriving
+towns. The railroad and the “lumber district”
+crowded and finally strangled it. For several
+years it stood empty and dismantled, and obviously
+had outlived both its beauty and its
+use. In 1893 the stone and timbers were
+transported to the Campus of Williams College,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>where they were reconstructed into the
+Sigma Phi Society building, which perpetuates
+a remote suggestion of the famous Manor-House.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus008" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus008.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VAN RENSSELAER MANOR-HOUSE, 1765.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the southern part of the city, on Clinton
+Street, is a bronze tablet which designates the
+sister of the Manor-House, the Schuyler mansion,
+built by the wife of General Philip Schuyler
+while he was in England in 1760. This
+historic relic stands on a plateau above the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>street, surrounded by a remnant of the original
+garden, but the broad avenue, shaded by elms,
+which once gave approach to the mansion
+from the river, is overgrown with houses.
+Though used at present as an orphan asylum
+under the charge of the Order of St. Francis
+de Sales, it retains substantially its original
+features. It is a dignified and spacious house;
+not remarkable architecturally, but fragrant
+with history. Here Burgoyne enjoyed his
+imprisonment. Here Washington, Lafayette,
+Count de Rochambeau, Baron Steuben, Benjamin
+Franklin, Charles Carroll of Carrollton,
+Aaron Burr, and other notable men of old
+were entertained. Here Alexander Hamilton
+and Elizabeth Schuyler were married, December
+14, 1780. Besides famous guests and weddings,
+its chief feature of historic interest is
+the staircase, apropos of which, we quote from
+Mr. Marcus Reynolds’s article on <i>The Colonial
+Buildings of Rensselaerswyck</i> in <i>The Architectural
+Record</i> of 1895.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Here is shown the famous tomahawk mark. In
+1781 a plan was made to capture General Schuyler and
+take him to Canada. A party of tories, Canadians and
+Indians surrounded the house for several days, and at
+length forced an entrance. The family took refuge in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>upper story, leaving behind in their haste the youngest
+member of the family, Margaret Schuyler, afterward the
+wife of the patroon. An elder sister going to rescue the
+infant, was pursued by an Indian, who threw his tomahawk
+at her as she fled up the stairs. The weapon entered
+the hand-rail near the newel, and the mark is still
+shown, which would be conclusive evidence if the same
+story were not told of the Glen house in Schenectady,
+the only house unburnt in the massacre of 1690.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="illus009" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus009.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SCHUYLER MANSION, 1760.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>With all its historic associations, Albany is
+not conspicuous for the scenery it has furnished
+for the enchantments of poetry and romance;
+still it is not altogether destitute of
+literary honors. Its colonial life figures in the
+<i>Satanstoe</i> of the great Fenimore Cooper and
+in Harold Frederick’s <i>In the Valley</i>. The
+Normanskill, which tumbles into the Hudson
+at the south end of the city, flows through the
+Vale of Tawasentha, the scene of Longfellow’s
+Hiawatha. The hills and forests about the city
+suggested many a delicate detail in the woodland
+rhythms of Alfred Street, who made his
+home and burial-place in Albany. Its old Dutch
+life with its sedate charm has been pictured by a
+living Albanian, Leonard Kip; and probably
+the house still stands on Pearl Street or Broadway,
+in which Henry James found the charming
+girl who stood for his <i>Portrait of a Lady</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span></p>
+
+<p>On the east bank of the Hudson, in old
+Greene Bosch, opposite the city, decays the dishonored
+ruin of Fort Crailo. The date, more
+or less mythical, is 1642. It was the headquarters
+of General Abercrombie, and in the
+garden back of the house a derisive British
+surgeon, Dr. Stackpole, composed the immortal
+jingle of Yankee Doodle. If, in 1800, one
+stood on the southeast corner of State and
+North Pearl Streets, opposite the famous elm
+which Philip Livingston planted in 1735, his
+eye glancing up the street to the north would
+be arrested by a picturesque relic of Dutch
+Albany, the Vanderheyden Palace. Of course
+it has joined the departed, but its ghost appears
+in Washington Irving’s <i>Bracebridge Hall</i>, and
+its old weather-vane now swings above the
+porch of Sunnyside.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the colonial structures were fine
+and famous in their day, but in truth, in our
+American towns, imposing architecture is a
+thing of recent date. Few cities give more
+favorable sites for architectural effects than
+the three hills of Albany. It is not too much
+to say that the wealth and taste of its citizens
+have conspired with its peculiar advantages of
+position. The architecture of Albany has an
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>exceptional value. The City Hall, with its Romanesque
+doorways and majestic campanile,
+is a fine specimen of the great Richardson.
+The Albany City Savings Bank, recently constructed,
+is a classical gem, inadequately set,
+but cut by a master hand. Its Corinthian
+monoliths and graceful dome satisfy the eye,
+and the whole structure is a suggestive instance
+of what trade can do in the interests of art.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus010" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus010.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WEST SIDE OF PEARL ST. FROM STATE ST. TO MAIDEN LANE, 1814.</p>
+      <p>1. VANDERHEYDEN HOUSE. 2. PRUYN HOUSE. 3. DR. WOODRUFF’S HOUSE.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A WATER-COLOR SKETCH BY JAMES EIGHTS.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The four examples of ecclesiastical architecture
+of more than local interest are the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>North Dutch Church, an exceptionally good
+specimen of the style which obtained in the
+beginning of the century; the Cathedral of the
+Immaculate Conception, with its lofty double
+spires emphasized by the site, and its spacious
+interior treated with taste and dignity; St.
+Peter’s Church, with its noble lines, artistic windows
+and finely detailed tower,—“one of the
+richest specimens of French Gothic in this
+country”; and the Cathedral of All Saints,
+whose unfinished exterior encloses columnar
+effects and a choir-vista which remind one of
+an impressive mediæval interior and give the
+edifice a distinctive place among the churches
+of America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus011" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus011.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VIEW OF ALBANY, 1899.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span></p>
+
+<p>These architectural monuments, however,
+and the city itself are overshadowed by the
+new Capitol. This massive structure, since its
+corner-stone was laid on the 24th of June, 1871,
+has absorbed over twenty millions of dollars.
+The enormous bulk, the difficult foundations,
+the obdurate granite, the elaborate sculptures,
+the mistakes and afterthoughts, sufficiently account
+for the money. The old Capitol, which
+stood in front of the southeast corner, well-nigh
+could be tucked into one of its great pavilions.
+The edifice is of such cost, size, and
+architectural importance, that one discusses it
+as he might discuss Strasburg Cathedral or
+the weather. Claiming simply the freedom of
+personal impression, one may say that its
+weakest feature is the eastern façade, which
+gives an inadequate suggestion of the size of
+the building and moreover is dwarfed by the
+projecting mass and lofty ascent of the gigantic
+stairway. He may also say that the
+Capitol declares its highest points of architectural
+interest in the constructive and decorative
+treatment of the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The edifice has been built with the advantage
+of large ideas and limitless resources, and the
+disadvantage of fluctuating ideas and a succession
+of architects. These facts have left
+their imprint on the structure but, with all that
+can be said in criticism of details and of unused
+possibilities, it can fairly be ranked among the
+great buildings of modern times.</p>
+
+<p>As one approaches Albany, the colossal bulk
+of the Capitol thrust against the sky seems to
+dominate the city as the great cathedrals of
+Europe dominate the towns that have grown
+or decayed under their shadow. But there are
+other structures and artistic things, representing
+the local life, that are worthy of remark.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span></p>
+
+<p>The State Museum of Natural History, in
+Geological Hall, a block below the Capitol,
+vies with the State Library as a credit to the
+State and the haunt of the student. It is one
+of the largest and best arranged museums in
+the country, and its collection of the paleozoic
+rocks of New York, which figure so largely in
+the nomenclature of geology, is a monument
+to an eminent name in the scientific world,
+James Hall, late State Geologist.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus012" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus012.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOHN V. L. PRUYN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Near the Capitol Park is the Albany Academy,
+in whose
+upper rooms
+Henry and Ten
+Eyck demonstrated
+the electrical
+facts
+which were applied
+by Morse.
+Up the hill, on
+the southwest
+corner of the
+city, stand the
+pavilions of the
+new Hospital,
+built in 1899, and
+the Dudley Observatory, of note in the stellar
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>world. On Washington Avenue is Harmanus
+Bleecker Hall, built from the fund held in trust
+for more than half a century by Chancellor
+Pruyn and Judge Parker. On State Street
+opposite the Capitol is the building of the
+Historical and Art Society, which, though
+new-born, has already done valuable work in
+collecting sequestered relics of history.</p>
+
+<p>Under the elms in Washington Park are
+two fine bronzes: Caverley’s statue of <i>Robert
+Burns</i> and Rhind’s statue of <i>Moses at the
+Rock of Horeb</i>. Fortunately one of the earliest
+and two of the noblest creations of the
+sculptor Palmer are in the city of his home:
+his <i>Faith at the Cross</i>, his <i>Livingston</i>, and his
+<i>Angel of the Resurrection</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Albany the Old has become Albany the
+New. In many ways the new is more energetic
+and more splendid than the old. The town is
+large enough to show the characteristic features
+of our American life in its more sensitive and
+vigorous centres, and small enough to retain
+local color and distinctive traits. It is self-centred,
+believes in itself, and has the instinct
+to discern and the habit of demanding the
+best things. It is a place where the finest
+flavors of the old life linger in and temper the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>broader spirit and more robust movement of
+the new life; a place that perpetuates its traditions
+of social elegance and hospitality; a
+place, too, that has been the cradle and home
+of men of commanding force, who have contributed
+to the highest life of the nation and
+have left their names on enduring structures of
+thought and art and economic organization.</p>
+
+<p>The city lies at the intersection of the great
+thoroughfares of traffic and travel in the richest
+and most densely populated portion of the
+republic. Its facilities for production and distribution
+may give it in the future an enormous
+industrial development. This fortune
+is not unlikely, but, to those who estimate
+in large ways the values of life, it cannot
+heighten the beauty or deepen the charm of
+the Albany of to-day.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="illus013" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF ALBANY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header2.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="SARATOGA">SARATOGA</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE STRUGGLE FOR THE GREAT WATERWAYS</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ELLEN HARDIN WALWORTH</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>There are names which are more than
+famous—they have a distinct individuality;
+their sound to the ear or appearance on the page
+arrests attention, arouses interest, and presents
+a clear picture to the mind. Such a name is
+Saratoga, with its romantic record, its picturesque
+scenery, and its beautiful village,—the
+“Queen of Spas.” Nature has furnished Saratoga
+with a regal setting on the lower spurs of
+the Adirondack Mountains, the last elevations
+of the Palmertown range, on the edge of the
+world’s first continent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus014" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus014.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SARATOGA LAKE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Here where the Laurentian rocks stand out
+boldly over the sands of the old Silurian sea,
+and where the mighty waterways sweep down
+from the great northern gulf southward, and
+from the great northwestern lakes eastward, lies
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>Saratoga Springs. These valleys, bearing the
+waters of Lake Champlain, Lake George, and
+the upper Hudson on the north, and of the
+Mohawk River on the west, have been for
+centuries the great war-paths of the Indians
+and of civilized nations. If America is not old,
+at least her maturity is marked in this region
+by the scars of war, and by the lines of struggle
+for the sovereignty of the great waterways.
+Here are veritable ruins,—old Fort Carillon,
+later “Old Ticonderoga,” Fort Frederick, afterward
+Crown Point, and traces here and there
+of the line of forts extending from the Indian
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>carrying-place at Fort Edward down on either
+bank of the Hudson to old Saratoga, now
+Schuylerville, where the great monument commemorative
+of Revolutionary victory marks
+the national character of that struggle, and
+where, eight miles below, at Bemis Heights,
+fourteen granite tablets, each a monument five
+or six feet in height, mark the fighting-ground.
+Through the Mohawk Valley are signs of the
+“Long House” of the Six Nations, of massacres
+and battles, that tell their story of three
+centuries.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus015" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus015.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HISTORIC AND OTHER DRIVES IN THE VICINITY OF SARATOGA SPRINGS.</p>
+      <p><span class="smcap">By E. H. WALWORTH.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The story of Saratoga cannot easily be
+limited to Saratoga Springs, although it has
+fifteen thousand inhabitants who retain their
+quaintly rural government and cling to the
+appellation of “village.” Village though it be,
+it is imposing with its stately hotels, spacious
+streets, large business houses, many beautiful
+villas, fine public halls, handsome churches, and
+numerous valuable mineral springs; which, like
+the residences, are set amid magnificent trees,
+forest pines and cultivated elms that rival the
+famous trees of New Haven. From the surrounding
+hills the village seems to nestle in the
+original wilderness. But it is always active,—in
+winter with its toboggan slide, snow-shoe
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>club, trotting matches on the ice-bound lake,
+and snow-bound streets rolled to marble
+smoothness for gay and luxurious sleigh-riding;
+in summer, its brilliancy is often compared
+with that of Paris. In the loss of the
+old-time social exclusiveness it has gained in
+cosmopolitan character and in the rich variety
+of its life and amusements.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp31" id="illus016" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus016.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SARATOGA BATTLE MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span></p>
+
+<p>In considering the story of Saratoga, we
+cannot confine our attention to the town of
+Saratoga Springs, with its sharply defined
+boundaries and rectangular lines of political division
+which mark the limit of the voters for supervisor
+at the annual town-meeting. But if we
+include the county in our narrative, then, indeed,
+may we recall the vision which presents
+the individuality of the name Saratoga.
+For Saratoga County is outlined by a great
+eastward and southern sweep of the Hudson
+River for seventy miles from its narrow gorge
+at Luzerne, where the wild savage chief of
+colonial days leaped across the mighty river to
+escape his pursuing foe, down over the precipitous
+Palmer’s Falls, and over the cavern-haunted
+Glen’s Falls, and onward to old Fort
+Edward, where its waters turn shortly to the
+south and pursue their troubled way along the
+“hillside country,” which received here its
+Indian name, “Se-rach-ta-gue,” which means
+“hillside country of the great river.” It is
+also said that in the Indian language Sa-ragh-to-ga
+means the “place of the swift water,” in
+allusion to the rapids and falls that are in contrast
+with the “still water” a few miles below.
+Thence the Hudson flows on until it receives
+the four sprouts or mouths of the Mohawk
+River, which spreads out from the precipitous
+falls at Cohoes. This great intersecting western
+valley separates the northern from the
+southern highlands of New York, and is, like
+the great northern valley, a natural highway
+and thoroughfare. In the angle formed by
+the junction of these two long, deep valleys or
+passes through the mountain ranges, “in the
+angle between the old Indian war-trails, in
+the angle between the pathways of armies, in
+the angle between the great modern routes of
+travel, in the angle formed by the junction of
+the Mohawk and Hudson rivers,” is Saratoga
+County, the Saratoga of history and romance.
+Not only the stealthy tread of the Iroquois
+sped over these hills, not only the swift canoe
+of the Algonquin shot over these streams, but
+also the disciplined armies of France and of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>England marched and countermarched, fought
+by day and bivouacked at night on this ground,
+from the time that Hendrick Hudson opened
+the lower valley of the Hudson River, and
+Samuel Champlain discovered the broad lake
+that bears his name, until the Revolutionary
+period closed.</p>
+
+<p>While Jamestown was still struggling for
+existence, and Plymouth Bay was still unknown,
+the contest had already begun in the
+northern valley of the Hudson which initiated
+its long service to the progress of the western
+world. This remarkable triangle, the Saratoga
+and Kay-ad-ros-se-ra of the Indian occupation,
+and the Saratoga County of the present time
+was, like Kentucky, “the dark and bloody
+ground,” the hunting- and fishing-place of the
+Five Nations on the south, and their enemies,
+the Algonquins, on the north. Here each
+summer, in search of fish and game, they built
+their hunting lodges on Saratoga Lake, called
+by the Dutch, who believed it to be the “head-waters”
+of the Hudson, “Aqua Capita.”
+Every season brought conflict between the savage
+tribes, and later the French, year after year,
+marched down from Quebec and Montreal to
+intimidate their unceasing foes on the Mohawk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1642, and again in 1645, the Iroquois in
+retaliation hastened along the old war-trail at
+the foot of Mount McGregor and returned
+each time laden with their tortured captives,
+the French prisoners and their Indian friends.
+The two famous expeditions of Courcelle,
+Governor of Canada, and of Lieut.-Gen. de
+Tracy, made their way in 1666 through the
+valley; first on snow-shoes, to starvation and
+despair—and again with the buoyant tread of
+a victorious legion. In 1689 the Iroquois followed
+the old trail on their way to that massacre
+of Montreal which emphasized what is
+justly called the “heroic age” of that poetic
+and devoted settlement. The French and
+Algonquins again in 1690 bivouacked at these
+springs as they descended to the cruel massacre
+of Schenectady. And in the same year the
+English, led by Fitz John Winthrop, made a
+fruitless march over the historic war-path.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus017" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus017.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NORTH BROADWAY, SARATOGA SPRINGS, 1898.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span></p>
+
+<p>The French, urged by Frontenac, came down
+the valley in 1693, destroyed the castles of the
+Mohawks, and started on their return with
+three hundred prisoners. The news created
+intense excitement through the whole Province
+of New York. Governor Fletcher hurried
+up from New York City, Major Peter
+Schuyler hastily gathered three hundred white
+men and three hundred savages for defence,
+and was joined by Major Ingoldsby from
+Albany with an additional force. Coming
+along the old trail, the French and Indians
+halted with their captives about six miles
+north of the village of Saratoga Springs, at a
+point near Mount McGregor at King’s Station.
+The battle-ground lies on the terrace, which is
+distinct from the foothills of the mountains,
+and has long been known as the “old Indian
+burying-ground.” On this plateau, so near
+the gay streets of Saratoga, the camp-fires of
+a thousand hostile men throwing up entrenchments
+flared through the night. On the following
+day the English sustained successfully
+three fierce assaults on their works, and the
+French, worn with the long journey, were glad
+to retreat in the darkness of a raging storm,
+as night fell on their wounded and captives.</p>
+
+<p>Again, during Queen Anne’s War, beginning
+in 1709, old Saratoga, which lies at the
+mouth of the Fishkill, was so seriously threatened
+that Major Schuyler built a fort below
+the mouth of the Batten Kill. In 1731, the
+French built Fort Frederick at Crown Point.
+From this stronghold, during King George’s
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>War, which began in 1744, they swung their
+forces with deadly effect upon the English
+settlements. The forts at Saratoga were then
+refitted and manned, but not in time to prevent
+the terrible massacre of old Saratoga
+in 1745.</p>
+
+<p>History has recorded and poetry sung the
+woes of Wyoming and of Cherry Valley, but
+the silence of the virgin forest has encompassed
+the tragic events that occurred at
+Saratoga on the fatal morning of the 17th of
+November, thirty years before the Revolution.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Profound peace had reigned in the old wilderness
+for a generation, and the fertile soil had filled the smiling
+land with fatness. Many dwellings and fruitful farms
+dotted the river bank; long stables were filled with
+sleek cattle, and around the mills were huge piles of timber
+waiting the market down the river.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">The scowling portholes of the old Schuyler
+mansion seemed to laugh between the tendrils
+of the creeping vines. Suddenly, in the early
+morning, the scene of peace and prosperity
+was changed to slaughter, pillage, and destruction.
+Philip Schuyler, the elder, was offered
+immunity in the midst of the fray, but he
+spurned safety at the expense of his neighbors,
+and was shot to death in his own doorway.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>The houses and forts were burned to the
+ground, the cattle killed or burned in their
+stalls, and only one
+or two inhabitants
+escaped to tell the
+tale.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="illus018" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus018.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER.</p>
+      <p>BRONZE STATUE IN NICHE OF SARATOGA MONUMENT,
+    SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This war was a
+prelude to the
+French and Indian,
+or Seven Years’
+War, which, with
+its five campaigns,
+raged continuously
+through the war-worn
+valley of the
+grand northern
+waterways. Nearly
+a century and a
+half of struggle,
+first of the French
+discoverers and
+missionaries with
+the savages, and
+then of the Frenchmen
+and Iroquois,
+and later the French, the Indians, and the
+English, had proved the importance of this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>valley as the northern doorway to the country.
+Of the three expeditions first planned to be
+sent simultaneously against the French—one
+under Braddock against Fort Duquesne, another
+under Shirley against Niagara, and another
+under Johnson against Crown Point,—the
+third was considered the most important.</p>
+
+<p>In August, Major-General William Johnson
+took command in person and pushed on to the
+outlet of Lake George, intending to build a
+fort at Ticonderoga as a defence against Crown
+Point, to which the French had extended their
+possessions in the last interval of peace. Before
+his design could be accomplished, desperate
+warfare disturbed the placid waters of
+the beautiful lakes and so discolored their outlying
+waters that time has not yet effaced the
+name of “Bloody Pond.”</p>
+
+<p>Abercrombie’s campaign in 1758 was a fatal
+mistake. The brilliant hope inspired by his
+fine army of Regulars with their splendid accoutrements,
+his thousands of boats paraded
+on the broad lake with banners flying and
+strains of music unknown in the wilderness, was
+turned to gloom when a few days later the boats
+returned laden with the dead and dying, and
+carrying the body of the beloved Lord Howe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span></p>
+
+<p>Again, in 1759, the war-trail of old Saratoga
+was trodden by an English army, twelve thousand
+strong, under the command of the successful
+Lord Amherst. In the autumn the
+final conflict came when the death of Wolfe
+signalled the triumph of England, and the
+great waterways passed under the sovereignty
+of the Anglo-Saxons.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus019" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus019.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CONGRESS SPRING IN 1820.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For some years, Sir William Johnson suffered
+from the effects of a wound received in
+the hip during the war. In 1767, his Indian
+friends told him about the “Great Medicine
+Waters” of Saratoga, and carried him by
+boat and on a stretcher to the mysterious
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>spring. The waters proved so beneficial that
+he was able to return over the “carrying-place”
+unaided and on foot. The waters
+which he drank were taken from the High
+Rock Spring of Saratoga Springs. Once
+they overflowed the cone-like rock through
+which they now rise and from which they
+are dipped, and the rock was gradually deposited
+and formed by the overflow. The
+process has lately been repeated by new
+springs like the Geyser and the Champion,
+which for some years threw the water several
+feet into the air, leaving a heavy cascade-like
+deposit about the opening. Gradually the waters
+subsided, the geyser effect was lost, and
+like the High Rock Spring they have fallen
+below the level of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In the year (1767) of Sir William Johnson’s
+expedition, the old land troubles with
+the Six Nations were settled amicably at the
+Fort Stanwix conference, where over three
+thousand red men met the English commissioners.
+The complaints of alleged frauds
+in purchase and surveys included the Kayadrossera
+patent, which covered 700,000 acres
+lying between the Hudson and the Mohawk, obtained
+by grant in 1703 and confirmed in 1708.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span></p>
+
+<p>Yet quiet did not prevail. The restless
+spirits of the wilderness were stirred by their
+first political aspirations. The Schuylers,
+whose possessions extended over the old Saratoga
+hunting-ground, awoke the farmers to
+an interest in the burning questions of the
+day. Sloops sailing up the Hudson brought
+rumors of riots in New York City, and of the
+resistance offered by the Sons of Liberty to
+the execution of the Stamp Act. When news
+came that no good patriot would wear imported
+garments, the women redoubled their
+efforts to produce from spinning-wheel and
+loom the homespun fabric. As the King grew
+more determined, and the people learned more
+clearly what rights were theirs, the British soldiers
+became violent and the patriots more
+indignant and outspoken. The first military order
+of the home government to put the forts at
+Crown Point and Ticonderoga on a war basis
+was quickly followed by the tramp of soldiers
+through the wilderness. The rumble of artillery
+and of commissary wagons broke once
+more the stillness of the forest. The farmers
+who lived along the old war-trail revived by
+the evening fireside the stories of the French
+and Indian wars. The Indians, quick to discern
+the coming storm, began once more, under
+the influence of the Johnson family (allied
+to them through Brandt and his sister), to
+destroy property and massacre the unprepared.
+The settlers of the “long valley” were bearing
+at this time the brunt of the preliminary
+warfare of the American Revolution. They
+met the issue bravely. While they fought,
+their wives and daughters gathered in the
+crops, melted into bullets the treasured pewter
+teapots and sugar-bowls, learned to shoot, to
+barricade their houses or their little forts, and
+to conceal themselves from prowling bands of
+Indians and savage Tories. It was then that
+the Royalist Governor Tryon, taking refuge on
+a war vessel, exclaimed, “The Americans from
+politicians are now becoming soldiers.” Had
+he witnessed the courageous deeds of the
+women of the great waterways, he would perhaps
+have added, “The women from housekeepers
+are becoming farmers and fighters.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="illus020" style="max-width: 50.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus020.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>KAYADROSSERA PATENT, WITH GREAT SEAL OF QUEEN ANNE PENDANT, 1708.</p>
+      <p>ORIGINAL IN SARATOGA COUNTY CLERK’S OFFICE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="illus021" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus021.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WOMEN OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776.</p>
+      <p>FROM TABLET ON SARATOGA BATTLE MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span></p>
+
+<p>New anxieties arose in the Province of New
+York as rumors multiplied of the advance in
+stately procession of a new and splendid army
+of the British, recently arrived in Canada,
+down the old war-path through Champlain
+and Lake George on the way to Albany to
+unite with the British wing ascending the
+Hudson River. Inspired by General Schuyler,
+commanding the American army, the farmers
+seized whatever firearms they could find and
+hurried to his camp. The women of Albany
+hammered the leaden weights from the windows
+of their houses, moulded them into
+bullets, and urged on the men. The militia
+of New England, aroused by the invasion,
+came by hundreds and by thousands until the
+river hills were covered. The hasty breastworks
+planned by Kosciuszko were completed,
+and the rude recruits were hurriedly formed
+into regiments and brigades. Gates, who
+superseded Schuyler, lay with his staff in the
+rear of the army, while Morgan with his
+riflemen held guard at the western extremity
+of the entrenched camp on the hills, with his
+headquarters at Neilson’s. This was the defensive
+camp of the Americans at Bemis
+Heights, and it stretched from the river bank
+westward over the hills about two miles and
+faced the north. Here they lay in wait for
+Burgoyne, who had rallied from his repulses at
+Bennington and Fort Stanwix, and was pressing
+down the bank of the Hudson River toward
+Albany from Fort Edward.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span></p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of September, a bridge of
+boats was stretched across the Hudson River—just
+below the mouth of the Batten Kill—for
+the passage of Burgoyne’s army. They
+halted for the first night amid the charred
+wheat-fields of General Schuyler’s farm on the
+south side of the Fishkill. On the morrow
+they hastened on to Coveville, and thence to
+Seward’s house, where again their white tents
+were spread over the country.</p>
+
+<p>On September 19th Burgoyne moved forward
+to outflank the American camp on the
+west. An obstinate fight of many hours about
+the old farm-well and in the great ravine followed,
+and the British failed in their attempt to
+pass the Americans or to weaken their line.
+But they held persistently to the position they
+had taken at Freeman’s Farm and at the close
+of the battle fortified their camp from the point
+on Freeman’s Farm in a line to the eastward
+on the bank of the river, where they built three
+redoubts upon three hills. The fortified camp
+of the Americans lay about a mile and a half
+below in a line parallel with the British. Here,
+within bugle-call of each other, for two weeks,
+the hostile forces sat upon the hills of Saratoga,
+frowning defiance at each other, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>ready to open the conflict at a moment’s
+warning.</p>
+
+<p>Burgoyne waited in vain for the Americans
+to attack him behind his works, and for a
+message, hourly expected, that Clinton would
+come from New York to his relief. Hunger
+pressed sorely upon the army. The brilliant
+conquests he had pictured to himself were
+fading from his grasp. He called his officers
+together in council. Silence and gloom hung
+over them. Should they advance or retreat?
+His imperious will dictated the advice he desired.
+Finally Fraser sustained the commander.
+An advance was ordered. On the 7th
+of October the British marched from their
+entrenchments in battle array. Burgoyne led
+the centre; Fraser a flanking column to the
+right; the royal artillery to the left, and the
+Hessians in reserve. Like a great bird of
+prey they settled in line of battle upon the
+broken ground that separated them from the
+American camp. Gates took up the gauntlet
+thus thrown down and exclaimed, “Order out
+Morgan to begin the game.” With a word to
+his command the watchful and heroic Morgan
+dashed into the struggle, scattered Burgoyne’s
+advance-guard, rushed on against the trained
+forces of Fraser, and swept them from the
+position to the left which they had taken in
+advance. With masterly skill and courage,
+Fraser rallied his men, and was forming a
+second line of defence, when he fell mortally
+wounded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus022" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus022.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“OLD WELL,” FREEMAN’S FARM, BATTLE-GROUND BEMIS HEIGHTS, SEPT. 19, 1777.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p>
+
+<p>The sharp whistle of Morgan called his
+men once more to action. They charged,
+while Poor and Larned attacked the centre
+and the right. The battle swayed back and
+forth through the great ravine. Another charge
+from Morgan and the British retreated to
+their entrenchments. At this moment the impatient
+Arnold, stung to madness by the slights
+put upon him by Gates, dashed across the
+field. He gathered the regiments under his
+leadership by his enthusiasm, bravery, and
+vehemence. He broke through the lines of
+entrenchments at Freeman’s Farm. Repulsed
+for a moment, he assailed the left and charged
+the strong redoubt of Breyman which flanked
+the British camp at the place now called
+Burgoyne’s Hill. The patriot army, fired
+with hope and courage, crowded fearlessly up
+to the very mouth of the belching guns of the
+redoubt, won the final victory of the day, and
+then, exhausted by the desperate fight, dropped
+down for a few hours’ rest before they took
+possession of the British camp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus023" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus023.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span></p>
+
+<p>But there was no rest for the defeated army.
+Silently and sullenly during these hours, they
+withdrew from the works at Freeman’s Farm,
+and huddled closely together under the three
+redoubts by the river. Here the women,
+Madam Riedesel, Lady Ackland, and others,
+trembled and wept over the dying Fraser.
+Here the hospital stood with its overflowing
+throng of the wounded and the dead. The
+great and princely army waited in doubt and
+despair while their commander wavered in
+his plans. Should he try to hold his dangerous
+ground, should he risk another engagement,
+should he retreat? The last course was
+chosen. On the following night a retreat
+began as the last minute-guns were fired
+magnanimously by the Americans, in honor
+of Fraser’s funeral, which took place at sunset.
+The sun fell behind the heights upon which
+the exultant Americans lay; heavy clouds
+followed, and quickly after, amid the drenching
+rain, the army of Burgoyne, abandoning their
+sick and wounded, began the retreat up the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>Retracing their steps from Bemis Heights,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>the scene of their disaster, they followed up the
+river road to the Fishkill and the Schuyler
+mansion, which they burned to the ground.
+Failing here in an attempt to make a stand
+against the advancing Americans, they fell
+back, formed an entrenched camp, and planted
+their batteries along the heights of old Saratoga.
+In this camp they still hoped to hold
+out until relief should come up the Hudson
+from New York. Here the romance and
+pathos of the campaign culminated, as described
+by Madam Riedesel, the accomplished
+and beautiful wife of the Hessian general, in
+her thrilling account of the retreat and of the
+agonizing days that followed. At the Marshall
+house, where she had taken refuge, the cannonballs
+thrown across the river crashed through
+its walls, and rolled along the floor, so that
+the sick and wounded were driven into the
+cellar where she and her children and the
+broken-hearted widows of the dead were suffering,
+watching, and starving. Frail by birth and
+rearing, Madam Riedesel stood in the doorway
+of the cellar, and with arms outspread across
+the open door held at bay the selfish, brutal
+men who would have crowded out the sick and
+dying. Burgoyne and his army, entrenched on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>the hills, and with the river below, yet had no
+water to drink, except a cupful brought now and
+then for the faint and wounded from the river
+by the British women, on whom the gallant
+Americans, ever tender toward woman, would
+not fire.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus024" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus024.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CONGRESS SPRING, 1898.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Finally, driven to the last extremity, with
+the Americans on the north, where Stark had
+seized Fort Edward, to the east, where Fellows
+held the river bank, and to the south, where
+Gates had thrown his victorious army, Burgoyne
+sent in his terms of surrender. Almost
+on the site of old Fort Hardy, his brave but
+unfortunate troops laid down their arms, and
+near the site of the old Schuyler mansion,
+which they had so recently burned, Burgoyne
+surrendered his sword to General Gates.
+Along the road, just across the Fishkill, the
+American army stretched in two lines, between
+which the disarmed prisoners were marched to
+the shrill notes of the fife and the measured
+beat of the drum, to the tune of “Yankee
+Doodle,” played for the first time as a national
+air.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus025" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus025.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SIGN “PUTNAM AND THE WOLF” ON PUTNAM’S TAVERN, SARATOGA SPRINGS.</p>
+      <p>ORIGINAL SIGN IN GRAND UNION HOTEL, SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p>
+
+<p>General Schuyler, the hospitable and magnanimous,
+was on the ground. Neither the
+slight he had received from Congress nor the
+injuries inflicted on him by the British could
+quench his generous nature. He rejoiced
+with his victorious countrymen, he sympathized
+with the fallen enemy, he protected and cared
+for the helpless women.</p>
+
+<p>During the summer of 1777 he had cut a
+road from his farm at old Saratoga through
+the wilderness to the High Rock Spring,
+already famous for its medicinal properties.
+He built a small frame house on the ledge of
+rocks overhanging the spring, and here for
+several summers his family came with him for
+rest and recreation as they had formerly gone
+to the comfortable mansion at old Saratoga.
+This was replaced by a rude cabin, and there,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>in 1783, Washington was entertained when,
+with General Clinton, he came to visit the
+Saratoga battle-ground. The party proceeded
+northward to Ticonderoga, and on their return
+stopped at High Rock Spring. General Washington
+was so strongly impressed with the
+value of the water and the beauty of the region
+that shortly afterward he tried to buy the property,
+but Livingston, Van Dam, and others had
+already secured it.</p>
+
+<p>The events of the Revolution had discouraged
+the few settlers who first came to the
+springs, and for years afterwards but two log
+cabins offered a shelter to adventurous tourists.
+In 1791, Gideon Putnam cleared his
+farm at Saratoga, and Governor Gilman of
+New Hampshire in 1792 discovered Congress
+Spring. Putnam built his large boarding-house
+and tavern, and far-seeing and liberal-minded,
+he purchased extensive tracts of land
+and secured the foundation of the beautiful and
+prosperous village which is now a delight to
+visitors and a valued home to its residents.
+It is essentially a place of “homes,” where
+people of large or small means are assured of
+that quiet and ease which cannot be found in
+cities or towns which depend for their prosperity
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>on active commercial or manufacturing
+interests.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus026" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus026.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF SARATOGA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="SCHENECTADY">SCHENECTADY</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE PROVINCIAL OUTPOST OF LIBERTY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By JUDSON S. LANDON</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Schenectady was settled in 1662. To
+give to the story of the settlement its
+proper character among the beginnings of
+free institutions in America it is necessary to
+recall the fact that the States-General of the
+Netherlands in 1621 chartered a trading concern,
+the Dutch West India Company, granted
+it the monopoly of the fur trade in New
+Netherland, and permitted it to govern, so long
+as it could, whatever colonies might inhabit the
+territory. The company thus formed ruled
+over the territory from 1624 to 1664, when the
+English, trumping up a stale claim of prior
+discovery, interfered and took possession.</p>
+
+<p>The company’s rule was arbitrary, but not
+without good features. Traders are not apt
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>to cavil over religious dogmas,—the company
+permitted freedom of conscience and worship.
+Subjects and servants render better obedience
+and service if treated with kindness and justice.
+The directors
+of the company
+seemed
+to know this,
+and professed
+to govern accordingly,
+but
+their governors
+sometimes
+found pretexts
+for the
+injustice
+which promised
+the surest
+profits.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus027" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus027.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>COLONIAL HOUSE, UNION STREET.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some of the colonists insisted that the
+people ought to have a part in the government.
+The Dutch governor, when he most
+needed their support, would promise concessions.
+He sometimes seemed to have begun
+to make them, but he made none that were
+substantial. Why should the trading company
+sentence itself to death?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
+
+<p>Agriculture was necessary for the food-supply
+of the new province, and promised
+customers for the imports from Holland.
+Liberal terms were extended to the agriculturist.
+Men of wealth were tempted by offers
+of vast tracts of land, with a sort of feudal
+sovereignty, on condition that each of them
+would establish fifty families upon his domain.
+Among others the manor or lordship of Rensselaerswyck
+was established, embracing nearly
+all the territory now comprised within the
+counties of Albany and Rensselaer. Literally
+its jurisdiction was subject to that of the West
+India Company, but practically it was independent
+of it. The company established a
+trading and governmental post at Beverwyck
+or Fort Orange, now Albany, and exercised
+supreme jurisdiction, exclusive of that of
+Rensselaerswyck, for at least musket-range
+about the fort.</p>
+
+<p>Among the colonists and traders who had
+been attracted to Beverwyck and Rensselaerswyck
+were some intelligent and enterprising
+men, mostly Protestant Dutchmen, who, after
+varied experience but general good fortune in
+the province, resolved to go apart by themselves
+and establish a community where justice
+equality and liberty could be secured and
+enjoyed, free from the overlordship of a
+patroon, and as remote as was practicable
+from contact with the grasping West India
+Company, either at Fort Orange or Manhattan.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus028" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus028.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VIEW ON STATE STREET.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span></p>
+
+<p>The leader of these men was the founder of
+Schenectady, Arendt Van Curler. He was
+the nephew of Killiaen Van Rensselaer, and
+came from Holland in 1630 as director of
+his uncle’s principality. This he managed
+with great success for many years. All accounts
+agree in describing him as a man
+of honor, benevolence, ability and activity.
+His unvarying fairness and tactful address
+soon secured for him the respect and confidence
+of all who knew him, and especially of
+the Mohawk Indians. In their opinion he
+was the greatest and best white man they ever
+knew. They decorated him while living with
+the distinction of “very good friend,” and
+honored him when dead by calling other
+governors “Curler” or “Corlear,” a title which
+still survives with the same meaning in the
+language of the scattered remnants of their
+tribe. It was through his good offices that
+peace was secured between the province and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>the Five Nations, among whom the Mohawks
+were the foremost, and preserved unbroken
+during his life. By following his policy peace
+was long maintained after his death.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty and fertility of the Mohawk
+country early attracted his attention. A letter
+addressed by him in 1643 to the “Noble Patroon”
+at Amsterdam exists, in which, after
+giving an account of his stewardship as manager
+of his uncle’s interests, he writes that the
+year before he had visited the Mohawk country,
+where he found three French prisoners,
+one of them being the celebrated Father
+Jogues, “a very learned scholar, who was very
+cruelly treated, his finger and thumb being cut
+off.” These prisoners were doomed to death,
+but Van Curler succeeded in effecting their release.
+Father Jogues, however, eager for the
+salvation of their souls, returned to them two
+years later, to suffer martyrdom at their hands.
+In this letter Van Curler writes:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Within a half-day’s journey from the Colonies lies
+the most beautiful land on the Mohawk river that eye
+ever saw, full a day’s journey long.” He says “it cannot
+be reached by boat owing to the strength of the
+stream and shallowness of the water, but can be reached
+by wagons.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus029" style="max-width: 26.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus029.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“THE BLUE GATE” ENTRANCE TO UNION COLLEGE GROUNDS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Another part of this letter is worth transcribing:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“I am at present betrothed to the widow of the late
+Mr. Jonas Bronck. May the good God vouchsafe to
+bless me in my undertaking, and please to grant that it may
+conduce to His honor and our mutual salvation. Amen.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">We know that the good lady long survived
+him, and as his widow was conceded some
+special privileges by the government.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span></p>
+
+<p>“The most beautiful land” upon which Van
+Curler looked, was the Mohawk Valley, embracing
+Schenectady and extending far to the
+westward.</p>
+
+<p>As he stood upon the crest of the upland
+southwest of the present city, where the sandy
+plain abruptly ends and gives place to the rich
+bottom-lands a hundred and fifty feet below,
+he looked northwesterly upon a wide expanse
+of meadow, through which the Mohawk River,
+gleaming in the sunlight, slowly wended. His
+eye rested upon the outline of that break in
+the mountains where the Mohawk has gorged
+its bed, through which in our day the New
+York Central Railroad passes from the seaboard
+to the Mississippi without climbing a
+foot-hill. It is the only level pass through the
+great Appalachian chain between the St. Lawrence
+Valley and the Gulf of Mexico. Not a
+tree and scarcely a bush grew upon this plain,
+but here and there were scattered patches of
+beans, corn and pumpkins, the fruit of the industry
+of the Mohawk women; and upon the
+higher ground where Schenectady now stands,
+the second great castle of the Mohawks, the
+Capitol of the Five Nations, stood, surrounded
+by many wigwams of the tribe. The nearer
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>hills and the more distant mountains were
+clothed with forests. This cleared and fertile
+intervale, set in its forest frame, was due to the
+volume of water which in the spring freshets
+pours down the river. Three miles east of
+the city its channel is crossed by great ledges
+of shale rock, through which the river has cut
+its way, which still remains too narrow for the
+immediate passage of its waters when greatly
+swollen. These, overflowing and enriching
+the bottom-lands above, also denude them of
+their forest growth.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian name of the place was Schonowe,
+the first syllable pronounced much like the
+Dutch “schoon,”—beautiful. Some of the
+Dutch, sharing Van Curler’s idea of the beauty
+of the place, wished to call it <i>Schoon</i>, beautiful,
+<i>achten</i>, esteemed, <i>del</i>, valley,—<i>Schoonachtendel</i>.
+The Indian name and the Dutch substitute
+were combined and confounded in a various
+and perplexing orthography which remains to
+us in the deeds, wills and other papers of that
+time, from which the name Schenectady was
+finally evolved.</p>
+
+<p>Although Van Curler was attracted thus
+early by this beautiful land, it was long before
+he could realize his purposes. He married
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>the Widow Bronck and continued the care of
+his uncle’s interest in the manor of Rensselaerswyck.
+But despite the success of his management
+the longer he stayed the more he saw and
+deplored the evils inherent in the feudal system.
+To his enlarged and benevolent mind the system
+itself was essentially one of serfdom.</p>
+
+<p>The patroon was lord of the manor, the
+owner of all the land and of a fixed share of
+all the produce of his subjects or tenants, with
+the right of a pre-emption of all the surplus
+beyond what was necessary for their support.
+They took an oath of allegiance to him: they
+could not hunt or fish or trade or leave the
+manor without his consent or that of his representative.
+If they sold their tenant right and
+improvements, a part of the price was his.
+His will was the law, for his subjects renounced
+their right of appeal to the provincial government
+from his decrees or those of his magistrates.
+He was an absentee, and measured the
+merit of his agents by the amount of their
+remittances. The government of the province
+as administered at Fort Orange or at Manhattan
+was as good as could be expected from a
+trading company, but was odious to men of
+Van Curler’s enlarged understanding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span></p>
+
+<p>The firearms of white men at Beverwyck and
+in Rensselaerswyck began to impair the value of
+the hunting grounds in their vicinity, and Van
+Curler learned that the Indians might consent
+to sell their lands at Schenectady. He looked
+about for associates in the purchase of the lands
+and their settlement, and sifted out fourteen.
+He applied to the Director General or Governor
+of the province, Peter Stuyvesant—whose
+real qualities and worth and those of his good
+subjects the pen of Irving has replaced with
+the genial travesties of his enduring caricature,—and
+obtained his reluctant consent to
+the purchase. He then applied to the Indian
+chiefs. They too were reluctant. Schonowe
+was the site of one of their most ancient castles.
+It had long been their favorite home. Their
+traditions covered many generations, but no
+tradition reached back to their first coming.
+Still they well remembered that Hiawatha had
+lived here, two centuries or more before.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus030" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus030.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GLEN-SANDERS MANSION, ERECTED 1714.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p>
+
+<p>Hiawatha, the chief, of whom the Great
+Spirit was an ancestor, and whose wisdom,
+goodness and valor far surpassed that of other
+men, was the founder of the confederacy of the
+Five Nations. He devoted his long life to the
+good of his people, teaching them to live nobler
+and better, and finally was borne in the flesh
+to the Happy Hunting Grounds. Longfellow
+sings of Hiawatha with no stint of poetic license,
+but his harmonious numbers do not surpass
+the Indian estimate of his qualities. No
+doubt there was such a man, of exceptional
+wisdom, valor and influence, and that he disappeared
+without being known to have died.
+Around his memory tradition, employing the
+figurative language of the Indians, accumulated
+myths and magnified them.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Curler was persistent, and in the end the
+Indians could not find it in their hearts to deny
+their “very good friend,” and the deed was
+formally executed and delivered at Fort Orange,
+July 2, 1661.</p>
+
+<p>The founders entered into possession. The
+Indians bade them welcome, and began to
+move their wigwams up the valley. It was
+their first step in the many stages of their
+unreturning journey toward the setting sun.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>Their own sun thus passed its zenith, but they
+did not know it.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists fixed their home or village
+lots upon the land above the sweep of the
+river floods, occupying for this purpose that
+part of the city west of the present Ferry
+Street. They assigned to each proprietor a
+village lot, two hundred feet square; a larger
+lot for a garden just south of the village, and a
+farm upon the bottom-lands beyond, with
+privileges in the outlying woodlands. Other
+settlers joined them. They sold them village
+lots and farm and garden lands, until the farm
+lands of the Van Curler grant were disposed
+of. Those who came still later bought village
+lots, but they had to buy farms of the Indians
+from lands outside of the Van Curler grant.
+Mechanics, traders and workmen came who did
+not want land, or lacked the means to buy it.
+Many of the proprietors were rich enough to
+own slaves, which—or shall I say whom?—they
+brought with them. Very soon by dint of
+industry their houses were built of the lumber
+sawed at their own mills, their farms were
+promising abundant crops, their gardens were
+blossoming, while their cattle were grazing
+in more distant pastures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p>
+
+<p>In this little republic the freeholders were
+the source of authority. By them and of them
+five trustees were elected “for maintaining
+good order and advancing their settlement.”
+The “Reformed Nether Dutch Church” was
+early established with its elders and deacons,
+and later, with its settled domine, maintained
+a guardianship over the people and especially
+the widows, orphans, and the poor. The
+community was under the titular jurisdiction
+of the province; the laws of Holland were in
+force with respect to contracts, property rights,
+and domestic relations, and were observed as a
+matter of course. The governor appointed
+the trustees or their nominees, <i>schepens</i> or
+justices of the peace, and they appointed a
+<i>schout</i> or constable, with large executive
+powers. This official, conscious of his power,
+and arrayed in a garb denoting it, solemnly
+pointed his pipe stem and sometimes even
+shook his sword, at the wayward. If any were
+so refractory as not to mend their ways after
+such an admonition, he haled them before the
+schepen. This magistrate, as his commission
+was construed, had the right so to supply the
+defects in the Dutch laws and the ordinances
+of “Their High Mightinesses, the noble
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>Dutch West India Company,” as to “make
+the punishment fit the crime.” This meant
+that he could impose such a fine as the schout
+thought collectible, or such other punishment
+as he would undertake to inflict. Causes of
+great gravity, such as complaints by the
+traders at Beverwyck that the accused had
+infringed upon their monopolies, were brought
+before that jurisdiction, but the records disclose
+no practical benefits to the complainants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus031" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus031.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FIRST REFORMED (DUTCH) CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1664, two years after the first settlement,
+the province and its government passed by
+conquest from the Dutch to the English.
+This made but little change at Schenectady.
+The system of government already begun was
+continued. The manor of Rensselaerswyck
+was confirmed to the patroon with some change
+in the sovereignty, but none in his property
+rights. Beverwyck became Albany, the county
+of Albany was established, and embraced
+Schenectady. The court at Albany took jurisdiction
+of such larger causes as the “Duke’s
+Laws,” conferred upon it, and the minor ones
+remained as before within the jurisdiction of
+the local magistrates. There were but few
+ministers of the gospel in the province, and it
+was not until 1684 that the Reverend Petrus
+Thesschenmaecher, a graduate of the University
+of Utrecht, was installed as their first
+resident pastor or domine. It was a memorable
+day, when that pious man, in his black
+silken robe, ascended the high pulpit of the
+church edifice which, loopholed for musketry
+together with his dwelling-house, awaited his
+coming, and in the deep solemn guttural of
+his Nether Dutch speech, led the worship
+of his dutiful flock. These Dutch Protestants
+did not agonize about God’s wrath like the
+Puritans; they assumed His loving care, as a
+child does its father’s. The ordinances and
+forms of worship prescribed by the Church
+were regarded as duties to be observed as
+well as privileges to be enjoyed, and the
+higher the social or official state of the individual,
+the more prominent and circumspect
+must he be in his religious observances. One
+of the documents of that day opens in these
+words: “We, the justices, consistory, together
+with the common people of Schanegtade, conceive
+ourselves in duty bound to take care of
+our reverend minister.” It is signed by the
+justices, elders, deacons and many others who,
+we must assume, were “common people.”
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>There remains a marriage contract in which
+a widower and a widow recite how much
+property each brings to the marriage state;
+the widow enumerating among other property
+three slaves, for whose freedom upon her
+decease, however, she provides. No doubt
+the justices, the consistory, the freeholders
+and the common people observed this order
+of precedence on this and all like occasions;
+the widow being preceded by a slave bearing
+a warming-box for her feet, a metrical version
+of the Psalms, and the book of devotion containing
+the liturgy, the <i>Heidelberg Catechism</i>,
+the <i>Confession of Faith</i> and the canons of the
+Church, as all these had been approved by the
+Synod of Dordrecht in 1619.</p>
+
+<p>Long before this learned graduate of the
+University of Utrecht was secured, the
+Rev. Gideon Schaets, minister at Albany, was
+permitted by his Church to visit Schenectady
+at least four times a year, upon a week day
+(“since it would be unjust to let the community
+be without preaching”—so the record
+at Albany recites), and administer the Lord’s
+Supper, baptize the children and officiate at
+marriages. Marriage, however, was a civil
+function over which a magistrate was competent
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>to preside. As early as 1681 the Church
+had an investment for the support of the
+poor of 3,000 guilders, which had reached
+4,000 guilders in 1690, when the Church
+perished in the
+destruction and
+massacre of
+that year.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus032" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus032.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ELLIS HOSPITAL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The inhabitants
+of this
+frontier village,
+who welcomed
+with open
+hands and glad
+hearts their first
+domine, might
+well be pardoned
+if there
+was a leaven of
+worldly pride in
+their greeting. Where else in all the provinces
+was there a more prosperous, more generous,
+more intelligent and better ordered people?
+There was no lack of substantial plenty. Who
+more than they were entitled to establish a
+Church and have a domine of their own? In October,
+1683, the first legislative assembly chosen
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>by the freeholders was summoned to convene in
+New York, to frame laws for the province. By
+the governor’s proclamation Schenectady had
+been accorded a representative, and thus its
+importance in the body politic was recognized.
+The village was the frontier bulwark of civilization,
+where the white man and the Mohawk
+Indian, by keeping faith with each other, kept
+bright the chain of friendship which made the
+Five Nations the allies of the Province of New
+York. To guard against French and Indian
+incursions, a stockade had been built around
+the village. This was a high fence made of
+three rows of posts set together firmly in the
+ground. There was a gate upon the north and
+south sides, and a fort within the stockade at
+each gate. Although often alarmed, it was
+not until the war between England and her
+allies and France, which was soon declared after
+James II. abdicated the crown of England in
+the revolution of 1688 and William and Mary
+came to the throne, that this frontier village
+was seriously threatened. Jacob Leisler, a
+Dutch trader and captain of a military company,
+of great zeal but of small ability, seized
+the government in the name of William and
+Mary and brought confusion among the people
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>by his presumption. The common people
+favored Leisler. They “blessed the great
+God of Heaven and Earth for deliverance
+from Tyranny, Popery, and Slavery.” The
+aristocracy opposed him, and complained that
+“Fort James was seized by the rabble, that
+hardly one person of sense and estate does
+countenance.” Their wisest leader, Van
+Curler, had long been dead;&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and the people
+of Schenectady became hopelessly divided.
+Warnings were frequent, but vigilance was
+relaxed, and at last the blow fell upon a
+defenceless people.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus033" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus033.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>EDISON HOTEL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the night of the 8th of February, 1690,
+one hundred and fourteen Frenchmen and
+ninety-six Indians, sent by Frontenac, Governor
+General of Canada, after a twenty-two
+days’ march from Montreal, through the snow
+and the wilderness, stole in through the open
+gates of the stockade, massacred sixty of the
+inhabitants, plundered and burned about sixty
+houses—leaving only six—and carried away
+thirty captives. The survivors, who were fortunate
+enough in the confusion to escape either
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>by accident or flight, numbered about two hundred
+and fifty. Their distress cannot be described.
+They buried their dead, their beloved
+pastor being among the slain. They made what
+provision they
+could against
+the severity of
+the winter and
+then took
+thought of the
+future. Should
+they abandon
+the place where
+for a quarter of
+a century they
+had lived in
+peace and
+plenty, and seek
+safety elsewhere?
+Help
+and counsel came to them from Albany,
+Esopus and New York, from Massachusetts
+and Connecticut, and not least from the
+friendly Mohawks, all encouraging them to
+stay. Indeed, there was no place of assured
+safety in the whole province. The war
+threatened all the English colonies. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>colonies sent their delegates to New York,
+where they concerted measures for the common
+defence. This was the first general
+American Congress. To abandon Schenectady
+would be to encourage the enemy, to endanger
+the whole province by discouraging its
+allies, the Iroquois or Five Nations, causing
+them to distrust the valor and prowess of the
+English arms, and possibly to embrace the oft
+proffered alliance of the French. Schenectady
+must be held, cost what it might. The survivors
+finally concluded to stay. Twenty-four of
+the freeholders subscribed to a paper, stating:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“In the first place, it is agreed to resort to the North
+Fort to secure our bodies and defend them.</p>
+
+<p>“Secondly, that the crops or fruits of the earth—that
+is, the winter grain, shall be in common for the use of all,
+and all the mowing lands for this year.</p>
+
+<p>“Thirdly, the widows shall draw their just due and
+portions.</p>
+
+<p>“If any one will voluntarily depart or draw up for
+Canada, he shall yet have his full share and the benefits.</p>
+
+<p>“Every one that shall stand to these articles shall obey
+the orders of their officers, on the penalty of such punishment
+as shall be seasonable, without expecting any
+favor, grace or dissimulation.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The survivors began the work of reconstruction
+and defence. Every able-bodied
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>man became both citizen and soldier, ready for
+service at home or on scout or picket or skirmish
+duty, wherever the approach of the enemy
+was to be feared. Schenectady became a military
+camp where the provincial troops, reinforced
+by detachments from New England and
+by their Iroquois allies, made good the safety
+of Schenectady and thus kept watch and ward
+over the English dominion in North America.
+They recognized Governor Leisler’s authority
+and sent a representative to the two sessions
+of his Assembly held in April and October,
+1690.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>The warlike state of things existed from
+1690 until after the peace of Ryswyck in 1697.
+Upon the return of peace, Schenectady began
+to resume its former state and prosperity. The
+people rebuilt their church and called the Rev.
+Bernardus Freerman as their pastor. How
+dear he became to them the many children
+named in his honor attest. The Dutch
+population was sprinkled with a few English-speaking
+soldiers who chose to make it their
+home. Its importance increased as a centre of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>trade, not only with the Indians, but with those
+hardy pioneers, who, attracted by the fertile
+lands, or the desire to join the friendly Indians
+in their hunting expeditions, pushed farther up
+the valley. The traders at Albany protested
+against this invasion of their monopoly, and
+also against the exercise of milling, weaving
+and tanning privileges, but in a famous law-suit
+in the Supreme Court of the province, the
+Albany monopolists were beaten, and Schenectady’s
+full right to freedom of trade and
+manufacture was established. Then came
+Queen Anne’s War with the French, lasting
+from 1701 to 1713, and Schenectady was again
+in peril, and again garrisoned, for the same
+reason and much in the same way as before;
+but, the Iroquois having made a treaty of
+peace with Canada, the brunt of the war fell
+upon New England and Schenectady passed
+safely through it.</p>
+
+<p>From the treaty of Utrecht in 1713 to the
+“Old French War,” 1744-48, peace prevailed.
+In the latter war many inhabitants of the
+village were killed in skirmishes or cut down by
+skulking Indians in the service of the French.
+In one skirmish, or rather massacre, at Beukendal,
+three miles northwest of Schenectady,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>twenty men were killed and thirteen captured
+and carried away. Then came the last French
+war, from 1753 to 1763. The English now
+had posts at Fort Hunter, Fort Schuyler,
+Fort Johnson and Oswego on the west, at
+Fort Ann and Fort Edward on the north. Sir
+William Johnson and others had established
+settlements up the Mohawk Valley. Sir William
+was general superintendent of Indian
+affairs and a Major-General in the English
+service. His influence over the Iroquois was
+commanding; his early victory at Lake George
+was important; the English carried the war
+into the French territory. Schenectady enjoyed
+immunity from attack, and was enabled,
+besides maintaining a garrison in its fort, to
+send its quotas of troops to distant service, one
+company assisting in the English siege and
+capture of Havana in 1762.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of Paris in 1763, by which the
+French yielded the dominion of North America
+to the English, seemed to promise a lasting
+peace. But the War of the Revolution came
+on. Our Indian allies, the Iroquois, remained
+faithful to their long allegiance to the English
+Crown, and became our enemies under the
+leadership of Sir John Johnson, who, succeeding
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>to the estate and title of his father, Sir
+William, adhered to the Crown, under which
+both became ennobled. Schenectady was
+again threatened, from the side of Canada,
+but by its former friends and allies. Aside
+from its contribution of six companies to the
+patriot cause, its position made it the base
+from which those who adhered to the English
+cause sought to send aid and comfort to the
+enemy. General Washington came here early
+in the struggle, and made arrangements for the
+frontier defence.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Schenectady patriots appointed a committee
+of vigilance and safety, who, as the one
+hundred and sixty-two written pages of their
+records show, repressed with strong hand and
+scant ceremony the slightest evasions of the
+orders of Congress and of the military authorities,
+and all attempts at treasonable intercourse
+with the enemy. Finally American independence
+was won, and Schenectady, after nearly a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>century of unrest, enjoyed the blessing of permanent
+peace. The forts and stockade soon
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="illus034" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus034.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>UNION COLLEGE, 1795.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Meantime the little village had steadily
+grown, becoming a chartered borough in 1765,
+and advancing to the dignity of a city in 1798.
+Schenectady received its first officially carried
+mail on the 3d day of April, 1763,—Benjamin
+Franklin being the colonial postmaster-general,—founded
+the Schenectady Academy in 1784,
+which became Union College in 1795, and
+read its first newspaper, <i>The Schenectady Gazette</i>,
+January 6, 1799.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="illus035" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus035.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>STATUE, SITE OF “OLD FORT.”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The military occupation and the increasing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>importance of the frontier trade added largely
+to the English population. As early as 1710,
+the Rev. Thomas
+Barclay, the
+English chaplain
+to the fort in Albany,
+preached
+once a month at
+Schenectady,
+where, as he
+writes, “there is
+a garrison of
+forty soldiers, besides
+about sixteen
+English and
+about one hundred
+Dutch families.”
+At that
+time the Dutch
+had no pastor.
+Mr. Barclay
+writes, “There is
+a convenient and
+well built church
+which they
+freely give me the use of.” It was not, however,
+until 1759, when there were three hundred
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>houses in the village, that the English
+population undertook the erection of a separate
+church. They “purchased a glebe lot and by
+subscription chiefly among themselves erected
+a neat stone church,” and called it St. George’s.
+This stone church, with its subsequent additions,
+is the handsome St. George’s of to-day.
+Its site had previously been covered by the
+English barracks. There is a tradition that
+the Presbyterians assisted in the erection of
+St. George’s with the understanding that the
+Anglicans were to go in at the west door and
+the Presbyterians at the south door, but that
+the Anglicans managed to get the church consecrated
+unknown to the Presbyterians. The
+latter, upon finding it out, were so indignant
+that they set about building a church for themselves.
+Be this as it may, the Presbyterians
+commenced building their church in 1770, and
+finished it with bell and steeple, the latter surmounted
+by a leaden ball gilded with “six
+books of gold leaf.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1767 the Methodist movement began
+here under the lead of Captain Thomas Webb,
+a local preacher bearing the license of John
+Wesley. The movement was favored and advanced
+by the preaching of that great orator,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>George Whitefield, then making his last American
+tour. The society, however, waited until
+1809 before building its first church edifice.
+In the same year Schenectady County was
+carved out of Albany County.</p>
+
+<p>All this while the English speech was gaining
+over the Dutch. Children of Dutch parents,
+despite the teaching of the nursery, would
+acquire and use the English idiom. Finally
+some of the members of the Dutch Church
+ventured to suggest the propriety of having
+service now and then in the English tongue.
+The staid burghers were shocked. But, the
+question once raised, the younger generation
+grew bolder, and the elder began to listen.
+Domine Romeyn, a graduate of Princeton College,
+a fluent master of both languages, and
+eminent for his varied learning and as the
+founder of Union College, was pastor of the
+Church from 1784 to 1804. He so far yielded
+to the new demand as to preach in English
+upon occasions of which he was careful to give
+previous notice. It was not until 1794 that
+the leading members of the Church represented
+to its consistory the necessity of increasing the
+services in English,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> “to the end that the church
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>be not scattered.” Ten years later, at the
+close of Domine Romeyn’s long ministry, the
+Dutch language ceased to be heard from the
+pulpit of the church. But there are still surviving
+a few—very few—inhabitants to whom
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>the Dutch is their mother tongue. One of
+them informs the writer that when he visited
+Holland he conversed with ease with the people,
+but that he sometimes used words not familiar
+to them and afterwards learned that
+these words were of Indian origin.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="illus036" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus036.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“THE BROOK THAT BOUNDS THRO’ UNION’S GROUNDS.”</p>
+      <p>UNION COLLEGE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As Schenectady is two hundred feet above
+tide-water at Albany, it early became the headquarters
+of the western trade, goods being carried
+to and from the West upon canoes, bateaux,
+and the “Schenectady Durham boats.” The
+trade developed into large proportions, and during
+the hundred years closing with the completion
+of the Erie Canal in 1825, many traders
+made fortunes which were considered large in
+those days. Upon the completion of the canal
+the commercial prosperity of the city declined.
+The decline seemed to be confirmed by the
+era of railroads, notwithstanding the “Mohawk
+and Hudson” was the first railroad built in the
+State, its first passenger train arriving in Schenectady
+from Albany, September 12, 1831, and
+on the second railroad, the “Saratoga and
+Schenectady,” the first train left Schenectady
+for Saratoga, July 12, 1832.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="illus037" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus037.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ELIPHALET NOTT,
+    PRESIDENT OF UNION COLLEGE FOR SIXTY YEARS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The business revival, however, came at last.
+For fifty years its locomotive works have been
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>renowned, finding customers even in England.
+Now, that oldest of powers and newest of merchandise,
+electricity, has its greatest plant here,
+from which its products seek the ends of the
+habitable globe. These, with many other industries,
+disturb the city’s ancient repose. It
+no longer comprises a people exclusively of
+Dutch, English and Scotch ancestry, but embraces
+a polyglot assemblage. For more than
+a century Union College, founded in an age
+less tolerant than our own upon the basis of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>Christian unity, implied by its name, over
+which the celebrated Doctor Nott presided for
+sixty years, and the accomplished Doctor Raymond
+now presides, has been sending forth
+year by year its graduates. Among them—as
+the College justly boasts—is a long list of leaders
+in Church and in State, in the halls of
+learning, among the votaries of science, where
+industrial and professional skill achieves the
+worthiest triumphs, and where human needs
+require the wisest methods of helpfulness;
+and every sign indicates that this long list
+will continue to lengthen.</p>
+
+<p>If there is any lesson, it is simple. The
+town was founded in the spirit of liberty and
+justice; the people cherished and cultivated
+the spirit so well that the Mohawk Indian for
+one hundred and twelve years respected and
+reciprocated. May the spirit long prevail!</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus038" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus038.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF SCHENECTADY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header5.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="NEWBURGH">NEWBURGH</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE PALATINE PARISH BY QUASSAICK</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ADELAIDE SKEEL</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Mr. Secretary Boyle to Lord Lovelace</span></p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Whitehall</span>, 10th Aug’st, 1708.</p>
+
+<p><i>My Lord:</i>—The Queen being graciously pleased to
+send fifty-two German Protestants to New York and
+to settle ’em there at Her own expenses, Her Majesty as
+a farther act of Charity is willing to provide also for the
+subsistence of Joshua de Kockerthal their Minister and
+it is Her Pleasure that you pass a grant to him of a
+reasonable Portion of Land for a Glebe not exceeding
+five hundred acres with liberty to sell a suitable proportion
+thereof for his better Maintenance till he shall
+be in a condition to live by the produce of the remainder.</p>
+
+<p class="center">I am, my Lord</p>
+
+<p class="center">Your L’dshp’s Most faithful humble servant</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">H. Boyle.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lord Lovelace.</span></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>A bridge of sighs spans the distance between
+the coming of Newburgh’s earliest settlers, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>German Lutherans from the lower Palatinate
+on the Rhine, to the later arrival of the English,
+Scotch, French and Irish. The Lutherans
+were religious exiles, whose villages had
+been burnt, whose homes had been destroyed
+and whose strong Protestant faith alone survived
+the wreck of their fortunes. Of this
+poverty-stricken company, nine with their
+wives and children were sent up Hudson’s
+River to occupy the present site of Newburgh.</p>
+
+<p>The first intention of Queen Anne of England
+to send these Germans to Jamaica where
+white people were needed, was set aside “lest
+the climate be not agreeable to their constitutions,
+being so much hotter than that of
+Germany.” Apropos of the intelligent consideration
+of these Commissioners of Emigration
+in 1709, one questions if the half-clad
+travellers who are described in an old document
+as “very necessitous,” found the climate
+of Hudson’s River agreeable to their constitutions
+in winter-time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus039" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus039.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span></p>
+
+<p>In winter time! Sailing up the river in
+summer-time past Sleepy Hollow and Spuyten
+Duyvil, beyond the wide Tappan Zee, through
+the Gate of the Highlands where the waters
+narrow and the mountains cross, where the
+fairies dance on old Cro’s Nest, and Storm
+King dons and doffs his weather cap, on into
+Newburgh Bay where the Beacons guard the
+Fishkill shores, and the Queen City of the
+Hudson rises in green terraces on the western
+bank, the tourist idly wonders if these Palatine
+pilgrims, worn by the ravages of persecution,
+had eyes to see the beauty of the land they
+were about to possess. It is possible, notwithstanding
+the ice-bound waters and snow-covered
+country, that their homesick hearts
+may have been warmed by the sight of a river
+not unlike their Rhine. As yet no Irving,
+Paulding, Cooper, Drake or Willis had cast
+the magic witchery of his tales over these
+scenes, yet a century before, the <i>Half-Moon</i>
+had passed this way and perhaps the stories
+Henry Hudson’s crew brought back of red
+devils dancing in rocky chambers amused the
+children aboard the sloop of the German
+Lutheran exiles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus040" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus040.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOEL T. HEADLEY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>More pertinent in historical research than
+such imaginings is the contrast between the
+temper of these voyagers and those others
+who sailed in the <i>Mayflower</i>, and before landing
+covenanted with one another “to submit
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>only to such government and governors as
+should be chosen by common consent.” The
+shores of the Hudson were no less fertile than
+those of Massachusetts, yet the Palatines
+showed far less aggressiveness than the Pilgrims,
+and far less courage to stand alone. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>story of these Lutherans here in Newburgh is
+a story of petitions first to one Right Honorable
+Lord and then to another,—petitions
+which, alas! were too often unheeded, although
+the petitioners sorely in need of help never
+failed to sign themselves</p>
+
+<p class="center">Your Honours<br>
+Most Dutyfull<br>
+and most obedient Company<br>
+at Quassek Creek and Tanskamir.</p>
+
+<p>In one letter to the Right Honourable Richard
+Ingoldsby Esq’ʳ, Lieutenant Governor
+and Commander-in-Chief over Her Majesty’s
+Provinces in New York, Nova Caesaria and
+Territories depending thereon in America &amp;c.
+as also to Her Majesty’s Honourable Council
+of this Province &amp;c. they plead that “they do
+not know where to address themselves to receive
+the remainder of their allowance of provision
+at 9d per day.”</p>
+
+<p>Again, in their search to find “a Gentleman
+who might be willing to support said Germans
+with the Remainder of their allowance the entire
+summ of which is not exceeding 195 lbs,
+3sh,” they but succeed in finding a gentleman
+whose offer of assistance they considered only
+as “fine talke and discourse out of his own
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>head”—by which one learns the supplicants
+were left hungry and cold on their hilly farms,
+waiting for help which came slowly and for
+crops which yielded but scantily.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="illus041" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus041.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE LUTHERAN CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Whoever institutes a comparison between
+the Palatines and the Pilgrims must remember
+the Pilgrims came to America, a compact society
+fortified by friends at home soon to follow,
+while the Palatines, beggared by the most
+terrible of religious
+persecutions,
+were
+sent, as individuals,
+by
+Queen Anne
+to her colonies,
+as to-day
+dependent
+children of the
+State are sent
+to the far
+West. They
+were absolute
+paupers, yet
+such was their moral excellence that a writer
+on Dutch Village Communities on the Hudson
+River indirectly commends these poor Germans.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“From the banks of the Rhine the germ of free local
+institutions borne on the tide of western emigration
+found along the Hudson a more fruitful soil than New
+England afforded for the growth of those forms of municipal,
+state and national government which have made the
+United States the leading Republic among nations, and
+thus in a new and historically important sense may the
+Hudson river be called the Rhine of America.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The patent granted the Lutherans known
+as the Palatine Parish by Quassaick contained
+within its boundaries forty acres for highways
+and five hundred for a Glebe. The Glebe is
+bounded by North Street on the north and by
+South Street on the south. Across its western
+border ran Liberty Street, then the King’s
+Highway, although no king save Washington,
+who refused the title, ever trod its dust. The
+Glebe was “for the use of the Lutheran minister
+and his successors forever,” but they
+really possessed it only about forty years,—thus
+liberally was “forever” interpreted two
+centuries ago.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Here’s a church, and here’s a steeple,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Here’s the minister and all the people,”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">says the nursery rhyme. Here the evolution
+of a parish has for its germ the church and
+steeple, the minister and all the people being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>a later development. The germ of this
+Lutheran parish was the minister, Joshua de
+Kockerthal,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> whose missionary labors on both
+sides of the river cannot be overestimated.
+After the minister came not the church nor the
+steeple, but the bell, a gift from no less a lady
+of quality than Queen Anne herself. It was
+highly prized by these Lutherans and loaned
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>to a church in New York on condition that
+“should we be able to build a church at our
+own expense at any time thereafter then the
+Lutheran Church of New York shall restore
+to us the same
+bell such as it
+now is or another
+of equal weight
+and value.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp51" id="illus042" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus042.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ANDREW J. DOWNING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The church
+was built probably
+in 1730, and
+the Reverend
+Michael Christian
+Knoll was
+appointed to
+minister in the
+parish, a part of
+his salary to be
+paid in cheeples
+of wheat, sustenance
+certainly
+more nourishing than the codfish received by
+the minister on Cape Cod in lieu of pew-rent in
+gold coin of the realm. The church itself,
+which was standing in 1846 within the memory
+of a few of Newburgh’s citizens, was about
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>twenty feet square without floor or chimney.
+The roof ran up into a point from its four walls,
+and on the peak a small cupola was placed in
+which hung Queen Anne’s bell. This bell, evidently
+not cast in the mould of the one unalterable
+Confession of Augsburg, but bewitched
+by its donor with Episcopacy, presently rang
+out changes and ceased to “call the living,
+mourn the dead and break the lightning” exclusively
+in behalf of the German Lutherans.</p>
+
+<p>The English were now buying farms from
+the discouraged Germans whose complaint that
+their patent was all upland can hardly be
+denied by any one who, aided by a rope, climbs
+Newburgh’s hilly streets to-day. The story,
+however, that the United States Government
+located the city’s post-office on a shelf-like site
+so that shy lovers in search of a billet-doux need
+not call at the window but may look down
+the building’s chimney from a street above is
+probably apocryphal.</p>
+
+<p>The Palatines abandoned Newburgh for a
+more fertile soil in Pennsylvania and elsewhere
+about 1747. The newcomers, who were
+mostly of English and Scotch descent, took
+their places, so that nothing remains to tell of
+the early settlers save the streets they laid out
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>and the church in the Old Town burying-ground
+whose site is now marked by Quassaick Chapter,
+Daughters of the American Revolution.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>According to history, the few remaining
+Lutherans did not give up their church without
+a struggle. On a certain bright July Sunday
+the two congregations met, each with its
+minister at the head, accompanied by many
+people from both sides of the river and the
+Justices of the Peace who carried staves of
+office. Birgert Meynders, a burly blacksmith
+and bold defender of the Lutheran faith, fell
+crushed by the falling door, and then the jubilant
+English rushed in to hold the fort. It was
+after this memorable riot that the Reverend
+Hezekiah Watkins,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> a most excellent clergyman,
+preached his first sermon in Newburgh,
+possibly from a text in the psalter for the
+day, “Why do the heathen so furiously rage
+together?”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus043" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus043.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HENRY KIRKE BROWN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span></p>
+
+<p>Legend says some Lutheran boys on a
+moonless August night stole the bell and
+buried it in a swamp where, punished for
+apostasy, it lay for years tongue-tied in the
+black mud while hoarse frogs croaked their
+pessimistic comments over it. The defeated
+Lutherans would doubtless have been pleased
+could they have foreseen half a century later
+when all that savored of England, were it
+book, bell or candle, was out of favor, the
+Anglicans in their turn ejected, the building
+used as a schoolhouse, and the rent of the
+Glebe lands pass entirely from the Church.</p>
+
+<p>The swamp in which the bell was hidden
+has of late years been transformed into one of
+Downing Park’s lakes, and from its smooth
+waters one may hear on summer evenings
+the ghostly tolling of bells, as bells toll in
+the buried cities beneath Swiss lakes. The
+tolling has a martial sound, a call to arms, as if
+the little bell had forgotten the smaller church
+squabble in the larger quarrel between King
+George and his Colonies. Some authorities
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>insist that the bell was dug up, and that it gladly
+used its long silent tongue in Freedom’s cause
+as behooved a Liberty Bell. It hung during
+the present century, old inhabitants tell us, in
+the cupola of the Newburgh Academy, and
+was at length sold and melted for a new one
+by an iconoclastic school Board.</p>
+
+<p>At the breaking out of the war for American
+Independence there were but a dozen or more
+houses on the Glebe, and a few to the south.
+Among these was the stone residence of Colonel
+Jonathan Hasbrouck which had been built
+in part by Birgert Meynders. Lieutenant
+Cadwallader Colden had his home near and
+there were many among his satellites willing to
+drink damnation to the Whigs when asked by
+the ever vigilant Committee of Safety to sign
+the pledge.</p>
+
+<p>It may be thought strange that Newburgh
+has been considered of great Revolutionary
+importance when no battles were fought nearer
+its vicinity than those of Stony Point and Forts
+Clinton and Montgomery, but, although the
+place had an hereditary tendency to toryism, its
+geographical environment filled it to overflowing
+with plucky patriots. It is well known that
+it was the design of the British to get possession
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>of the Hudson, and by cutting off the
+New England States to weaken the forces of
+the Continental Army. Appreciating this fact,
+Washington came up the river in 1776 as far
+as Constitution Island and, at the suggestion
+of Putnam, fortified West Point. Newburgh
+came under the same military direction, so
+that one leading officer after another made his
+headquarters in the vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>At Vail’s Gate, four miles south of Newburgh,
+is the Thomas Ellison house built by
+John Ellison, the headquarters of Generals
+Knox, Green and Gates, and of Colonels Biddle
+and Wadsworth. Here too the pretty Lucy
+Knox gave a dance at which General Washington
+tarried so late as to incur the displeasure
+of his wife. The names of Maria Colden,
+Gitty Wyncoop, and Sally Jensen, the belles
+of the ball, are scrawled on a window-pane in
+the dining-room.</p>
+
+<p>Following Silver Stream down to Moodna
+Creek, three or four miles south of Newburgh,
+we find the Williams house, the residence of
+General Lafayette, in the cellar of which the
+Dutch loan lies buried past finding, while opposite
+are the remains of the forge at which
+were made parts of the obstructions thrown
+across the river to prevent British ships from
+sailing up.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus044" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus044.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HEADQUARTERS OF MAJOR-GENERAL KNOX AT VAIL’S GATE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus045" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus045.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CLINTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT LITTLE BRITAIN, NEAR NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Westward at Little Britain, six miles from
+Newburgh, is Mrs. Fall’s house, the headquarters
+of George Clinton, and here on the floor
+is the stain where the spy who swallowed the
+bullet took the emetic and revealed the proposed
+treason. The old homestead of the
+Clinton family was in Little Britain, and hither
+James Clinton, after the attack on Forts Clinton
+and Montgomery, returned, his boots filled
+with blood. One of his great-grandchildren
+relates that he entered the dining-room where
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>the family were eating breakfast, and requesting
+his mother and sisters to retire lest they
+faint from the sight of his wounds, as was the
+habit of gentlewomen of the last century, told
+the story of his escape to his father. The statue
+of his distinguished brother, George,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> stands in
+Newburgh’s business centre on the Square
+which oddly enough bears the name of Colden,
+the leading family of colonial days. The distinguished
+Coldens, although not patriots,
+added a lustre to the town, and the Clintons
+will not quarrel with their shades.</p>
+
+<p>Mad Anthony Wayne, the Rough Rider of
+his day, had his headquarters on the Glebe
+near the present corner of Liberty Street and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>Broad. Weigand’s tavern, with the whipping-post
+in front of the door, a rendezvous of
+soldiers, stood on
+Liberty Street
+not far from the
+Lutheran Church.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp41" id="illus046" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus046.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CLINTON STATUE IN COLDEN SQUARE, AT NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Revolutionary
+interest in Newburgh
+focuses on
+the coming of
+Washington to
+the Hasbrouck
+house in March,
+1782, although recent
+research discredits
+the story
+pictured on the
+covers of our
+copybooks in
+school days of the
+disbanding of the
+whole Continental
+army on these
+grounds. In 1779-80 Washington had lived
+in the Ellison house, no longer standing, in
+New Windsor, a small village to the south
+on the river, separated from Newburgh
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>proper by the Quassaick Creek, but after the
+surrender of Yorktown, he and his family
+with his staff became the guests of Colonel
+Jonathan Hasbrouck in the stone house, on
+the corner of Washington and Liberty Streets.
+Here Washington wrote his reply to the
+Nicola letter, which in popular parlance offered
+him the crown. Here is the chair in
+which he sat when he took his pen in hand
+and dipped it in ink to put on paper words
+which after more than a hundred years glow
+with the fervor of their author’s single-hearted
+purpose.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Newburgh</span>, May 22d, 1782.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Colonel Lewis Nicola</span>,</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>:—With a mixture of great surprise and astonishment,
+I have read with attention the sentiments you have
+submitted to my perusal. Be assured, sir, no occurrence
+in the course of the War, has given me more painful
+sensations than your information of there being such
+ideas existing in the army as you have expressed, and I
+must view with abhorrence and reprehend with severity.
+For the present the communication of them will rest in
+my own bosom, unless some further agitation of the
+matter shall make a disclosure necessary.</p>
+
+<p>I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct
+could have given encouragement to an address,
+which to me seems big with the greatest mischiefs that
+can befall my country. If I am not deceived in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>knowledge of myself, you could not have found a person
+to whom your schemes are more disagreeable. At the
+same time, in justice to my own feelings, I must add that
+no man possesses a more sincere wish to see ample
+justice done to the army than I do, and so far as my
+powers and influence, in a constitutional way, extend,
+they shall be employed to the utmost of my abilities to
+effect it, should there be any occasion. Let me conjure
+you then, if you have any regard for your country, concern
+for yourself, or posterity, or respect for me, to
+banish these thoughts from your mind, and never communicate,
+as from yourself or anyone else, a sentiment
+of the like nature. With esteem, I am sir,</p>
+
+<p class="center">Your most obedient servant,</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">G. Washington</span>.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Leaving Washington’s Headquarters at
+Newburgh one turns southward and crosses
+Quassaick Creek, at one time known as the
+Vale of Avoca, to hear above the whirr of to-day’s
+many intersecting railroads the echoes of
+Indian paddles. It is said the ghosts of Indians
+still linger here in their canoes waiting to carry
+away Washington, for near is the site of the
+Ettrick house whose host treacherously invited
+the Commander-in-Chief to dinner with intent
+to kidnap him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus047" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus047.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE WILLIAMS HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span></p>
+
+<p>“General, you are my prisoner,” said Mr.
+Ettrick, pushing aside his wine-glass and rising
+from the table.</p>
+
+<p>“Pardon me, sir, but you are mine,” was the
+quiet answer, and instantly the life-guards
+appeared and poor Ettrick was put in chains,
+his pretty daughter escaping on account of the
+timely warning she had given her father’s
+guest.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus048" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus048.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MONUMENT ON TEMPLE HILL, NEAR NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="illus049" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus049.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE VERPLANCK HOUSE.</p>
+      <p>BARON STEUBEN’S HEADQUARTERS, WHERE THE “NICOLA LETTER” WAS WRITTEN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Standing on the slopes of Snake Hill, to
+the west of Newburgh, where was the last cantonment
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>of the American Army on the site of
+the Temple, a building used for Sunday services,
+for Masonic purposes and as a gathering-place
+for social entertainment, a site now
+marked by a
+monument,
+one hears
+again those
+words spoken
+by Washington
+when in
+March, 1783,
+the circulation
+of the
+Newburgh
+letters caused
+unrest among
+the unpaid
+troops.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“You see, gentlemen,” he said as he arose to read his
+address, putting on his spectacles as he spoke, “that I
+have not only grown grey but blind in your service....</p>
+
+<p>“Let me conjure you,” he continued, “by the name of
+our common country, as you value your own sacred honor,
+as you respect the rights of humanity, as you regard the
+military and national character of America, to express
+your utmost horror and detestation of the man who
+wishes under any specious pretense to overturn the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>liberties of our country and who wickedly attempts to
+open the flood-gates of civil discord....</p>
+
+<p>“By thus determining and thus acting you will pursue the
+plain and direct road to the attainment of your wishes
+... you will by the dignity of your conduct afford
+occasion to posterity to say when speaking of the glorious
+example you have exhibited to mankind, ‘Had this day
+been wanting, the world had never seen the last stage
+of perfection to which human nature is capable of
+attaining.’”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Crossing the river by the ferry sloop to
+Fishkill one finds in this Revolutionary centre
+of military supplies much of interest. Here
+were Baron Steuben’s headquarters in the
+Verplanck house, where the Nicola letter was
+written and the Society of Cincinnatus in part
+was formed; here at Swartwoutville the headquarters
+of Washington; here on the Wicopee,
+in the James Van Wyck house, the residence
+of John Jay, and at Brinkerhoff, in the home
+of Matthew Brinkerhoff, the roof which
+sheltered Lafayette when he lay ill of a fever.
+The Dutch Church in Fishkill has been made
+famous by Cooper’s <i>Spy</i>. Trinity Church was
+a hospital, and on the banks of the Hudson at
+Presqu’Ile one rests under the oak which
+shaded Washington when he waited for his
+letters to be brought to him from Newburgh.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus050" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus050.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT FISHKILL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“I cannot tell what you say, green leaves,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">I cannot tell what you say;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">But I know that in you a spirit doth live</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">And a message to me this day.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Is it not a message of courage and patriotism
+which lives on in the descendants of the
+Hasbroucks,
+the Belknaps,
+the Williamses,
+the Fowlers, the
+Deyos, the
+Townsends, the
+Carpenters, the
+Weigands and
+others whose
+records emblazon
+the pages of
+Newburgh’s history?</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp51" id="illus051" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus051.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CHARLES DOWNING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In this last
+century not only
+material wealth
+has come to
+Newburgh, but
+the richest treasures of the town have been
+brought hither by its idealists, men to whom
+has been granted the gift of vision. Among
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>these are numbered preachers, poets, artists,
+historians, novelists, physicians, lawyers and
+philanthropists, and on this roll of honor are
+written the names of the Reverend John Forsythe,
+N. P. Willis, H. K. Brown, A. J. Downing,
+S. W. Eager, E. M. Ruttenber, J. T.
+Headley, E. P. Roe, Carroll Dunham, E. A.
+Brewster and Charles Downing.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus052" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus052.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON">TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON</h2>
+
+<p class="center">ITS HISTORIC ASSOCIATIONS AND LEGENDARY LORE</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By HAMILTON WRIGHT MABIE</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Tarrytown-on-the-Hudson is
+interesting from many points of view. It
+is beautiful in itself, with a touch of that ripe,
+old-world beauty which is the rich deposit of a
+long association of man with nature; a beauty
+which reveals its depth in the fulness of foliage,
+the girth of ancient trees, the texture of
+the grass, and that atmosphere of ancient and
+familiar use which, although invisible and impalpable,
+lends a peculiar charm to settled
+towns and countries. For Tarrytown has a
+long history—as history is reckoned in this
+new world—and an ancient date. It wears
+the air of a locality which was in full life in
+Colonial times. The old houses are few, but
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>the modern village is embowered in a landscape
+which has known human companionship
+and care these two centuries and more. A
+road may show the latest skill in road-making,
+but if it was once a highway along which
+coaches ran in the brave days of the old inns
+and the ancient whips and hostlers, there is
+always the suggestion of long use about it.
+It has been for so many decades a part of the
+landscape that nature seems to have had a
+hand in its making. The grass grows down
+to it and the earth slopes away from it as if
+these things had always been as they are. No
+one can walk through Tarrytown along its
+chief thoroughfare, without recognizing on
+every hand the signs of the old highway on
+which coach horns were once heard, and
+later the bugles rang as redcoats flashed
+through the trees or marched along the
+ancient way.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus053" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus053.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF TARRYTOWN.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p>
+
+<p>The village rises from the water’s edge to
+the summit of the low hill which runs parallel
+with the eastern shore of the Hudson for
+many miles; it has one main thoroughfare,
+bisected by many cross streets of a later date;
+it is, for the most part, carefully kept, as befits
+its age, its intelligence, and its wealth; and,
+looked at from the river, it is almost buried in
+a wealth of foliage. It has at all times an
+air of repose, as if it had done long ago with
+the hard work of settlement and organization,
+and had earned exemption from the rush and
+turmoil which characterize new communities.
+In this country a town which has passed its
+bicentennial has a right to conduct life with a
+certain dignity and repose. It is doubtful if
+Tarrytown ever knew any great bustle or
+uproar; from the beginning it is probable that
+its inhabitants did not suffer themselves to be
+driven into undue energy of mood or habit.
+A placid temper, a disposition to keep on easy
+terms with life and neither give nor ask more
+than becomes a man of a quiet habit of mind,
+have left their impress on the community. It
+is a place in which history is preserved rather
+than made, although when it had occasion to
+make history, the work was done with picturesque
+effectiveness.</p>
+
+<p>When Hendrik Hudson broke the quiet
+waters of the Tappan Zee for the first time,
+in September, 1609, with the keel of the <i>Half-Moon</i>,
+he saw along the eastern shore of the
+noble river which was to bear his name an
+unbroken forest. The region was singularly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>beautiful, with a stillness which it has not
+wholly lost; for rivers carrying deep currents
+always convey an impression of stillness. Mr.
+Curtis has spoken of the lyrical beauty of the
+Rhine and the epical beauty of the Hudson;
+the first passing, with rapid movement, through
+a long series of striking and romantic localities,
+the second flowing sedately through a
+landscape of larger compass, of more massive
+composition, of a beauty sustained through a
+hundred and fifty miles of noble scenery. It
+is, of course, a matter of pure fancy; but there
+seems to have been some kinship between the
+men who settled the continent and the localities
+they chose for their homes. The hardy French
+adventurers were peculiarly at home along the
+St. Lawrence and the trails from the Great
+Lakes to the Mississippi; the stern soil of New
+England would not have given its rare smile to
+men of a temper less strenuous than that of
+the Puritan and Pilgrim; the waterways of the
+James, the Potomac, and the Chesapeake lent
+themselves readily to the habits and occupations
+of English gentlemen in the new world;
+Florida and Louisiana seemed to find their
+elect explorers and settlers in the Spanish
+adventurers and gold-seekers; while the quiet
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>of the Hudson was hardly broken when the
+Dutch settlers began to till the land north of
+Manhattan Island and to build their substantial
+homes. They could be voluble and noisy
+when occasion required, but they were of a
+phlegmatic temper and leisurely by habit.</p>
+
+<p>The reports sent abroad by Hudson’s men
+when they found themselves once more in
+Holland in the late autumn of 1609, were repeated
+and passed from town to town among
+merchants who were as eager for trade as they
+were stolid in manner. Small ships were soon
+plying westward, bent upon trade with the
+well disposed Indians whom Hudson found
+scattered from Manhattan Island to the place
+where Albany now stands. The possibilities
+of profit in the fur trade were quickly discovered
+by these shrewd merchants; the
+nucleus of a settlement was made on the
+island, and rude huts hastily put together were
+the beginnings of one of the greatest of
+modern cities. The traders bought furs, tobacco,
+and corn in exchange for trinkets and
+rum; they hunted, fished, and lived after the
+manner of their time and kind, but for the
+most part on good terms with their Indian
+neighbors; at long intervals tiny ships from the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>old world crept into the harbor, and went
+back again laden with the skins of the beaver,
+the otter, and the sable. In 1621 the West
+India Company received a charter from the
+States-General of Holland, with the monopoly
+of the American trade, and a grant of the
+vast territory discovered by Hudson, which
+was called the New Netherlands. The great
+trading company, one of a small group of
+commercial organizations of almost sovereign
+powers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+drew its profits not only from barter with
+Indians, but from the sacking of cities on the
+Spanish Main and the capture of Spanish
+treasure-ships.</p>
+
+<p>In 1624 families arrived on the island and
+community life began in New Amsterdam; two
+years later the first governor of the Colony
+arrived with a company who brought their
+wives, children, cattle, and household goods of
+all kinds with them and, by giving these hostages
+to fortune, committed themselves irrevocably
+to the new world and its destinies.
+Manhattan Island was bought from the Indians
+for twenty-four dollars, and the name of
+New Amsterdam reminded the settlers of their
+blood and their history. It was not, however,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>until Peter Stuyvesant took up the reins of
+government with a firm hand and in a somewhat
+choleric temper that the little community
+ceased to be a trading-post and became a
+Dutch colonial town. The first comers were
+largely penniless; the later comers were men
+of position and substance. Many races were
+soon represented in the new town, but the
+Dutch remained for many years the ruling class.
+In 1664 the Colony passed into English hands
+and New Amsterdam became New York.</p>
+
+<p>The territory north of the island early attracted
+attention, and energetic and far-seeing
+men set about acquiring title and adding acre
+to acre until great estates were created. In
+Westchester County, which then bounded the
+city of New York on the north, six manors,
+including the greater part of its territory, were
+granted; that of Fordham leading the way in
+1671. The largest of these manors were Phillipsburgh
+and Cortlandt, and Tarrytown became
+the residence of a great landowner who
+secured manorial rights in 1693. This territorial
+magnate, a true lord of the manor so far
+as greatness of estate was concerned, was a
+man of humble birth, and a carpenter by trade.
+He came to New Amsterdam in 1647, and being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>a man of sagacity and foresight, soon found
+his chance in the opportunities of the new
+world, became a fur trader, married a rich
+widow, and in course of time became probably
+the richest man in the Colony. Vredryk Flypse,
+or Frederick Philips,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> knew how to take occasion
+by the hand when English rule was established
+in New York. He foresaw the increased
+value of the lands along the Hudson, and in
+1680, by the first of a series of grants, pieced
+out by various purchases, he became the
+owner of a noble domain, stretching from
+Spuyten Duyvil to the old Kill of Kitchawong,
+or Croton, and from the Hudson to the Bronx.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch settlers in the new world were less
+adventurous than their fellows of English and
+French blood, but they had early established
+trading-posts as far north on the Hudson as the
+present site of Albany, and they had crept
+quietly up the eastern shore of the river, and
+small farms were beginning to break the long
+line of forest. The beginnings of Tarrytown
+probably date back as far as 1645, but of its
+earliest history no authentic records remain.
+In 1683, when Frederick Philips began the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>building of a manor-house on the quiet Pocantico,
+he found a small community of farmers,
+living in a quiet, frugal way, and carrying
+on the business of life with thrift and industry
+but in a spirit of great tranquillity. The broad
+waters of Tappan Zee could hardly have
+caught the reflection of the primitive farm-houses
+hidden among the trees. These houses
+were unpretentious in dimension and appearance,
+but they had a substantial air. There
+was nothing provisional in the aspect of the
+scattered settlement; it struck tenacious roots
+into the soil from the very start.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“In the bosom of one of those spacious coves which
+indent the eastern shore of the Hudson,” writes Irving,
+in his vein of quiet humor, “at that broad expansion
+of the river denominated by the ancient Dutch
+navigators Tappan Zee, and where they always prudently
+shortened sail, and implored the protection of St. Nicholas
+when they crossed, there lies a small market-town
+or rural port, which by some is called Greensburgh, but
+which is more generally and properly known as Tarry
+Town. This name was given, we are told, in former
+days, by the good housewives of the adjacent country,
+from the inveterate propensity of their husbands to linger
+about the village tavern on market days.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>This derivation of the name of the delightful
+town which Irving loved so well, has probably
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>as much authority behind it as many derivations
+which have come to be unquestioned;
+but if Irving’s genial humor leaves some
+sceptics dissatisfied, they may take refuge in
+an alternative derivation, which traces the
+modern name to the more credible legend that
+one Terry was the earliest settler, whose name
+became fastened upon the little hamlet first as
+Terry’s town, which afterwards was naturally
+metamorphosed into Tarrytown. Be this as
+it may, a spirit of peace seems to have reigned
+in the region from the beginning, and the
+sturdy Dutch farmers kept the peace with
+their Indian neighbors. There are no traditions
+of midnight alarms in the early story
+of the community. Indian canoes were seen
+for many a year on Tappan Zee, and it is said
+that Indian hands assisted in raising the walls
+of the quaint and venerable church which still
+keeps watch over its earliest worshippers in
+the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. These pioneer
+settlers had few wants, and supplied them with
+home-made articles or hand-woven fabrics.
+Manhattan Island was too distant in time to
+be accessible for daily supplies; shops were
+still to come; and the peddler, with whose
+figure and habits Cooper was subsequently to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>make the whole world acquainted, distributed
+finery and small wares through the section.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="illus054" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus054.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE POCANTICO RIVER.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p>
+
+<p>Under the royal grant and license which authorized
+Frederick Philips to acquire certain
+tracts of land in Westchester County, says an
+old chronicler, the grantee agreed “to let any
+one settle on said land free, for certain stipulated
+years, in order that it should as soon as
+possible be cultivated and settled.” These
+terms seem to have been accepted by the few
+settlers already on the ground, and by others
+who were attracted by the impulse which the
+lord of the manor (for such Philips was in influence
+and authority) gave to local industry.
+The great estate was not secured in a day; it
+was consolidated by a series of purchases covering
+a period of years, and among these purchases
+was the site of the present village of
+Tarrytown, which was paid for in rum, cloth,
+tobacco, and hardware. The great proprietor
+laid the foundations of permanent community
+life by building, within a comparatively short
+time, a mill, a manor-house, and a church.
+The Pocantico flows into the Hudson just beyond
+the northern boundary of the Tarrytown
+of to-day; and on the shores of the quiet bay
+which puts in at that point, protected by a
+long and heavily wooded promontory which
+extends well into the river, Philips chose a
+sheltered and beautiful site for his home. His
+own ships brought building materials from
+Holland and unloaded them on the wharf
+built on the premises. The architecture of
+the manor-house was of the Dutch order so
+familiar along the Hudson; the heavy walls
+were of stone; the roof was spread on great
+hand-hewn rafters; the doors were divided
+into upper and lower sections, and swung on
+ponderous hinges; from the end of the wide
+hall, stairs ascended by easy rises to the
+upper floor. Through openings in the foundation
+walls on the southwest side small howitzers
+commanded the approach by land or
+water. A mill was quite as essential as a
+house, and the substantial structure which
+still resists the assaults of time in placid old
+age, bears witness to the thoroughness with
+which Philips did whatever fell to his hand.
+Beside its ancient pond the venerable mill
+still witnesses to a past which cannot be
+wholly lost while the little group of buildings
+remains.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus055" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus055.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD MANOR-HOUSE (“FLYPSE’S CASTLE”) AND MILL, TARRYTOWN.</p>
+      <p>FROM A DRAWING BY EDGAR MAHEW BACON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus056" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus056.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW.</p>
+      <p>FROM A DRAWING BY W. J. WILSON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To complete this interesting group, which
+Tarrytown ought to preserve with pious care,
+and at no great distance from the manor-house,
+stands the old Dutch church, one of
+the most quaint and best preserved monuments
+of early history on the continent. He
+would be a bold man who would venture to
+state definitely the date at which the building
+of this ancient edifice was begun; on that
+point a wide latitude must be permitted and
+discreet silence preserved. It answers all
+purposes of intelligent curiosity to be told
+that the foundations were probably laid as
+early as 1684, and that the building was completed,
+probably, not later than 1697. The bell
+which still hangs in the little steeple and which
+may be heard on quiet Sunday afternoons in
+the late summer or early autumn, when services
+are held in the ancient structure, was
+cast in 1685, and bears the inscription, “Si
+Deus pro nobis quis contra nos.” The church
+was built with characteristic solidity, the walls
+being more than two feet thick; a great pulpit
+with a sounding-board projected from the
+eastern end; the benches on which the congregation
+sat were without backs; and the
+doctrine expounded from the sacred desk was
+of a kindred soundness of fibre. Some concession
+to human weakness was shown to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>lord of the manor, in the comfortable and imposing
+arrangement of the large pews on the
+right and left of the minister. The farmers
+filled the body of the little church, while slaves,
+redemptioners, and other obscure persons, with
+the choir, sat in the tiny gallery. In 1697, the
+Rev. Guiliam Bertholf began a kind of visitorial
+ministry in the new church, coming three
+or four times a year to preach and administer
+the sacraments. He was a native of Sluis, in
+Holland, emigrated to the new world in 1684,
+and became a preacher nine years later. His
+ability and zeal gave him wide influence, and
+he was instrumental in organizing a number of
+churches of the Reformed faith and order.
+From this initial ministry until the present
+time, although the congregation has moved to
+a larger and modern edifice, the succession of
+faithful preachers has never been broken, and
+the historic pulpit of Tarrytown has never
+been more thoroughly identified with generous
+devotion, high character, and unusual gifts of
+nature and speech than during the last twenty-five
+years. During the stormy years of the
+Revolution the church was frequently closed;
+and at the close of the struggle the trappings
+which had distinguished the pews of the lord
+of the manor were torn down, and elders and
+deacons sitting in the seats once set apart for
+the local aristocracy emphasized the triumph
+of the democratic idea in Church and State.
+Not long afterwards another innovation was
+made by the substitution of English for Dutch
+in the services.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus057" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus057.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>INTERIOR OF OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW,
+    PRIOR TO ITS RESTORATION IN 1897.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
+
+<p>In October, 1897, the two hundredth anniversary
+of the church was celebrated with
+services which recalled, with unusual completeness,
+the varied and instructive history
+of the old building and of the community.</p>
+
+<p>The modern village lies to the south of
+the church, which is hidden beneath ancient
+trees, and is still enveloped in an atmosphere
+of old-time silence and repose. The Pocantico
+flows beside it, almost unseen when the midsummer
+foliage is spread over it; while to the
+north, climbing a gentle slope and sinking
+softly down to the brook, is the ancient
+burying-ground, in which the first interments
+were made about 1645. The place is singularly
+peaceful and of a rare and gentle beauty; the
+gradual slope dotted with ancient graves, protected
+on the east by wooded heights, overhung
+with old trees, and commanding on the west
+glimpses of the broad expanse of the Tappan
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>Zee, and, from its higher levels, the tree-embowered
+village, the long line of shining water,
+and the distant front of the Palisades. There
+is probably no other locality in America, taking
+into account history, tradition, the old
+church, the manor-house, and the mill, which
+so entirely conserves the form and spirit of
+Dutch civilization in the new world. This
+group of buildings ranks in historic interest, if
+not in historic importance, with Faneuil Hall,
+Independence Hall, the ruined church tower
+at Jamestown, the old gateway at St. Augustine,
+and the Spanish cabildo on Jackson Square
+in New Orleans; and the time will come when
+pilgrimages will be made to this ancient and
+beautiful home of some of those ideals and
+habits of life which have given form and structure
+to American civilization.</p>
+
+<p>It was the misfortune of Tarrytown to lie in
+the path of both armies for many dreary
+months during the Revolution; and no section
+of the country felt the uncertainty and
+terrors of war more keenly. When Cooper
+looked about for an American subject for his
+second novel, his interest in the history of
+Westchester County, in the lower part of
+which he was for a number of years a resident,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>led him to a fortunate choice, and <i>The Spy</i> remains
+not only one of the best of American
+novels of incident, but a vivid report of the
+suspense and misery of the country between
+the Highlands of the Hudson, held by the
+American forces, and the city of New York in
+the hands of the British. That section was
+mercilessly harried by friend and foe. The
+few families which made the little hamlet of
+Tarrytown, never knew whether the Skinners
+or the Cowboys would appear next; the only
+certainty in the situation seems to have been
+that, sooner or later, whatever was portable
+and valuable would be carried off. There
+was much quiet courage in the form of patient
+endurance in those years when church and
+school were closed, crops gathered by hands
+that had not sown, houses burned in the dead
+of night, and all normal community life at an
+end. Caught in the centre of the storm of
+war, Tarrytown not only suffered severely but
+bore her losses with conspicuous fortitude and
+courage. In many sudden forays, as well as
+in the larger movements of the American
+forces, the men of Tarrytown played their parts
+with notable pluck and daring.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="illus058" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus058.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MONUMENT TO THE CAPTORS OF ANDRÉ.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p>
+
+<p>The devotion of a majority of the people of
+the place to the American cause had its reward
+in the lasting association of the town
+with the most romantic and tragic episode of
+the war; and the incorruptible patriotism of
+three Westchester County men not only
+averted what might have been a crushing
+calamity, but immortalized the scene of their
+resistance to temptation. On the 24th day of
+September, 1780, Major André, bearing dispatches
+of a treasonable nature from General
+Benedict Arnold, then in command of the
+American forces at West Point, was captured
+on the highway at a place now marked by a
+monument, by John Paulding, David Williams,
+and Isaac Van Wart. These obscure militiamen,
+soon to become famous, were watching
+the road, when a horseman appeared riding
+toward the south. He was promptly challenged,
+ordered to dismount, and examined as
+to his business and destination. His answers
+to the questions put to him by his captors
+confirmed their suspicion that something of
+unusual importance was in the air. The determination
+to search the unfortunate young
+officer more thoroughly was met with offers
+of a large sum of money; but the militiamen
+were not to be bribed, and to their fidelity is
+due the discovery of the plot to place West
+Point in British hands. The moral effect of
+Arnold’s fall was counteracted in large measure
+by the incorruptibility of André’s captors,
+and the monument
+which
+marks this historic
+site commemorates
+the
+integrity of the
+American militiamen
+quite as
+much as the dramatic
+episode
+which ended the
+careers of Arnold
+and André.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus059" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus059.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON IRVING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus060" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus060.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“SUNNYSIDE.”</p>
+      <p>THE HOME OF WASHINGTON IRVING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span></p>
+
+<p>Tarrytown
+has had the
+double good fortune
+to be the scene of the most striking act of
+the drama of Arnold’s treason, and to be the custodian
+of one of the few American legends. In
+his youth, Washington Irving knew the region
+intimately. He was given to solitary walks,
+for he was a dreamer by nature and habit.
+Wolfert’s Roost was even then an old farm-house,
+built close to the water’s edge, where
+the glen broadens to the river. It had colonial
+and revolutionary associations, and, above all, it
+had the charm of a situation of singular beauty.
+Irving seems early to have fallen under the spell
+of the shaded waterside and the romantic glen.
+In 1835, after an absence of seventeen years
+in Europe and an extensive journey through
+the South and West, which bore fruit in <i>A
+Tour on the Prairies</i>, the recollections and
+affections of his youth drew him to Sunnyside,
+now about a mile and a half south of the railway
+station of Tarrytown, and he became the
+possessor of a home which will always be associated
+with our early literary history. The
+house was enlarged, and began to take on that
+air of ripe and reposeful beauty which made it
+an ideal home for a man of letters. Under
+this roof his later books were written, and here
+he was sought by the most interesting men of
+his time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus061" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus061.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE JACOB MOTT HOUSE WHERE KATRINA VAN TASSEL WAS MARRIED.</p>
+      <p>NOW OCCUPIED BY THE NEW WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL.
+    FROM A DRAWING BY EDGAR MAHEW BACON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span></p>
+
+<p>Irving’s familiarity with the Hudson River
+and its historical associations had already
+borne fruit in the <i>Sketch-Book</i> in two original
+and characteristic legends. Like his illustrious
+contemporary, Sir Walter Scott, Irving was a
+born lover of traditions of all sorts; a man with
+a genius for getting the poetry and romance
+out of the past. In <i>The History of New York</i>,
+impersonated in Diedrich Knickerbocker, he
+created a legend; in <i>Rip Van Winkle</i> and <i>The
+Legend of Sleepy Hollow</i> he gave lasting fame
+to two stories full of the Dutch spirit. Sleepy
+Hollow lies to the north and east of Tarrytown,
+within easy walking distance. It is
+still secluded and quiet and the stir of modern
+times has not broken in upon its ancient
+seclusion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus062" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus062.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD SLEEPY HOLLOW MILL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“A small brook glides through it, with just murmur
+enough to lull one to repose; and the occasional whistle
+of a quail, or tapping of a woodpecker, is almost the only
+sound that ever breaks in upon the uniform tranquillity....
+A drowsy, dreamy influence seems to hang over
+the land, and to pervade the very atmosphere. Some say
+that the place was bewitched by a high German doctor,
+during the early days of the settlement; others, that an
+old Indian chief, the prophet or wizard of his tribe, held
+his pow-wows there before the country was discovered by
+Master Hendrick Hudson. Certain it is, the place
+still continues under the sway of some witching power,
+that holds a spell over the minds of the good people,
+causing them to walk in a continual dream.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Since the days when these words were written
+the air of Sleepy Hollow has not escaped the
+general stirring of a more hurried age; but on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>summer afternoons the meditative visitor still
+finds the valley a place of silence and peace.
+The master of the spell which has brought so
+many pilgrims to Tarrytown sleeps in the
+ancient graveyard; the home which he loved
+with a love deepened by years of exile, still
+stands, somewhat enlarged, but not despoiled
+of its secluded and ivy-clad loveliness.</p>
+
+<p>Great estates have been formed about Tarrytown
+and stately homes line the shores of
+the river, but the place has kept something of
+its old simplicity and repose. It has never
+lacked the presence of those to whom its traditions
+of refined social habit and generous
+intellectual life have been sacred; and its distinction
+is still to be found in an atmosphere
+which is in no sense dependent on its later
+and larger prosperity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header6.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="NEW_YORK_CITY">NEW YORK CITY</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE COSMOPOLITAN CITY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By JOSEPH B. GILDER</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>By comparison with London, New York is
+a city of the second size, lacking some
+millions of the population of the modern
+Babylon. Even Paris, though less populous,
+outranks the American metropolis in
+many of the elements that go to the making
+of a great city. But in drawing these comparisons
+it must be remembered that only
+three centuries ago, when the French and English
+capitals had been places of importance
+for over a thousand years, New York was a
+wooded island, criss-crossed by innumerable
+streams, indented by morasses and infested
+by Indians and wild beasts. European civilization
+was wrinkled with age long before a
+permanent roof was erected on the island of
+Manhattan; and three lives such as that of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>ex-Mayor Tiemann, who died here in his
+ninety-fifth year, in the summer of 1899,
+would have spanned the entire history of the
+town from the Dutch discovery to the reign
+of Richard Croker.</p>
+
+<p>The first white man’s habitation in what is
+now New York was a grave; for the crew of
+Hudson’s <i>Half-Moon</i>, after their fight with
+the aborigines on
+the mainland above
+Spuyten Duyvil
+Creek, in September,
+1609, buried
+their dead before sailing
+homeward from
+their voyage of discovery
+up the great
+river named for their
+commander.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus063" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus063.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FIRST SEAL OF CITY. 1623-1654.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Four temporary dwellings, presumably little
+better than wigwams, housed Skipper Block
+and the crew of the <i>Tiger</i> near the lower end
+of the island, while they rebuilt their burned
+vessel, during the winter of 1613-14. The
+site of the present city was bought from the
+Indians on May 6, 1626, for trinkets worth
+sixty guilders, or four-and-twenty dollars—less
+than one tenth of the rate paid a few
+years since for a single square foot of land.
+Building was begun at once and pushed with
+vigor. Fort Amsterdam—a blockhouse partly
+shielded by palisades—marked the extreme
+southern limit of the island; and the first
+bark-roofed cottages were clustered close together
+under its harmless, necessary guns.
+A warehouse with stone walls and a thatched
+roof sprang up as soon as a stronghold had
+been built; and a horse-mill, with a loft fitted
+up for the simplest form of religious services.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus064" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus064.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MAP OF ORIGINAL GRANTS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p>
+
+<p>Fort Amsterdam was a fortress in name
+only. Scarcely had it been completed when
+it began to fall into disrepair; and the pigs
+were forever rooting in its sodded earthworks,
+and threatening its very foundations. Thus
+early was it that these four-footed scavengers
+made their appearance in the history of New
+York, playing as picturesque, though not as
+patriotic, a part therein as that of the legendary
+Roman geese. Not till well forward in
+the present century did they disappear from
+the streets and the annals of the city.</p>
+
+<p>Peter Minuit, the first Director of New
+Netherlands to hold his place for more than a
+year, and the first to organize a permanent
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>provincial government, sent home hopeful reports,
+and backed them with shipments of fur
+and timber; but the expenses of administering
+the colony ultimately exceeded its earnings,
+and the West India Company was disappointed
+of the revenue it had counted upon
+receiving from the new settlement.</p>
+
+<p>The little village grew but slowly. When
+it had spread so far northward as the line of
+what is now Wall Street—which is so far down-town
+to-day that many a New York woman,
+native-born, has yet to see it for the first time—a
+stockade was set up across the island,
+narrower then than now, to fence off the
+village from the farms (bouweries) of the more
+adventurous pioneers, and the forest that
+bordered them. This defense, completed in
+1653, consisted of palisades and posts, twelve
+feet high, with a sloping breastwork of earth
+and a ditch on its southern side. In less than
+two years its height was doubled to keep the
+Indians from leaping over it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus065" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus065.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE FORT IN KIEFT’S DAY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span></p>
+
+<p>But neither the Fort with its stone guns,
+nor this high wooden wall, was ever called
+upon to withstand a vigorous attack or resist a
+siege; for whenever the place was seriously
+threatened, its flag came fluttering down, and
+its keys were turned over to the enemy. This
+happened first in August, 1664, when Col.
+Richard Nicolls appeared in the bay, as deputy
+of the Duke of York, to whom Charles
+II. had granted all the territory between the
+Connecticut River and Delaware Bay, and
+demanded the Fort’s surrender. The claim of
+the English was nebulous to the last degree.
+As Freneau neatly put it,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“The soil they demanded, or threatened their worst,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Insisting that <i>Cabot had looked at it first</i>.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">But the flimsiest pretension, if vigorously
+backed, outvalues the strongest if less sturdily
+maintained; and Director Stuyvesant found
+his people unwilling to support him in defying
+the intruder. So down dropped the Dutch
+colors and up ran the British.</p>
+
+<p>Precisely nine years later, however, what
+had formerly been called New Amsterdam, but
+was now New York, yielded itself to a little
+Dutch fleet without striking a defensive blow.
+Captain Colve’s victory was so lightly won,
+indeed, that the English commander, Captain
+Manning, was courtmartialled for his apparent
+inefficiency, cowardice or treason, and the estates
+of the Governor, Colonel Lovelace, who,
+when the blow fell, was absent on affairs of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>state, were confiscated by the Duke. The
+triumph of the Hollanders was short-lived; for
+the year 1674 had not run its course when
+Major Edmund Andros assumed the governorship,
+and by the terms of a treaty of peace between
+England
+and the States-General,
+New
+Orange, as the
+place had been
+christened by
+the Dutch, again
+and finally became
+New York.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus066" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus066.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PETER STUYVESANT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>New York has
+been in turn a
+Dutch village,
+an English
+town, and an
+American city.
+In its infancy
+it was wholly Dutch; but in its early youth
+the population was so leavened by English
+immigration that the transition to English
+control was less violent than one might
+expect it to have been. English influence
+was powerful even in Stuyvesant’s day; and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>when Stuyvesant was supplanted by Nicolls,
+the Dutch element was still powerful in the
+councils of the little town. The new ruler
+moved slowly and cautiously in anglicizing the
+government, and almost all the changes he
+made were for the better. The brief resumption
+of Dutch authority
+in 1673 was reactionary
+and wholly
+detrimental to the interests
+of the community;
+and, all things
+considered, the peaceful
+cession of the
+town to England, a
+year later, was the happiest
+chance that could
+possibly have befallen.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp61" id="illus067" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus067.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY IN 1686.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A more violent and radical change was
+effected in 1689, when Jacob Leisler seized the
+occasion of the fall of the Stuart dynasty to
+grasp the reins of government which Andros
+had been forced to drop. By the aid of the
+militia and with the support of nearly all the less
+prosperous townsfolk, he administered public
+affairs till that good Dutchman William III.
+of England commissioned Governor Sloughter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>to hang the usurper and reign in his stead.
+Leisler’s rule had been in many respects an
+enlightened one, and years afterward his
+adherents succeeded in having his dishonored
+bones dug up and honorably reinterred. It
+was in this town, and at the instance of this
+earnest but ill-balanced and despotic champion
+of the poor, that the American Colonies took
+their first step toward concerted action, their
+objective being the overthrow of the French
+at Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking characteristic of New
+York has always been its cosmopolitanism.
+As Governor Roosevelt points out in his
+capital review of the city’s history, no less than
+eighteen different languages and dialects were
+spoken in the streets so long ago as the
+middle of the seventeenth century. The
+Dutch, the English and the Huguenot refugees
+from France predominated, but there
+were many Walloons and Germans, and a
+large body of black slaves. The riffraff of
+the Old World was to be found here, as well
+as the nobly adventurous; and, in fact, at all
+times since, the proportion of foreign-born
+residents has been very large.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus068" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus068.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOHN JAY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the period immediately preceding the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>Revolution, the desire for independence was
+far less general in New York than in Massachusetts
+or Virginia. The large land owners
+and leading merchants were mainly members
+of the Church of England; and while there
+was no state
+church, so called
+and admitted to
+be such, the Anglicans
+were first
+in wealth and
+fashion, and
+their organization
+enjoyed exclusive
+privileges.
+Even
+King’s College
+(now Columbia
+University) was
+placed officially
+under Church control. The court party included
+not only the Anglican clergy and almost
+all the laity, but even an influential section of the
+membership of the Dutch Reformed Church.
+It included such families as the De Peysters,
+the De Lanceys and the Philippses in the
+city and its suburbs; and the Johnsons, who
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>dominated central New York. There were
+Tories even on the Committee of Fifty-one
+that first authoritatively proposed the assembling
+of a Continental Congress. In no other
+colony was the Tory element so numerous
+and powerful; in
+none other were
+the patriots opposed
+by so active
+a spirit of
+loyalty to the
+Crown, and so
+vast a bulk of
+indifference on
+the part of property-owners,
+solicitous
+for nothing
+but the
+security of their
+possessions. At
+first the Schuylers,
+the Livingstons,
+and Hamilton,
+Jay and Morris found their support
+almost wholly among the masses, who rose
+not only against England, but also against the
+domination of the classes, which was more
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>oppressive in the aristocratic city of New
+York than in the democratic town of Boston,
+or in Philadelphia. Thus, it was the so-called
+Sons of Liberty that had led in the agitation
+which made the Stamp Act a dead letter, so far
+as this colony was concerned, and a decade
+later prevented the landing of taxed tea on
+New York wharves. And their demonstrative
+radicalism found little response in the
+minds of some of the ablest civil and military
+leaders contributed by this colony to
+the work of liberation and reconstruction.
+But the violence of the mob could not blind
+such men to the essential justice of the
+American cause, and the actual beginning of
+the war found a large majority of the best
+people of the colony definitely committed to
+a patriotic course. So when Washington and
+his army were driven hither from Brooklyn
+and hence to New Jersey, in 1776, New York
+was no longer the populous place it had been
+before their sympathizers fled from the terrors
+of hostile military rule.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus069" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus069.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ALEXANDER HAMILTON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For the next seven years this remained the
+chief British stronghold in America. If the
+eastern and southern colonies could be split
+apart by English control of the Hudson, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>backbone of the colonial federation would be
+broken—as the backbone of the Confederacy
+was broken, nearly a century later, by Sherman’s
+march to the sea. So every energy was
+bent toward dislodging the Continentals from
+this dividing-line. This was the immediate
+object of Arnold’s treachery, as well as of
+many an overt movement from south and
+north. But Washington outgeneralled the
+enemy and kept the federation intact, till the
+capture of Yorktown made New York no
+longer tenable by the foe. The city was well-nigh
+ruined by its experiences during these
+seven terrible years; and the outlying country
+to the north—Westchester County—suffered
+no less severely, being exposed to raids from
+the opposing bodies of regulars, and to constant
+marauding at the hands of free-booters,
+who pretended affiliation with one side or the
+other, sometimes in good faith, but often
+merely as a pretext for lawless depredations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus070" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus070.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FRAUNCES’S TAVERN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span></p>
+
+<p>The most joyously celebrated event in the
+annals of Manhattan was the city’s evacuation
+by the British at the close of the war. On
+the day that this occurred, November 25,
+1783, General Washington arrived in town
+and dined at Fraunces’s Tavern; and hither
+he repaired again, ten days later, on the eve
+of his departure for Annapolis, to bid farewell
+to his officers. In this same building,
+and in the same Long Room, the first meeting
+of the New York Chamber of Commerce
+had been held, in 1768, fifteen years before
+any similar association was organized in Great
+Britain. This hostelry had, indeed, been the
+fashionable rendezvous of New Yorkers since
+1762, when the shop at the southeast corner
+of Broad and Pearl Streets was converted to
+still more public uses by Samuel Fraunces
+(“Black Tom”), who in later years was to become
+the first President’s steward. At the
+beginning it was known as the Queen’s Head
+Tavern, its sign bearing a portrait of Queen
+Charlotte. Enlarged, and otherwise altered,
+but not improved, Fraunces’s Tavern is still,
+as it has always been, a public-house, though
+fashion has long since deserted it. It would
+be most deplorable if the march of improvement
+(in whose name, as in Liberty’s, so many
+offences are committed) should ever be allowed
+to obliterate this most aged and interesting
+relic of old New York.</p>
+
+<p>The war of 1812 was by no means popular
+with the representative merchants of New
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>York, despite the fact that the enforcement of
+England’s pretended right of search had acted
+almost as a blockade of the port for some years
+before the outbreak of hostilities. It had been
+a common occurrence for merchantmen in the
+lower bay to be stopped by a shot across their
+bows, and searched for possible British subjects
+among their crews. But when war came
+the fighting spirit was aroused, and many a
+privateer was fitted out to prey upon the enemy’s
+merchant marine. Rich prizes were
+taken, and desperate engagements were fought
+between the crews of brigs and schooners from
+New York and British men-of-war’s men who
+interfered with their privateering practices.
+A few years earlier (1807), Fulton had demonstrated
+on the Hudson the practicability of
+steam navigation; and now he built in New
+York, under Congressional direction, a steam
+frigate, iron-clad and heavily armed. This
+formidable craft might have been depended
+upon to raise the British blockade, had it not
+been raised still more effectually by a declaration
+of peace. The city did not suffer in this
+second war with England as it had suffered in
+the first. Instead of waiting for years, as
+before, to recuperate, it entered at once upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>a period of unprecedented growth. The return
+of peace stimulated immigration, and
+local prosperity was vastly augmented by the
+opening in 1825 of the Erie Canal.</p>
+
+<p>Until 1822, the mayor was appointed by a
+State council, presided over by the Governor;
+thereafter, until 1834, he was chosen by the
+municipal council; since then he has been
+elected by the people. But democratic rule
+was not always found to work satisfactorily,
+and in 1857 the control of local affairs was
+largely delegated to the legislature. This precaution
+proved of comparatively little value,
+however, and the Tweed ring of local office-holders
+found little difficulty in running things
+as they wished and robbing the tax-payers of
+millions upon millions. The charter of the
+city recently created by the amalgamation of
+New York, Brooklyn, etc., professed to restore
+home rule, in large measure; but so much of
+the supposed boon as it confers may be withdrawn
+at any time by State legislation, and
+bills withdrawing it piecemeal are, in fact,
+introduced at every session of the legislature.</p>
+
+<p>When secession threatened, in 1861, the
+Democratic city of New York was the least
+friendly of Northern communities in its attitude
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>toward the federal government. The common
+council, indeed, rapturously applauded the
+mayor’s formal suggestion that the city itself
+secede. But the first overt act of hostility at
+the South showed that, beneath this surface
+sympathy with the secessionists, the great
+mass of earnest citizens were ardent in adherence
+to the Union. Life and treasure
+were poured out more than abundantly. The
+Seventh Regiment—the “crack” militia organization
+of the city, if not of the nation—hurried
+off to Washington to guard the capital
+from surprise; and tens of thousands of volunteers
+followed to the front. No one city contributed
+more to the national cause. In fact
+the city’s contributions were too liberal for her
+own good; for the consequent dearth of able-bodied
+honest men at home left the community
+a prey to the enemies of society, and regiment
+after regiment had to be called back to restore
+order. The worst outbreaks were the so-called
+draft riots, caused by the enforced enlistment
+of troops; in these uprisings, negroes
+were the special object of the mob’s hostility.</p>
+
+<p>The first few huts in New Amsterdam were
+huddled together beneath the sheltering walls
+of the Fort. There was but one general direction
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>in which the hamlet could extend; yet it
+was long before the northward movement filled
+with shops and houses the space between the
+Fort and the line of Wall Street, and for several
+years thereafter the great Wall marked the
+boundary of the village. The Revolution found
+the border pushed forward to the edge of the
+Common, where the post-office stands to-day.
+The chief outlet from this point lay eastward,
+through what is now Park Row to the Bowery,
+and thence through the outlying farms to
+Westchester County, Connecticut and Boston.</p>
+
+<p>On the west side there was another outlet,
+skirting the Hudson River and extending to
+the little village of Greenwich; and the occasional
+outbreak of yellow fever in New York
+made this a popular resort. The influx of
+twenty thousand refugees during one of these
+scares, early in the present century, completely
+changed the character of this village, and although
+most of the newcomers returned to the
+lower end of the island, Greenwich had practically
+become, by 1830, an integral part of the
+city. The northward spread via Greenwich
+Street, the Bowery and Broadway continued,
+till Yorkville and Harlem on the east and Manhattanville
+and Bloomingdale on the west were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>absorbed by the growing city. In 1874 the
+Harlem was crossed, and New York ceased to
+be an island; in 1895 still further accessions
+were made in Westchester County. But the
+crowning event in the expansion of the city
+was the legislation by which, on January 1,
+1898, Brooklyn and the outlying towns and
+villages on Long Island, and all of Staten
+Island, were brought within the limits of New
+York—an act that raised the population at a
+stroke from less than 1,900,000 to near 3,400,000,
+and incidentally brought almost half the
+people of the State under the immediate rule
+of Tammany Hall.</p>
+
+<p>A word should be said as to the Society,
+named in honor of Tamanend, an Indian chief
+who signed one of the treaties by which William
+Penn acquired the site of the city of Philadelphia.
+One of many societies of the same
+name, organized for social and political purposes
+toward the close of the eighteenth century,
+it reflected, to a certain extent, a spirit
+which had prevailed among the younger officers
+of the Revolution who had felt the force
+of Rousseau’s idealization of primitive man.
+Its first meeting was held on “St. Tammany’s
+day” (May 12), 1789. In membership it was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>allied with the Sons of Liberty and the Sons
+of 1776, and it has always professed “intense
+Americanism,” so far as that phrase is synonymous
+with Anglophobia. At first its ranks
+were recruited from among the small merchants,
+retailers and mechanics of the city;
+and by coming into close touch with the mass
+of immigrants that form so large a proportion
+of the population, giving the newcomers employment
+in some cases, in others charitable
+aid, instructing the alien voter as to his political
+rights and privileges, and directing him in
+their exercise, it has built up an enormous voting
+machine, insufficient to defeat a united
+opposition, but almost invariably so fortunate in
+local contests as to find its opponents divided.
+While nominally Democratic in national
+affairs, Tammany has never scrupled to oppose
+the Democratic party in the pursuit of
+its own immediate end—the control of local
+offices and revenues. This powerful machine
+has now for several years been dominated by
+an illiterate immigrant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus071" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus071.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE STADT HUYS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p>
+
+<p>Comparatively recent as were the beginnings
+of the city, hardly a trace of the original village
+remains. Not a single building has come
+down to us from the Dutch period. It was to
+have been expected that something would
+survive the flight of less than three centuries.
+A happy chance might easily have preserved
+the stone “temple” erected within the walls of
+the Fort in 1652, or the slightly older warehouse,
+or some one of the many curious little
+stone or brick houses in which the burly
+burghers of the seventeenth century smoked
+their long pipes by the chimney-side, while
+their wives plied the spinning-wheel, their
+daughters spread the board, and their children,
+in padded breeches, played about the sanded
+floor.</p>
+
+<p>The Stadt Huys, originally built as an inn,
+to relieve Director Kieft of the burden of
+overmuch entertaining, dated back to the
+same year as the Dutch Reformed Church in
+the fortified enclosure. The organization of
+the old church is still maintained, and the
+functions of the city government have been
+performed in successive buildings to the present
+day; but the picturesque old government
+house—fifty feet square, three stories high in
+the walls and two in the attic, with windows in
+the gable of its crow-stepped roof,—that should
+have been cherished as a most interesting
+relic of the city’s earliest period, lasted but a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>little way into the present century, having
+then been used for over a hundred years for
+commercial purposes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus072" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus072.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>STAINED-GLASS WINDOW IN “BOWLING GREEN OFFICES.”</p>
+      <p>SHOWING GREEN ABOUT 1760.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Chief among the few other survivals from
+the early days, and antedating all of them, is
+Bowling Green. This oldest bit of park land
+in the city dates from the Dutch occupation.
+It lay immediately in front of the Fort, and no
+building has ever stood upon its diminutive,
+oblong site. The relatively old row of buildings
+(Steamship Row) which overlooks it
+from the south will ere long be replaced by a
+Custom House worthy of the second port of
+entry in the world. This will occupy the site
+of the old government house, which once
+served the purpose for which the new building
+is designed. In 1771, it was found advisable
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>to enclose the Green with an iron fence. Bereft
+of the crowns that surmounted the posts,
+the fence still surrounds it, though the equestrian
+statue of George III., which it was put up
+to protect, vanished in 1776. In the excitement
+that followed the reading of the Declaration
+of Independence, in that year, the crowd
+marched down Broadway from the Common,
+and tumbled the King from his pedestal. The
+leaden carcass was shipped to Connecticut,
+where the wife and daughter of Governor
+Wolcott cannily converted it into rebel bullets.
+An indignity similar in degree though different
+in kind was offered to America’s eloquent
+Parliamentary advocate, William Pitt, whose
+marble effigy at Wall and William Streets
+was decapitated during the Revolution by the
+Tories, and left standing for years as a mere
+“disturber of traffic.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus073" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus073.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GOVERNMENT HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The house at No. 1 Broadway, looking eastward
+over the lower end of Bowling Green,
+built in 1760 by Colonel Kennedy, afterward
+Earl of Cassilis, and occupied in turn by the
+American leaders, including Washington, and
+by the English, including Cornwallis, Howe
+and Sir Henry Clinton, was the scene of Major
+André’s last interview with the British commander
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>before his fatal journey to West Point.
+And in another house in Broadway overlooking
+the Green, Benedict Arnold had his quarters
+after his flight and the exposure of his infamous
+plot. Mention of the gallant young British
+officer, André, naturally suggests the name and
+fate of Nathan Hale, whose heroism is commemorated
+by a noble statue by MacMonnies,
+which faces Broadway from the lower corner
+of City Hall Park, not far from the spot where
+the American spy was hanged from an apple-tree.
+The Beekman “Mansion,” overlooking
+the East River near what is now Fifty-first
+Street, the scene of Hale’s trial and condemnation,
+survived till 1874; the Kennedy House,
+identified with André’s memory, lasted eight
+years longer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus074" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus074.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FEDERAL HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span></p>
+
+<p>A picturesque feature of the old town was
+the canal that ran from the city wall to the bay,
+becoming first an artery of trade, and then a
+centre of fashionable life, as Broad Street,
+which took its place, has since been a centre
+of commercial activity. It was directly opposite
+Broad Street, in Wall, that the foundations of
+the new City Hall were laid in 1699, the sale
+of the Stadt Huys helping to defray the
+cost of the more pretentious structure. The
+arms of the English Governor, Lord Bellomont,
+were blazoned on its walls; but two years
+later the marshal was called upon to remove
+and destroy them. When New York became
+the seat of the national government, the ninety-year-old
+City Hall, partly reconstructed and
+lavishly decorated, became the meeting-place
+of Congress. The most memorable day in its
+history was the 30th of April, 1789, when,
+attended by Chancellor Livingston and the
+committees of Senators and Representatives,
+standing upon its balcony in the presence of a
+great concourse, not merely of New Yorkers,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>but of Americans from all the colonies, gathered
+together from far and near, George Washington
+took the oath of office as first President of
+the United States. Where the Capitol then
+stood now stands the Sub-Treasury, with
+Ward’s bronze Washington looking gravely
+down from its steps upon the feverish turmoil
+of Wall Street.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest existing municipal building in
+New York is the Hall of Records, in City
+Hall Park, whose contents are erelong to be
+housed in a spacious, fire-proof edifice. It
+dates from the middle of the eighteenth century.
+Its site formed a part of the Common,
+and it stood appropriately convenient to the
+gallows, for it was originally a jail—the first
+building on the island ever designed exclusively
+for the detention of law-breakers. In popular
+parlance, as in practical use, it soon became
+the Debtors’ Prison. When the British occupied
+the town during the Revolution, it was
+turned to account as their principal military
+prison, being known as The Provost, in reference
+to the title of the brutal Cunningham,
+who was charged with the custody of American
+prisoners of war—amongst others, “that d—d
+rebel, Ethan Allen.” The building was a debtors’
+jail again from 1787 to 1830; on the
+completion of alterations projected at the
+latter date, it became, in 1835, the Register’s
+office, and as such will probably see the close
+of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus075" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus075.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ST. PAUL’S CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="illus076" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus076.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CITY HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Vastly more attractive to the eye than this
+treasury of real-estate records, and not wholly
+lacking in historic interest, is the adjacent
+City Hall. This really handsome building,
+in the style of the Italian Renaissance, was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>begun in 1803, and completed nine years later.
+The likelihood of the city’s extending beyond
+it seemed too slight to warrant lavishing upon
+its back the white marble which adds so much
+to the dignity and grace of its façade; the rear
+wall was accordingly constructed of a cheaper
+stone. In the “Governor’s room” on the
+second floor, used for official receptions, are
+the desk on which Washington wrote his first
+message to Congress, the chair in which he
+was inaugurated as President, and the chairs
+used by the first federal Congress.</p>
+
+<p>In the same neighborhood, just beyond the
+lower extremity of the old Common, now
+City Hall Park, stands St. Paul’s Chapel,
+Trinity parish—an edifice much older than
+the parish church, which for the past half-century,
+like its successive parent buildings,
+has stood farther down Broadway, opposing its
+bulk to the westward progress of Wall Street.
+Fenced off by iron palings, and bordered on
+each side by a strip of graveyard, the chapel
+turns a picturesque and perhaps scornful back
+upon the “topless towers” of Broadway—little
+dreamt of when its foundations were
+laid in 1766, or three-and-twenty years later,
+when President Washington attended service
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>there on the day of his first inauguration.
+These heaven-aspiring structures were only
+beginning to turn the street into a canyon
+when the first President’s successor in office sat
+in the same pew on the same day a century
+later (April 30, 1889).</p>
+
+<p>Private houses of historic interest abounded
+not many years ago, notable among them the
+country-seat called Richmond Hill, near the
+long since absorbed village of Greenwich—a
+stately dwelling, identified with many familiar
+names. John Adams lived there during a part
+of his first term as Vice-President, and Aaron
+Burr started thence on that fateful July morning
+in 1804 that saw the death of Hamilton at
+his hand, and the end of his own political
+career. Of equal note was the house on Murray
+Hill, where Mrs. Murray detained the
+British commander at lunch while the American
+troops, under Putnam, made their escape
+from the island in 1776.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus077" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus077.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span></p>
+
+<p>The so-called Jumel Mansion, built for
+Washington’s whilom flame, Miss Mary Philippse,
+by her successful suitor, Col. Roger
+Morris, and afterwards occupied by Washington
+as his headquarters, became in turn the
+property of the nation (Morris having been a
+royalist), of John Jacob Astor, and of Stephen
+Jumel, whose erratic widow married Aaron
+Burr, but soon tired of him, turned him out of
+doors and dropped his name. From its coign
+of vantage on Harlem Heights at 169th Street,
+this dignified colonial dwelling still looks down
+upon the Harlem River and across to Long
+Island Sound. And at the foot of East 61st
+Street is yet to be seen—vine-covered, and
+embowered in trees and shrubs—the substantial
+stone residence of Col. William Smith,
+who married the daughter of President Adams,
+and ruined himself by speculating in east-side
+real estate. But the scarcity of such relics,
+and their glaring incongruity with their surroundings,
+emphasize the divergence between
+the old New York and that which is termed
+the Greater.</p>
+
+<p>In the hall of Cooper Institute, Abraham
+Lincoln made that great speech which first
+fully revealed him to the people of the Eastern
+States; and hither he was brought, to lie in
+state in the City Hall, when a martyr’s death
+had disclosed his greatness still more clearly
+to all his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>Here have lived, for longer or shorter
+periods, sundry Presidents of the United
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>States, from Washington to Cleveland; the
+city has been the permanent or occasional home
+of statesmen such as Jay and Livingston,
+Alexander Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris;
+of political agitators such as Aaron Burr and
+“Commonsense” Paine, and political leaders
+like DeWitt Clinton and Samuel J. Tilden; of
+authors such as Washington Irving, whose
+burlesque local history marked him out as the
+father of American light literature, Fenimore
+Cooper, the most popular of American
+romance-writers, and Edgar Allan Poe and
+Walt Whitman, most individual of American
+poets. Here, for longer or shorter periods,
+have lived and labored Curtis, and Bayard
+Taylor, and Stoddard, and Stedman, and Aldrich,
+and Howells, and that greatest of poets
+among journalists and journalists among poets,
+William Cullen Bryant, editor of <i>The Evening
+Post</i> and one of the founders of the Century
+Club; and Horace Greeley, founder of <i>The
+Tribune</i>, and most famous of American editors
+since Benjamin Franklin. As a resident of
+Brooklyn, and editor of a metropolitan religious
+weekly, the best-known preacher of the century,
+Henry Ward Beecher, was virtually a
+citizen of New York. In the annals of invention,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>the names of four New Yorkers stand
+out conspicuously—Fulton and Ericsson and
+Edison and Morse. And of all the free-booters
+that ever terrorized the sea, none has
+left a more awful and enduring fame than a
+once respectable resident of Liberty Street,
+renowned in song and story for two centuries
+as Captain Kidd.</p>
+
+<p>The hospitality of New York and her
+people is proverbial. Every distinguished
+visitor to America for more than a century
+past has been entertained here, officially or informally.
+Among the city’s guests have been
+William IV. of England, while yet a sailor
+prince; Lafayette, Louis Kossuth, the Prince
+of Wales, the Grand Duke Alexis, the Emperor
+of Brazil, the Princess Eulalia, the Duke of
+Veragua, Li Hung Chang and the Marquis
+Ito. Almost all the greatest preachers, orators,
+players, singers, and instrumental performers
+of the nineteenth century have added to their
+fame or wealth by facing New York audiences;
+and among the great writers who have
+visited us have been Dickens, Thackeray, and
+Kipling.</p>
+
+<p>While New York is easily first among the
+cities of the New World in commercial importance,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>it is not on material bases only that her
+supremacy rests. No community throughout
+the world responds more generously to every
+appeal for sympathy or help, whether the call
+be local, national or foreign. Her interest is
+keen in educational work of every kind. Columbia
+University—one of the oldest of local
+institutions, and more than local in its aims
+and fame and influence—has of late, through
+the liberality of her sons and other citizens,
+been housed in a manner commensurate with
+her requirements and aspirations; and so also
+has the less venerable but justly honored New
+York University. And the past few years
+have seen Barnard College for women and the
+Teachers College (both allied with Columbia)
+emerge from the chrysalis state into forms of
+beauty and power. The public-school system,
+moreover,—thanks to a recent brief respite
+from Tammany control,—is in better condition
+to-day than at any previous period of
+Tammany administration.</p>
+
+<p>Of American literary activity, despite Boston’s
+ancient and deserved prestige, it cannot
+be denied that New York is to-day the centre,
+as it is the centre of the publishing trade, in
+books and periodicals. Boston, with her splendid
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>Public Library, has set an example which
+the metropolis has been slow to follow; but
+the consolidation of the Astor, Lenox and
+Tilden collections, and their prospective housing
+in a magnificent and admirably situated
+building, has gone far to remove the reproach
+incurred during long years of public indifference
+to popular needs. The venerable Society
+Library, the modern and many-branched Free
+Circulating Library and kindred institutions
+have helped to create and in part to meet
+the demand which the Public Library in its
+new home may reasonably be expected to
+satisfy. Equally important in their way are
+those half-social, half-educational essays toward
+the solution of some of the problems of
+the slums—the University Settlement of men
+and the College Settlement of women. As a
+further indication that New York is not wholly
+given over to the worship of Mammon, it may
+be mentioned that the Greek Club, with its
+fortnightly meetings for the reading and discussion
+of the classics, has been for more than
+three decades the only circle of its kind in
+existence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus078" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus078.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON ARCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span></p>
+
+<p>In art, the invaluable treasures of the Metropolitan
+Museum foster the love of what is
+enduringly beautiful in sculpture, painting,
+architecture, etc.; while the schools of this museum
+and of the National Academy of Design
+and the Society of American Artists, to say
+nothing of the more utilitarian classes of
+Cooper Institute and the School of Artist
+Artisans, afford instruction in art of such a sort
+as to render foreign study no longer indispensable,
+albeit no less attractive than of old.</p>
+
+<p>Of music, vocal and instrumental, such feasts
+are spread before the local amateur as can be
+matched for quality and abundance in no
+other city at home or abroad, and while this
+is not true of the drama also, as the Comédie
+Française has never come hither in a body, it
+is yet a fact that nearly all that is best is seen,
+sooner or later, on the New York stage.</p>
+
+<p>By what rapid strides the city is moving forward
+in some directions, while halting lamentably
+in others, needs not to be pointed out.
+There is expert testimony to the effect that in
+public morality it has at least held its own during
+the past half-century; we trust it may some day
+work out its salvation in things political, and
+cease to be the mild milch cow of thirsty demagogues.
+It can never vie in picturesqueness
+and historic interest with its European peers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span>in population and importance, nor atone by its
+singularly fortunate situation for its poverty in
+little parks and its richness in rough-paved,
+right-angled and treeless streets and avenues;
+yet it may some day rival even Paris in the
+absolute beauty of its public and private buildings
+and historic monuments. A brave beginning
+has been made, in the Washington Arch,
+the Madison Square Garden, the Columbia and
+the New York University buildings, the Washington,
+Hale and Farragut statues and certain
+churches, club-houses and private dwellings.
+And in the Cathedral of St. John, the Public
+Library, the Academy of Design and the
+Botanical and Zoölogical gardens, a further
+stride will be made erelong in the only directions
+in which æsthetic leadership seems
+possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header7.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="BROOKLYN">BROOKLYN</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE TOWN ON FREEDOM’S BATTLE-FIELD</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By HARRINGTON PUTNAM</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest Dutch settlements within the
+present borough limits are not so old as
+the first hamlets on Manhattan. More than a
+score of years after the houses and forts of New
+Amsterdam looked out across the East River,
+the forest-crested heights of the west end of
+Long Island remained in undisturbed Indian
+occupation.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch settlers were deterred, rather than
+attracted, by this magnificent stretch of green
+woodlands extending along the high shore.
+The Holland people were not accustomed to
+timber clearing and therefore sought access to
+the island by the smoother meadow-lands of
+Gowanus, and afterwards to the north where the
+sloping grasslands about the Waalboght invited
+the settler to essay gardening without too
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>much preparation with the axe. The early
+Long Island farmers advanced on the territory
+of Brooklyn by flank attacks, seeking to turn
+the wings of the extended forest, rather than
+boldly to engage in the struggle with the
+densely wooded heights in front. These pioneers
+were thrifty, energetic Hollanders and
+Huguenots whose farms soon required regular
+communication with Manhattan. In 1642 a
+public ferry was established between the present
+foot of Fulton Street and a landing in
+Peck’s Slip. The houses clustered about this
+Long Island landing constituted a little settlement
+called The Ferry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus079" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VIEW IN BROOKLYN IN THE OLDEN TIMES.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p>
+
+<p>As the Indians were dispossessed from their
+maize-fields, the colonists found sites for a
+small village a mile or so inland. The modern
+visitor who comes up Fulton Street should
+stop about the corner of Hoyt and Smith
+Streets to locate this settlement and picture a
+primitive hamlet of small one-story frame
+cottages, sometimes surrounded by palisades
+for protection against attacks. The open
+lands were of small extent, with forest to the
+east and west, and streams running south into
+a wide morass, where is now Gowanus Canal.
+Undoubtedly the undrained land of this settlement,
+receiving copious moisture from the
+surrounding forests, contained many a marsh
+and fen like the homelands of Holland. So
+the settlers called it the brookland, or Breuckelen,
+after an ancient village of that name on
+the river Vecht in the Province of Utrecht.
+The records of old Breuckelen are traced by
+local antiquarians of Utrecht to the time of Tacitus.
+In its variant forms, Bracola, Broccke,
+Brocckede, Broicklede and Brocklandia, it describes
+a moist meadow-land. Or, as a Dutch
+writer declares, the town on the Vecht was
+called Breuckelen from the marshes (<i>a paludibus</i>).
+Its beautiful gardens and quaint castles,
+as the emigrants had beheld them when starting
+out from home, perhaps remained in the
+imagination of the Long Island settlers as an
+ideal of what their western home should some
+day become.</p>
+
+<p>Just as Utrecht and Amersfoort are near-by
+towns to Breuckelen in the Lowlands, so New
+Utrecht towards the south—near the present
+Fort Hamilton—and Amersfoort (Flatlands)
+attested the determination of these Netherlanders
+to preserve the associations of their
+origin between the Rhine and the Zuyder Zee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus080" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus080.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DENYSE’S FERRY.</p>
+      <p>THE FIRST PLACE AT WHICH THE BRITISH AND HESSIANS LANDED ON LONG ISLAND,
+    AUGUST 22, 1776. NOW FORT HAMILTON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span></p>
+
+<p>The life of these hard-working settlers was
+not all hardship. Their low houses with projecting
+roofs were strong and comfortable; the
+wide spacious fireplaces gave warmth to a
+generous hospitality that laid on the board
+wild turkeys and Gowanus oysters and other
+good eatables, followed after the repast by the
+long clay pipes, which, when over, left the
+weary toiler to be ushered to his night’s rest in
+a partitioned-off bunk or <i>betste</i>. But these
+material comforts were not all the results realized
+by the efforts of the first pioneers. These
+Dutch settlers were zealous for religion, liberty,
+and good schools; and from the first were not
+deficient in a commendable zeal for the public
+welfare.</p>
+
+<p>Under the form of Colonial government the
+burghers were invited to submit all difficulties
+to the Governor and council, who were fond of
+the exercise of a strong, minute, and careful
+paternalism. The country folk were not expected
+to intrude on the authorities their
+own ideas of liberty, but merely to obey loyally
+what good, old, obstinate, arbitrary Governor
+Stuyvesant should command. Yet even when
+he had spoken with the official concurrence
+of his council, the eager spirits in Breuckelen
+would often cavil, and boldly presume to come
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>over to Manhattan to stir up criticism and
+public remonstrance. So they were honored
+with a special order. The folk of Breuckelen,
+Amersfoort and Midwout (Flatbush) in 1653
+were directed to forbid their residents from attending
+political meetings in New Amsterdam.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the civic virtues were enforced
+in Breuckelen, and the good of the village put
+before the preference of a private citizen to
+retire from public office. The Governor would
+not allow any one to decline to serve in an official
+capacity. The schepen-elect of Breuckelen
+proposed not to continue in office for another
+term. He even said he would sooner go back
+to Holland than remain burdened by the duties
+of schepen. The Governor quickly took him
+at his word. The Sheriff was formally required
+to notify him of this order of the Governor
+which stated with remarkable clearness the
+obligation of good townsmen to the public and
+the penalty for its neglect:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“If you will not accept to serve as schepen for the welfare
+of the Village of Breuckelen, with others, your fellow
+residents, then you must prepare yourself to sail in
+the ship <i>King Solomon</i> for Holland, agreeably to your
+utterance.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span></p>
+
+<p>No further refusals to hold office appear to
+have embarrassed the council.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists of Breuckelen were specially
+solicitous for a meeting-house and domine.
+They insisted that they should have good
+measure in discourses and that if the services
+should be abbreviated by the preacher, then
+on their side no tithes should be forthcoming.
+The first meeting-house was begun in 1654 at
+Midwout (Flatbush). Soon they worshipped
+in the partly roofed building. After much difficulty
+and repeated applications to the Council
+it had been arranged that the Rev. Mr. Polhemus
+should have his morning discourse at
+Flatbush, with his evening service alternately
+at Midwout and in Breuckelen.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Stuyvesant may have fancied that
+he had composed the difficulty. Next winter,
+however, the Governor was presented with a
+further remonstrance against the cutting-short
+of these alternating evening devotions. They
+thus complained of this brief and scanty service:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Every fortnight on Sundays he comes here, only in
+the afternoon for a quarter of an hour, when he only gives
+us a prayer in lieu of sermon, by which we can receive
+very little instruction; while often, while one supposes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>the prayer or sermon (whichever name might be preferred
+for it) is beginning, then it is actually at an end, by
+which he contributes very little to the edification of his
+congregation.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">To modern ears, this seems a strange grievance
+for legislation.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Stuyvesant, however, admonished
+the Breuckelen folk to pay their full tithes.
+Doubtless he privately reminded Mr. Polhemus
+of his duties and obligations to give his people
+full service.</p>
+
+<p>In three years they obtained a domine of
+their own. The Rev. Henricus Selyns, a
+learned and devout young clergyman of a
+prominent Amsterdam family came to Breuckelen
+in 1660. At first his parishioners worshipped
+in a barn, but a meeting-house was
+soon erected. His spiritual labors and influence
+were successful, and the four years of
+Mr. Selyns’s ministrations were affectionately
+remembered. Compelled to return to Holland
+by the last illness of his father, he came to
+America and settled in New York eighteen
+years later. His warm admiration for Cotton
+Mather is attested by a graceful Latin poem
+appended to the later editions of the <i>Magnalia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Breuckelen was equally fortunate in a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>schoolmaster—Carel de Beauvois—a cultured French
+Protestant from Leyden, who was appointed
+in Breuckelen in 1661. Besides his duties, in
+the church, of precentor and Scripture reader,
+it was stipulated that:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“He shall properly, diligently, and industriously attend
+to the school, instill in the minds of the young the
+fear of the Lord, and set them a good example; to open
+the school with prayer and close with a Psalm, also to
+exercise the scholars in the questions in the <i>groat regulen</i>
+of the Rev. pious and learned father Do. Johannes Megapolensis,
+Minister of the gospel in N. Amsterdam.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Here was a hamlet of but thirty-one families
+who were not satisfied until they could listen
+to the ablest preaching of the day, and were
+also favored with superior educational facilities.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Dutch order was changing.
+The neighboring village of Gravesend was being
+settled by the English. From Connecticut
+came Quakers, who sowed the seeds of non-conformity
+and inculcated a new and strange
+doctrine, that taxes should not be levied to
+maintain the clergy, a principle especially attractive
+to those whose tithes were paid with a
+grudging hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus081" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus081.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BUSHWICK TOWN-HOUSE AND CHURCH, 1800.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span></p>
+
+<p>At the end of the Dutch régime there were
+four or five little scattered hamlets within the
+present borough. The Wallabout had the
+larger French and Huguenot population.
+Eastward the English settlers were coming
+into farming competition with their Dutch
+neighbors.</p>
+
+<p>There was no great alarm or disappointment
+manifested on Long Island when on a morning
+in August, 1664, a British fleet was found to
+have assembled in the Narrows. Colonial
+militia under the British flag from New England
+came through the Sound and encamped
+on the Breuckelen shore. On September 8,
+1664, New Amsterdam yielded, and Governor
+Nicolls raised the flag of Great Britain on the
+fort. Then New Amsterdam became New
+York; Long Island and Staten Island, and
+probably part of Westchester County, were
+made an English “shire,” and Breuckelen,
+after some changes of spelling, was known as
+“Brooklyn in the West Riding of Yorkshire.”</p>
+
+<p>This settlement of Dutch and Huguenots,
+maintained under the Colonial government of
+New Amsterdam, in the score of years before
+the British conquest had acquired a distinctive
+character. Contrary to a prevalent opinion,
+these first Dutch settlements, in a sound and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>vigorous sense, were essentially democratic. In
+the absence of class privileges—the spirit to
+refer all questions to the supreme consideration
+of the general welfare; to subordinate individual
+claims to the rights and advantage of the
+public—Breuckelen and Vliessingen (Flushing)
+compared favorably in civic life with contemporary
+villages in New England. As Holland
+had been dyked against the sea by close, unremitting,
+and intimate co-operation—a spirit
+further developed in the protracted struggle for
+independence—so the smaller Dutch colonies
+in New York, while they kept their agricultural
+character, retained a collective rather than an
+individual ideal, which tended to exclude none
+from equal social opportunities. They never
+had to struggle with the incubus of a modified
+feudalism, which, though inevitably breaking
+up, was leaving its impress of regard for rank
+and class privilege in the American colonies
+of British origin.</p>
+
+<p>Colonial life under British rule was marked
+by more rigid laws as the communities grew.
+The careful protection of common-lands was
+strictly attended to, especially the town forests
+of Brooklyn against the encroachment of
+those who would surreptitiously cut away the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>timber. Trustees of the common woodlands
+were appointed; but in the year 1702 these
+lands were equitably divided and all allotted to
+each householder in Brooklyn to insure their
+better protection.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually the English language was spoken
+in the churches and upon ceremonious occasions.
+A waggish tale of Domine Schoonmaker
+of Flatbush relates his difficulties in a
+wedding service. Fluent and eloquent in his
+mother tongue, he essayed the ceremony in
+English, with the manner, gestures, and all the
+courteous dignity of the old school. His
+English failed him at the very close of the
+service. Conscious of the literalness of his
+extemporized translation of the formula, he
+finished with a bow, adding with solemnity and
+modulated emphasis, “I pronounce you two to
+be <i>one beef</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>English customs gradually came in vogue.
+More aristocratic usages superseded the democracy
+of the Dutch settlers. Slavery existed
+in Brooklyn as in New York. Brick and
+stone buildings arose along Fulton Street.
+Twice, in 1745 and 1752, the Colonial legislature
+of the Province met in Brooklyn, on account of
+the prevalence of smallpox in New York.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span></p>
+
+<p>The rural character of the town is well
+illustrated by an event in 1759. A large bear
+then passed along the farms in South Brooklyn,
+and being pursued took to the water near Red
+Hook, where he was shot from a boat.</p>
+
+<p>The ethics of 1774 approved the aid of lotteries
+to build an orthodox church in Brooklyn,
+which the public were assured should be of no
+doubtful laxity, but a church conformable to
+the discipline of the Church of England, and under
+the patronage of Trinity Church, New York.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of amusements in 1774, New
+Yorkers came to Brooklyn for many of their
+sports. Here horse-races were run. In that
+year an ambitious innkeeper on “Tower
+Hill”—a site along the present Columbia
+Heights between Middagh and Cranberry
+Streets—announced that there would be a
+<i>bull baited</i> there every Thursday afternoon.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the Revolution, Brooklyn
+numbered between three and four thousand
+persons grouped in four neighborhoods. There
+were then three ferries to New York. At the
+old (Fulton) ferry was a famous tavern which
+figured often in the times of British occupation.
+The two principal villages were then
+called Brooklyn-church and Brooklyn-ferry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span></p>
+
+<p>At the first movements of the Patriot party
+in New England the people of Kings County
+were little stirred. Suffolk County, at the
+eastern end of Long Island, more readily responded
+to the first news from Massachusetts.
+After the battle of Lexington, Brooklynites
+assembled and passed resolutions and elected
+delegates to the Provincial Congress.</p>
+
+<p>The modern visitor to the Borough of
+Brooklyn has difficulty to realize that what is
+now densely built up, and covered by grading
+and asphalt, marks the battle-ground of one
+of the greatest engagements of the Revolution.
+The houses of Charlestown cover the
+battle-ground of Bunker Hill, but that was a
+struggle over a single redoubt, while Brooklyn
+is built upon a line of battle nearly three
+miles in length. In the Civil War, Northern
+people recall the great disaster of the
+first battle of Bull Run, fought with modern
+armies and improved weapons. Yet in that
+all-day conflict, with the disastrous rout and
+pursuit, the Union loss in killed, wounded and
+prisoners probably was not as great numerically
+as the loss suffered by the American
+forces in the half-day of fierce fighting in
+Brooklyn. The Federal forces at Bull Run
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span>suffered in killed, wounded, and missing 2896,
+while the patriot losses in this, the first pitched
+battle of the Revolution, were estimated at
+3300 by the British, of whom 1097 were prisoners
+(three being generals); and late American
+historians are inclined to accept this estimate
+as approximately correct.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1776, a formidable fleet
+assembled in the lower Bay of New York.
+These vessels bore from Nova Scotia the armies
+that had evacuated Boston, and another fleet
+of nine war vessels and thirty-five transports
+brought in the forces under Clinton that had
+been repulsed in the attack on Fort Moultrie
+at Charleston. At last, on the 12th of August
+arrived the Hessian forces in eighty-two transport-ships
+guarded by six war vessels. On
+board were 7800 Hessians and 1000 English
+guards.</p>
+
+<p>The observer at the Narrows must have
+daily beheld a naval pageant such as can no
+more be seen in modern warfare. From the
+first distant glimpse of the line of sails standing
+in for Sandy Hook, until they finally
+manœuvred to their crowded anchorage by
+Staten Island, the effect was most picturesque.
+It was not a fleet of dark, sullen sea-dogs,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>with only an inconspicuous hull built to
+carry a destructive armament. The coloring
+of these vessels against the green background
+of Staten Island in the olden days of oak and
+hemp would have delighted a painter. The
+upper works outside were sometimes dark blue
+or canary yellow, surmounted by waving lines
+of gilt. Below were black streaks running fore
+and aft near the water-line; as the ships slowly
+lifted in a seaway, they disclosed a white under-surface
+that must have made an admirable target
+for the opposing gunner. The grand air
+of the frigates was further enhanced by elaborate
+ornamentation with emblematic devices
+about the carved figure-head, and heavy gilded
+scrollwork above the stern-lights, and high
+stern-gallery. From the bluffs along the Narrows,
+the view down upon the decks would
+show that all inboard surfaces, even the gun-carriages
+and the inner side of portholes, were
+painted blood-red—so as not to have the carnage
+of battle too much <i>en évidence</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At one time over four hundred transports,
+guarded by thirty-seven men-of-war, had gathered.
+Lord Howe on the land, and his brother,
+Admiral Howe, on the sea were in joint command.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp69" id="illus082" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus082.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SECTION OF MAP OF BROOKLYN, 1776.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span></p>
+
+<p>The patriot forces had carefully entrenched
+a line of defensive works, laid out by General
+Nathaniel Greene. The good judgment with
+which these forts were placed was attested by
+the deliberate adoption of almost the same line
+of redoubts and forts in the subsequent defences
+of Brooklyn by the engineers in the campaign
+of 1814, when Brooklyn was again prepared
+to resist British attack.</p>
+
+<p>The fortifications of Brooklyn in 1776 extended
+in an irregular line from Fort Defiance
+at Red Hook opposite Governor’s Island
+across to Fort Box on Bergen’s Hill near the
+corner of Court Street and First Place. At
+the junction of Clinton and Atlantic Streets, or
+a little easterly, was a steep conical hill called
+the Ponkiesburgh, and on top, surmounting a
+line of spiral trenches, a redoubt, called Corkscrew
+Fort. Between Atlantic, Pacific, Nevins,
+and Bond Streets was a redoubt mounting
+five guns called Fort Greene. Thence the line
+ran zigzag across the present Fulton Street, to
+the west of the junction of Flatbush and Fulton
+Avenues, along the hill slope to Fort Putnam,
+on the eminence now called Fort Greene
+Park, a commanding height where were mounted
+five guns. The number of guns mounted upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>the works from Fort Putnam to Fort Defiance
+was thirty-five—mainly eighteen-pounders—an
+armament in part captured from Ticonderoga.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus083" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus083.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BROWER’S MILL, GOWANUS.</p>
+      <p>THE YELLOW MILL IS SEEN IN THE DISTANCE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>From this fort the line extended northwesterly
+to a
+spring at the
+verge of the Wallabout,
+near the
+corner of Flushing
+and Portland
+Avenues. This
+interior line of defence
+was nearly
+two miles long.
+Between these forts were lines of trenches further
+defended by trees and sharpened stakes,
+forming an abatis, in the construction of
+which the Continental woodsmen were always
+proficient. Within this line of defence was
+Fort Stirling, which was back near Columbia
+Heights.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult after a century of grading and
+building to conceive that an extensive morass
+then covered nearly all the lands south of the
+present Hamilton Avenue, save about the
+small island height at Red Hook. Gowanus,
+with several large ponds raised by Brower’s
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span>Mill-dam, flooded and made impassable nearly
+all the area extending from Fourth Avenue to
+Smith Street. This was crossed by a narrow
+causeway along Freeke’s Mill-pond. On the
+higher lands beyond, extending from Greenwood
+along Prospect Park towards East New
+York, were dense woodlands, that were only
+practicable for an advancing army by certain
+passes or narrow wood-roads. The principal
+route from the Narrows to Brooklyn was
+along the site of Third Avenue by a good road
+then known as the Shore Road.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of August 27, 1776, was fought
+almost entirely outside this line of fortifications.
+Knowing that the British forces had
+been moving towards Brooklyn from the Narrows,
+General Putnam had posted troops in detachments
+in order to check the hostile columns
+as they should come through the wood-roads
+and passes. It was natural to expect the principal
+British advance by the Shore Road, as
+there they would be at all times within supporting
+distance of the fleet.</p>
+
+<p>On August 26th the Hessians under de
+Heister had occupied Flatbush, and Lord
+Cornwallis had reached nearly to Flatlands.</p>
+
+<p>In the forenoon of the 27th, Stirling commanded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span>the patriot right, extending from the
+shore near the foot of Twenty-third Street up
+Greenwood Heights about to the corner of
+Fifth Avenue and Third Street. This position
+was to repel the expected attack by the route
+of the Shore Road. Sullivan commanded the
+centre, which was an irregular congeries of
+militia posted along the summits of hills in
+Prospect Park and across the Flatbush Road.
+Colonel Miles with the 1st Pennsylvania regiment
+occupied the hills near the Clove Road
+to the south of Bedford, with some Connecticut
+levies continuing the line still further eastward.
+Instead of a co-ordinated supporting line
+of battle, these dispositions were intended as
+little more than a body of skirmishers, too
+widely strung-out to be opposed to an actual
+attack.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of a movement of British
+troops at daylight on the Shore Road, and the
+evident efforts of the fleet to sail up the Bay,
+which the light wind and ebb tide prevented,
+indicated that the hardest fighting would be
+by the right under Stirling. The entire patriot
+force inside and without the entrenchments
+was 5500. The British force was over 16,000
+men. While the troops were facing each
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span>other along this position, a strong flanking
+column under Sir Henry Clinton, with Lord
+Howe the commander-in-chief, had stealthily
+marched from Flatbush to East New York, during
+the night, and had followed a sunken road
+through the present Cemetery of the Evergreens,
+called the Jamaica Pass. This was
+about five miles to the east of Sullivan’s position.
+Before daylight, at about a mile from
+the Pass, the column halted and sent forward a
+force which captured the American patrol and
+officers, and soon after a detachment secured
+the Pass. The light infantry advanced at the
+first appearance of day, and occupied the
+heights of Bushwick, followed by the guards
+with the field-pieces under Lord Percy, and
+the 49th regiment with four guns and the
+baggage brought up the rear.</p>
+
+<p>After breakfasting, the flanking column
+marched along the turnpike to Bedford, where
+they arrived at half-past eight o’clock; thence
+they advanced along the rear of Miles’s troops,
+who were unconscious that they were being
+surrounded.</p>
+
+<p>Fearfully outnumbered as they were, the
+Americans were now attacked in front by
+the Hessians advancing from Flatbush under
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span>General de Heister, and in the rear by this
+flanking column. The result was disastrous.
+Sullivan’s command was cut to pieces and
+himself captured. Terrible slaughter occurred
+in the woods and the slopes towards Fourth
+Avenue. The only escape not closed by the
+British was across the mill-dam and marshes
+of Gowanus.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Cornwallis was detached to attack
+Stirling’s line, which had still held its
+position on the western side of Prospect
+Heights. Desperate indeed was the plight
+of this devoted remnant of the army, outnumbered
+on all sides. General Grant, the British
+commander in front, had pressed forward
+(after having repeatedly been driven back)
+and finally surrounded and captured Atlee’s
+riflemen. Stirling gallantly determined to attack
+Cornwallis, and drive him back and so
+get an opportunity to cross by Brower’s Mill-dam
+to the defences of Fort Box. Here was
+the heroism of the day. Taking command
+of Smallwood’s gallant Maryland regiment and
+forming in the vicinity of Fifth Avenue and
+Tenth Street, Stirling led these brave young
+Marylanders three times in a charge on Cornwallis’s
+lines. Closing their ranks as they were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span>cut down by grape and canister, the Maryland
+onset drove the British back behind the stone
+Cortelyou house. Once they forced the gunners
+from their guns, but at last, overwhelmed
+by numbers, the survivors fell back, leaving 256
+killed out of 400. It was the sight of this brilliant
+charge and the spirited but frightfully unequal
+contest that caused Washington to wring
+his hands in anguish and say: “Good God!
+what brave fellows I must lose this day!”</p>
+
+<p>While these Marylanders gallantly sacrificed
+their lives to hold Cornwallis in check, a large
+portion of Stirling’s command crossed the
+Gowanus Creek and brought the tattered colors
+of Smallwood’s regiment and over twenty
+prisoners within the lines. The battle was
+over at noon. The bodies of the gallant Maryland
+heroes—the flower of the army—were
+afterward buried on a small knoll or island.
+Third Avenue runs across it, between Seventh
+and Eighth Streets, but its site is far below the
+present street level.</p>
+
+<p>In estimating the service of these Marylanders,
+it is to be recalled that they were
+young, never before under fire, and were led
+without their own colonel, who was detached
+the day before for a court-martial in New
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span>York. When the charges were made, the
+troops had already been several hours fighting,
+and had to re-form under fire, after it was plain
+that the battle was lost. The attacks were
+up an ascent, against superior numbers, strong
+artillery, and an overwhelming body of seasoned
+veterans. Even the assault and death
+of Montgomery at Quebec were not more
+gallant. Unlike that hopeless attack, the
+Marylanders accomplished their purpose by
+their sacrifice, and stopped the advance of
+Cornwallis. The brilliancy, dash, and steady
+persistence of this charge have not been properly
+recognized.</p>
+
+<p>After the repulse of the patriot army, the
+battle ceased. The prudence of Lord Howe
+would not permit the English army to move
+upon the entrenchments. Bunker Hill with
+its terrible memories was too recent.</p>
+
+<p>The next day, the 28th, Washington reinforced
+the Brooklyn troops, increasing their
+number to 9000. Among them were Colonel
+Glover’s battalion of fishermen and sailors from
+Salem and Marblehead. On that day heavy
+rain prevented an attack. In the afternoon
+the British began regular siege approaches
+towards Fort Putnam by a trench starting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>from the present Clinton Avenue near the
+corner of De Kalb Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>A council of war decided on evacuation.
+Even in this extremity Washington caused an
+elaborate statement of reasons to be drawn up
+as the grounds of his action. That night,
+aided by the dense fog, the entire body were
+rowed over by Colonel Glover’s Marblehead
+boatmen. The skill and admirable mastery of
+detail in this retreat were Washington’s. For
+many hours he sat on his horse at the ferry,
+patiently superintending the embarkation. At
+least on one occasion he had to check a rush
+of impetuous and alarmed men from crowding
+into the boats. Finally with the last crew he
+embarked. The retreat of the entire force
+from Long Island was safely effected. At four
+o’clock only empty trenches were revealed to
+the invaders.</p>
+
+<p>In Prospect Park is a monument to the
+heroism of this gallant Maryland regiment.
+At different streets are memorial tablets to
+mark the lines of defence. Perhaps some day
+a statue of Washington, near the old ferry,
+will mark the spot where his prudence and skill
+saved the American Army.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus084" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus084.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MONUMENT TO MARYLAND’S “400.”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span></p>
+
+<p>During the British occupation the noble forests
+of Brooklyn were destroyed. One may
+search in vain for any oaks or elms about the
+City that are really ancient.</p>
+
+<p>The mention of the Wallabout and the present
+site of the Navy Yard recall some of the
+most painful memories of our history—the
+horrors of the prison-ships. Few indeed are
+the Revolutionary families that have not had
+deep sorrows connected with the ships <i>Whitby</i>,
+<i>Good Hope</i>, <i>Old Jersey</i>, <i>John</i>, <i>Falmouth</i>, and
+other hulks, where the martyrs ended their
+severe captivity. The bodies of the victims—having
+been removed from time to time—are
+now, it is hoped, in their final resting-place
+on the westerly front of Fort Greene
+Park opposite the Plaza. As yet no monument,
+not even an inscription, marks the spot
+where were reverently laid the bones of 11,500
+martyrs to American liberty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus085" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus085.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NAVY YARD. IN FOREGROUND 5.5-INCH B.-L. GUN, WITH MOUNT
+    AND SHIELD, TAKEN FROM SPANISH CRUISER “VIZCAYA” AFTER DESTRUCTION OF
+    SPANISH FLEET JULY 3, 1898, ALSO SUBMARINE MINE FROM GUANTANAMO.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Navy Yard, starting in 1824, has become
+the foremost in the country. Here are gathered
+trophies of the Nation’s battles on many seas.
+In a little enclosure near the Commandant’s
+office, are grouped captured ordnance, with a
+howitzer that did service under Hull on the
+<i>Constitution</i>. Trophies from the Spanish war
+have lately been added to this collection. Here
+are the guns taken from the burnt and shattered
+<i>Almirante Oquendo</i> and <i>Vizcaya</i>, and by them
+is mounted a submarine contact mine from the
+defences of Guantanamo, which the <i>Texas</i>
+broke adrift without exploding the deadly contents.
+Not far away was built the ill-fated
+battleship <i>Maine</i>. In these docks were outfitted
+many of the fleet that fought the battle of
+Santiago. In the Spanish war, the Brooklyn
+Navy Yard was where most of the yachts and
+merchant steamers, purchased in emergency,
+were converted into cruisers. Under Naval
+Constructor Bowles, the unparalleled record
+was made in 1898 of thirty-four vessels thus
+converted and fitted out for service in the auxiliary
+navy in ninety-three days!</p>
+
+<p>At the southern shore of the enlarged
+Brooklyn are the forts and batteries defending
+this part of Long Island. Under the modern
+defences of Fort Hamilton, still is preserved
+Fort Lafayette, an island structure of masonry,
+valueless for war, but ever to be kept for its
+associations. Built in 1812 to defend the Narrows,
+its name was changed at the time of Lafayette’s
+return in 1824. In 1861, it was used
+to imprison those from Maryland and the border
+States, whose loyalty the Federal Administration
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>distrusted. When the Judges of Brooklyn
+issued writs of <i>habeas corpus</i> to bring up
+these political suspects, and inquire into the
+justice of their captivity, the remedy was to
+hurry the prisoners to Fort Warren in Boston
+Harbor, beyond the reach of the process of
+New York courts.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus086" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus086.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FORT LAFAYETTE, N. Y. NARROWS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Here also, in 1862, a division commander of
+McClellan’s army was held prisoner. General
+Charles P. Stone, a graduate of West Point,
+was blamed for the disaster at Ball’s Bluff.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>By secret orders of Secretary Stanton, he was
+arrested at midnight, hurried to New York,
+and kept forty-nine days in solitary confinement
+in Fort Lafayette, without trial, charges,
+or answer to his appeals for a hearing! Congress
+finally vindicated him and set him free,
+after one hundred and eighty-nine days’ imprisonment.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus087" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus087.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BROOKLYN INSTITUTE MUSEUM.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The interior of the Fort was burned out in
+the winter of 1869. Its armament has never
+been replaced. The dark red circular walls
+stand at the opposite end of the Bay from the
+Statue of Liberty, and furnish an impressive
+contrast, in their memories of an American
+Bastille.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus088" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus088.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HENRY WARD BEECHER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span></p>
+
+<p>On the completion of the new Shore Road,
+following the contour of the Narrows, an admirable
+approach upon the bluff overlooking
+the Bay will lead the visitor to this Golden
+Gate of the commerce of New York.</p>
+
+<p>The traditions of home rule, local self-government,
+and civic conscience have come down
+from the early Brooklyn agitations against the
+government of Peter Stuyvesant. Brooklynites
+before consolidation with the greater city
+had a liberal home-rule charter that was first
+administered under Mayor Seth Low. Through
+his government, the “Brooklyn plan” became
+the ideal of other municipalities.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient zeal for education and schools
+has not declined. Besides the college, academy,
+and public schools, two Brooklyn institutions
+distinctively illustrate the modern trend
+of popular municipal education. The Pratt
+Institute, with its wide and helpful teaching in
+the industrial arts, is perhaps the most famous
+of all Brooklyn benevolences. But the enlarged
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span>and expanding Brooklyn Institute, with its
+multiform departments, its generous field of
+lectureships, and its museum, is destined to
+become the model for organizations planned
+to diffuse popular culture in cities.</p>
+
+<p>The regard of Brooklyn for the Church and
+the influence of the clergy on the life of
+Brooklyn are proverbial. To recall the names
+of Brooklyn’s clergy is to mention many leaders
+of the American pulpit. Not a little of their
+inspiration has come from the influence and
+history of Brooklyn itself. In its growth from
+village to city, and then to borough, it has
+developed along the lines of equality of social
+opportunity, and thus unconsciously has been
+reaping the fruits of the lives and examples of
+its Dutch founders.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus089" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus089.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF BROOKLYN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PRINCETON">PRINCETON</h2>
+
+<p class="center">PLANTING AND TILLING</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By WILLIAM M. SLOANE</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Princeton is by no means one of the
+oldest settlements in the State of New
+Jersey, and yet it has a history of more than
+two centuries, the first homestead having been
+established there in 1682. Although situated
+midway, or nearly so, between two of the
+largest Colonial towns, and nearly equidistant
+from the head of navigation on two important
+streams, the Raritan and the Delaware, it remained
+a quiet and unimportant hamlet for
+over half a century. Most of the travel between
+New York and Philadelphia went by
+way of Perth Amboy and Camden; there was
+little to interrupt the humble labors of the
+settlers in clearing the forest and tilling the
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the roll-call of Princeton’s pioneers reveals
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>names which are now synonymous with
+patriotism and famous wherever American history
+is studied: Stockton, Paterson, Boudinot,
+Randolph, and others almost as renowned.
+Their instinctive Americanism is first recorded
+in a successful protest to the provincial authorities
+against the quartering of British troops
+in their humble homes during the French and
+Indian War.</p>
+
+<p>October 22, 1746, the College of New Jersey
+was chartered by Governor Hamilton, an
+act notable in American history because the
+first of its kind performed without authorization
+from England or the consent even of
+the provincial legislature. The institution was
+opened under President Dickinson in May,
+1747, at Elizabethtown. After his death,
+which occurred in October of the same year,
+the few students were transferred to Newark
+and put under the care of the Rev. Aaron
+Burr, one of the twelve trustees. On the
+fourteenth of the following September, Jonathan
+Belcher, just appointed governor, granted
+a new charter fuller and more formal than the
+first. His interest in the college was from
+the outset very great, and his opinion, already
+formed, that Princeton was the most desirable
+spot for its permanent site ultimately prevailed,
+the citizens of the hamlet proving more active
+and liberal than those of New Brunswick, already
+a good-sized town, to which likewise
+terms were proposed “for fixing the college in
+that place.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus090" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus090.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“THE LINE OF HISTORIC CATALPAS.”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span></p>
+
+<p>Thereafter the little settlement grew rapidly
+and soon became a considerable village. In
+1756 the new buildings were virtually completed
+and the college was transferred to its
+future home. Notable men from throughout
+the State and from the cities of New York
+and Philadelphia became interested in the
+new seat of learning. More noteworthy still
+were those who taught and those who studied
+in it. Within a decade after the completion
+of Nassau Hall the names of Burr, Edwards,
+Witherspoon, of Livingston, Rush and Ellsworth,
+of James Manning, Luther Martin and
+Nathaniel Niles became Princeton names.
+The stream of influential patronage once
+started continued to flow until long after the
+Revolution. It included men from New England
+on the one hand, and from the South on
+the other, with, of course, a powerful element
+from the Middle States.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus091" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus091.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>A VIEW OF THE FRONT CAMPUS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span></p>
+
+<p>Princeton College is the child of Yale. But
+the parting was not entirely amicable. Theological
+controversy grew very fierce, even for
+the Connecticut Valley, in the days of Whitefield’s
+preaching. The conservatives or Old
+Lights held the reins and were not kindly disposed
+toward the innovators or New Lights.
+The trouble culminated in the expulsion from
+Yale of David Brainerd because, defying the
+Faculty’s express command, he attended New
+Light meetings and would not profess penitence
+for his fault. This occurred in 1739;
+thereafter an even stronger feeling of discontent
+smouldered among the liberal Calvinists
+until finally the way was clear for founding a
+new training-school for the ministry and the
+learned professions on broad and generous
+lines. Brainerd became a most successful and
+famous missionary. He was betrothed to the
+daughter of Jonathan Edwards and died at her
+father’s house, a victim of his own laborious
+and devoted life. This was less than a year after
+the College of New Jersey had been founded by
+a body of liberal-minded men of all orthodox
+denominations, under the influence of a few
+leaders who sympathized with both Brainerd
+and the Edwards theology. The first charter
+was granted by an Episcopalian governor to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>four Presbyterian clergymen, and one of the
+original trustees was a Quaker. Governor
+Belcher, who enlarged the charter and made
+the College “his adopted daughter,” was a
+man of the most catholic feeling. Fourteen
+of the trustees under the permanent constitution
+were Presbyterian clergymen, an arrangement
+corresponding to the similar one whereby
+the majority of the governing body of Yale
+was composed of Congregational ministers.
+This wise guardianship has kept the two universities
+true to their traditions, and the flourishing
+condition of both is the strongest proof anywhere
+afforded that temporal affairs do not
+necessarily suffer when committed to the
+charge of spiritual advisers. Considerable
+sums of money were raised in England by the
+personal solicitation of Tennent and Davies,
+two clergymen sent out for the purpose by
+the Trustees. The ten laymen of the first
+Princeton board represented various orthodox
+denominations, including Episcopalians and
+Quakers. There is not a syllable in the charter
+concerning creeds, confessions, or religious
+tests. It is very significant of the vast improvement
+in public morality that a college
+founded under such auspices a hundred and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span>fifty years ago was partly endowed and supported
+by lotteries authorized and drawn both
+in Connecticut and New Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>From the day when the College was installed
+in its grand new home, history-making went on
+apace in Princeton. Nassau Hall was a majestic
+building for those days; distinguished
+foreign visitors to America all noted its dimensions
+and architecture in their written accounts
+of travel. Indeed, even now, with the tasteless
+alterations of chimneys, roofs and towers
+made necessary by fire and carried through
+with ruthless economy, it may be considered
+one of the great monumental college buildings
+in America. It is, however, far more
+than this; we assert without fear of contradiction
+that it has no peer as the most historic
+university pile in the world. This contention
+rests on the fact that it saw the discomfiture of
+the British at the ebb-tide of the American rebellion,
+harbored the Government of the United
+States in its critical moments and cradled the
+Constitution-makers of the greatest existing
+republic. No other university hall has been
+by turns fortress and barrack, legislative chamber
+and political nursery in the birththroes of
+any land comparable to our land.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span></p>
+
+<p>The building was designed to be complete
+in itself; it contained lodgings for a hundred
+and forty-seven students, with a refectory,
+library and chapel. The class which entered
+under Dickinson, the first president, had six
+members, of whom five became clergymen.
+His untimely death a year after his election
+made his administration the shortest but one
+in the College history. During the ten years
+of Burr’s tenure of office (1747-1757) the total
+number of students was a hundred and fourteen;
+half of them entered the ministry. The
+short presidency of Jonathan Edwards lasted
+but a few months. It gave the glory of his
+name, that of America’s greatest metaphysician,
+to the College, the sacred memories of his residence
+to the venerable mansion now occupied
+by the Dean, and the hallowed custody of his
+mortal remains to the Princeton graveyard, a
+spot to which thousands have made their pilgrimage
+for the sake of his great renown. In
+this enclosure he lies beside his son-in-law,
+the Rev. Aaron Burr, who was his predecessor.
+At his feet are the ashes of the brilliant and erratic
+grandson, the Aaron Burr so well known
+to students of American history. President
+Davies, who followed Edwards, held his office
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span>for only two years, and was succeeded by Finley
+who presided for five. Under the latter
+the number of students present at one time
+rose to one hundred
+and twenty.
+All told, a hundred
+and thirty
+sat under his instruction,
+and of
+these less than
+half, fifty-nine,
+became clergymen.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus092" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus092.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOHN WITHERSPOON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This tendency
+to send fewer
+and fewer men
+into the ministry
+is highly
+significant. It
+reached its climax under the next president—the
+great Scotchman whose name is among the
+most honored in the history of his adopted
+country—John Witherspoon. His incumbency
+was coincident with the Revolutionary epoch,
+lasting from 1768 to 1794. In those twenty-six
+years four hundred and sixty-nine young men
+graduated from the College; of these, only
+a hundred and fourteen, less than a quarter,
+became clergymen, an average of between four
+and five a year. This phenomenon was due to
+the fact that Witherspoon, though lecturing
+on Divinity like his predecessors, was vastly
+more interested in political than in religious philosophy.
+So notorious was this fact that many
+a pious youth bent on entering the ministry
+passed the very doors of liberal Princeton to
+seek the intense atmosphere of Yale orthodoxy,
+while many a boy patriot from New England
+came hither to seek the distinction of being
+taught by Dr. Witherspoon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus093" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus093.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT ROCKY HILL, N. J.
+    (NEAR PRINCETON.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span></p>
+
+<p>The first eight years of Witherspoon’s presidency
+embraced the period of political ferment
+in the Colonies which ushered in the War
+of the Revolution. From the very beginning
+of his residence in America, the new president
+espoused the Colonial cause in every conflict
+with Great Britain; he was soon accounted
+“as high a son of liberty as any man in
+America.” Not content with enlarging and
+improving the College course, he collected
+funds throughout the Colonies from Boston to
+Charleston, and even laid Jamaica under contribution
+to fill the depleted College chest.
+From the pulpit of the old First Church his
+voice rang out in denunciation of the English
+administration, until in his native land he was
+branded as a rebel and a traitor. The spread
+of the Reformation was more largely due to
+the fact that Luther was a professor in the
+University of Wittenberg than to any other
+single cause; the adherence to the Revolution
+of the powerful Scotch and Scotch-Irish element
+in the Colonies was chiefly if not entirely
+secured by the teachings of John Witherspoon
+from his professor’s chair in Nassau Hall. To
+him and John Dickinson, author of the <i>Farmer’s
+Letters</i>, belongs the credit of having convinced
+the sober middle classes of the great middle
+Colonies that the breach with England was not
+merely inevitable, but just and to their interest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus094" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus094.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MORVEN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span></p>
+
+<p>But Witherspoon was more than a teacher,
+he was a practical statesman. His country-seat
+was a farm on the southern slope of Rocky
+Hill, about a mile due north of Nassau Hall.
+Its solid stone walls still bear the classic name
+which he gave it, of Tusculum. In his hours
+of retirement at that beloved home he seems
+to have brooded more on the rights of man
+than on human depravity, more on law than on
+theology, more on Providence in His present
+dealings with men than on the remoter meanings
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span>of God’s Word. In the convention which
+framed the constitution of New Jersey, he
+amazed the other delegates by his technical
+knowledge of administration and led in their
+constructive labors; he assisted in the overthrow
+of William Franklin, the royal governor;
+was elected to the Continental Congress,
+and in the critical hour spurred on the lagging
+members who hesitated to take the fatal step
+of authorizing their president and secretary to
+sign and issue the Declaration of Independence.
+With solemn emphasis he declared:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“For my own part, of property I have some, of reputation
+more. That reputation is staked, that property is
+pledged on the issue of this contest; and although these
+gray hairs must soon descend into the sepulchre, I would
+infinitely rather that they descend thither by the hand of
+the executioner, than desert at this crisis the sacred
+cause of my country.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The word “God” occurs but once in that
+famous document. Jefferson wrote it with a
+small “g.” Witherspoon was the solitary
+clergyman among the signers; neither he nor
+his neighbor, friend, and supporter, Richard
+Stockton, of Morven, who was a member of his
+church, set their hands the less firmly to sign
+the paper. Finally, Witherspoon was a member
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span>of the secret committee of Congress which
+really found the means of moral and material
+support for the war down to its close. He was
+chosen in the dark hours of November, 1776,
+to confer with Washington on the military
+crisis; he was a member, with Richard Henry
+Lee and John Adams, of the committee appointed
+that same winter to fire the drooping
+spirits of the rebels when Congress was driven
+from Philadelphia to Baltimore. He was a
+member, too, of the boards of war and finance,
+wrote state papers on the currency, and framed
+many of the most important bills passed by the
+Continental Congress. It was not unnatural
+that when, at the close of the war, Congress
+was terrified by unpaid and unruly Continentals
+battering at its doors in Philadelphia, it should
+seek refuge and council, as it did, in John
+Witherspoon’s college.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it happened that Nassau Hall became
+one of the hearthstones on which the fires of
+patriotism burned brightest. From 1766 to
+1776 there were graduated two hundred and
+thirty young Americans. What their temper
+and feeling must have been may be judged
+from the names of those among them who
+afterwards became eminent in public life. Ephraim
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>Brevard, Pierrepont Edwards, Churchill
+Houston, John Henry, John Beatty, James
+Linn, Frederick Frelinghuysen, Gunning Bedford,
+Hugh Brackinridge, Philip Freneau,
+James Madison, Aaron Burr, Henry Lee,
+Aaron Ogden, Brockholst Livingston, and
+Wm. Richardson Davie. Those ten years
+produced twelve Princetonians who sat in the
+Continental Congress, six who sat in the
+Constitutional Convention, one President of
+the United States, one Vice-President, twenty-four
+members of Congress, three Judges of the
+Supreme Court, one Secretary of State, one
+Postmaster-General, three Attorneys-General,
+and two foreign ministers. It may well be
+supposed that the clergymen who were their
+comrades in those days of ferment were, like
+their great teacher, no opponents of political
+preaching. The influence of such a body of
+young men, when young men seized and held
+the reins, was incalculable.</p>
+
+<p>“We have no public news,” writes James
+Madison from Princeton on July 23, 1770, to
+his friend, Thomas Martin,</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">“but the base conduct of the merchants in New York in
+breaking through their spirited resolutions not to import;
+a distinct account of which, I suppose, will be in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>Virginia <i>Gazette</i> before this arrives. The letter to the
+merchants in Philadelphia, requesting their concurrence,
+was lately burned by the students of this place in the
+college yard, all of them appearing in their black gowns
+and the bell tolling.... There are about 115
+in the College and in the Grammar School, all of them
+in American cloth.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>“Last week, to show our patriotism,” wrote
+in 1774 another Princeton student, Charles
+Beatty,</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">“we gathered all the steward’s winter store of tea, and
+having made a fire in the campus we there burnt near a
+dozen pounds, tolled the bell, and made many spirited
+resolves. But this was not all. Poor Mr. Hutchinson’s
+effigy shared the same fate with the tea, having a tea-canister
+tied about his neck.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus095" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus095.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>RICHARD STOCKTON</p>
+      <p>“THE SIGNER”.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>With such a nursery of patriotism at its very
+hub, the temper of the surrounding community
+can easily be pictured. The proposition
+for a provincial congress came from Princeton.
+John Hart, a farmer from the neighboring
+township of Hopewell, and Abraham
+Clark, a farmer’s son from the neighboring
+county, were associated with graduates from
+Princeton College and delegates from Princeton
+town in conducting its deliberations. Both
+were made delegates to the Continental Congress
+and both, along with Witherspoon and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span>Stockton, were signers of the Declaration of
+Independence. Even Francis Hopkinson, the
+fifth signer for this State, a Philadelphian in
+reality, though a temporary resident of Bordentown,
+was, as the friend and co-worker of
+Freneau and Brackinridge, intimately associated
+with Princeton influence. When rebellion
+was finally in full swing, the Committee of
+Safety for New Jersey held its sessions here,
+probably in Nassau Hall, possibly in the famous
+tavern. It is well known that neither the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span>Continental Army nor the people of the United
+States at large were profoundly impressed by
+the Declaration of Independence. This was
+not the case in Princeton, for the correspondent
+of a Philadelphia paper wrote that on
+July 9, 1776, “Nassau Hall was grandly illuminated
+and independency proclaimed under a
+triple volley of musketry, and universal acclamation
+for the prosperity of the United States,
+with the greatest decorum.”</p>
+
+<p>Seven days previous to this demonstration,
+the Provincial Congress, sitting at Trenton,
+had adopted a new State constitution; nine
+days later the first Legislature of the State assembled
+in Nassau Hall—the College library
+room—and chose Livingston governor. They
+continued more or less intermittently in session
+until the following October after the invasion
+of the State by British forces. Before the
+invaders they fled to Trenton, then to Burlington,
+to Pittstown, and finally to Haddonfield.
+After the battles of Princeton and
+Trenton they promptly returned to their first
+seat and resumed their sessions.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The storm of war broke upon Princeton early
+in December of the same year, 1776. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>British Army, landed from Howe’s fleet in New
+York Bay, had entirely worsted the American
+forces. Brooklyn, New York, Fort Washington
+with Fort Lee had been successively abandoned,
+and Washington in his memorable retreat
+across this State reached Princeton on
+the first of December. Stirling, with one
+thousand two hundred Continentals, was left
+as a rear-guard, while the Commander-in-Chief
+with the rest, one thousand eight hundred, and
+his stores, pushed on to Trenton, whence he
+crossed in safety to the right bank of the Delaware.
+On the seventh, Cornwallis entered
+Princeton at the head of six thousand Anglo-Hessian
+veterans, driving Stirling before him.
+The invaders were quartered in the College and
+in the church. Both Tusculum and Morven,
+the estates of the arch-rebels Witherspoon and
+Stockton, were pillaged, and the new house of
+Sergeant was burnt. All the neighboring
+farms were laid under contribution for forage.</p>
+
+<p>Popular disaffection followed in the course
+of Washington’s retreat. Large numbers of
+the people and many of the State officials accepted
+the English offers of amnesty. The
+patriots were compelled to abandon their
+homes and flee across the Delaware. Two regiments
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>were left by Cornwallis in Princeton as
+a garrison. The rest of his troops were established
+in winter quarters at New Brunswick,
+Trenton and Bordentown. Washington’s thin
+and starving line stretched along the Delaware
+from Coryell’s Ferry to Bristol. Congress fled
+to Baltimore. Putnam, with no confidence in
+Washington’s ability even to hold his ground,
+was making ready for a desperate defence of
+Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p>There was as yet no French alliance, no adequate
+supply of money raised either at home
+or abroad, no regular or even semi-regular
+army,—nothing, apparently, but a disorderly
+little rebellion; for the first promise of constancy
+in New England and of regular support
+for a considerable force of volunteers had had
+as yet no fulfilment. The English felt that
+the early ardor of radical and noisy rebels
+would fade like a mist before Howe’s success;
+Canada was lost; New York as far as the
+Highlands was in British hands; so also were
+New Jersey and Long Island, which latter virtually
+controlled Connecticut. Howe believed
+the rebellion was broken; Cornwallis had engaged
+passage to return home.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus096" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus096.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HALL IN THE MORVEN HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span></p>
+
+<p>While the British were lulled into security,
+Washington and the patriots, though desperate,
+were undaunted. A well considered and
+daring plan for a decisive sally from their lines
+was formed and carried to a successful issue.
+On Christmas night two thousand four hundred
+men were ferried over the Delaware nine
+miles above Trenton; the crossing was most
+dangerous, owing to the swollen waters and
+the floating ice; the ensuing march was made
+in the teeth of a dreadful storm. The affair at
+Trenton was scarcely a battle, it was rather a
+surprise; the one thousand two hundred Hessians
+were taken unawares and only a hundred
+and sixty-two escaped; nearly a thousand were
+captured. What made it a great event was
+its electrical effect in restoring courage to
+patriots everywhere, together with the inestimable
+value to Washington’s troops of the captured
+stores and arms. He did not occupy
+the place at all, but returned immediately to
+his encampment on the other shore to
+refit.</p>
+
+<p>The ensuing week was certainly the most
+remarkable of the Revolution. The English in
+New York were thrown into consternation.
+Cornwallis hastened back to Princeton, where
+he collected between seven and eight thousand
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>men, the flower of the British army. Washington’s
+force, on the other hand, was reinforced
+with a speed and zeal bordering on the
+miraculous. Three thousand volunteers came
+in from the neighborhood and from Philadelphia.
+The term of service for nine hundred
+of his men would expire on New Year’s day;
+these were easily induced, in the new turn of
+affairs, to remain six weeks longer. Washington
+and John Stark both pledged their
+private fortunes and Robert Morris raised
+fifty thousand dollars in Philadelphia. The
+mourning of the patriots throughout the Middle
+States was changed into rejoicing.</p>
+
+<p>On the thirtieth of December the American
+army began to recross the Delaware; the
+movement was slow and difficult owing to the
+ice, but was completed the following day. On
+January 1, 1777, Washington wrote from Trenton
+that he had about two thousand two hundred
+men with him, that Mifflin had about one
+thousand eight hundred men at Bordentown
+on the right wing and that Cadwalader had
+about as many more at Crosswicks, some miles
+to the east. He thought that no more than
+one thousand eight hundred of those who
+passed the river with himself were available
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span>for fighting, but he intended to “pursue the
+enemy and break up their quarters.”</p>
+
+<p>Next day Cornwallis, leaving three regiments
+and a company of cavalry at Princeton,
+set out by the old “King’s Highway” for
+Trenton. At Maidenhead, now Lawrenceville,
+there was a skirmish between his van and the
+American outposts; thence for over five miles
+his march was harassed by irregular bodies of
+his foe, General Hand being stationed in command
+of a detachment at Shabbakong creek,
+and General Greene about a mile this side of
+Trenton. It was four o’clock, and therefore
+late in the short winter day when the English
+General reached the outskirts of the city.
+There stood Washington himself with a few
+more detachments, ready still further to delay
+the British march through the town. Withdrawing
+slowly, the last Continental crossed
+the bridge over the Assanpink in safety, to fall
+behind earthworks, which in anticipation of the
+event had been thrown up and fortified with
+batteries on the high banks behind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus097" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus097.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BATTLE OF PRINCETON—DEATH OF MERCER.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PAINTING BY COL. J. TRUMBULL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span></p>
+
+<p>The British attacked at once, but were repulsed;
+undismayed they pressed on again,
+and again they were driven back across the
+narrow stream. The spirited conflict continued
+until nightfall, when the assailants
+finally gave up and withdrew to bivouac,
+hoping to renew the fight next morning. In
+this affair on the Assanpink about a hundred
+and fifty, mostly British, were killed. Cornwallis
+dispatched messengers to summon the
+men he had left at Maidenhead and Princeton,
+determined if possible to surround, overwhelm
+and annihilate Washington next day. But the
+battle on the Assanpink was destined to be the
+only real fighting in Trenton. Washington had
+in mind the strategic move which rendered this
+campaign one of his greatest, if not his very
+greatest. He determined to outflank his foe
+by a circuitous march to Princeton over the
+unguarded road on the south side of the
+Assanpink.</p>
+
+<p>The night was dark and cold; the camp-fires
+of both lines burned strong and bright.
+Behind those of Cornwallis there was a bustle
+of preparation for the next day’s battle; behind
+those of Washington there was a stealthy
+making ready for retreat. The baggage was
+packed and dispatched to Burlington; a few
+men were detached to keep the fires well fed
+and clear; the rest silently stole away about
+midnight. Their march was long, between
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span>sixteen and eighteen miles, and difficult because
+the frost had turned the mud on the
+roads into hummocks. But at sunrise on the
+third of January the head of the column had
+crossed Stony Brook by the bridge on the
+Quaker road, and stood about a mile and three-quarters
+from Princeton, awaiting the result of
+a council of war. They were masked by the
+piece of woods which is still standing behind
+the Quaker meeting-house. It was determined
+that Washington with the main column should
+march across the fields, through a kind of
+depression in the rolling land intervening between
+the meeting-house and Princeton, in
+order to reach the town as quickly as possible.
+Mercer, with three hundred and fifty men and
+two field-pieces, was to follow the road half a
+mile farther to its junction with the King’s
+Highway, and there blow up the upper bridge
+over Stony Brook, that by which Cornwallis’s
+reserve, marching to Trenton, must cross the
+stream. This would likewise detain Cornwallis
+himself on his return in pursuit.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">There were three actions in the battle of
+Princeton. Two of the three English regiments
+left in reserve at Princeton were under
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span>way betimes to join Cornwallis at Trenton.
+One of these under Colonel Mawhood, with
+three companies of horse, had already crossed
+Stony Brook and had climbed the hill beyond,
+before they descried Mercer following the road
+in the valley below; the other was half a
+mile behind, north of the stream. Mawhood
+quickly turned back and, uniting the two, engaged
+Mercer. The Americans were armed
+with rifles which had no bayonets, and although
+nearly equal in number to the enemy they
+were first slowly then rapidly driven up the
+hill to the ridge south of the King’s Highway
+and east of the Quaker road. They stood
+firm before the firing of the English, but yielded
+when the enemy charged bayonets. In this
+encounter Mercer was severely wounded and
+left for dead. Many other officers were likewise
+wounded as they hung back, striving to
+rally the flying troops.</p>
+
+<p>Washington, hearing the firing, stopped
+immediately and, leaving the rest of his column
+to follow their line of march, put himself
+at the head of the Pennsylvania volunteers
+and wheeled. Summoning two pieces of artillery
+he turned to join the retreating forces of
+Mercer. The British reached the crest of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span>hill in pursuit before they saw Washington’s
+column. The sight brought them to a halt,
+and while they formed their artillery came
+up. It seemed to Washington a most critical
+moment. In an instant Mercer’s command
+was fused with his own men, and placing himself
+well out before the line he gave the order
+to advance. There was no halt until the
+Commander himself was within thirty yards of
+the foe; at that instant both lines volleyed
+simultaneously. The fire was hasty and ineffective.
+Washington, as if by a miracle, was
+unscathed. As the smoke blew away, an
+American brigade came in under Hitchcock,
+while Hand with his riflemen attacked the
+British flank. In a few moments Mawhood
+gave up the fight; his troops, after a few brave
+efforts, broke and retreated over the hill up the
+valley of Stony Brook. The bridge was then
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the head of the American column
+had reached the outskirts of Princeton. There,
+on the edge of the ravine now known as Springdale,
+was posted still a third British force composed
+of soldiers from the 40th and 55th Line.
+The Americans, with Stark at their head,
+attacked and drove them back as far as Nassau
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>Hall, into which the fugitives hastily threw
+themselves. From the windows scattered
+remnants of their regiments could be seen
+fleeing through fields and byways toward New
+Brunswick. The American artillery began to
+play on the walls of the building; one ball, it
+is said, crashed through the roof and tore from
+its frame the portrait of George II., hanging
+in the Prayer Hall; another is still imbedded in
+the venerable walls. A Princeton militiaman,
+with the assistance of his neighbors, finally burst
+the door and the little garrison surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>When Donop retreated from Bordentown to
+Princeton after the battle of Trenton, he threw
+up an arrow-head breastwork at the point not
+far from where Mercer and Stockton Streets
+now join; on this still lay a cannon of the size
+known as a thirty-two pounder, the carriage of
+which was dismantled. It was early morning
+when Cornwallis became aware that his expected
+battle would not be fought at Trenton;
+the roar of artillery gave him the terrible assurance
+that the blow had been struck on his
+weakened flank,—that his precious stores at
+New Brunswick were in danger. Swiftly he
+issued the necessary orders and appeared at
+the west end of the town on the King’s Highway,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span>just as Washington was leaving Princeton,
+his van having been delayed in crossing
+Stony Brook. The citizens had loaded the gun
+in the breastwork and on the approach of the
+intruders they fired it. This utterly deceived
+the English generals, for they thought themselves
+facing a well-manned battery. It was
+some time, tradition says an hour, before they
+were undeceived and in that precious interval
+Washington collected his army and marched
+away. His forces were too weak to risk the
+venture of seizing New Brunswick, even temporarily;
+accordingly he turned northwestward
+and reached Morristown in safety. There and
+at Middlebrook his headquarters practically
+remained for the rest of the war. The English
+were content to secure New Brunswick.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle of Princeton there were engaged
+somewhat under two thousand men on each
+side. The actual fighting lasted less than half
+an hour. We lost very few men—so few that
+the number cannot be accurately reckoned—possibly
+thirty; but we lost a brave general,
+Hugh Mercer, a colonel, a major, and three
+captains. The English soldiers fought with
+unsurpassed gallantry. They lost two hundred
+killed and two hundred and fifty captured, but
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span>no officers of distinction. It was not, therefore,
+a big fight, but it was none the less a
+great and decisive battle. How important
+Washington felt it to be, is attested by his
+personal exposure of himself. How decisive
+the great military critics have considered it, is
+shown by the fact that the campaign of which
+it was the finishing stroke is held by them to
+have been typical of his genius as a strategist.
+The two affairs of Trenton and Princeton are
+in the short histories of the Revolution generally
+reckoned together. And naturally so,
+since they occurred so near to one another in
+time and place. But, strategically and tactically
+examined, the battle of Trenton made
+good Washington’s position behind the Delaware;
+the battle of Princeton secured New
+Jersey and the Middle States.</p>
+
+<p>After the preliminary actions which took
+place in New England the remainder of the
+Revolution falls into three portions—the struggle
+for the Hudson, to secure communication
+between New England and the Middle States;
+the struggle for the Delaware, to secure communication
+between the Middle States and the
+South; and thirdly, the effort to regain the
+South. After the battle of Princeton, Washington
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>was able to establish a line from Amboy
+around by the west and south to Morristown;
+New England, the Middle and Southern
+States were in communication with each other
+and free. As a result of the first campaign by
+a numerous and well-equipped Anglo-German
+army the English held nothing but Newport
+in Rhode Island and New York City, with
+posts at King’s Bridge on the north and at New
+Brunswick on the south. The proof was
+finally secured that Washington with a permanent
+army such as the Colonies might, unassisted,
+have furnished him, would have been a
+match for any land force the English could
+have transported to America.</p>
+
+<p>For the remaining years of the war Princeton
+was held by the Americans. Both the
+Legislature of the State and the Council of
+Safety held their meetings within its precincts;
+for a time Putnam was in command of the little
+garrison, for a time Sullivan. Early in 1781
+thirteen hundred mutinous Pennsylvanians of
+Washington’s army marched away from Morristown
+and came in a body to Princeton.
+They were met by emissaries from Clinton who
+strove to entice them from their allegiance.
+But, though mutinous, they were not traitors,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span>for they seized the British emissaries and
+handed them over to General Wayne to be
+treated as spies. A committee of Congress appeared
+and made such arrangements as pacified
+them. In the autumn of the same year the
+victory of Yorktown was celebrated with illuminations
+and general rejoicings. The College
+was again in session with forty students
+and local prosperity was restored. In 1782
+there was held a meeting to support a continuance
+of the war.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus098" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus098.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NASSAU HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Revolutionary epoch was fitly brought
+to a close by a meeting of Congress in Nassau
+Hall. On June 20, 1783, three hundred
+Pennsylvania soldiers who were discontented
+with the terms of their discharge marched from
+Lancaster to Philadelphia and beset the doors
+of Congress, holding that assembly imprisoned
+for three hours under threat of violence if
+their wrongs were not redressed. The legislators
+resolved to adjourn to Princeton. They
+were made heartily welcome, the college halls
+were put at their disposal, and the houses of
+the citizens were hospitably opened for their
+entertainment. Their sessions were held regularly
+in the College library for over four
+months, until the fourth of November, when
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span>they adjourned to meet at Annapolis three
+weeks later. Washington was in Princeton
+twice during this time: once at commencement
+in September, when he made a present of fifty
+guineas to the trustees—a sum they spent for
+the portrait by Peale which now hangs in
+Nassau Hall, filling, it is said, the very frame
+from which that of George II. was shot away
+during the battle. The second time he came
+in October, at the request of Boudinot, President
+of Congress, and a trustee of the College,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span>to give advice concerning such weighty matters
+as the organization of a standing army to
+defend the frontiers, of a militia to maintain
+internal order, and of the military school. The
+Commander-in-Chief was received in solemn
+session and congratulated by the President on
+the success of the war. He replied in fitting
+terms. According to tradition he occupied
+while in attendance on Congress a room in
+a house now replaced by the handsome Pyne
+dormitory on the corner of Witherspoon and
+Nassau Streets, but his residence was the
+colonial mansion three miles away on the hill
+above the town of Rocky Hill which has been
+preserved as a historical monument and revolutionary
+museum by the liberality of Mrs. Josephine
+Swann. It was from this place that he
+issued his famous farewell address to the army.</p>
+
+<p>But the greatest occasion in Princeton’s
+history was on the thirty-first of the same
+month. Congress had assembled in the Prayer
+Hall to receive in solemn audience the minister
+plenipotentiary from the Netherlands. There
+were present, besides the members, Washington,
+Morris, the superintendent of finance,
+Luzerne, the French envoy, and many other
+men of eminence. The company had just
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span>assembled when news came that the Treaty of
+Peace had been signed at Versailles. Many
+brilliant and beautiful women were present, and
+their unchecked delight doubled the enthusiasm
+of all. The reception was the most splendid
+public function thus far held by the now independent
+republic. On the twenty-fifth of
+November the British evacuated New York.
+Washington left Princeton to attend the ceremony,
+and afterward journeyed by Annapolis
+to his home at Mt. Vernon. He believed that,
+his military career being concluded, he was to
+spend the rest of his days as a private gentleman.</p>
+
+<p>Providence had ordained otherwise. He had
+carried the difficult, strange and desultory War
+of the Revolution to a successful end; he
+had, by wise counsel and firmness, averted the
+dangers of a civil war which seemed imminent,
+so far as he could judge from the temper of
+those about his headquarters at Newburgh.
+Once more he was to enter the arena of embittered
+strife, but in a conflict political and not
+military. Three of the five great actions in
+which he was personally present during the
+Revolution were fought on Jersey soil; his
+next leadership was displayed in a contest
+waged in Philadelphia, but largely by Jerseymen
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span>or Princetonians. Princeton’s place in
+American history can not be understood
+without consideration of the Constitutional
+Convention, where the passions of localism,
+separatism and sectional prejudice broke forth
+afresh. The assembly contained many wise
+and far-seeing men. Of its fifty-five members,
+thirty-two were men of academic training.
+There were one each from London, Oxford,
+Edinburgh and Aberdeen, and five had been
+connected with the checkered fortunes of
+William and Mary. The University of Pennsylvania
+sent one, Columbia two, Harvard
+three, Yale four and Princeton nine. The
+most serious dissension, as is well known, was
+concerning the relative importance of large and
+small States in legislation. The Virginia, or
+large-States plan, was for two houses, basing
+representation in both on population. It was
+essentially the work of James Madison, a pupil
+of Witherspoon. The Jersey, or small-State,
+plan was for one house, wherein each State
+should have equal representation. It was the
+cherished idea of Paterson, another Princetonian.
+Over these two schemes the battle
+waged fiercely until it seemed that even Washington,
+the presiding officer, could not command
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span>peace or force a compromise, and that
+the convention was on the verge of dissolution.
+Connecticut had ever been accustomed to two
+houses—one representing the people, one the
+towns. It was the compromise suggested on
+this analogy by Sherman and Ellsworth, and
+urged by them, with the assistance of Davie
+from Georgia, which finally prevailed. Ellsworth
+and Davie were both Princetonians.
+Madison joined hands with Washington in the
+successful struggle for the acceptance of the
+new Constitution in Virginia—both Ellsworth
+and Paterson, their end attained, became the
+most ardent Federalists.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Princeton during this century
+has of course not been so dramatic as it was in
+the last, but the town and neighborhood have
+secured the permanent influence foreshadowed
+by its Revolutionary record. They shared in
+the control of State and nation, they gave
+their sons freely to the service of the country
+in each of the three wars since fought. But of
+course the story of Princeton is, in the main,
+the story of the University. Reopening its
+doors under Witherspoon with about forty
+students, its graduating class as early as 1806
+numbered fifty-four, and thence to the outbreak
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span>of the Civil War it enjoyed almost unbroken
+prosperity under four presidents, Samuel
+Stanhope Smith, Ashbel Green, James Carnahan
+and John Maclean. The first care of its
+friends was to provide for thorough training
+in science, so that it has the honor of having
+had the first American professor of chemistry.
+For a time it likewise had a professor of
+theology; but the founding of the Theological
+Seminary in 1812 and its permanent location
+in Princeton the following year committed
+that branch of learning to an institution which
+has since become one of the most important
+in the country. From time to time new buildings
+were added to both College and Seminary
+as necessity required. How stern the college
+discipline was is shown by the fact that at
+intervals, fortunately rare, students were sent
+to their homes in numbers scarcely credible
+in this quieter age; on one occasion a hundred
+and twenty-five out of something over two
+hundred. In 1824 Lafayette graciously accepted
+the degree of Bachelor of Laws from
+the authorities while passing from New York
+to Washington. In 1832 Joseph Henry was
+made professor of natural philosophy, a chair
+he held with the highest distinction, for it was
+in his Princeton laboratory that he made his
+epochal discoveries in electricity, stepping-stones
+to the revolution of the world by its
+use; in 1848 he was made director of the
+Smithsonian Institute. In 1846 was organized
+a Law School; its three professors were men of
+the highest distinction, but the project was
+premature. In 1855 flames destroyed all but
+the walls of Nassau Hall, whereupon it was
+speedily remodelled as it still stands; the
+variation, slight as it was from the original,
+appears to have been in the interest of economy
+rather than beauty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus099" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus099.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PRESIDENT JAMES McCOSH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span></p>
+
+<p>The only serious check in Princeton’s prosperity
+was caused by the Civil War. Though
+a large proportion of the students had always
+come from the Southern States, the rest were
+enthusiastic in their Northern sympathies, and
+the national flag was hoisted by them over
+Nassau Hall in April, 1861. The minority
+tore it down, but it was promptly restored to
+its place by a gallant citizen of the town, who
+in climbing to the apex of the cupola twisted
+the shaft of the weather-vane and fixed the
+arrow with its head to the north. Thus it
+remained until conciliation was complete a
+few years since (1896), when the pivot was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span>repaired so that the historic index may point
+in all directions at the will of the winds. The
+withdrawal of the Southern students left the
+numbers of the ever-loyal University at a low
+ebb, and it was not until after the accession of
+James McCosh to the presidency that the
+new clientage which has so munificently supported
+him and his successor was secured. It
+is also gratifying to note that the sons of the
+old Princeton Confederates are returning in
+ever greater numbers. The presidencies of
+Dr. McCosh and Dr. Patton are too near to
+belong to history. The evidences of the enormous
+strides made in material equipment are
+on every hand: splendid and beautiful buildings,
+professors of distinction in great numbers,
+and a body of students numbering, along with
+those of the Seminary, about fifteen hundred.
+Near by is the famous Lawrenceville School,
+itself an epochal institution in the history of
+our secondary training. Wherever men converse
+of science, literature or art, the names
+of Princeton’s sons must be considered; but
+her chiefest glory thus far has been in her
+contributions to political and educational life.
+Representative of a definite theory and practice
+in her sphere, she breeds men in abundance
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span>to uphold her banner in the face of all
+assaults.</p>
+
+<p>Time, place and the men—these are the
+factors of history; the first and the last vanish,
+the scenes alone remain. If history is to be
+made real, if we are to know in the concrete,
+from the experience of the men and women
+who have left the stage, what alone is possible
+for ourselves and our race, we do well to see
+and ponder the places which knew those who
+have gone before. Princeton possesses, in
+Nassau Hall, a focus of patriotism—a cradle of
+liberty. In her battle-field, the spot where culminated
+one of the greatest
+campaigns of one of
+the greatest of generals;
+and in her sons one sees
+the triumph of the moral
+forces which combine in
+true greatness. The lesson
+to be learned from
+Princeton’s historic scenes should be that intellect
+and not numbers controls the world; that
+ideas and not force overmaster bigness; that
+truth and right, supported by strong purpose
+and high principle, prevail in the end.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus100" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus100.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF PRINCETON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header5.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PHILADELPHIA">PHILADELPHIA</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE CITY PENN FOUNDED AND TO WHICH FRANKLIN GAVE DISTINCTION</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By TALCOTT WILLIAMS</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Cities are of nature. Their long life
+flows in ways she has made longer than
+the changing rule of which they are part.
+Nations and boundaries are of man and his
+laws. Artificial creations all. Cities and their
+sites are of the same forces as form the
+rivers and ports, the passes and pathways on
+which they stand and last as long. Rome outlives
+its empire, and Damascus the shock of
+massacre from Chedorlaomer to Timur. The
+cities of Europe are still where they were
+twenty centuries ago. The civil structure into
+which they fit has changed until nothing is left
+of what once was. These things are missed
+in the general. They come to be seen in the
+particular.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span></p>
+
+<p>Philadelphia stands, and necessarily stands
+on the straight, ruler-like “Falls line” which
+passes through every city site from New York
+to Montgomery, because this prodigious slip
+changes river navigation wherever it crosses a
+river valley. Where marine navigation stopped
+to-day and then, Penn put his city, its site
+a peninsula about which two rivers joined, a
+rich alluvial plain, covered with glacial clay,
+with schistose rocks cropping out across it, the
+palæozoic marble of the Atlantic coast hard
+by, and a strip of green serpentine crossing
+the country from the highest points in the
+future limits of the city to Chester County,
+its first granary and feeding ground. These
+things—the half-sunken Lower Delaware River
+spreading into Delaware Bay, the term of
+navigation at the junction of two rivers, and
+the abrupt approach to the sea of a formation
+elsewhere miles from the ocean—make Philadelphia
+all it is in outer look, a flat city built
+of its own clay, garnished with its own marble,
+a seaport knowing the sea only in its rivers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus101" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus101.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN OLD FRENCH PRINT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span></p>
+
+<p>In this inland port, as you float in either
+river, seafaring masts and main rigging, black
+and tarred, silhouette against the tender green
+of growing fields. The early houses were
+brick of the glacier’s leaving, matching London
+in color; for both are ground out of the same
+earth mill. Its early stone houses were of the
+narrow contorted gray schists, and marble quarries
+had been opened, exhausted and closed
+to trim the brick before the Revolution.
+Later these were varied by the green serpentine,
+a hideous, dull color, the red sandstone
+of the fertile inland plains, and at last, as railroads
+made it easy to seek a door-step 1,000
+miles away, the marble of Vermont built
+the City Hall, the granites of Cape Ann the
+Post Office, and Ohio ashlar a growing number
+of private homes, matching London once
+more as a close congener of the Portland stone
+Penn saw builded into St. Paul’s. The outer
+resemblance to London noted by Matthew
+Arnold and many an one besides, rests, as such
+things do, on concrete fact.</p>
+
+<p>William Penn in 1682 came into no empty
+Western world. The Dutch and Swede had
+been entering these waters for near a century.
+They were charted, tracked and known. Uneasy
+frontier alarms were over. Farms dotted
+all the region. For the first time, in <i>Fox’s
+Journal</i>, a decade before Penn, we catch the
+accent and atmosphere of the American settler
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>living lonely and safe. He was as yet neither
+of these in New England, New York or the
+Southern States. The Swedes had left their
+work in Swedes’ Church, with its timber, roof
+and tower recalling North Europe, as its carved
+angels do the wood sculpture of the pine forest.
+There was a tavern, the Blue Anchor, possibly
+(not probably) still standing, waiting for Penn
+at the little boat harbor, now Dock Street.
+A thriving commerce of a ship a week was
+already busying the river with its boats. On
+the crest of the low hill that rose from this
+boat-haven, Penn planted the house which now
+stands in the Park. On this crest ran Market,
+and where the land began to dip to the Schuylkill,
+Broad Street crossed, the first streets to be
+run by the prospector and real-estate speculator,
+on a plan by whose geometrical extensions
+both are still guided, in these days of new
+boulevards in old cities the oldest and least
+changed of any city plan in civilized lands.
+On this background of growing farms and
+frequent vessels, Penn sketched the Commonwealth.
+He and his were fortunate in his
+bringings. He came from Central England,
+that central mark and beach line from which
+so large a portion of the worthier of the race
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span>spring. He drew his settlers in the north of
+the kingdom from the line of Fox’s trips,
+whose Cumberland and Lancashire converts
+dotted the region about Philadelphia with
+names familiar in his <i>Journal</i>, Lancaster,
+Swarthmore, Merion, and Haverford. All
+South England had been stirred by Monmouth’s
+Rebellion and the Revolution, the
+work of the South as the Commonwealth had
+its leader in the North. Philadelphia, therefore,
+drew chiefly from Saxon, and less from
+Danish or Celtic England, than had New
+England. Its leaders came from the thrifty
+business classes of London, “city” people, instead
+of from the gentry as had Virginia’s.
+Ten years later, Louis was harrying the Palatinate,
+and a German population, skilled in
+the mechanic arts, came and gave Philadelphia
+its manufacturing foundation. Penn was pietistic,
+his mother was from Holland, and this
+gave him continental acquaintance and sympathy
+with continental dissent, which later
+brought the Moravians and gave the colony
+relations with Central Europe, an early and
+prolific press, and patience with political oppression,
+a dubious virtue still surviving.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus102" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus102.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THOMAS PENN.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PAINTING OWNED BY THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, AND COPIED BY
+    M. I. NAYLOR FROM THE PORTRAIT IN POSSESSION OF MAJOR DUGALD STUART.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus103" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus103.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SECOND STREET, PHILADELPHIA, SHOWING THE OLD COURTHOUSE ON THE LEFT.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN ENGRAVING MADE BY BIRCH &amp; SON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span></p>
+
+<p>The town grew like a weed and as rank.
+Grain was cheap, thanks to the limestone plain
+just beyond the low primitive rocks. Trade
+flowed in from the West Indies and Europe.
+In thirty years the place was bigger than any in
+the provinces. The Proprietor’s square house
+set the fashion, built from imported brick.
+Farmsteads on the road out to the German
+town of the new immigrants were built of the
+gray schists of the region. Ship-building began.
+Pirates lurked in the river below. The
+Proprietor’s official residence, now gone, fronted
+on the fouling pool where boats came, and
+matched the English country-house of South
+England. A little State House, which closely
+resembled in outer look the market-house of
+the same period on Second Street to the south,
+was built on Market Street, near the open rising
+ground on which Letitia Penn’s dwelling
+stood. Merchants’ homes were on its low hill;
+some of those still there are probably of this
+period when of imported brick. There is a
+row of houses on Swanson Street recalling the
+mechanics’ homes. In green quiet still held,
+the Friends’ meeting-house was erected—the
+present building far later. Low houses and
+warehouses clustered about what is now Dock
+Street—probably not one left. The swarm of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span>some two thousand houses stretched along the
+river for what is now a square or two. Beyond
+were a few fields. Dense forests stood
+to the Schuylkill, and crowned all the little
+hills about, save that Fairmount stood bare,
+as is indeed the fashion of the sterile, rocky
+height. Schools were opened, of which one
+survives in the “Penn charter” school on
+Twelfth and Market. The city began its chartered
+existence, and the portraits of its first
+mayors, whose descendants are still part of the
+active life of the city, recall those of Guildhall,
+not as with like New England iconography,
+the Puritan remonstrants of James and Charles.
+An almanac was issued from the press of Bradford,
+whose solitary copy in the Historical
+Society begins printing for the State. A polyglot
+literature was in progress, apparent in
+more than one collection. The long, low,
+brick-built town left its image in 1720 in the
+picture in the entrance of the Philadelphia
+Library. Market stalls filled the river end of
+the street to which they gave a name, and
+these the civic organization, the peak-towered
+State House, the courts, the brick houses, the
+Proprietor’s residence, the city ordinances, the
+entire machinery of life, followed and imitated
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span>as closely as might be, on the edge of the
+wilderness, the market borough of an English
+shire. The town had had its first big boom
+and was near wallowing in its first reaction,—houses
+empty, more money in demand, debts
+oppressive, and all hope gone, when (1723)
+the great genius, Benjamin Franklin, who was
+to be its second founder and save it from
+Friend and Precisian, Palatinate Dutch, German,
+and Pietist, walked up Market Street
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span>and turned down Fourth in early morning.
+He was to give Philadelphia its better civilization.
+For near seventy years, he was to be, so
+far as the civilized world was concerned, the
+city and all in it worth knowing. By supreme
+good fortune all his past, or at least as much
+as it is desirable to know, is laid bare to
+the visitor. The houses in which he is said
+to have had his lodging as apprentice—old
+enough for this, at least—look down from
+Lodge Street on Dock Square. His old
+home on Market, between Third and Fourth,
+is long since gone, but it stood back from the
+street and was doubtless of the type of the
+roomy old houses now on Third south of Walnut,
+or the house of Hamilton in Woodlawn
+Cemetery. The letter-books of Franklin, with
+his correspondence for over twenty years, are at
+the American Philosophical Society which he
+founded, which first commemorated his death,
+and, a century later, the centenary of his obsequies.
+The best of his portraits is there,
+Houdon’s bust of the old man, and the roomy-seated
+chair of “Dr. Heavysides.” His dress
+buckles are in the Historical Society, and the
+teacups over which he bowed his compliments,
+and some speeches which Madame Helvetius
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span>rightly held more dearer than compliments,
+frowsy as Mrs. Adams found her. There, too,
+is the dubious portrait, which, whether it is
+Franklin in his youth or no, looks the youth
+of his male descendants. Part of his electric
+machine, and his printing-press, are in the
+Franklin Institute, part in the Philadelphia Library,
+which he also founded, and a Leyden jar,
+perhaps of the great experiment, at the American
+Philosophical Society. The fire-bucket
+of his company, and the sword he wore in his
+brief but not inglorious military service, are
+in the Historical Society. One probable site
+of the field in which he flew his kite is filled by
+the present Record building. His statue is on
+the front of the library at Juniper and Locust;
+another—worthy—is to the right on Chestnut
+Street, looking on the flow of men and women
+in the city life he loved, for in the country
+he never willingly spent a day. Not a stage
+of his life but can still be followed by the
+historical pilgrim in Philadelphia. He can
+follow in Franklin’s steps,—the steep slope
+up which he walked to enter—with old landing-stairs
+still in place south of Market—the
+Fourth Street corner, the site of his job office,
+the purlieus of Dock Street, from whence came
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span>the mire that never quite left his garments,
+the lots of the Market Street home where his
+better years were passed, his pew at Christ’s
+Church, the State House he entered for a half-century
+in so many capacities—King’s officer,
+contractor, colonial legislator, rebellious congressman,
+signer of the Declaration and Constitution,—his
+eye through all the years on the
+gilded sun one can yet trace on the back of
+the President’s chair—and last, when his own
+sun was at its setting, as member of the Constitutional
+Convention of his own State, and
+his modest grave at Fifth and Arch, where
+one may still uncover at the last memory of
+the most human of all Americans. Most of
+us, least of other lands, prefiguring in life,
+work, and character our invincible patience,
+our good humor, our quenchless curiosity, our
+careless disorder in trifles, our easy success in
+serious affairs, our sluttish phrase, our high
+spirit, the even equality of our manners,
+our perpetual relish for the simple environment
+and the homelier joys of our life, our
+neglect of means and detail, our perseverance
+and achievement in the final end, our
+self-consciousness and our easy conviction
+that neither fate itself, nor our own careless
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span>disregard of a less wise past, can rob us of our
+appointed place in the advancing files of time.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="illus104" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus104.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FRANKLIN IN 1777.</p>
+      <p>AFTER THE PRINT REPRODUCED FROM THE DRAWING OF COHIN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus105" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus105.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE PHILADELPHIA LIBRARY.</p>
+      <p>THE OLD BUILDING ON FIFTH STREET, NOW DEMOLISHED. FROM THE ENGRAVING BY W. BIRCH &amp; SON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Franklin’s busy march through these streets
+bridged two great periods. His half-century
+before the Revolution, fifty-two years from his
+landing to Lexington, was a season of prodigious
+material expansion whose signs are all
+about the city. Then were built those pleasant
+places in the Park, and homes like that of
+John Penn’s in the Zoölogical Garden, ending
+in the privateer’s house which was later to be
+Arnold’s headquarters, to-day Mt. Pleasant.
+John Bartram built his stone house, set up its
+pillars and laid out his Botanical Garden, both
+happily standing and city property, his cypress
+alone dead,—slow failing through the years in
+which one lover has each spring sought it,—but
+much of his sylvan wealth remains, still a
+record of his science and of the economic conditions
+which gave him means for his long and
+costly trips. For when there were neither
+roads nor railroads the “distance-rent” of
+farm land near a city was enormous. The
+farm hard by swept in all the profit of days of
+teaming of which the railroad has long since
+robbed it and diffused it over a wide area,
+levelling up, as is our American way. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span>home, the life, the leisure, the acquaintance
+and the society possible 150 years ago to a
+man who farmed suburban acres are all attested
+when you stand in Bartram’s garden by
+the river on the gray rock of the only rock
+wine-press this side of the Atlantic, and remember
+that on this curving path Washington,
+Franklin, Hancock, Rittenhouse, Morris,
+and Kalm, and a score more of the century’s
+great, supped in the cool, open evening with a
+host whom the first two found at a sudden
+coming bare-headed, barefooted and plowing.
+The Revolutionary houses of the environs tell
+of the farm-profits of this period; so do the
+“clasped hands” and the “green tree” on the
+fronts of the olden homes—few or none dating
+back of the Revolution—which record the organization
+of rival insurance companies; the
+earliest building of the Pennsylvania Hospital
+on Pine with quaint old-world aspect, the little
+strip of wall at Tenth and Spruce, once part of
+the almshouse which Longfellow blended with
+the hospital in <i>Evangeline</i>; Carpenters’ Hall,
+the only Guild house in the colonies; the bit
+of wall still standing of the brewery at Fifth
+and Wharton; of the first play-house in the city
+and, most important of all, the two chief colonial
+monuments of the city, Christ Church and
+Independence Hall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus106" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus106.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CARPENTERS’ HALL, PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+      <p>WHEREIN MET THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, 1774.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus107" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus107.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE PENNSYLVANIA HOSPITAL.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING BY W. BIRCH &amp; SON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span></p>
+
+<p>These buildings mark much. The city from
+a mere “Front” Street on the river, and two behind
+it, had grown up to Seventh and Eighth
+in a half ellipse which ran in thriving homes
+from Kensington, grew thronged about Chestnut,
+now passing Market in the race,—so that
+Market and Arch have the oldest house-fronts
+to-day,—and then thinned out again towards
+the scene of the Mischienza. In this area are
+scattered the mansions of the Colonial and immediate
+post-Revolutionary period, with Mrs.
+Ross’s house on Arch Street as type of the
+mechanic’s dwelling of the day, happily preserved
+and now bought as a memorial of the
+flag first made there. Beyond them begins
+the modern city of this century, of machine-made
+brick, of lumber sawed by steam, and
+house plans fitted to the growing value of
+the city lot. The growth which thus expanded
+the city of Penn into the city of Franklin
+was no mere accretion of population. It
+came of a profitable trade, of a share in adventures
+by sea and land, not always legal, and
+always dangerous, and of a close connection
+between the merchants of this city and those
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span>of London, from which the ancestors of more
+than one Philadelphia Friend were drawn, for
+Penn had borne his testimony in the Grace
+Church and Wheeler Street meeting-houses in
+London. When the richer men of the city
+came to erect its chief church, it was Gibbs’s
+St. Martin in the Fields which suggested the
+interior of the building on Second Street, and
+it was London brick architecture which was
+followed in Independence Hall and its open
+arches,—now restored,—despoiling the record
+of recent history to decorate and sometimes
+disfigure an earlier period, as is the manner
+and method of restoration the world over.
+These buildings in their size, their grace, their
+Georgian flavor, their cost,—for both were extravagant
+as times then went,—stood for an
+opulent mercantile connection between the
+metropolis of colonial and of royal England, a
+connection never quite lost, as the resemblance
+of the younger city to the older has never
+quite vanished. New York suggests Paris in
+spots, but no Philadelphian in his wildest flight
+ever thought that Philadelphia did.</p>
+
+<p>When the Revolution came, Philadelphia
+sacrificed its English trade as promptly as
+ninety years later the city, loyal to its principles,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span>sacrificed its Southern trade, and in
+both times and both sacrifices New York
+lagged to the rear in action and came to the
+front in assertion. Independence Hall still
+looked out on green fields to the west, and
+Rittenhouse’s little observatory—earliest of
+American star-gazing spots, whose telescope,
+earliest of our astronomical instruments, is in
+the American Philosophical Society—still
+stood in the square where Howe’s artillery was
+to be parked. The jail of “Hugh Wynne”
+was on the southeast corner of Sixth and
+Chestnut, on whose site Binney’s home was
+to stand later, the hero of another struggle for
+freedom. In the northeast corner of Washington
+Square was the potter’s field, last
+opened a century ago for yellow-fever victims.
+The house, Dutch built, and hence close to the
+street edge, in which Jefferson was to write
+the draft of the Declaration, preserved by
+the American Philosophical Society, was on
+Seventh and Market, its commemoration tablet
+on the wrong lot. A tavern fronted the
+Hall, and its stables ran opposite to the main
+door, its flies worrying the Continental Congress
+on a hot historic afternoon. The sharp
+rise which still ascends between Callowhill and
+Spring Garden was crested by the British
+works, of which the first was at Second and
+Poplar. From the Market Street Bridge it is
+still possible to make out the hill on which
+Hamilton planted his field-pieces to engage
+the British <i>tête-du-pont</i>, held by the 72d Highlanders.
+The Hessians camped in the open
+space at Gray’s Ferry, as the bridge of many
+years is still called. The stately house which
+held the Mischienza has disappeared only
+within a few years. The houses on the main
+street of Germantown still bear the mark of
+the battle, and look unchanged on the street
+whose fogs still veil it as on the day of conflict.
+The city now had from the river the sky-line
+which it substantially retained up to twenty
+years ago, when the steeples and the towers
+the Revolutionary period knew were dwarfed
+by the many-storied steel frames of to-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus108" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus108.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, BEFORE 1876.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="illus109" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus109.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE MORRIS HOUSE, GERMANTOWN, PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The returning tide of prosperity after the
+Revolution has left one mark in the Morris
+dwelling on the south side of Eighth, between
+Locust and Walnut, type of the wealthy
+home of the day. The biggest of the period
+was Robert Morris’s, on the site of the Press
+Building, left as his “folly.” The peak-roofed
+house in roomy squares now gave way for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span>thirty years to the house built flush to the
+street, which in the generation between 1790
+and 1820 spread the growing city up to Tenth
+Street or so, and of which many are left.
+With this growth dwellings pushed beyond
+South on one side and beyond Vine on the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span>other, the fringe of the city limits becoming
+an Alsatia still apparent, mechanics’ homes
+crowding just beyond as they still do, until
+met north and even south by more pretentious
+dwellings. In this thirty years the city grew
+from 42,000 to 108,000, and it faced first the
+problem to which only the American and
+Australian city has proved fully equal in all
+the round of semitropical summers north or
+south of the equator. The city, as it inherited
+from England its city government, had also
+inherited from there its well-water supply, its
+surface drainage, its slovenly streets, its practice
+of crowding the homes of the poor on
+back lots, so as to fill the area on which they
+stood with unsavory wynds, and its habit of
+intramural interment and intramural slaughter-houses,
+all which, even the Latin cities of two
+thousand years ago, taught by hotter summers,
+had outgrown. In the tepid temperature and
+light but even rain-fall in England these
+worked few ills until the middle of this century.
+Under our torrid summer, our tropical
+rain-fall, and our swift changes, all these things
+meant disease and death, and the unconscious
+problem which faced the city a century ago
+and left its mark on the map was recorded in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span>yellow fever, born of water-supply and filth
+together with overcrowding, and all the evils
+of bad water and overcrowding.</p>
+
+<p>Water-works were at last built, the most
+considerable then known, their site where the
+Public Buildings stand and their picture in
+the Historical Society; a systematic street
+scavenging began, building on the back of
+lots was prohibited, years before New York,
+and two generations before the European city;
+a fixed yardage, small, but sufficient to transform
+the city map, was required of each dwelling;
+paving and sewerage commenced, the
+almshouse was moved, a city hospital was established,
+and a most important legal decision
+made easy the purchase of house lots by the
+poor and frugal. The solution was not complete.
+Typhoid lurks where yellow fever once
+raged, but crowding was prevented and the
+city has no slums in the region outside of the
+area which has been built over since the ordinances
+of the first twenty to thirty years of
+this century stopped overcrowding and saved
+its poorer citizens from the awful fate inflicted
+by the titled avarice and civic mislegislation of
+London and Glasgow. Nor ought any one to
+look across the Schuylkill from the Zoölogical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span>Garden at the lovely and related group which
+houses the Fairmount Water-works without a
+thrill of pride that this was the beginning of
+the problem of preserving health in heat and
+rain, which since the world began had meant
+pestilence to the city in like climes. As is the
+American habit, the supply
+looked first to quantity, and
+later to quality; and as is
+also the American habit,
+both will be secured in the
+end. So the large provision
+for the almshouse of seventy
+years ago has given the
+space for the University and its buildings, its
+cognate institutions, hospitals and museums,
+taken collectively, one of the most liberal
+grants made by any modern city to the work
+of higher education not under its own control,
+a grant which owed its initiative and early success
+to Dr. William Pepper, whose statue overlooks
+the site he secured to learning and to
+science. There the University has grown,
+covered its site with a score of buildings,
+added department to department, doubled
+its students in a decade, received more in
+gifts under its present Provost, Mr. Charles
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span>C. Harrison, than had come to it in all
+the century and a half of its history, knit
+the community to it and given it intellectual
+leadership by a group of affiliated
+societies, linked itself to the public schools
+by municipal scholarships supported by the
+city, opened courses for teachers, spread
+its lectures over the State and in all ways
+made itself not only an institution of learning
+for students, but of teaching for the
+community.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus110" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus110.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DR. WILLIAM PEPPER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus111" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus111.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FRANK THOMSON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The development of civic institutions in the
+first quarter of the century was accompanied
+by the founding, each to-day housed in conspicuous
+recent edifices of the past decade, of
+State-aided institutions for the Deaf and Dumb,
+1820, for the Blind, 1833, and the House of
+Refuge, 1828. This philanthropic impulse
+came, as such generally does, as part of a
+rapid material development which, in a score
+of years ending with the commercial crash of
+1837-39, had laid the foundations of the manufacturing
+activity and the internal commerce
+of Philadelphia. It was in this period that
+the Music Fund Hall (1824), Eighth above
+South, was built. The Exchange, 1832, the
+most pretentious building of its day, was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span>erected near the close of the period, and the
+pillared row, following a London model, was
+built on Spruce between Ninth and Tenth, the
+largest and most costly private dwellings of its
+day. The next Colonnade row, nearly twenty
+years later, occupied the site, and gave the
+name to the Colonnade Hotel,
+Fifteenth and Chestnut.
+St. Mark’s and St. Luke’s
+stood for opposite extremes
+of the church edifices of the
+forties. The taste of the
+Federalists and Whigs of
+the day filled the city with
+the pseudo-classic, from which Europe was just
+departing—the United States bank, now the
+Custom-house, the Mint, the building in which
+Girard had his bank, back of the Exchange,
+and lastly Girard College, not easily forgot,
+however unfit for its purpose, if once seen
+from St. George’s hill on its airy height. The
+ship-building firm of Cramps was established
+1830, and Baldwin’s Locomotive Works 1837,
+both products of the same period of activity.
+Ten years later began the Pennsylvania railroad
+comparable to a kingdom in revenue
+power and the ability of chiefs like Frank
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span>Thomson. The city flowed across Broad
+Street, and solid blocks pushed their way in
+brick and white marble, turning later to New
+York’s brown-stone, up each flank of the city
+on Pine and on Arch, spreading out in an area
+beyond Broad Street, which the crash of credit,
+and the failure of the State for a season to pay
+the interest on its bonds, left tenantless, often
+roofless, covered with mortgages and the prediction,
+heard first under Governor Keith,
+1725, repeated within this decade, that the city
+would never need the houses which a boom
+had erected.</p>
+
+<p>The city of the period before the war had
+now been built and the suburbs had grown
+close to the consolidation of 1854. Railroad
+access had created, across the Schuylkill, the
+village of Mantua, which was to become West
+Philadelphia as it extended southward and
+was reached by new bridges and street-car
+lines. To the north, just beyond the old
+British redoubts, factory owners, managers
+and foremen, mechanics and operatives, with
+the retailers they required, had built their
+homes on the higher ground, north of the
+great industries growing on the low and lightly
+taxed land, easily accessible by railroads from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span>the coal-fields, beyond the old city limits at
+Vine, and extending to Callowhill and beyond.
+This created the city of Spring Garden. The
+river settlements, the Northern Liberties, Kensington,
+Richmond, grew under the triple influence
+of manufacturers and cheap coal, out
+of the villages whose farm-houses, taverns and
+mechanics’ dwellings of the early years of the
+century still dot the raw newer dwellings of
+the past forty years. Like settlements had
+grown in Southwark and Manayunk. The
+gaps and sutures still remain to mark the old
+divisions. The squalid stretches of South
+Street from river to river, for nearly a century
+the resort of cheap stores which sought city
+trade, and avoided city taxes. The like ragged
+selvedge along Vine, influenced, too, along
+much of the line by low, open ground. The
+gap fringing both banks of the Schuylkill, marking
+days when the railroad and the Market
+Street bridge made the more distant uprise of
+Fortieth Street more accessible than the lower
+region nearer. The bare and vacant patches
+about Germantown Junction, over which the
+old village has never quite grown down to meet
+the approaching city, where for various reasons
+of grade, access was not easy, and where
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span>institutions like Girard College and the Penitentiary,
+with a cemetery or two, like rocks in
+a moving stream, have stopped and divided
+the glacier-like spread of the city. These
+things have made Philadelphia, like London, a
+city of accretions from divers centres, and
+not, like Paris or New York, a steady, symmetrical
+and continuous growth from one
+organic centre.</p>
+
+<p>The war found a city which, united, had
+more than the area of London (Philadelphia,
+82,807 acres; London, 74,692), and at almost
+every stage of the growth of the two a quarter
+of the population of the vaster metropolis.
+Since room is the chief factor in civic comfort,
+there has never been a year in which the
+average man has not been just about four
+times as comfortable in Philadelphia as in
+London, and he has always had higher wages
+by a quarter to a half, paid less for food and
+lodgings, and paid more for clothing, light and
+coal. He has lived here, a family to a house,
+where a quarter of London has been a family
+to two rooms. Most of all, for twenty years
+past has this growth of the small houses of
+labor gone on, their number swelling faster
+than the tale of families seeking them. These
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span>conditions, secured by a wise civic policy early
+in the century, had reached the full development,
+which they have since maintained,
+at the opening of the war. Inexpressibly
+dull was the extension the city now made,
+the dreary reaches of homes, which oppress
+the stranger west of Eleventh Street, and
+appear in unvarying blocks on the North and
+South Streets, the building operations of the
+’40s and ’50s, in whose even rows were the last,
+worst expression of the dull, utilitarian spirit
+of the pre-war, pre-centennial period. Napoleon
+LeBrun built the Cathedral and the
+Academy of Music, a brick shell holding a
+shapely and grandiose interior, and Walton and
+McArthur added to the pseudo-classic. When
+the Jayne Block went up on Chestnut, east of
+Third, it was believed to be the largest single
+business building yet erected on the continent.
+The Girard, 1852, was one of its largest hotels,
+and echoed the Italian palace front which
+Barry had taught London in his Reform Club.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus112" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus112.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.</p>
+      <p>STATE HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span></p>
+
+<p>The development in manufactures after the
+war, railroad expansion and the somewhat deceptive
+prosperity of the Centennial gave the
+city the same sudden burst which Chicago had
+in 1893, and Philadelphia took on the aspect
+in the next twenty years, 1876 to 1896, which
+the great city will always hold. Cheap freights
+poured in new building-stones, and the easily
+worked green serpentine was used in the University
+buildings and the Academy of Natural
+Science on Logan Square. It was employed in
+the Academy of Fine Arts, less agreeable than
+the earlier front of the same institution, now a
+theatre on Chestnut. The architectural impulse
+first felt at the Centennial broke up the
+traditions of a century, and building of the last
+twenty-five years, often <i>bizarre</i>, always shows,
+even in the humblest row, intent, design and
+recognition, however uncouth, of the just claim
+of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The seeing eye and loving can still trace all
+these changes of a century. The very kernel
+of the city, and its warehouses about Dock
+Square, and the river front, the expansion before
+the Revolution, the pause just after, the
+growth in the period after 1787, the addition
+early in the century and the great growth
+before and after the war and for twenty years
+past. Each has its character and quality, its
+message and purport, and these as they extended
+have met a growth as distinct and
+recognizable, north, west and south. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span>marks of these things and their metes and
+bounds, the current and course of population,
+the monuments of the past, the changing fashion
+of each decade and the desire of the
+present, these are all written in this moving
+tide of houses which has flooded all the wood-grown
+fields of two centuries ago. Generation
+by generation has seen a wider comfort,
+a higher level of life, an improving education
+and more abundant resource for the Many for
+whom this city has always existed. Dull, sordid,
+narrow, much of this life has been. From
+its dawn, it has had its seasons of stagnant
+corruption, and Penn but wrote the despair of
+all who have served it since,
+yet no man has labored and
+lived in it but has come to
+know its charm, to feel its
+life, to trust to the sure tides
+of its being, welling always
+towards a more complete
+comfort, and to love this vast amorphous city
+which broods over its children with a perpetual
+home nurture.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus113" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus113.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header2.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WILMINGTON">WILMINGTON</h2>
+
+<p class="center">“Her mingled streams of Swedish, Dutch and English blood.”</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By E. N. VALLANDIGHAM</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>When the adventurous William Usselinx,
+native of Antwerp and merchant of
+Stockholm, was growing old, he proposed to
+King Gustavus Adolphus that Sweden organize
+a trading company to operate in Asia,
+Africa, America, and Terra Magellanica. The
+King lent ear to Usselinx, and Usselinx was
+able to picture to the Swedish people the
+beauty and fertility of the region bordering on
+the Delaware, “a fine land, in which all the
+necessaries and comforts of life are to be enjoyed
+in overflowing abundance.” The proposed
+plans sped well for a time; the King
+pledged a great sum from the royal treasury
+in aid of the new company, and the Swedish
+people, nobles and commons, subscribed to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span>stock. But the King was shortly to be busied
+in the wars of Germany, and when he died at
+his great victory of Lützen, the plans of Usselinx
+were yet unexecuted. One biographer of
+Gustavus, indeed, says that the little fleet intended
+for America was seized by the Spaniards,
+but it is by no means certain that such
+a fleet ever set sail.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Christina, the daughter of Gustavus,
+permitted her able chancellor, Oxenstiern, to
+revive the charter of Usselinx, and Oxenstiern
+employed to take out a Swedish colony to the
+Delaware probably the fittest man in all the
+world for that task, Peter Minuet, sometime
+Governor of New Netherlands, driven from
+his post by the jealous factors that they
+might put in his place the more pliant Walter
+Van Twiller, surnamed the Doubter. The
+exact date of Minuet’s expedition is unknown,
+but Kieft, who succeeded Van Twiller in the
+Governorship of New Netherlands, made protest
+in May, 1638, against the presence upon
+the Delaware of Peter Minuet, “who stylest
+thyself commander in the service of her
+Majesty the Queen of Sweden.” Kieft warned
+Peter “that the whole South River [the Delaware]
+of the New Netherlands, both the upper
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span>and the lower, has been our property for many
+years, occupied by our forts, and sealed by our
+blood.”</p>
+
+<p>When Kieft’s protest reached the newly
+arrived Swedes, they were already in snug
+quarters on the edge of the River Minquas, as
+the Indians called it, or Christina, as the newcomers
+named it (set down on modern maps
+as Christiana, but in the mouths of those that
+navigate its waters, called Christeen); for they
+had sailed up the Delaware in the <i>Bird Grip</i>,
+or <i>Griffin</i>, and the <i>Key of Calmar</i>, and entering
+the Minquas, had come to anchor in
+deep water close against a natural wharf of
+rock, well within the present limits of Wilmington.
+Thus was made the true beginning of the
+city, though no part of the region it now occupies
+bore the name of Wilmington until a
+full century later.</p>
+
+<p>The newcomers built close to their original
+place of anchorage a little fort, and behind it
+a little village. Hudde, the Dutch commander
+at Fort Nassau, thirty miles up the Delaware,
+describing the Swedish fortification
+seven years later, says that it was “nearly encircled
+by a marsh, except on the northwest
+side, where it can be approached by land.”
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span>The fort was then and for years afterward, the
+only place of worship in the immediate region,
+and here from the founding of the colony
+the Rev. Reorus Torkillius, a Swedish clergyman
+of Latinized name, conducted the Lutheran
+service in the Swedish language. Thus
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span>church and state were planted together. Pastor
+Campanius, who came five years after
+Torkillius, found that beside Fort Christina
+had sprung up the village of Christina Harbor,
+or Christinaham, and Engineer Lindstrom,
+who came when the settlement was
+not yet twenty years old, has left us a map of
+this earliest Wilmington.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="illus114" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus114.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PLAN OF CHRISTINA FORT, 1655.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Before the Dutch had time to call the Swedish
+intruders to a reckoning Minuet died,
+and John Prinz was sent out as Governor.
+There had been the short intervening reign of
+Peter Hollendare. Prinz came under a cloud,
+having lost his rank as First Lieutenant by
+his over-hasty surrender of Chemnitz. Probably
+this fact may account for his restless
+energy as Governor of New Sweden. He
+sought to regain in the new world repute
+lost in the old. Prinz came with two ships,
+an armed transport, munitions of war, troops,
+and many immigrants, and with instructions
+to maintain and promote piety and education,
+to develop the resources of the colony, agricultural
+and mineral, to make friends with
+the Indians, and to live at peace with all
+neighboring Europeans. But he was to resent
+by force of arms, if need be, the pretensions of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span>the Dutch to any territorial or other rights
+upon the west side of the Delaware.</p>
+
+<p>Prinz built at Tinicum, or Tenacong as the
+Indians called it, near the present city of
+Chester, Pennsylvania, a fort to threaten the
+Dutch Fort Nassau, above; and likewise at the
+mouth of Salem Creek, on the Jersey shore,
+where the English had a small settlement, he
+built Fort Elfsborg, or Elsinborough. Both
+were promptly armed and garrisoned. He
+built still another fort, this time on the Schuylkill,
+within gunshot of its mouth, and in 1646
+he ordered a Dutch trading-vessel from that
+river. Furthermore, he caused to be torn
+down with despiteful words the arms of the
+Dutch, set up in sign of possession upon the
+present site of Philadelphia, and when reminded
+of the Dutch West India Company’s
+prior claim, he profanely answered that
+although Satan was the earliest possessor of
+hell, doubtless he sometimes welcomed new
+comers.</p>
+
+<p>But a day of reckoning was speedily to
+come, for Peter Stuyvesant, Governor of the
+New Netherlands, moved by the amazing
+activity of Prinz, bought from the Indians all
+the west side of the Delaware from Minquas
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span>Creek to Bompties (or Bombay) Hook, and
+in 1651, as some say,—before the building of
+Elfsborg as others say,—built Fort Casimir at
+Sand Huken, now Newcastle, on the Delaware,
+five miles below Fort Christina, and
+within sight of Elfsborg. Whichever fort
+was built first, it is pretty certain that the
+Swedes soon deserted Elfsborg, after naming
+it in disgust Myggenborg, which means Fort
+Mosquito. The excuse for the desertion was
+the insupportable insect pests of the region;
+so early did the New Jersey mosquito earn
+the reputation that clings to him even to this
+day. As for Prinz, alarmed at the activity
+of the Dutch, he vainly petitioned the home
+government for aid, and at length went off to
+Europe, leaving as deputy his son-in-law, John
+Pappegoja.</p>
+
+<p>And now the comedy of outflanking was to
+be followed by the comedy of bloodless capture
+and recapture, for Prinz had not been
+long gone when there arrived in the Delaware
+from Sweden, in the man-of-war <i>Eagle</i>, John
+Claudius Rising, as commissary and counsellor
+to the Governor, and Peter Lindstrom, military
+engineer, together with arms and soldiers.
+The Dutch at Fort Casimir were living in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span>unsuspicious peace when the <i>Eagle</i> suddenly
+appeared before the fort and demanded that
+the place surrender, as occupying Swedish
+ground. Rising enforced his demand by landing
+thirty soldiers, and the Dutch yielded upon
+favorable terms which secured to them all
+their property, public and private, and granted
+as well the honors of war. As the capture
+was made on Trinity Sunday, the name of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span>place was changed by the Swedes to Trefalldigheet,
+or Fort Trinity. This incident,
+which befell in the year 1655, is notable as the
+first passage at arms, if such it may be called,
+between rival European claimants to the western
+shore of the Delaware.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus115" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus115.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>RESIDENCE OF THE LATE THOMAS F. BAYARD.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But Rising’s prompt policy of aggression
+was a mistake, for it left the Dutch no alternative
+but counter-aggression; and accordingly
+Peter Stuyvesant, with seven ships and six
+hundred or seven hundred men, appeared before
+the deserted Elfsborg late in August, 1655,
+captured a few straggling Swedes ashore, endured
+the mosquitoes for one night only, and
+next day, having landed a force north of Fort
+Trinity to cut it off from Fort Christina, demanded
+that the garrison surrender. Swen
+Schute, the Swedish commander, despite a
+name that ought to have been formidable in
+war, was as obligingly prompt in compliance as
+the Dutch commander had been a few months
+earlier. There was, as before, a friendly arrangement
+as to the guaranty of property,
+public and private, but Swen Schute never
+dared return to Sweden lest he be brought to
+book for his alacrity in surrendering.</p>
+
+<p>Now came the taking of Fort Christina,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span>immortalized by Washington Irving’s genius of
+burlesque. Rising, aware of his weakness, professed
+to believe that the Dutch had no further
+hostile intent, but when they invested Fort
+Christina on three sides, planted cannon, and
+called for the surrender of the place in forty-eight
+hours, he first temporized, then put on a
+bold face, and finally, without striking a blow,
+surrendered. So ended Swedish rule in Delaware,
+and so began the short-lived Dutch
+supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch guaranteed to the vanquished
+religious liberty and all other reasonable privileges,
+so that few Swedes took the chance
+afforded of selling their property and removing
+out of the jurisdiction. The Swedes, indeed,
+were soon reconciled to Dutch rule, and
+in fact the colony remained, in all save politics,
+as truly Swedish as it had been before. The
+Dutch children learned the Swedish tongue,
+and as the Swedes far outnumbered the Dutch,
+the latter were soon lost in the mass of the
+former. When a nephew of Prinz visited the
+country, late in the seventeenth century, he
+found that the people “used the old Swedish
+way in all things.” Pastor Rudman wrote
+home to Sweden that the mother tongue was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span>still spoken in all its purity by the colonists at
+Christinaham, and as a matter of fact it did
+not entirely cease to be used in the services
+of the Swedish church until more than a century
+and a quarter had elapsed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="illus116" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus116.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD SWEDES CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Luckily for the Swedes they were too busy
+to trouble themselves about a change of masters,
+and when the agents of James, Duke of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span>York, having possessed themselves of New
+Amsterdam in 1664, after Charles I. had magnificently
+given to James all the country between
+the Connecticut and the east bank of
+the Delaware, also seized New Sweden as a
+dependency of New Netherlands, the good
+folk at Christinaham accepted the new situation
+and went about their business. The attempted
+rebellion of Königsmark, “the Long
+Finn,” who called himself a son of General
+Count William Von Königsmark, and the
+historical interlude of the Dutch occupation in
+1673 and 1674, when the forts changed hands,
+in the usual bloodless fashion, twice in a few
+months, did not profoundly shake the community
+on the Minquas. The second surrender
+left the English in secure possession.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of this apparent indifference to
+governmental changes, one thing did move the
+Swedes, and was doubtless in part responsible
+for the welcome they gave the return of the
+Dutch: this was a tariff imposed by the
+English rulers upon all inward-bound merchandise
+passing the capes of the Delaware.
+At this juncture there came to the rescue
+the best friend the Swedes had yet found
+in the new world, a man so wise and just
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span>in his dealing with civilized man and savage
+on this side the Atlantic, so generous, tolerant,
+large-minded and large-hearted in all that
+concerned the great powers entrusted to him,
+that one can hardly understand how even
+so audacious an iconoclast as Macaulay had
+the hardihood to assail his memory. This
+man was William Penn, who, having recently
+become trustee for Quaker estates in West
+Jersey, made prompt protest against the tariff
+and had it revoked—an early triumph for the
+principle of no taxation without representation.</p>
+
+<p>When, soon after, he became proprietor
+of the “Three Counties on the Delaware,”
+the Swedes of Christinaham and the region
+round about knew him and were glad. Penn
+had an equally good opinion of the Swedes,
+for he says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“As they are a proper people, and strong of body,
+so they have fine children, and almost every house
+full. It is rare to find one of them without three or
+four boys and as many girls, some six, seven and
+eight sons. And I must do them that right to say I
+see few young men more sober and laborious.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>A Swedish writer of about the same period
+notes that the Swedish farmers are as well
+clad as the residents of cities. Penn describes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span>the houses in his new possessions as of a
+single story and divided into three apartments.
+A house and a barn suitable to a colonist
+might be built for seventy-five dollars.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="illus117" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus117.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>REV. ERIC BJORK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus118" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus118.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BISHOP LEE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Penn noted, however, that the Swedes were
+not so well educated as they should have been,
+and a few years later they were in such need
+of religious instruction, although they had but
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span>recently lost their pastor, that, partly through
+the representations of the proprietor and partly
+through the importunities of the Swedes themselves,
+the King of Sweden was induced to
+send out to Delaware the Rev. Eric Bjork.
+This good and energetic man, finding inconveniently
+situated the Swedish Lutheran church
+erected in 1667 at Crane Hook, or Tran Hook,
+near the mouth of the Christiana, conceived
+and executed the plan of building a new
+church near the scene of the original Swedish
+landing at the Rocks. The new edifice was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span>the Old Swedes of to-day, which celebrated the
+two hundredth anniversary of its dedication on
+the 28th of last May. This venerable church,
+now Holy Trinity of the Protestant Episcopal
+Diocese of Delaware, is revered and cherished
+as the one visible link which joins the city of
+Wilmington to her earliest past. In the churchyard
+lie the dead of many generations, and
+of almost all denominations. Here, side by
+side with the Swedish colonists of the early
+eighteenth century, lies the late Bishop Alfred
+Lee of the Episcopal Church, who in life, as
+learned as he was modest, was one of the
+American Committee for the Revision of the
+King James Bible. Here, too, was recently
+laid to rest, amid many of his kinsfolk, the
+late Ambassador Thomas F. Bayard, worn
+with long and honorable public service.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to the late Dr. Horace Burr we
+have an English translation of the earliest
+records of Old Swedes. In these records is
+contained a curious account of the difficulties
+attendant upon the building of the new church.
+There were quarrels over the glebe, the
+usual troubles with the contractor, and the
+inevitable changes of plan after the work was
+under way. Hired sawyers were paid so much
+per foot, and “drink.” In order to save wages
+the men of the parish came as they found
+leisure and hewed the timbers. Masons and
+other skilled mechanics came from Philadelphia,
+then “a clever little town,” and with
+them came Dick, a negro mortar-mixer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="illus119" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus119.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THOMAS F. BAYARD.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the erection of the new
+church, the community seems to have grown
+away from the scene of the original landing,
+until in 1731 Thomas Willing, son-in-law of
+Andrew Justison, of Swedish blood, laid out
+upon the Christiana front, half a mile from the
+Rocks, a new town modelled upon the rectangular
+plan of Philadelphia. The first house
+in Willingstown, built at the corner of Front
+and Market streets, bore in its brick gable
+a stone with the inscription, “J. W. S.,
+1732.” Three years later the place was only
+a small hamlet, but in that year Willingstown
+had a new birth, for then William Shipley,
+a wealthy, well educated and energetic
+English Friend of Ridley in Pennsylvania,
+came to the place and made himself, so to
+speak, its second founder. He came through
+the influence of his second wife, Elizabeth
+Lewis, a preacher of his own sect, who saw
+in a vision a goodly land lying at the foot
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span>of a hill and traversed by two rivers, one wild
+and dashing, the other sluggish and serpentine,
+and visiting by accident the region of the
+Swedish settlement on the Christiana, recognized
+the landscape of her vision.</p>
+
+<p>William Shipley built his house—an admirable
+example of eighteenth-century brickwork—at
+the corner of Fourth and Shipley
+streets, where it recently gave place to a
+modern business building. He built, also, a
+market-house for the town at the corner of
+Fourth and Market streets, and in doing so,
+paved the way for a quarrel with the partisans
+of the Second Street market-house, a body of
+citizens including many Swedes.</p>
+
+<p>So potent was the magic of William Shipley’s
+presence that in four years the town had
+reached six hundred inhabitants. Next year
+it received a borough charter from Penn, and
+its name was changed to Wilmington, in
+honor of Lord Wilmington, says Ebeling,
+the German historian. It was a tight little
+borough, the Wilmington of that day and of
+fifteen or twenty years later. The burgesses,
+who at first met about in taverns, at length
+were comfortably housed in a neat little Town
+Hall built upon arches over one end of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span>Second Street market. There were fairs during
+most of the eighteenth century; fairs to
+which hundreds came in holiday attire and
+dancing shoes to make merry to the sound of
+bagpipe, flute, fiddle and trombone. It is significant
+of grave Quaker austerity, perhaps,
+that the fairs were suppressed by act of Legislature
+in 1785, as nurseries of vice, a scandal
+to religion, and an offence to well ordered
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span>persons. There may have been some excuse
+for this severity, for indeed with the coming of
+the English had come something of the brutality
+of eighteenth-century English manners.
+Bullies fought naked to the waist in the
+market-place, and hired ruffians nearly cut
+down the posts that supported William Shipley’s
+market-house. The most picturesque
+modern survival of Wilmington in the eighteenth
+century is the King Street open-air
+market, and with it remains the statute against
+forestalling, made to meet the case of some
+early monopolist.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus120" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus120.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SHIPLEY BUILDING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Wilmington’s Quaker peace was little disturbed
+by echoes of European wars in the
+eighteenth century, though in 1741 the Christiana
+was fortified against possible Spanish
+pirates; but when the war of the Revolution
+came, Wilmington was loyal and ready. Old
+folk still preserve the tradition of Washington’s
+presence in the city just before the
+battle of the Brandywine, of his gay French
+officers in the sober house of a Quaker citizen,
+of President John McKinly’s capture at midnight
+by a detachment of British sent in after
+the battle, of the British wounded crowding the
+houses of citizens and probably saving the town
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span>from bombardment by British ships of war in
+the Delaware. Tradition recalls, too, the visit
+of Washington in his hour of victory, when he
+journeyed homeward to Mount Vernon, of his
+other visit on his journey northward to be
+inaugurated as President at New York, and
+of still another visit in 1791, when he made his
+famous progress through the country. On
+that last visit, riding in his chariot of state
+through little Brandywine village, opposite
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span>Wilmington, on the left bank of the Brandywine,
+he stopped at the house of miller Joseph
+Tatnall, to learn that he was at the mill, and
+then, with those great strides of his, walked
+through the village street to the edge of the
+stream, entered the mill, and talked with the
+courageous patriot Quaker of his services to
+the army during the war.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus121" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus121.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD FRIENDS’ MEETING-HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>By this time the borough had travelled far
+from the crudity of Swedish days and had
+even departed somewhat from the severity of
+Quaker tradition. There were French emigrants
+from the black terror in Santo Domingo,
+and from the red terror in France.
+There were soon to be other French immigrants,—Du
+Ponts, bringing a mingled flavor
+of aristocracy, learning and benevolence, destined
+to found great factories and to give
+patriot soldiers and sailors to the land of their
+adoption, and yet to retain even to the fifth
+generation the Gallic face, and air, and manner.</p>
+
+<p>Wealth and elegance were come to the little
+community on the Minquas. Had not Robert
+Montgomery made the tour of Europe, and
+did he not for four months during the plague
+of yellow fever at Philadelphia entertain Governor
+McKean of Pennsylvania? Did not
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span>another wealthy citizen entertain one hundred
+refugees of the same period? And there was
+Gunning Bedford, Jr., <i>aide-de-camp</i> and friend
+to Washington, inheritor of his crimson satin
+Masonic sash, his appointee as first Federal
+Judge for the District of Delaware. He
+and his wife, a Read of distinguished colonial
+stock, entertained friend and stranger with
+splendid hospitality in the very house in Market
+Street that had been the headquarters of
+Washington’s French officers. The Bedfords
+were Presbyterians. Gunning Bedford, Jr.,
+worshipped in the quaint little First Presbyterian
+Church in Market Street near Tenth,
+now reverently preserved and occupied by the
+Delaware Historical Society. Hard by in the
+churchyard you may see Judge Bedford’s
+tomb, a low but graceful domed shaft facing
+the public street, so that all may read the lesson
+of civic virtue, and bearing an inscription
+that closes thus:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“His form was goodly, his temper amiable,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">His manners winning, and his discharge</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Of private duties exemplary.</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Reader, may his example stimulate you to improve
+the talents—be they five, or two, or one—with which God
+has entrusted you.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span></p>
+
+<p>Wilmington built her new Town Hall just a
+century ago last year, and Friend Joseph Tatnall
+gave the clock that shone in its tower
+and told the hours. The clock went out of
+use more than thirty years ago, but the building
+remains, not altogether spoiled by modern
+additions, sacred because of its associations,
+and testifying to the solidity with which the
+city fathers built in the last century.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="illus122" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus122.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HOUSE OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When the City Hall was built Penn’s
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span>charter, unamended, still served the community,
+and continued to serve until 1809, when it was
+amended and the borough limits were enlarged.
+The town was yet merely a borough
+when the War of 1812 came on, and Senator
+James A. Bayard, the first of four Bayards to
+represent Delaware in the United States Senate,
+helped with his own hands to build a fort
+almost upon the site of Fort Christina. A
+city charter came in 1832. The mayor was
+elected for three years by the city council,
+and the first mayor chosen was Richard H.
+Bayard.</p>
+
+<p>Wilmington as the intellectual centre of the
+State was naturally also the home of radical
+thought. Quaker sentiment had sunk deep
+into the community. An anti-slavery society
+was organized early. A great meeting at
+the Town Hall in 1820 adopted resolutions
+against the extension of slavery into the territories.
+Sam Townsend, a picturesque and
+characteristic figure in the mid-century politics
+of the State, was amazed and horrified to find
+that his brother, home after a week’s visit to
+Wilmington, had returned with a tincture of
+abolitionism. Sam and his neighbors labored
+with the erring one, but could not meet his arguments
+against holding one’s fellow-men in
+bondage until Sam bethought him to deny
+the humanity of the negro, and thus snatched
+the brother as a brand from the burning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus123" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus123.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CITY HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span></p>
+
+<p>Wilmington was a station on the “underground
+railroad,” and Thomas Garrett, a Quaker
+of Pennsylvanian birth, was the station-master—a
+man of prudence but of dauntless courage,
+who, left penniless at sixty by reason of a fine
+imposed upon him for violation of the Fugitive
+Slave Law, declared upon the court-house steps
+in his peculiar lisp: “I did it; I’m glad I did
+it; and I’d do it again.” The Civil War came
+too soon for him, he said, for he had hoped
+to help away three thousand slaves, and had
+stopped at two thousand seven hundred.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus124" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus124.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NEWCASTLE COUNTY COURT HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[364]</span></p>
+
+<p>The conflict found Wilmington a little city
+of rough-cobbled streets, the metropolis of a
+small surrounding territory, visited daily by
+country folk, who drove twelve or fifteen miles,—came
+“to town,” as the phrase went,—and
+having made their purchases, drove home, whipping
+in dread past “Folly Woods,” since the
+days of Sandy Flash a place of evil reputation.
+The firing upon Fort Sumter stirred the community
+to its depths, and the city lost no time
+in sending to the front more than her quota
+of volunteers. Flags fluttered out all over the
+city. Barbers made haste to add to their poles
+a third stripe, a blue one, in token of loyalty.
+Amid all the enthusiasm it was a time of acrid
+bitterness, for Delaware was a border State
+with citizens holding openly or secretly opinions
+of many shades other than that recognized
+as true blue. There were reported sullen
+threats of incendiarism on the part of the disaffected;
+there were many arrests of the disloyal,
+and stubborn but entirely conscientious
+men, who would not take the oath of allegiance
+and were imprisoned or publicly shamed.
+It was no time for a nice weighing of motives,
+and the fires of the war-time hatreds
+were nearly a generation in cooling. The
+city came out of the war chastened by sorrow
+and pained by bitter contention, but ready
+for a newer and broader life. She has since
+grown to 70,000 people. Her boundaries
+have been extended to the Delaware; her factories
+have vastly increased in volume and variety.
+Miles of territory have been covered
+with new homes. Water-works, sewers and
+parks have been created. New Castle, the
+old Dutch capital of New Amstel, has yielded
+up the court-house to Wilmington, but has
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span>held on to the whipping-post, as perhaps not
+quite in keeping with the modern mood of the
+city. But in spite of growth and change the
+old Quaker spirit, the ineradicable instinct of
+sobriety and decency, remains along with the
+Swedish and Dutch names two and a half centuries
+ago. When the hush of evening falls
+upon the city and the crowds have melted
+from the sidewalks, then in the dusk of the
+deserted streets one may easily imagine the
+distinguished William Shipley and the gracious
+Elizabeth, the grin of broad-faced Dutchmen
+fresh from the harrowing of Swen Schute,
+the spectral figures of tow-haired Swedish
+farmers, or the grave, black-clad form of
+Pastor Torkillius with solemn eyes bent upon
+wondering peasant lads and lasses.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus125" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus125.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY OF WILMINGTON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header7.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="BUFFALO">BUFFALO</h2>
+
+<p class="center">“THE QUEEN CITY OF THE LAKES”</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ROWLAND B. MAHANY</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Few cities of the United States have a history
+more picturesque than Buffalo, or
+more typical of the forces that have made the
+Republic great. At the time of the adoption
+of the Federal constitution, in 1787, not a single
+white settler dwelt on the site of what is
+now the Queen of the Lakes; and it was not
+until after the second presidency of Washington,
+that Joseph Ellicott, the founder of Buffalo,
+laid out the plan of the town, which he
+called New Amsterdam. Ellicott was a man
+of great ability, force and foresight, and with
+prophetic vision he saw the future importance
+of the city, which is now the fourth commercial
+entrepôt of the world. He had been the
+assistant of his brother, Andrew Ellicott, the
+first Surveyor General of the United States;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span>and the two brothers, together with General
+Washington,—himself an engineer by profession,—had
+collaborated
+with
+Captain Pierre
+Charles L’Enfant
+the plan of
+the National
+Capital. With
+the beautiful design
+of Washington
+City fresh
+in his mind, Joseph
+Ellicott
+gave to the village
+of New
+Amsterdam a
+similar system of
+radiating broad avenues, embracing in the territory
+they enclosed rectangular systems of
+streets. The avenues were 99 feet in width
+and the streets 66 feet. The surveys were
+begun in 1798 and completed in 1805. Indirectly,
+therefore, Buffalo is indebted to
+President Washington for some of its topographical
+features.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus126" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus126.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOSEPH ELLICOTT.</p>
+      <p>FOUNDER OF BUFFALO.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The early history of the village is not unlike
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span>that of most of our inland cities which have
+grown from conditions common to the Canadian
+and to the western frontier; and differs,
+perhaps, chiefly in this regard, that owing to
+the natural advantages of the town’s situation
+and its proximity to the great cataract of
+Niagara Falls, its annals are rich with instances
+of exploration, of war and of romance;
+for adventure and enterprise met here at the
+beginning of the century.</p>
+
+<p>The period when the Mohawks, the Eries,
+the Hurons, the Tuscaroras, the Neuters (so
+called because they were a peaceful tribe) and
+the Senecas were the sole possessors of this
+region was succeeded by the epoch of the
+French traders, whose business was in turn
+absorbed by their Dutch competitors. These
+gave way to the alert descendants of New
+England, who yielded back again the supremacy
+to a group of Dutch capitalists, composing
+the Holland Land Company, whose first agent
+was Joseph Ellicott.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive scenery of Buffalo must have
+been almost incomparable in its beauty. The
+wooded hills, the fertile plains, the superb
+river and the mighty lake enchanted alike the
+savage and the civilized beholder. Even now,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span>when commerce has invaded the loveliness of
+the prospect by investing one of the greatest
+harbors in the world with a fortress of elevators
+and crowding it with a forest of masts,
+artists and tourists unite in saying that the
+Buffalo sunsets are not rivalled anywhere save
+by those on the Bay of Naples.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806, the first schoolhouse was built on
+the corner of Swan and Pearl streets,—the
+humble pioneer of an educational system that
+now embraces sixty modern grammar schools,
+three collegiate High Schools, and innumerable
+independent and private institutions of
+learning. Notable among these latter is the
+Le Couteulx Asylum for the instruction of the
+deaf and dumb. This beneficent institution
+owes its origin to the liberality of the Le
+Couteulx family. Louis Stephen Le Couteulx
+de Caumont, a Norman-French gentleman of
+station and culture, was the founder of the
+family in Buffalo. He came to New Amsterdam
+in 1804.</p>
+
+<p>On February 10, 1810, the “Town of Buffaloe”
+was created by an act of the legislature.
+This was the name originally given to the settlement
+by the Senecas, and there is little
+doubt that it was derived from the visits of the
+bison to the neighboring salt-licks. However
+that may be, the village of New Amsterdam
+was merged in 1810 into the town of Buffalo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus127" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus127.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>LAFAYETTE SQUARE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span></p>
+
+<p>With the disappearance of the Dutch appellation
+of the town, vanished also the Dutch
+nomenclature of the streets. Van Staphorst
+and Willink Avenues were connected and
+called Main Street; Stadinzky Avenue, a name
+suggestive of the Polish element that later was
+to swell in such numbers the population of the
+city, became Church Street; Niagara Street
+succeeded Schimmelpennick Avenue; and
+Vollenhoven Avenue was changed into Erie
+Street.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of some of Buffalo’s thoroughfares
+is interesting and amusing. Utica Street
+was formerly a lane on the old Hodge farm,
+and led from the Cold Spring region to
+the Elmwood Avenue district. The people
+using it, however, were very careless about
+closing the gates, and this so irritated Mr.
+Hodge that he locked the gates and closed
+the lane. An indignation meeting was called
+in the little schoolhouse at Cold Spring. The
+schoolmaster was the chief speaker, and unless
+tradition does violence to his grammar, the
+principal part of his speech consisted of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span>declaration that “them Hodges is maintainin’
+a ‘pent-up Uticky.’” When Mr. Hodge heard
+of the meeting, he relented and offered to give
+the people the lane on condition that the town
+government would lay out a street. The offer
+was accepted and the new thoroughfare was
+called Utica Street in commemoration of the
+schoolmaster’s speech.</p>
+
+<p>The inevitable newspaper appeared on the
+3d of October, 1811, when the Buffalo <i>Gazette</i>
+issued its first number. The <i>Gazette</i>
+was the forerunner of journals which to-day
+recognize as their only competitors the Metropolitan
+press.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of June, 1812, the tidings of
+war with Great Britain reached Buffalo, and on
+August 13th the first gun of the struggle is said
+to have been fired by the battery at Black Rock,
+then a rival, now a suburb, of Buffalo. The excitement
+was intense; for all recognized that
+the growing town, because of its frontier situation,
+was sure to be one of the theatres of hostilities.
+Nor was this a mistaken idea, as
+subsequent events proved. Immediately after
+the declaration of war, the British soldiers from
+the Canadian garrison at Fort Erie, directly
+across the river from Buffalo, made an incursion,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span>and captured the schooner <i>Connecticut</i>,
+at anchor in the Buffalo Creek. This humiliation,
+however, was more than wiped out by the
+daring exploit of Lieutenant Jesse D. Elliott,
+U. S. N., who, on October 9, 1812, crossed the
+river, and boldly attacked two vessels lying under
+the guns of Fort Erie. One of these, the <i>Detroit</i>,
+of six guns, had been captured by the British
+at the surrender of that town; the other was
+the <i>Caledonia</i>, of two guns. With a loss of two
+killed and five wounded, Elliott’s force captured
+both vessels and took prisoners, officers
+and men, to the number of seventy-one. Forty-seven
+American prisoners taken by the British
+at the River Raisin, were released by Elliott.
+The <i>Detroit</i> was carried down the stream when
+the cables were cut, and ran aground on Squaw
+Island. The British opened a lively cannonading
+from the Canadian shore and attempted
+to recapture the vessel, but were driven off by
+the Americans, who, unable to float it, burned
+it to the water’s edge. For his brilliant coup,
+Lieutenant Elliott was voted a sword of honor
+by Congress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus128" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus128.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>A GLIMPSE OF BUFFALO HARBOR.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span></p>
+
+<p>One great advantage the British possessed
+early in the war was their superiority on the
+Lakes. The <i>Queen Charlotte</i>, of twenty-two
+guns, the <i>Hunter</i>, of twelve guns, and a small
+armed schooner patrolled the Erie coast-line in
+the neighborhood of Buffalo, and kept the inhabitants
+of the region in a constant state of
+fear and excitement. To remedy this disadvantage,
+the Government, in the spring of
+1813, sent Captain Oliver Hazard Perry to fit
+out a war fleet at Erie, Pennsylvania. He arrived
+in Buffalo in March, and thence proceeded
+to his destination. The Government
+had purchased a number of merchant craft,
+and these he immediately began converting
+into men-of-war. Some new vessels also were
+built. Five gunboats were fitted out at Buffalo
+on Scajaquada Creek. On September 10,
+1813, Perry, with an inferior force, both in the
+number of men and guns, gave battle to the
+British and captured or destroyed their entire
+fleet. This victory was not only the most notable
+of the war, but is one of the most conspicuous
+in our naval history. In the midst
+of the battle Perry’s ship was sunk, and he left
+it in an open boat, and, under the fire of the
+enemy, went to another vessel of his fleet,
+whence he directed the operations that rendered
+the battle of Lake Erie an illustrious
+triumph for American arms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span></p>
+
+<p>In a few months, however, the exultation of
+Buffalo’s citizens was turned into mourning
+through the burning of the town by the British.
+On the 29th of December, General
+Riall, with twelve hundred men, regulars, militia
+and Indians, landed below Scajaquada
+Creek, and owing to the confusion which prevailed
+in the councils of the local military
+commanders, captured the town with little
+difficulty. The inhabitants had fled, and every
+dwelling, with one or two exceptions, was given
+over to the flames. Mrs. St. John and two of
+her daughters remained to protect their house,
+and owing to the chivalry of Colonel Elliott,
+the commander of the Indians, neither the
+ladies nor their household possessions were
+molested. Mrs. Joshua Lovejoy, who also remained
+in her home, where the Tifft House
+now stands, was imprudent enough to have an
+altercation with the Indians, and was slain by
+one of them. Her house was burned, and her
+dead body with it.</p>
+
+<p>On the withdrawal of the British, the citizens
+returned from their flight, bringing back
+with them such household goods as they had
+gathered together on their hasty departure,
+and forthwith the rebuilding of Buffalo commenced.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[378]</span>The American loss in the engagement
+preceding the capture of the town was
+heavy. Between forty and fifty of our troops
+were killed, as many more wounded, and about
+ninety prisoners were carried off by the victors.
+From all these reverses the people of the little
+town measurably recovered in the succeeding
+five or six months. On April 10, 1814, Brigadier-General
+Winfield Scott came to Buffalo,
+and shortly after, Major-General Brown arrived.
+The preparations for an advance on the Canadian
+position were pushed forward as rapidly
+as possible, and on July 3d the movement began.
+Three brigades,—two of regulars, one of
+volunteers,—accompanied by a few Indians,
+crossed the river, and captured Fort Erie.
+Thence proceeding down the Canadian bank,
+they engaged the enemy at Chippewa on July
+5th, and won a decisive victory.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans wore temporary uniforms of
+gray, and it was in honor of the conspicuous
+gallantry displayed by our troops in this conflict
+that gray was adopted as the uniform for
+the West Point cadets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="illus129" style="max-width: 26.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus129.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ST. PAUL’S CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span></p>
+
+<p>The volunteer brigade was commanded by
+General Peter B. Porter, for many years a
+member of Congress from Erie County, and
+afterwards Secretary of War for a brief period
+under John Quincy Adams. General Porter
+distinguished himself also in the battle of
+Lundy’s Lane, and throughout the war gained
+such reputation for valor, skill and eloquence,
+that to him has been assigned the credit of
+being the pioneer in organizing the volunteer
+system of the American Army.</p>
+
+<p>During all this war the famous Seneca chief,
+Red Jacket, took an active part in behalf of
+the Americans, and though he had little love
+for the white men on either side of the controversy,
+still his influence was cast in favor of
+those who were the neighbors and friends of
+his people. Innumerable anecdotes are told
+of the wisdom, oratory and dignity of the
+great sachem, and a later generation has raised
+in Forest Lawn Cemetery an imposing statue
+to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle of Chippewa, General Riall,
+the British commander, retreated to Queenstown,
+and thence to Fort George, the Americans
+in pursuit. The British, however, were
+reinforced and General Brown decided to return
+to Fort Erie. Riall, in turn, pursued.
+On July 25th the contending forces met near
+Lundy’s Lane, and one of the most fiercely
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[381]</span>fought battles of the war followed. The conflict
+began a little before nightfall, and raged
+until nearly ten o’clock, when the Americans
+held undisputed possession of the field. General
+Riall and one hundred and sixty-eight
+prisoners were captured. Both General Brown
+and General Scott were wounded, as was also
+Captain Worth, afterwards famous in the
+Mexican War.</p>
+
+<p>The command of the American forces then
+devolved upon General Ripley, who took up
+his position at Fort Erie and was there besieged
+by Lieutenant-General Drummond.
+On August 3d, the British directed a savage
+onslaught against the Fort, but were driven
+back with loss. They continued, however,
+to invest the American position. On September
+17th, General Porter headed an attack on
+the besieging force, and such was the gallantry
+of the American volunteers that the British
+veterans were dispersed. General Napier,
+the English military historian, cites this sortie
+as one of the few in all history that at a single
+stroke compelled the raising of a siege. The
+Governor brevetted Porter a major-general,
+and Congress voted him a gold medal.</p>
+
+<p>With this exploit at Fort Erie, the War of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span>1812 was practically over, so far as the interests
+of Buffalo were concerned. When the
+American troops retired from Fort Erie, they
+blew it up, and its ruins are one of the picturesque
+features of the region about Buffalo.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial greatness of the city is
+indissolubly associated with the Erie Canal.
+In 1807-8 Jesse Hawley of Geneva wrote a
+series of articles in the <i>Ontario Messenger</i>. In
+these he advocated the construction of a grand
+canal connecting Lake Erie with the Atlantic
+Ocean. This idea found favor with Joseph
+Ellicott, DeWitt Clinton, Gouverneur Morris,
+and Peter B. Porter, and so strong did the
+sentiment for the project become, that in 1816
+a bill passed the Assembly, directing that the
+work of construction be commenced. The
+Senate, however, decided that additional surveys
+should be made. The work of preparation
+was inaugurated July 14, 1817; and on
+the 9th of August, 1823, the work of actual
+construction began in Erie County by the
+breaking of ground for the canal, near the
+place where is now the Commercial Street
+bridge in Buffalo. The great waterway was
+completed on October 25, 1825, and the first
+boat, <i>Seneca Chief</i>, started on its voyage from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span>Buffalo to the Hudson. DeWitt Clinton,
+then the Governor of the State and chief
+promoter of the canal, graced the ceremonies
+with his presence.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="illus130" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus130.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MILLARD FILLMORE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In this connection, it is interesting to observe
+that, in 1819, the question whether Buffalo or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span>Black Rock should be the western terminus of
+the canal was settled in favor of the former
+through the public spirit and enterprise of
+Charles Townsend, Samuel Wilkeson, Oliver
+Forward and George Coit. These men gave
+each a bond of $8,000 for the purpose of
+securing a loan of $12,000 from the State to
+construct a harbor, the State reserving the
+right to accept or reject, as it pleased, the
+completed work. From this time on, Judge
+Wilkeson devoted his immense energies and
+great executive ability to the interests of Buffalo
+in connection with the canal, and to him
+may justly be ascribed the credit of being the
+founder of her lake commerce. It was altogether
+appropriate, therefore, that, on the
+opening of the canal, he should have been
+given the honor of pouring into the lake the
+water brought from the ocean, an event described
+as the Wedding of the Atlantic and
+Lake Erie. It recalled the marriage in old
+time of Venice and the Adriatic.</p>
+
+<p>Near where LaSalle, in 1679, built his little
+sailing vessel, the <i>Griffin</i>, three New York
+capitalists completed on May 28, 1818, the
+first steamboat that plied the waters of Lake
+Erie. This was fittingly named, after the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[385]</span>Wyandot chieftain, <i>Walk-in-the-Water</i>. The
+little vessel was lost three years later, but it
+marked the beginning of steam navigation on
+the Lakes—since grown to such perfection as
+to rival the navigation of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Erie Canal has been
+incomparably great, not merely in the rise of
+one city, but, in a larger sense, in the development
+of the State and the nation. The commercial
+forces which it generated have aided
+in building up the wealth of the Middle West,
+and the impetus of the resultant enterprise has
+finally reached every industry of the continent.
+To the canal, more than to any other factor,
+Buffalo owes its growth and importance. The
+little hamlet founded by Joseph Ellicott now
+has a population of 390,000. The city’s coal
+receipts in 1898 were 2,455,191 tons; its lumber
+receipts, 189,075,938 feet; its grain receipts,
+267,395,434 bushels. It has a harbor
+enclosed by a new breakwater nearly four
+miles in length, and costing over $2,000,000.
+The coal interests have constructed the greatest
+trestles in the world. Forty-one elevators,
+with a capacity of 20,920,000 bushels, line the
+harbor. There are 3500 manufactories. The
+park system comprises thousands of acres, with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span>seventeen miles of park driveways. Twenty-six
+railroads enter the city, with 250 passenger
+trains daily, and have nearly 700 miles of
+trackage within the city limits. The electric
+power from Niagara Falls is delivered at Buffalo
+in practically unlimited quantities. There
+are 24 banks, and 184 churches. The city has
+116 miles of street paved with stone, 6 miles
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[387]</span>paved with brick, and 225 miles with asphalt,
+or more asphalt than any other city in the
+world, not excepting Paris, Washington, or
+London. Two public libraries contain more
+than 180,000 volumes. In handling flour and
+wheat, Buffalo is the first city in the world.
+Its fresh-fish industry aggregates an annual
+distribution of 15,000,000 pounds. Buffalo’s
+horse market is the most important in the
+country; and in cattle and hogs, the trade of
+the city is second only to that of Chicago.
+The sheep market is the largest in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="illus131" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus131.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BEACON ON OLD BREAKWATER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The climate of Buffalo, with the exception
+of high winds during certain portions of the
+winter, is probably as delightful as that enjoyed
+by any city on the globe. In summer,
+the temperature is nearly always moderate,
+and when other cities suffer from extreme
+heat, the people of Buffalo are blessed with
+the conditions common to late summer in
+other regions.</p>
+
+<p>The residence portion of the city is celebrated
+for its beauty. The avenues are wide,
+the dwellings elegant and commodious, the
+lawn effects charming, and the trees superb.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus132" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus132.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DELAWARE AVENUE, SHOWING BISHOP QUIGLEY’S HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Buffalo is entering upon what might be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[388]</span>termed its metropolitan period. New forces,
+new ideas, are building splendid superstructures
+on the foundations established by the generation
+now passing away. From the time of the
+city’s incorporation, in 1832, the bench and
+the bar, the medical and the clerical professions,
+have been especially rich with the names
+of those who have left a lasting impress upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span>the thought of the city, the state and the nation.
+The political life and the business progress
+have been dignified by men of intellect
+and character.
+Such names as
+the Right Reverend
+Arthur
+Cleveland Coxe,
+Protestant Episcopal
+Bishop of
+Western New
+York; the Right
+Reverend Stephen
+Vincent
+Ryan, Roman
+Catholic Bishop
+of Buffalo; John
+Ganson, one of
+the giants of the
+legal profession; Millard Fillmore, a former
+President of the United States; Doctors
+George N. Burwell and John Cronyn, cultured
+physicians of the old school; William I. Williams,
+the pioneer of Buffalo’s unrivalled paved
+streets; the Reverend Doctor William Shelton,
+rector of St. Paul’s Church; the Reverend
+Doctor John Lord, perhaps the most famous
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span>of Buffalo’s Presbyterian divines; James M.
+Smith, Justice of the Supreme Court, recall
+types of men whose ability, integrity and civic
+worth would
+contribute to
+advance civilization
+in any community.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus133" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus133.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DR. JOHN CRONYN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus134" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus134.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WILLIAM I. WILLIAMS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>During the
+Civil War, Buffalo
+did its patriotic
+share
+towards the
+preservation of
+the Union. The
+names of William
+F. Rogers,
+Michael Wiedrich,
+James P.
+McMahon, Daniel D. Bidwell, Edward P.
+Chapin, John Wilkeson and William Richardson
+are cherished by the people of Buffalo and
+Erie County as typical of the soldiers who, in
+regiment after regiment, enlisted there for the
+war.</p>
+
+<p>In legislation, also, the city contributed its
+part to the successful prosecution of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[391]</span>struggle. On December 30, 1861, Mr. E. G.
+Spaulding, member of Congress from Buffalo,
+introduced the bill which afterwards became
+famous as the Legal-Tender Act, whereby the
+Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to
+issue $50,000,000 in Treasury notes, payable
+on demand, in denominations of not less than
+$5, these to be the legal tender for all debts,
+public and private, and exchangeable for the
+bonds of the Government at par.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly every element of American progress
+has entered into the growth of this beautiful
+city. Its development has been brilliant in
+enterprise, luminous in education, rich in romance,
+splendid in achievement, and noble in
+patriotism. In a word, Buffalo has kept pace
+with the Great Republic.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus135" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus135.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY OF BUFFALO.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[393]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PITTSBURGH">PITTSBURGH</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE INDUSTRIAL CITY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By SAMUEL HARDEN CHURCH</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>George Washington, the Father
+of his Country, is equally the Father of
+Pittsburgh, for he came thither in November,
+1753, and established the location of the now
+imperial city by choosing it as the best place
+for a fort. Washington was then twenty-one
+years old. He had by that time written his
+precocious one hundred and ten maxims of
+civility and good behavior; had declined to
+be a midshipman in the British Navy; had
+made his only sea-voyage to Barbadoes; had
+surveyed the estates of Lord Fairfax, going
+for months into the forest without fear of savage
+Indians or wild beasts, and was now a
+major of Virginia militia. In pursuance of the
+claim of Virginia that she owned that part of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[394]</span>Pennsylvania in which Pittsburgh is situated,
+Washington came there as the agent of Governor
+Dinwiddie to treat with the Indians.
+With an eye alert for the dangers of the wilderness,
+and with Christopher Gist beside him,
+the young Virginian pushed his cautious way to
+“The Point” of land where the confluence of
+the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers forms
+the Ohio. That, he declared, with clear military
+instinct, was the best site for a fort; and
+he rejected the promontory two miles below,
+which the Indians had recommended for that
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="illus136" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus136.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>AN EARLY RESIDENT OF PITTSBURGH.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A STATUE BY T. A. MILLS IN THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[396]</span></p>
+
+<p>As early as 1728 a daring hunter or trader
+found the Indians at the head waters of the
+Ohio,—among them the Delawares, Shawanese,
+Mohicans and Iroquois,—whither they
+tracked the bear from their village of Logstown,
+seventeen miles down the river. They
+also employed the country roundabout as a
+highway for their march to battle against
+other tribes, and against each other. At that
+time France and England were disputing for
+the new continent. France, by right of her
+discovery of the Mississippi, claimed all the
+lands drained by that river and its tributaries,—a
+contention which would naturally
+plant her banner upon the summit of the
+Alleghany Mountains.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> England, on the other
+hand, claimed everything from ocean-shore
+to ocean-shore. This situation produced war,
+and Pittsburgh became the strategic key of
+the great Middle West. The French made
+early endeavors to win the allegiance of the
+Indians, and they felt encouraged to press
+their friendly overtures because they usually
+came among the red men for trading or exploration,
+while the English invariably seized
+and occupied their lands. In 1731 some
+French settlers did attempt to build a group
+of houses at Pittsburgh, but the Indians compelled
+them to go away. The next year the
+Governor of Pennsylvania summoned two
+Indian chiefs from Pittsburgh to say why they
+had been going to see the French Governor
+at Montreal; and they gave answer that he
+had sent for them only to express the hope
+that both English and French traders might
+meet at Pittsburgh and carry on trade amicably.
+The Governor of Pennsylvania sought
+to induce the tribes to draw themselves
+farther east, where they might be made to feel
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[397]</span>the hand of authority, but Sassoonan, their
+chief, forbade them to stir. An Iroquois
+chief who joined his entreaties to those of the
+Governor was soon afterward killed by some
+Shawanese braves, but they were forced to
+flee into Virginia to escape the vengeance of
+his tribe.</p>
+
+<p>Louis Celeron, a French officer, made an
+exploration of the country contiguous to
+Pittsburgh in 1747, and formally enjoined the
+Governor of Pennsylvania not to occupy the
+ground, as France claimed its sovereignty. A
+year later the Ohio Company was formed, with
+a charter ceding an immense tract of land for
+sale and development, including Pittsburgh.
+This corporation built some storehouses at
+Logstown to facilitate their trade with the
+Indians, which were captured by the French,
+together with skins and commodities valued
+at £20,000; and the purposes of the Company
+were never accomplished.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus137" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus137.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SUN-DIAL USED AT FORT DUQUESNE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As soon as Washington’s advice as to the
+location of the fort was received, Captain William
+Trent was dispatched to Pittsburgh with
+a force of soldiers and workmen, packhorses
+and materials, and he began in all haste to
+erect a stronghold. The French had already
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[398]</span>built forts on the northern lakes, and they now
+sent Captain Contrecœur down the Allegheny
+with one thousand French, Canadians and
+Indians, and eighteen pieces of cannon, in a
+flotilla of sixty bateaux and three hundred
+canoes. Trent had planted himself in Pittsburgh
+on February 17, 1754,—a date important
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span>because it marks the first permanent white
+settlement there. But his work had been retarded
+alike by the small number of his men
+and the severity of the winter; and when
+Contrecœur arrived in April, the young subaltern
+who commanded in Trent’s absence
+surrendered the unfinished works, and was
+permitted to march away with his thirty-three
+men. The French completed the fort and
+named it Duquesne, in honor of the Governor
+of Canada; and they held possession of it for
+four years.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately on the loss of this fort, Virginia
+sent a force under Washington to retake
+it. Washington surprised a French detachment
+near Great Meadows, and killed their
+commander, Jumonville. When a larger expedition
+came against him, he put up a stockade
+near the site of Uniontown, naming it Fort
+Necessity, which he was compelled to yield
+on terms of marching away with the honors
+of war.</p>
+
+<p>The next year (1755) General Edward
+Braddock came over with two regiments of
+British soldiers, and, after augmenting his
+force with Colonial troops and a few Indians,
+began his fatal march upon Fort Duquesne.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[400]</span>Braddock’s testy disposition, his consuming
+egotism, his contempt for the Colonial soldiers
+and his stubborn adherence to military maxims
+that were inapplicable to the warfare of the
+wilderness alienated the respect and confidence
+of the American contingent, robbed him of an
+easy victory and cost him his life. Benjamin
+Franklin had warned him against the imminent
+risk of Indian ambuscades, but he had
+contemptuously replied: “These savages may
+indeed be a formidable enemy to your raw
+American militia; but upon the King’s regular
+and disciplined troops, sir, it is impossible
+they should make any impression.” Some of
+his English staff-officers urged him to send
+the rangers in advance and to deploy his Indians
+as scouts, but he rejected their prudent
+suggestions with a sneer. On July 9th
+his army, comprising twenty-two hundred
+soldiers and one hundred and fifty Indians,
+was marching down the south bank of the
+Monongahela. The variant color and fashion
+of the expedition,—the red-coated regulars, the
+blue-coated Americans, the naval detachment,
+the rangers in deerskin shirts and leggings,
+the savages half-naked and befeathered, the
+glint of sword and gun in the hot daylight,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[401]</span>the long wagon train, the lumbering cannon,
+the drove of bullocks, the royal banner and
+the Colonial gonfalon,—the pomp and puissance
+of it all composed a spectacle of martial
+splendor unseen in that country before. On
+the right was the tranquil river, and on the
+left the trackless wilderness whence the startled
+deer sprang away into a deeper solitude. At
+noon the expedition crossed the river and
+pressed on toward Fort Duquesne, ten miles
+below, expectant of victory. What need to
+send out scouts when the King’s troops are
+here? Let young George Washington and
+the rest urge it all they may; the thing is
+beneath the dignity of his Majesty’s General.</p>
+
+<p>But here, when they have crossed, is a level
+plain, elevated but a few feet above the surface
+of the river, extending nearly half a mile landwards,
+and then gradually ascending into thickly
+wooded hills, with Fort Duquesne beyond.
+The troops in front had crossed the plain and
+plunged into the road through the forest for
+a hundred feet, when a heavy discharge of
+musketry and arrows was poured upon them,
+which wrought in them a consternation all the
+greater because they could see no foe anywhere.
+They shot at random, but without
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[402]</span>effect, while the hidden enemy kept up an incessant
+and destructive fire. In this distressing
+situation their courage forsook them, and
+they fell back into the plain. Braddock rode
+in among them, and he and his officers persistently
+endeavored to rally them, but without
+success. The Colonial troops adopted the Indian
+method, and each man fought for himself
+behind a tree. This was forbidden by Braddock,
+who attempted to form his men in platoons
+and columns, making their slaughter
+inevitable. The French and Indians, concealed
+in the ravines and behind trees, kept up a cruel
+and deadly fire, until the British soldiers lost
+all presence of mind and began to shoot each
+other and their own officers, and hundreds
+were thus slain. The Virginia companies
+charged gallantly up a hill with a loss of
+but three men, but when they reached the
+summit the British soldiery, mistaking them
+for the enemy, fired upon them, killing fifty
+out of eighty men. The Colonial troops then
+resumed the Indian fashion of fighting from
+behind trees, which provoked Braddock, who
+had had five horses killed under him in three
+hours, to storm at them and strike them with
+his sword. At this moment he was fatally
+wounded, and many of his men now fled away
+from the hopeless action. Washington had
+had two horses killed and received three
+bullets through his coat. Being the only
+mounted officer who was not disabled, he
+drew up the troops still on the field, directed
+their retreat, maintaining himself at the rear
+with great coolness and courage, and brought
+away his wounded general. Sixty-four British
+and American officers, and nearly one
+thousand privates, were killed or wounded
+in this battle, while the total French and Indian
+loss was not over sixty. A few prisoners
+captured by the Indians were brought to Pittsburgh
+and burnt at the stake. Four days after
+the fight Braddock died, exclaiming to the last,
+“Who would have thought it!”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[403]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus138" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus138.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE EARL OF CHATHAM.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN OIL PAINTING IN THE POSSESSION OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[404]</span></p>
+
+<p>Despondency seized the English settlers
+after Braddock’s defeat. But two years afterward
+William Pitt became Prime Minister,
+and he thrilled the nation with his appeal to
+protect the Colonies against France and the
+savages. His letters inspired the Americans
+with new hope, and he promised to send
+them British troops and to supply their own
+militia with arms, ammunition, tents and provisions
+at the King’s charge. He sent twelve
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span>thousand soldiers from England, which were
+joined to a Colonial force aggregating fifty
+thousand men,—the most formidable army yet
+seen in the new world. The plan of campaign
+embraced three expeditions: the first against
+Louisburg, in the island of Cape Breton, which
+was successful; the second against Ticonderoga,
+which succeeded after a defeat; and the
+third against Fort Duquesne. General Forbes
+commanded this expedition, comprising about
+seven thousand men. The militia from Virginia,
+North Carolina and Maryland was led
+by Washington. On September 12, 1758,
+Major Grant, a Highlander, led an advance-guard
+of 850 men to a point two miles from
+the fort, which is still called Grant’s Hill,
+where he rashly permitted himself to be surrounded
+and attacked by the French and Indians,
+half his force being killed or wounded,
+and himself slain. Washington followed soon
+after, and opened a road for the advance of
+the main body under Forbes. Fort Frontenac,
+on Lake Ontario, had just been taken by
+General Amherst, with the result that supplies
+for Fort Duquesne were cut off. When, therefore,
+the French commandant learned of the
+advance of a superior force, having no hope of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span>reinforcements, he blew up the fort, set fire to
+the adjacent buildings and drew his garrison
+away.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus139" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus139.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BLOCKHOUSE OF FORT PITT. BUILT IN 1764.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On Saturday, November 25, 1758, the English
+took possession of the place, and on the
+next day General Forbes wrote to Governor
+Denny from “Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh,
+the 26th of November, 1758,” and this was the
+first use of that name. On this same Sunday
+the Rev. Mr. Beatty, a Presbyterian chaplain,
+preached a sermon in thanksgiving for the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span>superiority of British arms,—the first Protestant
+service in Pittsburgh. The French had
+had a Roman Catholic chaplain, Father Baron,
+during their occupancy.</p>
+
+<p>The English proceeded to build a new fort
+about two hundred yards from the site of Fort
+Duquesne, which they called Fort Pitt. This
+stronghold at Pittsburgh cut off French transportation
+to the Mississippi by way of the
+Ohio River, and the only remaining route, by
+way of the Great Lakes, was soon afterward
+closed by the fall of Fort Niagara. The fall
+of Quebec, with the death of the two opposing
+Generals, Montcalm and Wolfe, and the capture
+of Montreal, ended the claims of France
+to sovereignty in the new world.</p>
+
+<p>The new fort being found too small, General
+Stanwix built a second Fort Pitt, much
+larger and stronger, designed for a garrison of
+one thousand men. The Indians viewed the
+newcomers with suspicion, but Colonel Henry
+Bouquet assured them, with diplomatic tergiversation,
+that, “We have not come here to
+take possession of your country in a hostile
+manner, as the French did when they came
+among you, but to open a large and extensive
+trade with you and all other nations of Indians
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span>to the westward.” A redoubt (the “Block-House”)
+built by Colonel Bouquet in 1764
+still stands, in a very good state of preservation,
+being cared for by the Daughters of the
+American Revolution. The protection of the
+garrison naturally attracted a few traders, merchants
+and pioneers to Pittsburgh, and a permanent
+population began to grow.</p>
+
+<p>But the indigenous race continued to resent
+the extension of white encroachment; and
+they formed a secret confederacy under Pontiac,
+the renowned Ottawa chief, who planned a
+simultaneous attack on all the white frontier
+posts. This uprising was attended by atrocious
+cruelties at many of the points attacked, but
+we may take note here of the movement only
+as it affected Pittsburgh. At the grand council
+held by the tribes, a bundle of sticks had
+been given to every tribe, each bundle containing
+as many sticks as there were days intervening
+before the deadly assault should begin.
+One stick was to be drawn from the bundle
+every day until but one remained, which was
+to signal the outbreak for that day. This was
+the best calendar the barbarian could devise.
+At Pittsburgh, a Delaware squaw who was
+friendly to the whites had stealthily taken out
+three of the sticks, thus precipitating the attack
+on Fort Pitt three days in advance of the
+time appointed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[409]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp87" id="illus140" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus140.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PLAN OF FORT PITT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span></p>
+
+<p>The last stick was reached on June 22, 1763,
+and the Delawares and Shawanese began the
+assault in the afternoon, under Simon Ecuyer.
+The people of Pittsburgh took shelter in the
+fort, and held out while waiting for reinforcements.
+Colonel Bouquet hurried forward a
+force of five hundred men, but they were intercepted
+at Bushy Run, where a bloody battle
+was fought. Bouquet had fifty men killed and
+sixty wounded, but inflicted a much greater
+loss on his savage foes, and gained the fort,
+relieving the siege. As soon as Bouquet could
+recruit his command, he moved down the Ohio,
+attacked the Indians, liberated some of their
+prisoners and taught the red men to respect
+the power that controlled at Pittsburgh.</p>
+
+<p>In 1768 the Indians ceded their lands about
+Pittsburgh to the Colonies, and civilization was
+then free to spread over them. In 1774 a land
+office was opened in Pittsburgh by Governor
+Dunmore, and land-warrants were granted on
+payment of two shillings and sixpence purchase
+money, at the rate of ten pounds per
+one hundred acres.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span></p>
+
+<p>With the French out of the country, the
+Colonies began to feel the oppression of a
+British policy which British statesmen and
+historians to-day most bitterly denounce.
+Their opposition to tyranny found its natural
+expression in the battle of Lexington, April
+19, 1775. The fires of patriotism leapt through
+the continent, and the little settlement at
+Pittsburgh was quickly aflame with the national
+spirit. On May 16th a convention was held
+at Pittsburgh, which resolved that</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“This committee have the highest sense of the spirited
+behavior of their brethren in New England, and do
+most cordially approve of their opposing the invaders
+of American rights and privileges to the utmost extreme,
+and that each member of this committee, respectively,
+will animate and encourage their neighborhood to follow
+the brave example.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>No foreign soldiers were sent over the
+mountains to Pittsburgh, but a more merciless
+foe, who would attack and harass with
+remorseless cruelty, was impressed into the
+English service, despite the horrified protests
+of some of her wisest statesmen. American
+treaties with the Indians had no force against
+the allurements of foreign gold, and under this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span>unholy alliance men were burnt at the stake,
+women were carried away, and cabins were
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>With the aim of regaining the friendship
+of the Indians, Congress appointed commissioners
+who met the tribes at Pittsburgh; and
+Colonel George Morgan, Indian agent, writes
+to John Hancock, November 8, 1776:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“I have the happiness to inform you that the cloud
+that threatened to break over us is likely to disperse.
+The Six Nations, with the Muncies, Delawares, Shawanese
+and Mohicans, who have been assembled here with
+their principal chiefs and warriors to the number of
+644, have given the strongest assurance of their determination
+to preserve inviolate the peace and neutrality
+with the United States.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">These amicable expectations were not realized,
+and General Edward Hand came to
+Pittsburgh the next year and planned an expedition
+against the Indians. Colonel Broadhead
+took out Hand’s expedition in the
+summer and burnt the Indian towns.</p>
+
+<p>The depreciation of paper currency, or Continental
+money, had by this time brought the
+serious burden of high prices upon the people.
+The traders, who demanded apparently exorbitant
+rates for their goods, were denounced in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[413]</span>public meetings at Pittsburgh as being “now
+commonly known by the disgraceful epithet
+of speculators, of more malignant natures
+than the savage Mingoes in the wilderness.”
+This hardship grew in severity until the
+finances were put upon a more stable basis.</p>
+
+<p>By 1781, there were demoralization and
+mutiny at Fort Pitt, and General William Irvine
+was put in command. His firm hand
+soon restored the garrison to obedience. The
+close of the war with Great Britain was celebrated
+by the issue of a general order at
+the fort, November 6, 1781, requiring all, as a
+sailor would say, “to splice the main-brace.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>Up to this time the Penn family had held
+the charter to Pennsylvania; but as they had
+maintained a steadfast allegiance to the mother
+country, the General Assembly annulled their
+title, except to allow them to retain the ownership
+of various manors throughout the State,
+embracing half a million acres.</p>
+
+<p>In order to relieve the people of Pittsburgh
+from going to Greensburg to the court-house
+in their sacred right of suing and being sued,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[414]</span>the General Assembly erected Allegheny
+County out of parts of Westmoreland and
+Washington counties, September 24, 1788.
+This county originally comprised, in addition
+to its present limits, what are now Armstrong,
+Beaver, Butler, Crawford, Erie, Mercer, Venango
+and Warren counties. The act required
+that the court-house and jail should be
+located in Allegheny (just across the river from
+Pittsburgh), but as there was no protection
+against Indians there, an amendment established
+Pittsburgh as the county-seat. The
+first court was held at Fort Pitt; and the next
+day a ducking-stool was erected for the district,
+at “The Point” in the three rivers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1785, the dispute between Virginia and
+Pennsylvania for the possession of Pittsburgh
+was settled by the award of a joint commission
+in favor of Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>A writer says that in 1786 Pittsburgh contained
+thirty-six log houses, one stone and one
+frame house and five small stores. Another
+records that the population “is almost entirely
+Scots and Irish, who live in log houses.” A
+third says of these log houses, “Now and then
+one had assumed the appearance of neatness
+and comfort.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[415]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus141" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus141.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PHIPPS CONSERVATORY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span></p>
+
+<p>The first newspaper, the Pittsburgh <i>Gazette</i>,
+was established July 29, 1786. A mail route
+to Philadelphia, by horseback, was adopted in
+the same year. On September 29, 1787, the
+Legislature granted a charter to the Pittsburgh
+Academy, a school that has grown steadily in
+usefulness and power, and is now the Western
+University of Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>In 1791, the Indians became vindictive and
+dangerous, and General Arthur St. Clair, with a
+force of twenty-three hundred men, was sent
+down the river to punish them. Neglecting
+President Washington’s imperative injunction
+to avoid a surprise, he led his command into an
+ambush and lost half of it in the most disastrous
+battle with the redskins since the time of
+Braddock. In the general alarm that ensued,
+Fort Pitt being in a state of decay a new fort
+was built in Pittsburgh at Ninth and Tenth
+streets and Penn Avenue,—a stronghold that
+included bastions, blockhouses, barracks, etc.,
+and was named Fort Lafayette. General Anthony
+Wayne was then selected to command
+another expedition against the savages, and he
+arrived in Pittsburgh in June, 1792. After
+drilling his troops and making preparations for
+two years, in the course of which he erected
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span>several forts in the West, including Fort Defiance
+and Fort Wayne, he fought the Indians
+and crushed their strength and spirit. On his
+return a lasting peace was made with them,
+and there were no further raids about Pittsburgh.</p>
+
+<p>The Whiskey Insurrection demands a brief
+reference. Whiskey is a steady concomitant
+of civilization. As soon as the white settlers
+had planted themselves securely at Pittsburgh,
+they made requisition on Philadelphia for six
+thousand kegs of flour and three thousand
+kegs of whiskey—a disproportion as startling
+as Falstaff’s intolerable deal of sack to one
+half-pennyworth of bread. Congress, in 1791,
+passed an excise law to assist in paying the
+war debt. The measure was very unpopular,
+and its operation was forcibly resisted, particularly
+in Pittsburgh, which was noted then,
+as now, for the quantity and quality of its
+whiskey. There were distilleries on nearly
+every stream emptying into the Monongahela.
+The time and circumstances made the tax odious.
+The Revolutionary War had just closed,
+the pioneers were in the midst of great Indian
+troubles, and money was scarce, of low value
+and very hard to obtain. The people of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[418]</span>new country were unused to the exercise of
+stringent laws. The progress of the French
+Revolution encouraged the settlers to account
+themselves oppressed by similar tyrannies,
+against which some of them persuaded themselves
+similar resistance should be made.
+Genêt, the French demagogue, was sowing
+sedition everywhere. Lafayette’s participation
+in the French Revolution gave it in America,
+where he was deservedly beloved, a prestige
+which it could never have gained for itself.
+Distillers who paid the tax were assaulted;
+some of them were tarred and feathered;
+others were taken into the forest and tied to
+trees; their houses and barns were burned;
+their property was carried away or destroyed.
+Several thousand insurgents assembled at
+Braddock’s Field, and marched on Pittsburgh,
+where the citizens gave them food and submitted
+to a reign of terror. Then President
+Washington sent an army of fifteen thousand
+troops against them, and they melted away, as
+a mob will ever do when the strong arm of
+Government smites it without fear or respect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus142" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus142.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE COAL FLEET.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[420]</span></p>
+
+<p>Pittsburgh was incorporated a borough in
+1794. Her first glassworks was built in 1797;
+and both her population and her industries
+multiplied until she was made a city in 1816.
+In 1845 (April 10th), a great fire destroyed
+about one third of the total area of the city,
+including most of the large business houses
+and factories, the bridge over the Monongahela,
+the large hotel known as the Monongahela
+House and several churches;—in all
+about eleven hundred buildings. The Legislature
+appropriated $50,000 for the relief of
+the sufferers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1877, the municipal government, being,
+in its personnel, at the moment incompetent
+to preserve the fundamental principles on
+which it was established, permitted a strike of
+railroad employees to grow without restriction
+as to the observance of law and order until it
+became an insurrection. Three million dollars’
+worth of property was destroyed by riot and
+incendiarism in a few hours. When at last
+outraged authority was properly shifted from
+the supine city chieftains to the indomitable
+State itself, it became necessary, before order
+could be restored, for troops to fire, with a
+sacrifice of human life. The lesson was worth
+all it cost, and anarchy has never dared to
+raise its head in the corporation limits since
+that time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[421]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus143" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus143.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CARNEGIE INSTITUTE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1889, the great flood at Johnstown, accompanied
+by a frightful loss of life and destruction
+of property, touched the common
+heart of humanity all over the world. The
+closeness of Johnstown geographically made
+the sorrow at Pittsburgh most poignant and
+profound. In a few hours almost the whole
+population had brought its offerings for the
+stricken community, and besides clothing, provisions
+and every conceivable thing necessary
+for relief and comfort, the people of Pittsburgh
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span>contributed $250,000 to restore so far
+as possible the material portion of the loss.</p>
+
+<p>Pittsburgh has thus passed through many
+battles, trials, afflictions and adversities, and
+has grown in the strength of giants until it
+now embraces in the limits of the county a
+population of over one million. The tax valuation
+of her property is $554,000,000. Her share
+is more than one half of the whole production
+in the United States of steel, steel rails, coke,
+oil, plate glass, glassware, harness-leather and
+iron pipe. She mines one quarter of the bituminous
+coal of the United States. She has
+2500 mills and factories, with an annual product
+worth $250,000,000, and a pay-roll of $75,000,000.
+Her electric street-railway system
+multiplies itself through her streets for 250
+miles. Natural-gas fuel is conveyed into her
+mills and houses through 1000 miles of iron
+pipe. Her output of coke makes one train
+ten miles long every day throughout the year.
+Her tonnage by river and rail exceeds the
+tonnage by river and rail of any other city in
+the world; it is equal to one half the combined
+tonnage of the Atlantic and Pacific
+coasts. Her rail tonnage is three times as
+large as that of New York or Chicago, double
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[423]</span>that of London, four times that of Paris, and
+greater than the combined tonnage of New
+York, Boston and Chicago. Two hundred
+and fifty passenger trains and six thousand
+loaded freight-cars run to and from her terminals
+every day. Nowhere else in the world
+is there so large a Bessemer-steel plant, crucible-steel
+plant, plate-glass plant, chimney-glass
+plant, table-glass plant, air-brake plant, steel-rail
+plant, cork works, tube works or steel
+freight-car works. Her armor sheathes our
+battleships, as well as those of Russia and
+Japan. She equips the navies of the world
+with projectiles and range-finders. Her bridges
+span the rivers of India, China, Egypt and the
+Argentine Republic; and her locomotives,
+rails and bridges are used on the Siberian railroad.
+She builds electric railways for Great
+Britain and Brazil, and telescopes for Germany
+and Denmark. Indeed, she distributes her
+varied manufactures into the channels of trade
+all over the earth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus144" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus144.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>COURT HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But while these surpassing industries have
+given Pittsburgh her wealth, population, supremacy
+and power, commercial materialism
+is not the <i>ultima thule</i> of her people. She
+has the largest and handsomest court-house in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[425]</span>the world, the crowning architectural triumph
+of H. H. Richardson. Her churches and
+schoolhouses are found in nearly every block.
+She spends a quarter of a million annually on
+her parks,—Schenley and Highland. She
+maintains by popular support one of the three
+symphony orchestras in America. She has
+given many famous names to Science, Literature
+and Art. Her astronomical observatory
+is known throughout the world. Her rich
+men are often liberal beyond their own needs—particularly
+so William Thaw, who spent
+millions for education and benevolence; Mrs.
+Mary Schenley, who has given the city a
+great park, four hundred picturesque acres
+in the very heart of its boundaries; and
+Henry Phipps, who erected the largest conservatory
+for plants and flowers in our country.
+There is one other, Andrew Carnegie, whose
+wise and continuous use of vast wealth for the
+public good is nearly beyond human precedent.
+Mr. Carnegie has spent many millions
+on libraries, art galleries and scientific
+museums in Pittsburgh alone, and millions
+more for similar institutions in other parts of
+the world. The Carnegie Institute at Pittsburgh,
+comprising Art Galleries, Library,
+Museum and Music Hall, now in its fourth
+year, is the rallying-ground of the whole people
+in their growing love of æsthetic and spiritual
+life. Its doors are open all day, from nine in
+the morning until ten at night, free to the
+people. And the people use it with delight,
+more than five hundred thousand of them having
+thronged its halls in this past year.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[426]</span></p>
+
+<p>Pittsburgh is truly an imperial city.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus145" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus145.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> Reproduced by permission of Augustus Pruyn, Albany, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> Reproduced by permission of Dr. Samuel B. Ward, Albany, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>King Washington</i>, by Adelaide Skeel and
+William H. Brearley.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> From <i>Book of Newburgh</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">[5]</a> <i>From Spirit of ’76</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">[6]</a> From <i>American Patriots</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">[7]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>Bowling Green</i>, by Spencer Trask.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">[8]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>Bowling Green</i>, by Spencer Trask.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">[9]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>The Outlook</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">[10]</a> Reproduced by permission of Lewis C. Vandegrift, Wilmington, Del.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">[11]</a> Reproduced by permission of Henry C. Conrad, Wilmington, Del.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">[12]</a> Reproduced by permission of Buffalo Historical Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">[13]</a> Subsequently the river bore the name of North River, to distinguish
+it from the Delaware, the South River of Nieu Nederlandt.
+In fact the fair stream has been renamed as often as a
+Parisian street. Albany has shared the fate of the river.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">[14]</a> The Chart illustrating this article is one of a later date.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">[15]</a> See page 93, Bradford’s <i>History of Plimoth Plantation. From
+the original manuscript</i>. Boston, 1898. This original MS. in the
+above year was transferred with appropriate ceremonies from the
+library of the Archiepiscopal Palace at Fulham to the archives of
+the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">[16]</a> The writer is indebted to As-que-sent-wah, a member of the
+Onondaga tribe, an authority upon Indian local lore, and well known
+among white men as Edward Winslow Paige, for an account of the
+tradition which fixes the residence of Hiawatha at Schonowe. Mr.
+Paige owns the lot at the west end of Union Street on the bank of
+the Binnekill, upon which the castle and residence stood. He
+points out to the visitor existing traces of the Indian occupation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">[17]</a> He was drowned in October, 1667, in Lake Champlain, while
+journeying to Canada in response to the pressing invitation of the
+Governor General to visit him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">[18]</a> Governor Leisler was afterwards unjustly condemned and executed
+for high treason; the destruction of Schenectady being one
+of the charges against him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">[19]</a> He came again in 1782, when the struggle was practically
+over. The authorities and the people did their utmost in his
+honor. This he suitably acknowledged in a letter addressed “To
+the magistrates and military authorities of the township of Schenectady,”
+closing in these words: “May the complete blessings of
+peace soon reward your arduous struggle for the freedom and independence
+of our common country.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">[20]</a> “Ten eynde de Gemeente niet verstroyt werde.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">EPITAPH OF JOSHUA DE KOCKERTHAL, IN BURYING-GROUND AT
+SAUGERTIES, N. Y.</p>
+
+<p>Wisse Wandersman Unter diesem Steine Rusht nebst Seiner Sibylla
+Charlotte Ein Rechter Wandersman Per Hoch Jeutsehen in Nord
+America ihr Josua und der selben an Der Ost and West seite Der Hudson’s
+River rein Lutherischer Prediger. Seine erste an Kunft war mit
+Lrd Lovelace, 1707-8, den 1 Januar. Seine sweite mit Col. Hunter
+1710 d. 14 Juny. Seine Englandische ruc reise unterbrach Seine
+Seelen Himmelische reise an St. Johannis sage 1719. Regherstu
+mehr Ku wissen So untersuche in Welaneh thons vaterland, Wer
+war de Kockerthal, Wer Harschias, Wer Winchenbuch, B. Berkenmayer,
+S. Heurtin, L. Brevort.</p>
+
+<p class="center">MDCCXLII.</p>
+
+<p>Know, Wanderer, under this stone rests beside his Sybilla Charlotte
+a right wanderer, the Joshua of the High Dutch in N. America, the
+pure Lutheran Preacher of them on the East and West side of the
+Hudson River. His first arrival was with Lord Lovelace in 1707,
+the first of January. His second with Colonel Hunter, 1710, the
+fourteenth of June. His voyage back to England was prevented
+(literally interrupted) by the voyage of his soul to Heaven, on St.
+John’s Day, 1719. Do you wish to know more? Seek in Melancthon’s
+fatherland who was Kockerthal, who was Harschias, who
+Winchenbuch, B. Berkenmayer, S. Heurtin, L. Brevort.</p>
+
+<p class="center">1742.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">[22]</a> On this Glebe site was erected about 1730 the Lutheran Church
+of the Palatine Parish by Quassaick. Reverend Michael Christian
+Knoll, Pastor.</p>
+
+<p>From July 19, 1747, the Reverend Hezekiah Watkins of the
+Church of England held services for about twenty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>Erected by Quassaick Chapter, <span class="smcap">Daughters of the American Revolution</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">In Memory of<br>
+REVEREND HEZEKIAH WATKINS<br>
+YALE 1737 ORDAINED 1754 IN ENGLAND<br>
+SENT HERE BY VEN. SOC. P. G. IN F. P.<br>
+FOUNDED THE PARISHES OF<br>
+S. DAVID’S, S. ANDREW’S AND S. GEORGE’S<br>
+RESIDENT MINISTER AT NEWBURGH<br>
+FROM 1752 UNTIL HIS DEATH.<br>
+APRIL 10, 1765. AET. 57.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Tablet in S. George’s Church, Newburgh.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">GEORGE CLINTON<br>
+MEMBER OF CONTINENTAL CONGRESS<br>
+1775-1777<br>
+BRIGADIER-GENERAL CONTINENTAL ARMY<br>
+1777<br>
+GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK<br>
+1777-85—1801-4<br>
+VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES<br>
+1804-1812</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Cara Patria Carior Libertas.</i></p>
+
+<p>Inscription on Clinton Statue in Colden Square, Newburgh.
+Statue by Henry Kirke Brown. Presented to the city by the Historical
+Society of Newburgh Bay and the Highlands and other citizens.
+Unveiled on the 119th anniversary of the battles of Forts
+Clinton and Montgomery in the Highlands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">[25]</a> The change from Vredryk Flypse to Frederick Philips was synchronously
+made—both names being changed at the same time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">[26]</a> The word is commonly spelt thus for the mountains, but thus—<i>Allegheny</i>—for
+the river, county and city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">[27]</a> “The commissaries will issue a gill of whiskey, extraordinary, to
+the non-commissioned officers and privates, upon this joyful occasion.”—General
+Irvine’s Order.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[427]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header7.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">A</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abercrombie, General, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ackland, Lady, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adams, John, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adams, Mrs. John, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adams, John Quincy, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albany, W. W. Battershall on, <a href="#Page_1">1-37</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">settled by Dutch, <a href="#Page_1">1-9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">captured by English, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">incorporated, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">English church built, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its frontier position, <a href="#Page_15">15-18</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">during the French wars, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">convention of 1754, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_20">20-23</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">becomes the State Capital, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">historic survivals in, <a href="#Page_24">24-37</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">architecture of, <a href="#Page_30">30-32</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Capitol described, <a href="#Page_32">32-34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aldrich, T. B., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Allegheny, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Almirante Oquendo</i>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Philosophical Society, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amersfoort, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amherst, Lord, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">André, John, in New York, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of, <a href="#Page_158">158-161</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Andros, Edmund, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Army, American, volunteer system organized, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnold, B., at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treason of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnold, Matthew, cited, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">As-que-sent-wah, <i>see</i> <a href="#Paige">E. W. Paige</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">B</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin’s Locomotive Works, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baltimore, Congress flees to, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barbadoes, Washington’s voyage to, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barclay, Rev. T., quoted, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barnard College, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baron, Father, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bartram, John, and his garden, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Battershall, W. W., on Albany, <a href="#Page_1">1-37</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bayard, James A., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bayard, Richard A., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bayard, Thomas F., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beatty, Charles, quoted, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beatty, Rev., preaches first Protestant sermon at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bedford, Gunning, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bedford, Gunning, Jr., <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[428]</span>Beecher, H. W., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beekman Mansion, <a href="#Page_195">195-197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belcher, Governor J., <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bemis Heights, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bennington, battle of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bertholf, Rev. G., at Tarrytown, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beverwyck, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biddle, Colonel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bidwell, D. D., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Binney, Horace, house of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bird Grip</i>, Swedish vessel, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bjork, Rev. Eric, builds Old Swedes’ Church, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black Rock, battery at, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Block House,” the Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bloomingdale, absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blue Anchor, the Swedish tavern, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bordentown, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boston, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boudinot, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bouquet, Col. Henry, builds the “Block House,” <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defeats Indians, <a href="#Page_407">407-410</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bowles, naval constructor, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bowling Green, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boyle, H., <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brackinridge, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bracola, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Braddock, defeat and death of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399-404</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Braddock’s Field, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bradford, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bradford, press of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brainerd, David, expelled from Yale, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brandt, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brazil, Emperor of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breuckelen, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brewster, E. A., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brinkerhoff, M., <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broadhead, Colonel, attacks Indians, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brocklandia, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broecke, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broeckede, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broicklede, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronck, Jonas, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Brooklyn">Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Harrington Putnam on, <a href="#Page_213">213-249</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch settlement, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch settlers described, <a href="#Page_216">216-220</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first church, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">British rule, <a href="#Page_224">224-227</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_228">228-240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Navy Yard, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fort Lafayette, <a href="#Page_244">244-248</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brooklyn Institute, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown, General, in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown, H. K., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bryant, Wm. Cullen, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffalo, Rowland B. Mahany on, <a href="#Page_367">367-391</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">founding of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early history, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">incorporated, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">strategic position in the War of 1812, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Perry’s victory, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">burning of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of Chippewa, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lundy’s Lane, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">unsuccessful siege by the British of Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382-384</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the modern city, <a href="#Page_385">385-391</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burgoyne, surrender at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58-68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">imprisoned at Albany, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burns, Robert, statue of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burr, Aaron, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burr, Rev. Aaron, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burr, Dr. Horace, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burwell, Dr. G. N., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bushy Run, battle at, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">C</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cadwalader, in battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Caledonia</i>, captured in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[429]</span>Campanius, at Fort Christina, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Campbell, Douglas, cited, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Canada acquired by England, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnahan, James, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnegie, Andrew, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnegie Institute, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carpenters’ Hall, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caverley’s statue of Burns, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Celeron, Louis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Centennial Exhibition of 1876, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Champlain, Samuel, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chapin, E. P., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles I., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles II., <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemnitz, surrender of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cherry Valley, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chippewa, battle of, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christiana, Swedes settle on the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">fortified, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christina, Queen, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christina Harbor, village of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christinaham, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Church, S. H., on Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_393">393-426</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cincinnatus, Society of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clark, Abraham, signer, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, DeWitt, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, General George, at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_124">124-126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, James, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coit, George, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colden, C., <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colden, Maria, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">College Settlement, New York, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colonnade Hotel, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Columbia">Columbia University, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colve, Captain, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress, first general American, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress, Continental, Witherspoon elected to, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">flees to Baltimore, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">meets in Nassau Hall, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the Indians, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress, U. S., and Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress Spring, <i>see</i> <a href="#Saratoga">Saratoga</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Connecticut</i>, the, captured in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Constitution</i>, the, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constitution, U. S., adoption of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contrecœur, Captain, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Convention of 1787, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cooper, J. Fenimore, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cooper Institute, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cornwallis, Lord, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_234">234-237</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Trenton and Princeton, <a href="#Page_271">271-283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Courcelle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coxe, Right Reverend A. C., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cramps, shipbuilders, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Crane_Hook">Crane Hook, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cronyn, Dr. John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crown Point, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curtis, G. W., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">D</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Daughters of the American Revolution,” <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Davies, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Beauvois, Carel, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Kockerthal, Joshua, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delaware, Washington crossing the, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delaware Historical Society, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[430]</span>Denny, Governor, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Rochambeau, Count, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Tracy, Lieutenant-General, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Detroit</i>, the, captured in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dickens, Charles, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dickinson, John, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dickinson, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinwiddie, Governor, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dongan, Governor, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Donop at Princeton, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dordrecht, Synod of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dort, Synod of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Downing, A. J., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Downing, Charles, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drummond, Lieutenant-General, besieges Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duke Alexis, the Grand, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duke of Veragua, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duke of York, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dunham, Carroll, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dunlap, Wm., quoted, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dunmore, Governor, at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Du Ponts, the, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch church, Tarrytown, <a href="#Page_152">152-156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch East India Company, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch West India Company, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">E</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eager, S. W., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eagle</i>, the, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ebeling cited, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ecuyer, Simon, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edison, Thomas, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edwards, Jonathan, at Princeton, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Elfsborg">Elfsborg, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elizabethtown, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellicott, Andrew, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellicott, Joseph, founds Buffalo, <a href="#Page_367">367-369</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elliott, Lieut. J. D., in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellison house, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellsworth, Oliver, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elsinborough, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emperor of Brazil, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erie Canal, history of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382-385</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ettrick house, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">F</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fairfax, Lord, estates of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fairmount Water-works, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fall’s house, at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Faneuil Hall, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fillmore, Millard, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finley, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Five Nations, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flash, Sandy, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fletcher, Governor, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flypse, Vredryk, <i>see</i> <a href="#Philips">Philips</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forbes, General, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forsythe, Rev. John, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forts: Albany, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ann, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Box, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Carillon, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Casimir, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christina, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clinton, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Corkscrew, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Crailo, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Defiance, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Duquesne, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Edward, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elfsborg, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Erie, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frederick, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frontenac, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">George, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Greene, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hamilton, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hardy, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hunter, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Johnson, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lafayette, <a href="#Page_244">244-248</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lee, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Montgomery, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nassau, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Necessity, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Niagara, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orange, <a href="#Page_7">7-9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pitt, <a href="#Page_407">407-410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Putnam, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span>Schuyler, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stanwix, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sterling, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sumter, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wayne, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">William Henry, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fort Stanwix Conference, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forward, Oliver, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Fox’s Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Francis I., <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_400">400</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franklin Institute, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franklin, William, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fraser at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_60">60-64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fraunces, Samuel, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fraunces’s Tavern, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederick, Harold, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freeman’s Farm, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freerman, Rev. B., <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">French and Indian Wars, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freneau, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frontenac, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the Schenectady Massacre, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fugitive Slave Law, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fulton, Robert, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">G</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ganson, John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garrett, Thomas, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gates, General, displaces Schuyler, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_57">57-68</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gazette, The</i>, of Buffalo, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Genêt, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">George II., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">portrait of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">George III., statue of, in Bowling Green, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germantown in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbs’s St. Martin in the Fields, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gilder, J. B., on New York City, <a href="#Page_169">169-211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gilman, Governor, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Girard College, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gist, Christopher, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gowanus, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canal, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant, Major, defeat of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant, Mrs., of Laggan, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant’s Hill, fight at, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gravesend settled by English, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gray’s Ferry, Hessians at, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Great Britain, wars with, <a href="#Page_373">373-382</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Great Meadows, battle at, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greeley, Horace, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Green, Ashbel, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">plans defensive works for Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greenwich, New Yorkers at, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Griffin</i>, La Salle’s vessel, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gustavus Adolphus and Usselinx, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">H</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hale, Nathan, statue of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Half Moon</i>, Hudson’s, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hall, James, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamilton, Alexander, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">marriage of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">political principles of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamilton, Governor, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hancock, John, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hand, General, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harlem absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harrison, Provost C. C., of University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hart, John, Signer, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hasbrouck, Col. J., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hasbrouck House, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hawley, Jesse, and the Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Headley, J. T., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span>Helvetius, Madame, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry, Joseph, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hessians, at Trenton, <a href="#Page_270">270-274</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Gray’s Ferry, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hiawatha, real story of, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hitchcock at battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hodge, Mr., at Buffalo, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holland Land Company, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holland, laws of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">States-General of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hollendare, Peter, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holy Trinity church, Wilmington, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hopkins, Stephen, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hopkinson, Francis, Signer, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Houdon’s bust of Franklin, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howe, Admiral, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howe, Lord, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at New York, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howe, Lord Viscount, death of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howells, W. D., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hudde at Fort Nassau, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hudson, Henry, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Hugh Wynne,” <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hunter, Governor, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">I</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Independence Hall, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Indians">Indians in history of Saratoga, <a href="#Page_16">16 <i>ff.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Schenectady, <a href="#Page_75">75-84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-93</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Buffalo, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_394">394-411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingoldsby, Major, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingoldsby, Richard, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iroquois, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irvine, Gen. Wm., <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irving, Washington, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-166</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">J</li>
+
+<li class="indx">James, Duke of York, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James, Henry, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James II., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jamestown, Va., <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jay, John, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jefferson, Thomas, writes Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jensen, Sally, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jogues, Father, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Johnson, Sir John, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Johnson, Sir William, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Johnstown Flood, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jumel Mansion, <a href="#Page_202">202-204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jumonville, death of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">K</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kalm, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kayadrossera patent, the, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keith, Governor, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kennedy, Colonel, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kennedy House, the, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kidd, Captain, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kieft, Governor, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">King George’s War, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">King’s College, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <a href="#Columbia">Columbia College</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kip, Leonard, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kipling, Rudyard, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knickerbocker, Diedrich, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knoll, Rev. M. C., <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knox, General, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knox, Lucy, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Königsmark, rebellion of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kosciuszko at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kossuth, Louis, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">L</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>La Dauphine</i>, Verrazzano’s ship, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lafayette, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Princeton, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the French Revolution, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lake Erie, battle of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Landon, J. S., on Schenectady, <a href="#Page_71">71-106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[433]</span>Larned at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">La Salle, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lawrenceville School, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Le Brun, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Le Couteulx, L. S., founds asylum, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lee, Bishop Alfred, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lee, R. H., <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leisler, Jacob, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">L’Enfant, Capt. P. C., and plan for the National Capital, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lewis, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lexington, battle of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Li Hung Chang at New York, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lincoln, A., his body brought to New York, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lindstrom, P., Swedish engineer, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingston, Catherine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingston, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingston, Philip, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Logstown and the Ohio Company, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">London, Philadelphia compared with, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Longfellow cited, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Long Island, battle of, <a href="#Page_229">229-240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lord, Rev. Dr. John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louisburg, expedition against, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lovejoy, Mrs. Joshua, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lovelace, Lord, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Low, Seth, Mayor of Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lundy’s Lane, battle of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luther, Martin, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lutherans, German, at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_108">108-117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lützen, battle of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luzerne, French envoy, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">M</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mabie, H. W., on Tarrytown, <a href="#Page_137">137-167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maclean, John, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Madison, James, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mahany, R. B., on Buffalo, <a href="#Page_367">367-391</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maidenhead, skirmish at, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Maine</i>, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manhattan, island of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manhattanville absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manning, Captain, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manning, James, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mantua, village of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marquis Ito, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martin, Luther, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martin, Thomas, Madison to, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mather, Cotton, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauritius, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mawhood, Colonel, at Princeton, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mayflower</i>, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McCosh, President James, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McKean, Governor, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McKinly, President John, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McMahon, James P., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Megapolensis, Domine, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mercer at battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_279">279-283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Messenger, The</i>, of Ontario, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meynders, Birgert, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Midwout, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mifflin in battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miles, Colonel, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miller, Rev. John, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Minquas River, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Minuit, Peter, in New Netherlands, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mischienza, the, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mohawks, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monmouth’s Rebellion, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montcalm, death of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montgomery, Robert, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[434]</span>Montreal, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">massacre of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moravians come to Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morgan, Gen. Daniel, at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_58">58-62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morgan, Col. George, to John Hancock, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morris, Gouverneur, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morris, Robert, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Trenton campaign, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morristown, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington marches to, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morse, S. F. B., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morven, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moses, Rhind’s statue of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mount McGregor, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Music Fund Hall, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Myggenborg, <i>see</i> <a href="#Elfsborg">Elfsborg</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">N</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napier, General, cited, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nassau Hall, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Navy Yard, Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">taken by the English, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name changed to New York, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Buffalo first named, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Newburgh, Adelaide Skeel on, <a href="#Page_107">107-135</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Palatine settlement, <a href="#Page_107">107-117</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the coming of the Scotch and English, <a href="#Page_117">117-121</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_121">121-126</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington’s stay in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Nicola letter, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of Ettrick, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington’s address to the unpaid troops, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">recent history, <a href="#Page_132">132-135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Castle, Del., <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Netherlands, fur trade in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Utrecht, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New York, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">J. B. Gilder on, <a href="#Page_169">169-211</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch settlement, <a href="#Page_169">169-175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">captured by the English, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">recaptured by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">governorship of Andros, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">resumption of Dutch authority, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leisler’s rule, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_178">178-184</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the War of 1812, <a href="#Page_184">184-186</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Civil War, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">expansion of, <a href="#Page_187">187-189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Tammany Society, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">historic survivals in, <a href="#Page_190">190-204</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_204">204-211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New York Central Railroad, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New York University, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niagara, Shirley’s expedition against, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niagara Falls, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicola, Colonel, letter to Washington, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicolls, Colonel, at New Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nieu Nederlandt, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niles, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nott, President E., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">O</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ohio Company formed, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Old French War,” <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Old Jersey</i>, the ship, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old Swedes’ Church, Wilmington, <a href="#Page_350">350-352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxenstiern revives the Usselinx charter, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">P</li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Paige">Paige, E. W., cited, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paine, Thomas, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palatines, at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_108">108-117</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palmer, the sculptor, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paris, treaty of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">New York compared with, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span>Parker, Judge, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paterson, William, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Patton, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paulding, J., <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paulding, J. K., <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn, John, house of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn, Letitia, house of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn, William, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">founds Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_298">298-307</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">grants charter to Wilmington, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn family’s charter to Pennsylvania annulled, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pennsylvania, charter to, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">dispute with Va., <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pennsylvania Historical Society, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pennsylvania Hospital, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pepper, Dr. William, services to the University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Percy, Lord, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perry, Commodore, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philadelphia, Talcott Williams on, <a href="#Page_297">297-334</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geographical site, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early houses, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">coming of William Penn, <a href="#Page_300">300-302</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">rapid growth of city, <a href="#Page_302">302-317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_317">317-320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">between 1790 and 1820, <a href="#Page_320">320-323</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">history of water supply, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the city before the Civil War, <a href="#Page_325">325-329</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_329">329-334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philadelphia Library, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Philips">Philips, Frederick, and his Manor, <a href="#Page_145">145-151</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phipps, Henry, conservatory of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pilgrims compared with Palatines, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pitt, William, statue of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">befriends colonies, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pittsburgh, S. H. Church on, <a href="#Page_393">393-426</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">site determined by Washington, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first permanent settlement, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">taken by French, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Braddock expedition, <a href="#Page_399">399-404</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">English take Fort Duquesne and name it Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indians attack, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_411">411-413</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">becomes the county seat, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Indian war of 1791, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">incorporated, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the strike of 1877, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">industrial importance, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">higher life of, <a href="#Page_423">423-426</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plymouth Rock, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poe, Edgar Allan, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polhemus, Rev. Mr., at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pontiac, confederacy of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poor at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porter, General P. B., in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pratt Institute, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Princess Eulalia, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Princeton, W. M. Sloane on, <a href="#Page_251">251-296</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first settlement, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">College of New Jersey established at Elizabethtown, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">removed to Princeton, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">parting from Yale, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early character, <a href="#Page_256">256-260</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Witherspoon and his administration, <a href="#Page_260">260-266</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_266">266-270</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Trenton campaign, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_274">274-284</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mutinous Continentals at, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Congress meets at, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington’s visits to, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">contributions to the Convention of 1787, <a href="#Page_289">289-291</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern Princeton, <a href="#Page_291">291-296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prinz, John, in New Sweden, <a href="#Page_339">339-342</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pruyn, John V. L., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Putnam, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[436]</span>at Princeton, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Putnam, Gideon, at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Putnam, Harrington, on Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_213">213-249</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Q</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quassaick, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quebec, capture of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">gives bell to Lutherans at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Anne’s War, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Queen Charlotte</i>, British war vessel, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Charlotte, portrait of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen’s Head Tavern, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queenstown in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">R</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raymond, President, of Union College, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Red Jacket in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rensselaerswyck, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Revolution, Philadelphia in the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reynolds, Marcus, quoted, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhind’s statue of Moses, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riall, General, burns Buffalo, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">retreats, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richardson, H. H., <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richardson, William, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richmond Hill, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riedesel, Madame, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ripley, General, at Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rising, John Claudius, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rittenhouse, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his observatory, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roe, E. P., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rogers, Wm. F., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Romeyn, Domine, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roosevelt, Governor, cited, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ross house, the Betsy, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rudman, Pastor, cited, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruttenber, E. M., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryan, Bishop S. V., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryswyck, peace of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">S</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Augustine, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Clair, defeat of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Francis de Sales, Order of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. George’s church, Schenectady, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. John, Mrs., <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Luke’s church, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Mark’s Church, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Martin in the Fields, Gibbs’s, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Paul’s chapel, New York, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Peter’s church, Albany, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Santo Domingo, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Saratoga">Saratoga, E. H. Walworth on, <a href="#Page_39">39-69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">site of, <a href="#Page_39">39-42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the name, <a href="#Page_42">42-44</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">French and Indian struggles for site, <a href="#Page_45">45-48</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">massacre of old Saratoga, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Seven Years’ War, <a href="#Page_50">50-52</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">medicinal value of Saratoga waters discovered, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Fort Stanwix Conference, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">preliminary warfare of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_54">54-56</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burgoyne’s defeat and surrender, <a href="#Page_56">56-68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">General Schuyler makes old Saratoga his summer resort, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gideon Putnam founds the present Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sassoonan, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schaets, Rev. Gideon, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schenectady, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">J. S. Landon on, <a href="#Page_71">71-106</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">settled, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">subject to the Dutch West India Company, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arendt Van Curler’s directorship, <a href="#Page_75">75-83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[437]</span>land purchased from the Indians, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character of the early settlement, <a href="#Page_83">83-87</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">under English rule, <a href="#Page_87">87-90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the first legislative assembly, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">government seized by Leisler, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indian wars, <a href="#Page_92">92-96</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Schenectady in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_97">97-99</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">religious history, <a href="#Page_100">100-103</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern history, <a href="#Page_104">104-106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schenley, Mary, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schermerhoorn, Symon, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schonowe, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schoonmaker, Domine, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schute, Swen, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Elizabeth, marriage of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Margaret, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Peter, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Philip, shot by Indians, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Gen. Philip, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in battle of Saratoga, <a href="#Page_58">58-68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">visits Saratoga Springs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Mrs. Philip, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler Mansion, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuylerville, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scott, Walter, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scott, Gen. Winfield, in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Selyns, Rev. H., at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Seneca Chief</i>, first boat on Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seven Years’ War, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seymour, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shelton, Rev. Dr. Wm., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sherman, Roger, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shipley, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shipley, William, at Wilmington, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shirley, expedition of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Six Nations, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skeel, Adelaide, on Newburgh, <a href="#Page_107">107-135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skipper Block, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sleepy Hollow, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sloane, W. M., on Princeton, <a href="#Page_251">251-296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sloughter, Governor, replaces Leisler, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smith, James M., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smithsonian Institution, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spaulding, E. G., introduces Legal-Tender Act, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spuyten Duyvil Creek, fight at, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Squaw Island, the <i>Detroit</i> aground on, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stackpole, Dr., composes Yankee Doodle, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanhope, Samuel, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanwix, General, builds second Fort Pitt, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stark, General, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Fort Edward, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Princeton, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stedman, E. C., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Steuben">Steuben, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stirling, in battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_234">234-239</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Trenton campaign, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stockton, Richard, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stoddard, R. H., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stone, Gen. C. P., imprisoned at Fort Lafayette, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strasburg Cathedral, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stuyvesant, Peter, at New Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175-177</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218-221</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">buys land west of the Delaware, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">captures forts on the Delaware, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suffolk County in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sullivan, General, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_235">235-237</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Princeton, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sunnyside, Washington Irving at, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swedes, on the Delaware, <a href="#Page_335">335-344</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their church at Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">T</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tammany Hall, history of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[438]</span>Tarrytown, H. W. Mabie on, <a href="#Page_137">137-167</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">described, <a href="#Page_137">137-140</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early Dutch settlements, <a href="#Page_140">140-145</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">derivation of name, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Philips Manor-House, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the old Dutch church, <a href="#Page_150">150-156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tarrytown in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_157">157-160</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of John André, <a href="#Page_158">158-161</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington Irving, <a href="#Page_161">161-164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tatnall, Joseph, Washington visits, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">gives clock to Wilmington, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tawasentha, Vale of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taylor, Bayard, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tenacong, <i>see</i> <a href="#Tinicum">Tinicum</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thackeray, W. M., <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thaw, Wm., generosity to Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thesschenmaecher, Rev. Petrus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiemann, Mayor, death of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tifft house, the, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tilden, Samuel J., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Tinicum">Tinicum, Prinz’s fort at, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torkillius, Rev. R., at Fort Christina, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Townsend, Charles, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Townsend, Sam, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tran Hook, <i>see</i> <a href="#Crane_Hook">Crane Hook</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Treaty of 1783, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trefalldigheet, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trent, Captain Wm., establishes first settlement at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_397">397-399</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trenton, battle of, <a href="#Page_270">270-274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trinity Church, New York, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tryon, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tusculum, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">U</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union College, <a href="#Page_102">102-106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">University Settlement, New York, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usselinx, Wm., and his trading company, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utrecht, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treaty of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">V</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vallandigham, E. N., on Wilmington, <a href="#Page_335">335-365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Curler, Arendt, at Schenectady, <a href="#Page_75">75-84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vanderheyden Palace, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer, Killiaen, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer, Stephen, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer Island, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer Manor-House, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Slechtenhorst, Brandt, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Twiller, Walter, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Wart, Isaac, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Wyck house, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Wyck, James, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Verplanck house, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Verrazzano, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Versailles, peace of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virginia, dispute with Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vliessingen, <i>see</i> Flushing</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Von Königsmark, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Von Steuben, <i>see</i> <a href="#Steuben">Steuben</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">W</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waalboght, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wadsworth, Colonel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wallabout, village of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Walk-in-the-Water</i>, first steamboat on Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Walworth, E. H., on Saratoga, <a href="#Page_39">39-70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">War of 1812, <i>see</i> various chapters</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Washington, plan of city, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Washington, George, and the site of Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Great Meadows, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">with Braddock, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opens road to Fort Duquesne, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Schenectady, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span>in battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_238">238-240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Trenton and Princeton, <a href="#Page_270">270-290</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in New York, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197-202</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126-131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">visits Wilmington, <a href="#Page_355">355-358</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">instructions to St. Clair, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">plan for the National Capital, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Watkins, Rev. H., <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wayne, Anthony, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Webb, Captain Thomas, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weigand’s Tavern, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wesley, John, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Western University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">West India Company, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">West Point, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitefield, George, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitman, Walt, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William and Mary, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William III., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William IV., <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams, David, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams, Talcott, on Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_297">297-334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams College, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams house, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams, William I., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willing, Thomas, founds Wilmington, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willingstown, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willis, N. P., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilmington, E. N. Vallandigham on, <a href="#Page_335">335-365</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">plans of Usselinx, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">expedition of Minuit, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">settlement on the Christina, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">governorship of Prinz, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">struggles of the Swedes and Dutch for the Delaware, <a href="#Page_341">341-344</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch rule, <a href="#Page_344">344-346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">English supremacy, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">friendly services of Wm. Penn, <a href="#Page_346">346-349</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Old Swedes’ church, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wilmington laid out, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">services of William Shipley, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the earlier city, <a href="#Page_353">353-360</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">before and in the Civil War, <a href="#Page_360">360-364</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern changes, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Winthrop, Fitz John, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Witherspoon, John, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260-271</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wiedrich, Michael, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilkeson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilkeson, John, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Worth, Captain, in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolfe, death of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolfert’s Roost, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wyncoop, Gitty, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wyoming Valley, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Y</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yale relations with Princeton, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yorktown, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yorkville absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Z</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zoölogical Garden, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<h2>Historic Towns of New England</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With introduction by <span class="smcap">George
+P. Morris</span>. With 160 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $3.50.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: <b>Portland</b>, by Samuel T. Pickard; <b>Rutland</b>, by Edwin
+D. Mead; <b>Salem</b>, by George D. Latimer; <b>Boston</b>, by Thomas Wentworth
+Higginson and Edward Everett Hale; <b>Cambridge</b>, by Samuel A.
+Eliot; <b>Concord</b>, by Frank A. Sanborn; <b>Plymouth</b>, by Ellen Watson;
+<b>Cape Cod Towns</b>, by Katharine Lee Bates; <b>Deerfield</b>, by George Sheldon;
+<b>Newport</b>, by Susan Coolidge; <b>Providence</b>, by William B. Weeden;
+<b>Hartford</b>, by Mary K. Talcott; <b>New Haven</b>, by Frederick Hull Cogswell.</p>
+
+<h2>Historic Towns of the Middle States</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With introduction by Dr.
+<span class="smcap">Albert Shaw</span>. With over 150 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt
+top, $3.50.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: <b>Albany</b>, by W. W. Battershall; <b>Saratoga</b>, by Ellen
+H. Walworth; <b>Schenectady</b>, by Judson S. Landon; <b>Newburgh</b>, by
+Adelaide Skeel; <b>Tarrytown</b>, by H. W. Mabie; <b>Brooklyn</b>, by Harrington
+Putnam; <b>New York</b>, by J. B. Gilder; <b>Buffalo</b>, by Rowland B.
+Mahany; <b>Pittsburgh</b>, by S. H. Church; <b>Philadelphia</b>, by Talcott
+Williams; <b>Princeton</b>, by W. M. Sloane; <b>Wilmington</b>, by E. N. Vallandigham.</p>
+
+<h2>Some Colonial Homesteads</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">And Their Stories. By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>. Second impression.
+With 86 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $3.00.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“A notable book, dealing with early American days.... The
+name of the author is a guarantee not only of the greatest possible accuracy
+as to facts, but of attractive treatment of themes absorbingly interesting in
+themselves, ... the book is of rare elegance in paper, typography,
+and binding.”—<i>Rochester Democrat-Chronicle.</i></p>
+
+<h2>More Colonial Homesteads</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">And Their Stories. By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>. With over 70
+illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top.</p>
+
+<h2>Where Ghosts Walk</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Haunts of Familiar Characters in History and Literature.
+By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>, author of “Some Colonial Homesteads,”
+etc. With 33 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $2.50.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“In this volume fascinating pictures are thrown upon the screen so
+rapidly that we have not time to have done with our admiration for one
+before the next one is encountered.... Travel of this kind does not
+weary. It fascinates.”—<i>New York Times.</i></p>
+
+<h2>BELLES-LETTRES</h2>
+
+<h3>Browning, Poet and Man</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">A Survey. By <span class="smcap">Elisabeth Luther Cary</span>, author of “Tennyson;
+His Homes, His Friends, and His Works.” With
+cover design by <span class="smcap">Margaret Armstrong</span>. With 25 illustrations
+in photogravure and some text illustrations. Large
+8ᵒ, gilt top (in a box), $3.75.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">This volume forms a companion work to Miss Cary’s book on Tennyson
+issued last year, and which met with such a cordial reception.</p>
+
+<h3>Tennyson</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">His Homes, His Friends, and His Work. By <span class="smcap">Elisabeth
+Luther Cary</span>. With 18 illustrations in photogravure
+and some text illustrations. Second edition. Large 8ᵒ,
+gilt top (in a box), $3.75.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“The multitudes of admirers of Tennyson in the United States will
+mark this beautiful volume as very satisfactory. The text is clear, terse,
+and intelligent, and the matter admirably arranged, while the mechanical
+work is faultless, with art work especially marked for excellence.”—<i>Chicago
+Inter-Ocean.</i></p>
+
+<h3>Petrarch</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">The First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters. A Selection
+from his Correspondence with Boccaccio and other
+Friends. Designed to illustrate the Beginnings of the
+Renaissance. Translated from the original Latin together
+with Historical Introductions and Notes, by <span class="smcap">James Harvey
+Robinson</span>, Professor of History in Columbia University,
+with the Collaboration of <span class="smcap">Henry Winchester Rolfe</span>,
+sometime Professor of Latin in Swarthmore College.
+Illustrated. 8ᵒ, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“Petrarch is widely known as a poet of the Italian language whose
+love for Laura is immortalized in a long series of sonnets. It was an
+admirable idea for Prof. Robinson to translate for us a selection from the
+letters of Petrarch, and to intersperse their thoughtful and scholarly, fresh
+and interesting, notes and comments.”—<i>N. Y. Times.</i></p>
+
+<h3>Literary Hearthstones</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">Studies of the Home Life of Certain Writers and Thinkers.
+By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>, author of “Some Colonial Homesteads
+and Their Stories,” “Where Ghosts Walk,” etc.
+Put up in sets of two volumes each, in boxes. Fully
+illustrated. 16ᵒ.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">The first issues will be:</p>
+
+<table class="smaller">
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <ul>
+        <li><b>Charlotte Brontë.</b></li>
+        <li><b>William Cowper.</b></li>
+      </ul>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <ul>
+        <li><b>Hannah More.</b></li>
+        <li><b>John Knox.</b></li>
+      </ul>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="smaller">In this series, Marion Harland presents, not dry biographies, but, as
+indicated in the sub-title, studies of the home-life of certain writers and
+thinkers. The volumes will be found as interesting as stories, and, indeed,
+they have been prepared in the same method as would be pursued in writing
+a story, that is to say, with a due sense of proportion.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, <span class="smcap">New York and London</span></p>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77274 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus128.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus128.jpg
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index 0000000..a8185e3
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus129.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus129.jpg
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index 0000000..ef9acf2
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus130.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus130.jpg
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index 0000000..7ccb545
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus131.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus131.jpg
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index 0000000..485d5a2
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus132.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus132.jpg
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index 0000000..2d764ab
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus133.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus133.jpg
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index 0000000..20425bb
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus134.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus134.jpg
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index 0000000..7e675c1
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus135.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus135.jpg
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index 0000000..0f9f72f
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus136.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus136.jpg
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index 0000000..01d777f
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus137.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus137.jpg
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index 0000000..fc9b268
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus138.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus138.jpg
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus139.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus139.jpg
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus140.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus140.jpg
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index 0000000..7f7017e
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus141.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus141.jpg
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index 0000000..ab055d8
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus142.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus142.jpg
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus143.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus143.jpg
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diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus145.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus145.jpg
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--- /dev/null
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