Initial commit of ebook 77274 filesHEADmain

159 files changed, 23355 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/77274-0.txt b/77274-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d011599
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,9024 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77274 ***
+
+
+
+
+American Historic Towns.
+
+
+Historic Towns of New England.
+
+Edited by LYMAN P. POWELL. With Introduction by GEORGE P. MORRIS. Fully
+illustrated. Large 8ᵒ, $3.50.
+
+Historic Towns of the Middle States.
+
+Edited by LYMAN P. POWELL. With Introduction by ALBERT SHAW. Fully
+illustrated. Large 8ᵒ, $3.50
+
+G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _The “Half-Moon” on the Hudson—1609._
+
+_From a painting by L. W. Seavey._]
+
+
+
+
+                          American Historic Towns
+
+                              HISTORIC TOWNS
+                                    OF
+                             THE MIDDLE STATES
+
+                                 Edited by
+                              LYMAN P. POWELL
+
+                                Illustrated
+
+                            G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
+                             NEW YORK & LONDON
+                          The Knickerbocker Press
+                                   1899
+
+                              COPYRIGHT, 1899
+                                    BY
+                            G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
+
+                    Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London
+
+                     The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In offering to the public the second volume of _American Historic Towns_
+the editor desires to bring three facts to the consideration of the
+reader.
+
+1. This being the middle volume of a series dealing with the older towns
+along, or near, the Eastern coast, it is hoped that the title _Historic
+Towns of the Middle States_ will seem not inappropriate.
+
+2. The plan which underlay the making of the first volume, _Historic
+Towns of New England_, has in the main been followed. Each author has
+invariably been chosen because of unique fitness for his special task.
+The editor believes that in every case the enthusiasm of the native or
+the resident will be found wedded to the perspective of the _litterateur_
+or scholar. No effort has been made to harmonize divergencies in style or
+judgment, for obvious reasons. The success of the first volume has set
+the stamp of approval on the method of the series, and the editor is glad
+to announce that a volume on the Southern towns will shortly follow this.
+
+3. The chapter on Princeton first served as an address in 1894 before
+the Historical Pilgrims on the last day of their Pilgrimage, which is
+described in _Historic Towns of New England_, pp. iii.-v.
+
+To the making of this volume many have contributed in various ways. The
+editor is under special obligation to his wife, Gertrude Wilson Powell,
+for such assistance as makes her really a co-editor of the volume. Dr.
+Albert Shaw, and Mr. Melvil Dewey too have given freely of their counsel
+and encouragement, and the editor is happy to acknowledge their great
+kindness.
+
+                                                           LYMAN P. POWELL
+
+ST. JOHN’S RECTORY, LANSDOWNE, PENNSYLVANIA, October 17, 1899.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                 PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTION           Albert Shaw               xv
+
+  ALBANY                 Walton W. Battershall      1
+
+  SARATOGA               Ellen Hardin Walworth     39
+
+  SCHENECTADY            Judson S. Landon          71
+
+  NEWBURGH               Adelaide Skeel           107
+
+  TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON    Hamilton Wright Mabie    137
+
+  NEW YORK CITY          Joseph B. Gilder         169
+
+  BROOKLYN               Harrington Putnam        213
+
+  PRINCETON              William M. Sloane        251
+
+  PHILADELPHIA           Talcott Williams         297
+
+  WILMINGTON             E. N. Vallandigham       335
+
+  BUFFALO                Rowland B. Mahany        367
+
+  PITTSBURGH             Samuel Harden Church     393
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Transcriber’s Note: The illustrations listed as “Seal of Tarrytown”
+and “Seal of New York City” were not, in fact, printed in the book.
+Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break, which may
+be on a different page.
+
+
+                                                                      PAGE
+
+  THE “HALF-MOON” ON THE HUDSON, 1609                        _Frontispiece_
+    From the painting by L. W. Seavey.
+
+                                  ALBANY
+
+  OLD CHART OF NIEU NEDERLANDT[1]                                        5
+
+  PLAN OF ALBANY, 1695[1]                                               11
+
+  OLD DUTCH CHURCH, ERECTED IN 1715 ON SITE OF ORIGINAL CHURCH
+      ERECTED IN 1656[1]                                                13
+
+  ST. PETER’S CHURCH ERECTED IN 1715. FORT FREDERICK IN THE
+      BACKGROUND[1]                                                     15
+    From a water-color sketch in the British Museum.
+
+  MAJOR-GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER[1]                                      23
+    From the painting by Colonel Trumbull.
+
+  STEPHEN VAN RENSSELAER[1]                                             25
+    From the painting by Ezra Ames.
+
+  VAN RENSSELAER MANOR-HOUSE, 1765[2]                                   26
+
+  SCHUYLER MANSION, 1760[1]                                             27
+
+  WEST SIDE OF PEARL STREET, FROM STATE STREET TO MAIDEN LANE, 1814[1]  31
+
+  VIEW OF ALBANY, 1899[2]                                               33
+
+  JOHN V. L. PRUYN                                                      35
+
+  SEAL OF ALBANY                                                        37
+
+                                 SARATOGA
+
+  SARATOGA LAKE, N. Y.                                                  40
+
+  MAP SHOWING HISTORIC AND OTHER DRIVES IN THE VICINITY OF SARATOGA
+      SPRINGS                                                           42
+
+  SARATOGA BATTLE MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.                        43
+
+  NORTH BROADWAY, SARATOGA SPRINGS, 1898                                47
+
+  GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER                                               50
+    Bronze statue in niche of Saratoga monument, Schuylerville, N. Y.
+
+  CONGRESS SPRING IN 1820                                               52
+
+  KAYADROSSERA PATENT, WITH GREAT SEAL OF QUEEN ANNE PENDANT, 1708      55
+    Original in Saratoga County Clerk’s Office.
+
+  WOMEN OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776                                         57
+    From tablet on Saratoga battle monument, Schuylerville, N. Y.
+
+  “OLD WELL,” FREEMAN’S FARM, BATTLE-GROUND, BEMIS HEIGHTS, SEPT.
+      19, 1777                                                          61
+
+  GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN                                                 63
+
+  CONGRESS SPRING, 1898                                                 66
+
+  SIGN, “PUTNAM AND THE WOLF,” ON PUTNAM’S TAVERN, SARATOGA SPRINGS     67
+    Original sign in Grand Union Hotel, Saratoga Springs, N. Y.
+
+  SEAL OF SARATOGA                                                      70
+
+                               SCHENECTADY
+
+  COLONIAL HOUSE, UNION STREET                                          72
+
+  VIEW ON STATE STREET                                                  74
+
+  “THE BLUE GATE” ENTRANCE TO UNION COLLEGE GROUNDS                     77
+
+  GLEN-SANDERS MANSION, ERECTED 1714                                    82
+
+  FIRST REFORMED (DUTCH) CHURCH                                         87
+
+  ELLIS HOSPITAL                                                        90
+
+  EDISON HOTEL                                                          93
+
+  UNION COLLEGE, 1795                                                   99
+
+  STATUE, SITE OF “OLD FORT”                                           100
+
+  “THE BROOK THAT BOUNDS THRO’ UNION’S GROUNDS,” UNION COLLEGE         103
+
+  ELIPHALET NOTT                                                       105
+    President of Union College for sixty years.
+
+  SEAL OF SCHENECTADY                                                  106
+
+                                 NEWBURGH
+
+  WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT NEWBURGH[3]                             109
+
+  JOEL T. HEADLEY[4]                                                   111
+
+  THE LUTHERAN CHURCH                                                  113
+
+  ANDREW J. DOWNING[4]                                                 116
+
+  HENRY KIRKE BROWN[4]                                                 119
+
+  HEADQUARTERS OF MAJOR-GENERAL KNOX AT VAIL’S GATE[3]                 123
+
+  CLINTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT LITTLE BRITAIN, NEAR NEWBURGH              124
+
+  CLINTON STATUE IN COLDEN SQUARE, NEWBURGH                            126
+
+  THE WILLIAMS HOUSE[3]                                                129
+
+  MONUMENT ON TEMPLE HILL, NEAR NEWBURGH[5]                            130
+
+  THE VERPLANCK HOUSE[5]                                               131
+    Baron Steuben’s headquarters, where the “Nicola Letter” was
+    written.
+
+  WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT FISHKILL[6]                             133
+
+  CHARLES DOWNING[4]                                                   134
+
+  SEAL OF NEWBURGH                                                     135
+
+                           TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON
+
+  BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF TARRYTOWN                                         139
+    From a photograph by F. Ahrens.
+
+  THE POCANTICO RIVER                                                  149
+    From a photograph.
+
+  OLD MANOR-HOUSE (“FLYPSE’S CASTLE”) AND MILL, TARRYTOWN              151
+
+  THE OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW                                  153
+    From a drawing by W. J. Wilson.
+
+  INTERIOR OF THE OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW, PRIOR TO ITS
+      RESTORATION IN 1897                                              155
+    From a photograph by F. Ahrens.
+
+  MONUMENT TO THE CAPTORS OF ANDRÉ                                     159
+    From a photograph by F. Ahrens.
+
+  WASHINGTON IRVING                                                    161
+
+  “SUNNYSIDE”                                                          163
+    The home of Washington Irving.
+
+  THE JACOB MOTT HOUSE, WHERE KATRINA VAN TASSEL WAS MARRIED           165
+    Now occupied by the new Washington Irving High School.
+
+  SEAL OF TARRYTOWN                                                    166
+
+  OLD SLEEPY HOLLOW MILL                                               167
+
+                              NEW YORK CITY
+
+  FIRST SEAL OF THE CITY, 1623-1654[7]                                 170
+
+  MAP OF ORIGINAL GRANTS[7]                                            171
+
+  THE FORT IN GOVERNOR KIEFT’S DAY                                     174
+
+  PETER STUYVESANT                                                     176
+
+  SEAL OF THE CITY IN 1686[7]                                          177
+
+  JOHN JAY                                                             179
+
+  ALEXANDER HAMILTON                                                   180
+
+  FRAUNCES TAVERN                                                      183
+
+  THE STADT HUYS                                                       191
+
+  STAINED-GLASS WINDOW IN “BOWLING GREEN OFFICES,” SHOWING GREEN
+      ABOUT 1760[8]                                                    193
+
+  GOVERNMENT HOUSE[8]                                                  195
+
+  FEDERAL HALL                                                         196
+
+  ST. PAUL’S CHURCH                                                    199
+
+  CITY HALL                                                            200
+
+  GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE                                        203
+
+  WASHINGTON ARCH                                                      209
+
+  SEAL OF NEW YORK CITY                                                211
+
+                                 BROOKLYN
+
+  VIEW IN BROOKLYN IN THE OLDEN TIMES                                  215
+
+  DENYSE’S FERRY                                                       217
+    The first place at which the British and Hessians landed on
+    Long Island, August 22, 1776. Now Fort Hamilton.
+
+  BUSHWICK TOWN-HOUSE AND CHURCH, 1800                                 223
+
+  SECTION OF MAP OF BROOKLYN, 1776                                     231
+
+  BROWER’S MILL, GOWANUS                                               233
+    The Yellow Mill is seen in the distance.
+
+  MONUMENT TO MARYLAND’S “400”                                         241
+
+  NAVY YARD                                                            243
+    In foreground 5.5-inch breech-loading gun, with mount
+    and shield, taken from Spanish cruiser _Vizcaya_, after
+    destruction of Spanish fleet, July 3, 1898; also submarine
+    mine from Guantanamo.
+
+  FORT LAFAYETTE, NEW YORK NARROWS                                     245
+
+  BROOKLYN INSTITUTE MUSEUM                                            246
+
+  HENRY WARD BEECHER                                                   247
+
+  SEAL OF BROOKLYN                                                     249
+
+                                PRINCETON
+
+  THE LINE OF HISTORIC CATALPAS                                        253
+
+  A VIEW OF THE FRONT CAMPUS                                           255
+
+  JOHN WITHERSPOON                                                     260
+
+  WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT ROCKY HILL, N. J., NEAR PRINCETON       261
+
+  MORVEN                                                               263
+
+  RICHARD STOCKTON, “THE SIGNER”                                       269
+
+  HALL IN THE MORVEN HOUSE                                             273
+
+  BATTLE OF PRINCETON. DEATH OF MERCER                                 277
+    From the painting by Col. J. Trumbull.
+
+  NASSAU HALL                                                          287
+
+  PRESIDENT JAMES MCCOSH                                               293
+
+  SEAL OF PRINCETON                                                    296
+
+                               PHILADELPHIA
+
+  READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE                              299
+    From an old French print.
+
+  THOMAS PENN                                                          303
+    From a painting owned by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania,
+    copied by M. I. Naylor from the portrait in the possession of
+    Major Dugald Stuart.
+
+  SECOND STREET, PHILADELPHIA, SHOWING THE OLD COURT HOUSE ON THE
+      LEFT                                                             305
+    From an engraving by W. Birch & Son.
+
+  FRANKLIN IN 1777                                                     307
+    After the print reproduced from the drawing of Cochin.
+
+  THE PHILADELPHIA LIBRARY                                             309
+    The old building on Fifth Street, now demolished. From an
+    engraving by W. Birch & Son.
+
+  CARPENTER’S HALL, PHILADELPHIA                                       313
+    Wherein met the First Continental Congress, 1774.
+
+  THE PENNSYLVANIA HOSPITAL                                            315
+    From an engraving by W. Birch & Son.
+
+  INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, BEFORE 1876                         319
+
+  THE MORRIS HOUSE, GERMANTOWN, PHILADELPHIA                           321
+
+  DR. WILLIAM PEPPER[9]                                                324
+
+  FRANK THOMSON[9]                                                     326
+
+  THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE                  331
+
+  SEAL OF PHILADELPHIA                                                 333
+
+                                WILMINGTON
+
+  PLAN OF CHRISTINA FORT, 1655                                         338
+
+  RESIDENCE OF THE LATE THOMAS F. BAYARD[10]                           342
+
+  OLD SWEDES’ CHURCH                                                   345
+
+  REV. ERIC BJORK[11]                                                  348
+
+  BISHOP LEE                                                           349
+
+  THOMAS F. BAYARD                                                     351
+
+  SHIPLEY BUILDING[11]                                                 354
+
+  OLD FRIENDS’ MEETING-HOUSE                                           356
+
+  HOUSE OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY                                      359
+
+  CITY HALL                                                            361
+
+  NEWCASTLE COUNTY COURT HOUSE                                         363
+
+  SEAL OF WILMINGTON                                                   365
+
+                                 BUFFALO
+
+  JOSEPH ELLICOTT                                                      368
+    Founder of Buffalo.
+
+  LAFAYETTE SQUARE                                                     371
+
+  A GLIMPSE OF BUFFALO HARBOR                                          375
+
+  ST. PAUL’S CHURCH                                                    379
+
+  MILLARD FILLMORE[12]                                                 383
+
+  BEACON ON OLD BREAKWATER                                             386
+
+  DELAWARE AVENUE, SHOWING BISHOP QUIGLEY’S HOUSE                      388
+
+  DR. JOHN CRONYN                                                      389
+
+  WILLIAM I. WILLIAMS                                                  390
+
+  SEAL OF BUFFALO                                                      391
+
+                                PITTSBURGH
+
+  AN EARLY RESIDENT OF PITTSBURGH                                      395
+    From the statue by T. A. Mills in the Carnegie Museum.
+
+  SUN-DIAL USED AT FORT DUQUESNE                                       398
+
+  THE EARL OF CHATHAM                                                  403
+    From an oil painting in the possession of the Historical
+    Society of Pennsylvania.
+
+  BLOCKHOUSE OF FORT PITT. BUILT IN 1764                               406
+
+  PLAN OF FORT PITT                                                    409
+
+  PHIPPS CONSERVATORY                                                  415
+
+  THE COAL FLEET                                                       419
+
+  CARNEGIE INSTITUTE                                                   421
+
+  COURT HOUSE                                                          425
+
+  SEAL OF PITTSBURGH                                                   426
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+BY ALBERT SHAW
+
+
+The designation “Middle States” has a negative, rather than a positive,
+significance. In our later history, as well as in that of our colonizing
+and federalizing periods, the term “New England” has had a definite
+value for many purposes besides those of geographical convenience: and
+it is equally true that “the South” has meant very much in our American
+life besides a mere territorial expression. But the “Middle States” lack
+the sharply distinguishing characteristics of the other groups. In more
+senses than the strictly literal one, the two immense States of New York
+and Pennsylvania, with one or two smaller neighbors, have occupied middle
+ground.
+
+If New York, on the one hand, has been somewhat closely related to
+New England, Pennsylvania has had many neighborly associations with
+Maryland and Virginia. New Jersey, meanwhile, has been a close link
+between Pennsylvania and New York. The development of New England was
+dominated in a marvellous way by a set of ideas, religious, political
+and philosophical, that belonged to a certain phase of the English
+Reformation. Virginia and other settlements to the southward had their
+origins in a colonizing movement that was more typically representative
+of contemporary English manners, views and ways of living. The
+aristocratic system would have disappeared rapidly enough in the South
+but for the gradual extension of an exotic institution,—that of African
+slavery.
+
+The Middle States had a more varied origin,—one that does not lend itself
+so readily to the purposes of contrast and generalization. The Hudson,
+called by the Dutch the North River, and the Delaware, which they called
+the South River, were both entered by Henry Hudson, an Englishman in
+the employ of the Dutch East India Company, in 1609; and apart from an
+extremely limited settlement of Swedes on the west bank of the Delaware,
+it was the Dutch who controlled the beginnings of European settlement
+along the seaboard of what afterward came to be known as the Middle
+States section. The Dutch colonization was not large, but it had a strong
+and persistent influence upon the subsequent development of New York and
+the region round about.
+
+The gradual predominance in New York of men of English speech and
+origin came about partly by infiltration from the New England colonies
+and partly by direct migration from England. There resulted a natural
+and harmonious fusion between the Dutch pioneers on the Hudson and the
+English-speaking colonists. Various Dutch institutions survived long
+after the English language had come into general use.
+
+Before the grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn, the settlers on the
+Delaware had been mainly Swedish, Dutch or otherwise from continental
+Europe. William Penn’s colonists at the outset were largely English
+Quakers, and some years later there arrived great numbers of Germans,
+some French Huguenots, and a good many Scotch-Irish Protestants.
+
+Thus, as compared with New England on the one hand and the Southern
+colonies on the other, the Middle States had cosmopolitan, rather than
+purely English, origins. This cosmopolitanism has remained, as a leading
+factor in all their subsequent history. The spirit of compromise and
+tolerance that had been developed in the middle section by the contact
+of different nationalities was of incalculable value when the time
+came for the co-operation of the thirteen colonies in the struggle for
+independence, and in the subsequent formation of their federal union.
+
+If the colony which developed into the Empire State, and that which came
+to be known as the Keystone State, had occupied some other geographical
+position than the one they held as a buffer between New England and the
+South, the history of America might well have taken a wholly different
+course. For there was almost as much difference in institutions, life
+and points of view between the New Englanders and the Virginians of
+Colonial days as between the New Englanders and the Canadian Frenchmen
+across the St. Lawrence. But the transition from New England to New York
+was easy, and involved no violent contrasts. There had been a steady
+movement of population from the New England States westward across the
+eastern boundary line of the State of New York. On the other hand, it
+was comparatively easy for Maryland and Virginia to co-operate with
+Pennsylvania. In so far, indeed, as population had extended back from the
+tide-water districts into the hill country and the Appalachian valleys,
+the settlement both of Maryland and Virginia had proceeded very largely
+from Pennsylvania.
+
+Thus the Middle States had a great mission to perform in uniting and
+holding together the more extreme sections. In the development, after
+the Revolutionary War, of the country west of the Alleghanies, this
+harmonizing influence of the Middle States was very conspicuously shown
+in the creation of the great commonwealth of Ohio, and only to a less
+degree in the making of a number of other States in what has now come to
+be called the Middle West—the region that produced men of the type of
+Lincoln and Grant, and that joined with the old Middle States in later
+crises to preserve the Union and fuse its elements into a homogeneous
+nation.
+
+No communities in the world lend themselves more profitably to the study
+of history than these which are described in the present volume. Concrete
+illustration aids no less in the study of history than in that of the
+physical sciences; and these towns of the Middle States illustrate
+not only the more recent tendencies that have marked the course of
+human history, but also lead us back by easy stages to an insight into
+conditions of an earlier time. For example, the survivals of the Dutch
+_régime_ in New York quicken a sympathetic interest that greatly aids the
+comprehension of the international career of the Netherlands. On the very
+day when these remarks are written, the larger news of the world—that
+which is history in the making—concerns itself with two widely severed
+scenes of early Dutch colonization. From Paris comes the decision of the
+Venezuela arbitration tribunal, involving principally the material and
+legal facts as to the extent of Dutch exploration and settlement in the
+same general period as the Dutch colonization of New York. The relations
+of the Dutch and English in successions and exchanges of jurisdiction on
+the northern coast of South America can only be understood in the light
+of the history of the settlements at the mouth of the Hudson River.
+
+In like manner the conditions of Dutch settlement in South Africa in the
+middle of the seventeenth century are best comprehended in connection
+with the story of contemporary Dutch colonization in America. The
+Knickerbockers of New York and the Boers of the Transvaal are of common
+origin,—a fact frankly recognized by the Holland Society of New York in
+its expressions of sympathy with the Dutch element in South Africa in its
+struggle against fate.
+
+The history of the communities of Pennsylvania affords a convenient
+initiation into much of the complex religious and ecclesiastical history
+of Europe. Penn brought the Quakers and other fine English stock from the
+middle and north of England for reasons that go to the very heart of the
+English life of the seventeenth century. A little later the Protestant
+Germans of the Palatinate came in great numbers, impelled by motives
+to understand which is to find oneself essentially comprehending the
+conditions of Church and State that so disturbed and harassed Western
+Europe for a long period. Thus, to study the great city of Philadelphia
+in its origins, its later accretions and its existing conditions, is to
+find inviting avenues leading into many fields of historical inquiry both
+of the new world and the old.
+
+What single spot could one find anywhere that would more naturally
+stimulate the study of political and economic history in the nineteenth
+century than old Castle Garden at the lower end of New York City, through
+which millions upon millions of immigrants have entered the Western world
+to find contentment and prosperity? Many of these came from Ireland;
+and the municipal life of New York City has been profoundly affected by
+that fact. To answer the question why these people left Ireland and, in
+leaving, why their destination was New York rather than some port in the
+British colonies, is to review the history of the Irish land system, the
+Irish Church and the political administration of Ireland for several
+generations.
+
+An enormous element of the present population of New York, as well as
+of the country at large, is made up of a comparatively recent German
+immigration, to understand which one must learn something of the German
+revolutionary movement of 1848, the growth of German militarism and the
+conditions under which educational progress in Germany has outstripped
+the average material prosperity. Still more recently there has been a
+huge immigration of Russian Jews, with local effects of a most marked
+character in the city of New York. To know why these Jews have come is to
+look into racial, political, and economic conditions throughout the great
+empire of the Czar.
+
+To study the main routes of communication in a region like our Middle
+States is to gain an insight into the relations of physical conditions
+to historical development that will be of no little use in the study of
+other origins and remoter periods. It would be hard to exaggerate the
+importance, for instance, of the part that the Hudson River has played in
+the history of the Western Hemisphere since its discovery and settlement
+by the Europeans. The route by way of the Hudson, Lake George and Lake
+Champlain afforded in the early times the one interior passage to the St.
+Lawrence from the settlements on our seaboard.
+
+Much of the land adjacent to the river was granted in large tracts under
+the Dutch system to patroons, so called, who were virtually feudal lords.
+Upon some of these tracts there still survive various peculiarities of
+the feudal system of land tenure. To know something of what feudalism
+meant as respects the control of the land, the student might find a
+worse method than to trace back the history of one of these Hudson River
+estates to the period of the Dutch grant, in order to get so much nearer
+to the survivals of the mediæval system in Europe.
+
+At the spot where I live on the Hudson, and where I am now writing,
+the environment is suggestive of almost three centuries of American
+history. I look out upon the great stream which Hudson navigated in
+the _Half Moon_ in 1609, and upon which sailing craft have been plying
+almost continually ever since. I see great steamers passing where Fulton
+first experimented with steam navigation. The highway near by is the
+old Albany post-road, this immediate part of which was known as Edgar’s
+Lane and was opened in 1644. This morning I heard the pleasant notes of
+a coaching-horn, and looked out to see a stately four-in-hand on its way
+to the city, a forcible reminder of at least a century and a half of
+regular mail coaching on that same road. My home is a part of what was
+the old Philipse manor; and at Yonkers, a few miles below, one finds the
+manor-house, now in constant use as a municipal building. It was partly
+built in 1682, and assumed its present dimensions in about 1745.
+
+On this very ground, and on the hills lying to the eastward, Washington’s
+army was encamped for a number of weeks in 1777, and near by is the
+well-preserved colonial house where Washington and Rochambeau sojourned
+for some time, and where the Yorktown campaign was planned. In the
+river at this point, on several occasions, the British frigates made
+appearance, the last of these being the final meeting between General
+Washington and General Sir Guy Carleton, in May, 1783, on the suspension
+of hostilities. A few miles farther up the road one comes to the lane
+that leads to Washington Irving’s “Sunnyside,” with its tablet stating
+that the house was first built in the year 1650.
+
+With these older historical souvenirs in mind, I turn to the southward,
+and there, as a reminder that the current of American history flows on,
+and that our past is in no manner detached from the present and the
+future, I see, standing out in bold relief on the horizon, the tomb
+of General Grant, while anchored in the river lies the _Olympia_, the
+flag-ship of Admiral Dewey, just now returned from adventures as fraught
+with history-making results as was the presence of Hudson’s _Half Moon_
+in this same river two hundred and ninety years ago.
+
+The historical significance of the Hudson might be illustrated in some
+such way at many another point upon its banks. The location of Albany
+is particularly to be noted as one evidently intended by nature for an
+important rendezvous. In the earlier period Albany and the Saratoga
+district, and certain points of advantage in the Mohawk Valley, were of
+great strategic importance. They were natural gateways, which had to be
+held first against the Indians and Frenchmen, and afterward against the
+British. Their later importance has had to do with canals, railroads and
+the development of commerce.
+
+But of Albany it must be said that it has also the distinction of being
+one of the three or four chief law-making centres of the English-speaking
+world. In no other way has the State of New York exerted so wide an
+influence upon the country at large as in the working out of laws and
+institutions which have been re-enacted almost without change by a great
+number of the other States of the Union. Thus Albany has been a great
+training school in politics and legislation.
+
+Before the days of railroad building, the Erie Canal was the greatest
+undertaking that this country had witnessed in the improvement of its
+transportation facilities. This waterway connected the Great Lakes with
+the Atlantic by way of the Mohawk and Hudson valleys; and among other
+results of a far-reaching nature there followed the development of the
+city of Buffalo, a commercial and manufacturing community founded in the
+opening years of the nineteenth century, and destined in the twentieth
+to achieve such growth and splendor as few men are yet bold enough to
+anticipate.
+
+We have seen in our generation fierce rivalry for the occupation of
+Khartoum, at the head of Nile navigation, with one expedition succeeding
+another until the final success of the English under General Kitchener.
+The possession of Khartoum was known to carry with it the control of
+the fertile Soudan beyond, as well as to affect the permanent mastery
+of the valley of the lower Nile to the Delta. In some such manner the
+French and English in the middle of the eighteenth century appreciated
+the strategic importance of the point at the junction of the Alleghany
+and the Monongahela rivers, where the Ohio took its start, and from which
+navigation was unobstructed all the way to the Gulf of Mexico. It was in
+large part the struggle for the site of Pittsburgh that gave Washington
+the military training and the large perception of the future of America
+that fitted him for his great tasks of leadership. The development of
+Pittsburgh and the opening of the Ohio furnish most instructive and
+interesting chapters in the history of our country.
+
+The quaint or curious or heroic beginnings must always have their
+fascination; and it is likely enough that for a long time to come they
+will take a little more than their normal or proportionate share of the
+page of history. But real history is learning also to concern itself
+with other things. The story of Princeton, now so largely that of
+Revolutionary annals, will henceforth increasingly be the story of the
+life and work of a great university. That of Pittsburgh will become in
+expanding proportions the story of the development of the arts and crafts
+and of manufacturing in this country, and of the struggle of skilled
+labor for an ever-larger share in the advantages made possible by the
+enormous increase in the volume of production. The story of Philadelphia
+will, to an increasing extent, be that of the best housed and most
+contented of all the great communities in the world, full of evidences of
+private thrift and the domestic virtues, while exhibiting the paradox of
+a relatively low degree of efficiency in matters of common concern like
+municipal administration.
+
+The historic towns of the Middle States are now engaged in the making
+of history in ways very different from those of the Colonial and
+Revolutionary periods, but in ways certainly not less important. But
+their future will be the wiser and happier for a studious devotion to the
+records of their honorable past, and they cannot be too zealous in the
+perpetuation of the old landmarks.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+HISTORIC TOWNS OF THE MIDDLE STATES
+
+
+
+
+ALBANY
+
+“This antient and respectable city.”—(_Washington, 1782._)
+
+BY WALTON W. BATTERSHALL
+
+
+Albany, unlike the proverbial happy woman, has not only age but a
+history. Its age is indicated in its claim to be the second oldest
+existing settlement in the original thirteen colonies. The claim is
+fairly sustained, but we must remember that the alleged discoveries and
+settlements of those nomadic times are a trifle equivocal. On the other
+hand, the historical significance of Albany is based on two unquestioned
+facts: for a century it guarded the imperilled north and west frontiers
+of Anglo-Saxon civilization on the continent; for another century it has
+been the legislative seat of the most powerful State in the Republic.
+
+On the 19th of September, 1609, _old style_, the yacht _De Halve Maen_,
+six months from Amsterdam, in command of Henry Hudson, dropped anchor
+a few miles below the present site of Albany. Four days spent in the
+exchange of civilities with the Indians and the taking of soundings from
+the ship’s boat farther up the stream, convinced the speculative explorer
+that the beautiful river among the hills gave no promise of a water path
+to China, and the _Half-Moon_, freighted with wild fruits, peltries and
+pleasant impressions, turned her prow homeward.
+
+From the Dutch and also the English point of view, the English skipper
+of the Dutch ship had discovered the river. It appears however that
+in 1524 Verrazzano put a French keel, _La Dauphine_, far up the same
+stream, to which he gave the name La Grande, and, some time after, French
+fur traders built a rude _château_, or, as we would say, fortified
+trading-post, on Castle Island, just off the hills of Albany. But the
+France of Francis I. had no colonizing grip, and La Nouvelle France was
+simply a name which stretched along the Atlantic seaboard on the French
+charts of the sixteenth century.
+
+On the return of Henry Hudson, his discovery was claimed by his patrons,
+the Dutch East India Company. They named the river the Mauritius[13]
+(Prince Maurice’s River), and the outlying country, known as Nieu
+Nederlandt, had good report in Holland for its furs and friendly savages.
+
+The Amsterdam merchants were alert, and other Dutch vessels, following
+in the wake of the _Half-Moon_, pushed up the river to the head of
+navigation. There they found on the west bank the Maquaas, or Mohawks,
+and on the east bank the Mahicans, or Mohegans, with whom they had
+profitable transactions.
+
+To consolidate and protect their ventures, a group of merchants
+petitioned the States-General of Holland for the exclusive privilege
+of traffic with the aborigines on the river. The elaborate map of Nieu
+Nederlandt which they presented with their petition was discovered in
+1841 in the royal archives at the Hague, and a facsimile is now in the
+State Library at Albany.[14] A license for three years was granted.
+Thereupon, in 1615, the ruined _château_ on Castle Island was rebuilt,
+equipped with two cannon and garrisoned with a dozen Dutch soldiers. In
+compliment to the Stadtholder, it received the name of Fort Nassau.
+
+This occupancy in force of Castle Island (now called Van Rensselaer
+Island) was brief, for the spring freshets proved too much for even the
+amphibious Dutch musketeers and traders, and it hardly can be called a
+settlement.
+
+It is an interesting fact, that the valley of the Hudson narrowly missed
+the honor of being settled by the passengers of the _Mayflower_. Under
+the November skies of 1620, that historic vessel, with its valuable cargo
+of religious and political seed-corn, for several days had been beating
+about the point of Cape Cod. Old Governor Bradford, with quaint spelling
+and phrasing, tells the story of the mishap:
+
+    “After some deliberation had amongst them selves and with yᵉ
+    mʳ of yᵉ ship, they tacked aboute and resolved to stande for
+    yᵉ southward (yᵉ wind and weather being faire) to finde some
+    place aboute Hudsons river for their habitation. But after they
+    had sailed yᵗ course aboute halfe yᵉ day, they fell amongst
+    dangerous shoulds and roring breakers, and they were so farr
+    intangled ther with as they conceived them selves in great
+    danger; & yᵉ wind shrinking upon them withall they resolved to
+    bear up again for the Cape.”[15]
+
+[Illustration: OLD CHART OF NIEU NEDERLANDT.]
+
+Thus Plymouth Rock became the intellectual door-stone of the New World,
+and the banks of the Hudson inherited one of the sad “might-have-beens”
+of history. However, Douglas Campbell, in his trenchant and disturbing
+book, _The Puritan in Holland, England and America_, has told us that the
+distinctive principles of our American social and political life show, on
+critical inspection, the Dutch hall-mark.
+
+The America of 1621 was much more of a “dark continent” than the Africa
+of fifty years ago. The adjective applies both to the skin of the
+autochthons and the mind of the explorers. In the commercial circles
+of Amsterdam, Nieu Nederlandt was supposed to be a part of the West
+Indies. Therefore it was that the new company which was devised for its
+exploitation and chartered in the year mentioned, took the name of The
+Dutch West India Company.
+
+Under its auspices, in March, 1624, the ship _Nieu Nederlandt_ sailed
+from Amsterdam by the accustomed route of the Canary Islands for the
+Mauritius River. She carried thirty families, chiefly Walloons, refugees
+from Belgium who had settled in Holland, and a few Dutch freemen. Some of
+the families were landed on Manhattan Island, but the majority proceeded
+up the river and selected for their settlement the fat meadow on the west
+shore above Castle Island. Under the shadow of the clay hill on which the
+Capitol now lifts its masses of sculptured granite, they built rude huts
+sheathed in bark, and a little log fort which they named Fort Orange. The
+Indians were friendly and eager to barter, and enthusiastic reports were
+at once sent over to Holland, with corroborative otter and beaver skins.
+
+Two years after this settlement at Fort Orange, the Dutch West India
+Company purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for sixty guilders in
+high-priced goods and, planting a colony and fort on the south end of
+the island, brought up the population of Nieu Nederlandt to two hundred
+souls. The Company, desiring to stimulate colonization, in 1629 projected
+the manorial or patroon system; a combination of feudal idea and Latin
+name, _patronus_. Killiaen Van Rensselaer, one of the directors and a
+rich merchant of Amsterdam, at once obtained an extensive grant of land
+south of Fort Orange and, by the purchase of the land from the Indians
+and the planting of a colony, became the patroon of Rensselaerswyck. He
+never visited his “colonie,” but before his death in 1646, he had sent
+from Holland over two hundred artisans and farmers, and included in his
+manor a territory forty-eight by twenty-four miles, and also another
+tract of sixty-two thousand acres.
+
+Thus Albany began with a Dutch imprint, which to this day has given to
+the city its distinctive mark. Forty years of Dutch sagacity and thrift
+rapidly developed the colony. It was on the whole a prosperous period,
+enlivened by chronic disputes between the garrison and the manor, and
+disquieting rumors regarding belligerent Indians and the French. It
+throws on a small canvas sturdy personages and stirring events. Brandt
+Van Slechtenhorst, the stiff upholder of the manor claims against the
+doughty Pieter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch Director-General; Domine
+Megapolensis, the first Dutch minister; and the flitting figure of the
+Jesuit missionary, Father Jogues with his hands mangled by the Mohawks
+and kissed by the Queen of France, would make any canvas picturesque. To
+take Washington Irving’s delicious bit of humor too seriously shows a
+melancholy lack of humor.
+
+Certainly the Dutch burghers of Albany did not take very seriously the
+English occupation of Nieu Nederlandt in 1664. The seizure was colored by
+an old claim of uncertain dimensions based upon the Cabot discoveries,
+which for a long time had strained the relations between England and
+Holland concerning colonial matters. The capitulation was bloodless,
+and to Albany it brought little change, save that the English flag, in
+place of the Dutch, fluttered over the ramparts of Fort Orange, which
+took the name of Fort Albany in commemoration of the Scotch title of the
+Duke of York, the new lord of the province. The great manorial grant was
+confirmed, and in all its habits of thought and life the colony remained
+Dutch. The happiest change and perhaps the most startling shock came
+from the fact that the Duke of York, bigot as he was, broke the tradition
+of the period and introduced in his province religious toleration.
+
+The English came, but the Dutch remained. The old Holland stock on
+the bank of the Hudson kept its root in the soil and has made vital
+contributions to the American hybrid, which have had scant recognition in
+our popular histories. The fact is, the Dutch were not given to writing
+books. They had fought for their religion and motherland, and had held
+them both against the assault of a powerful foe, but the recital of the
+story they left to the more expert tongues and more eloquent pens of
+Englishmen. Their type of character and social usage has proved its vigor
+and worth by its quiet persistence and dominance in New York life of
+to-day. In old Albany, even under English rule, ideas and customs which
+had their birth behind the dykes of Holland were conspicuously in the
+ascendant.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF ALBANY, 1695.]
+
+Albany became a city in 1686 by a judicious charter granted by Governor
+Dongan. A diagram in the Rev. John Miller’s _Description of the Province
+and City of New York_, published in London, 1695, gives us an idea of
+the new-born city. It consisted of about a hundred houses surrounded by
+a stockade, which was pierced to the north and south by narrow gateways.
+Above the stockade the most conspicuous objects were the pyramidal roof
+of the Dutch church at the foot of Jonker Street (now State Street),
+surmounted by three small cannon, and, on the eminence at the upper end
+of the street, the bastions of Fort Frederick, which had inherited the
+responsibilities and honors of the dismantled Fort Orange.
+
+For about forty years after the peaceful seizure by the English, the old
+Dutch church, where the prosperous burghers worshipped, and a Lutheran
+church of somewhat intermittent life but hospitable to outsiders sufficed
+for the religious needs of the city. The officers of the garrison,
+however, and probably most of the soldiers were Church of England men.
+There was much in the service of the Dutch Church of that day which must
+have suggested pleasant reminiscence. Christmas, Easter and Whitsunday
+were festivals brought from Holland, and were duly celebrated in the
+church and at the fireside. Queerly enough, in the accounts of Pieter
+Schuyler, the deacon of the Dutch church in 1683 and the first mayor
+of the city, we read that “the 13th of January was observed as a day of
+fasting and prayer, to divert God’s heavy judgment from falling on the
+English nation for the murder of King Charles, martyr of blessed memory,”
+and that the expenses therefor were seventeen guilders.
+
+[Illustration: OLD DUTCH CHURCH, ERECTED IN 1715 ON SITE OF ORIGINAL
+CHURCH ERECTED IN 1656.]
+
+But the theological coin of the Synod of Dort, whether acceptable or not
+to the English, was more or less inaccessible, being hid in the napkin
+of the Dutch language. Evidently there was need of an English house of
+worship in Albany. In 1714, therefore, Governor Hunter issued letters
+patent granting a plot of ground in Jonker Street below the fort for
+a church and cemetery. The Common Council made protest. The point at
+issue was a question, not of doctrine, but of municipal rights. They
+issued notice to suspend the laying of the foundations. They arrested
+the workmen. They petitioned the Governor. They sent a messenger by
+express in a canoe to New York,—a journey in those days of such magnitude
+that the church was well under way by the time the return voyage was
+accomplished. Despite all obstacles, the work went on and in the course
+of a year the first English church west of the Hudson was built. The two
+churches, the Dutch at the foot and the English at the head of State
+Street, were the chief ecclesiastical landmarks of eighteenth-century
+Albany. Like rocks in a stream, they stood in the broad thoroughfare and
+preserved the magnificent approach to the future Capitol.
+
+[Illustration: ST. PETER’S CHURCH, ERECTED IN 1715, FORT FREDERICK IN THE
+BACKGROUND.
+
+(FROM A WATER-COLOR SKETCH IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.)]
+
+Little as it was, Albany was the nest of important events and a maker
+of history in those troublous days. Second to New York in size and
+resources, it served as a wary sentinel and tremulous alarm-bell to the
+exposed province. For well-nigh a century, all beyond it to the west
+and north, except the hamlet of Schenectady and the French settlements
+on the St. Lawrence, was wilderness and savages. It occupied a post of
+the gravest peril and responsibility. We get a glimpse of the situation
+and of the current history in the scene on that Sunday morning, the
+9th of February, four years after the granting of the charter, when
+Symon Schermerhoorn, shot through the thigh, told at the north gate of
+the stockade his breathless story of the night attack and the horrible
+massacre at Schenectady.
+
+Between the hostile French in Canada and the little frontier city on
+the Hudson roamed the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy, upon whose
+friendship and fealty in large measure hung the destiny of the English
+possessions. The stockade, thirteen feet high, would have been of little
+account if that living bulwark of savage allies had yielded to the arms
+or the bribes of the French. That the bulwark did not yield, that the
+fealty of the Indians was won and, through every peril, kept unbroken,
+was owing to the sagacity and honorable dealing of the government and
+burghers of Albany. _The House of Peace_—this is the name which the
+Mohawk sachem, at one of the council-fires, gave to the Albany of those
+olden days, and, in the graphic phrase of his Indian oratory, he pictured
+at a stroke its political value and place in history; for there, by
+repeated formal treaties and habitual friendly intercourse, were riveted
+the “Covenant Chains” which made the confederation of the Six Nations the
+guardians of the feeble province.
+
+There is a scene in _The History of New York_, by William Dunlap,
+which is illustrative. The date is 1746 and the central figure is the
+celebrated Col. William Johnson, Indian agent, whom George II. made a
+“baronet of Great Britain.”
+
+    “When the Indians came near the town of Albany on the 8th of
+    August, Mr. Johnson put himself at the head of the Mohawks,
+    dressed and painted as an Indian war-captain. The Indians
+    followed him painted for war. As they passed the fort, they
+    saluted by a running fire, which the governor answered by
+    cannon. The chiefs were afterwards received in the fort-hall
+    and treated to wine. A good deal of private manœuvring with the
+    individual sachems was found necessary to make them declare
+    for war with France before a public council was held. The
+    Iroquois took to the 23d of the month for deliberation, and
+    then answered, the governor being present.”
+
+During the French wars, Albany, from a military point of view, was
+probably the most animated spot on the continent. It was the storehouse
+for munitions of war and the rendezvous for the troops. English
+regulars and provincial militia swarmed in and about the city. After
+the unsuccessful campaigns of 1756 and 1757, the town was filled with
+refugees, reciting the slaughter of the garrison at Fort William
+Henry, and the murder and havoc wrought by the Indians in pay of the
+French. Hundreds of loyal Indians, with their squaws and papooses,
+encamped under the stockade. The houses and barns were filled with
+wounded soldiers brought from the seat of war. In the pauses of the
+campaigns, notwithstanding the horrible rumors and actual disasters,
+the “dangerously accomplished” English officers made merry life in old
+Albany, picturesque details of which are given in that charming chronicle
+of colonial days, _Memoirs of an American Lady_ (Mrs. Philip Schuyler),
+by Mrs. Grant of Laggan.
+
+In the opening of the campaign of 1758 there was grief and consternation
+in the province. Tidings came that Lord Viscount Howe had been killed
+in a skirmish on the march against Fort Ticonderoga. The body of the
+brilliant soldier was brought to Albany by his friend, Captain Philip
+Schuyler, and was buried beneath the chancel of the English church. The
+stone recently unearthed in the village of Ticonderoga, which bears the
+inscription, evidently scratched by a knife or bayonet, _Mem of Lo Howe
+killed Trout Brook_, probably marked the spot where Lord Howe fell. There
+is abundant evidence that his body now lies beneath the vestibule of St.
+Peter’s Church. The _Church Book_ of the parish contains the following
+entry: _1758, Sept. 5th. To cash Rt for ground to lay the Body of Lord
+how & Pall £5. 6. 0_.
+
+In the following year, the fateful victory of Wolfe on the Plains of
+Abraham gave Canada to England and ended the hard-fought duel between the
+Latin and the Anglo-Saxon for the sovereignty of the continent.
+
+Some years before this, the Stadt Huys, the old City Hall of Albany,
+was the scene of a significant event which was the prelude of one
+still more momentous. There in 1754 Commissioners from the several
+provinces convened to renew the “Covenant Chain” with the Six Nations,
+and to discuss the best methods for uniting and defending the colonial
+interests. The foremost spirits and political prophets of the colonies
+composed the assembly. Numerous Indian sachems, with their stately
+bearing and barbaric splendor, decorated the scene of the deliberations.
+The “Plan” adopted by the convention was not accepted by the Crown, but
+it was the first attempt to articulate the idea of a colonial union, and
+it bore two names, Benjamin Franklin and Stephen Hopkins, which in due
+time were affixed to the Declaration of Independence.
+
+Before the lightning flashed in the volley at Lexington, there were
+centres of influence throughout the colonies breeding storm. Albany
+was one of them. The heart of the old Dutch town was fired with the
+indignations and enthusiasms of the time. There were tories of course,
+but the temper of the city and the attitude of those who controlled the
+situation are indicated by the fact that, when the Province of New York
+had fairly opened the fight, the old fort on the hill was extemporized
+into a tory jail.
+
+As early as November, 1774, the freeholders of the city appointed a
+_Committee of Safety and Correspondence_, which proved a vigorous
+agent in propagating the war spirit and furnishing men and money for
+the Continental army. The following names appear on its lists: John
+Barclay, _Chairman_, Jacob C. Ten Eyck, Henry I. Bogert, Peter Silvester,
+Henry Wendell, Volkert P. Douw, John Bay, Gysbert Marselis, John R.
+Bleecker, Robert Yates, Stephen De Lancey, Abraham Cuyler, John H.
+Ten Eyck, Abraham Ten Broeck, Gerret Lansingh, Jr., Anthony E. Bratt,
+Samuel Stringer, Abraham Yates, Jr., and Cornelis van Santvoordt. In
+the records of the committee occurs this significant minute: “Pursuant
+to a resolution of yesterday, the Declaration of Independence was this
+day read and published at the City Hall to a large Concourse of the
+Inhabitants of this City and the Continental Troops in this City and
+received with applause and satisfaction.”
+
+At the beginning of, and all through the struggle for independence,
+Albany was a strategic point of the utmost importance. The war-office in
+London and the British commanders in the field recognized that it was the
+key to the situation in the north. There is a passage in the oration of
+Governor Seymour at the Centennial Commemoration at Schuylerville, the
+actual scene of Burgoyne’s surrender, which condenses and interprets one
+of the most important chapters in the history of the Revolution.
+
+    “It was the design of the British government in the campaign of
+    1777 to capture the centre and stronghold of this commanding
+    system of mountains and valleys. It aimed at its very
+    heart,—the confluence of the Hudson and the Mohawk. The fleets,
+    the armies, and the savage allies of Britain were to follow
+    their converging lines to Albany, and there strike the decisive
+    blow.”
+
+As sometimes happens, the blow struck the striker. Col. Philip Schuyler,
+the young officer who brought the body of Lord Howe to its burial,
+was an ardent patriot and the most distinguished citizen of Albany.
+On the recommendation of the Provincial Congress of New York, he had
+been appointed by the Continental Congress a major-general in the
+armies of the United Colonies and had assumed command of the Northern
+Department. He was displaced in favor of General Gates, but he retained
+the confidence of Washington, and it was he who planned and conducted
+the campaign which resulted in the victory of Bemis Heights and the
+surrender of Burgoyne. This event broke the formidable menace that hung
+over the province and the colonial cause. The defeated British general
+found himself in the hands of a courteous foe, and for several months he
+meditated and mitigated his disaster amid the elegant hospitalities of
+the Schuyler mansion in Albany.
+
+[Illustration: MAJOR-GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER.
+
+(FROM A PAINTING BY COL. TRUMBULL.)]
+
+In 1797, “this antient and respectable city of Albany” (to quote the
+courtly compliment of Washington) became the capital of the State. At
+the close of the Revolution, New York had not yet determined its seat
+of government. From 1777 to 1796 it peregrinated between Kingston,
+Poughkeepsie, Albany and the city of New York. Not until the twentieth
+session of the Legislature was the long dispute settled. The geographical
+advantages of Albany finally carried the day, and for the last hundred
+years the site of the frontier fort has been a political arena and an
+illustrious seat of legislative and judicial power.
+
+The Albany of “modern times,” as the phrase is understood in our American
+life in which everything is new except human nature, has preserved few of
+the ancient landmarks. The only souvenirs are the bronze tablets which
+were devised at the Bicentennial in 1886, and which now designate the
+historic sites in the city. If one, reverent of ancient and vanished
+things, make pilgrimage to the tablet near the curb on the lower edge of
+the Capitol Park (a block above the site of Fort Frederick), to the one
+on the corner of Broadway and Steuben Street (the site of the northeast
+gate), and to the one near the curb on lower Broadway two blocks from
+State Street (the site of the southeast gate), he will define quite
+accurately the girdle of the _palisadoes_ which protected old Albany.
+
+[Illustration: STEPHEN VAN RENSSELAER.
+
+(FROM A PAINTING BY EZRA AMES.)]
+
+If he pass the memorial of the northeast gateway, a place of memorable
+outgoings and incomings, and continue up Broadway about three quarters
+of a mile, he will find a bronze tablet bearing the inscription:
+“Opposite Van Rensselaer Manor-House. Erected 1765. Residence of the
+Patroons. This spot is the site of the First Manor-House.” It was an
+unpretentious one-story building of Holland brick, half fortress and
+half dwelling. The final Manor-House, on the other side of the road, was
+a structure of another fashion. At the time of its erection, 1765, it
+was considered the handsomest residence in the colonies. Thither Stephen
+Van Rensselaer brought his young bride, Catherine, daughter of Philip
+Livingston, and his babe, who became General Van Rensselaer. It stood
+amid the drooping elms of a large park and was decorated with a taste
+and luxury startling to the period. In 1843 the building was enlarged
+and enriched by the elder Upjohn. Once a stately mansion, the scene of
+splendid hospitalities, it has shared the American fate of obstructive
+antiquities in thriving towns. The railroad and the “lumber district”
+crowded and finally strangled it. For several years it stood empty and
+dismantled, and obviously had outlived both its beauty and its use. In
+1893 the stone and timbers were transported to the Campus of Williams
+College, where they were reconstructed into the Sigma Phi Society
+building, which perpetuates a remote suggestion of the famous Manor-House.
+
+[Illustration: VAN RENSSELAER MANOR-HOUSE, 1765.]
+
+In the southern part of the city, on Clinton Street, is a bronze tablet
+which designates the sister of the Manor-House, the Schuyler mansion,
+built by the wife of General Philip Schuyler while he was in England
+in 1760. This historic relic stands on a plateau above the street,
+surrounded by a remnant of the original garden, but the broad avenue,
+shaded by elms, which once gave approach to the mansion from the river,
+is overgrown with houses. Though used at present as an orphan asylum
+under the charge of the Order of St. Francis de Sales, it retains
+substantially its original features. It is a dignified and spacious
+house; not remarkable architecturally, but fragrant with history. Here
+Burgoyne enjoyed his imprisonment. Here Washington, Lafayette, Count
+de Rochambeau, Baron Steuben, Benjamin Franklin, Charles Carroll of
+Carrollton, Aaron Burr, and other notable men of old were entertained.
+Here Alexander Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler were married, December 14,
+1780. Besides famous guests and weddings, its chief feature of historic
+interest is the staircase, apropos of which, we quote from Mr. Marcus
+Reynolds’s article on _The Colonial Buildings of Rensselaerswyck_ in _The
+Architectural Record_ of 1895.
+
+    “Here is shown the famous tomahawk mark. In 1781 a plan was
+    made to capture General Schuyler and take him to Canada. A
+    party of tories, Canadians and Indians surrounded the house
+    for several days, and at length forced an entrance. The family
+    took refuge in the upper story, leaving behind in their haste
+    the youngest member of the family, Margaret Schuyler, afterward
+    the wife of the patroon. An elder sister going to rescue the
+    infant, was pursued by an Indian, who threw his tomahawk at her
+    as she fled up the stairs. The weapon entered the hand-rail
+    near the newel, and the mark is still shown, which would be
+    conclusive evidence if the same story were not told of the Glen
+    house in Schenectady, the only house unburnt in the massacre of
+    1690.”
+
+[Illustration: SCHUYLER MANSION, 1760.]
+
+With all its historic associations, Albany is not conspicuous for the
+scenery it has furnished for the enchantments of poetry and romance;
+still it is not altogether destitute of literary honors. Its colonial
+life figures in the _Satanstoe_ of the great Fenimore Cooper and in
+Harold Frederick’s _In the Valley_. The Normanskill, which tumbles into
+the Hudson at the south end of the city, flows through the Vale of
+Tawasentha, the scene of Longfellow’s Hiawatha. The hills and forests
+about the city suggested many a delicate detail in the woodland rhythms
+of Alfred Street, who made his home and burial-place in Albany. Its old
+Dutch life with its sedate charm has been pictured by a living Albanian,
+Leonard Kip; and probably the house still stands on Pearl Street or
+Broadway, in which Henry James found the charming girl who stood for his
+_Portrait of a Lady_.
+
+On the east bank of the Hudson, in old Greene Bosch, opposite the city,
+decays the dishonored ruin of Fort Crailo. The date, more or less
+mythical, is 1642. It was the headquarters of General Abercrombie, and in
+the garden back of the house a derisive British surgeon, Dr. Stackpole,
+composed the immortal jingle of Yankee Doodle. If, in 1800, one stood
+on the southeast corner of State and North Pearl Streets, opposite the
+famous elm which Philip Livingston planted in 1735, his eye glancing up
+the street to the north would be arrested by a picturesque relic of Dutch
+Albany, the Vanderheyden Palace. Of course it has joined the departed,
+but its ghost appears in Washington Irving’s _Bracebridge Hall_, and its
+old weather-vane now swings above the porch of Sunnyside.
+
+Some of the colonial structures were fine and famous in their day, but in
+truth, in our American towns, imposing architecture is a thing of recent
+date. Few cities give more favorable sites for architectural effects than
+the three hills of Albany. It is not too much to say that the wealth
+and taste of its citizens have conspired with its peculiar advantages
+of position. The architecture of Albany has an exceptional value. The
+City Hall, with its Romanesque doorways and majestic campanile, is a fine
+specimen of the great Richardson. The Albany City Savings Bank, recently
+constructed, is a classical gem, inadequately set, but cut by a master
+hand. Its Corinthian monoliths and graceful dome satisfy the eye, and
+the whole structure is a suggestive instance of what trade can do in the
+interests of art.
+
+[Illustration: WEST SIDE OF PEARL ST. FROM STATE ST. TO MAIDEN LANE, 1814.
+
+1. VANDERHEYDEN HOUSE. 2. PRUYN HOUSE. 3. DR. WOODRUFF’S HOUSE.
+
+(FROM A WATER-COLOR SKETCH BY JAMES EIGHTS.)]
+
+The four examples of ecclesiastical architecture of more than local
+interest are the North Dutch Church, an exceptionally good specimen of
+the style which obtained in the beginning of the century; the Cathedral
+of the Immaculate Conception, with its lofty double spires emphasized
+by the site, and its spacious interior treated with taste and dignity;
+St. Peter’s Church, with its noble lines, artistic windows and finely
+detailed tower,—“one of the richest specimens of French Gothic in this
+country”; and the Cathedral of All Saints, whose unfinished exterior
+encloses columnar effects and a choir-vista which remind one of an
+impressive mediæval interior and give the edifice a distinctive place
+among the churches of America.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF ALBANY, 1899.]
+
+These architectural monuments, however, and the city itself are
+overshadowed by the new Capitol. This massive structure, since its
+corner-stone was laid on the 24th of June, 1871, has absorbed over twenty
+millions of dollars. The enormous bulk, the difficult foundations,
+the obdurate granite, the elaborate sculptures, the mistakes and
+afterthoughts, sufficiently account for the money. The old Capitol,
+which stood in front of the southeast corner, well-nigh could be tucked
+into one of its great pavilions. The edifice is of such cost, size, and
+architectural importance, that one discusses it as he might discuss
+Strasburg Cathedral or the weather. Claiming simply the freedom of
+personal impression, one may say that its weakest feature is the eastern
+façade, which gives an inadequate suggestion of the size of the building
+and moreover is dwarfed by the projecting mass and lofty ascent of the
+gigantic stairway. He may also say that the Capitol declares its highest
+points of architectural interest in the constructive and decorative
+treatment of the interior.
+
+The edifice has been built with the advantage of large ideas and
+limitless resources, and the disadvantage of fluctuating ideas and a
+succession of architects. These facts have left their imprint on the
+structure but, with all that can be said in criticism of details and of
+unused possibilities, it can fairly be ranked among the great buildings
+of modern times.
+
+As one approaches Albany, the colossal bulk of the Capitol thrust against
+the sky seems to dominate the city as the great cathedrals of Europe
+dominate the towns that have grown or decayed under their shadow. But
+there are other structures and artistic things, representing the local
+life, that are worthy of remark.
+
+The State Museum of Natural History, in Geological Hall, a block below
+the Capitol, vies with the State Library as a credit to the State and the
+haunt of the student. It is one of the largest and best arranged museums
+in the country, and its collection of the paleozoic rocks of New York,
+which figure so largely in the nomenclature of geology, is a monument to
+an eminent name in the scientific world, James Hall, late State Geologist.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN V. L. PRUYN.]
+
+Near the Capitol Park is the Albany Academy, in whose upper rooms Henry
+and Ten Eyck demonstrated the electrical facts which were applied by
+Morse. Up the hill, on the southwest corner of the city, stand the
+pavilions of the new Hospital, built in 1899, and the Dudley Observatory,
+of note in the stellar world. On Washington Avenue is Harmanus Bleecker
+Hall, built from the fund held in trust for more than half a century
+by Chancellor Pruyn and Judge Parker. On State Street opposite the
+Capitol is the building of the Historical and Art Society, which, though
+new-born, has already done valuable work in collecting sequestered relics
+of history.
+
+Under the elms in Washington Park are two fine bronzes: Caverley’s statue
+of _Robert Burns_ and Rhind’s statue of _Moses at the Rock of Horeb_.
+Fortunately one of the earliest and two of the noblest creations of the
+sculptor Palmer are in the city of his home: his _Faith at the Cross_,
+his _Livingston_, and his _Angel of the Resurrection_.
+
+Albany the Old has become Albany the New. In many ways the new is more
+energetic and more splendid than the old. The town is large enough
+to show the characteristic features of our American life in its more
+sensitive and vigorous centres, and small enough to retain local color
+and distinctive traits. It is self-centred, believes in itself, and has
+the instinct to discern and the habit of demanding the best things. It is
+a place where the finest flavors of the old life linger in and temper the
+broader spirit and more robust movement of the new life; a place that
+perpetuates its traditions of social elegance and hospitality; a place,
+too, that has been the cradle and home of men of commanding force, who
+have contributed to the highest life of the nation and have left their
+names on enduring structures of thought and art and economic organization.
+
+The city lies at the intersection of the great thoroughfares of traffic
+and travel in the richest and most densely populated portion of the
+republic. Its facilities for production and distribution may give it
+in the future an enormous industrial development. This fortune is not
+unlikely, but, to those who estimate in large ways the values of life, it
+cannot heighten the beauty or deepen the charm of the Albany of to-day.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF ALBANY.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SARATOGA
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR THE GREAT WATERWAYS
+
+BY ELLEN HARDIN WALWORTH
+
+
+There are names which are more than famous—they have a distinct
+individuality; their sound to the ear or appearance on the page arrests
+attention, arouses interest, and presents a clear picture to the mind.
+Such a name is Saratoga, with its romantic record, its picturesque
+scenery, and its beautiful village,—the “Queen of Spas.” Nature has
+furnished Saratoga with a regal setting on the lower spurs of the
+Adirondack Mountains, the last elevations of the Palmertown range, on the
+edge of the world’s first continent.
+
+[Illustration: SARATOGA LAKE, N. Y.]
+
+Here where the Laurentian rocks stand out boldly over the sands of the
+old Silurian sea, and where the mighty waterways sweep down from the
+great northern gulf southward, and from the great northwestern lakes
+eastward, lies Saratoga Springs. These valleys, bearing the waters of
+Lake Champlain, Lake George, and the upper Hudson on the north, and of
+the Mohawk River on the west, have been for centuries the great war-paths
+of the Indians and of civilized nations. If America is not old, at
+least her maturity is marked in this region by the scars of war, and by
+the lines of struggle for the sovereignty of the great waterways. Here
+are veritable ruins,—old Fort Carillon, later “Old Ticonderoga,” Fort
+Frederick, afterward Crown Point, and traces here and there of the line
+of forts extending from the Indian carrying-place at Fort Edward down on
+either bank of the Hudson to old Saratoga, now Schuylerville, where the
+great monument commemorative of Revolutionary victory marks the national
+character of that struggle, and where, eight miles below, at Bemis
+Heights, fourteen granite tablets, each a monument five or six feet in
+height, mark the fighting-ground. Through the Mohawk Valley are signs of
+the “Long House” of the Six Nations, of massacres and battles, that tell
+their story of three centuries.
+
+[Illustration: HISTORIC AND OTHER DRIVES IN THE VICINITY OF SARATOGA
+SPRINGS.
+
+BY E. H. WALWORTH.]
+
+The story of Saratoga cannot easily be limited to Saratoga Springs,
+although it has fifteen thousand inhabitants who retain their quaintly
+rural government and cling to the appellation of “village.” Village
+though it be, it is imposing with its stately hotels, spacious streets,
+large business houses, many beautiful villas, fine public halls, handsome
+churches, and numerous valuable mineral springs; which, like the
+residences, are set amid magnificent trees, forest pines and cultivated
+elms that rival the famous trees of New Haven. From the surrounding hills
+the village seems to nestle in the original wilderness. But it is always
+active,—in winter with its toboggan slide, snow-shoe club, trotting
+matches on the ice-bound lake, and snow-bound streets rolled to marble
+smoothness for gay and luxurious sleigh-riding; in summer, its brilliancy
+is often compared with that of Paris. In the loss of the old-time social
+exclusiveness it has gained in cosmopolitan character and in the rich
+variety of its life and amusements.
+
+[Illustration: SARATOGA BATTLE MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.]
+
+In considering the story of Saratoga, we cannot confine our attention
+to the town of Saratoga Springs, with its sharply defined boundaries
+and rectangular lines of political division which mark the limit of the
+voters for supervisor at the annual town-meeting. But if we include
+the county in our narrative, then, indeed, may we recall the vision
+which presents the individuality of the name Saratoga. For Saratoga
+County is outlined by a great eastward and southern sweep of the Hudson
+River for seventy miles from its narrow gorge at Luzerne, where the
+wild savage chief of colonial days leaped across the mighty river to
+escape his pursuing foe, down over the precipitous Palmer’s Falls, and
+over the cavern-haunted Glen’s Falls, and onward to old Fort Edward,
+where its waters turn shortly to the south and pursue their troubled
+way along the “hillside country,” which received here its Indian name,
+“Se-rach-ta-gue,” which means “hillside country of the great river.”
+It is also said that in the Indian language Sa-ragh-to-ga means the
+“place of the swift water,” in allusion to the rapids and falls that
+are in contrast with the “still water” a few miles below. Thence the
+Hudson flows on until it receives the four sprouts or mouths of the
+Mohawk River, which spreads out from the precipitous falls at Cohoes.
+This great intersecting western valley separates the northern from the
+southern highlands of New York, and is, like the great northern valley,
+a natural highway and thoroughfare. In the angle formed by the junction
+of these two long, deep valleys or passes through the mountain ranges,
+“in the angle between the old Indian war-trails, in the angle between
+the pathways of armies, in the angle between the great modern routes of
+travel, in the angle formed by the junction of the Mohawk and Hudson
+rivers,” is Saratoga County, the Saratoga of history and romance. Not
+only the stealthy tread of the Iroquois sped over these hills, not only
+the swift canoe of the Algonquin shot over these streams, but also the
+disciplined armies of France and of England marched and countermarched,
+fought by day and bivouacked at night on this ground, from the time
+that Hendrick Hudson opened the lower valley of the Hudson River, and
+Samuel Champlain discovered the broad lake that bears his name, until the
+Revolutionary period closed.
+
+While Jamestown was still struggling for existence, and Plymouth Bay
+was still unknown, the contest had already begun in the northern
+valley of the Hudson which initiated its long service to the progress
+of the western world. This remarkable triangle, the Saratoga and
+Kay-ad-ros-se-ra of the Indian occupation, and the Saratoga County of
+the present time was, like Kentucky, “the dark and bloody ground,” the
+hunting- and fishing-place of the Five Nations on the south, and their
+enemies, the Algonquins, on the north. Here each summer, in search of
+fish and game, they built their hunting lodges on Saratoga Lake, called
+by the Dutch, who believed it to be the “head-waters” of the Hudson,
+“Aqua Capita.” Every season brought conflict between the savage tribes,
+and later the French, year after year, marched down from Quebec and
+Montreal to intimidate their unceasing foes on the Mohawk.
+
+In 1642, and again in 1645, the Iroquois in retaliation hastened along
+the old war-trail at the foot of Mount McGregor and returned each time
+laden with their tortured captives, the French prisoners and their Indian
+friends. The two famous expeditions of Courcelle, Governor of Canada,
+and of Lieut.-Gen. de Tracy, made their way in 1666 through the valley;
+first on snow-shoes, to starvation and despair—and again with the buoyant
+tread of a victorious legion. In 1689 the Iroquois followed the old
+trail on their way to that massacre of Montreal which emphasized what is
+justly called the “heroic age” of that poetic and devoted settlement.
+The French and Algonquins again in 1690 bivouacked at these springs as
+they descended to the cruel massacre of Schenectady. And in the same year
+the English, led by Fitz John Winthrop, made a fruitless march over the
+historic war-path.
+
+[Illustration: NORTH BROADWAY, SARATOGA SPRINGS, 1898.]
+
+The French, urged by Frontenac, came down the valley in 1693, destroyed
+the castles of the Mohawks, and started on their return with three
+hundred prisoners. The news created intense excitement through the
+whole Province of New York. Governor Fletcher hurried up from New York
+City, Major Peter Schuyler hastily gathered three hundred white men and
+three hundred savages for defence, and was joined by Major Ingoldsby
+from Albany with an additional force. Coming along the old trail, the
+French and Indians halted with their captives about six miles north
+of the village of Saratoga Springs, at a point near Mount McGregor at
+King’s Station. The battle-ground lies on the terrace, which is distinct
+from the foothills of the mountains, and has long been known as the
+“old Indian burying-ground.” On this plateau, so near the gay streets
+of Saratoga, the camp-fires of a thousand hostile men throwing up
+entrenchments flared through the night. On the following day the English
+sustained successfully three fierce assaults on their works, and the
+French, worn with the long journey, were glad to retreat in the darkness
+of a raging storm, as night fell on their wounded and captives.
+
+Again, during Queen Anne’s War, beginning in 1709, old Saratoga, which
+lies at the mouth of the Fishkill, was so seriously threatened that
+Major Schuyler built a fort below the mouth of the Batten Kill. In 1731,
+the French built Fort Frederick at Crown Point. From this stronghold,
+during King George’s War, which began in 1744, they swung their forces
+with deadly effect upon the English settlements. The forts at Saratoga
+were then refitted and manned, but not in time to prevent the terrible
+massacre of old Saratoga in 1745.
+
+History has recorded and poetry sung the woes of Wyoming and of Cherry
+Valley, but the silence of the virgin forest has encompassed the tragic
+events that occurred at Saratoga on the fatal morning of the 17th of
+November, thirty years before the Revolution.
+
+    “Profound peace had reigned in the old wilderness for a
+    generation, and the fertile soil had filled the smiling land
+    with fatness. Many dwellings and fruitful farms dotted the
+    river bank; long stables were filled with sleek cattle, and
+    around the mills were huge piles of timber waiting the market
+    down the river.”
+
+The scowling portholes of the old Schuyler mansion seemed to laugh
+between the tendrils of the creeping vines. Suddenly, in the early
+morning, the scene of peace and prosperity was changed to slaughter,
+pillage, and destruction. Philip Schuyler, the elder, was offered
+immunity in the midst of the fray, but he spurned safety at the expense
+of his neighbors, and was shot to death in his own doorway. The houses
+and forts were burned to the ground, the cattle killed or burned in their
+stalls, and only one or two inhabitants escaped to tell the tale.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER.
+
+BRONZE STATUE IN NICHE OF SARATOGA MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.]
+
+This war was a prelude to the French and Indian, or Seven Years’ War,
+which, with its five campaigns, raged continuously through the war-worn
+valley of the grand northern waterways. Nearly a century and a half of
+struggle, first of the French discoverers and missionaries with the
+savages, and then of the Frenchmen and Iroquois, and later the French,
+the Indians, and the English, had proved the importance of this valley
+as the northern doorway to the country. Of the three expeditions first
+planned to be sent simultaneously against the French—one under Braddock
+against Fort Duquesne, another under Shirley against Niagara, and another
+under Johnson against Crown Point,—the third was considered the most
+important.
+
+In August, Major-General William Johnson took command in person and
+pushed on to the outlet of Lake George, intending to build a fort at
+Ticonderoga as a defence against Crown Point, to which the French had
+extended their possessions in the last interval of peace. Before his
+design could be accomplished, desperate warfare disturbed the placid
+waters of the beautiful lakes and so discolored their outlying waters
+that time has not yet effaced the name of “Bloody Pond.”
+
+Abercrombie’s campaign in 1758 was a fatal mistake. The brilliant hope
+inspired by his fine army of Regulars with their splendid accoutrements,
+his thousands of boats paraded on the broad lake with banners flying and
+strains of music unknown in the wilderness, was turned to gloom when a
+few days later the boats returned laden with the dead and dying, and
+carrying the body of the beloved Lord Howe.
+
+Again, in 1759, the war-trail of old Saratoga was trodden by an English
+army, twelve thousand strong, under the command of the successful Lord
+Amherst. In the autumn the final conflict came when the death of Wolfe
+signalled the triumph of England, and the great waterways passed under
+the sovereignty of the Anglo-Saxons.
+
+[Illustration: CONGRESS SPRING IN 1820.]
+
+For some years, Sir William Johnson suffered from the effects of a wound
+received in the hip during the war. In 1767, his Indian friends told
+him about the “Great Medicine Waters” of Saratoga, and carried him by
+boat and on a stretcher to the mysterious spring. The waters proved so
+beneficial that he was able to return over the “carrying-place” unaided
+and on foot. The waters which he drank were taken from the High Rock
+Spring of Saratoga Springs. Once they overflowed the cone-like rock
+through which they now rise and from which they are dipped, and the rock
+was gradually deposited and formed by the overflow. The process has
+lately been repeated by new springs like the Geyser and the Champion,
+which for some years threw the water several feet into the air, leaving
+a heavy cascade-like deposit about the opening. Gradually the waters
+subsided, the geyser effect was lost, and like the High Rock Spring they
+have fallen below the level of the ground.
+
+In the year (1767) of Sir William Johnson’s expedition, the old land
+troubles with the Six Nations were settled amicably at the Fort
+Stanwix conference, where over three thousand red men met the English
+commissioners. The complaints of alleged frauds in purchase and surveys
+included the Kayadrossera patent, which covered 700,000 acres lying
+between the Hudson and the Mohawk, obtained by grant in 1703 and
+confirmed in 1708.
+
+Yet quiet did not prevail. The restless spirits of the wilderness were
+stirred by their first political aspirations. The Schuylers, whose
+possessions extended over the old Saratoga hunting-ground, awoke the
+farmers to an interest in the burning questions of the day. Sloops
+sailing up the Hudson brought rumors of riots in New York City, and
+of the resistance offered by the Sons of Liberty to the execution
+of the Stamp Act. When news came that no good patriot would wear
+imported garments, the women redoubled their efforts to produce from
+spinning-wheel and loom the homespun fabric. As the King grew more
+determined, and the people learned more clearly what rights were theirs,
+the British soldiers became violent and the patriots more indignant and
+outspoken. The first military order of the home government to put the
+forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga on a war basis was quickly followed
+by the tramp of soldiers through the wilderness. The rumble of artillery
+and of commissary wagons broke once more the stillness of the forest.
+The farmers who lived along the old war-trail revived by the evening
+fireside the stories of the French and Indian wars. The Indians, quick
+to discern the coming storm, began once more, under the influence of
+the Johnson family (allied to them through Brandt and his sister), to
+destroy property and massacre the unprepared. The settlers of the “long
+valley” were bearing at this time the brunt of the preliminary warfare of
+the American Revolution. They met the issue bravely. While they fought,
+their wives and daughters gathered in the crops, melted into bullets
+the treasured pewter teapots and sugar-bowls, learned to shoot, to
+barricade their houses or their little forts, and to conceal themselves
+from prowling bands of Indians and savage Tories. It was then that the
+Royalist Governor Tryon, taking refuge on a war vessel, exclaimed, “The
+Americans from politicians are now becoming soldiers.” Had he witnessed
+the courageous deeds of the women of the great waterways, he would
+perhaps have added, “The women from housekeepers are becoming farmers and
+fighters.”
+
+[Illustration: KAYADROSSERA PATENT, WITH GREAT SEAL OF QUEEN ANNE
+PENDANT, 1708.
+
+ORIGINAL IN SARATOGA COUNTY CLERK’S OFFICE.]
+
+[Illustration: WOMEN OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776.
+
+FROM TABLET ON SARATOGA BATTLE MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.]
+
+New anxieties arose in the Province of New York as rumors multiplied
+of the advance in stately procession of a new and splendid army of the
+British, recently arrived in Canada, down the old war-path through
+Champlain and Lake George on the way to Albany to unite with the British
+wing ascending the Hudson River. Inspired by General Schuyler, commanding
+the American army, the farmers seized whatever firearms they could find
+and hurried to his camp. The women of Albany hammered the leaden weights
+from the windows of their houses, moulded them into bullets, and urged
+on the men. The militia of New England, aroused by the invasion, came by
+hundreds and by thousands until the river hills were covered. The hasty
+breastworks planned by Kosciuszko were completed, and the rude recruits
+were hurriedly formed into regiments and brigades. Gates, who superseded
+Schuyler, lay with his staff in the rear of the army, while Morgan with
+his riflemen held guard at the western extremity of the entrenched camp
+on the hills, with his headquarters at Neilson’s. This was the defensive
+camp of the Americans at Bemis Heights, and it stretched from the river
+bank westward over the hills about two miles and faced the north. Here
+they lay in wait for Burgoyne, who had rallied from his repulses at
+Bennington and Fort Stanwix, and was pressing down the bank of the Hudson
+River toward Albany from Fort Edward.
+
+On the 13th of September, a bridge of boats was stretched across the
+Hudson River—just below the mouth of the Batten Kill—for the passage
+of Burgoyne’s army. They halted for the first night amid the charred
+wheat-fields of General Schuyler’s farm on the south side of the
+Fishkill. On the morrow they hastened on to Coveville, and thence to
+Seward’s house, where again their white tents were spread over the
+country.
+
+On September 19th Burgoyne moved forward to outflank the American camp on
+the west. An obstinate fight of many hours about the old farm-well and
+in the great ravine followed, and the British failed in their attempt to
+pass the Americans or to weaken their line. But they held persistently
+to the position they had taken at Freeman’s Farm and at the close of
+the battle fortified their camp from the point on Freeman’s Farm in a
+line to the eastward on the bank of the river, where they built three
+redoubts upon three hills. The fortified camp of the Americans lay about
+a mile and a half below in a line parallel with the British. Here, within
+bugle-call of each other, for two weeks, the hostile forces sat upon the
+hills of Saratoga, frowning defiance at each other, and ready to open
+the conflict at a moment’s warning.
+
+Burgoyne waited in vain for the Americans to attack him behind his works,
+and for a message, hourly expected, that Clinton would come from New
+York to his relief. Hunger pressed sorely upon the army. The brilliant
+conquests he had pictured to himself were fading from his grasp. He
+called his officers together in council. Silence and gloom hung over
+them. Should they advance or retreat? His imperious will dictated the
+advice he desired. Finally Fraser sustained the commander. An advance
+was ordered. On the 7th of October the British marched from their
+entrenchments in battle array. Burgoyne led the centre; Fraser a flanking
+column to the right; the royal artillery to the left, and the Hessians
+in reserve. Like a great bird of prey they settled in line of battle
+upon the broken ground that separated them from the American camp. Gates
+took up the gauntlet thus thrown down and exclaimed, “Order out Morgan
+to begin the game.” With a word to his command the watchful and heroic
+Morgan dashed into the struggle, scattered Burgoyne’s advance-guard,
+rushed on against the trained forces of Fraser, and swept them from the
+position to the left which they had taken in advance. With masterly skill
+and courage, Fraser rallied his men, and was forming a second line of
+defence, when he fell mortally wounded.
+
+[Illustration: “OLD WELL,” FREEMAN’S FARM, BATTLE-GROUND BEMIS HEIGHTS,
+SEPT. 19, 1777.]
+
+The sharp whistle of Morgan called his men once more to action. They
+charged, while Poor and Larned attacked the centre and the right. The
+battle swayed back and forth through the great ravine. Another charge
+from Morgan and the British retreated to their entrenchments. At this
+moment the impatient Arnold, stung to madness by the slights put upon him
+by Gates, dashed across the field. He gathered the regiments under his
+leadership by his enthusiasm, bravery, and vehemence. He broke through
+the lines of entrenchments at Freeman’s Farm. Repulsed for a moment, he
+assailed the left and charged the strong redoubt of Breyman which flanked
+the British camp at the place now called Burgoyne’s Hill. The patriot
+army, fired with hope and courage, crowded fearlessly up to the very
+mouth of the belching guns of the redoubt, won the final victory of the
+day, and then, exhausted by the desperate fight, dropped down for a few
+hours’ rest before they took possession of the British camp.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN.]
+
+But there was no rest for the defeated army. Silently and sullenly
+during these hours, they withdrew from the works at Freeman’s Farm, and
+huddled closely together under the three redoubts by the river. Here
+the women, Madam Riedesel, Lady Ackland, and others, trembled and wept
+over the dying Fraser. Here the hospital stood with its overflowing
+throng of the wounded and the dead. The great and princely army waited
+in doubt and despair while their commander wavered in his plans. Should
+he try to hold his dangerous ground, should he risk another engagement,
+should he retreat? The last course was chosen. On the following night a
+retreat began as the last minute-guns were fired magnanimously by the
+Americans, in honor of Fraser’s funeral, which took place at sunset. The
+sun fell behind the heights upon which the exultant Americans lay; heavy
+clouds followed, and quickly after, amid the drenching rain, the army of
+Burgoyne, abandoning their sick and wounded, began the retreat up the
+river.
+
+Retracing their steps from Bemis Heights, the scene of their disaster,
+they followed up the river road to the Fishkill and the Schuyler mansion,
+which they burned to the ground. Failing here in an attempt to make
+a stand against the advancing Americans, they fell back, formed an
+entrenched camp, and planted their batteries along the heights of old
+Saratoga. In this camp they still hoped to hold out until relief should
+come up the Hudson from New York. Here the romance and pathos of the
+campaign culminated, as described by Madam Riedesel, the accomplished
+and beautiful wife of the Hessian general, in her thrilling account of
+the retreat and of the agonizing days that followed. At the Marshall
+house, where she had taken refuge, the cannonballs thrown across the
+river crashed through its walls, and rolled along the floor, so that the
+sick and wounded were driven into the cellar where she and her children
+and the broken-hearted widows of the dead were suffering, watching, and
+starving. Frail by birth and rearing, Madam Riedesel stood in the doorway
+of the cellar, and with arms outspread across the open door held at bay
+the selfish, brutal men who would have crowded out the sick and dying.
+Burgoyne and his army, entrenched on the hills, and with the river
+below, yet had no water to drink, except a cupful brought now and then
+for the faint and wounded from the river by the British women, on whom
+the gallant Americans, ever tender toward woman, would not fire.
+
+[Illustration: CONGRESS SPRING, 1898.]
+
+Finally, driven to the last extremity, with the Americans on the north,
+where Stark had seized Fort Edward, to the east, where Fellows held the
+river bank, and to the south, where Gates had thrown his victorious army,
+Burgoyne sent in his terms of surrender. Almost on the site of old Fort
+Hardy, his brave but unfortunate troops laid down their arms, and near
+the site of the old Schuyler mansion, which they had so recently burned,
+Burgoyne surrendered his sword to General Gates. Along the road, just
+across the Fishkill, the American army stretched in two lines, between
+which the disarmed prisoners were marched to the shrill notes of the fife
+and the measured beat of the drum, to the tune of “Yankee Doodle,” played
+for the first time as a national air.
+
+[Illustration: SIGN “PUTNAM AND THE WOLF” ON PUTNAM’S TAVERN, SARATOGA
+SPRINGS.
+
+ORIGINAL SIGN IN GRAND UNION HOTEL, SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.]
+
+General Schuyler, the hospitable and magnanimous, was on the ground.
+Neither the slight he had received from Congress nor the injuries
+inflicted on him by the British could quench his generous nature. He
+rejoiced with his victorious countrymen, he sympathized with the fallen
+enemy, he protected and cared for the helpless women.
+
+During the summer of 1777 he had cut a road from his farm at old Saratoga
+through the wilderness to the High Rock Spring, already famous for its
+medicinal properties. He built a small frame house on the ledge of rocks
+overhanging the spring, and here for several summers his family came with
+him for rest and recreation as they had formerly gone to the comfortable
+mansion at old Saratoga. This was replaced by a rude cabin, and there,
+in 1783, Washington was entertained when, with General Clinton, he came
+to visit the Saratoga battle-ground. The party proceeded northward to
+Ticonderoga, and on their return stopped at High Rock Spring. General
+Washington was so strongly impressed with the value of the water and the
+beauty of the region that shortly afterward he tried to buy the property,
+but Livingston, Van Dam, and others had already secured it.
+
+The events of the Revolution had discouraged the few settlers who first
+came to the springs, and for years afterwards but two log cabins offered
+a shelter to adventurous tourists. In 1791, Gideon Putnam cleared his
+farm at Saratoga, and Governor Gilman of New Hampshire in 1792 discovered
+Congress Spring. Putnam built his large boarding-house and tavern, and
+far-seeing and liberal-minded, he purchased extensive tracts of land and
+secured the foundation of the beautiful and prosperous village which
+is now a delight to visitors and a valued home to its residents. It is
+essentially a place of “homes,” where people of large or small means are
+assured of that quiet and ease which cannot be found in cities or towns
+which depend for their prosperity on active commercial or manufacturing
+interests.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF SARATOGA.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCHENECTADY
+
+THE PROVINCIAL OUTPOST OF LIBERTY
+
+BY JUDSON S. LANDON
+
+
+Schenectady was settled in 1662. To give to the story of the settlement
+its proper character among the beginnings of free institutions in America
+it is necessary to recall the fact that the States-General of the
+Netherlands in 1621 chartered a trading concern, the Dutch West India
+Company, granted it the monopoly of the fur trade in New Netherland, and
+permitted it to govern, so long as it could, whatever colonies might
+inhabit the territory. The company thus formed ruled over the territory
+from 1624 to 1664, when the English, trumping up a stale claim of prior
+discovery, interfered and took possession.
+
+The company’s rule was arbitrary, but not without good features. Traders
+are not apt to cavil over religious dogmas,—the company permitted
+freedom of conscience and worship. Subjects and servants render better
+obedience and service if treated with kindness and justice. The directors
+of the company seemed to know this, and professed to govern accordingly,
+but their governors sometimes found pretexts for the injustice which
+promised the surest profits.
+
+[Illustration: COLONIAL HOUSE, UNION STREET.]
+
+Some of the colonists insisted that the people ought to have a part in
+the government. The Dutch governor, when he most needed their support,
+would promise concessions. He sometimes seemed to have begun to make
+them, but he made none that were substantial. Why should the trading
+company sentence itself to death?
+
+Agriculture was necessary for the food-supply of the new province, and
+promised customers for the imports from Holland. Liberal terms were
+extended to the agriculturist. Men of wealth were tempted by offers of
+vast tracts of land, with a sort of feudal sovereignty, on condition that
+each of them would establish fifty families upon his domain. Among others
+the manor or lordship of Rensselaerswyck was established, embracing
+nearly all the territory now comprised within the counties of Albany and
+Rensselaer. Literally its jurisdiction was subject to that of the West
+India Company, but practically it was independent of it. The company
+established a trading and governmental post at Beverwyck or Fort Orange,
+now Albany, and exercised supreme jurisdiction, exclusive of that of
+Rensselaerswyck, for at least musket-range about the fort.
+
+Among the colonists and traders who had been attracted to Beverwyck
+and Rensselaerswyck were some intelligent and enterprising men, mostly
+Protestant Dutchmen, who, after varied experience but general good
+fortune in the province, resolved to go apart by themselves and establish
+a community where justice equality and liberty could be secured and
+enjoyed, free from the overlordship of a patroon, and as remote as was
+practicable from contact with the grasping West India Company, either at
+Fort Orange or Manhattan.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW ON STATE STREET.]
+
+The leader of these men was the founder of Schenectady, Arendt Van
+Curler. He was the nephew of Killiaen Van Rensselaer, and came from
+Holland in 1630 as director of his uncle’s principality. This he managed
+with great success for many years. All accounts agree in describing him
+as a man of honor, benevolence, ability and activity. His unvarying
+fairness and tactful address soon secured for him the respect and
+confidence of all who knew him, and especially of the Mohawk Indians.
+In their opinion he was the greatest and best white man they ever knew.
+They decorated him while living with the distinction of “very good
+friend,” and honored him when dead by calling other governors “Curler”
+or “Corlear,” a title which still survives with the same meaning in the
+language of the scattered remnants of their tribe. It was through his
+good offices that peace was secured between the province and the Five
+Nations, among whom the Mohawks were the foremost, and preserved unbroken
+during his life. By following his policy peace was long maintained after
+his death.
+
+The beauty and fertility of the Mohawk country early attracted his
+attention. A letter addressed by him in 1643 to the “Noble Patroon” at
+Amsterdam exists, in which, after giving an account of his stewardship
+as manager of his uncle’s interests, he writes that the year before he
+had visited the Mohawk country, where he found three French prisoners,
+one of them being the celebrated Father Jogues, “a very learned scholar,
+who was very cruelly treated, his finger and thumb being cut off.” These
+prisoners were doomed to death, but Van Curler succeeded in effecting
+their release. Father Jogues, however, eager for the salvation of their
+souls, returned to them two years later, to suffer martyrdom at their
+hands. In this letter Van Curler writes:
+
+    “Within a half-day’s journey from the Colonies lies the most
+    beautiful land on the Mohawk river that eye ever saw, full a
+    day’s journey long.” He says “it cannot be reached by boat
+    owing to the strength of the stream and shallowness of the
+    water, but can be reached by wagons.”
+
+[Illustration: “THE BLUE GATE” ENTRANCE TO UNION COLLEGE GROUNDS.]
+
+Another part of this letter is worth transcribing:
+
+    “I am at present betrothed to the widow of the late Mr.
+    Jonas Bronck. May the good God vouchsafe to bless me in my
+    undertaking, and please to grant that it may conduce to His
+    honor and our mutual salvation. Amen.”
+
+We know that the good lady long survived him, and as his widow was
+conceded some special privileges by the government.
+
+“The most beautiful land” upon which Van Curler looked, was the Mohawk
+Valley, embracing Schenectady and extending far to the westward.
+
+As he stood upon the crest of the upland southwest of the present
+city, where the sandy plain abruptly ends and gives place to the rich
+bottom-lands a hundred and fifty feet below, he looked northwesterly
+upon a wide expanse of meadow, through which the Mohawk River, gleaming
+in the sunlight, slowly wended. His eye rested upon the outline of that
+break in the mountains where the Mohawk has gorged its bed, through which
+in our day the New York Central Railroad passes from the seaboard to
+the Mississippi without climbing a foot-hill. It is the only level pass
+through the great Appalachian chain between the St. Lawrence Valley and
+the Gulf of Mexico. Not a tree and scarcely a bush grew upon this plain,
+but here and there were scattered patches of beans, corn and pumpkins,
+the fruit of the industry of the Mohawk women; and upon the higher ground
+where Schenectady now stands, the second great castle of the Mohawks, the
+Capitol of the Five Nations, stood, surrounded by many wigwams of the
+tribe. The nearer hills and the more distant mountains were clothed with
+forests. This cleared and fertile intervale, set in its forest frame,
+was due to the volume of water which in the spring freshets pours down
+the river. Three miles east of the city its channel is crossed by great
+ledges of shale rock, through which the river has cut its way, which
+still remains too narrow for the immediate passage of its waters when
+greatly swollen. These, overflowing and enriching the bottom-lands above,
+also denude them of their forest growth.
+
+The Indian name of the place was Schonowe, the first syllable pronounced
+much like the Dutch “schoon,”—beautiful. Some of the Dutch, sharing Van
+Curler’s idea of the beauty of the place, wished to call it _Schoon_,
+beautiful, _achten_, esteemed, _del_, valley,—_Schoonachtendel_. The
+Indian name and the Dutch substitute were combined and confounded in a
+various and perplexing orthography which remains to us in the deeds,
+wills and other papers of that time, from which the name Schenectady was
+finally evolved.
+
+Although Van Curler was attracted thus early by this beautiful land, it
+was long before he could realize his purposes. He married the Widow
+Bronck and continued the care of his uncle’s interest in the manor of
+Rensselaerswyck. But despite the success of his management the longer
+he stayed the more he saw and deplored the evils inherent in the feudal
+system. To his enlarged and benevolent mind the system itself was
+essentially one of serfdom.
+
+The patroon was lord of the manor, the owner of all the land and of a
+fixed share of all the produce of his subjects or tenants, with the right
+of a pre-emption of all the surplus beyond what was necessary for their
+support. They took an oath of allegiance to him: they could not hunt
+or fish or trade or leave the manor without his consent or that of his
+representative. If they sold their tenant right and improvements, a part
+of the price was his. His will was the law, for his subjects renounced
+their right of appeal to the provincial government from his decrees or
+those of his magistrates. He was an absentee, and measured the merit of
+his agents by the amount of their remittances. The government of the
+province as administered at Fort Orange or at Manhattan was as good as
+could be expected from a trading company, but was odious to men of Van
+Curler’s enlarged understanding.
+
+The firearms of white men at Beverwyck and in Rensselaerswyck began
+to impair the value of the hunting grounds in their vicinity, and Van
+Curler learned that the Indians might consent to sell their lands at
+Schenectady. He looked about for associates in the purchase of the
+lands and their settlement, and sifted out fourteen. He applied to the
+Director General or Governor of the province, Peter Stuyvesant—whose real
+qualities and worth and those of his good subjects the pen of Irving
+has replaced with the genial travesties of his enduring caricature,—and
+obtained his reluctant consent to the purchase. He then applied to the
+Indian chiefs. They too were reluctant. Schonowe was the site of one of
+their most ancient castles. It had long been their favorite home. Their
+traditions covered many generations, but no tradition reached back to
+their first coming. Still they well remembered that Hiawatha had lived
+here, two centuries or more before.
+
+[Illustration: GLEN-SANDERS MANSION, ERECTED 1714.]
+
+Hiawatha, the chief, of whom the Great Spirit was an ancestor, and whose
+wisdom, goodness and valor far surpassed that of other men, was the
+founder of the confederacy of the Five Nations. He devoted his long life
+to the good of his people, teaching them to live nobler and better, and
+finally was borne in the flesh to the Happy Hunting Grounds. Longfellow
+sings of Hiawatha with no stint of poetic license, but his harmonious
+numbers do not surpass the Indian estimate of his qualities. No doubt
+there was such a man, of exceptional wisdom, valor and influence, and
+that he disappeared without being known to have died. Around his memory
+tradition, employing the figurative language of the Indians, accumulated
+myths and magnified them.[16]
+
+Van Curler was persistent, and in the end the Indians could not find
+it in their hearts to deny their “very good friend,” and the deed was
+formally executed and delivered at Fort Orange, July 2, 1661.
+
+The founders entered into possession. The Indians bade them welcome, and
+began to move their wigwams up the valley. It was their first step in the
+many stages of their unreturning journey toward the setting sun. Their
+own sun thus passed its zenith, but they did not know it.
+
+The colonists fixed their home or village lots upon the land above the
+sweep of the river floods, occupying for this purpose that part of the
+city west of the present Ferry Street. They assigned to each proprietor
+a village lot, two hundred feet square; a larger lot for a garden just
+south of the village, and a farm upon the bottom-lands beyond, with
+privileges in the outlying woodlands. Other settlers joined them. They
+sold them village lots and farm and garden lands, until the farm lands of
+the Van Curler grant were disposed of. Those who came still later bought
+village lots, but they had to buy farms of the Indians from lands outside
+of the Van Curler grant. Mechanics, traders and workmen came who did not
+want land, or lacked the means to buy it. Many of the proprietors were
+rich enough to own slaves, which—or shall I say whom?—they brought with
+them. Very soon by dint of industry their houses were built of the lumber
+sawed at their own mills, their farms were promising abundant crops,
+their gardens were blossoming, while their cattle were grazing in more
+distant pastures.
+
+In this little republic the freeholders were the source of authority.
+By them and of them five trustees were elected “for maintaining good
+order and advancing their settlement.” The “Reformed Nether Dutch
+Church” was early established with its elders and deacons, and later,
+with its settled domine, maintained a guardianship over the people and
+especially the widows, orphans, and the poor. The community was under
+the titular jurisdiction of the province; the laws of Holland were in
+force with respect to contracts, property rights, and domestic relations,
+and were observed as a matter of course. The governor appointed the
+trustees or their nominees, _schepens_ or justices of the peace, and they
+appointed a _schout_ or constable, with large executive powers. This
+official, conscious of his power, and arrayed in a garb denoting it,
+solemnly pointed his pipe stem and sometimes even shook his sword, at
+the wayward. If any were so refractory as not to mend their ways after
+such an admonition, he haled them before the schepen. This magistrate,
+as his commission was construed, had the right so to supply the defects
+in the Dutch laws and the ordinances of “Their High Mightinesses, the
+noble Dutch West India Company,” as to “make the punishment fit the
+crime.” This meant that he could impose such a fine as the schout thought
+collectible, or such other punishment as he would undertake to inflict.
+Causes of great gravity, such as complaints by the traders at Beverwyck
+that the accused had infringed upon their monopolies, were brought before
+that jurisdiction, but the records disclose no practical benefits to the
+complainants.
+
+[Illustration: FIRST REFORMED (DUTCH) CHURCH.]
+
+In 1664, two years after the first settlement, the province and its
+government passed by conquest from the Dutch to the English. This made
+but little change at Schenectady. The system of government already
+begun was continued. The manor of Rensselaerswyck was confirmed to the
+patroon with some change in the sovereignty, but none in his property
+rights. Beverwyck became Albany, the county of Albany was established,
+and embraced Schenectady. The court at Albany took jurisdiction of such
+larger causes as the “Duke’s Laws,” conferred upon it, and the minor ones
+remained as before within the jurisdiction of the local magistrates.
+There were but few ministers of the gospel in the province, and it was
+not until 1684 that the Reverend Petrus Thesschenmaecher, a graduate
+of the University of Utrecht, was installed as their first resident
+pastor or domine. It was a memorable day, when that pious man, in his
+black silken robe, ascended the high pulpit of the church edifice which,
+loopholed for musketry together with his dwelling-house, awaited his
+coming, and in the deep solemn guttural of his Nether Dutch speech,
+led the worship of his dutiful flock. These Dutch Protestants did not
+agonize about God’s wrath like the Puritans; they assumed His loving
+care, as a child does its father’s. The ordinances and forms of worship
+prescribed by the Church were regarded as duties to be observed as well
+as privileges to be enjoyed, and the higher the social or official state
+of the individual, the more prominent and circumspect must he be in his
+religious observances. One of the documents of that day opens in these
+words: “We, the justices, consistory, together with the common people
+of Schanegtade, conceive ourselves in duty bound to take care of our
+reverend minister.” It is signed by the justices, elders, deacons and
+many others who, we must assume, were “common people.” There remains a
+marriage contract in which a widower and a widow recite how much property
+each brings to the marriage state; the widow enumerating among other
+property three slaves, for whose freedom upon her decease, however, she
+provides. No doubt the justices, the consistory, the freeholders and the
+common people observed this order of precedence on this and all like
+occasions; the widow being preceded by a slave bearing a warming-box for
+her feet, a metrical version of the Psalms, and the book of devotion
+containing the liturgy, the _Heidelberg Catechism_, the _Confession of
+Faith_ and the canons of the Church, as all these had been approved by
+the Synod of Dordrecht in 1619.
+
+Long before this learned graduate of the University of Utrecht was
+secured, the Rev. Gideon Schaets, minister at Albany, was permitted
+by his Church to visit Schenectady at least four times a year, upon a
+week day (“since it would be unjust to let the community be without
+preaching”—so the record at Albany recites), and administer the Lord’s
+Supper, baptize the children and officiate at marriages. Marriage,
+however, was a civil function over which a magistrate was competent to
+preside. As early as 1681 the Church had an investment for the support
+of the poor of 3,000 guilders, which had reached 4,000 guilders in 1690,
+when the Church perished in the destruction and massacre of that year.
+
+[Illustration: ELLIS HOSPITAL.]
+
+The inhabitants of this frontier village, who welcomed with open hands
+and glad hearts their first domine, might well be pardoned if there
+was a leaven of worldly pride in their greeting. Where else in all the
+provinces was there a more prosperous, more generous, more intelligent
+and better ordered people? There was no lack of substantial plenty. Who
+more than they were entitled to establish a Church and have a domine
+of their own? In October, 1683, the first legislative assembly chosen
+by the freeholders was summoned to convene in New York, to frame laws
+for the province. By the governor’s proclamation Schenectady had been
+accorded a representative, and thus its importance in the body politic
+was recognized. The village was the frontier bulwark of civilization,
+where the white man and the Mohawk Indian, by keeping faith with each
+other, kept bright the chain of friendship which made the Five Nations
+the allies of the Province of New York. To guard against French and
+Indian incursions, a stockade had been built around the village. This
+was a high fence made of three rows of posts set together firmly in
+the ground. There was a gate upon the north and south sides, and a
+fort within the stockade at each gate. Although often alarmed, it was
+not until the war between England and her allies and France, which was
+soon declared after James II. abdicated the crown of England in the
+revolution of 1688 and William and Mary came to the throne, that this
+frontier village was seriously threatened. Jacob Leisler, a Dutch trader
+and captain of a military company, of great zeal but of small ability,
+seized the government in the name of William and Mary and brought
+confusion among the people by his presumption. The common people favored
+Leisler. They “blessed the great God of Heaven and Earth for deliverance
+from Tyranny, Popery, and Slavery.” The aristocracy opposed him, and
+complained that “Fort James was seized by the rabble, that hardly one
+person of sense and estate does countenance.” Their wisest leader, Van
+Curler, had long been dead;[17] and the people of Schenectady became
+hopelessly divided. Warnings were frequent, but vigilance was relaxed,
+and at last the blow fell upon a defenceless people.
+
+[Illustration: EDISON HOTEL.]
+
+On the night of the 8th of February, 1690, one hundred and fourteen
+Frenchmen and ninety-six Indians, sent by Frontenac, Governor General of
+Canada, after a twenty-two days’ march from Montreal, through the snow
+and the wilderness, stole in through the open gates of the stockade,
+massacred sixty of the inhabitants, plundered and burned about sixty
+houses—leaving only six—and carried away thirty captives. The survivors,
+who were fortunate enough in the confusion to escape either by accident
+or flight, numbered about two hundred and fifty. Their distress cannot be
+described. They buried their dead, their beloved pastor being among the
+slain. They made what provision they could against the severity of the
+winter and then took thought of the future. Should they abandon the place
+where for a quarter of a century they had lived in peace and plenty, and
+seek safety elsewhere? Help and counsel came to them from Albany, Esopus
+and New York, from Massachusetts and Connecticut, and not least from the
+friendly Mohawks, all encouraging them to stay. Indeed, there was no
+place of assured safety in the whole province. The war threatened all
+the English colonies. The colonies sent their delegates to New York,
+where they concerted measures for the common defence. This was the first
+general American Congress. To abandon Schenectady would be to encourage
+the enemy, to endanger the whole province by discouraging its allies,
+the Iroquois or Five Nations, causing them to distrust the valor and
+prowess of the English arms, and possibly to embrace the oft proffered
+alliance of the French. Schenectady must be held, cost what it might.
+The survivors finally concluded to stay. Twenty-four of the freeholders
+subscribed to a paper, stating:
+
+    “In the first place, it is agreed to resort to the North Fort
+    to secure our bodies and defend them.
+
+    “Secondly, that the crops or fruits of the earth—that is, the
+    winter grain, shall be in common for the use of all, and all
+    the mowing lands for this year.
+
+    “Thirdly, the widows shall draw their just due and portions.
+
+    “If any one will voluntarily depart or draw up for Canada, he
+    shall yet have his full share and the benefits.
+
+    “Every one that shall stand to these articles shall obey the
+    orders of their officers, on the penalty of such punishment
+    as shall be seasonable, without expecting any favor, grace or
+    dissimulation.”
+
+The survivors began the work of reconstruction and defence. Every
+able-bodied man became both citizen and soldier, ready for service at
+home or on scout or picket or skirmish duty, wherever the approach of
+the enemy was to be feared. Schenectady became a military camp where
+the provincial troops, reinforced by detachments from New England and
+by their Iroquois allies, made good the safety of Schenectady and thus
+kept watch and ward over the English dominion in North America. They
+recognized Governor Leisler’s authority and sent a representative to the
+two sessions of his Assembly held in April and October, 1690.[18]
+
+The warlike state of things existed from 1690 until after the peace of
+Ryswyck in 1697. Upon the return of peace, Schenectady began to resume
+its former state and prosperity. The people rebuilt their church and
+called the Rev. Bernardus Freerman as their pastor. How dear he became to
+them the many children named in his honor attest. The Dutch population
+was sprinkled with a few English-speaking soldiers who chose to make it
+their home. Its importance increased as a centre of trade, not only
+with the Indians, but with those hardy pioneers, who, attracted by the
+fertile lands, or the desire to join the friendly Indians in their
+hunting expeditions, pushed farther up the valley. The traders at Albany
+protested against this invasion of their monopoly, and also against the
+exercise of milling, weaving and tanning privileges, but in a famous
+law-suit in the Supreme Court of the province, the Albany monopolists
+were beaten, and Schenectady’s full right to freedom of trade and
+manufacture was established. Then came Queen Anne’s War with the French,
+lasting from 1701 to 1713, and Schenectady was again in peril, and again
+garrisoned, for the same reason and much in the same way as before; but,
+the Iroquois having made a treaty of peace with Canada, the brunt of the
+war fell upon New England and Schenectady passed safely through it.
+
+From the treaty of Utrecht in 1713 to the “Old French War,” 1744-48,
+peace prevailed. In the latter war many inhabitants of the village were
+killed in skirmishes or cut down by skulking Indians in the service of
+the French. In one skirmish, or rather massacre, at Beukendal, three
+miles northwest of Schenectady, twenty men were killed and thirteen
+captured and carried away. Then came the last French war, from 1753 to
+1763. The English now had posts at Fort Hunter, Fort Schuyler, Fort
+Johnson and Oswego on the west, at Fort Ann and Fort Edward on the north.
+Sir William Johnson and others had established settlements up the Mohawk
+Valley. Sir William was general superintendent of Indian affairs and a
+Major-General in the English service. His influence over the Iroquois was
+commanding; his early victory at Lake George was important; the English
+carried the war into the French territory. Schenectady enjoyed immunity
+from attack, and was enabled, besides maintaining a garrison in its fort,
+to send its quotas of troops to distant service, one company assisting in
+the English siege and capture of Havana in 1762.
+
+The treaty of Paris in 1763, by which the French yielded the dominion of
+North America to the English, seemed to promise a lasting peace. But the
+War of the Revolution came on. Our Indian allies, the Iroquois, remained
+faithful to their long allegiance to the English Crown, and became our
+enemies under the leadership of Sir John Johnson, who, succeeding to
+the estate and title of his father, Sir William, adhered to the Crown,
+under which both became ennobled. Schenectady was again threatened, from
+the side of Canada, but by its former friends and allies. Aside from its
+contribution of six companies to the patriot cause, its position made it
+the base from which those who adhered to the English cause sought to send
+aid and comfort to the enemy. General Washington came here early in the
+struggle, and made arrangements for the frontier defence.[19]
+
+The Schenectady patriots appointed a committee of vigilance and safety,
+who, as the one hundred and sixty-two written pages of their records
+show, repressed with strong hand and scant ceremony the slightest
+evasions of the orders of Congress and of the military authorities, and
+all attempts at treasonable intercourse with the enemy. Finally American
+independence was won, and Schenectady, after nearly a century of unrest,
+enjoyed the blessing of permanent peace. The forts and stockade soon
+disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: UNION COLLEGE, 1795.]
+
+Meantime the little village had steadily grown, becoming a
+chartered borough in 1765, and advancing to the dignity of a city
+in 1798. Schenectady received its first officially carried mail on
+the 3d day of April, 1763,—Benjamin Franklin being the colonial
+postmaster-general,—founded the Schenectady Academy in 1784, which became
+Union College in 1795, and read its first newspaper, _The Schenectady
+Gazette_, January 6, 1799.
+
+[Illustration: STATUE, SITE OF “OLD FORT.”]
+
+The military occupation and the increasing importance of the frontier
+trade added largely to the English population. As early as 1710, the
+Rev. Thomas Barclay, the English chaplain to the fort in Albany,
+preached once a month at Schenectady, where, as he writes, “there is
+a garrison of forty soldiers, besides about sixteen English and about
+one hundred Dutch families.” At that time the Dutch had no pastor. Mr.
+Barclay writes, “There is a convenient and well built church which they
+freely give me the use of.” It was not, however, until 1759, when there
+were three hundred houses in the village, that the English population
+undertook the erection of a separate church. They “purchased a glebe
+lot and by subscription chiefly among themselves erected a neat stone
+church,” and called it St. George’s. This stone church, with its
+subsequent additions, is the handsome St. George’s of to-day. Its site
+had previously been covered by the English barracks. There is a tradition
+that the Presbyterians assisted in the erection of St. George’s with the
+understanding that the Anglicans were to go in at the west door and the
+Presbyterians at the south door, but that the Anglicans managed to get
+the church consecrated unknown to the Presbyterians. The latter, upon
+finding it out, were so indignant that they set about building a church
+for themselves. Be this as it may, the Presbyterians commenced building
+their church in 1770, and finished it with bell and steeple, the latter
+surmounted by a leaden ball gilded with “six books of gold leaf.”
+
+In 1767 the Methodist movement began here under the lead of Captain
+Thomas Webb, a local preacher bearing the license of John Wesley. The
+movement was favored and advanced by the preaching of that great orator,
+George Whitefield, then making his last American tour. The society,
+however, waited until 1809 before building its first church edifice. In
+the same year Schenectady County was carved out of Albany County.
+
+All this while the English speech was gaining over the Dutch. Children
+of Dutch parents, despite the teaching of the nursery, would acquire and
+use the English idiom. Finally some of the members of the Dutch Church
+ventured to suggest the propriety of having service now and then in
+the English tongue. The staid burghers were shocked. But, the question
+once raised, the younger generation grew bolder, and the elder began to
+listen. Domine Romeyn, a graduate of Princeton College, a fluent master
+of both languages, and eminent for his varied learning and as the founder
+of Union College, was pastor of the Church from 1784 to 1804. He so far
+yielded to the new demand as to preach in English upon occasions of which
+he was careful to give previous notice. It was not until 1794 that the
+leading members of the Church represented to its consistory the necessity
+of increasing the services in English,[20] “to the end that the church
+be not scattered.” Ten years later, at the close of Domine Romeyn’s long
+ministry, the Dutch language ceased to be heard from the pulpit of the
+church. But there are still surviving a few—very few—inhabitants to whom
+the Dutch is their mother tongue. One of them informs the writer that
+when he visited Holland he conversed with ease with the people, but that
+he sometimes used words not familiar to them and afterwards learned that
+these words were of Indian origin.
+
+[Illustration: “THE BROOK THAT BOUNDS THRO’ UNION’S GROUNDS.”
+
+UNION COLLEGE.]
+
+As Schenectady is two hundred feet above tide-water at Albany, it early
+became the headquarters of the western trade, goods being carried to and
+from the West upon canoes, bateaux, and the “Schenectady Durham boats.”
+The trade developed into large proportions, and during the hundred years
+closing with the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, many traders made
+fortunes which were considered large in those days. Upon the completion
+of the canal the commercial prosperity of the city declined. The decline
+seemed to be confirmed by the era of railroads, notwithstanding the
+“Mohawk and Hudson” was the first railroad built in the State, its first
+passenger train arriving in Schenectady from Albany, September 12, 1831,
+and on the second railroad, the “Saratoga and Schenectady,” the first
+train left Schenectady for Saratoga, July 12, 1832.
+
+[Illustration: ELIPHALET NOTT, PRESIDENT OF UNION COLLEGE FOR SIXTY
+YEARS.]
+
+The business revival, however, came at last. For fifty years its
+locomotive works have been renowned, finding customers even in England.
+Now, that oldest of powers and newest of merchandise, electricity, has
+its greatest plant here, from which its products seek the ends of the
+habitable globe. These, with many other industries, disturb the city’s
+ancient repose. It no longer comprises a people exclusively of Dutch,
+English and Scotch ancestry, but embraces a polyglot assemblage. For more
+than a century Union College, founded in an age less tolerant than our
+own upon the basis of Christian unity, implied by its name, over which
+the celebrated Doctor Nott presided for sixty years, and the accomplished
+Doctor Raymond now presides, has been sending forth year by year its
+graduates. Among them—as the College justly boasts—is a long list of
+leaders in Church and in State, in the halls of learning, among the
+votaries of science, where industrial and professional skill achieves the
+worthiest triumphs, and where human needs require the wisest methods of
+helpfulness; and every sign indicates that this long list will continue
+to lengthen.
+
+If there is any lesson, it is simple. The town was founded in the spirit
+of liberty and justice; the people cherished and cultivated the spirit so
+well that the Mohawk Indian for one hundred and twelve years respected
+and reciprocated. May the spirit long prevail!
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF SCHENECTADY.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+NEWBURGH
+
+THE PALATINE PARISH BY QUASSAICK
+
+BY ADELAIDE SKEEL
+
+
+    MR. SECRETARY BOYLE TO LORD LOVELACE
+
+                                       WHITEHALL, 10th Aug’st, 1708.
+
+    _My Lord:_—The Queen being graciously pleased to send fifty-two
+    German Protestants to New York and to settle ’em there at
+    Her own expenses, Her Majesty as a farther act of Charity
+    is willing to provide also for the subsistence of Joshua de
+    Kockerthal their Minister and it is Her Pleasure that you pass
+    a grant to him of a reasonable Portion of Land for a Glebe not
+    exceeding five hundred acres with liberty to sell a suitable
+    proportion thereof for his better Maintenance till he shall be
+    in a condition to live by the produce of the remainder.
+
+                              I am, my Lord
+
+               Your L’dshp’s Most faithful humble servant
+
+                                                           H. BOYLE.
+
+    LORD LOVELACE.
+
+A bridge of sighs spans the distance between the coming of Newburgh’s
+earliest settlers, the German Lutherans from the lower Palatinate on the
+Rhine, to the later arrival of the English, Scotch, French and Irish. The
+Lutherans were religious exiles, whose villages had been burnt, whose
+homes had been destroyed and whose strong Protestant faith alone survived
+the wreck of their fortunes. Of this poverty-stricken company, nine
+with their wives and children were sent up Hudson’s River to occupy the
+present site of Newburgh.
+
+The first intention of Queen Anne of England to send these Germans to
+Jamaica where white people were needed, was set aside “lest the climate
+be not agreeable to their constitutions, being so much hotter than
+that of Germany.” Apropos of the intelligent consideration of these
+Commissioners of Emigration in 1709, one questions if the half-clad
+travellers who are described in an old document as “very necessitous,”
+found the climate of Hudson’s River agreeable to their constitutions in
+winter-time.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT NEWBURGH.]
+
+In winter time! Sailing up the river in summer-time past Sleepy Hollow
+and Spuyten Duyvil, beyond the wide Tappan Zee, through the Gate of
+the Highlands where the waters narrow and the mountains cross, where
+the fairies dance on old Cro’s Nest, and Storm King dons and doffs his
+weather cap, on into Newburgh Bay where the Beacons guard the Fishkill
+shores, and the Queen City of the Hudson rises in green terraces on the
+western bank, the tourist idly wonders if these Palatine pilgrims, worn
+by the ravages of persecution, had eyes to see the beauty of the land
+they were about to possess. It is possible, notwithstanding the ice-bound
+waters and snow-covered country, that their homesick hearts may have been
+warmed by the sight of a river not unlike their Rhine. As yet no Irving,
+Paulding, Cooper, Drake or Willis had cast the magic witchery of his
+tales over these scenes, yet a century before, the _Half-Moon_ had passed
+this way and perhaps the stories Henry Hudson’s crew brought back of red
+devils dancing in rocky chambers amused the children aboard the sloop of
+the German Lutheran exiles.
+
+[Illustration: JOEL T. HEADLEY.]
+
+More pertinent in historical research than such imaginings is the
+contrast between the temper of these voyagers and those others who sailed
+in the _Mayflower_, and before landing covenanted with one another “to
+submit only to such government and governors as should be chosen by
+common consent.” The shores of the Hudson were no less fertile than those
+of Massachusetts, yet the Palatines showed far less aggressiveness than
+the Pilgrims, and far less courage to stand alone. The story of these
+Lutherans here in Newburgh is a story of petitions first to one Right
+Honorable Lord and then to another,—petitions which, alas! were too often
+unheeded, although the petitioners sorely in need of help never failed to
+sign themselves
+
+                               Your Honours
+                               Most Dutyfull
+                         and most obedient Company
+                      at Quassek Creek and Tanskamir.
+
+In one letter to the Right Honourable Richard Ingoldsby Esq’ʳ, Lieutenant
+Governor and Commander-in-Chief over Her Majesty’s Provinces in New York,
+Nova Caesaria and Territories depending thereon in America &c. as also
+to Her Majesty’s Honourable Council of this Province &c. they plead that
+“they do not know where to address themselves to receive the remainder of
+their allowance of provision at 9d per day.”
+
+Again, in their search to find “a Gentleman who might be willing to
+support said Germans with the Remainder of their allowance the entire
+summ of which is not exceeding 195 lbs, 3sh,” they but succeed in finding
+a gentleman whose offer of assistance they considered only as “fine talke
+and discourse out of his own head”—by which one learns the supplicants
+were left hungry and cold on their hilly farms, waiting for help which
+came slowly and for crops which yielded but scantily.
+
+[Illustration: THE LUTHERAN CHURCH.]
+
+Whoever institutes a comparison between the Palatines and the Pilgrims
+must remember the Pilgrims came to America, a compact society fortified
+by friends at home soon to follow, while the Palatines, beggared by the
+most terrible of religious persecutions, were sent, as individuals, by
+Queen Anne to her colonies, as to-day dependent children of the State
+are sent to the far West. They were absolute paupers, yet such was their
+moral excellence that a writer on Dutch Village Communities on the Hudson
+River indirectly commends these poor Germans.
+
+    “From the banks of the Rhine the germ of free local
+    institutions borne on the tide of western emigration found
+    along the Hudson a more fruitful soil than New England afforded
+    for the growth of those forms of municipal, state and national
+    government which have made the United States the leading
+    Republic among nations, and thus in a new and historically
+    important sense may the Hudson river be called the Rhine of
+    America.”
+
+The patent granted the Lutherans known as the Palatine Parish by
+Quassaick contained within its boundaries forty acres for highways
+and five hundred for a Glebe. The Glebe is bounded by North Street on
+the north and by South Street on the south. Across its western border
+ran Liberty Street, then the King’s Highway, although no king save
+Washington, who refused the title, ever trod its dust. The Glebe was “for
+the use of the Lutheran minister and his successors forever,” but they
+really possessed it only about forty years,—thus liberally was “forever”
+interpreted two centuries ago.
+
+    “Here’s a church, and here’s a steeple,
+    Here’s the minister and all the people,”
+
+says the nursery rhyme. Here the evolution of a parish has for its germ
+the church and steeple, the minister and all the people being a later
+development. The germ of this Lutheran parish was the minister, Joshua de
+Kockerthal,[21] whose missionary labors on both sides of the river cannot
+be overestimated. After the minister came not the church nor the steeple,
+but the bell, a gift from no less a lady of quality than Queen Anne
+herself. It was highly prized by these Lutherans and loaned to a church
+in New York on condition that “should we be able to build a church at our
+own expense at any time thereafter then the Lutheran Church of New York
+shall restore to us the same bell such as it now is or another of equal
+weight and value.”
+
+[Illustration: ANDREW J. DOWNING.]
+
+The church was built probably in 1730, and the Reverend Michael Christian
+Knoll was appointed to minister in the parish, a part of his salary to
+be paid in cheeples of wheat, sustenance certainly more nourishing than
+the codfish received by the minister on Cape Cod in lieu of pew-rent in
+gold coin of the realm. The church itself, which was standing in 1846
+within the memory of a few of Newburgh’s citizens, was about twenty
+feet square without floor or chimney. The roof ran up into a point from
+its four walls, and on the peak a small cupola was placed in which hung
+Queen Anne’s bell. This bell, evidently not cast in the mould of the
+one unalterable Confession of Augsburg, but bewitched by its donor with
+Episcopacy, presently rang out changes and ceased to “call the living,
+mourn the dead and break the lightning” exclusively in behalf of the
+German Lutherans.
+
+The English were now buying farms from the discouraged Germans whose
+complaint that their patent was all upland can hardly be denied by any
+one who, aided by a rope, climbs Newburgh’s hilly streets to-day. The
+story, however, that the United States Government located the city’s
+post-office on a shelf-like site so that shy lovers in search of a
+billet-doux need not call at the window but may look down the building’s
+chimney from a street above is probably apocryphal.
+
+The Palatines abandoned Newburgh for a more fertile soil in Pennsylvania
+and elsewhere about 1747. The newcomers, who were mostly of English and
+Scotch descent, took their places, so that nothing remains to tell of
+the early settlers save the streets they laid out and the church in the
+Old Town burying-ground whose site is now marked by Quassaick Chapter,
+Daughters of the American Revolution.[22]
+
+According to history, the few remaining Lutherans did not give up their
+church without a struggle. On a certain bright July Sunday the two
+congregations met, each with its minister at the head, accompanied by
+many people from both sides of the river and the Justices of the Peace
+who carried staves of office. Birgert Meynders, a burly blacksmith and
+bold defender of the Lutheran faith, fell crushed by the falling door,
+and then the jubilant English rushed in to hold the fort. It was after
+this memorable riot that the Reverend Hezekiah Watkins,[23] a most
+excellent clergyman, preached his first sermon in Newburgh, possibly from
+a text in the psalter for the day, “Why do the heathen so furiously rage
+together?”
+
+[Illustration: HENRY KIRKE BROWN.]
+
+Legend says some Lutheran boys on a moonless August night stole the
+bell and buried it in a swamp where, punished for apostasy, it lay for
+years tongue-tied in the black mud while hoarse frogs croaked their
+pessimistic comments over it. The defeated Lutherans would doubtless have
+been pleased could they have foreseen half a century later when all that
+savored of England, were it book, bell or candle, was out of favor, the
+Anglicans in their turn ejected, the building used as a schoolhouse, and
+the rent of the Glebe lands pass entirely from the Church.
+
+The swamp in which the bell was hidden has of late years been transformed
+into one of Downing Park’s lakes, and from its smooth waters one may
+hear on summer evenings the ghostly tolling of bells, as bells toll in
+the buried cities beneath Swiss lakes. The tolling has a martial sound,
+a call to arms, as if the little bell had forgotten the smaller church
+squabble in the larger quarrel between King George and his Colonies. Some
+authorities insist that the bell was dug up, and that it gladly used its
+long silent tongue in Freedom’s cause as behooved a Liberty Bell. It hung
+during the present century, old inhabitants tell us, in the cupola of the
+Newburgh Academy, and was at length sold and melted for a new one by an
+iconoclastic school Board.
+
+At the breaking out of the war for American Independence there were
+but a dozen or more houses on the Glebe, and a few to the south. Among
+these was the stone residence of Colonel Jonathan Hasbrouck which had
+been built in part by Birgert Meynders. Lieutenant Cadwallader Colden
+had his home near and there were many among his satellites willing to
+drink damnation to the Whigs when asked by the ever vigilant Committee of
+Safety to sign the pledge.
+
+It may be thought strange that Newburgh has been considered of great
+Revolutionary importance when no battles were fought nearer its
+vicinity than those of Stony Point and Forts Clinton and Montgomery,
+but, although the place had an hereditary tendency to toryism, its
+geographical environment filled it to overflowing with plucky patriots.
+It is well known that it was the design of the British to get possession
+of the Hudson, and by cutting off the New England States to weaken
+the forces of the Continental Army. Appreciating this fact, Washington
+came up the river in 1776 as far as Constitution Island and, at the
+suggestion of Putnam, fortified West Point. Newburgh came under the same
+military direction, so that one leading officer after another made his
+headquarters in the vicinity.
+
+At Vail’s Gate, four miles south of Newburgh, is the Thomas Ellison house
+built by John Ellison, the headquarters of Generals Knox, Green and
+Gates, and of Colonels Biddle and Wadsworth. Here too the pretty Lucy
+Knox gave a dance at which General Washington tarried so late as to incur
+the displeasure of his wife. The names of Maria Colden, Gitty Wyncoop,
+and Sally Jensen, the belles of the ball, are scrawled on a window-pane
+in the dining-room.
+
+Following Silver Stream down to Moodna Creek, three or four miles south
+of Newburgh, we find the Williams house, the residence of General
+Lafayette, in the cellar of which the Dutch loan lies buried past
+finding, while opposite are the remains of the forge at which were made
+parts of the obstructions thrown across the river to prevent British
+ships from sailing up.
+
+[Illustration: HEADQUARTERS OF MAJOR-GENERAL KNOX AT VAIL’S GATE.]
+
+[Illustration: CLINTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT LITTLE BRITAIN, NEAR NEWBURGH.]
+
+Westward at Little Britain, six miles from Newburgh, is Mrs. Fall’s
+house, the headquarters of George Clinton, and here on the floor is the
+stain where the spy who swallowed the bullet took the emetic and revealed
+the proposed treason. The old homestead of the Clinton family was in
+Little Britain, and hither James Clinton, after the attack on Forts
+Clinton and Montgomery, returned, his boots filled with blood. One of his
+great-grandchildren relates that he entered the dining-room where the
+family were eating breakfast, and requesting his mother and sisters to
+retire lest they faint from the sight of his wounds, as was the habit
+of gentlewomen of the last century, told the story of his escape to his
+father. The statue of his distinguished brother, George,[24] stands in
+Newburgh’s business centre on the Square which oddly enough bears the
+name of Colden, the leading family of colonial days. The distinguished
+Coldens, although not patriots, added a lustre to the town, and the
+Clintons will not quarrel with their shades.
+
+Mad Anthony Wayne, the Rough Rider of his day, had his headquarters on
+the Glebe near the present corner of Liberty Street and Broad. Weigand’s
+tavern, with the whipping-post in front of the door, a rendezvous of
+soldiers, stood on Liberty Street not far from the Lutheran Church.
+
+[Illustration: CLINTON STATUE IN COLDEN SQUARE, AT NEWBURGH.]
+
+Revolutionary interest in Newburgh focuses on the coming of Washington to
+the Hasbrouck house in March, 1782, although recent research discredits
+the story pictured on the covers of our copybooks in school days of the
+disbanding of the whole Continental army on these grounds. In 1779-80
+Washington had lived in the Ellison house, no longer standing, in New
+Windsor, a small village to the south on the river, separated from
+Newburgh proper by the Quassaick Creek, but after the surrender of
+Yorktown, he and his family with his staff became the guests of Colonel
+Jonathan Hasbrouck in the stone house, on the corner of Washington and
+Liberty Streets. Here Washington wrote his reply to the Nicola letter,
+which in popular parlance offered him the crown. Here is the chair in
+which he sat when he took his pen in hand and dipped it in ink to put on
+paper words which after more than a hundred years glow with the fervor of
+their author’s single-hearted purpose.
+
+                                            NEWBURGH, May 22d, 1782.
+
+    COLONEL LEWIS NICOLA,
+
+    SIR:—With a mixture of great surprise and astonishment, I have
+    read with attention the sentiments you have submitted to my
+    perusal. Be assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the
+    War, has given me more painful sensations than your information
+    of there being such ideas existing in the army as you have
+    expressed, and I must view with abhorrence and reprehend with
+    severity. For the present the communication of them will rest
+    in my own bosom, unless some further agitation of the matter
+    shall make a disclosure necessary.
+
+    I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct could
+    have given encouragement to an address, which to me seems big
+    with the greatest mischiefs that can befall my country. If I am
+    not deceived in the knowledge of myself, you could not have
+    found a person to whom your schemes are more disagreeable. At
+    the same time, in justice to my own feelings, I must add that
+    no man possesses a more sincere wish to see ample justice done
+    to the army than I do, and so far as my powers and influence,
+    in a constitutional way, extend, they shall be employed to
+    the utmost of my abilities to effect it, should there be any
+    occasion. Let me conjure you then, if you have any regard for
+    your country, concern for yourself, or posterity, or respect
+    for me, to banish these thoughts from your mind, and never
+    communicate, as from yourself or anyone else, a sentiment of
+    the like nature. With esteem, I am sir,
+
+                       Your most obedient servant,
+
+                                                      G. WASHINGTON.
+
+Leaving Washington’s Headquarters at Newburgh one turns southward and
+crosses Quassaick Creek, at one time known as the Vale of Avoca, to hear
+above the whirr of to-day’s many intersecting railroads the echoes of
+Indian paddles. It is said the ghosts of Indians still linger here in
+their canoes waiting to carry away Washington, for near is the site of
+the Ettrick house whose host treacherously invited the Commander-in-Chief
+to dinner with intent to kidnap him.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILLIAMS HOUSE.]
+
+“General, you are my prisoner,” said Mr. Ettrick, pushing aside his
+wine-glass and rising from the table.
+
+“Pardon me, sir, but you are mine,” was the quiet answer, and instantly
+the life-guards appeared and poor Ettrick was put in chains, his pretty
+daughter escaping on account of the timely warning she had given her
+father’s guest.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT ON TEMPLE HILL, NEAR NEWBURGH.]
+
+[Illustration: THE VERPLANCK HOUSE.
+
+BARON STEUBEN’S HEADQUARTERS, WHERE THE “NICOLA LETTER” WAS WRITTEN.]
+
+Standing on the slopes of Snake Hill, to the west of Newburgh, where
+was the last cantonment of the American Army on the site of the
+Temple, a building used for Sunday services, for Masonic purposes and
+as a gathering-place for social entertainment, a site now marked by a
+monument, one hears again those words spoken by Washington when in March,
+1783, the circulation of the Newburgh letters caused unrest among the
+unpaid troops.
+
+    “You see, gentlemen,” he said as he arose to read his address,
+    putting on his spectacles as he spoke, “that I have not only
+    grown grey but blind in your service....
+
+    “Let me conjure you,” he continued, “by the name of our common
+    country, as you value your own sacred honor, as you respect the
+    rights of humanity, as you regard the military and national
+    character of America, to express your utmost horror and
+    detestation of the man who wishes under any specious pretense
+    to overturn the liberties of our country and who wickedly
+    attempts to open the flood-gates of civil discord....
+
+    “By thus determining and thus acting you will pursue the plain
+    and direct road to the attainment of your wishes ... you will
+    by the dignity of your conduct afford occasion to posterity to
+    say when speaking of the glorious example you have exhibited to
+    mankind, ‘Had this day been wanting, the world had never seen
+    the last stage of perfection to which human nature is capable
+    of attaining.’”
+
+Crossing the river by the ferry sloop to Fishkill one finds in this
+Revolutionary centre of military supplies much of interest. Here were
+Baron Steuben’s headquarters in the Verplanck house, where the Nicola
+letter was written and the Society of Cincinnatus in part was formed;
+here at Swartwoutville the headquarters of Washington; here on the
+Wicopee, in the James Van Wyck house, the residence of John Jay, and at
+Brinkerhoff, in the home of Matthew Brinkerhoff, the roof which sheltered
+Lafayette when he lay ill of a fever. The Dutch Church in Fishkill has
+been made famous by Cooper’s _Spy_. Trinity Church was a hospital, and
+on the banks of the Hudson at Presqu’Ile one rests under the oak which
+shaded Washington when he waited for his letters to be brought to him
+from Newburgh.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT FISHKILL.]
+
+    “I cannot tell what you say, green leaves,
+    I cannot tell what you say;
+    But I know that in you a spirit doth live
+    And a message to me this day.”
+
+Is it not a message of courage and patriotism which lives on in the
+descendants of the Hasbroucks, the Belknaps, the Williamses, the Fowlers,
+the Deyos, the Townsends, the Carpenters, the Weigands and others whose
+records emblazon the pages of Newburgh’s history?
+
+[Illustration: CHARLES DOWNING.]
+
+In this last century not only material wealth has come to Newburgh,
+but the richest treasures of the town have been brought hither by its
+idealists, men to whom has been granted the gift of vision. Among
+these are numbered preachers, poets, artists, historians, novelists,
+physicians, lawyers and philanthropists, and on this roll of honor are
+written the names of the Reverend John Forsythe, N. P. Willis, H. K.
+Brown, A. J. Downing, S. W. Eager, E. M. Ruttenber, J. T. Headley, E. P.
+Roe, Carroll Dunham, E. A. Brewster and Charles Downing.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF NEWBURGH.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON
+
+ITS HISTORIC ASSOCIATIONS AND LEGENDARY LORE
+
+BY HAMILTON WRIGHT MABIE
+
+
+Tarrytown-on-the-Hudson is interesting from many points of view. It is
+beautiful in itself, with a touch of that ripe, old-world beauty which is
+the rich deposit of a long association of man with nature; a beauty which
+reveals its depth in the fulness of foliage, the girth of ancient trees,
+the texture of the grass, and that atmosphere of ancient and familiar
+use which, although invisible and impalpable, lends a peculiar charm to
+settled towns and countries. For Tarrytown has a long history—as history
+is reckoned in this new world—and an ancient date. It wears the air of
+a locality which was in full life in Colonial times. The old houses are
+few, but the modern village is embowered in a landscape which has known
+human companionship and care these two centuries and more. A road may
+show the latest skill in road-making, but if it was once a highway along
+which coaches ran in the brave days of the old inns and the ancient whips
+and hostlers, there is always the suggestion of long use about it. It has
+been for so many decades a part of the landscape that nature seems to
+have had a hand in its making. The grass grows down to it and the earth
+slopes away from it as if these things had always been as they are. No
+one can walk through Tarrytown along its chief thoroughfare, without
+recognizing on every hand the signs of the old highway on which coach
+horns were once heard, and later the bugles rang as redcoats flashed
+through the trees or marched along the ancient way.
+
+[Illustration: BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF TARRYTOWN.
+
+FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.]
+
+The village rises from the water’s edge to the summit of the low hill
+which runs parallel with the eastern shore of the Hudson for many miles;
+it has one main thoroughfare, bisected by many cross streets of a later
+date; it is, for the most part, carefully kept, as befits its age, its
+intelligence, and its wealth; and, looked at from the river, it is
+almost buried in a wealth of foliage. It has at all times an air of
+repose, as if it had done long ago with the hard work of settlement and
+organization, and had earned exemption from the rush and turmoil which
+characterize new communities. In this country a town which has passed
+its bicentennial has a right to conduct life with a certain dignity and
+repose. It is doubtful if Tarrytown ever knew any great bustle or uproar;
+from the beginning it is probable that its inhabitants did not suffer
+themselves to be driven into undue energy of mood or habit. A placid
+temper, a disposition to keep on easy terms with life and neither give
+nor ask more than becomes a man of a quiet habit of mind, have left their
+impress on the community. It is a place in which history is preserved
+rather than made, although when it had occasion to make history, the work
+was done with picturesque effectiveness.
+
+When Hendrik Hudson broke the quiet waters of the Tappan Zee for the
+first time, in September, 1609, with the keel of the _Half-Moon_, he
+saw along the eastern shore of the noble river which was to bear his
+name an unbroken forest. The region was singularly beautiful, with a
+stillness which it has not wholly lost; for rivers carrying deep currents
+always convey an impression of stillness. Mr. Curtis has spoken of the
+lyrical beauty of the Rhine and the epical beauty of the Hudson; the
+first passing, with rapid movement, through a long series of striking
+and romantic localities, the second flowing sedately through a landscape
+of larger compass, of more massive composition, of a beauty sustained
+through a hundred and fifty miles of noble scenery. It is, of course, a
+matter of pure fancy; but there seems to have been some kinship between
+the men who settled the continent and the localities they chose for their
+homes. The hardy French adventurers were peculiarly at home along the
+St. Lawrence and the trails from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi; the
+stern soil of New England would not have given its rare smile to men of a
+temper less strenuous than that of the Puritan and Pilgrim; the waterways
+of the James, the Potomac, and the Chesapeake lent themselves readily to
+the habits and occupations of English gentlemen in the new world; Florida
+and Louisiana seemed to find their elect explorers and settlers in the
+Spanish adventurers and gold-seekers; while the quiet of the Hudson
+was hardly broken when the Dutch settlers began to till the land north
+of Manhattan Island and to build their substantial homes. They could be
+voluble and noisy when occasion required, but they were of a phlegmatic
+temper and leisurely by habit.
+
+The reports sent abroad by Hudson’s men when they found themselves once
+more in Holland in the late autumn of 1609, were repeated and passed from
+town to town among merchants who were as eager for trade as they were
+stolid in manner. Small ships were soon plying westward, bent upon trade
+with the well disposed Indians whom Hudson found scattered from Manhattan
+Island to the place where Albany now stands. The possibilities of profit
+in the fur trade were quickly discovered by these shrewd merchants; the
+nucleus of a settlement was made on the island, and rude huts hastily put
+together were the beginnings of one of the greatest of modern cities.
+The traders bought furs, tobacco, and corn in exchange for trinkets and
+rum; they hunted, fished, and lived after the manner of their time and
+kind, but for the most part on good terms with their Indian neighbors;
+at long intervals tiny ships from the old world crept into the harbor,
+and went back again laden with the skins of the beaver, the otter, and
+the sable. In 1621 the West India Company received a charter from the
+States-General of Holland, with the monopoly of the American trade, and
+a grant of the vast territory discovered by Hudson, which was called
+the New Netherlands. The great trading company, one of a small group of
+commercial organizations of almost sovereign powers in the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries, drew its profits not only from barter with
+Indians, but from the sacking of cities on the Spanish Main and the
+capture of Spanish treasure-ships.
+
+In 1624 families arrived on the island and community life began in New
+Amsterdam; two years later the first governor of the Colony arrived
+with a company who brought their wives, children, cattle, and household
+goods of all kinds with them and, by giving these hostages to fortune,
+committed themselves irrevocably to the new world and its destinies.
+Manhattan Island was bought from the Indians for twenty-four dollars, and
+the name of New Amsterdam reminded the settlers of their blood and their
+history. It was not, however, until Peter Stuyvesant took up the reins
+of government with a firm hand and in a somewhat choleric temper that the
+little community ceased to be a trading-post and became a Dutch colonial
+town. The first comers were largely penniless; the later comers were men
+of position and substance. Many races were soon represented in the new
+town, but the Dutch remained for many years the ruling class. In 1664 the
+Colony passed into English hands and New Amsterdam became New York.
+
+The territory north of the island early attracted attention, and
+energetic and far-seeing men set about acquiring title and adding acre
+to acre until great estates were created. In Westchester County, which
+then bounded the city of New York on the north, six manors, including
+the greater part of its territory, were granted; that of Fordham leading
+the way in 1671. The largest of these manors were Phillipsburgh and
+Cortlandt, and Tarrytown became the residence of a great landowner who
+secured manorial rights in 1693. This territorial magnate, a true lord
+of the manor so far as greatness of estate was concerned, was a man of
+humble birth, and a carpenter by trade. He came to New Amsterdam in
+1647, and being a man of sagacity and foresight, soon found his chance
+in the opportunities of the new world, became a fur trader, married a
+rich widow, and in course of time became probably the richest man in
+the Colony. Vredryk Flypse, or Frederick Philips,[25] knew how to take
+occasion by the hand when English rule was established in New York. He
+foresaw the increased value of the lands along the Hudson, and in 1680,
+by the first of a series of grants, pieced out by various purchases, he
+became the owner of a noble domain, stretching from Spuyten Duyvil to the
+old Kill of Kitchawong, or Croton, and from the Hudson to the Bronx.
+
+The Dutch settlers in the new world were less adventurous than their
+fellows of English and French blood, but they had early established
+trading-posts as far north on the Hudson as the present site of Albany,
+and they had crept quietly up the eastern shore of the river, and small
+farms were beginning to break the long line of forest. The beginnings of
+Tarrytown probably date back as far as 1645, but of its earliest history
+no authentic records remain. In 1683, when Frederick Philips began the
+building of a manor-house on the quiet Pocantico, he found a small
+community of farmers, living in a quiet, frugal way, and carrying on
+the business of life with thrift and industry but in a spirit of great
+tranquillity. The broad waters of Tappan Zee could hardly have caught the
+reflection of the primitive farm-houses hidden among the trees. These
+houses were unpretentious in dimension and appearance, but they had a
+substantial air. There was nothing provisional in the aspect of the
+scattered settlement; it struck tenacious roots into the soil from the
+very start.
+
+    “In the bosom of one of those spacious coves which indent the
+    eastern shore of the Hudson,” writes Irving, in his vein of
+    quiet humor, “at that broad expansion of the river denominated
+    by the ancient Dutch navigators Tappan Zee, and where they
+    always prudently shortened sail, and implored the protection of
+    St. Nicholas when they crossed, there lies a small market-town
+    or rural port, which by some is called Greensburgh, but which
+    is more generally and properly known as Tarry Town. This name
+    was given, we are told, in former days, by the good housewives
+    of the adjacent country, from the inveterate propensity of
+    their husbands to linger about the village tavern on market
+    days.”
+
+This derivation of the name of the delightful town which Irving loved
+so well, has probably as much authority behind it as many derivations
+which have come to be unquestioned; but if Irving’s genial humor leaves
+some sceptics dissatisfied, they may take refuge in an alternative
+derivation, which traces the modern name to the more credible legend
+that one Terry was the earliest settler, whose name became fastened upon
+the little hamlet first as Terry’s town, which afterwards was naturally
+metamorphosed into Tarrytown. Be this as it may, a spirit of peace
+seems to have reigned in the region from the beginning, and the sturdy
+Dutch farmers kept the peace with their Indian neighbors. There are
+no traditions of midnight alarms in the early story of the community.
+Indian canoes were seen for many a year on Tappan Zee, and it is said
+that Indian hands assisted in raising the walls of the quaint and
+venerable church which still keeps watch over its earliest worshippers
+in the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. These pioneer settlers had few wants, and
+supplied them with home-made articles or hand-woven fabrics. Manhattan
+Island was too distant in time to be accessible for daily supplies; shops
+were still to come; and the peddler, with whose figure and habits Cooper
+was subsequently to make the whole world acquainted, distributed finery
+and small wares through the section.
+
+[Illustration: THE POCANTICO RIVER.
+
+FROM A PHOTOGRAPH.]
+
+Under the royal grant and license which authorized Frederick Philips
+to acquire certain tracts of land in Westchester County, says an old
+chronicler, the grantee agreed “to let any one settle on said land free,
+for certain stipulated years, in order that it should as soon as possible
+be cultivated and settled.” These terms seem to have been accepted by
+the few settlers already on the ground, and by others who were attracted
+by the impulse which the lord of the manor (for such Philips was in
+influence and authority) gave to local industry. The great estate was
+not secured in a day; it was consolidated by a series of purchases
+covering a period of years, and among these purchases was the site of the
+present village of Tarrytown, which was paid for in rum, cloth, tobacco,
+and hardware. The great proprietor laid the foundations of permanent
+community life by building, within a comparatively short time, a mill,
+a manor-house, and a church. The Pocantico flows into the Hudson just
+beyond the northern boundary of the Tarrytown of to-day; and on the
+shores of the quiet bay which puts in at that point, protected by a long
+and heavily wooded promontory which extends well into the river, Philips
+chose a sheltered and beautiful site for his home. His own ships brought
+building materials from Holland and unloaded them on the wharf built on
+the premises. The architecture of the manor-house was of the Dutch order
+so familiar along the Hudson; the heavy walls were of stone; the roof was
+spread on great hand-hewn rafters; the doors were divided into upper and
+lower sections, and swung on ponderous hinges; from the end of the wide
+hall, stairs ascended by easy rises to the upper floor. Through openings
+in the foundation walls on the southwest side small howitzers commanded
+the approach by land or water. A mill was quite as essential as a house,
+and the substantial structure which still resists the assaults of time
+in placid old age, bears witness to the thoroughness with which Philips
+did whatever fell to his hand. Beside its ancient pond the venerable mill
+still witnesses to a past which cannot be wholly lost while the little
+group of buildings remains.
+
+[Illustration: OLD MANOR-HOUSE (“FLYPSE’S CASTLE”) AND MILL, TARRYTOWN.
+
+FROM A DRAWING BY EDGAR MAHEW BACON.]
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW.
+
+FROM A DRAWING BY W. J. WILSON.]
+
+To complete this interesting group, which Tarrytown ought to preserve
+with pious care, and at no great distance from the manor-house, stands
+the old Dutch church, one of the most quaint and best preserved
+monuments of early history on the continent. He would be a bold man
+who would venture to state definitely the date at which the building
+of this ancient edifice was begun; on that point a wide latitude must
+be permitted and discreet silence preserved. It answers all purposes
+of intelligent curiosity to be told that the foundations were probably
+laid as early as 1684, and that the building was completed, probably,
+not later than 1697. The bell which still hangs in the little steeple
+and which may be heard on quiet Sunday afternoons in the late summer or
+early autumn, when services are held in the ancient structure, was cast
+in 1685, and bears the inscription, “Si Deus pro nobis quis contra nos.”
+The church was built with characteristic solidity, the walls being more
+than two feet thick; a great pulpit with a sounding-board projected from
+the eastern end; the benches on which the congregation sat were without
+backs; and the doctrine expounded from the sacred desk was of a kindred
+soundness of fibre. Some concession to human weakness was shown to the
+lord of the manor, in the comfortable and imposing arrangement of the
+large pews on the right and left of the minister. The farmers filled
+the body of the little church, while slaves, redemptioners, and other
+obscure persons, with the choir, sat in the tiny gallery. In 1697, the
+Rev. Guiliam Bertholf began a kind of visitorial ministry in the new
+church, coming three or four times a year to preach and administer the
+sacraments. He was a native of Sluis, in Holland, emigrated to the new
+world in 1684, and became a preacher nine years later. His ability and
+zeal gave him wide influence, and he was instrumental in organizing a
+number of churches of the Reformed faith and order. From this initial
+ministry until the present time, although the congregation has moved to a
+larger and modern edifice, the succession of faithful preachers has never
+been broken, and the historic pulpit of Tarrytown has never been more
+thoroughly identified with generous devotion, high character, and unusual
+gifts of nature and speech than during the last twenty-five years. During
+the stormy years of the Revolution the church was frequently closed; and
+at the close of the struggle the trappings which had distinguished the
+pews of the lord of the manor were torn down, and elders and deacons
+sitting in the seats once set apart for the local aristocracy emphasized
+the triumph of the democratic idea in Church and State. Not long
+afterwards another innovation was made by the substitution of English for
+Dutch in the services.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW, PRIOR TO ITS
+RESTORATION IN 1897.
+
+FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.]
+
+In October, 1897, the two hundredth anniversary of the church was
+celebrated with services which recalled, with unusual completeness, the
+varied and instructive history of the old building and of the community.
+
+The modern village lies to the south of the church, which is hidden
+beneath ancient trees, and is still enveloped in an atmosphere of
+old-time silence and repose. The Pocantico flows beside it, almost
+unseen when the midsummer foliage is spread over it; while to the north,
+climbing a gentle slope and sinking softly down to the brook, is the
+ancient burying-ground, in which the first interments were made about
+1645. The place is singularly peaceful and of a rare and gentle beauty;
+the gradual slope dotted with ancient graves, protected on the east by
+wooded heights, overhung with old trees, and commanding on the west
+glimpses of the broad expanse of the Tappan Zee, and, from its higher
+levels, the tree-embowered village, the long line of shining water, and
+the distant front of the Palisades. There is probably no other locality
+in America, taking into account history, tradition, the old church, the
+manor-house, and the mill, which so entirely conserves the form and
+spirit of Dutch civilization in the new world. This group of buildings
+ranks in historic interest, if not in historic importance, with Faneuil
+Hall, Independence Hall, the ruined church tower at Jamestown, the old
+gateway at St. Augustine, and the Spanish cabildo on Jackson Square in
+New Orleans; and the time will come when pilgrimages will be made to this
+ancient and beautiful home of some of those ideals and habits of life
+which have given form and structure to American civilization.
+
+It was the misfortune of Tarrytown to lie in the path of both armies for
+many dreary months during the Revolution; and no section of the country
+felt the uncertainty and terrors of war more keenly. When Cooper looked
+about for an American subject for his second novel, his interest in the
+history of Westchester County, in the lower part of which he was for a
+number of years a resident, led him to a fortunate choice, and _The
+Spy_ remains not only one of the best of American novels of incident,
+but a vivid report of the suspense and misery of the country between
+the Highlands of the Hudson, held by the American forces, and the city
+of New York in the hands of the British. That section was mercilessly
+harried by friend and foe. The few families which made the little hamlet
+of Tarrytown, never knew whether the Skinners or the Cowboys would appear
+next; the only certainty in the situation seems to have been that, sooner
+or later, whatever was portable and valuable would be carried off. There
+was much quiet courage in the form of patient endurance in those years
+when church and school were closed, crops gathered by hands that had not
+sown, houses burned in the dead of night, and all normal community life
+at an end. Caught in the centre of the storm of war, Tarrytown not only
+suffered severely but bore her losses with conspicuous fortitude and
+courage. In many sudden forays, as well as in the larger movements of the
+American forces, the men of Tarrytown played their parts with notable
+pluck and daring.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT TO THE CAPTORS OF ANDRÉ.
+
+FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.]
+
+The devotion of a majority of the people of the place to the American
+cause had its reward in the lasting association of the town with the most
+romantic and tragic episode of the war; and the incorruptible patriotism
+of three Westchester County men not only averted what might have been
+a crushing calamity, but immortalized the scene of their resistance to
+temptation. On the 24th day of September, 1780, Major André, bearing
+dispatches of a treasonable nature from General Benedict Arnold, then
+in command of the American forces at West Point, was captured on the
+highway at a place now marked by a monument, by John Paulding, David
+Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. These obscure militiamen, soon to become
+famous, were watching the road, when a horseman appeared riding toward
+the south. He was promptly challenged, ordered to dismount, and examined
+as to his business and destination. His answers to the questions put to
+him by his captors confirmed their suspicion that something of unusual
+importance was in the air. The determination to search the unfortunate
+young officer more thoroughly was met with offers of a large sum of
+money; but the militiamen were not to be bribed, and to their fidelity is
+due the discovery of the plot to place West Point in British hands. The
+moral effect of Arnold’s fall was counteracted in large measure by the
+incorruptibility of André’s captors, and the monument which marks this
+historic site commemorates the integrity of the American militiamen quite
+as much as the dramatic episode which ended the careers of Arnold and
+André.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON IRVING.]
+
+[Illustration: “SUNNYSIDE.”
+
+THE HOME OF WASHINGTON IRVING.]
+
+Tarrytown has had the double good fortune to be the scene of the most
+striking act of the drama of Arnold’s treason, and to be the custodian of
+one of the few American legends. In his youth, Washington Irving knew the
+region intimately. He was given to solitary walks, for he was a dreamer
+by nature and habit. Wolfert’s Roost was even then an old farm-house,
+built close to the water’s edge, where the glen broadens to the river.
+It had colonial and revolutionary associations, and, above all, it had
+the charm of a situation of singular beauty. Irving seems early to have
+fallen under the spell of the shaded waterside and the romantic glen.
+In 1835, after an absence of seventeen years in Europe and an extensive
+journey through the South and West, which bore fruit in _A Tour on the
+Prairies_, the recollections and affections of his youth drew him to
+Sunnyside, now about a mile and a half south of the railway station of
+Tarrytown, and he became the possessor of a home which will always be
+associated with our early literary history. The house was enlarged, and
+began to take on that air of ripe and reposeful beauty which made it an
+ideal home for a man of letters. Under this roof his later books were
+written, and here he was sought by the most interesting men of his time.
+
+[Illustration: THE JACOB MOTT HOUSE WHERE KATRINA VAN TASSEL WAS MARRIED.
+
+NOW OCCUPIED BY THE NEW WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL. FROM A DRAWING BY
+EDGAR MAHEW BACON.]
+
+Irving’s familiarity with the Hudson River and its historical
+associations had already borne fruit in the _Sketch-Book_ in two original
+and characteristic legends. Like his illustrious contemporary, Sir Walter
+Scott, Irving was a born lover of traditions of all sorts; a man with
+a genius for getting the poetry and romance out of the past. In _The
+History of New York_, impersonated in Diedrich Knickerbocker, he created
+a legend; in _Rip Van Winkle_ and _The Legend of Sleepy Hollow_ he gave
+lasting fame to two stories full of the Dutch spirit. Sleepy Hollow lies
+to the north and east of Tarrytown, within easy walking distance. It is
+still secluded and quiet and the stir of modern times has not broken in
+upon its ancient seclusion.
+
+[Illustration: OLD SLEEPY HOLLOW MILL.]
+
+    “A small brook glides through it, with just murmur enough to
+    lull one to repose; and the occasional whistle of a quail, or
+    tapping of a woodpecker, is almost the only sound that ever
+    breaks in upon the uniform tranquillity.... A drowsy, dreamy
+    influence seems to hang over the land, and to pervade the very
+    atmosphere. Some say that the place was bewitched by a high
+    German doctor, during the early days of the settlement; others,
+    that an old Indian chief, the prophet or wizard of his tribe,
+    held his pow-wows there before the country was discovered
+    by Master Hendrick Hudson. Certain it is, the place still
+    continues under the sway of some witching power, that holds a
+    spell over the minds of the good people, causing them to walk
+    in a continual dream.”
+
+Since the days when these words were written the air of Sleepy Hollow has
+not escaped the general stirring of a more hurried age; but on summer
+afternoons the meditative visitor still finds the valley a place of
+silence and peace. The master of the spell which has brought so many
+pilgrims to Tarrytown sleeps in the ancient graveyard; the home which
+he loved with a love deepened by years of exile, still stands, somewhat
+enlarged, but not despoiled of its secluded and ivy-clad loveliness.
+
+Great estates have been formed about Tarrytown and stately homes line
+the shores of the river, but the place has kept something of its old
+simplicity and repose. It has never lacked the presence of those to
+whom its traditions of refined social habit and generous intellectual
+life have been sacred; and its distinction is still to be found in
+an atmosphere which is in no sense dependent on its later and larger
+prosperity.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK CITY
+
+THE COSMOPOLITAN CITY
+
+BY JOSEPH B. GILDER
+
+
+By comparison with London, New York is a city of the second size, lacking
+some millions of the population of the modern Babylon. Even Paris, though
+less populous, outranks the American metropolis in many of the elements
+that go to the making of a great city. But in drawing these comparisons
+it must be remembered that only three centuries ago, when the French
+and English capitals had been places of importance for over a thousand
+years, New York was a wooded island, criss-crossed by innumerable
+streams, indented by morasses and infested by Indians and wild beasts.
+European civilization was wrinkled with age long before a permanent roof
+was erected on the island of Manhattan; and three lives such as that of
+ex-Mayor Tiemann, who died here in his ninety-fifth year, in the summer
+of 1899, would have spanned the entire history of the town from the Dutch
+discovery to the reign of Richard Croker.
+
+The first white man’s habitation in what is now New York was a grave; for
+the crew of Hudson’s _Half-Moon_, after their fight with the aborigines
+on the mainland above Spuyten Duyvil Creek, in September, 1609, buried
+their dead before sailing homeward from their voyage of discovery up the
+great river named for their commander.
+
+[Illustration: FIRST SEAL OF CITY. 1623-1654.]
+
+Four temporary dwellings, presumably little better than wigwams, housed
+Skipper Block and the crew of the _Tiger_ near the lower end of the
+island, while they rebuilt their burned vessel, during the winter of
+1613-14. The site of the present city was bought from the Indians on
+May 6, 1626, for trinkets worth sixty guilders, or four-and-twenty
+dollars—less than one tenth of the rate paid a few years since for a
+single square foot of land. Building was begun at once and pushed with
+vigor. Fort Amsterdam—a blockhouse partly shielded by palisades—marked
+the extreme southern limit of the island; and the first bark-roofed
+cottages were clustered close together under its harmless, necessary
+guns. A warehouse with stone walls and a thatched roof sprang up as soon
+as a stronghold had been built; and a horse-mill, with a loft fitted up
+for the simplest form of religious services.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF ORIGINAL GRANTS.]
+
+Fort Amsterdam was a fortress in name only. Scarcely had it been
+completed when it began to fall into disrepair; and the pigs were forever
+rooting in its sodded earthworks, and threatening its very foundations.
+Thus early was it that these four-footed scavengers made their appearance
+in the history of New York, playing as picturesque, though not as
+patriotic, a part therein as that of the legendary Roman geese. Not till
+well forward in the present century did they disappear from the streets
+and the annals of the city.
+
+Peter Minuit, the first Director of New Netherlands to hold his place
+for more than a year, and the first to organize a permanent provincial
+government, sent home hopeful reports, and backed them with shipments of
+fur and timber; but the expenses of administering the colony ultimately
+exceeded its earnings, and the West India Company was disappointed of the
+revenue it had counted upon receiving from the new settlement.
+
+The little village grew but slowly. When it had spread so far northward
+as the line of what is now Wall Street—which is so far down-town to-day
+that many a New York woman, native-born, has yet to see it for the first
+time—a stockade was set up across the island, narrower then than now, to
+fence off the village from the farms (bouweries) of the more adventurous
+pioneers, and the forest that bordered them. This defense, completed in
+1653, consisted of palisades and posts, twelve feet high, with a sloping
+breastwork of earth and a ditch on its southern side. In less than two
+years its height was doubled to keep the Indians from leaping over it.
+
+[Illustration: THE FORT IN KIEFT’S DAY.]
+
+But neither the Fort with its stone guns, nor this high wooden wall, was
+ever called upon to withstand a vigorous attack or resist a siege; for
+whenever the place was seriously threatened, its flag came fluttering
+down, and its keys were turned over to the enemy. This happened first in
+August, 1664, when Col. Richard Nicolls appeared in the bay, as deputy
+of the Duke of York, to whom Charles II. had granted all the territory
+between the Connecticut River and Delaware Bay, and demanded the Fort’s
+surrender. The claim of the English was nebulous to the last degree. As
+Freneau neatly put it,
+
+    “The soil they demanded, or threatened their worst,
+    Insisting that _Cabot had looked at it first_.”
+
+But the flimsiest pretension, if vigorously backed, outvalues the
+strongest if less sturdily maintained; and Director Stuyvesant found his
+people unwilling to support him in defying the intruder. So down dropped
+the Dutch colors and up ran the British.
+
+Precisely nine years later, however, what had formerly been called
+New Amsterdam, but was now New York, yielded itself to a little Dutch
+fleet without striking a defensive blow. Captain Colve’s victory was so
+lightly won, indeed, that the English commander, Captain Manning, was
+courtmartialled for his apparent inefficiency, cowardice or treason,
+and the estates of the Governor, Colonel Lovelace, who, when the blow
+fell, was absent on affairs of state, were confiscated by the Duke. The
+triumph of the Hollanders was short-lived; for the year 1674 had not run
+its course when Major Edmund Andros assumed the governorship, and by the
+terms of a treaty of peace between England and the States-General, New
+Orange, as the place had been christened by the Dutch, again and finally
+became New York.
+
+[Illustration: PETER STUYVESANT.]
+
+New York has been in turn a Dutch village, an English town, and an
+American city. In its infancy it was wholly Dutch; but in its early youth
+the population was so leavened by English immigration that the transition
+to English control was less violent than one might expect it to have
+been. English influence was powerful even in Stuyvesant’s day; and
+when Stuyvesant was supplanted by Nicolls, the Dutch element was still
+powerful in the councils of the little town. The new ruler moved slowly
+and cautiously in anglicizing the government, and almost all the changes
+he made were for the better. The brief resumption of Dutch authority
+in 1673 was reactionary and wholly detrimental to the interests of the
+community; and, all things considered, the peaceful cession of the town
+to England, a year later, was the happiest chance that could possibly
+have befallen.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF THE CITY IN 1686.]
+
+A more violent and radical change was effected in 1689, when Jacob
+Leisler seized the occasion of the fall of the Stuart dynasty to grasp
+the reins of government which Andros had been forced to drop. By the aid
+of the militia and with the support of nearly all the less prosperous
+townsfolk, he administered public affairs till that good Dutchman William
+III. of England commissioned Governor Sloughter to hang the usurper
+and reign in his stead. Leisler’s rule had been in many respects an
+enlightened one, and years afterward his adherents succeeded in having
+his dishonored bones dug up and honorably reinterred. It was in this
+town, and at the instance of this earnest but ill-balanced and despotic
+champion of the poor, that the American Colonies took their first step
+toward concerted action, their objective being the overthrow of the
+French at Montreal.
+
+The most striking characteristic of New York has always been its
+cosmopolitanism. As Governor Roosevelt points out in his capital review
+of the city’s history, no less than eighteen different languages and
+dialects were spoken in the streets so long ago as the middle of the
+seventeenth century. The Dutch, the English and the Huguenot refugees
+from France predominated, but there were many Walloons and Germans, and a
+large body of black slaves. The riffraff of the Old World was to be found
+here, as well as the nobly adventurous; and, in fact, at all times since,
+the proportion of foreign-born residents has been very large.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN JAY.]
+
+In the period immediately preceding the Revolution, the desire for
+independence was far less general in New York than in Massachusetts or
+Virginia. The large land owners and leading merchants were mainly members
+of the Church of England; and while there was no state church, so called
+and admitted to be such, the Anglicans were first in wealth and fashion,
+and their organization enjoyed exclusive privileges. Even King’s College
+(now Columbia University) was placed officially under Church control.
+The court party included not only the Anglican clergy and almost all the
+laity, but even an influential section of the membership of the Dutch
+Reformed Church. It included such families as the De Peysters, the De
+Lanceys and the Philippses in the city and its suburbs; and the Johnsons,
+who dominated central New York. There were Tories even on the Committee
+of Fifty-one that first authoritatively proposed the assembling of a
+Continental Congress. In no other colony was the Tory element so numerous
+and powerful; in none other were the patriots opposed by so active a
+spirit of loyalty to the Crown, and so vast a bulk of indifference on
+the part of property-owners, solicitous for nothing but the security of
+their possessions. At first the Schuylers, the Livingstons, and Hamilton,
+Jay and Morris found their support almost wholly among the masses, who
+rose not only against England, but also against the domination of the
+classes, which was more oppressive in the aristocratic city of New York
+than in the democratic town of Boston, or in Philadelphia. Thus, it was
+the so-called Sons of Liberty that had led in the agitation which made
+the Stamp Act a dead letter, so far as this colony was concerned, and a
+decade later prevented the landing of taxed tea on New York wharves. And
+their demonstrative radicalism found little response in the minds of some
+of the ablest civil and military leaders contributed by this colony to
+the work of liberation and reconstruction. But the violence of the mob
+could not blind such men to the essential justice of the American cause,
+and the actual beginning of the war found a large majority of the best
+people of the colony definitely committed to a patriotic course. So when
+Washington and his army were driven hither from Brooklyn and hence to New
+Jersey, in 1776, New York was no longer the populous place it had been
+before their sympathizers fled from the terrors of hostile military rule.
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON.]
+
+For the next seven years this remained the chief British stronghold in
+America. If the eastern and southern colonies could be split apart by
+English control of the Hudson, the backbone of the colonial federation
+would be broken—as the backbone of the Confederacy was broken, nearly a
+century later, by Sherman’s march to the sea. So every energy was bent
+toward dislodging the Continentals from this dividing-line. This was
+the immediate object of Arnold’s treachery, as well as of many an overt
+movement from south and north. But Washington outgeneralled the enemy
+and kept the federation intact, till the capture of Yorktown made New
+York no longer tenable by the foe. The city was well-nigh ruined by its
+experiences during these seven terrible years; and the outlying country
+to the north—Westchester County—suffered no less severely, being exposed
+to raids from the opposing bodies of regulars, and to constant marauding
+at the hands of free-booters, who pretended affiliation with one side or
+the other, sometimes in good faith, but often merely as a pretext for
+lawless depredations.
+
+[Illustration: FRAUNCES’S TAVERN.]
+
+The most joyously celebrated event in the annals of Manhattan was the
+city’s evacuation by the British at the close of the war. On the day
+that this occurred, November 25, 1783, General Washington arrived in
+town and dined at Fraunces’s Tavern; and hither he repaired again, ten
+days later, on the eve of his departure for Annapolis, to bid farewell
+to his officers. In this same building, and in the same Long Room, the
+first meeting of the New York Chamber of Commerce had been held, in 1768,
+fifteen years before any similar association was organized in Great
+Britain. This hostelry had, indeed, been the fashionable rendezvous of
+New Yorkers since 1762, when the shop at the southeast corner of Broad
+and Pearl Streets was converted to still more public uses by Samuel
+Fraunces (“Black Tom”), who in later years was to become the first
+President’s steward. At the beginning it was known as the Queen’s Head
+Tavern, its sign bearing a portrait of Queen Charlotte. Enlarged, and
+otherwise altered, but not improved, Fraunces’s Tavern is still, as it
+has always been, a public-house, though fashion has long since deserted
+it. It would be most deplorable if the march of improvement (in whose
+name, as in Liberty’s, so many offences are committed) should ever be
+allowed to obliterate this most aged and interesting relic of old New
+York.
+
+The war of 1812 was by no means popular with the representative merchants
+of New York, despite the fact that the enforcement of England’s
+pretended right of search had acted almost as a blockade of the port
+for some years before the outbreak of hostilities. It had been a common
+occurrence for merchantmen in the lower bay to be stopped by a shot
+across their bows, and searched for possible British subjects among their
+crews. But when war came the fighting spirit was aroused, and many a
+privateer was fitted out to prey upon the enemy’s merchant marine. Rich
+prizes were taken, and desperate engagements were fought between the
+crews of brigs and schooners from New York and British men-of-war’s men
+who interfered with their privateering practices. A few years earlier
+(1807), Fulton had demonstrated on the Hudson the practicability of steam
+navigation; and now he built in New York, under Congressional direction,
+a steam frigate, iron-clad and heavily armed. This formidable craft might
+have been depended upon to raise the British blockade, had it not been
+raised still more effectually by a declaration of peace. The city did
+not suffer in this second war with England as it had suffered in the
+first. Instead of waiting for years, as before, to recuperate, it entered
+at once upon a period of unprecedented growth. The return of peace
+stimulated immigration, and local prosperity was vastly augmented by the
+opening in 1825 of the Erie Canal.
+
+Until 1822, the mayor was appointed by a State council, presided over
+by the Governor; thereafter, until 1834, he was chosen by the municipal
+council; since then he has been elected by the people. But democratic
+rule was not always found to work satisfactorily, and in 1857 the
+control of local affairs was largely delegated to the legislature. This
+precaution proved of comparatively little value, however, and the Tweed
+ring of local office-holders found little difficulty in running things
+as they wished and robbing the tax-payers of millions upon millions. The
+charter of the city recently created by the amalgamation of New York,
+Brooklyn, etc., professed to restore home rule, in large measure; but
+so much of the supposed boon as it confers may be withdrawn at any time
+by State legislation, and bills withdrawing it piecemeal are, in fact,
+introduced at every session of the legislature.
+
+When secession threatened, in 1861, the Democratic city of New York was
+the least friendly of Northern communities in its attitude toward the
+federal government. The common council, indeed, rapturously applauded
+the mayor’s formal suggestion that the city itself secede. But the first
+overt act of hostility at the South showed that, beneath this surface
+sympathy with the secessionists, the great mass of earnest citizens were
+ardent in adherence to the Union. Life and treasure were poured out more
+than abundantly. The Seventh Regiment—the “crack” militia organization
+of the city, if not of the nation—hurried off to Washington to guard the
+capital from surprise; and tens of thousands of volunteers followed to
+the front. No one city contributed more to the national cause. In fact
+the city’s contributions were too liberal for her own good; for the
+consequent dearth of able-bodied honest men at home left the community
+a prey to the enemies of society, and regiment after regiment had to be
+called back to restore order. The worst outbreaks were the so-called
+draft riots, caused by the enforced enlistment of troops; in these
+uprisings, negroes were the special object of the mob’s hostility.
+
+The first few huts in New Amsterdam were huddled together beneath the
+sheltering walls of the Fort. There was but one general direction in
+which the hamlet could extend; yet it was long before the northward
+movement filled with shops and houses the space between the Fort and the
+line of Wall Street, and for several years thereafter the great Wall
+marked the boundary of the village. The Revolution found the border
+pushed forward to the edge of the Common, where the post-office stands
+to-day. The chief outlet from this point lay eastward, through what is
+now Park Row to the Bowery, and thence through the outlying farms to
+Westchester County, Connecticut and Boston.
+
+On the west side there was another outlet, skirting the Hudson River and
+extending to the little village of Greenwich; and the occasional outbreak
+of yellow fever in New York made this a popular resort. The influx of
+twenty thousand refugees during one of these scares, early in the present
+century, completely changed the character of this village, and although
+most of the newcomers returned to the lower end of the island, Greenwich
+had practically become, by 1830, an integral part of the city. The
+northward spread via Greenwich Street, the Bowery and Broadway continued,
+till Yorkville and Harlem on the east and Manhattanville and Bloomingdale
+on the west were absorbed by the growing city. In 1874 the Harlem was
+crossed, and New York ceased to be an island; in 1895 still further
+accessions were made in Westchester County. But the crowning event in
+the expansion of the city was the legislation by which, on January 1,
+1898, Brooklyn and the outlying towns and villages on Long Island, and
+all of Staten Island, were brought within the limits of New York—an act
+that raised the population at a stroke from less than 1,900,000 to near
+3,400,000, and incidentally brought almost half the people of the State
+under the immediate rule of Tammany Hall.
+
+A word should be said as to the Society, named in honor of Tamanend,
+an Indian chief who signed one of the treaties by which William Penn
+acquired the site of the city of Philadelphia. One of many societies of
+the same name, organized for social and political purposes toward the
+close of the eighteenth century, it reflected, to a certain extent, a
+spirit which had prevailed among the younger officers of the Revolution
+who had felt the force of Rousseau’s idealization of primitive man.
+Its first meeting was held on “St. Tammany’s day” (May 12), 1789. In
+membership it was allied with the Sons of Liberty and the Sons of 1776,
+and it has always professed “intense Americanism,” so far as that phrase
+is synonymous with Anglophobia. At first its ranks were recruited from
+among the small merchants, retailers and mechanics of the city; and by
+coming into close touch with the mass of immigrants that form so large
+a proportion of the population, giving the newcomers employment in some
+cases, in others charitable aid, instructing the alien voter as to his
+political rights and privileges, and directing him in their exercise,
+it has built up an enormous voting machine, insufficient to defeat a
+united opposition, but almost invariably so fortunate in local contests
+as to find its opponents divided. While nominally Democratic in national
+affairs, Tammany has never scrupled to oppose the Democratic party in
+the pursuit of its own immediate end—the control of local offices and
+revenues. This powerful machine has now for several years been dominated
+by an illiterate immigrant.
+
+[Illustration: THE STADT HUYS.]
+
+Comparatively recent as were the beginnings of the city, hardly a trace
+of the original village remains. Not a single building has come down to
+us from the Dutch period. It was to have been expected that something
+would survive the flight of less than three centuries. A happy chance
+might easily have preserved the stone “temple” erected within the walls
+of the Fort in 1652, or the slightly older warehouse, or some one of the
+many curious little stone or brick houses in which the burly burghers
+of the seventeenth century smoked their long pipes by the chimney-side,
+while their wives plied the spinning-wheel, their daughters spread the
+board, and their children, in padded breeches, played about the sanded
+floor.
+
+The Stadt Huys, originally built as an inn, to relieve Director Kieft of
+the burden of overmuch entertaining, dated back to the same year as the
+Dutch Reformed Church in the fortified enclosure. The organization of the
+old church is still maintained, and the functions of the city government
+have been performed in successive buildings to the present day; but the
+picturesque old government house—fifty feet square, three stories high
+in the walls and two in the attic, with windows in the gable of its
+crow-stepped roof,—that should have been cherished as a most interesting
+relic of the city’s earliest period, lasted but a little way into the
+present century, having then been used for over a hundred years for
+commercial purposes.
+
+[Illustration: STAINED-GLASS WINDOW IN “BOWLING GREEN OFFICES.”
+
+SHOWING GREEN ABOUT 1760.]
+
+Chief among the few other survivals from the early days, and antedating
+all of them, is Bowling Green. This oldest bit of park land in the city
+dates from the Dutch occupation. It lay immediately in front of the
+Fort, and no building has ever stood upon its diminutive, oblong site.
+The relatively old row of buildings (Steamship Row) which overlooks it
+from the south will ere long be replaced by a Custom House worthy of
+the second port of entry in the world. This will occupy the site of the
+old government house, which once served the purpose for which the new
+building is designed. In 1771, it was found advisable to enclose the
+Green with an iron fence. Bereft of the crowns that surmounted the posts,
+the fence still surrounds it, though the equestrian statue of George
+III., which it was put up to protect, vanished in 1776. In the excitement
+that followed the reading of the Declaration of Independence, in that
+year, the crowd marched down Broadway from the Common, and tumbled the
+King from his pedestal. The leaden carcass was shipped to Connecticut,
+where the wife and daughter of Governor Wolcott cannily converted it into
+rebel bullets. An indignity similar in degree though different in kind
+was offered to America’s eloquent Parliamentary advocate, William Pitt,
+whose marble effigy at Wall and William Streets was decapitated during
+the Revolution by the Tories, and left standing for years as a mere
+“disturber of traffic.”
+
+[Illustration: GOVERNMENT HOUSE.]
+
+The house at No. 1 Broadway, looking eastward over the lower end of
+Bowling Green, built in 1760 by Colonel Kennedy, afterward Earl of
+Cassilis, and occupied in turn by the American leaders, including
+Washington, and by the English, including Cornwallis, Howe and Sir Henry
+Clinton, was the scene of Major André’s last interview with the British
+commander before his fatal journey to West Point. And in another house
+in Broadway overlooking the Green, Benedict Arnold had his quarters
+after his flight and the exposure of his infamous plot. Mention of the
+gallant young British officer, André, naturally suggests the name and
+fate of Nathan Hale, whose heroism is commemorated by a noble statue
+by MacMonnies, which faces Broadway from the lower corner of City Hall
+Park, not far from the spot where the American spy was hanged from an
+apple-tree. The Beekman “Mansion,” overlooking the East River near what
+is now Fifty-first Street, the scene of Hale’s trial and condemnation,
+survived till 1874; the Kennedy House, identified with André’s memory,
+lasted eight years longer.
+
+[Illustration: FEDERAL HALL.]
+
+A picturesque feature of the old town was the canal that ran from the
+city wall to the bay, becoming first an artery of trade, and then a
+centre of fashionable life, as Broad Street, which took its place, has
+since been a centre of commercial activity. It was directly opposite
+Broad Street, in Wall, that the foundations of the new City Hall were
+laid in 1699, the sale of the Stadt Huys helping to defray the cost of
+the more pretentious structure. The arms of the English Governor, Lord
+Bellomont, were blazoned on its walls; but two years later the marshal
+was called upon to remove and destroy them. When New York became the
+seat of the national government, the ninety-year-old City Hall, partly
+reconstructed and lavishly decorated, became the meeting-place of
+Congress. The most memorable day in its history was the 30th of April,
+1789, when, attended by Chancellor Livingston and the committees of
+Senators and Representatives, standing upon its balcony in the presence
+of a great concourse, not merely of New Yorkers, but of Americans from
+all the colonies, gathered together from far and near, George Washington
+took the oath of office as first President of the United States. Where
+the Capitol then stood now stands the Sub-Treasury, with Ward’s bronze
+Washington looking gravely down from its steps upon the feverish turmoil
+of Wall Street.
+
+The oldest existing municipal building in New York is the Hall of
+Records, in City Hall Park, whose contents are erelong to be housed in a
+spacious, fire-proof edifice. It dates from the middle of the eighteenth
+century. Its site formed a part of the Common, and it stood appropriately
+convenient to the gallows, for it was originally a jail—the first
+building on the island ever designed exclusively for the detention of
+law-breakers. In popular parlance, as in practical use, it soon became
+the Debtors’ Prison. When the British occupied the town during the
+Revolution, it was turned to account as their principal military prison,
+being known as The Provost, in reference to the title of the brutal
+Cunningham, who was charged with the custody of American prisoners of
+war—amongst others, “that d—d rebel, Ethan Allen.” The building was a
+debtors’ jail again from 1787 to 1830; on the completion of alterations
+projected at the latter date, it became, in 1835, the Register’s office,
+and as such will probably see the close of the nineteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: ST. PAUL’S CHURCH.]
+
+[Illustration: CITY HALL.]
+
+Vastly more attractive to the eye than this treasury of real-estate
+records, and not wholly lacking in historic interest, is the adjacent
+City Hall. This really handsome building, in the style of the Italian
+Renaissance, was begun in 1803, and completed nine years later. The
+likelihood of the city’s extending beyond it seemed too slight to
+warrant lavishing upon its back the white marble which adds so much
+to the dignity and grace of its façade; the rear wall was accordingly
+constructed of a cheaper stone. In the “Governor’s room” on the
+second floor, used for official receptions, are the desk on which
+Washington wrote his first message to Congress, the chair in which he
+was inaugurated as President, and the chairs used by the first federal
+Congress.
+
+In the same neighborhood, just beyond the lower extremity of the
+old Common, now City Hall Park, stands St. Paul’s Chapel, Trinity
+parish—an edifice much older than the parish church, which for the past
+half-century, like its successive parent buildings, has stood farther
+down Broadway, opposing its bulk to the westward progress of Wall Street.
+Fenced off by iron palings, and bordered on each side by a strip of
+graveyard, the chapel turns a picturesque and perhaps scornful back upon
+the “topless towers” of Broadway—little dreamt of when its foundations
+were laid in 1766, or three-and-twenty years later, when President
+Washington attended service there on the day of his first inauguration.
+These heaven-aspiring structures were only beginning to turn the street
+into a canyon when the first President’s successor in office sat in the
+same pew on the same day a century later (April 30, 1889).
+
+Private houses of historic interest abounded not many years ago, notable
+among them the country-seat called Richmond Hill, near the long since
+absorbed village of Greenwich—a stately dwelling, identified with many
+familiar names. John Adams lived there during a part of his first term
+as Vice-President, and Aaron Burr started thence on that fateful July
+morning in 1804 that saw the death of Hamilton at his hand, and the end
+of his own political career. Of equal note was the house on Murray Hill,
+where Mrs. Murray detained the British commander at lunch while the
+American troops, under Putnam, made their escape from the island in 1776.
+
+[Illustration: GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE.]
+
+The so-called Jumel Mansion, built for Washington’s whilom flame,
+Miss Mary Philippse, by her successful suitor, Col. Roger Morris, and
+afterwards occupied by Washington as his headquarters, became in turn the
+property of the nation (Morris having been a royalist), of John Jacob
+Astor, and of Stephen Jumel, whose erratic widow married Aaron Burr, but
+soon tired of him, turned him out of doors and dropped his name. From
+its coign of vantage on Harlem Heights at 169th Street, this dignified
+colonial dwelling still looks down upon the Harlem River and across to
+Long Island Sound. And at the foot of East 61st Street is yet to be
+seen—vine-covered, and embowered in trees and shrubs—the substantial
+stone residence of Col. William Smith, who married the daughter of
+President Adams, and ruined himself by speculating in east-side real
+estate. But the scarcity of such relics, and their glaring incongruity
+with their surroundings, emphasize the divergence between the old New
+York and that which is termed the Greater.
+
+In the hall of Cooper Institute, Abraham Lincoln made that great speech
+which first fully revealed him to the people of the Eastern States;
+and hither he was brought, to lie in state in the City Hall, when a
+martyr’s death had disclosed his greatness still more clearly to all his
+countrymen.
+
+Here have lived, for longer or shorter periods, sundry Presidents of
+the United States, from Washington to Cleveland; the city has been the
+permanent or occasional home of statesmen such as Jay and Livingston,
+Alexander Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris; of political agitators such
+as Aaron Burr and “Commonsense” Paine, and political leaders like
+DeWitt Clinton and Samuel J. Tilden; of authors such as Washington
+Irving, whose burlesque local history marked him out as the father of
+American light literature, Fenimore Cooper, the most popular of American
+romance-writers, and Edgar Allan Poe and Walt Whitman, most individual
+of American poets. Here, for longer or shorter periods, have lived
+and labored Curtis, and Bayard Taylor, and Stoddard, and Stedman, and
+Aldrich, and Howells, and that greatest of poets among journalists
+and journalists among poets, William Cullen Bryant, editor of _The
+Evening Post_ and one of the founders of the Century Club; and Horace
+Greeley, founder of _The Tribune_, and most famous of American editors
+since Benjamin Franklin. As a resident of Brooklyn, and editor of a
+metropolitan religious weekly, the best-known preacher of the century,
+Henry Ward Beecher, was virtually a citizen of New York. In the annals of
+invention, the names of four New Yorkers stand out conspicuously—Fulton
+and Ericsson and Edison and Morse. And of all the free-booters that ever
+terrorized the sea, none has left a more awful and enduring fame than a
+once respectable resident of Liberty Street, renowned in song and story
+for two centuries as Captain Kidd.
+
+The hospitality of New York and her people is proverbial. Every
+distinguished visitor to America for more than a century past has been
+entertained here, officially or informally. Among the city’s guests
+have been William IV. of England, while yet a sailor prince; Lafayette,
+Louis Kossuth, the Prince of Wales, the Grand Duke Alexis, the Emperor
+of Brazil, the Princess Eulalia, the Duke of Veragua, Li Hung Chang and
+the Marquis Ito. Almost all the greatest preachers, orators, players,
+singers, and instrumental performers of the nineteenth century have added
+to their fame or wealth by facing New York audiences; and among the great
+writers who have visited us have been Dickens, Thackeray, and Kipling.
+
+While New York is easily first among the cities of the New World in
+commercial importance, it is not on material bases only that her
+supremacy rests. No community throughout the world responds more
+generously to every appeal for sympathy or help, whether the call be
+local, national or foreign. Her interest is keen in educational work of
+every kind. Columbia University—one of the oldest of local institutions,
+and more than local in its aims and fame and influence—has of late,
+through the liberality of her sons and other citizens, been housed in a
+manner commensurate with her requirements and aspirations; and so also
+has the less venerable but justly honored New York University. And the
+past few years have seen Barnard College for women and the Teachers
+College (both allied with Columbia) emerge from the chrysalis state into
+forms of beauty and power. The public-school system, moreover,—thanks
+to a recent brief respite from Tammany control,—is in better condition
+to-day than at any previous period of Tammany administration.
+
+Of American literary activity, despite Boston’s ancient and deserved
+prestige, it cannot be denied that New York is to-day the centre, as
+it is the centre of the publishing trade, in books and periodicals.
+Boston, with her splendid Public Library, has set an example which
+the metropolis has been slow to follow; but the consolidation of the
+Astor, Lenox and Tilden collections, and their prospective housing in a
+magnificent and admirably situated building, has gone far to remove the
+reproach incurred during long years of public indifference to popular
+needs. The venerable Society Library, the modern and many-branched Free
+Circulating Library and kindred institutions have helped to create and
+in part to meet the demand which the Public Library in its new home may
+reasonably be expected to satisfy. Equally important in their way are
+those half-social, half-educational essays toward the solution of some
+of the problems of the slums—the University Settlement of men and the
+College Settlement of women. As a further indication that New York is not
+wholly given over to the worship of Mammon, it may be mentioned that the
+Greek Club, with its fortnightly meetings for the reading and discussion
+of the classics, has been for more than three decades the only circle of
+its kind in existence.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON ARCH.]
+
+In art, the invaluable treasures of the Metropolitan Museum foster
+the love of what is enduringly beautiful in sculpture, painting,
+architecture, etc.; while the schools of this museum and of the National
+Academy of Design and the Society of American Artists, to say nothing of
+the more utilitarian classes of Cooper Institute and the School of Artist
+Artisans, afford instruction in art of such a sort as to render foreign
+study no longer indispensable, albeit no less attractive than of old.
+
+Of music, vocal and instrumental, such feasts are spread before the local
+amateur as can be matched for quality and abundance in no other city at
+home or abroad, and while this is not true of the drama also, as the
+Comédie Française has never come hither in a body, it is yet a fact that
+nearly all that is best is seen, sooner or later, on the New York stage.
+
+By what rapid strides the city is moving forward in some directions,
+while halting lamentably in others, needs not to be pointed out. There
+is expert testimony to the effect that in public morality it has at
+least held its own during the past half-century; we trust it may some
+day work out its salvation in things political, and cease to be the mild
+milch cow of thirsty demagogues. It can never vie in picturesqueness and
+historic interest with its European peers in population and importance,
+nor atone by its singularly fortunate situation for its poverty in
+little parks and its richness in rough-paved, right-angled and treeless
+streets and avenues; yet it may some day rival even Paris in the absolute
+beauty of its public and private buildings and historic monuments. A
+brave beginning has been made, in the Washington Arch, the Madison
+Square Garden, the Columbia and the New York University buildings, the
+Washington, Hale and Farragut statues and certain churches, club-houses
+and private dwellings. And in the Cathedral of St. John, the Public
+Library, the Academy of Design and the Botanical and Zoölogical gardens,
+a further stride will be made erelong in the only directions in which
+æsthetic leadership seems possible.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+BROOKLYN
+
+THE TOWN ON FREEDOM’S BATTLE-FIELD
+
+BY HARRINGTON PUTNAM
+
+
+The earliest Dutch settlements within the present borough limits are not
+so old as the first hamlets on Manhattan. More than a score of years
+after the houses and forts of New Amsterdam looked out across the East
+River, the forest-crested heights of the west end of Long Island remained
+in undisturbed Indian occupation.
+
+The Dutch settlers were deterred, rather than attracted, by this
+magnificent stretch of green woodlands extending along the high shore.
+The Holland people were not accustomed to timber clearing and therefore
+sought access to the island by the smoother meadow-lands of Gowanus,
+and afterwards to the north where the sloping grasslands about the
+Waalboght invited the settler to essay gardening without too much
+preparation with the axe. The early Long Island farmers advanced on the
+territory of Brooklyn by flank attacks, seeking to turn the wings of the
+extended forest, rather than boldly to engage in the struggle with the
+densely wooded heights in front. These pioneers were thrifty, energetic
+Hollanders and Huguenots whose farms soon required regular communication
+with Manhattan. In 1642 a public ferry was established between the
+present foot of Fulton Street and a landing in Peck’s Slip. The houses
+clustered about this Long Island landing constituted a little settlement
+called The Ferry.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW IN BROOKLYN IN THE OLDEN TIMES.]
+
+As the Indians were dispossessed from their maize-fields, the colonists
+found sites for a small village a mile or so inland. The modern visitor
+who comes up Fulton Street should stop about the corner of Hoyt and
+Smith Streets to locate this settlement and picture a primitive hamlet
+of small one-story frame cottages, sometimes surrounded by palisades
+for protection against attacks. The open lands were of small extent,
+with forest to the east and west, and streams running south into a wide
+morass, where is now Gowanus Canal. Undoubtedly the undrained land of
+this settlement, receiving copious moisture from the surrounding forests,
+contained many a marsh and fen like the homelands of Holland. So the
+settlers called it the brookland, or Breuckelen, after an ancient village
+of that name on the river Vecht in the Province of Utrecht. The records
+of old Breuckelen are traced by local antiquarians of Utrecht to the time
+of Tacitus. In its variant forms, Bracola, Broccke, Brocckede, Broicklede
+and Brocklandia, it describes a moist meadow-land. Or, as a Dutch writer
+declares, the town on the Vecht was called Breuckelen from the marshes
+(_a paludibus_). Its beautiful gardens and quaint castles, as the
+emigrants had beheld them when starting out from home, perhaps remained
+in the imagination of the Long Island settlers as an ideal of what their
+western home should some day become.
+
+Just as Utrecht and Amersfoort are near-by towns to Breuckelen in
+the Lowlands, so New Utrecht towards the south—near the present Fort
+Hamilton—and Amersfoort (Flatlands) attested the determination of these
+Netherlanders to preserve the associations of their origin between the
+Rhine and the Zuyder Zee.
+
+[Illustration: DENYSE’S FERRY.
+
+THE FIRST PLACE AT WHICH THE BRITISH AND HESSIANS LANDED ON LONG ISLAND,
+AUGUST 22, 1776. NOW FORT HAMILTON.]
+
+The life of these hard-working settlers was not all hardship. Their
+low houses with projecting roofs were strong and comfortable; the wide
+spacious fireplaces gave warmth to a generous hospitality that laid on
+the board wild turkeys and Gowanus oysters and other good eatables,
+followed after the repast by the long clay pipes, which, when over, left
+the weary toiler to be ushered to his night’s rest in a partitioned-off
+bunk or _betste_. But these material comforts were not all the results
+realized by the efforts of the first pioneers. These Dutch settlers were
+zealous for religion, liberty, and good schools; and from the first were
+not deficient in a commendable zeal for the public welfare.
+
+Under the form of Colonial government the burghers were invited to
+submit all difficulties to the Governor and council, who were fond of
+the exercise of a strong, minute, and careful paternalism. The country
+folk were not expected to intrude on the authorities their own ideas of
+liberty, but merely to obey loyally what good, old, obstinate, arbitrary
+Governor Stuyvesant should command. Yet even when he had spoken with the
+official concurrence of his council, the eager spirits in Breuckelen
+would often cavil, and boldly presume to come over to Manhattan to stir
+up criticism and public remonstrance. So they were honored with a special
+order. The folk of Breuckelen, Amersfoort and Midwout (Flatbush) in 1653
+were directed to forbid their residents from attending political meetings
+in New Amsterdam.
+
+At this time the civic virtues were enforced in Breuckelen, and the good
+of the village put before the preference of a private citizen to retire
+from public office. The Governor would not allow any one to decline to
+serve in an official capacity. The schepen-elect of Breuckelen proposed
+not to continue in office for another term. He even said he would sooner
+go back to Holland than remain burdened by the duties of schepen. The
+Governor quickly took him at his word. The Sheriff was formally required
+to notify him of this order of the Governor which stated with remarkable
+clearness the obligation of good townsmen to the public and the penalty
+for its neglect:
+
+    “If you will not accept to serve as schepen for the welfare of
+    the Village of Breuckelen, with others, your fellow residents,
+    then you must prepare yourself to sail in the ship _King
+    Solomon_ for Holland, agreeably to your utterance.”
+
+No further refusals to hold office appear to have embarrassed the council.
+
+The colonists of Breuckelen were specially solicitous for a meeting-house
+and domine. They insisted that they should have good measure in
+discourses and that if the services should be abbreviated by the
+preacher, then on their side no tithes should be forthcoming. The
+first meeting-house was begun in 1654 at Midwout (Flatbush). Soon they
+worshipped in the partly roofed building. After much difficulty and
+repeated applications to the Council it had been arranged that the Rev.
+Mr. Polhemus should have his morning discourse at Flatbush, with his
+evening service alternately at Midwout and in Breuckelen.
+
+Governor Stuyvesant may have fancied that he had composed the difficulty.
+Next winter, however, the Governor was presented with a further
+remonstrance against the cutting-short of these alternating evening
+devotions. They thus complained of this brief and scanty service:
+
+    “Every fortnight on Sundays he comes here, only in the
+    afternoon for a quarter of an hour, when he only gives us a
+    prayer in lieu of sermon, by which we can receive very little
+    instruction; while often, while one supposes the prayer or
+    sermon (whichever name might be preferred for it) is beginning,
+    then it is actually at an end, by which he contributes very
+    little to the edification of his congregation.”
+
+To modern ears, this seems a strange grievance for legislation.
+
+Governor Stuyvesant, however, admonished the Breuckelen folk to pay their
+full tithes. Doubtless he privately reminded Mr. Polhemus of his duties
+and obligations to give his people full service.
+
+In three years they obtained a domine of their own. The Rev. Henricus
+Selyns, a learned and devout young clergyman of a prominent Amsterdam
+family came to Breuckelen in 1660. At first his parishioners worshipped
+in a barn, but a meeting-house was soon erected. His spiritual labors
+and influence were successful, and the four years of Mr. Selyns’s
+ministrations were affectionately remembered. Compelled to return to
+Holland by the last illness of his father, he came to America and settled
+in New York eighteen years later. His warm admiration for Cotton Mather
+is attested by a graceful Latin poem appended to the later editions of
+the _Magnalia_.
+
+Breuckelen was equally fortunate in a schoolmaster—Carel de Beauvois—a
+cultured French Protestant from Leyden, who was appointed in Breuckelen
+in 1661. Besides his duties, in the church, of precentor and Scripture
+reader, it was stipulated that:
+
+    “He shall properly, diligently, and industriously attend to the
+    school, instill in the minds of the young the fear of the Lord,
+    and set them a good example; to open the school with prayer
+    and close with a Psalm, also to exercise the scholars in the
+    questions in the _groat regulen_ of the Rev. pious and learned
+    father Do. Johannes Megapolensis, Minister of the gospel in N.
+    Amsterdam.”
+
+Here was a hamlet of but thirty-one families who were not satisfied until
+they could listen to the ablest preaching of the day, and were also
+favored with superior educational facilities.
+
+Meanwhile the Dutch order was changing. The neighboring village of
+Gravesend was being settled by the English. From Connecticut came
+Quakers, who sowed the seeds of non-conformity and inculcated a new and
+strange doctrine, that taxes should not be levied to maintain the clergy,
+a principle especially attractive to those whose tithes were paid with a
+grudging hand.
+
+[Illustration: BUSHWICK TOWN-HOUSE AND CHURCH, 1800.]
+
+At the end of the Dutch régime there were four or five little scattered
+hamlets within the present borough. The Wallabout had the larger French
+and Huguenot population. Eastward the English settlers were coming into
+farming competition with their Dutch neighbors.
+
+There was no great alarm or disappointment manifested on Long Island when
+on a morning in August, 1664, a British fleet was found to have assembled
+in the Narrows. Colonial militia under the British flag from New England
+came through the Sound and encamped on the Breuckelen shore. On September
+8, 1664, New Amsterdam yielded, and Governor Nicolls raised the flag
+of Great Britain on the fort. Then New Amsterdam became New York; Long
+Island and Staten Island, and probably part of Westchester County, were
+made an English “shire,” and Breuckelen, after some changes of spelling,
+was known as “Brooklyn in the West Riding of Yorkshire.”
+
+This settlement of Dutch and Huguenots, maintained under the Colonial
+government of New Amsterdam, in the score of years before the British
+conquest had acquired a distinctive character. Contrary to a prevalent
+opinion, these first Dutch settlements, in a sound and vigorous sense,
+were essentially democratic. In the absence of class privileges—the
+spirit to refer all questions to the supreme consideration of the general
+welfare; to subordinate individual claims to the rights and advantage of
+the public—Breuckelen and Vliessingen (Flushing) compared favorably in
+civic life with contemporary villages in New England. As Holland had been
+dyked against the sea by close, unremitting, and intimate co-operation—a
+spirit further developed in the protracted struggle for independence—so
+the smaller Dutch colonies in New York, while they kept their
+agricultural character, retained a collective rather than an individual
+ideal, which tended to exclude none from equal social opportunities. They
+never had to struggle with the incubus of a modified feudalism, which,
+though inevitably breaking up, was leaving its impress of regard for rank
+and class privilege in the American colonies of British origin.
+
+Colonial life under British rule was marked by more rigid laws as the
+communities grew. The careful protection of common-lands was strictly
+attended to, especially the town forests of Brooklyn against the
+encroachment of those who would surreptitiously cut away the timber.
+Trustees of the common woodlands were appointed; but in the year 1702
+these lands were equitably divided and all allotted to each householder
+in Brooklyn to insure their better protection.
+
+Gradually the English language was spoken in the churches and upon
+ceremonious occasions. A waggish tale of Domine Schoonmaker of Flatbush
+relates his difficulties in a wedding service. Fluent and eloquent in
+his mother tongue, he essayed the ceremony in English, with the manner,
+gestures, and all the courteous dignity of the old school. His English
+failed him at the very close of the service. Conscious of the literalness
+of his extemporized translation of the formula, he finished with a bow,
+adding with solemnity and modulated emphasis, “I pronounce you two to be
+_one beef_.”
+
+English customs gradually came in vogue. More aristocratic usages
+superseded the democracy of the Dutch settlers. Slavery existed in
+Brooklyn as in New York. Brick and stone buildings arose along Fulton
+Street. Twice, in 1745 and 1752, the Colonial legislature of the Province
+met in Brooklyn, on account of the prevalence of smallpox in New York.
+
+The rural character of the town is well illustrated by an event in 1759.
+A large bear then passed along the farms in South Brooklyn, and being
+pursued took to the water near Red Hook, where he was shot from a boat.
+
+The ethics of 1774 approved the aid of lotteries to build an orthodox
+church in Brooklyn, which the public were assured should be of no
+doubtful laxity, but a church conformable to the discipline of the Church
+of England, and under the patronage of Trinity Church, New York.
+
+In the matter of amusements in 1774, New Yorkers came to Brooklyn
+for many of their sports. Here horse-races were run. In that year an
+ambitious innkeeper on “Tower Hill”—a site along the present Columbia
+Heights between Middagh and Cranberry Streets—announced that there would
+be a _bull baited_ there every Thursday afternoon.
+
+At the outbreak of the Revolution, Brooklyn numbered between three and
+four thousand persons grouped in four neighborhoods. There were then
+three ferries to New York. At the old (Fulton) ferry was a famous tavern
+which figured often in the times of British occupation. The two principal
+villages were then called Brooklyn-church and Brooklyn-ferry.
+
+At the first movements of the Patriot party in New England the people of
+Kings County were little stirred. Suffolk County, at the eastern end of
+Long Island, more readily responded to the first news from Massachusetts.
+After the battle of Lexington, Brooklynites assembled and passed
+resolutions and elected delegates to the Provincial Congress.
+
+The modern visitor to the Borough of Brooklyn has difficulty to realize
+that what is now densely built up, and covered by grading and asphalt,
+marks the battle-ground of one of the greatest engagements of the
+Revolution. The houses of Charlestown cover the battle-ground of Bunker
+Hill, but that was a struggle over a single redoubt, while Brooklyn is
+built upon a line of battle nearly three miles in length. In the Civil
+War, Northern people recall the great disaster of the first battle of
+Bull Run, fought with modern armies and improved weapons. Yet in that
+all-day conflict, with the disastrous rout and pursuit, the Union loss
+in killed, wounded and prisoners probably was not as great numerically
+as the loss suffered by the American forces in the half-day of fierce
+fighting in Brooklyn. The Federal forces at Bull Run suffered in killed,
+wounded, and missing 2896, while the patriot losses in this, the first
+pitched battle of the Revolution, were estimated at 3300 by the British,
+of whom 1097 were prisoners (three being generals); and late American
+historians are inclined to accept this estimate as approximately correct.
+
+In the summer of 1776, a formidable fleet assembled in the lower Bay
+of New York. These vessels bore from Nova Scotia the armies that had
+evacuated Boston, and another fleet of nine war vessels and thirty-five
+transports brought in the forces under Clinton that had been repulsed in
+the attack on Fort Moultrie at Charleston. At last, on the 12th of August
+arrived the Hessian forces in eighty-two transport-ships guarded by six
+war vessels. On board were 7800 Hessians and 1000 English guards.
+
+The observer at the Narrows must have daily beheld a naval pageant such
+as can no more be seen in modern warfare. From the first distant glimpse
+of the line of sails standing in for Sandy Hook, until they finally
+manœuvred to their crowded anchorage by Staten Island, the effect was
+most picturesque. It was not a fleet of dark, sullen sea-dogs, with only
+an inconspicuous hull built to carry a destructive armament. The coloring
+of these vessels against the green background of Staten Island in the
+olden days of oak and hemp would have delighted a painter. The upper
+works outside were sometimes dark blue or canary yellow, surmounted by
+waving lines of gilt. Below were black streaks running fore and aft near
+the water-line; as the ships slowly lifted in a seaway, they disclosed
+a white under-surface that must have made an admirable target for the
+opposing gunner. The grand air of the frigates was further enhanced
+by elaborate ornamentation with emblematic devices about the carved
+figure-head, and heavy gilded scrollwork above the stern-lights, and high
+stern-gallery. From the bluffs along the Narrows, the view down upon the
+decks would show that all inboard surfaces, even the gun-carriages and
+the inner side of portholes, were painted blood-red—so as not to have the
+carnage of battle too much _en évidence_.
+
+At one time over four hundred transports, guarded by thirty-seven
+men-of-war, had gathered. Lord Howe on the land, and his brother, Admiral
+Howe, on the sea were in joint command.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF MAP OF BROOKLYN, 1776.]
+
+The patriot forces had carefully entrenched a line of defensive works,
+laid out by General Nathaniel Greene. The good judgment with which these
+forts were placed was attested by the deliberate adoption of almost the
+same line of redoubts and forts in the subsequent defences of Brooklyn by
+the engineers in the campaign of 1814, when Brooklyn was again prepared
+to resist British attack.
+
+The fortifications of Brooklyn in 1776 extended in an irregular line
+from Fort Defiance at Red Hook opposite Governor’s Island across to Fort
+Box on Bergen’s Hill near the corner of Court Street and First Place. At
+the junction of Clinton and Atlantic Streets, or a little easterly, was
+a steep conical hill called the Ponkiesburgh, and on top, surmounting
+a line of spiral trenches, a redoubt, called Corkscrew Fort. Between
+Atlantic, Pacific, Nevins, and Bond Streets was a redoubt mounting five
+guns called Fort Greene. Thence the line ran zigzag across the present
+Fulton Street, to the west of the junction of Flatbush and Fulton
+Avenues, along the hill slope to Fort Putnam, on the eminence now called
+Fort Greene Park, a commanding height where were mounted five guns. The
+number of guns mounted upon the works from Fort Putnam to Fort Defiance
+was thirty-five—mainly eighteen-pounders—an armament in part captured
+from Ticonderoga.
+
+[Illustration: BROWER’S MILL, GOWANUS.
+
+THE YELLOW MILL IS SEEN IN THE DISTANCE.]
+
+From this fort the line extended northwesterly to a spring at the verge
+of the Wallabout, near the corner of Flushing and Portland Avenues. This
+interior line of defence was nearly two miles long. Between these forts
+were lines of trenches further defended by trees and sharpened stakes,
+forming an abatis, in the construction of which the Continental woodsmen
+were always proficient. Within this line of defence was Fort Stirling,
+which was back near Columbia Heights.
+
+It is difficult after a century of grading and building to conceive
+that an extensive morass then covered nearly all the lands south of the
+present Hamilton Avenue, save about the small island height at Red Hook.
+Gowanus, with several large ponds raised by Brower’s Mill-dam, flooded
+and made impassable nearly all the area extending from Fourth Avenue
+to Smith Street. This was crossed by a narrow causeway along Freeke’s
+Mill-pond. On the higher lands beyond, extending from Greenwood along
+Prospect Park towards East New York, were dense woodlands, that were only
+practicable for an advancing army by certain passes or narrow wood-roads.
+The principal route from the Narrows to Brooklyn was along the site of
+Third Avenue by a good road then known as the Shore Road.
+
+The battle of August 27, 1776, was fought almost entirely outside this
+line of fortifications. Knowing that the British forces had been moving
+towards Brooklyn from the Narrows, General Putnam had posted troops in
+detachments in order to check the hostile columns as they should come
+through the wood-roads and passes. It was natural to expect the principal
+British advance by the Shore Road, as there they would be at all times
+within supporting distance of the fleet.
+
+On August 26th the Hessians under de Heister had occupied Flatbush, and
+Lord Cornwallis had reached nearly to Flatlands.
+
+In the forenoon of the 27th, Stirling commanded the patriot right,
+extending from the shore near the foot of Twenty-third Street up
+Greenwood Heights about to the corner of Fifth Avenue and Third Street.
+This position was to repel the expected attack by the route of the Shore
+Road. Sullivan commanded the centre, which was an irregular congeries of
+militia posted along the summits of hills in Prospect Park and across
+the Flatbush Road. Colonel Miles with the 1st Pennsylvania regiment
+occupied the hills near the Clove Road to the south of Bedford, with some
+Connecticut levies continuing the line still further eastward. Instead
+of a co-ordinated supporting line of battle, these dispositions were
+intended as little more than a body of skirmishers, too widely strung-out
+to be opposed to an actual attack.
+
+The beginning of a movement of British troops at daylight on the Shore
+Road, and the evident efforts of the fleet to sail up the Bay, which
+the light wind and ebb tide prevented, indicated that the hardest
+fighting would be by the right under Stirling. The entire patriot force
+inside and without the entrenchments was 5500. The British force was
+over 16,000 men. While the troops were facing each other along this
+position, a strong flanking column under Sir Henry Clinton, with Lord
+Howe the commander-in-chief, had stealthily marched from Flatbush to East
+New York, during the night, and had followed a sunken road through the
+present Cemetery of the Evergreens, called the Jamaica Pass. This was
+about five miles to the east of Sullivan’s position. Before daylight,
+at about a mile from the Pass, the column halted and sent forward a
+force which captured the American patrol and officers, and soon after a
+detachment secured the Pass. The light infantry advanced at the first
+appearance of day, and occupied the heights of Bushwick, followed by the
+guards with the field-pieces under Lord Percy, and the 49th regiment with
+four guns and the baggage brought up the rear.
+
+After breakfasting, the flanking column marched along the turnpike to
+Bedford, where they arrived at half-past eight o’clock; thence they
+advanced along the rear of Miles’s troops, who were unconscious that they
+were being surrounded.
+
+Fearfully outnumbered as they were, the Americans were now attacked in
+front by the Hessians advancing from Flatbush under General de Heister,
+and in the rear by this flanking column. The result was disastrous.
+Sullivan’s command was cut to pieces and himself captured. Terrible
+slaughter occurred in the woods and the slopes towards Fourth Avenue. The
+only escape not closed by the British was across the mill-dam and marshes
+of Gowanus.
+
+Meanwhile Cornwallis was detached to attack Stirling’s line, which
+had still held its position on the western side of Prospect Heights.
+Desperate indeed was the plight of this devoted remnant of the army,
+outnumbered on all sides. General Grant, the British commander in front,
+had pressed forward (after having repeatedly been driven back) and
+finally surrounded and captured Atlee’s riflemen. Stirling gallantly
+determined to attack Cornwallis, and drive him back and so get an
+opportunity to cross by Brower’s Mill-dam to the defences of Fort Box.
+Here was the heroism of the day. Taking command of Smallwood’s gallant
+Maryland regiment and forming in the vicinity of Fifth Avenue and Tenth
+Street, Stirling led these brave young Marylanders three times in a
+charge on Cornwallis’s lines. Closing their ranks as they were cut down
+by grape and canister, the Maryland onset drove the British back behind
+the stone Cortelyou house. Once they forced the gunners from their guns,
+but at last, overwhelmed by numbers, the survivors fell back, leaving
+256 killed out of 400. It was the sight of this brilliant charge and the
+spirited but frightfully unequal contest that caused Washington to wring
+his hands in anguish and say: “Good God! what brave fellows I must lose
+this day!”
+
+While these Marylanders gallantly sacrificed their lives to hold
+Cornwallis in check, a large portion of Stirling’s command crossed the
+Gowanus Creek and brought the tattered colors of Smallwood’s regiment
+and over twenty prisoners within the lines. The battle was over at noon.
+The bodies of the gallant Maryland heroes—the flower of the army—were
+afterward buried on a small knoll or island. Third Avenue runs across it,
+between Seventh and Eighth Streets, but its site is far below the present
+street level.
+
+In estimating the service of these Marylanders, it is to be recalled
+that they were young, never before under fire, and were led without
+their own colonel, who was detached the day before for a court-martial
+in New York. When the charges were made, the troops had already been
+several hours fighting, and had to re-form under fire, after it was
+plain that the battle was lost. The attacks were up an ascent, against
+superior numbers, strong artillery, and an overwhelming body of seasoned
+veterans. Even the assault and death of Montgomery at Quebec were not
+more gallant. Unlike that hopeless attack, the Marylanders accomplished
+their purpose by their sacrifice, and stopped the advance of Cornwallis.
+The brilliancy, dash, and steady persistence of this charge have not been
+properly recognized.
+
+After the repulse of the patriot army, the battle ceased. The prudence
+of Lord Howe would not permit the English army to move upon the
+entrenchments. Bunker Hill with its terrible memories was too recent.
+
+The next day, the 28th, Washington reinforced the Brooklyn troops,
+increasing their number to 9000. Among them were Colonel Glover’s
+battalion of fishermen and sailors from Salem and Marblehead. On that
+day heavy rain prevented an attack. In the afternoon the British began
+regular siege approaches towards Fort Putnam by a trench starting from
+the present Clinton Avenue near the corner of De Kalb Avenue.
+
+A council of war decided on evacuation. Even in this extremity Washington
+caused an elaborate statement of reasons to be drawn up as the grounds
+of his action. That night, aided by the dense fog, the entire body
+were rowed over by Colonel Glover’s Marblehead boatmen. The skill and
+admirable mastery of detail in this retreat were Washington’s. For many
+hours he sat on his horse at the ferry, patiently superintending the
+embarkation. At least on one occasion he had to check a rush of impetuous
+and alarmed men from crowding into the boats. Finally with the last
+crew he embarked. The retreat of the entire force from Long Island was
+safely effected. At four o’clock only empty trenches were revealed to the
+invaders.
+
+In Prospect Park is a monument to the heroism of this gallant Maryland
+regiment. At different streets are memorial tablets to mark the lines of
+defence. Perhaps some day a statue of Washington, near the old ferry,
+will mark the spot where his prudence and skill saved the American Army.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT TO MARYLAND’S “400.”]
+
+During the British occupation the noble forests of Brooklyn were
+destroyed. One may search in vain for any oaks or elms about the City
+that are really ancient.
+
+The mention of the Wallabout and the present site of the Navy Yard recall
+some of the most painful memories of our history—the horrors of the
+prison-ships. Few indeed are the Revolutionary families that have not
+had deep sorrows connected with the ships _Whitby_, _Good Hope_, _Old
+Jersey_, _John_, _Falmouth_, and other hulks, where the martyrs ended
+their severe captivity. The bodies of the victims—having been removed
+from time to time—are now, it is hoped, in their final resting-place on
+the westerly front of Fort Greene Park opposite the Plaza. As yet no
+monument, not even an inscription, marks the spot where were reverently
+laid the bones of 11,500 martyrs to American liberty.
+
+[Illustration: NAVY YARD. IN FOREGROUND 5.5-INCH B.-L. GUN, WITH MOUNT
+AND SHIELD, TAKEN FROM SPANISH CRUISER “VIZCAYA” AFTER DESTRUCTION OF
+SPANISH FLEET JULY 3, 1898, ALSO SUBMARINE MINE FROM GUANTANAMO.]
+
+The Navy Yard, starting in 1824, has become the foremost in the
+country. Here are gathered trophies of the Nation’s battles on many
+seas. In a little enclosure near the Commandant’s office, are grouped
+captured ordnance, with a howitzer that did service under Hull on the
+_Constitution_. Trophies from the Spanish war have lately been added to
+this collection. Here are the guns taken from the burnt and shattered
+_Almirante Oquendo_ and _Vizcaya_, and by them is mounted a submarine
+contact mine from the defences of Guantanamo, which the _Texas_ broke
+adrift without exploding the deadly contents. Not far away was built
+the ill-fated battleship _Maine_. In these docks were outfitted many
+of the fleet that fought the battle of Santiago. In the Spanish war,
+the Brooklyn Navy Yard was where most of the yachts and merchant
+steamers, purchased in emergency, were converted into cruisers. Under
+Naval Constructor Bowles, the unparalleled record was made in 1898 of
+thirty-four vessels thus converted and fitted out for service in the
+auxiliary navy in ninety-three days!
+
+At the southern shore of the enlarged Brooklyn are the forts and
+batteries defending this part of Long Island. Under the modern defences
+of Fort Hamilton, still is preserved Fort Lafayette, an island structure
+of masonry, valueless for war, but ever to be kept for its associations.
+Built in 1812 to defend the Narrows, its name was changed at the time of
+Lafayette’s return in 1824. In 1861, it was used to imprison those from
+Maryland and the border States, whose loyalty the Federal Administration
+distrusted. When the Judges of Brooklyn issued writs of _habeas corpus_
+to bring up these political suspects, and inquire into the justice of
+their captivity, the remedy was to hurry the prisoners to Fort Warren in
+Boston Harbor, beyond the reach of the process of New York courts.
+
+[Illustration: FORT LAFAYETTE, N. Y. NARROWS.]
+
+Here also, in 1862, a division commander of McClellan’s army was held
+prisoner. General Charles P. Stone, a graduate of West Point, was blamed
+for the disaster at Ball’s Bluff. By secret orders of Secretary Stanton,
+he was arrested at midnight, hurried to New York, and kept forty-nine
+days in solitary confinement in Fort Lafayette, without trial, charges,
+or answer to his appeals for a hearing! Congress finally vindicated him
+and set him free, after one hundred and eighty-nine days’ imprisonment.
+
+[Illustration: BROOKLYN INSTITUTE MUSEUM.]
+
+The interior of the Fort was burned out in the winter of 1869. Its
+armament has never been replaced. The dark red circular walls stand at
+the opposite end of the Bay from the Statue of Liberty, and furnish an
+impressive contrast, in their memories of an American Bastille.
+
+[Illustration: HENRY WARD BEECHER.]
+
+On the completion of the new Shore Road, following the contour of the
+Narrows, an admirable approach upon the bluff overlooking the Bay will
+lead the visitor to this Golden Gate of the commerce of New York.
+
+The traditions of home rule, local self-government, and civic conscience
+have come down from the early Brooklyn agitations against the government
+of Peter Stuyvesant. Brooklynites before consolidation with the greater
+city had a liberal home-rule charter that was first administered under
+Mayor Seth Low. Through his government, the “Brooklyn plan” became the
+ideal of other municipalities.
+
+The ancient zeal for education and schools has not declined. Besides
+the college, academy, and public schools, two Brooklyn institutions
+distinctively illustrate the modern trend of popular municipal education.
+The Pratt Institute, with its wide and helpful teaching in the industrial
+arts, is perhaps the most famous of all Brooklyn benevolences. But
+the enlarged and expanding Brooklyn Institute, with its multiform
+departments, its generous field of lectureships, and its museum, is
+destined to become the model for organizations planned to diffuse popular
+culture in cities.
+
+The regard of Brooklyn for the Church and the influence of the clergy on
+the life of Brooklyn are proverbial. To recall the names of Brooklyn’s
+clergy is to mention many leaders of the American pulpit. Not a little
+of their inspiration has come from the influence and history of Brooklyn
+itself. In its growth from village to city, and then to borough, it has
+developed along the lines of equality of social opportunity, and thus
+unconsciously has been reaping the fruits of the lives and examples of
+its Dutch founders.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF BROOKLYN.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+PRINCETON
+
+PLANTING AND TILLING
+
+BY WILLIAM M. SLOANE
+
+
+Princeton is by no means one of the oldest settlements in the State of
+New Jersey, and yet it has a history of more than two centuries, the
+first homestead having been established there in 1682. Although situated
+midway, or nearly so, between two of the largest Colonial towns, and
+nearly equidistant from the head of navigation on two important streams,
+the Raritan and the Delaware, it remained a quiet and unimportant
+hamlet for over half a century. Most of the travel between New York and
+Philadelphia went by way of Perth Amboy and Camden; there was little to
+interrupt the humble labors of the settlers in clearing the forest and
+tilling the soil.
+
+Yet the roll-call of Princeton’s pioneers reveals names which are now
+synonymous with patriotism and famous wherever American history is
+studied: Stockton, Paterson, Boudinot, Randolph, and others almost as
+renowned. Their instinctive Americanism is first recorded in a successful
+protest to the provincial authorities against the quartering of British
+troops in their humble homes during the French and Indian War.
+
+October 22, 1746, the College of New Jersey was chartered by Governor
+Hamilton, an act notable in American history because the first of its
+kind performed without authorization from England or the consent even of
+the provincial legislature. The institution was opened under President
+Dickinson in May, 1747, at Elizabethtown. After his death, which
+occurred in October of the same year, the few students were transferred
+to Newark and put under the care of the Rev. Aaron Burr, one of the
+twelve trustees. On the fourteenth of the following September, Jonathan
+Belcher, just appointed governor, granted a new charter fuller and more
+formal than the first. His interest in the college was from the outset
+very great, and his opinion, already formed, that Princeton was the
+most desirable spot for its permanent site ultimately prevailed, the
+citizens of the hamlet proving more active and liberal than those of
+New Brunswick, already a good-sized town, to which likewise terms were
+proposed “for fixing the college in that place.”
+
+[Illustration: “THE LINE OF HISTORIC CATALPAS.”]
+
+Thereafter the little settlement grew rapidly and soon became a
+considerable village. In 1756 the new buildings were virtually completed
+and the college was transferred to its future home. Notable men from
+throughout the State and from the cities of New York and Philadelphia
+became interested in the new seat of learning. More noteworthy still
+were those who taught and those who studied in it. Within a decade after
+the completion of Nassau Hall the names of Burr, Edwards, Witherspoon,
+of Livingston, Rush and Ellsworth, of James Manning, Luther Martin
+and Nathaniel Niles became Princeton names. The stream of influential
+patronage once started continued to flow until long after the Revolution.
+It included men from New England on the one hand, and from the South on
+the other, with, of course, a powerful element from the Middle States.
+
+[Illustration: A VIEW OF THE FRONT CAMPUS.]
+
+Princeton College is the child of Yale. But the parting was not
+entirely amicable. Theological controversy grew very fierce, even for
+the Connecticut Valley, in the days of Whitefield’s preaching. The
+conservatives or Old Lights held the reins and were not kindly disposed
+toward the innovators or New Lights. The trouble culminated in the
+expulsion from Yale of David Brainerd because, defying the Faculty’s
+express command, he attended New Light meetings and would not profess
+penitence for his fault. This occurred in 1739; thereafter an even
+stronger feeling of discontent smouldered among the liberal Calvinists
+until finally the way was clear for founding a new training-school for
+the ministry and the learned professions on broad and generous lines.
+Brainerd became a most successful and famous missionary. He was betrothed
+to the daughter of Jonathan Edwards and died at her father’s house,
+a victim of his own laborious and devoted life. This was less than a
+year after the College of New Jersey had been founded by a body of
+liberal-minded men of all orthodox denominations, under the influence
+of a few leaders who sympathized with both Brainerd and the Edwards
+theology. The first charter was granted by an Episcopalian governor to
+four Presbyterian clergymen, and one of the original trustees was a
+Quaker. Governor Belcher, who enlarged the charter and made the College
+“his adopted daughter,” was a man of the most catholic feeling. Fourteen
+of the trustees under the permanent constitution were Presbyterian
+clergymen, an arrangement corresponding to the similar one whereby the
+majority of the governing body of Yale was composed of Congregational
+ministers. This wise guardianship has kept the two universities true to
+their traditions, and the flourishing condition of both is the strongest
+proof anywhere afforded that temporal affairs do not necessarily suffer
+when committed to the charge of spiritual advisers. Considerable sums
+of money were raised in England by the personal solicitation of Tennent
+and Davies, two clergymen sent out for the purpose by the Trustees. The
+ten laymen of the first Princeton board represented various orthodox
+denominations, including Episcopalians and Quakers. There is not a
+syllable in the charter concerning creeds, confessions, or religious
+tests. It is very significant of the vast improvement in public morality
+that a college founded under such auspices a hundred and fifty years ago
+was partly endowed and supported by lotteries authorized and drawn both
+in Connecticut and New Jersey.
+
+From the day when the College was installed in its grand new home,
+history-making went on apace in Princeton. Nassau Hall was a majestic
+building for those days; distinguished foreign visitors to America all
+noted its dimensions and architecture in their written accounts of
+travel. Indeed, even now, with the tasteless alterations of chimneys,
+roofs and towers made necessary by fire and carried through with ruthless
+economy, it may be considered one of the great monumental college
+buildings in America. It is, however, far more than this; we assert
+without fear of contradiction that it has no peer as the most historic
+university pile in the world. This contention rests on the fact that
+it saw the discomfiture of the British at the ebb-tide of the American
+rebellion, harbored the Government of the United States in its critical
+moments and cradled the Constitution-makers of the greatest existing
+republic. No other university hall has been by turns fortress and
+barrack, legislative chamber and political nursery in the birththroes of
+any land comparable to our land.
+
+The building was designed to be complete in itself; it contained lodgings
+for a hundred and forty-seven students, with a refectory, library and
+chapel. The class which entered under Dickinson, the first president,
+had six members, of whom five became clergymen. His untimely death a
+year after his election made his administration the shortest but one in
+the College history. During the ten years of Burr’s tenure of office
+(1747-1757) the total number of students was a hundred and fourteen;
+half of them entered the ministry. The short presidency of Jonathan
+Edwards lasted but a few months. It gave the glory of his name, that of
+America’s greatest metaphysician, to the College, the sacred memories
+of his residence to the venerable mansion now occupied by the Dean, and
+the hallowed custody of his mortal remains to the Princeton graveyard, a
+spot to which thousands have made their pilgrimage for the sake of his
+great renown. In this enclosure he lies beside his son-in-law, the Rev.
+Aaron Burr, who was his predecessor. At his feet are the ashes of the
+brilliant and erratic grandson, the Aaron Burr so well known to students
+of American history. President Davies, who followed Edwards, held his
+office for only two years, and was succeeded by Finley who presided for
+five. Under the latter the number of students present at one time rose
+to one hundred and twenty. All told, a hundred and thirty sat under his
+instruction, and of these less than half, fifty-nine, became clergymen.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN WITHERSPOON.]
+
+This tendency to send fewer and fewer men into the ministry is highly
+significant. It reached its climax under the next president—the great
+Scotchman whose name is among the most honored in the history of his
+adopted country—John Witherspoon. His incumbency was coincident with
+the Revolutionary epoch, lasting from 1768 to 1794. In those twenty-six
+years four hundred and sixty-nine young men graduated from the College;
+of these, only a hundred and fourteen, less than a quarter, became
+clergymen, an average of between four and five a year. This phenomenon
+was due to the fact that Witherspoon, though lecturing on Divinity
+like his predecessors, was vastly more interested in political than in
+religious philosophy. So notorious was this fact that many a pious youth
+bent on entering the ministry passed the very doors of liberal Princeton
+to seek the intense atmosphere of Yale orthodoxy, while many a boy
+patriot from New England came hither to seek the distinction of being
+taught by Dr. Witherspoon.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT ROCKY HILL, N. J. (NEAR
+PRINCETON.)]
+
+The first eight years of Witherspoon’s presidency embraced the period
+of political ferment in the Colonies which ushered in the War of the
+Revolution. From the very beginning of his residence in America, the
+new president espoused the Colonial cause in every conflict with Great
+Britain; he was soon accounted “as high a son of liberty as any man in
+America.” Not content with enlarging and improving the College course,
+he collected funds throughout the Colonies from Boston to Charleston,
+and even laid Jamaica under contribution to fill the depleted College
+chest. From the pulpit of the old First Church his voice rang out in
+denunciation of the English administration, until in his native land
+he was branded as a rebel and a traitor. The spread of the Reformation
+was more largely due to the fact that Luther was a professor in the
+University of Wittenberg than to any other single cause; the adherence
+to the Revolution of the powerful Scotch and Scotch-Irish element in the
+Colonies was chiefly if not entirely secured by the teachings of John
+Witherspoon from his professor’s chair in Nassau Hall. To him and John
+Dickinson, author of the _Farmer’s Letters_, belongs the credit of having
+convinced the sober middle classes of the great middle Colonies that the
+breach with England was not merely inevitable, but just and to their
+interest.
+
+[Illustration: MORVEN.]
+
+But Witherspoon was more than a teacher, he was a practical statesman.
+His country-seat was a farm on the southern slope of Rocky Hill, about
+a mile due north of Nassau Hall. Its solid stone walls still bear the
+classic name which he gave it, of Tusculum. In his hours of retirement
+at that beloved home he seems to have brooded more on the rights of man
+than on human depravity, more on law than on theology, more on Providence
+in His present dealings with men than on the remoter meanings of God’s
+Word. In the convention which framed the constitution of New Jersey, he
+amazed the other delegates by his technical knowledge of administration
+and led in their constructive labors; he assisted in the overthrow of
+William Franklin, the royal governor; was elected to the Continental
+Congress, and in the critical hour spurred on the lagging members who
+hesitated to take the fatal step of authorizing their president and
+secretary to sign and issue the Declaration of Independence. With solemn
+emphasis he declared:
+
+    “For my own part, of property I have some, of reputation more.
+    That reputation is staked, that property is pledged on the
+    issue of this contest; and although these gray hairs must soon
+    descend into the sepulchre, I would infinitely rather that they
+    descend thither by the hand of the executioner, than desert at
+    this crisis the sacred cause of my country.”
+
+The word “God” occurs but once in that famous document. Jefferson wrote
+it with a small “g.” Witherspoon was the solitary clergyman among the
+signers; neither he nor his neighbor, friend, and supporter, Richard
+Stockton, of Morven, who was a member of his church, set their hands the
+less firmly to sign the paper. Finally, Witherspoon was a member of the
+secret committee of Congress which really found the means of moral and
+material support for the war down to its close. He was chosen in the
+dark hours of November, 1776, to confer with Washington on the military
+crisis; he was a member, with Richard Henry Lee and John Adams, of the
+committee appointed that same winter to fire the drooping spirits of the
+rebels when Congress was driven from Philadelphia to Baltimore. He was
+a member, too, of the boards of war and finance, wrote state papers on
+the currency, and framed many of the most important bills passed by the
+Continental Congress. It was not unnatural that when, at the close of the
+war, Congress was terrified by unpaid and unruly Continentals battering
+at its doors in Philadelphia, it should seek refuge and council, as it
+did, in John Witherspoon’s college.
+
+Thus it happened that Nassau Hall became one of the hearthstones on
+which the fires of patriotism burned brightest. From 1766 to 1776 there
+were graduated two hundred and thirty young Americans. What their temper
+and feeling must have been may be judged from the names of those among
+them who afterwards became eminent in public life. Ephraim Brevard,
+Pierrepont Edwards, Churchill Houston, John Henry, John Beatty, James
+Linn, Frederick Frelinghuysen, Gunning Bedford, Hugh Brackinridge, Philip
+Freneau, James Madison, Aaron Burr, Henry Lee, Aaron Ogden, Brockholst
+Livingston, and Wm. Richardson Davie. Those ten years produced twelve
+Princetonians who sat in the Continental Congress, six who sat in the
+Constitutional Convention, one President of the United States, one
+Vice-President, twenty-four members of Congress, three Judges of the
+Supreme Court, one Secretary of State, one Postmaster-General, three
+Attorneys-General, and two foreign ministers. It may well be supposed
+that the clergymen who were their comrades in those days of ferment
+were, like their great teacher, no opponents of political preaching. The
+influence of such a body of young men, when young men seized and held the
+reins, was incalculable.
+
+“We have no public news,” writes James Madison from Princeton on July 23,
+1770, to his friend, Thomas Martin,
+
+    “but the base conduct of the merchants in New York in breaking
+    through their spirited resolutions not to import; a distinct
+    account of which, I suppose, will be in the Virginia
+    _Gazette_ before this arrives. The letter to the merchants in
+    Philadelphia, requesting their concurrence, was lately burned
+    by the students of this place in the college yard, all of them
+    appearing in their black gowns and the bell tolling.... There
+    are about 115 in the College and in the Grammar School, all of
+    them in American cloth.”
+
+“Last week, to show our patriotism,” wrote in 1774 another Princeton
+student, Charles Beatty,
+
+    “we gathered all the steward’s winter store of tea, and having
+    made a fire in the campus we there burnt near a dozen pounds,
+    tolled the bell, and made many spirited resolves. But this was
+    not all. Poor Mr. Hutchinson’s effigy shared the same fate with
+    the tea, having a tea-canister tied about his neck.”
+
+[Illustration: RICHARD STOCKTON
+
+“THE SIGNER”.]
+
+With such a nursery of patriotism at its very hub, the temper of the
+surrounding community can easily be pictured. The proposition for a
+provincial congress came from Princeton. John Hart, a farmer from
+the neighboring township of Hopewell, and Abraham Clark, a farmer’s
+son from the neighboring county, were associated with graduates from
+Princeton College and delegates from Princeton town in conducting its
+deliberations. Both were made delegates to the Continental Congress
+and both, along with Witherspoon and Stockton, were signers of the
+Declaration of Independence. Even Francis Hopkinson, the fifth signer for
+this State, a Philadelphian in reality, though a temporary resident of
+Bordentown, was, as the friend and co-worker of Freneau and Brackinridge,
+intimately associated with Princeton influence. When rebellion was
+finally in full swing, the Committee of Safety for New Jersey held its
+sessions here, probably in Nassau Hall, possibly in the famous tavern. It
+is well known that neither the Continental Army nor the people of the
+United States at large were profoundly impressed by the Declaration of
+Independence. This was not the case in Princeton, for the correspondent
+of a Philadelphia paper wrote that on July 9, 1776, “Nassau Hall was
+grandly illuminated and independency proclaimed under a triple volley
+of musketry, and universal acclamation for the prosperity of the United
+States, with the greatest decorum.”
+
+Seven days previous to this demonstration, the Provincial Congress,
+sitting at Trenton, had adopted a new State constitution; nine days later
+the first Legislature of the State assembled in Nassau Hall—the College
+library room—and chose Livingston governor. They continued more or less
+intermittently in session until the following October after the invasion
+of the State by British forces. Before the invaders they fled to Trenton,
+then to Burlington, to Pittstown, and finally to Haddonfield. After the
+battles of Princeton and Trenton they promptly returned to their first
+seat and resumed their sessions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The storm of war broke upon Princeton early in December of the same year,
+1776. The British Army, landed from Howe’s fleet in New York Bay, had
+entirely worsted the American forces. Brooklyn, New York, Fort Washington
+with Fort Lee had been successively abandoned, and Washington in his
+memorable retreat across this State reached Princeton on the first of
+December. Stirling, with one thousand two hundred Continentals, was
+left as a rear-guard, while the Commander-in-Chief with the rest, one
+thousand eight hundred, and his stores, pushed on to Trenton, whence he
+crossed in safety to the right bank of the Delaware. On the seventh,
+Cornwallis entered Princeton at the head of six thousand Anglo-Hessian
+veterans, driving Stirling before him. The invaders were quartered in
+the College and in the church. Both Tusculum and Morven, the estates of
+the arch-rebels Witherspoon and Stockton, were pillaged, and the new
+house of Sergeant was burnt. All the neighboring farms were laid under
+contribution for forage.
+
+Popular disaffection followed in the course of Washington’s retreat.
+Large numbers of the people and many of the State officials accepted
+the English offers of amnesty. The patriots were compelled to abandon
+their homes and flee across the Delaware. Two regiments were left by
+Cornwallis in Princeton as a garrison. The rest of his troops were
+established in winter quarters at New Brunswick, Trenton and Bordentown.
+Washington’s thin and starving line stretched along the Delaware from
+Coryell’s Ferry to Bristol. Congress fled to Baltimore. Putnam, with no
+confidence in Washington’s ability even to hold his ground, was making
+ready for a desperate defence of Philadelphia.
+
+There was as yet no French alliance, no adequate supply of money raised
+either at home or abroad, no regular or even semi-regular army,—nothing,
+apparently, but a disorderly little rebellion; for the first promise of
+constancy in New England and of regular support for a considerable force
+of volunteers had had as yet no fulfilment. The English felt that the
+early ardor of radical and noisy rebels would fade like a mist before
+Howe’s success; Canada was lost; New York as far as the Highlands was
+in British hands; so also were New Jersey and Long Island, which latter
+virtually controlled Connecticut. Howe believed the rebellion was broken;
+Cornwallis had engaged passage to return home.
+
+[Illustration: HALL IN THE MORVEN HOUSE.]
+
+While the British were lulled into security, Washington and the patriots,
+though desperate, were undaunted. A well considered and daring plan for
+a decisive sally from their lines was formed and carried to a successful
+issue. On Christmas night two thousand four hundred men were ferried over
+the Delaware nine miles above Trenton; the crossing was most dangerous,
+owing to the swollen waters and the floating ice; the ensuing march was
+made in the teeth of a dreadful storm. The affair at Trenton was scarcely
+a battle, it was rather a surprise; the one thousand two hundred Hessians
+were taken unawares and only a hundred and sixty-two escaped; nearly a
+thousand were captured. What made it a great event was its electrical
+effect in restoring courage to patriots everywhere, together with the
+inestimable value to Washington’s troops of the captured stores and arms.
+He did not occupy the place at all, but returned immediately to his
+encampment on the other shore to refit.
+
+The ensuing week was certainly the most remarkable of the Revolution.
+The English in New York were thrown into consternation. Cornwallis
+hastened back to Princeton, where he collected between seven and eight
+thousand men, the flower of the British army. Washington’s force, on
+the other hand, was reinforced with a speed and zeal bordering on the
+miraculous. Three thousand volunteers came in from the neighborhood and
+from Philadelphia. The term of service for nine hundred of his men would
+expire on New Year’s day; these were easily induced, in the new turn
+of affairs, to remain six weeks longer. Washington and John Stark both
+pledged their private fortunes and Robert Morris raised fifty thousand
+dollars in Philadelphia. The mourning of the patriots throughout the
+Middle States was changed into rejoicing.
+
+On the thirtieth of December the American army began to recross the
+Delaware; the movement was slow and difficult owing to the ice, but was
+completed the following day. On January 1, 1777, Washington wrote from
+Trenton that he had about two thousand two hundred men with him, that
+Mifflin had about one thousand eight hundred men at Bordentown on the
+right wing and that Cadwalader had about as many more at Crosswicks,
+some miles to the east. He thought that no more than one thousand eight
+hundred of those who passed the river with himself were available for
+fighting, but he intended to “pursue the enemy and break up their
+quarters.”
+
+Next day Cornwallis, leaving three regiments and a company of cavalry
+at Princeton, set out by the old “King’s Highway” for Trenton. At
+Maidenhead, now Lawrenceville, there was a skirmish between his van and
+the American outposts; thence for over five miles his march was harassed
+by irregular bodies of his foe, General Hand being stationed in command
+of a detachment at Shabbakong creek, and General Greene about a mile this
+side of Trenton. It was four o’clock, and therefore late in the short
+winter day when the English General reached the outskirts of the city.
+There stood Washington himself with a few more detachments, ready still
+further to delay the British march through the town. Withdrawing slowly,
+the last Continental crossed the bridge over the Assanpink in safety,
+to fall behind earthworks, which in anticipation of the event had been
+thrown up and fortified with batteries on the high banks behind.
+
+[Illustration: BATTLE OF PRINCETON—DEATH OF MERCER.
+
+FROM A PAINTING BY COL. J. TRUMBULL.]
+
+The British attacked at once, but were repulsed; undismayed they pressed
+on again, and again they were driven back across the narrow stream.
+The spirited conflict continued until nightfall, when the assailants
+finally gave up and withdrew to bivouac, hoping to renew the fight next
+morning. In this affair on the Assanpink about a hundred and fifty,
+mostly British, were killed. Cornwallis dispatched messengers to summon
+the men he had left at Maidenhead and Princeton, determined if possible
+to surround, overwhelm and annihilate Washington next day. But the battle
+on the Assanpink was destined to be the only real fighting in Trenton.
+Washington had in mind the strategic move which rendered this campaign
+one of his greatest, if not his very greatest. He determined to outflank
+his foe by a circuitous march to Princeton over the unguarded road on the
+south side of the Assanpink.
+
+The night was dark and cold; the camp-fires of both lines burned strong
+and bright. Behind those of Cornwallis there was a bustle of preparation
+for the next day’s battle; behind those of Washington there was a
+stealthy making ready for retreat. The baggage was packed and dispatched
+to Burlington; a few men were detached to keep the fires well fed and
+clear; the rest silently stole away about midnight. Their march was
+long, between sixteen and eighteen miles, and difficult because the
+frost had turned the mud on the roads into hummocks. But at sunrise on
+the third of January the head of the column had crossed Stony Brook by
+the bridge on the Quaker road, and stood about a mile and three-quarters
+from Princeton, awaiting the result of a council of war. They were
+masked by the piece of woods which is still standing behind the Quaker
+meeting-house. It was determined that Washington with the main column
+should march across the fields, through a kind of depression in the
+rolling land intervening between the meeting-house and Princeton, in
+order to reach the town as quickly as possible. Mercer, with three
+hundred and fifty men and two field-pieces, was to follow the road half a
+mile farther to its junction with the King’s Highway, and there blow up
+the upper bridge over Stony Brook, that by which Cornwallis’s reserve,
+marching to Trenton, must cross the stream. This would likewise detain
+Cornwallis himself on his return in pursuit.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There were three actions in the battle of Princeton. Two of the three
+English regiments left in reserve at Princeton were under way betimes
+to join Cornwallis at Trenton. One of these under Colonel Mawhood, with
+three companies of horse, had already crossed Stony Brook and had climbed
+the hill beyond, before they descried Mercer following the road in the
+valley below; the other was half a mile behind, north of the stream.
+Mawhood quickly turned back and, uniting the two, engaged Mercer. The
+Americans were armed with rifles which had no bayonets, and although
+nearly equal in number to the enemy they were first slowly then rapidly
+driven up the hill to the ridge south of the King’s Highway and east of
+the Quaker road. They stood firm before the firing of the English, but
+yielded when the enemy charged bayonets. In this encounter Mercer was
+severely wounded and left for dead. Many other officers were likewise
+wounded as they hung back, striving to rally the flying troops.
+
+Washington, hearing the firing, stopped immediately and, leaving the
+rest of his column to follow their line of march, put himself at the
+head of the Pennsylvania volunteers and wheeled. Summoning two pieces of
+artillery he turned to join the retreating forces of Mercer. The British
+reached the crest of the hill in pursuit before they saw Washington’s
+column. The sight brought them to a halt, and while they formed their
+artillery came up. It seemed to Washington a most critical moment. In an
+instant Mercer’s command was fused with his own men, and placing himself
+well out before the line he gave the order to advance. There was no
+halt until the Commander himself was within thirty yards of the foe; at
+that instant both lines volleyed simultaneously. The fire was hasty and
+ineffective. Washington, as if by a miracle, was unscathed. As the smoke
+blew away, an American brigade came in under Hitchcock, while Hand with
+his riflemen attacked the British flank. In a few moments Mawhood gave
+up the fight; his troops, after a few brave efforts, broke and retreated
+over the hill up the valley of Stony Brook. The bridge was then destroyed.
+
+Meantime the head of the American column had reached the outskirts of
+Princeton. There, on the edge of the ravine now known as Springdale, was
+posted still a third British force composed of soldiers from the 40th
+and 55th Line. The Americans, with Stark at their head, attacked and
+drove them back as far as Nassau Hall, into which the fugitives hastily
+threw themselves. From the windows scattered remnants of their regiments
+could be seen fleeing through fields and byways toward New Brunswick. The
+American artillery began to play on the walls of the building; one ball,
+it is said, crashed through the roof and tore from its frame the portrait
+of George II., hanging in the Prayer Hall; another is still imbedded in
+the venerable walls. A Princeton militiaman, with the assistance of his
+neighbors, finally burst the door and the little garrison surrendered.
+
+When Donop retreated from Bordentown to Princeton after the battle of
+Trenton, he threw up an arrow-head breastwork at the point not far from
+where Mercer and Stockton Streets now join; on this still lay a cannon
+of the size known as a thirty-two pounder, the carriage of which was
+dismantled. It was early morning when Cornwallis became aware that his
+expected battle would not be fought at Trenton; the roar of artillery
+gave him the terrible assurance that the blow had been struck on his
+weakened flank,—that his precious stores at New Brunswick were in
+danger. Swiftly he issued the necessary orders and appeared at the west
+end of the town on the King’s Highway, just as Washington was leaving
+Princeton, his van having been delayed in crossing Stony Brook. The
+citizens had loaded the gun in the breastwork and on the approach of the
+intruders they fired it. This utterly deceived the English generals, for
+they thought themselves facing a well-manned battery. It was some time,
+tradition says an hour, before they were undeceived and in that precious
+interval Washington collected his army and marched away. His forces were
+too weak to risk the venture of seizing New Brunswick, even temporarily;
+accordingly he turned northwestward and reached Morristown in safety.
+There and at Middlebrook his headquarters practically remained for the
+rest of the war. The English were content to secure New Brunswick.
+
+In the battle of Princeton there were engaged somewhat under two
+thousand men on each side. The actual fighting lasted less than half an
+hour. We lost very few men—so few that the number cannot be accurately
+reckoned—possibly thirty; but we lost a brave general, Hugh Mercer, a
+colonel, a major, and three captains. The English soldiers fought with
+unsurpassed gallantry. They lost two hundred killed and two hundred and
+fifty captured, but no officers of distinction. It was not, therefore,
+a big fight, but it was none the less a great and decisive battle.
+How important Washington felt it to be, is attested by his personal
+exposure of himself. How decisive the great military critics have
+considered it, is shown by the fact that the campaign of which it was the
+finishing stroke is held by them to have been typical of his genius as
+a strategist. The two affairs of Trenton and Princeton are in the short
+histories of the Revolution generally reckoned together. And naturally
+so, since they occurred so near to one another in time and place. But,
+strategically and tactically examined, the battle of Trenton made good
+Washington’s position behind the Delaware; the battle of Princeton
+secured New Jersey and the Middle States.
+
+After the preliminary actions which took place in New England the
+remainder of the Revolution falls into three portions—the struggle for
+the Hudson, to secure communication between New England and the Middle
+States; the struggle for the Delaware, to secure communication between
+the Middle States and the South; and thirdly, the effort to regain the
+South. After the battle of Princeton, Washington was able to establish a
+line from Amboy around by the west and south to Morristown; New England,
+the Middle and Southern States were in communication with each other and
+free. As a result of the first campaign by a numerous and well-equipped
+Anglo-German army the English held nothing but Newport in Rhode Island
+and New York City, with posts at King’s Bridge on the north and at New
+Brunswick on the south. The proof was finally secured that Washington
+with a permanent army such as the Colonies might, unassisted, have
+furnished him, would have been a match for any land force the English
+could have transported to America.
+
+For the remaining years of the war Princeton was held by the Americans.
+Both the Legislature of the State and the Council of Safety held their
+meetings within its precincts; for a time Putnam was in command of the
+little garrison, for a time Sullivan. Early in 1781 thirteen hundred
+mutinous Pennsylvanians of Washington’s army marched away from Morristown
+and came in a body to Princeton. They were met by emissaries from Clinton
+who strove to entice them from their allegiance. But, though mutinous,
+they were not traitors, for they seized the British emissaries and
+handed them over to General Wayne to be treated as spies. A committee
+of Congress appeared and made such arrangements as pacified them. In
+the autumn of the same year the victory of Yorktown was celebrated with
+illuminations and general rejoicings. The College was again in session
+with forty students and local prosperity was restored. In 1782 there was
+held a meeting to support a continuance of the war.
+
+[Illustration: NASSAU HALL.]
+
+The Revolutionary epoch was fitly brought to a close by a meeting of
+Congress in Nassau Hall. On June 20, 1783, three hundred Pennsylvania
+soldiers who were discontented with the terms of their discharge marched
+from Lancaster to Philadelphia and beset the doors of Congress, holding
+that assembly imprisoned for three hours under threat of violence if
+their wrongs were not redressed. The legislators resolved to adjourn
+to Princeton. They were made heartily welcome, the college halls were
+put at their disposal, and the houses of the citizens were hospitably
+opened for their entertainment. Their sessions were held regularly in the
+College library for over four months, until the fourth of November, when
+they adjourned to meet at Annapolis three weeks later. Washington was
+in Princeton twice during this time: once at commencement in September,
+when he made a present of fifty guineas to the trustees—a sum they spent
+for the portrait by Peale which now hangs in Nassau Hall, filling, it
+is said, the very frame from which that of George II. was shot away
+during the battle. The second time he came in October, at the request of
+Boudinot, President of Congress, and a trustee of the College, to give
+advice concerning such weighty matters as the organization of a standing
+army to defend the frontiers, of a militia to maintain internal order,
+and of the military school. The Commander-in-Chief was received in solemn
+session and congratulated by the President on the success of the war. He
+replied in fitting terms. According to tradition he occupied while in
+attendance on Congress a room in a house now replaced by the handsome
+Pyne dormitory on the corner of Witherspoon and Nassau Streets, but his
+residence was the colonial mansion three miles away on the hill above the
+town of Rocky Hill which has been preserved as a historical monument and
+revolutionary museum by the liberality of Mrs. Josephine Swann. It was
+from this place that he issued his famous farewell address to the army.
+
+But the greatest occasion in Princeton’s history was on the thirty-first
+of the same month. Congress had assembled in the Prayer Hall to receive
+in solemn audience the minister plenipotentiary from the Netherlands.
+There were present, besides the members, Washington, Morris, the
+superintendent of finance, Luzerne, the French envoy, and many other
+men of eminence. The company had just assembled when news came that
+the Treaty of Peace had been signed at Versailles. Many brilliant and
+beautiful women were present, and their unchecked delight doubled the
+enthusiasm of all. The reception was the most splendid public function
+thus far held by the now independent republic. On the twenty-fifth of
+November the British evacuated New York. Washington left Princeton to
+attend the ceremony, and afterward journeyed by Annapolis to his home at
+Mt. Vernon. He believed that, his military career being concluded, he was
+to spend the rest of his days as a private gentleman.
+
+Providence had ordained otherwise. He had carried the difficult, strange
+and desultory War of the Revolution to a successful end; he had, by
+wise counsel and firmness, averted the dangers of a civil war which
+seemed imminent, so far as he could judge from the temper of those about
+his headquarters at Newburgh. Once more he was to enter the arena of
+embittered strife, but in a conflict political and not military. Three
+of the five great actions in which he was personally present during
+the Revolution were fought on Jersey soil; his next leadership was
+displayed in a contest waged in Philadelphia, but largely by Jerseymen
+or Princetonians. Princeton’s place in American history can not be
+understood without consideration of the Constitutional Convention, where
+the passions of localism, separatism and sectional prejudice broke
+forth afresh. The assembly contained many wise and far-seeing men.
+Of its fifty-five members, thirty-two were men of academic training.
+There were one each from London, Oxford, Edinburgh and Aberdeen, and
+five had been connected with the checkered fortunes of William and
+Mary. The University of Pennsylvania sent one, Columbia two, Harvard
+three, Yale four and Princeton nine. The most serious dissension, as is
+well known, was concerning the relative importance of large and small
+States in legislation. The Virginia, or large-States plan, was for two
+houses, basing representation in both on population. It was essentially
+the work of James Madison, a pupil of Witherspoon. The Jersey, or
+small-State, plan was for one house, wherein each State should have
+equal representation. It was the cherished idea of Paterson, another
+Princetonian. Over these two schemes the battle waged fiercely until it
+seemed that even Washington, the presiding officer, could not command
+peace or force a compromise, and that the convention was on the verge
+of dissolution. Connecticut had ever been accustomed to two houses—one
+representing the people, one the towns. It was the compromise suggested
+on this analogy by Sherman and Ellsworth, and urged by them, with the
+assistance of Davie from Georgia, which finally prevailed. Ellsworth and
+Davie were both Princetonians. Madison joined hands with Washington in
+the successful struggle for the acceptance of the new Constitution in
+Virginia—both Ellsworth and Paterson, their end attained, became the most
+ardent Federalists.
+
+The history of Princeton during this century has of course not been
+so dramatic as it was in the last, but the town and neighborhood have
+secured the permanent influence foreshadowed by its Revolutionary
+record. They shared in the control of State and nation, they gave their
+sons freely to the service of the country in each of the three wars
+since fought. But of course the story of Princeton is, in the main, the
+story of the University. Reopening its doors under Witherspoon with
+about forty students, its graduating class as early as 1806 numbered
+fifty-four, and thence to the outbreak of the Civil War it enjoyed
+almost unbroken prosperity under four presidents, Samuel Stanhope Smith,
+Ashbel Green, James Carnahan and John Maclean. The first care of its
+friends was to provide for thorough training in science, so that it has
+the honor of having had the first American professor of chemistry. For
+a time it likewise had a professor of theology; but the founding of the
+Theological Seminary in 1812 and its permanent location in Princeton
+the following year committed that branch of learning to an institution
+which has since become one of the most important in the country. From
+time to time new buildings were added to both College and Seminary as
+necessity required. How stern the college discipline was is shown by the
+fact that at intervals, fortunately rare, students were sent to their
+homes in numbers scarcely credible in this quieter age; on one occasion
+a hundred and twenty-five out of something over two hundred. In 1824
+Lafayette graciously accepted the degree of Bachelor of Laws from the
+authorities while passing from New York to Washington. In 1832 Joseph
+Henry was made professor of natural philosophy, a chair he held with the
+highest distinction, for it was in his Princeton laboratory that he made
+his epochal discoveries in electricity, stepping-stones to the revolution
+of the world by its use; in 1848 he was made director of the Smithsonian
+Institute. In 1846 was organized a Law School; its three professors were
+men of the highest distinction, but the project was premature. In 1855
+flames destroyed all but the walls of Nassau Hall, whereupon it was
+speedily remodelled as it still stands; the variation, slight as it was
+from the original, appears to have been in the interest of economy rather
+than beauty.
+
+[Illustration: PRESIDENT JAMES McCOSH.]
+
+The only serious check in Princeton’s prosperity was caused by the
+Civil War. Though a large proportion of the students had always come
+from the Southern States, the rest were enthusiastic in their Northern
+sympathies, and the national flag was hoisted by them over Nassau Hall
+in April, 1861. The minority tore it down, but it was promptly restored
+to its place by a gallant citizen of the town, who in climbing to the
+apex of the cupola twisted the shaft of the weather-vane and fixed the
+arrow with its head to the north. Thus it remained until conciliation
+was complete a few years since (1896), when the pivot was repaired
+so that the historic index may point in all directions at the will of
+the winds. The withdrawal of the Southern students left the numbers of
+the ever-loyal University at a low ebb, and it was not until after the
+accession of James McCosh to the presidency that the new clientage which
+has so munificently supported him and his successor was secured. It is
+also gratifying to note that the sons of the old Princeton Confederates
+are returning in ever greater numbers. The presidencies of Dr. McCosh
+and Dr. Patton are too near to belong to history. The evidences of the
+enormous strides made in material equipment are on every hand: splendid
+and beautiful buildings, professors of distinction in great numbers, and
+a body of students numbering, along with those of the Seminary, about
+fifteen hundred. Near by is the famous Lawrenceville School, itself an
+epochal institution in the history of our secondary training. Wherever
+men converse of science, literature or art, the names of Princeton’s
+sons must be considered; but her chiefest glory thus far has been in her
+contributions to political and educational life. Representative of a
+definite theory and practice in her sphere, she breeds men in abundance
+to uphold her banner in the face of all assaults.
+
+Time, place and the men—these are the factors of history; the first
+and the last vanish, the scenes alone remain. If history is to be made
+real, if we are to know in the concrete, from the experience of the men
+and women who have left the stage, what alone is possible for ourselves
+and our race, we do well to see and ponder the places which knew those
+who have gone before. Princeton possesses, in Nassau Hall, a focus of
+patriotism—a cradle of liberty. In her battle-field, the spot where
+culminated one of the greatest campaigns of one of the greatest of
+generals; and in her sons one sees the triumph of the moral forces which
+combine in true greatness. The lesson to be learned from Princeton’s
+historic scenes should be that intellect and not numbers controls the
+world; that ideas and not force overmaster bigness; that truth and right,
+supported by strong purpose and high principle, prevail in the end.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF PRINCETON.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+PHILADELPHIA
+
+THE CITY PENN FOUNDED AND TO WHICH FRANKLIN GAVE DISTINCTION
+
+BY TALCOTT WILLIAMS
+
+
+Cities are of nature. Their long life flows in ways she has made longer
+than the changing rule of which they are part. Nations and boundaries are
+of man and his laws. Artificial creations all. Cities and their sites are
+of the same forces as form the rivers and ports, the passes and pathways
+on which they stand and last as long. Rome outlives its empire, and
+Damascus the shock of massacre from Chedorlaomer to Timur. The cities
+of Europe are still where they were twenty centuries ago. The civil
+structure into which they fit has changed until nothing is left of what
+once was. These things are missed in the general. They come to be seen in
+the particular.
+
+Philadelphia stands, and necessarily stands on the straight, ruler-like
+“Falls line” which passes through every city site from New York to
+Montgomery, because this prodigious slip changes river navigation
+wherever it crosses a river valley. Where marine navigation stopped
+to-day and then, Penn put his city, its site a peninsula about which
+two rivers joined, a rich alluvial plain, covered with glacial clay,
+with schistose rocks cropping out across it, the palæozoic marble of
+the Atlantic coast hard by, and a strip of green serpentine crossing
+the country from the highest points in the future limits of the city to
+Chester County, its first granary and feeding ground. These things—the
+half-sunken Lower Delaware River spreading into Delaware Bay, the term of
+navigation at the junction of two rivers, and the abrupt approach to the
+sea of a formation elsewhere miles from the ocean—make Philadelphia all
+it is in outer look, a flat city built of its own clay, garnished with
+its own marble, a seaport knowing the sea only in its rivers.
+
+[Illustration: READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+FROM AN OLD FRENCH PRINT.]
+
+In this inland port, as you float in either river, seafaring masts and
+main rigging, black and tarred, silhouette against the tender green of
+growing fields. The early houses were brick of the glacier’s leaving,
+matching London in color; for both are ground out of the same earth mill.
+Its early stone houses were of the narrow contorted gray schists, and
+marble quarries had been opened, exhausted and closed to trim the brick
+before the Revolution. Later these were varied by the green serpentine, a
+hideous, dull color, the red sandstone of the fertile inland plains, and
+at last, as railroads made it easy to seek a door-step 1,000 miles away,
+the marble of Vermont built the City Hall, the granites of Cape Ann the
+Post Office, and Ohio ashlar a growing number of private homes, matching
+London once more as a close congener of the Portland stone Penn saw
+builded into St. Paul’s. The outer resemblance to London noted by Matthew
+Arnold and many an one besides, rests, as such things do, on concrete
+fact.
+
+William Penn in 1682 came into no empty Western world. The Dutch and
+Swede had been entering these waters for near a century. They were
+charted, tracked and known. Uneasy frontier alarms were over. Farms
+dotted all the region. For the first time, in _Fox’s Journal_, a
+decade before Penn, we catch the accent and atmosphere of the American
+settler living lonely and safe. He was as yet neither of these in New
+England, New York or the Southern States. The Swedes had left their
+work in Swedes’ Church, with its timber, roof and tower recalling North
+Europe, as its carved angels do the wood sculpture of the pine forest.
+There was a tavern, the Blue Anchor, possibly (not probably) still
+standing, waiting for Penn at the little boat harbor, now Dock Street.
+A thriving commerce of a ship a week was already busying the river with
+its boats. On the crest of the low hill that rose from this boat-haven,
+Penn planted the house which now stands in the Park. On this crest ran
+Market, and where the land began to dip to the Schuylkill, Broad Street
+crossed, the first streets to be run by the prospector and real-estate
+speculator, on a plan by whose geometrical extensions both are still
+guided, in these days of new boulevards in old cities the oldest and
+least changed of any city plan in civilized lands. On this background of
+growing farms and frequent vessels, Penn sketched the Commonwealth. He
+and his were fortunate in his bringings. He came from Central England,
+that central mark and beach line from which so large a portion of the
+worthier of the race spring. He drew his settlers in the north of the
+kingdom from the line of Fox’s trips, whose Cumberland and Lancashire
+converts dotted the region about Philadelphia with names familiar in
+his _Journal_, Lancaster, Swarthmore, Merion, and Haverford. All South
+England had been stirred by Monmouth’s Rebellion and the Revolution,
+the work of the South as the Commonwealth had its leader in the North.
+Philadelphia, therefore, drew chiefly from Saxon, and less from Danish or
+Celtic England, than had New England. Its leaders came from the thrifty
+business classes of London, “city” people, instead of from the gentry
+as had Virginia’s. Ten years later, Louis was harrying the Palatinate,
+and a German population, skilled in the mechanic arts, came and gave
+Philadelphia its manufacturing foundation. Penn was pietistic, his mother
+was from Holland, and this gave him continental acquaintance and sympathy
+with continental dissent, which later brought the Moravians and gave the
+colony relations with Central Europe, an early and prolific press, and
+patience with political oppression, a dubious virtue still surviving.
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS PENN.
+
+FROM A PAINTING OWNED BY THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, AND
+COPIED BY M. I. NAYLOR FROM THE PORTRAIT IN POSSESSION OF MAJOR DUGALD
+STUART.]
+
+[Illustration: SECOND STREET, PHILADELPHIA, SHOWING THE OLD COURTHOUSE ON
+THE LEFT.
+
+FROM AN ENGRAVING MADE BY BIRCH & SON.]
+
+The town grew like a weed and as rank. Grain was cheap, thanks to the
+limestone plain just beyond the low primitive rocks. Trade flowed in from
+the West Indies and Europe. In thirty years the place was bigger than
+any in the provinces. The Proprietor’s square house set the fashion,
+built from imported brick. Farmsteads on the road out to the German town
+of the new immigrants were built of the gray schists of the region.
+Ship-building began. Pirates lurked in the river below. The Proprietor’s
+official residence, now gone, fronted on the fouling pool where boats
+came, and matched the English country-house of South England. A little
+State House, which closely resembled in outer look the market-house
+of the same period on Second Street to the south, was built on Market
+Street, near the open rising ground on which Letitia Penn’s dwelling
+stood. Merchants’ homes were on its low hill; some of those still there
+are probably of this period when of imported brick. There is a row of
+houses on Swanson Street recalling the mechanics’ homes. In green quiet
+still held, the Friends’ meeting-house was erected—the present building
+far later. Low houses and warehouses clustered about what is now Dock
+Street—probably not one left. The swarm of some two thousand houses
+stretched along the river for what is now a square or two. Beyond were a
+few fields. Dense forests stood to the Schuylkill, and crowned all the
+little hills about, save that Fairmount stood bare, as is indeed the
+fashion of the sterile, rocky height. Schools were opened, of which one
+survives in the “Penn charter” school on Twelfth and Market. The city
+began its chartered existence, and the portraits of its first mayors,
+whose descendants are still part of the active life of the city, recall
+those of Guildhall, not as with like New England iconography, the
+Puritan remonstrants of James and Charles. An almanac was issued from
+the press of Bradford, whose solitary copy in the Historical Society
+begins printing for the State. A polyglot literature was in progress,
+apparent in more than one collection. The long, low, brick-built town
+left its image in 1720 in the picture in the entrance of the Philadelphia
+Library. Market stalls filled the river end of the street to which they
+gave a name, and these the civic organization, the peak-towered State
+House, the courts, the brick houses, the Proprietor’s residence, the
+city ordinances, the entire machinery of life, followed and imitated as
+closely as might be, on the edge of the wilderness, the market borough
+of an English shire. The town had had its first big boom and was near
+wallowing in its first reaction,—houses empty, more money in demand,
+debts oppressive, and all hope gone, when (1723) the great genius,
+Benjamin Franklin, who was to be its second founder and save it from
+Friend and Precisian, Palatinate Dutch, German, and Pietist, walked up
+Market Street and turned down Fourth in early morning. He was to give
+Philadelphia its better civilization. For near seventy years, he was to
+be, so far as the civilized world was concerned, the city and all in it
+worth knowing. By supreme good fortune all his past, or at least as much
+as it is desirable to know, is laid bare to the visitor. The houses in
+which he is said to have had his lodging as apprentice—old enough for
+this, at least—look down from Lodge Street on Dock Square. His old home
+on Market, between Third and Fourth, is long since gone, but it stood
+back from the street and was doubtless of the type of the roomy old
+houses now on Third south of Walnut, or the house of Hamilton in Woodlawn
+Cemetery. The letter-books of Franklin, with his correspondence for over
+twenty years, are at the American Philosophical Society which he founded,
+which first commemorated his death, and, a century later, the centenary
+of his obsequies. The best of his portraits is there, Houdon’s bust of
+the old man, and the roomy-seated chair of “Dr. Heavysides.” His dress
+buckles are in the Historical Society, and the teacups over which he
+bowed his compliments, and some speeches which Madame Helvetius rightly
+held more dearer than compliments, frowsy as Mrs. Adams found her. There,
+too, is the dubious portrait, which, whether it is Franklin in his youth
+or no, looks the youth of his male descendants. Part of his electric
+machine, and his printing-press, are in the Franklin Institute, part
+in the Philadelphia Library, which he also founded, and a Leyden jar,
+perhaps of the great experiment, at the American Philosophical Society.
+The fire-bucket of his company, and the sword he wore in his brief but
+not inglorious military service, are in the Historical Society. One
+probable site of the field in which he flew his kite is filled by the
+present Record building. His statue is on the front of the library at
+Juniper and Locust; another—worthy—is to the right on Chestnut Street,
+looking on the flow of men and women in the city life he loved, for in
+the country he never willingly spent a day. Not a stage of his life but
+can still be followed by the historical pilgrim in Philadelphia. He
+can follow in Franklin’s steps,—the steep slope up which he walked to
+enter—with old landing-stairs still in place south of Market—the Fourth
+Street corner, the site of his job office, the purlieus of Dock Street,
+from whence came the mire that never quite left his garments, the lots
+of the Market Street home where his better years were passed, his pew
+at Christ’s Church, the State House he entered for a half-century in
+so many capacities—King’s officer, contractor, colonial legislator,
+rebellious congressman, signer of the Declaration and Constitution,—his
+eye through all the years on the gilded sun one can yet trace on the
+back of the President’s chair—and last, when his own sun was at its
+setting, as member of the Constitutional Convention of his own State,
+and his modest grave at Fifth and Arch, where one may still uncover at
+the last memory of the most human of all Americans. Most of us, least
+of other lands, prefiguring in life, work, and character our invincible
+patience, our good humor, our quenchless curiosity, our careless disorder
+in trifles, our easy success in serious affairs, our sluttish phrase, our
+high spirit, the even equality of our manners, our perpetual relish for
+the simple environment and the homelier joys of our life, our neglect
+of means and detail, our perseverance and achievement in the final end,
+our self-consciousness and our easy conviction that neither fate itself,
+nor our own careless disregard of a less wise past, can rob us of our
+appointed place in the advancing files of time.
+
+[Illustration: FRANKLIN IN 1777.
+
+AFTER THE PRINT REPRODUCED FROM THE DRAWING OF COHIN.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PHILADELPHIA LIBRARY.
+
+THE OLD BUILDING ON FIFTH STREET, NOW DEMOLISHED. FROM THE ENGRAVING BY
+W. BIRCH & SON.]
+
+Franklin’s busy march through these streets bridged two great periods.
+His half-century before the Revolution, fifty-two years from his landing
+to Lexington, was a season of prodigious material expansion whose signs
+are all about the city. Then were built those pleasant places in the
+Park, and homes like that of John Penn’s in the Zoölogical Garden, ending
+in the privateer’s house which was later to be Arnold’s headquarters,
+to-day Mt. Pleasant. John Bartram built his stone house, set up its
+pillars and laid out his Botanical Garden, both happily standing and
+city property, his cypress alone dead,—slow failing through the years in
+which one lover has each spring sought it,—but much of his sylvan wealth
+remains, still a record of his science and of the economic conditions
+which gave him means for his long and costly trips. For when there were
+neither roads nor railroads the “distance-rent” of farm land near a city
+was enormous. The farm hard by swept in all the profit of days of teaming
+of which the railroad has long since robbed it and diffused it over a
+wide area, levelling up, as is our American way. The home, the life, the
+leisure, the acquaintance and the society possible 150 years ago to a man
+who farmed suburban acres are all attested when you stand in Bartram’s
+garden by the river on the gray rock of the only rock wine-press this
+side of the Atlantic, and remember that on this curving path Washington,
+Franklin, Hancock, Rittenhouse, Morris, and Kalm, and a score more of the
+century’s great, supped in the cool, open evening with a host whom the
+first two found at a sudden coming bare-headed, barefooted and plowing.
+The Revolutionary houses of the environs tell of the farm-profits of this
+period; so do the “clasped hands” and the “green tree” on the fronts of
+the olden homes—few or none dating back of the Revolution—which record
+the organization of rival insurance companies; the earliest building
+of the Pennsylvania Hospital on Pine with quaint old-world aspect, the
+little strip of wall at Tenth and Spruce, once part of the almshouse
+which Longfellow blended with the hospital in _Evangeline_; Carpenters’
+Hall, the only Guild house in the colonies; the bit of wall still
+standing of the brewery at Fifth and Wharton; of the first play-house in
+the city and, most important of all, the two chief colonial monuments of
+the city, Christ Church and Independence Hall.
+
+[Illustration: CARPENTERS’ HALL, PHILADELPHIA.
+
+WHEREIN MET THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, 1774.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PENNSYLVANIA HOSPITAL.
+
+FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING BY W. BIRCH & SON.]
+
+These buildings mark much. The city from a mere “Front” Street on the
+river, and two behind it, had grown up to Seventh and Eighth in a half
+ellipse which ran in thriving homes from Kensington, grew thronged
+about Chestnut, now passing Market in the race,—so that Market and
+Arch have the oldest house-fronts to-day,—and then thinned out again
+towards the scene of the Mischienza. In this area are scattered the
+mansions of the Colonial and immediate post-Revolutionary period, with
+Mrs. Ross’s house on Arch Street as type of the mechanic’s dwelling of
+the day, happily preserved and now bought as a memorial of the flag
+first made there. Beyond them begins the modern city of this century,
+of machine-made brick, of lumber sawed by steam, and house plans fitted
+to the growing value of the city lot. The growth which thus expanded
+the city of Penn into the city of Franklin was no mere accretion of
+population. It came of a profitable trade, of a share in adventures by
+sea and land, not always legal, and always dangerous, and of a close
+connection between the merchants of this city and those of London, from
+which the ancestors of more than one Philadelphia Friend were drawn,
+for Penn had borne his testimony in the Grace Church and Wheeler Street
+meeting-houses in London. When the richer men of the city came to erect
+its chief church, it was Gibbs’s St. Martin in the Fields which suggested
+the interior of the building on Second Street, and it was London brick
+architecture which was followed in Independence Hall and its open
+arches,—now restored,—despoiling the record of recent history to decorate
+and sometimes disfigure an earlier period, as is the manner and method
+of restoration the world over. These buildings in their size, their
+grace, their Georgian flavor, their cost,—for both were extravagant as
+times then went,—stood for an opulent mercantile connection between the
+metropolis of colonial and of royal England, a connection never quite
+lost, as the resemblance of the younger city to the older has never quite
+vanished. New York suggests Paris in spots, but no Philadelphian in his
+wildest flight ever thought that Philadelphia did.
+
+When the Revolution came, Philadelphia sacrificed its English trade
+as promptly as ninety years later the city, loyal to its principles,
+sacrificed its Southern trade, and in both times and both sacrifices New
+York lagged to the rear in action and came to the front in assertion.
+Independence Hall still looked out on green fields to the west, and
+Rittenhouse’s little observatory—earliest of American star-gazing spots,
+whose telescope, earliest of our astronomical instruments, is in the
+American Philosophical Society—still stood in the square where Howe’s
+artillery was to be parked. The jail of “Hugh Wynne” was on the southeast
+corner of Sixth and Chestnut, on whose site Binney’s home was to stand
+later, the hero of another struggle for freedom. In the northeast corner
+of Washington Square was the potter’s field, last opened a century
+ago for yellow-fever victims. The house, Dutch built, and hence close
+to the street edge, in which Jefferson was to write the draft of the
+Declaration, preserved by the American Philosophical Society, was on
+Seventh and Market, its commemoration tablet on the wrong lot. A tavern
+fronted the Hall, and its stables ran opposite to the main door, its
+flies worrying the Continental Congress on a hot historic afternoon.
+The sharp rise which still ascends between Callowhill and Spring Garden
+was crested by the British works, of which the first was at Second and
+Poplar. From the Market Street Bridge it is still possible to make out
+the hill on which Hamilton planted his field-pieces to engage the British
+_tête-du-pont_, held by the 72d Highlanders. The Hessians camped in the
+open space at Gray’s Ferry, as the bridge of many years is still called.
+The stately house which held the Mischienza has disappeared only within
+a few years. The houses on the main street of Germantown still bear the
+mark of the battle, and look unchanged on the street whose fogs still
+veil it as on the day of conflict. The city now had from the river the
+sky-line which it substantially retained up to twenty years ago, when the
+steeples and the towers the Revolutionary period knew were dwarfed by the
+many-storied steel frames of to-day.
+
+[Illustration: INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, BEFORE 1876.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MORRIS HOUSE, GERMANTOWN, PHILADELPHIA.]
+
+The returning tide of prosperity after the Revolution has left one mark
+in the Morris dwelling on the south side of Eighth, between Locust and
+Walnut, type of the wealthy home of the day. The biggest of the period
+was Robert Morris’s, on the site of the Press Building, left as his
+“folly.” The peak-roofed house in roomy squares now gave way for thirty
+years to the house built flush to the street, which in the generation
+between 1790 and 1820 spread the growing city up to Tenth Street or so,
+and of which many are left. With this growth dwellings pushed beyond
+South on one side and beyond Vine on the other, the fringe of the city
+limits becoming an Alsatia still apparent, mechanics’ homes crowding
+just beyond as they still do, until met north and even south by more
+pretentious dwellings. In this thirty years the city grew from 42,000 to
+108,000, and it faced first the problem to which only the American and
+Australian city has proved fully equal in all the round of semitropical
+summers north or south of the equator. The city, as it inherited from
+England its city government, had also inherited from there its well-water
+supply, its surface drainage, its slovenly streets, its practice of
+crowding the homes of the poor on back lots, so as to fill the area
+on which they stood with unsavory wynds, and its habit of intramural
+interment and intramural slaughter-houses, all which, even the Latin
+cities of two thousand years ago, taught by hotter summers, had outgrown.
+In the tepid temperature and light but even rain-fall in England these
+worked few ills until the middle of this century. Under our torrid
+summer, our tropical rain-fall, and our swift changes, all these things
+meant disease and death, and the unconscious problem which faced the city
+a century ago and left its mark on the map was recorded in yellow fever,
+born of water-supply and filth together with overcrowding, and all the
+evils of bad water and overcrowding.
+
+Water-works were at last built, the most considerable then known, their
+site where the Public Buildings stand and their picture in the Historical
+Society; a systematic street scavenging began, building on the back of
+lots was prohibited, years before New York, and two generations before
+the European city; a fixed yardage, small, but sufficient to transform
+the city map, was required of each dwelling; paving and sewerage
+commenced, the almshouse was moved, a city hospital was established,
+and a most important legal decision made easy the purchase of house
+lots by the poor and frugal. The solution was not complete. Typhoid
+lurks where yellow fever once raged, but crowding was prevented and
+the city has no slums in the region outside of the area which has been
+built over since the ordinances of the first twenty to thirty years of
+this century stopped overcrowding and saved its poorer citizens from
+the awful fate inflicted by the titled avarice and civic mislegislation
+of London and Glasgow. Nor ought any one to look across the Schuylkill
+from the Zoölogical Garden at the lovely and related group which houses
+the Fairmount Water-works without a thrill of pride that this was the
+beginning of the problem of preserving health in heat and rain, which
+since the world began had meant pestilence to the city in like climes.
+As is the American habit, the supply looked first to quantity, and later
+to quality; and as is also the American habit, both will be secured in
+the end. So the large provision for the almshouse of seventy years ago
+has given the space for the University and its buildings, its cognate
+institutions, hospitals and museums, taken collectively, one of the most
+liberal grants made by any modern city to the work of higher education
+not under its own control, a grant which owed its initiative and early
+success to Dr. William Pepper, whose statue overlooks the site he secured
+to learning and to science. There the University has grown, covered its
+site with a score of buildings, added department to department, doubled
+its students in a decade, received more in gifts under its present
+Provost, Mr. Charles C. Harrison, than had come to it in all the
+century and a half of its history, knit the community to it and given it
+intellectual leadership by a group of affiliated societies, linked itself
+to the public schools by municipal scholarships supported by the city,
+opened courses for teachers, spread its lectures over the State and in
+all ways made itself not only an institution of learning for students,
+but of teaching for the community.
+
+[Illustration: DR. WILLIAM PEPPER.]
+
+[Illustration: FRANK THOMSON.]
+
+The development of civic institutions in the first quarter of the century
+was accompanied by the founding, each to-day housed in conspicuous
+recent edifices of the past decade, of State-aided institutions for
+the Deaf and Dumb, 1820, for the Blind, 1833, and the House of Refuge,
+1828. This philanthropic impulse came, as such generally does, as part
+of a rapid material development which, in a score of years ending
+with the commercial crash of 1837-39, had laid the foundations of the
+manufacturing activity and the internal commerce of Philadelphia. It was
+in this period that the Music Fund Hall (1824), Eighth above South, was
+built. The Exchange, 1832, the most pretentious building of its day, was
+erected near the close of the period, and the pillared row, following a
+London model, was built on Spruce between Ninth and Tenth, the largest
+and most costly private dwellings of its day. The next Colonnade row,
+nearly twenty years later, occupied the site, and gave the name to the
+Colonnade Hotel, Fifteenth and Chestnut. St. Mark’s and St. Luke’s
+stood for opposite extremes of the church edifices of the forties. The
+taste of the Federalists and Whigs of the day filled the city with the
+pseudo-classic, from which Europe was just departing—the United States
+bank, now the Custom-house, the Mint, the building in which Girard had
+his bank, back of the Exchange, and lastly Girard College, not easily
+forgot, however unfit for its purpose, if once seen from St. George’s
+hill on its airy height. The ship-building firm of Cramps was established
+1830, and Baldwin’s Locomotive Works 1837, both products of the same
+period of activity. Ten years later began the Pennsylvania railroad
+comparable to a kingdom in revenue power and the ability of chiefs like
+Frank Thomson. The city flowed across Broad Street, and solid blocks
+pushed their way in brick and white marble, turning later to New York’s
+brown-stone, up each flank of the city on Pine and on Arch, spreading
+out in an area beyond Broad Street, which the crash of credit, and the
+failure of the State for a season to pay the interest on its bonds, left
+tenantless, often roofless, covered with mortgages and the prediction,
+heard first under Governor Keith, 1725, repeated within this decade, that
+the city would never need the houses which a boom had erected.
+
+The city of the period before the war had now been built and the suburbs
+had grown close to the consolidation of 1854. Railroad access had
+created, across the Schuylkill, the village of Mantua, which was to
+become West Philadelphia as it extended southward and was reached by new
+bridges and street-car lines. To the north, just beyond the old British
+redoubts, factory owners, managers and foremen, mechanics and operatives,
+with the retailers they required, had built their homes on the higher
+ground, north of the great industries growing on the low and lightly
+taxed land, easily accessible by railroads from the coal-fields, beyond
+the old city limits at Vine, and extending to Callowhill and beyond. This
+created the city of Spring Garden. The river settlements, the Northern
+Liberties, Kensington, Richmond, grew under the triple influence of
+manufacturers and cheap coal, out of the villages whose farm-houses,
+taverns and mechanics’ dwellings of the early years of the century still
+dot the raw newer dwellings of the past forty years. Like settlements had
+grown in Southwark and Manayunk. The gaps and sutures still remain to
+mark the old divisions. The squalid stretches of South Street from river
+to river, for nearly a century the resort of cheap stores which sought
+city trade, and avoided city taxes. The like ragged selvedge along Vine,
+influenced, too, along much of the line by low, open ground. The gap
+fringing both banks of the Schuylkill, marking days when the railroad and
+the Market Street bridge made the more distant uprise of Fortieth Street
+more accessible than the lower region nearer. The bare and vacant patches
+about Germantown Junction, over which the old village has never quite
+grown down to meet the approaching city, where for various reasons of
+grade, access was not easy, and where institutions like Girard College
+and the Penitentiary, with a cemetery or two, like rocks in a moving
+stream, have stopped and divided the glacier-like spread of the city.
+These things have made Philadelphia, like London, a city of accretions
+from divers centres, and not, like Paris or New York, a steady,
+symmetrical and continuous growth from one organic centre.
+
+The war found a city which, united, had more than the area of London
+(Philadelphia, 82,807 acres; London, 74,692), and at almost every stage
+of the growth of the two a quarter of the population of the vaster
+metropolis. Since room is the chief factor in civic comfort, there has
+never been a year in which the average man has not been just about four
+times as comfortable in Philadelphia as in London, and he has always had
+higher wages by a quarter to a half, paid less for food and lodgings,
+and paid more for clothing, light and coal. He has lived here, a family
+to a house, where a quarter of London has been a family to two rooms.
+Most of all, for twenty years past has this growth of the small houses
+of labor gone on, their number swelling faster than the tale of families
+seeking them. These conditions, secured by a wise civic policy early
+in the century, had reached the full development, which they have since
+maintained, at the opening of the war. Inexpressibly dull was the
+extension the city now made, the dreary reaches of homes, which oppress
+the stranger west of Eleventh Street, and appear in unvarying blocks on
+the North and South Streets, the building operations of the ’40s and
+’50s, in whose even rows were the last, worst expression of the dull,
+utilitarian spirit of the pre-war, pre-centennial period. Napoleon LeBrun
+built the Cathedral and the Academy of Music, a brick shell holding a
+shapely and grandiose interior, and Walton and McArthur added to the
+pseudo-classic. When the Jayne Block went up on Chestnut, east of Third,
+it was believed to be the largest single business building yet erected
+on the continent. The Girard, 1852, was one of its largest hotels, and
+echoed the Italian palace front which Barry had taught London in his
+Reform Club.
+
+[Illustration: THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+STATE HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA.]
+
+The development in manufactures after the war, railroad expansion and
+the somewhat deceptive prosperity of the Centennial gave the city the
+same sudden burst which Chicago had in 1893, and Philadelphia took on
+the aspect in the next twenty years, 1876 to 1896, which the great city
+will always hold. Cheap freights poured in new building-stones, and the
+easily worked green serpentine was used in the University buildings and
+the Academy of Natural Science on Logan Square. It was employed in the
+Academy of Fine Arts, less agreeable than the earlier front of the same
+institution, now a theatre on Chestnut. The architectural impulse first
+felt at the Centennial broke up the traditions of a century, and building
+of the last twenty-five years, often _bizarre_, always shows, even in the
+humblest row, intent, design and recognition, however uncouth, of the
+just claim of decoration.
+
+The seeing eye and loving can still trace all these changes of a century.
+The very kernel of the city, and its warehouses about Dock Square,
+and the river front, the expansion before the Revolution, the pause
+just after, the growth in the period after 1787, the addition early
+in the century and the great growth before and after the war and for
+twenty years past. Each has its character and quality, its message and
+purport, and these as they extended have met a growth as distinct and
+recognizable, north, west and south. The marks of these things and their
+metes and bounds, the current and course of population, the monuments
+of the past, the changing fashion of each decade and the desire of the
+present, these are all written in this moving tide of houses which has
+flooded all the wood-grown fields of two centuries ago. Generation by
+generation has seen a wider comfort, a higher level of life, an improving
+education and more abundant resource for the Many for whom this city
+has always existed. Dull, sordid, narrow, much of this life has been.
+From its dawn, it has had its seasons of stagnant corruption, and Penn
+but wrote the despair of all who have served it since, yet no man has
+labored and lived in it but has come to know its charm, to feel its life,
+to trust to the sure tides of its being, welling always towards a more
+complete comfort, and to love this vast amorphous city which broods over
+its children with a perpetual home nurture.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+WILMINGTON
+
+“Her mingled streams of Swedish, Dutch and English blood.”
+
+BY E. N. VALLANDIGHAM
+
+
+When the adventurous William Usselinx, native of Antwerp and merchant of
+Stockholm, was growing old, he proposed to King Gustavus Adolphus that
+Sweden organize a trading company to operate in Asia, Africa, America,
+and Terra Magellanica. The King lent ear to Usselinx, and Usselinx
+was able to picture to the Swedish people the beauty and fertility
+of the region bordering on the Delaware, “a fine land, in which all
+the necessaries and comforts of life are to be enjoyed in overflowing
+abundance.” The proposed plans sped well for a time; the King pledged
+a great sum from the royal treasury in aid of the new company, and the
+Swedish people, nobles and commons, subscribed to the stock. But the
+King was shortly to be busied in the wars of Germany, and when he died at
+his great victory of Lützen, the plans of Usselinx were yet unexecuted.
+One biographer of Gustavus, indeed, says that the little fleet intended
+for America was seized by the Spaniards, but it is by no means certain
+that such a fleet ever set sail.
+
+Queen Christina, the daughter of Gustavus, permitted her able chancellor,
+Oxenstiern, to revive the charter of Usselinx, and Oxenstiern employed
+to take out a Swedish colony to the Delaware probably the fittest man
+in all the world for that task, Peter Minuet, sometime Governor of New
+Netherlands, driven from his post by the jealous factors that they
+might put in his place the more pliant Walter Van Twiller, surnamed the
+Doubter. The exact date of Minuet’s expedition is unknown, but Kieft,
+who succeeded Van Twiller in the Governorship of New Netherlands, made
+protest in May, 1638, against the presence upon the Delaware of Peter
+Minuet, “who stylest thyself commander in the service of her Majesty the
+Queen of Sweden.” Kieft warned Peter “that the whole South River [the
+Delaware] of the New Netherlands, both the upper and the lower, has been
+our property for many years, occupied by our forts, and sealed by our
+blood.”
+
+When Kieft’s protest reached the newly arrived Swedes, they were already
+in snug quarters on the edge of the River Minquas, as the Indians called
+it, or Christina, as the newcomers named it (set down on modern maps as
+Christiana, but in the mouths of those that navigate its waters, called
+Christeen); for they had sailed up the Delaware in the _Bird Grip_, or
+_Griffin_, and the _Key of Calmar_, and entering the Minquas, had come to
+anchor in deep water close against a natural wharf of rock, well within
+the present limits of Wilmington. Thus was made the true beginning of
+the city, though no part of the region it now occupies bore the name of
+Wilmington until a full century later.
+
+The newcomers built close to their original place of anchorage a little
+fort, and behind it a little village. Hudde, the Dutch commander at
+Fort Nassau, thirty miles up the Delaware, describing the Swedish
+fortification seven years later, says that it was “nearly encircled
+by a marsh, except on the northwest side, where it can be approached
+by land.” The fort was then and for years afterward, the only place
+of worship in the immediate region, and here from the founding of the
+colony the Rev. Reorus Torkillius, a Swedish clergyman of Latinized name,
+conducted the Lutheran service in the Swedish language. Thus church and
+state were planted together. Pastor Campanius, who came five years after
+Torkillius, found that beside Fort Christina had sprung up the village of
+Christina Harbor, or Christinaham, and Engineer Lindstrom, who came when
+the settlement was not yet twenty years old, has left us a map of this
+earliest Wilmington.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF CHRISTINA FORT, 1655.]
+
+Before the Dutch had time to call the Swedish intruders to a reckoning
+Minuet died, and John Prinz was sent out as Governor. There had been the
+short intervening reign of Peter Hollendare. Prinz came under a cloud,
+having lost his rank as First Lieutenant by his over-hasty surrender
+of Chemnitz. Probably this fact may account for his restless energy as
+Governor of New Sweden. He sought to regain in the new world repute lost
+in the old. Prinz came with two ships, an armed transport, munitions of
+war, troops, and many immigrants, and with instructions to maintain and
+promote piety and education, to develop the resources of the colony,
+agricultural and mineral, to make friends with the Indians, and to live
+at peace with all neighboring Europeans. But he was to resent by force
+of arms, if need be, the pretensions of the Dutch to any territorial or
+other rights upon the west side of the Delaware.
+
+Prinz built at Tinicum, or Tenacong as the Indians called it, near the
+present city of Chester, Pennsylvania, a fort to threaten the Dutch
+Fort Nassau, above; and likewise at the mouth of Salem Creek, on the
+Jersey shore, where the English had a small settlement, he built Fort
+Elfsborg, or Elsinborough. Both were promptly armed and garrisoned. He
+built still another fort, this time on the Schuylkill, within gunshot
+of its mouth, and in 1646 he ordered a Dutch trading-vessel from that
+river. Furthermore, he caused to be torn down with despiteful words the
+arms of the Dutch, set up in sign of possession upon the present site
+of Philadelphia, and when reminded of the Dutch West India Company’s
+prior claim, he profanely answered that although Satan was the earliest
+possessor of hell, doubtless he sometimes welcomed new comers.
+
+But a day of reckoning was speedily to come, for Peter Stuyvesant,
+Governor of the New Netherlands, moved by the amazing activity of Prinz,
+bought from the Indians all the west side of the Delaware from Minquas
+Creek to Bompties (or Bombay) Hook, and in 1651, as some say,—before the
+building of Elfsborg as others say,—built Fort Casimir at Sand Huken, now
+Newcastle, on the Delaware, five miles below Fort Christina, and within
+sight of Elfsborg. Whichever fort was built first, it is pretty certain
+that the Swedes soon deserted Elfsborg, after naming it in disgust
+Myggenborg, which means Fort Mosquito. The excuse for the desertion was
+the insupportable insect pests of the region; so early did the New Jersey
+mosquito earn the reputation that clings to him even to this day. As for
+Prinz, alarmed at the activity of the Dutch, he vainly petitioned the
+home government for aid, and at length went off to Europe, leaving as
+deputy his son-in-law, John Pappegoja.
+
+And now the comedy of outflanking was to be followed by the comedy of
+bloodless capture and recapture, for Prinz had not been long gone when
+there arrived in the Delaware from Sweden, in the man-of-war _Eagle_,
+John Claudius Rising, as commissary and counsellor to the Governor, and
+Peter Lindstrom, military engineer, together with arms and soldiers. The
+Dutch at Fort Casimir were living in unsuspicious peace when the _Eagle_
+suddenly appeared before the fort and demanded that the place surrender,
+as occupying Swedish ground. Rising enforced his demand by landing thirty
+soldiers, and the Dutch yielded upon favorable terms which secured to
+them all their property, public and private, and granted as well the
+honors of war. As the capture was made on Trinity Sunday, the name of the
+place was changed by the Swedes to Trefalldigheet, or Fort Trinity. This
+incident, which befell in the year 1655, is notable as the first passage
+at arms, if such it may be called, between rival European claimants to
+the western shore of the Delaware.
+
+[Illustration: RESIDENCE OF THE LATE THOMAS F. BAYARD.]
+
+But Rising’s prompt policy of aggression was a mistake, for it left
+the Dutch no alternative but counter-aggression; and accordingly Peter
+Stuyvesant, with seven ships and six hundred or seven hundred men,
+appeared before the deserted Elfsborg late in August, 1655, captured a
+few straggling Swedes ashore, endured the mosquitoes for one night only,
+and next day, having landed a force north of Fort Trinity to cut it off
+from Fort Christina, demanded that the garrison surrender. Swen Schute,
+the Swedish commander, despite a name that ought to have been formidable
+in war, was as obligingly prompt in compliance as the Dutch commander had
+been a few months earlier. There was, as before, a friendly arrangement
+as to the guaranty of property, public and private, but Swen Schute never
+dared return to Sweden lest he be brought to book for his alacrity in
+surrendering.
+
+Now came the taking of Fort Christina, immortalized by Washington
+Irving’s genius of burlesque. Rising, aware of his weakness, professed
+to believe that the Dutch had no further hostile intent, but when
+they invested Fort Christina on three sides, planted cannon, and
+called for the surrender of the place in forty-eight hours, he first
+temporized, then put on a bold face, and finally, without striking a
+blow, surrendered. So ended Swedish rule in Delaware, and so began the
+short-lived Dutch supremacy.
+
+The Dutch guaranteed to the vanquished religious liberty and all other
+reasonable privileges, so that few Swedes took the chance afforded
+of selling their property and removing out of the jurisdiction. The
+Swedes, indeed, were soon reconciled to Dutch rule, and in fact the
+colony remained, in all save politics, as truly Swedish as it had been
+before. The Dutch children learned the Swedish tongue, and as the Swedes
+far outnumbered the Dutch, the latter were soon lost in the mass of
+the former. When a nephew of Prinz visited the country, late in the
+seventeenth century, he found that the people “used the old Swedish way
+in all things.” Pastor Rudman wrote home to Sweden that the mother tongue
+was still spoken in all its purity by the colonists at Christinaham, and
+as a matter of fact it did not entirely cease to be used in the services
+of the Swedish church until more than a century and a quarter had elapsed.
+
+[Illustration: OLD SWEDES CHURCH.]
+
+Luckily for the Swedes they were too busy to trouble themselves about a
+change of masters, and when the agents of James, Duke of York, having
+possessed themselves of New Amsterdam in 1664, after Charles I. had
+magnificently given to James all the country between the Connecticut and
+the east bank of the Delaware, also seized New Sweden as a dependency of
+New Netherlands, the good folk at Christinaham accepted the new situation
+and went about their business. The attempted rebellion of Königsmark,
+“the Long Finn,” who called himself a son of General Count William Von
+Königsmark, and the historical interlude of the Dutch occupation in 1673
+and 1674, when the forts changed hands, in the usual bloodless fashion,
+twice in a few months, did not profoundly shake the community on the
+Minquas. The second surrender left the English in secure possession.
+
+In the midst of this apparent indifference to governmental changes, one
+thing did move the Swedes, and was doubtless in part responsible for the
+welcome they gave the return of the Dutch: this was a tariff imposed by
+the English rulers upon all inward-bound merchandise passing the capes of
+the Delaware. At this juncture there came to the rescue the best friend
+the Swedes had yet found in the new world, a man so wise and just in
+his dealing with civilized man and savage on this side the Atlantic, so
+generous, tolerant, large-minded and large-hearted in all that concerned
+the great powers entrusted to him, that one can hardly understand how
+even so audacious an iconoclast as Macaulay had the hardihood to assail
+his memory. This man was William Penn, who, having recently become
+trustee for Quaker estates in West Jersey, made prompt protest against
+the tariff and had it revoked—an early triumph for the principle of no
+taxation without representation.
+
+When, soon after, he became proprietor of the “Three Counties on the
+Delaware,” the Swedes of Christinaham and the region round about knew him
+and were glad. Penn had an equally good opinion of the Swedes, for he
+says:
+
+    “As they are a proper people, and strong of body, so they have
+    fine children, and almost every house full. It is rare to find
+    one of them without three or four boys and as many girls, some
+    six, seven and eight sons. And I must do them that right to say
+    I see few young men more sober and laborious.”
+
+A Swedish writer of about the same period notes that the Swedish farmers
+are as well clad as the residents of cities. Penn describes the houses
+in his new possessions as of a single story and divided into three
+apartments. A house and a barn suitable to a colonist might be built for
+seventy-five dollars.
+
+[Illustration: REV. ERIC BJORK.]
+
+[Illustration: BISHOP LEE.]
+
+Penn noted, however, that the Swedes were not so well educated as
+they should have been, and a few years later they were in such need
+of religious instruction, although they had but recently lost their
+pastor, that, partly through the representations of the proprietor and
+partly through the importunities of the Swedes themselves, the King of
+Sweden was induced to send out to Delaware the Rev. Eric Bjork. This
+good and energetic man, finding inconveniently situated the Swedish
+Lutheran church erected in 1667 at Crane Hook, or Tran Hook, near the
+mouth of the Christiana, conceived and executed the plan of building a
+new church near the scene of the original Swedish landing at the Rocks.
+The new edifice was the Old Swedes of to-day, which celebrated the two
+hundredth anniversary of its dedication on the 28th of last May. This
+venerable church, now Holy Trinity of the Protestant Episcopal Diocese of
+Delaware, is revered and cherished as the one visible link which joins
+the city of Wilmington to her earliest past. In the churchyard lie the
+dead of many generations, and of almost all denominations. Here, side by
+side with the Swedish colonists of the early eighteenth century, lies the
+late Bishop Alfred Lee of the Episcopal Church, who in life, as learned
+as he was modest, was one of the American Committee for the Revision of
+the King James Bible. Here, too, was recently laid to rest, amid many of
+his kinsfolk, the late Ambassador Thomas F. Bayard, worn with long and
+honorable public service.
+
+Thanks to the late Dr. Horace Burr we have an English translation of the
+earliest records of Old Swedes. In these records is contained a curious
+account of the difficulties attendant upon the building of the new
+church. There were quarrels over the glebe, the usual troubles with the
+contractor, and the inevitable changes of plan after the work was under
+way. Hired sawyers were paid so much per foot, and “drink.” In order to
+save wages the men of the parish came as they found leisure and hewed the
+timbers. Masons and other skilled mechanics came from Philadelphia, then
+“a clever little town,” and with them came Dick, a negro mortar-mixer.
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS F. BAYARD.]
+
+Notwithstanding the erection of the new church, the community seems to
+have grown away from the scene of the original landing, until in 1731
+Thomas Willing, son-in-law of Andrew Justison, of Swedish blood, laid
+out upon the Christiana front, half a mile from the Rocks, a new town
+modelled upon the rectangular plan of Philadelphia. The first house in
+Willingstown, built at the corner of Front and Market streets, bore
+in its brick gable a stone with the inscription, “J. W. S., 1732.”
+Three years later the place was only a small hamlet, but in that year
+Willingstown had a new birth, for then William Shipley, a wealthy, well
+educated and energetic English Friend of Ridley in Pennsylvania, came
+to the place and made himself, so to speak, its second founder. He came
+through the influence of his second wife, Elizabeth Lewis, a preacher
+of his own sect, who saw in a vision a goodly land lying at the foot
+of a hill and traversed by two rivers, one wild and dashing, the other
+sluggish and serpentine, and visiting by accident the region of the
+Swedish settlement on the Christiana, recognized the landscape of her
+vision.
+
+William Shipley built his house—an admirable example of
+eighteenth-century brickwork—at the corner of Fourth and Shipley streets,
+where it recently gave place to a modern business building. He built,
+also, a market-house for the town at the corner of Fourth and Market
+streets, and in doing so, paved the way for a quarrel with the partisans
+of the Second Street market-house, a body of citizens including many
+Swedes.
+
+So potent was the magic of William Shipley’s presence that in four years
+the town had reached six hundred inhabitants. Next year it received a
+borough charter from Penn, and its name was changed to Wilmington, in
+honor of Lord Wilmington, says Ebeling, the German historian. It was
+a tight little borough, the Wilmington of that day and of fifteen or
+twenty years later. The burgesses, who at first met about in taverns,
+at length were comfortably housed in a neat little Town Hall built upon
+arches over one end of the Second Street market. There were fairs
+during most of the eighteenth century; fairs to which hundreds came in
+holiday attire and dancing shoes to make merry to the sound of bagpipe,
+flute, fiddle and trombone. It is significant of grave Quaker austerity,
+perhaps, that the fairs were suppressed by act of Legislature in 1785, as
+nurseries of vice, a scandal to religion, and an offence to well ordered
+persons. There may have been some excuse for this severity, for indeed
+with the coming of the English had come something of the brutality of
+eighteenth-century English manners. Bullies fought naked to the waist
+in the market-place, and hired ruffians nearly cut down the posts that
+supported William Shipley’s market-house. The most picturesque modern
+survival of Wilmington in the eighteenth century is the King Street
+open-air market, and with it remains the statute against forestalling,
+made to meet the case of some early monopolist.
+
+[Illustration: SHIPLEY BUILDING.]
+
+Wilmington’s Quaker peace was little disturbed by echoes of European wars
+in the eighteenth century, though in 1741 the Christiana was fortified
+against possible Spanish pirates; but when the war of the Revolution
+came, Wilmington was loyal and ready. Old folk still preserve the
+tradition of Washington’s presence in the city just before the battle of
+the Brandywine, of his gay French officers in the sober house of a Quaker
+citizen, of President John McKinly’s capture at midnight by a detachment
+of British sent in after the battle, of the British wounded crowding the
+houses of citizens and probably saving the town from bombardment by
+British ships of war in the Delaware. Tradition recalls, too, the visit
+of Washington in his hour of victory, when he journeyed homeward to Mount
+Vernon, of his other visit on his journey northward to be inaugurated
+as President at New York, and of still another visit in 1791, when he
+made his famous progress through the country. On that last visit, riding
+in his chariot of state through little Brandywine village, opposite
+Wilmington, on the left bank of the Brandywine, he stopped at the house
+of miller Joseph Tatnall, to learn that he was at the mill, and then,
+with those great strides of his, walked through the village street to
+the edge of the stream, entered the mill, and talked with the courageous
+patriot Quaker of his services to the army during the war.
+
+[Illustration: OLD FRIENDS’ MEETING-HOUSE.]
+
+By this time the borough had travelled far from the crudity of Swedish
+days and had even departed somewhat from the severity of Quaker
+tradition. There were French emigrants from the black terror in Santo
+Domingo, and from the red terror in France. There were soon to be other
+French immigrants,—Du Ponts, bringing a mingled flavor of aristocracy,
+learning and benevolence, destined to found great factories and to give
+patriot soldiers and sailors to the land of their adoption, and yet to
+retain even to the fifth generation the Gallic face, and air, and manner.
+
+Wealth and elegance were come to the little community on the Minquas.
+Had not Robert Montgomery made the tour of Europe, and did he not for
+four months during the plague of yellow fever at Philadelphia entertain
+Governor McKean of Pennsylvania? Did not another wealthy citizen
+entertain one hundred refugees of the same period? And there was Gunning
+Bedford, Jr., _aide-de-camp_ and friend to Washington, inheritor of
+his crimson satin Masonic sash, his appointee as first Federal Judge
+for the District of Delaware. He and his wife, a Read of distinguished
+colonial stock, entertained friend and stranger with splendid hospitality
+in the very house in Market Street that had been the headquarters of
+Washington’s French officers. The Bedfords were Presbyterians. Gunning
+Bedford, Jr., worshipped in the quaint little First Presbyterian Church
+in Market Street near Tenth, now reverently preserved and occupied by
+the Delaware Historical Society. Hard by in the churchyard you may see
+Judge Bedford’s tomb, a low but graceful domed shaft facing the public
+street, so that all may read the lesson of civic virtue, and bearing an
+inscription that closes thus:
+
+    “His form was goodly, his temper amiable,
+    His manners winning, and his discharge
+    Of private duties exemplary.
+
+    “Reader, may his example stimulate you to improve the
+    talents—be they five, or two, or one—with which God has
+    entrusted you.”
+
+Wilmington built her new Town Hall just a century ago last year, and
+Friend Joseph Tatnall gave the clock that shone in its tower and told
+the hours. The clock went out of use more than thirty years ago, but the
+building remains, not altogether spoiled by modern additions, sacred
+because of its associations, and testifying to the solidity with which
+the city fathers built in the last century.
+
+[Illustration: HOUSE OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.]
+
+When the City Hall was built Penn’s charter, unamended, still served the
+community, and continued to serve until 1809, when it was amended and
+the borough limits were enlarged. The town was yet merely a borough when
+the War of 1812 came on, and Senator James A. Bayard, the first of four
+Bayards to represent Delaware in the United States Senate, helped with
+his own hands to build a fort almost upon the site of Fort Christina. A
+city charter came in 1832. The mayor was elected for three years by the
+city council, and the first mayor chosen was Richard H. Bayard.
+
+Wilmington as the intellectual centre of the State was naturally also
+the home of radical thought. Quaker sentiment had sunk deep into the
+community. An anti-slavery society was organized early. A great meeting
+at the Town Hall in 1820 adopted resolutions against the extension
+of slavery into the territories. Sam Townsend, a picturesque and
+characteristic figure in the mid-century politics of the State, was
+amazed and horrified to find that his brother, home after a week’s visit
+to Wilmington, had returned with a tincture of abolitionism. Sam and his
+neighbors labored with the erring one, but could not meet his arguments
+against holding one’s fellow-men in bondage until Sam bethought him to
+deny the humanity of the negro, and thus snatched the brother as a brand
+from the burning.
+
+[Illustration: CITY HALL.]
+
+Wilmington was a station on the “underground railroad,” and Thomas
+Garrett, a Quaker of Pennsylvanian birth, was the station-master—a man
+of prudence but of dauntless courage, who, left penniless at sixty by
+reason of a fine imposed upon him for violation of the Fugitive Slave
+Law, declared upon the court-house steps in his peculiar lisp: “I did it;
+I’m glad I did it; and I’d do it again.” The Civil War came too soon for
+him, he said, for he had hoped to help away three thousand slaves, and
+had stopped at two thousand seven hundred.
+
+[Illustration: NEWCASTLE COUNTY COURT HOUSE.]
+
+The conflict found Wilmington a little city of rough-cobbled streets, the
+metropolis of a small surrounding territory, visited daily by country
+folk, who drove twelve or fifteen miles,—came “to town,” as the phrase
+went,—and having made their purchases, drove home, whipping in dread past
+“Folly Woods,” since the days of Sandy Flash a place of evil reputation.
+The firing upon Fort Sumter stirred the community to its depths, and
+the city lost no time in sending to the front more than her quota of
+volunteers. Flags fluttered out all over the city. Barbers made haste
+to add to their poles a third stripe, a blue one, in token of loyalty.
+Amid all the enthusiasm it was a time of acrid bitterness, for Delaware
+was a border State with citizens holding openly or secretly opinions of
+many shades other than that recognized as true blue. There were reported
+sullen threats of incendiarism on the part of the disaffected; there were
+many arrests of the disloyal, and stubborn but entirely conscientious
+men, who would not take the oath of allegiance and were imprisoned or
+publicly shamed. It was no time for a nice weighing of motives, and
+the fires of the war-time hatreds were nearly a generation in cooling.
+The city came out of the war chastened by sorrow and pained by bitter
+contention, but ready for a newer and broader life. She has since grown
+to 70,000 people. Her boundaries have been extended to the Delaware; her
+factories have vastly increased in volume and variety. Miles of territory
+have been covered with new homes. Water-works, sewers and parks have been
+created. New Castle, the old Dutch capital of New Amstel, has yielded up
+the court-house to Wilmington, but has held on to the whipping-post,
+as perhaps not quite in keeping with the modern mood of the city. But
+in spite of growth and change the old Quaker spirit, the ineradicable
+instinct of sobriety and decency, remains along with the Swedish and
+Dutch names two and a half centuries ago. When the hush of evening falls
+upon the city and the crowds have melted from the sidewalks, then in the
+dusk of the deserted streets one may easily imagine the distinguished
+William Shipley and the gracious Elizabeth, the grin of broad-faced
+Dutchmen fresh from the harrowing of Swen Schute, the spectral figures
+of tow-haired Swedish farmers, or the grave, black-clad form of Pastor
+Torkillius with solemn eyes bent upon wondering peasant lads and lasses.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF THE CITY OF WILMINGTON.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+BUFFALO
+
+“THE QUEEN CITY OF THE LAKES”
+
+BY ROWLAND B. MAHANY
+
+
+Few cities of the United States have a history more picturesque than
+Buffalo, or more typical of the forces that have made the Republic
+great. At the time of the adoption of the Federal constitution, in
+1787, not a single white settler dwelt on the site of what is now the
+Queen of the Lakes; and it was not until after the second presidency of
+Washington, that Joseph Ellicott, the founder of Buffalo, laid out the
+plan of the town, which he called New Amsterdam. Ellicott was a man of
+great ability, force and foresight, and with prophetic vision he saw
+the future importance of the city, which is now the fourth commercial
+entrepôt of the world. He had been the assistant of his brother, Andrew
+Ellicott, the first Surveyor General of the United States; and the
+two brothers, together with General Washington,—himself an engineer by
+profession,—had collaborated with Captain Pierre Charles L’Enfant the
+plan of the National Capital. With the beautiful design of Washington
+City fresh in his mind, Joseph Ellicott gave to the village of New
+Amsterdam a similar system of radiating broad avenues, embracing in the
+territory they enclosed rectangular systems of streets. The avenues were
+99 feet in width and the streets 66 feet. The surveys were begun in 1798
+and completed in 1805. Indirectly, therefore, Buffalo is indebted to
+President Washington for some of its topographical features.
+
+[Illustration: JOSEPH ELLICOTT.
+
+FOUNDER OF BUFFALO.]
+
+The early history of the village is not unlike that of most of our
+inland cities which have grown from conditions common to the Canadian and
+to the western frontier; and differs, perhaps, chiefly in this regard,
+that owing to the natural advantages of the town’s situation and its
+proximity to the great cataract of Niagara Falls, its annals are rich
+with instances of exploration, of war and of romance; for adventure and
+enterprise met here at the beginning of the century.
+
+The period when the Mohawks, the Eries, the Hurons, the Tuscaroras, the
+Neuters (so called because they were a peaceful tribe) and the Senecas
+were the sole possessors of this region was succeeded by the epoch of
+the French traders, whose business was in turn absorbed by their Dutch
+competitors. These gave way to the alert descendants of New England,
+who yielded back again the supremacy to a group of Dutch capitalists,
+composing the Holland Land Company, whose first agent was Joseph Ellicott.
+
+The primitive scenery of Buffalo must have been almost incomparable in
+its beauty. The wooded hills, the fertile plains, the superb river and
+the mighty lake enchanted alike the savage and the civilized beholder.
+Even now, when commerce has invaded the loveliness of the prospect by
+investing one of the greatest harbors in the world with a fortress of
+elevators and crowding it with a forest of masts, artists and tourists
+unite in saying that the Buffalo sunsets are not rivalled anywhere save
+by those on the Bay of Naples.
+
+In 1806, the first schoolhouse was built on the corner of Swan and
+Pearl streets,—the humble pioneer of an educational system that now
+embraces sixty modern grammar schools, three collegiate High Schools,
+and innumerable independent and private institutions of learning.
+Notable among these latter is the Le Couteulx Asylum for the instruction
+of the deaf and dumb. This beneficent institution owes its origin to
+the liberality of the Le Couteulx family. Louis Stephen Le Couteulx
+de Caumont, a Norman-French gentleman of station and culture, was the
+founder of the family in Buffalo. He came to New Amsterdam in 1804.
+
+On February 10, 1810, the “Town of Buffaloe” was created by an act of the
+legislature. This was the name originally given to the settlement by the
+Senecas, and there is little doubt that it was derived from the visits of
+the bison to the neighboring salt-licks. However that may be, the village
+of New Amsterdam was merged in 1810 into the town of Buffalo.
+
+[Illustration: LAFAYETTE SQUARE.]
+
+With the disappearance of the Dutch appellation of the town, vanished
+also the Dutch nomenclature of the streets. Van Staphorst and Willink
+Avenues were connected and called Main Street; Stadinzky Avenue, a
+name suggestive of the Polish element that later was to swell in such
+numbers the population of the city, became Church Street; Niagara Street
+succeeded Schimmelpennick Avenue; and Vollenhoven Avenue was changed into
+Erie Street.
+
+The origin of some of Buffalo’s thoroughfares is interesting and amusing.
+Utica Street was formerly a lane on the old Hodge farm, and led from
+the Cold Spring region to the Elmwood Avenue district. The people using
+it, however, were very careless about closing the gates, and this so
+irritated Mr. Hodge that he locked the gates and closed the lane. An
+indignation meeting was called in the little schoolhouse at Cold Spring.
+The schoolmaster was the chief speaker, and unless tradition does
+violence to his grammar, the principal part of his speech consisted of
+the declaration that “them Hodges is maintainin’ a ‘pent-up Uticky.’”
+When Mr. Hodge heard of the meeting, he relented and offered to give the
+people the lane on condition that the town government would lay out a
+street. The offer was accepted and the new thoroughfare was called Utica
+Street in commemoration of the schoolmaster’s speech.
+
+The inevitable newspaper appeared on the 3d of October, 1811, when
+the Buffalo _Gazette_ issued its first number. The _Gazette_ was the
+forerunner of journals which to-day recognize as their only competitors
+the Metropolitan press.
+
+On the 26th of June, 1812, the tidings of war with Great Britain reached
+Buffalo, and on August 13th the first gun of the struggle is said to
+have been fired by the battery at Black Rock, then a rival, now a
+suburb, of Buffalo. The excitement was intense; for all recognized that
+the growing town, because of its frontier situation, was sure to be
+one of the theatres of hostilities. Nor was this a mistaken idea, as
+subsequent events proved. Immediately after the declaration of war, the
+British soldiers from the Canadian garrison at Fort Erie, directly across
+the river from Buffalo, made an incursion, and captured the schooner
+_Connecticut_, at anchor in the Buffalo Creek. This humiliation, however,
+was more than wiped out by the daring exploit of Lieutenant Jesse D.
+Elliott, U. S. N., who, on October 9, 1812, crossed the river, and boldly
+attacked two vessels lying under the guns of Fort Erie. One of these, the
+_Detroit_, of six guns, had been captured by the British at the surrender
+of that town; the other was the _Caledonia_, of two guns. With a loss
+of two killed and five wounded, Elliott’s force captured both vessels
+and took prisoners, officers and men, to the number of seventy-one.
+Forty-seven American prisoners taken by the British at the River Raisin,
+were released by Elliott. The _Detroit_ was carried down the stream when
+the cables were cut, and ran aground on Squaw Island. The British opened
+a lively cannonading from the Canadian shore and attempted to recapture
+the vessel, but were driven off by the Americans, who, unable to float
+it, burned it to the water’s edge. For his brilliant coup, Lieutenant
+Elliott was voted a sword of honor by Congress.
+
+[Illustration: A GLIMPSE OF BUFFALO HARBOR.]
+
+One great advantage the British possessed early in the war was their
+superiority on the Lakes. The _Queen Charlotte_, of twenty-two guns, the
+_Hunter_, of twelve guns, and a small armed schooner patrolled the Erie
+coast-line in the neighborhood of Buffalo, and kept the inhabitants of
+the region in a constant state of fear and excitement. To remedy this
+disadvantage, the Government, in the spring of 1813, sent Captain Oliver
+Hazard Perry to fit out a war fleet at Erie, Pennsylvania. He arrived in
+Buffalo in March, and thence proceeded to his destination. The Government
+had purchased a number of merchant craft, and these he immediately began
+converting into men-of-war. Some new vessels also were built. Five
+gunboats were fitted out at Buffalo on Scajaquada Creek. On September 10,
+1813, Perry, with an inferior force, both in the number of men and guns,
+gave battle to the British and captured or destroyed their entire fleet.
+This victory was not only the most notable of the war, but is one of the
+most conspicuous in our naval history. In the midst of the battle Perry’s
+ship was sunk, and he left it in an open boat, and, under the fire of
+the enemy, went to another vessel of his fleet, whence he directed the
+operations that rendered the battle of Lake Erie an illustrious triumph
+for American arms.
+
+In a few months, however, the exultation of Buffalo’s citizens was turned
+into mourning through the burning of the town by the British. On the 29th
+of December, General Riall, with twelve hundred men, regulars, militia
+and Indians, landed below Scajaquada Creek, and owing to the confusion
+which prevailed in the councils of the local military commanders,
+captured the town with little difficulty. The inhabitants had fled,
+and every dwelling, with one or two exceptions, was given over to the
+flames. Mrs. St. John and two of her daughters remained to protect their
+house, and owing to the chivalry of Colonel Elliott, the commander of
+the Indians, neither the ladies nor their household possessions were
+molested. Mrs. Joshua Lovejoy, who also remained in her home, where the
+Tifft House now stands, was imprudent enough to have an altercation with
+the Indians, and was slain by one of them. Her house was burned, and her
+dead body with it.
+
+On the withdrawal of the British, the citizens returned from their
+flight, bringing back with them such household goods as they had gathered
+together on their hasty departure, and forthwith the rebuilding of
+Buffalo commenced. The American loss in the engagement preceding the
+capture of the town was heavy. Between forty and fifty of our troops were
+killed, as many more wounded, and about ninety prisoners were carried
+off by the victors. From all these reverses the people of the little
+town measurably recovered in the succeeding five or six months. On April
+10, 1814, Brigadier-General Winfield Scott came to Buffalo, and shortly
+after, Major-General Brown arrived. The preparations for an advance on
+the Canadian position were pushed forward as rapidly as possible, and
+on July 3d the movement began. Three brigades,—two of regulars, one of
+volunteers,—accompanied by a few Indians, crossed the river, and captured
+Fort Erie. Thence proceeding down the Canadian bank, they engaged the
+enemy at Chippewa on July 5th, and won a decisive victory.
+
+The Americans wore temporary uniforms of gray, and it was in honor of the
+conspicuous gallantry displayed by our troops in this conflict that gray
+was adopted as the uniform for the West Point cadets.
+
+[Illustration: ST. PAUL’S CHURCH.]
+
+The volunteer brigade was commanded by General Peter B. Porter, for many
+years a member of Congress from Erie County, and afterwards Secretary
+of War for a brief period under John Quincy Adams. General Porter
+distinguished himself also in the battle of Lundy’s Lane, and throughout
+the war gained such reputation for valor, skill and eloquence, that to
+him has been assigned the credit of being the pioneer in organizing the
+volunteer system of the American Army.
+
+During all this war the famous Seneca chief, Red Jacket, took an active
+part in behalf of the Americans, and though he had little love for the
+white men on either side of the controversy, still his influence was
+cast in favor of those who were the neighbors and friends of his people.
+Innumerable anecdotes are told of the wisdom, oratory and dignity of the
+great sachem, and a later generation has raised in Forest Lawn Cemetery
+an imposing statue to his memory.
+
+After the battle of Chippewa, General Riall, the British commander,
+retreated to Queenstown, and thence to Fort George, the Americans in
+pursuit. The British, however, were reinforced and General Brown decided
+to return to Fort Erie. Riall, in turn, pursued. On July 25th the
+contending forces met near Lundy’s Lane, and one of the most fiercely
+fought battles of the war followed. The conflict began a little before
+nightfall, and raged until nearly ten o’clock, when the Americans held
+undisputed possession of the field. General Riall and one hundred and
+sixty-eight prisoners were captured. Both General Brown and General Scott
+were wounded, as was also Captain Worth, afterwards famous in the Mexican
+War.
+
+The command of the American forces then devolved upon General Ripley,
+who took up his position at Fort Erie and was there besieged by
+Lieutenant-General Drummond. On August 3d, the British directed a
+savage onslaught against the Fort, but were driven back with loss. They
+continued, however, to invest the American position. On September 17th,
+General Porter headed an attack on the besieging force, and such was
+the gallantry of the American volunteers that the British veterans were
+dispersed. General Napier, the English military historian, cites this
+sortie as one of the few in all history that at a single stroke compelled
+the raising of a siege. The Governor brevetted Porter a major-general,
+and Congress voted him a gold medal.
+
+With this exploit at Fort Erie, the War of 1812 was practically over, so
+far as the interests of Buffalo were concerned. When the American troops
+retired from Fort Erie, they blew it up, and its ruins are one of the
+picturesque features of the region about Buffalo.
+
+The commercial greatness of the city is indissolubly associated with the
+Erie Canal. In 1807-8 Jesse Hawley of Geneva wrote a series of articles
+in the _Ontario Messenger_. In these he advocated the construction of
+a grand canal connecting Lake Erie with the Atlantic Ocean. This idea
+found favor with Joseph Ellicott, DeWitt Clinton, Gouverneur Morris, and
+Peter B. Porter, and so strong did the sentiment for the project become,
+that in 1816 a bill passed the Assembly, directing that the work of
+construction be commenced. The Senate, however, decided that additional
+surveys should be made. The work of preparation was inaugurated July 14,
+1817; and on the 9th of August, 1823, the work of actual construction
+began in Erie County by the breaking of ground for the canal, near the
+place where is now the Commercial Street bridge in Buffalo. The great
+waterway was completed on October 25, 1825, and the first boat, _Seneca
+Chief_, started on its voyage from Buffalo to the Hudson. DeWitt
+Clinton, then the Governor of the State and chief promoter of the canal,
+graced the ceremonies with his presence.
+
+[Illustration: MILLARD FILLMORE.]
+
+In this connection, it is interesting to observe that, in 1819, the
+question whether Buffalo or Black Rock should be the western terminus of
+the canal was settled in favor of the former through the public spirit
+and enterprise of Charles Townsend, Samuel Wilkeson, Oliver Forward
+and George Coit. These men gave each a bond of $8,000 for the purpose
+of securing a loan of $12,000 from the State to construct a harbor,
+the State reserving the right to accept or reject, as it pleased, the
+completed work. From this time on, Judge Wilkeson devoted his immense
+energies and great executive ability to the interests of Buffalo in
+connection with the canal, and to him may justly be ascribed the credit
+of being the founder of her lake commerce. It was altogether appropriate,
+therefore, that, on the opening of the canal, he should have been given
+the honor of pouring into the lake the water brought from the ocean, an
+event described as the Wedding of the Atlantic and Lake Erie. It recalled
+the marriage in old time of Venice and the Adriatic.
+
+Near where LaSalle, in 1679, built his little sailing vessel, the
+_Griffin_, three New York capitalists completed on May 28, 1818, the
+first steamboat that plied the waters of Lake Erie. This was fittingly
+named, after the Wyandot chieftain, _Walk-in-the-Water_. The little
+vessel was lost three years later, but it marked the beginning of steam
+navigation on the Lakes—since grown to such perfection as to rival the
+navigation of the sea.
+
+The influence of the Erie Canal has been incomparably great, not merely
+in the rise of one city, but, in a larger sense, in the development of
+the State and the nation. The commercial forces which it generated have
+aided in building up the wealth of the Middle West, and the impetus
+of the resultant enterprise has finally reached every industry of
+the continent. To the canal, more than to any other factor, Buffalo
+owes its growth and importance. The little hamlet founded by Joseph
+Ellicott now has a population of 390,000. The city’s coal receipts in
+1898 were 2,455,191 tons; its lumber receipts, 189,075,938 feet; its
+grain receipts, 267,395,434 bushels. It has a harbor enclosed by a new
+breakwater nearly four miles in length, and costing over $2,000,000.
+The coal interests have constructed the greatest trestles in the world.
+Forty-one elevators, with a capacity of 20,920,000 bushels, line the
+harbor. There are 3500 manufactories. The park system comprises thousands
+of acres, with seventeen miles of park driveways. Twenty-six railroads
+enter the city, with 250 passenger trains daily, and have nearly 700
+miles of trackage within the city limits. The electric power from Niagara
+Falls is delivered at Buffalo in practically unlimited quantities. There
+are 24 banks, and 184 churches. The city has 116 miles of street paved
+with stone, 6 miles paved with brick, and 225 miles with asphalt, or
+more asphalt than any other city in the world, not excepting Paris,
+Washington, or London. Two public libraries contain more than 180,000
+volumes. In handling flour and wheat, Buffalo is the first city in the
+world. Its fresh-fish industry aggregates an annual distribution of
+15,000,000 pounds. Buffalo’s horse market is the most important in the
+country; and in cattle and hogs, the trade of the city is second only to
+that of Chicago. The sheep market is the largest in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: BEACON ON OLD BREAKWATER.]
+
+The climate of Buffalo, with the exception of high winds during certain
+portions of the winter, is probably as delightful as that enjoyed by any
+city on the globe. In summer, the temperature is nearly always moderate,
+and when other cities suffer from extreme heat, the people of Buffalo are
+blessed with the conditions common to late summer in other regions.
+
+The residence portion of the city is celebrated for its beauty. The
+avenues are wide, the dwellings elegant and commodious, the lawn effects
+charming, and the trees superb.
+
+[Illustration: DELAWARE AVENUE, SHOWING BISHOP QUIGLEY’S HOUSE.]
+
+Buffalo is entering upon what might be termed its metropolitan period.
+New forces, new ideas, are building splendid superstructures on the
+foundations established by the generation now passing away. From the time
+of the city’s incorporation, in 1832, the bench and the bar, the medical
+and the clerical professions, have been especially rich with the names
+of those who have left a lasting impress upon the thought of the city,
+the state and the nation. The political life and the business progress
+have been dignified by men of intellect and character. Such names as
+the Right Reverend Arthur Cleveland Coxe, Protestant Episcopal Bishop
+of Western New York; the Right Reverend Stephen Vincent Ryan, Roman
+Catholic Bishop of Buffalo; John Ganson, one of the giants of the legal
+profession; Millard Fillmore, a former President of the United States;
+Doctors George N. Burwell and John Cronyn, cultured physicians of the
+old school; William I. Williams, the pioneer of Buffalo’s unrivalled
+paved streets; the Reverend Doctor William Shelton, rector of St. Paul’s
+Church; the Reverend Doctor John Lord, perhaps the most famous of
+Buffalo’s Presbyterian divines; James M. Smith, Justice of the Supreme
+Court, recall types of men whose ability, integrity and civic worth would
+contribute to advance civilization in any community.
+
+[Illustration: DR. JOHN CRONYN.]
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM I. WILLIAMS.]
+
+During the Civil War, Buffalo did its patriotic share towards the
+preservation of the Union. The names of William F. Rogers, Michael
+Wiedrich, James P. McMahon, Daniel D. Bidwell, Edward P. Chapin, John
+Wilkeson and William Richardson are cherished by the people of Buffalo
+and Erie County as typical of the soldiers who, in regiment after
+regiment, enlisted there for the war.
+
+In legislation, also, the city contributed its part to the successful
+prosecution of the struggle. On December 30, 1861, Mr. E. G. Spaulding,
+member of Congress from Buffalo, introduced the bill which afterwards
+became famous as the Legal-Tender Act, whereby the Secretary of the
+Treasury was authorized to issue $50,000,000 in Treasury notes, payable
+on demand, in denominations of not less than $5, these to be the legal
+tender for all debts, public and private, and exchangeable for the bonds
+of the Government at par.
+
+Nearly every element of American progress has entered into the growth of
+this beautiful city. Its development has been brilliant in enterprise,
+luminous in education, rich in romance, splendid in achievement, and
+noble in patriotism. In a word, Buffalo has kept pace with the Great
+Republic.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF THE CITY OF BUFFALO.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+PITTSBURGH
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL CITY
+
+BY SAMUEL HARDEN CHURCH
+
+
+George Washington, the Father of his Country, is equally the Father
+of Pittsburgh, for he came thither in November, 1753, and established
+the location of the now imperial city by choosing it as the best place
+for a fort. Washington was then twenty-one years old. He had by that
+time written his precocious one hundred and ten maxims of civility and
+good behavior; had declined to be a midshipman in the British Navy; had
+made his only sea-voyage to Barbadoes; had surveyed the estates of Lord
+Fairfax, going for months into the forest without fear of savage Indians
+or wild beasts, and was now a major of Virginia militia. In pursuance
+of the claim of Virginia that she owned that part of Pennsylvania in
+which Pittsburgh is situated, Washington came there as the agent of
+Governor Dinwiddie to treat with the Indians. With an eye alert for the
+dangers of the wilderness, and with Christopher Gist beside him, the
+young Virginian pushed his cautious way to “The Point” of land where the
+confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers forms the Ohio. That,
+he declared, with clear military instinct, was the best site for a fort;
+and he rejected the promontory two miles below, which the Indians had
+recommended for that purpose.
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY RESIDENT OF PITTSBURGH.
+
+(FROM A STATUE BY T. A. MILLS IN THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM.)]
+
+As early as 1728 a daring hunter or trader found the Indians at the head
+waters of the Ohio,—among them the Delawares, Shawanese, Mohicans and
+Iroquois,—whither they tracked the bear from their village of Logstown,
+seventeen miles down the river. They also employed the country roundabout
+as a highway for their march to battle against other tribes, and against
+each other. At that time France and England were disputing for the new
+continent. France, by right of her discovery of the Mississippi, claimed
+all the lands drained by that river and its tributaries,—a contention
+which would naturally plant her banner upon the summit of the Alleghany
+Mountains.[26] England, on the other hand, claimed everything from
+ocean-shore to ocean-shore. This situation produced war, and Pittsburgh
+became the strategic key of the great Middle West. The French made early
+endeavors to win the allegiance of the Indians, and they felt encouraged
+to press their friendly overtures because they usually came among the
+red men for trading or exploration, while the English invariably seized
+and occupied their lands. In 1731 some French settlers did attempt to
+build a group of houses at Pittsburgh, but the Indians compelled them to
+go away. The next year the Governor of Pennsylvania summoned two Indian
+chiefs from Pittsburgh to say why they had been going to see the French
+Governor at Montreal; and they gave answer that he had sent for them
+only to express the hope that both English and French traders might meet
+at Pittsburgh and carry on trade amicably. The Governor of Pennsylvania
+sought to induce the tribes to draw themselves farther east, where they
+might be made to feel the hand of authority, but Sassoonan, their chief,
+forbade them to stir. An Iroquois chief who joined his entreaties to
+those of the Governor was soon afterward killed by some Shawanese braves,
+but they were forced to flee into Virginia to escape the vengeance of his
+tribe.
+
+Louis Celeron, a French officer, made an exploration of the country
+contiguous to Pittsburgh in 1747, and formally enjoined the Governor of
+Pennsylvania not to occupy the ground, as France claimed its sovereignty.
+A year later the Ohio Company was formed, with a charter ceding an
+immense tract of land for sale and development, including Pittsburgh.
+This corporation built some storehouses at Logstown to facilitate their
+trade with the Indians, which were captured by the French, together with
+skins and commodities valued at £20,000; and the purposes of the Company
+were never accomplished.
+
+[Illustration: SUN-DIAL USED AT FORT DUQUESNE.]
+
+As soon as Washington’s advice as to the location of the fort was
+received, Captain William Trent was dispatched to Pittsburgh with a force
+of soldiers and workmen, packhorses and materials, and he began in all
+haste to erect a stronghold. The French had already built forts on the
+northern lakes, and they now sent Captain Contrecœur down the Allegheny
+with one thousand French, Canadians and Indians, and eighteen pieces of
+cannon, in a flotilla of sixty bateaux and three hundred canoes. Trent
+had planted himself in Pittsburgh on February 17, 1754,—a date important
+because it marks the first permanent white settlement there. But his
+work had been retarded alike by the small number of his men and the
+severity of the winter; and when Contrecœur arrived in April, the young
+subaltern who commanded in Trent’s absence surrendered the unfinished
+works, and was permitted to march away with his thirty-three men. The
+French completed the fort and named it Duquesne, in honor of the Governor
+of Canada; and they held possession of it for four years.
+
+Immediately on the loss of this fort, Virginia sent a force under
+Washington to retake it. Washington surprised a French detachment near
+Great Meadows, and killed their commander, Jumonville. When a larger
+expedition came against him, he put up a stockade near the site of
+Uniontown, naming it Fort Necessity, which he was compelled to yield on
+terms of marching away with the honors of war.
+
+The next year (1755) General Edward Braddock came over with two regiments
+of British soldiers, and, after augmenting his force with Colonial troops
+and a few Indians, began his fatal march upon Fort Duquesne. Braddock’s
+testy disposition, his consuming egotism, his contempt for the Colonial
+soldiers and his stubborn adherence to military maxims that were
+inapplicable to the warfare of the wilderness alienated the respect and
+confidence of the American contingent, robbed him of an easy victory and
+cost him his life. Benjamin Franklin had warned him against the imminent
+risk of Indian ambuscades, but he had contemptuously replied: “These
+savages may indeed be a formidable enemy to your raw American militia;
+but upon the King’s regular and disciplined troops, sir, it is impossible
+they should make any impression.” Some of his English staff-officers
+urged him to send the rangers in advance and to deploy his Indians as
+scouts, but he rejected their prudent suggestions with a sneer. On July
+9th his army, comprising twenty-two hundred soldiers and one hundred and
+fifty Indians, was marching down the south bank of the Monongahela. The
+variant color and fashion of the expedition,—the red-coated regulars,
+the blue-coated Americans, the naval detachment, the rangers in
+deerskin shirts and leggings, the savages half-naked and befeathered,
+the glint of sword and gun in the hot daylight, the long wagon train,
+the lumbering cannon, the drove of bullocks, the royal banner and the
+Colonial gonfalon,—the pomp and puissance of it all composed a spectacle
+of martial splendor unseen in that country before. On the right was the
+tranquil river, and on the left the trackless wilderness whence the
+startled deer sprang away into a deeper solitude. At noon the expedition
+crossed the river and pressed on toward Fort Duquesne, ten miles below,
+expectant of victory. What need to send out scouts when the King’s troops
+are here? Let young George Washington and the rest urge it all they may;
+the thing is beneath the dignity of his Majesty’s General.
+
+But here, when they have crossed, is a level plain, elevated but a
+few feet above the surface of the river, extending nearly half a mile
+landwards, and then gradually ascending into thickly wooded hills,
+with Fort Duquesne beyond. The troops in front had crossed the plain
+and plunged into the road through the forest for a hundred feet, when
+a heavy discharge of musketry and arrows was poured upon them, which
+wrought in them a consternation all the greater because they could
+see no foe anywhere. They shot at random, but without effect, while
+the hidden enemy kept up an incessant and destructive fire. In this
+distressing situation their courage forsook them, and they fell back
+into the plain. Braddock rode in among them, and he and his officers
+persistently endeavored to rally them, but without success. The Colonial
+troops adopted the Indian method, and each man fought for himself behind
+a tree. This was forbidden by Braddock, who attempted to form his men
+in platoons and columns, making their slaughter inevitable. The French
+and Indians, concealed in the ravines and behind trees, kept up a cruel
+and deadly fire, until the British soldiers lost all presence of mind
+and began to shoot each other and their own officers, and hundreds were
+thus slain. The Virginia companies charged gallantly up a hill with a
+loss of but three men, but when they reached the summit the British
+soldiery, mistaking them for the enemy, fired upon them, killing fifty
+out of eighty men. The Colonial troops then resumed the Indian fashion
+of fighting from behind trees, which provoked Braddock, who had had five
+horses killed under him in three hours, to storm at them and strike
+them with his sword. At this moment he was fatally wounded, and many of
+his men now fled away from the hopeless action. Washington had had two
+horses killed and received three bullets through his coat. Being the only
+mounted officer who was not disabled, he drew up the troops still on the
+field, directed their retreat, maintaining himself at the rear with great
+coolness and courage, and brought away his wounded general. Sixty-four
+British and American officers, and nearly one thousand privates, were
+killed or wounded in this battle, while the total French and Indian loss
+was not over sixty. A few prisoners captured by the Indians were brought
+to Pittsburgh and burnt at the stake. Four days after the fight Braddock
+died, exclaiming to the last, “Who would have thought it!”
+
+[Illustration: THE EARL OF CHATHAM.
+
+FROM AN OIL PAINTING IN THE POSSESSION OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF
+PENNSYLVANIA.]
+
+Despondency seized the English settlers after Braddock’s defeat. But
+two years afterward William Pitt became Prime Minister, and he thrilled
+the nation with his appeal to protect the Colonies against France and
+the savages. His letters inspired the Americans with new hope, and he
+promised to send them British troops and to supply their own militia with
+arms, ammunition, tents and provisions at the King’s charge. He sent
+twelve thousand soldiers from England, which were joined to a Colonial
+force aggregating fifty thousand men,—the most formidable army yet seen
+in the new world. The plan of campaign embraced three expeditions:
+the first against Louisburg, in the island of Cape Breton, which was
+successful; the second against Ticonderoga, which succeeded after a
+defeat; and the third against Fort Duquesne. General Forbes commanded
+this expedition, comprising about seven thousand men. The militia from
+Virginia, North Carolina and Maryland was led by Washington. On September
+12, 1758, Major Grant, a Highlander, led an advance-guard of 850 men to a
+point two miles from the fort, which is still called Grant’s Hill, where
+he rashly permitted himself to be surrounded and attacked by the French
+and Indians, half his force being killed or wounded, and himself slain.
+Washington followed soon after, and opened a road for the advance of the
+main body under Forbes. Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, had just been
+taken by General Amherst, with the result that supplies for Fort Duquesne
+were cut off. When, therefore, the French commandant learned of the
+advance of a superior force, having no hope of reinforcements, he blew
+up the fort, set fire to the adjacent buildings and drew his garrison
+away.
+
+[Illustration: BLOCKHOUSE OF FORT PITT. BUILT IN 1764.]
+
+On Saturday, November 25, 1758, the English took possession of the
+place, and on the next day General Forbes wrote to Governor Denny from
+“Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh, the 26th of November, 1758,” and this
+was the first use of that name. On this same Sunday the Rev. Mr. Beatty,
+a Presbyterian chaplain, preached a sermon in thanksgiving for the
+superiority of British arms,—the first Protestant service in Pittsburgh.
+The French had had a Roman Catholic chaplain, Father Baron, during their
+occupancy.
+
+The English proceeded to build a new fort about two hundred yards from
+the site of Fort Duquesne, which they called Fort Pitt. This stronghold
+at Pittsburgh cut off French transportation to the Mississippi by way
+of the Ohio River, and the only remaining route, by way of the Great
+Lakes, was soon afterward closed by the fall of Fort Niagara. The fall of
+Quebec, with the death of the two opposing Generals, Montcalm and Wolfe,
+and the capture of Montreal, ended the claims of France to sovereignty in
+the new world.
+
+The new fort being found too small, General Stanwix built a second Fort
+Pitt, much larger and stronger, designed for a garrison of one thousand
+men. The Indians viewed the newcomers with suspicion, but Colonel Henry
+Bouquet assured them, with diplomatic tergiversation, that, “We have not
+come here to take possession of your country in a hostile manner, as the
+French did when they came among you, but to open a large and extensive
+trade with you and all other nations of Indians to the westward.” A
+redoubt (the “Block-House”) built by Colonel Bouquet in 1764 still
+stands, in a very good state of preservation, being cared for by the
+Daughters of the American Revolution. The protection of the garrison
+naturally attracted a few traders, merchants and pioneers to Pittsburgh,
+and a permanent population began to grow.
+
+But the indigenous race continued to resent the extension of white
+encroachment; and they formed a secret confederacy under Pontiac, the
+renowned Ottawa chief, who planned a simultaneous attack on all the white
+frontier posts. This uprising was attended by atrocious cruelties at many
+of the points attacked, but we may take note here of the movement only as
+it affected Pittsburgh. At the grand council held by the tribes, a bundle
+of sticks had been given to every tribe, each bundle containing as many
+sticks as there were days intervening before the deadly assault should
+begin. One stick was to be drawn from the bundle every day until but one
+remained, which was to signal the outbreak for that day. This was the
+best calendar the barbarian could devise. At Pittsburgh, a Delaware squaw
+who was friendly to the whites had stealthily taken out three of the
+sticks, thus precipitating the attack on Fort Pitt three days in advance
+of the time appointed.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF FORT PITT.]
+
+The last stick was reached on June 22, 1763, and the Delawares and
+Shawanese began the assault in the afternoon, under Simon Ecuyer. The
+people of Pittsburgh took shelter in the fort, and held out while waiting
+for reinforcements. Colonel Bouquet hurried forward a force of five
+hundred men, but they were intercepted at Bushy Run, where a bloody
+battle was fought. Bouquet had fifty men killed and sixty wounded, but
+inflicted a much greater loss on his savage foes, and gained the fort,
+relieving the siege. As soon as Bouquet could recruit his command, he
+moved down the Ohio, attacked the Indians, liberated some of their
+prisoners and taught the red men to respect the power that controlled at
+Pittsburgh.
+
+In 1768 the Indians ceded their lands about Pittsburgh to the Colonies,
+and civilization was then free to spread over them. In 1774 a land office
+was opened in Pittsburgh by Governor Dunmore, and land-warrants were
+granted on payment of two shillings and sixpence purchase money, at the
+rate of ten pounds per one hundred acres.
+
+With the French out of the country, the Colonies began to feel the
+oppression of a British policy which British statesmen and historians
+to-day most bitterly denounce. Their opposition to tyranny found its
+natural expression in the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. The fires
+of patriotism leapt through the continent, and the little settlement at
+Pittsburgh was quickly aflame with the national spirit. On May 16th a
+convention was held at Pittsburgh, which resolved that
+
+    “This committee have the highest sense of the spirited behavior
+    of their brethren in New England, and do most cordially
+    approve of their opposing the invaders of American rights and
+    privileges to the utmost extreme, and that each member of this
+    committee, respectively, will animate and encourage their
+    neighborhood to follow the brave example.”
+
+No foreign soldiers were sent over the mountains to Pittsburgh, but a
+more merciless foe, who would attack and harass with remorseless cruelty,
+was impressed into the English service, despite the horrified protests
+of some of her wisest statesmen. American treaties with the Indians had
+no force against the allurements of foreign gold, and under this unholy
+alliance men were burnt at the stake, women were carried away, and cabins
+were destroyed.
+
+With the aim of regaining the friendship of the Indians, Congress
+appointed commissioners who met the tribes at Pittsburgh; and Colonel
+George Morgan, Indian agent, writes to John Hancock, November 8, 1776:
+
+    “I have the happiness to inform you that the cloud that
+    threatened to break over us is likely to disperse. The Six
+    Nations, with the Muncies, Delawares, Shawanese and Mohicans,
+    who have been assembled here with their principal chiefs
+    and warriors to the number of 644, have given the strongest
+    assurance of their determination to preserve inviolate the
+    peace and neutrality with the United States.”
+
+These amicable expectations were not realized, and General Edward Hand
+came to Pittsburgh the next year and planned an expedition against the
+Indians. Colonel Broadhead took out Hand’s expedition in the summer and
+burnt the Indian towns.
+
+The depreciation of paper currency, or Continental money, had by this
+time brought the serious burden of high prices upon the people. The
+traders, who demanded apparently exorbitant rates for their goods, were
+denounced in public meetings at Pittsburgh as being “now commonly known
+by the disgraceful epithet of speculators, of more malignant natures than
+the savage Mingoes in the wilderness.” This hardship grew in severity
+until the finances were put upon a more stable basis.
+
+By 1781, there were demoralization and mutiny at Fort Pitt, and General
+William Irvine was put in command. His firm hand soon restored the
+garrison to obedience. The close of the war with Great Britain was
+celebrated by the issue of a general order at the fort, November 6, 1781,
+requiring all, as a sailor would say, “to splice the main-brace.”[27]
+
+Up to this time the Penn family had held the charter to Pennsylvania; but
+as they had maintained a steadfast allegiance to the mother country, the
+General Assembly annulled their title, except to allow them to retain
+the ownership of various manors throughout the State, embracing half a
+million acres.
+
+In order to relieve the people of Pittsburgh from going to Greensburg
+to the court-house in their sacred right of suing and being sued, the
+General Assembly erected Allegheny County out of parts of Westmoreland
+and Washington counties, September 24, 1788. This county originally
+comprised, in addition to its present limits, what are now Armstrong,
+Beaver, Butler, Crawford, Erie, Mercer, Venango and Warren counties.
+The act required that the court-house and jail should be located in
+Allegheny (just across the river from Pittsburgh), but as there was no
+protection against Indians there, an amendment established Pittsburgh as
+the county-seat. The first court was held at Fort Pitt; and the next day
+a ducking-stool was erected for the district, at “The Point” in the three
+rivers.
+
+In 1785, the dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania for the possession
+of Pittsburgh was settled by the award of a joint commission in favor of
+Pennsylvania.
+
+A writer says that in 1786 Pittsburgh contained thirty-six log houses,
+one stone and one frame house and five small stores. Another records
+that the population “is almost entirely Scots and Irish, who live in log
+houses.” A third says of these log houses, “Now and then one had assumed
+the appearance of neatness and comfort.”
+
+[Illustration: PHIPPS CONSERVATORY.]
+
+The first newspaper, the Pittsburgh _Gazette_, was established July 29,
+1786. A mail route to Philadelphia, by horseback, was adopted in the same
+year. On September 29, 1787, the Legislature granted a charter to the
+Pittsburgh Academy, a school that has grown steadily in usefulness and
+power, and is now the Western University of Pennsylvania.
+
+In 1791, the Indians became vindictive and dangerous, and General Arthur
+St. Clair, with a force of twenty-three hundred men, was sent down the
+river to punish them. Neglecting President Washington’s imperative
+injunction to avoid a surprise, he led his command into an ambush and
+lost half of it in the most disastrous battle with the redskins since
+the time of Braddock. In the general alarm that ensued, Fort Pitt being
+in a state of decay a new fort was built in Pittsburgh at Ninth and
+Tenth streets and Penn Avenue,—a stronghold that included bastions,
+blockhouses, barracks, etc., and was named Fort Lafayette. General
+Anthony Wayne was then selected to command another expedition against
+the savages, and he arrived in Pittsburgh in June, 1792. After drilling
+his troops and making preparations for two years, in the course of which
+he erected several forts in the West, including Fort Defiance and Fort
+Wayne, he fought the Indians and crushed their strength and spirit. On
+his return a lasting peace was made with them, and there were no further
+raids about Pittsburgh.
+
+The Whiskey Insurrection demands a brief reference. Whiskey is a steady
+concomitant of civilization. As soon as the white settlers had planted
+themselves securely at Pittsburgh, they made requisition on Philadelphia
+for six thousand kegs of flour and three thousand kegs of whiskey—a
+disproportion as startling as Falstaff’s intolerable deal of sack to one
+half-pennyworth of bread. Congress, in 1791, passed an excise law to
+assist in paying the war debt. The measure was very unpopular, and its
+operation was forcibly resisted, particularly in Pittsburgh, which was
+noted then, as now, for the quantity and quality of its whiskey. There
+were distilleries on nearly every stream emptying into the Monongahela.
+The time and circumstances made the tax odious. The Revolutionary War had
+just closed, the pioneers were in the midst of great Indian troubles,
+and money was scarce, of low value and very hard to obtain. The people
+of the new country were unused to the exercise of stringent laws. The
+progress of the French Revolution encouraged the settlers to account
+themselves oppressed by similar tyrannies, against which some of them
+persuaded themselves similar resistance should be made. Genêt, the French
+demagogue, was sowing sedition everywhere. Lafayette’s participation
+in the French Revolution gave it in America, where he was deservedly
+beloved, a prestige which it could never have gained for itself.
+Distillers who paid the tax were assaulted; some of them were tarred
+and feathered; others were taken into the forest and tied to trees;
+their houses and barns were burned; their property was carried away or
+destroyed. Several thousand insurgents assembled at Braddock’s Field, and
+marched on Pittsburgh, where the citizens gave them food and submitted
+to a reign of terror. Then President Washington sent an army of fifteen
+thousand troops against them, and they melted away, as a mob will ever do
+when the strong arm of Government smites it without fear or respect.
+
+[Illustration: THE COAL FLEET.]
+
+Pittsburgh was incorporated a borough in 1794. Her first glassworks was
+built in 1797; and both her population and her industries multiplied
+until she was made a city in 1816. In 1845 (April 10th), a great fire
+destroyed about one third of the total area of the city, including
+most of the large business houses and factories, the bridge over the
+Monongahela, the large hotel known as the Monongahela House and several
+churches;—in all about eleven hundred buildings. The Legislature
+appropriated $50,000 for the relief of the sufferers.
+
+In 1877, the municipal government, being, in its personnel, at the moment
+incompetent to preserve the fundamental principles on which it was
+established, permitted a strike of railroad employees to grow without
+restriction as to the observance of law and order until it became an
+insurrection. Three million dollars’ worth of property was destroyed by
+riot and incendiarism in a few hours. When at last outraged authority
+was properly shifted from the supine city chieftains to the indomitable
+State itself, it became necessary, before order could be restored, for
+troops to fire, with a sacrifice of human life. The lesson was worth all
+it cost, and anarchy has never dared to raise its head in the corporation
+limits since that time.
+
+[Illustration: CARNEGIE INSTITUTE.]
+
+In 1889, the great flood at Johnstown, accompanied by a frightful
+loss of life and destruction of property, touched the common heart of
+humanity all over the world. The closeness of Johnstown geographically
+made the sorrow at Pittsburgh most poignant and profound. In a few hours
+almost the whole population had brought its offerings for the stricken
+community, and besides clothing, provisions and every conceivable thing
+necessary for relief and comfort, the people of Pittsburgh contributed
+$250,000 to restore so far as possible the material portion of the loss.
+
+Pittsburgh has thus passed through many battles, trials, afflictions
+and adversities, and has grown in the strength of giants until it now
+embraces in the limits of the county a population of over one million.
+The tax valuation of her property is $554,000,000. Her share is more than
+one half of the whole production in the United States of steel, steel
+rails, coke, oil, plate glass, glassware, harness-leather and iron pipe.
+She mines one quarter of the bituminous coal of the United States. She
+has 2500 mills and factories, with an annual product worth $250,000,000,
+and a pay-roll of $75,000,000. Her electric street-railway system
+multiplies itself through her streets for 250 miles. Natural-gas fuel
+is conveyed into her mills and houses through 1000 miles of iron pipe.
+Her output of coke makes one train ten miles long every day throughout
+the year. Her tonnage by river and rail exceeds the tonnage by river
+and rail of any other city in the world; it is equal to one half the
+combined tonnage of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Her rail tonnage
+is three times as large as that of New York or Chicago, double that of
+London, four times that of Paris, and greater than the combined tonnage
+of New York, Boston and Chicago. Two hundred and fifty passenger trains
+and six thousand loaded freight-cars run to and from her terminals every
+day. Nowhere else in the world is there so large a Bessemer-steel plant,
+crucible-steel plant, plate-glass plant, chimney-glass plant, table-glass
+plant, air-brake plant, steel-rail plant, cork works, tube works or steel
+freight-car works. Her armor sheathes our battleships, as well as those
+of Russia and Japan. She equips the navies of the world with projectiles
+and range-finders. Her bridges span the rivers of India, China, Egypt
+and the Argentine Republic; and her locomotives, rails and bridges are
+used on the Siberian railroad. She builds electric railways for Great
+Britain and Brazil, and telescopes for Germany and Denmark. Indeed, she
+distributes her varied manufactures into the channels of trade all over
+the earth.
+
+[Illustration: COURT HOUSE.]
+
+But while these surpassing industries have given Pittsburgh her wealth,
+population, supremacy and power, commercial materialism is not the
+_ultima thule_ of her people. She has the largest and handsomest
+court-house in the world, the crowning architectural triumph of H. H.
+Richardson. Her churches and schoolhouses are found in nearly every
+block. She spends a quarter of a million annually on her parks,—Schenley
+and Highland. She maintains by popular support one of the three symphony
+orchestras in America. She has given many famous names to Science,
+Literature and Art. Her astronomical observatory is known throughout the
+world. Her rich men are often liberal beyond their own needs—particularly
+so William Thaw, who spent millions for education and benevolence;
+Mrs. Mary Schenley, who has given the city a great park, four hundred
+picturesque acres in the very heart of its boundaries; and Henry Phipps,
+who erected the largest conservatory for plants and flowers in our
+country. There is one other, Andrew Carnegie, whose wise and continuous
+use of vast wealth for the public good is nearly beyond human precedent.
+Mr. Carnegie has spent many millions on libraries, art galleries and
+scientific museums in Pittsburgh alone, and millions more for similar
+institutions in other parts of the world. The Carnegie Institute at
+Pittsburgh, comprising Art Galleries, Library, Museum and Music Hall, now
+in its fourth year, is the rallying-ground of the whole people in their
+growing love of æsthetic and spiritual life. Its doors are open all day,
+from nine in the morning until ten at night, free to the people. And
+the people use it with delight, more than five hundred thousand of them
+having thronged its halls in this past year.
+
+Pittsburgh is truly an imperial city.
+
+[Illustration: SEAL OF THE CITY.]
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] Reproduced by permission of Augustus Pruyn, Albany, N. Y.
+
+[2] Reproduced by permission of Dr. Samuel B. Ward, Albany, N. Y.
+
+[3] Reproduced by permission from _King Washington_, by Adelaide Skeel
+and William H. Brearley.
+
+[4] From _Book of Newburgh_.
+
+[5] _From Spirit of ’76_.
+
+[6] From _American Patriots_.
+
+[7] Reproduced by permission from _Bowling Green_, by Spencer Trask.
+
+[8] Reproduced by permission from _Bowling Green_, by Spencer Trask.
+
+[9] Reproduced by permission from _The Outlook_.
+
+[10] Reproduced by permission of Lewis C. Vandegrift, Wilmington, Del.
+
+[11] Reproduced by permission of Henry C. Conrad, Wilmington, Del.
+
+[12] Reproduced by permission of Buffalo Historical Society.
+
+[13] Subsequently the river bore the name of North River, to distinguish
+it from the Delaware, the South River of Nieu Nederlandt. In fact the
+fair stream has been renamed as often as a Parisian street. Albany has
+shared the fate of the river.
+
+[14] The Chart illustrating this article is one of a later date.
+
+[15] See page 93, Bradford’s _History of Plimoth Plantation. From the
+original manuscript_. Boston, 1898. This original MS. in the above year
+was transferred with appropriate ceremonies from the library of the
+Archiepiscopal Palace at Fulham to the archives of the Commonwealth of
+Massachusetts.
+
+[16] The writer is indebted to As-que-sent-wah, a member of the Onondaga
+tribe, an authority upon Indian local lore, and well known among white
+men as Edward Winslow Paige, for an account of the tradition which fixes
+the residence of Hiawatha at Schonowe. Mr. Paige owns the lot at the west
+end of Union Street on the bank of the Binnekill, upon which the castle
+and residence stood. He points out to the visitor existing traces of the
+Indian occupation.
+
+[17] He was drowned in October, 1667, in Lake Champlain, while journeying
+to Canada in response to the pressing invitation of the Governor General
+to visit him.
+
+[18] Governor Leisler was afterwards unjustly condemned and executed for
+high treason; the destruction of Schenectady being one of the charges
+against him.
+
+[19] He came again in 1782, when the struggle was practically over.
+The authorities and the people did their utmost in his honor. This he
+suitably acknowledged in a letter addressed “To the magistrates and
+military authorities of the township of Schenectady,” closing in these
+words: “May the complete blessings of peace soon reward your arduous
+struggle for the freedom and independence of our common country.”
+
+[20] “Ten eynde de Gemeente niet verstroyt werde.”
+
+[21] EPITAPH OF JOSHUA DE KOCKERTHAL, IN BURYING-GROUND AT SAUGERTIES, N.
+Y.
+
+Wisse Wandersman Unter diesem Steine Rusht nebst Seiner Sibylla Charlotte
+Ein Rechter Wandersman Per Hoch Jeutsehen in Nord America ihr Josua und
+der selben an Der Ost and West seite Der Hudson’s River rein Lutherischer
+Prediger. Seine erste an Kunft war mit Lrd Lovelace, 1707-8, den 1
+Januar. Seine sweite mit Col. Hunter 1710 d. 14 Juny. Seine Englandische
+ruc reise unterbrach Seine Seelen Himmelische reise an St. Johannis sage
+1719. Regherstu mehr Ku wissen So untersuche in Welaneh thons vaterland,
+Wer war de Kockerthal, Wer Harschias, Wer Winchenbuch, B. Berkenmayer, S.
+Heurtin, L. Brevort.
+
+                                 MDCCXLII.
+
+Know, Wanderer, under this stone rests beside his Sybilla Charlotte a
+right wanderer, the Joshua of the High Dutch in N. America, the pure
+Lutheran Preacher of them on the East and West side of the Hudson River.
+His first arrival was with Lord Lovelace in 1707, the first of January.
+His second with Colonel Hunter, 1710, the fourteenth of June. His voyage
+back to England was prevented (literally interrupted) by the voyage of
+his soul to Heaven, on St. John’s Day, 1719. Do you wish to know more?
+Seek in Melancthon’s fatherland who was Kockerthal, who was Harschias,
+who Winchenbuch, B. Berkenmayer, S. Heurtin, L. Brevort.
+
+                                   1742.
+
+[22] On this Glebe site was erected about 1730 the Lutheran Church of the
+Palatine Parish by Quassaick. Reverend Michael Christian Knoll, Pastor.
+
+From July 19, 1747, the Reverend Hezekiah Watkins of the Church of
+England held services for about twenty-five years.
+
+Erected by Quassaick Chapter, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
+
+[23]
+
+                               IN MEMORY OF
+                         REVEREND HEZEKIAH WATKINS
+                    YALE 1737 ORDAINED 1754 IN ENGLAND
+                   SENT HERE BY VEN. SOC. P. G. IN F. P.
+                          FOUNDED THE PARISHES OF
+                  S. DAVID’S, S. ANDREW’S AND S. GEORGE’S
+                       RESIDENT MINISTER AT NEWBURGH
+                        FROM 1752 UNTIL HIS DEATH.
+                         APRIL 10, 1765. AET. 57.
+
+_Tablet in S. George’s Church, Newburgh._
+
+[24]
+
+                              GEORGE CLINTON
+                      MEMBER OF CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
+                                 1775-1777
+                    BRIGADIER-GENERAL CONTINENTAL ARMY
+                                   1777
+                     GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
+                              1777-85—1801-4
+                    VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES
+                                 1804-1812
+
+                      _Cara Patria Carior Libertas._
+
+Inscription on Clinton Statue in Colden Square, Newburgh. Statue by
+Henry Kirke Brown. Presented to the city by the Historical Society of
+Newburgh Bay and the Highlands and other citizens. Unveiled on the
+119th anniversary of the battles of Forts Clinton and Montgomery in the
+Highlands.
+
+[25] The change from Vredryk Flypse to Frederick Philips was
+synchronously made—both names being changed at the same time.
+
+[26] The word is commonly spelt thus for the mountains, but
+thus—_Allegheny_—for the river, county and city.
+
+[27] “The commissaries will issue a gill of whiskey, extraordinary,
+to the non-commissioned officers and privates, upon this joyful
+occasion.”—General Irvine’s Order.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  Abercrombie, General, 30, 51
+
+  Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, 332
+
+  Ackland, Lady, 64
+
+  Adams, John, 266
+
+  Adams, Mrs. John, 310
+
+  Adams, John Quincy, 380
+
+  Albany, W. W. Battershall on, 1-37;
+    settled by Dutch, 1-9;
+    captured by English, 9;
+    incorporated, 10;
+    English church built, 14;
+    its frontier position, 15-18;
+    during the French wars, 18;
+    convention of 1754, 20;
+    in the Revolution, 20-23;
+    becomes the State Capital, 24;
+    historic survivals in, 24-37;
+    architecture of, 30-32;
+    the Capitol described, 32-34
+
+  Aldrich, T. B., 205
+
+  Allegheny, 414
+
+  _Almirante Oquendo_, 244
+
+  American Philosophical Society, 310, 318
+
+  Amersfoort, 216, 219
+
+  Amherst, Lord, 52
+
+  Amsterdam, 3, 6
+
+  André, John, in New York, 194;
+    capture of, 158-161
+
+  Andros, Edmund, 176
+
+  Army, American, volunteer system organized, 380
+
+  Arnold, B., at Saratoga, 62;
+    in Philadelphia, 312;
+    treason of, 160, 161, 182, 195
+
+  Arnold, Matthew, cited, 300
+
+  As-que-sent-wah, _see_ E. W. Paige
+
+
+  B
+
+  Baldwin’s Locomotive Works, 326
+
+  Baltimore, Congress flees to, 272
+
+  Barbadoes, Washington’s voyage to, 393
+
+  Barclay, Rev. T., quoted, 100
+
+  Barnard College, 207
+
+  Baron, Father, 407
+
+  Bartram, John, and his garden, 312, 314
+
+  Battershall, W. W., on Albany, 1-37
+
+  Bayard, James A., 360
+
+  Bayard, Richard A., 360
+
+  Bayard, Thomas F., 350, 351
+
+  Beatty, Charles, quoted, 268
+
+  Beatty, Rev., preaches first Protestant sermon at Pittsburgh, 407
+
+  Bedford, Gunning, 267
+
+  Bedford, Gunning, Jr., 358
+
+  Beecher, H. W., 247
+
+  Beekman Mansion, 195-197
+
+  Belcher, Governor J., 252, 257
+
+  Bemis Heights, 23, 41, 64
+
+  Bennington, battle of, 58
+
+  Bertholf, Rev. G., at Tarrytown, 154
+
+  Beverwyck, 73, 81
+
+  Biddle, Colonel, 122
+
+  Bidwell, D. D., 390
+
+  Binney, Horace, house of, 318
+
+  _Bird Grip_, Swedish vessel, 337
+
+  Bjork, Rev. Eric, builds Old Swedes’ Church, 349
+
+  Black Rock, battery at, 373, 384
+
+  “Block House,” the Pittsburgh, 408
+
+  Bloomingdale, absorbed by New York, 188
+
+  Blue Anchor, the Swedish tavern, 301
+
+  Bordentown, 269
+
+  Boston, 181, 188
+
+  Boudinot, President, of Princeton, 288
+
+  Bouquet, Col. Henry, builds the “Block House,” 407;
+    defeats Indians, 407-410
+
+  Bowles, naval constructor, 244
+
+  Bowling Green, 193
+
+  Boyle, H., 107
+
+  Brackinridge, 269
+
+  Bracola, _see_ Brooklyn
+
+  Braddock, defeat and death of, 51, 399-404, 416
+
+  Braddock’s Field, 418
+
+  Bradford, Governor, quoted, 4, 6
+
+  Bradford, press of, 306
+
+  Brainerd, David, expelled from Yale, 256
+
+  Brandt, 56
+
+  Brazil, Emperor of, 206
+
+  Breuckelen, _see_ Brooklyn
+
+  Brewster, E. A., 135
+
+  Brinkerhoff, M., 132
+
+  Broadhead, Colonel, attacks Indians, 412
+
+  Brocklandia, _see_ Brooklyn
+
+  Broecke, _see_ Brooklyn
+
+  Broeckede, _see_ Brooklyn
+
+  Broicklede, _see_ Brooklyn
+
+  Bronck, Jonas, 77, 80
+
+  Brooklyn, 181, 186, 271;
+    Harrington Putnam on, 213-249;
+    Dutch settlement, 213;
+    Dutch settlers described, 216-220;
+    first church, 220-222;
+    British rule, 224-227;
+    battle of Long Island, 228-240;
+    the Navy Yard, 242;
+    Fort Lafayette, 244-248;
+    modern Brooklyn, 248
+
+  Brooklyn Institute, 249
+
+  Brown, General, in War of 1812, 378, 380, 381
+
+  Brown, H. K., 119, 125, 135
+
+  Bryant, Wm. Cullen, 215
+
+  Buffalo, Rowland B. Mahany on, 367-391;
+    founding of, 367;
+    early history, 368;
+    incorporated, 370;
+    strategic position in the War of 1812, 373;
+    Perry’s victory, 376;
+    burning of, 377;
+    battle of Chippewa, 378;
+    Lundy’s Lane, 380;
+    unsuccessful siege by the British of Fort Erie, 381;
+    the Erie Canal, 382-384;
+    the modern city, 385-391
+
+  Burgoyne, surrender at Saratoga, 22, 23, 58-68;
+    imprisoned at Albany, 28
+
+  Burns, Robert, statue of, 36
+
+  Burr, Aaron, 28, 204, 205, 254, 259, 267
+
+  Burr, Rev. Aaron, 252, 259
+
+  Burr, Dr. Horace, 350
+
+  Burwell, Dr. G. N., 389
+
+  Bushy Run, battle at, 410
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cadwalader, in battle of Princeton, 275
+
+  _Caledonia_, captured in War of 1812, 374
+
+  Campanius, at Fort Christina, 339
+
+  Campbell, Douglas, cited, 6
+
+  Canada acquired by England, 19
+
+  Carnahan, James, 292
+
+  Carnegie, Andrew, 424
+
+  Carnegie Institute, 424
+
+  Carpenters’ Hall, 314
+
+  Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, 28
+
+  Caverley’s statue of Burns, 36
+
+  Celeron, Louis, 397
+
+  Centennial Exhibition of 1876, 332
+
+  Champlain, Samuel, 45
+
+  Chapin, E. P., 390
+
+  Charles I., 13, 346
+
+  Charles II., 175
+
+  Chemnitz, surrender of, 339
+
+  Cherry Valley, 49
+
+  Chippewa, battle of, 378, 380
+
+  Christiana, Swedes settle on the, 337;
+    fortified, 355
+
+  Christina, Queen, 336
+
+  Christina Harbor, village of, 339
+
+  Christinaham, 346, 347
+
+  Church, S. H., on Pittsburgh, 393-426
+
+  Cincinnatus, Society of, 132
+
+  Clark, Abraham, signer, 268
+
+  Clinton, DeWitt, 205;
+    favors Erie Canal, 382, 383
+
+  Clinton, General George, at Saratoga, 69;
+    at Newburgh, 124-126
+
+  Clinton, Sir Henry, 194, 229, 236
+
+  Clinton, James, 124
+
+  Coit, George, 384
+
+  Colden, C., 121
+
+  Colden, Maria, 122
+
+  College Settlement, New York, 208
+
+  Colonnade Hotel, Philadelphia, 326
+
+  Columbia University, 207, 211
+
+  Colve, Captain, 175
+
+  Congress, first general American, 94
+
+  Congress, Continental, Witherspoon elected to, 265;
+    flees to Baltimore, 272;
+    meets in Nassau Hall, 286, 288;
+    Declaration of Independence, 318;
+    and the Indians, 412
+
+  Congress, U. S., and Whiskey Insurrection, 417
+
+  Congress Spring, _see_ Saratoga
+
+  _Connecticut_, the, captured in War of 1812, 374
+
+  _Constitution_, the, 242
+
+  Constitution, U. S., adoption of, 367
+
+  Contrecœur, Captain, 399
+
+  Convention of 1787, 290
+
+  Cooper, J. Fenimore, 29, 110, 157, 205
+
+  Cooper Institute, 204
+
+  Cornwallis, Lord, 194;
+    at Brooklyn, 234-237;
+    at Trenton and Princeton, 271-283
+
+  Courcelle, 46
+
+  Coxe, Right Reverend A. C., 389
+
+  Cramps, shipbuilders, 326
+
+  Crane Hook, 349
+
+  Cronyn, Dr. John, 389
+
+  Crown Point, 40, 54
+
+  Curtis, G. W., 141, 205
+
+
+  D
+
+  “Daughters of the American Revolution,” 408
+
+  Davies, President, of Princeton, 259
+
+  de Beauvois, Carel, 222
+
+  Declaration of Independence, 265, 270, 318
+
+  de Kockerthal, Joshua, 107, 115
+
+  Delaware, Washington crossing the, 274
+
+  Delaware Historical Society, 358
+
+  Denny, Governor, 406
+
+  de Rochambeau, Count, 28
+
+  de Tracy, Lieutenant-General, 46
+
+  _Detroit_, the, captured in War of 1812, 374
+
+  Dickens, Charles, 206
+
+  Dickinson, John, 264
+
+  Dickinson, President, of Princeton, 252, 259
+
+  Dinwiddie, Governor, 394
+
+  Dongan, Governor, 10
+
+  Donop at Princeton, 282
+
+  Dordrecht, Synod of, 89
+
+  Dort, Synod of, 13
+
+  Downing, A. J., 116, 135
+
+  Downing, Charles, 135
+
+  Drummond, Lieutenant-General, besieges Fort Erie, 381
+
+  Duke Alexis, the Grand, 206
+
+  Duke of Veragua, 206
+
+  Duke of York, 9
+
+  Dunham, Carroll, 135
+
+  Dunlap, Wm., quoted, 17
+
+  Dunmore, Governor, at Pittsburgh, 410
+
+  Du Ponts, the, 357
+
+  Dutch church, Tarrytown, 152-156
+
+  Dutch East India Company, 3
+
+  Dutch West India Company, 7, 71, 75, 87, 335, 340
+
+
+  E
+
+  Eager, S. W., 135
+
+  _Eagle_, the, 341
+
+  Ebeling cited, 353
+
+  Ecuyer, Simon, 410
+
+  Edison, Thomas, 206
+
+  Edwards, Jonathan, at Princeton, 254, 256, 259
+
+  Elfsborg, 343
+
+  Elizabethtown, 252
+
+  Ellicott, Andrew, 367
+
+  Ellicott, Joseph, founds Buffalo, 367-369, 385;
+    favors Erie Canal, 382
+
+  Elliott, Lieut. J. D., in War of 1812, 374
+
+  Ellison house, Newburgh, 122, 126
+
+  Ellsworth, Oliver, 254, 291
+
+  Elsinborough, 343
+
+  Emperor of Brazil, 206
+
+  Erie Canal, history of, 104, 186, 382-385
+
+  Ettrick house, Newburgh, 128
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fairfax, Lord, estates of, 393
+
+  Fairmount Water-works, 324
+
+  Fall’s house, at Newburgh, 124
+
+  Faneuil Hall, 157
+
+  Fillmore, Millard, 383, 389
+
+  Finley, President, of Princeton, 260
+
+  Five Nations, _see_ Indians
+
+  Flash, Sandy, 362
+
+  Fletcher, Governor, 46
+
+  Flypse, Vredryk, _see_ Philips
+
+  Forbes, General, 405, 406
+
+  Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo, 380
+
+  Forsythe, Rev. John, 135
+
+  Forts: Albany, 9;
+    Amsterdam, 172;
+    Ann, 97;
+    Box, 232;
+    Carillon, 40;
+    Casimir, 341;
+    Christina, 339, 341, 343, 360;
+    Clinton, 121, 124, 125;
+    Corkscrew, 232;
+    Crailo, 30;
+    Defiance, 232, 233, 417;
+    Duquesne, 51, 401, 405, 406;
+    Edward, 41, 58, 97;
+    Elfsborg, 340, 341;
+    Erie, 373, 378, 380, 381;
+    Frederick, 40, 48;
+    Frontenac, 405;
+    George, 380;
+    Greene, 232;
+    Hamilton, 216, 244;
+    Hardy, 66;
+    Hunter, 97;
+    Johnson, 97;
+    Lafayette, 244-248, 416;
+    Lee, 271;
+    Montgomery, 121, 124, 125;
+    Nassau, 337, 340;
+    Necessity, 399;
+    Niagara, 407;
+    Orange, 7-9, 12, 73, 75, 80, 83;
+    Pitt, 407-410, 413, 414, 416;
+    Putnam, 232, 233, 239;
+    Schuyler, 97;
+    Stanwix, 58;
+    Sterling, 233;
+    Sumter, 362;
+    Ticonderoga, 19;
+    Washington, 271;
+    Wayne, 417;
+    William Henry, 18
+
+  Fort Stanwix Conference, 53
+
+  Forward, Oliver, 384
+
+  _Fox’s Journal_, 300, 302
+
+  Francis I., 2
+
+  Franklin, Benjamin, 20, 28, 99, 205, 307, 400
+
+  Franklin Institute, 310
+
+  Franklin, William, 265
+
+  Fraser at Saratoga, 60-64
+
+  Fraunces, Samuel, 184
+
+  Fraunces’s Tavern, 184
+
+  Frederick, Harold, 29
+
+  Freeman’s Farm, 59, 61
+
+  Freerman, Rev. B., 95
+
+  French and Indian Wars, 16, 46, 50, 91-93
+
+  Freneau, 269;
+    quoted, 175
+
+  Frontenac, 46;
+    and the Schenectady Massacre, 92
+
+  Fugitive Slave Law, 362
+
+  Fulton, Robert, 185, 206
+
+
+  G
+
+  Ganson, John, 389
+
+  Garrett, Thomas, 362
+
+  Gates, General, displaces Schuyler, 22;
+    at Saratoga, 57-68, 122
+
+  _Gazette, The_, of Buffalo, 373;
+    of Pittsburgh, 416
+
+  Genêt, 418
+
+  George II., 17;
+    portrait of, 282, 287
+
+  George III., statue of, in Bowling Green, 194
+
+  Germantown in the Revolution, 320
+
+  Gibbs’s St. Martin in the Fields, 317
+
+  Gilder, J. B., on New York City, 169-211
+
+  Gilman, Governor, 69
+
+  Girard College, 326
+
+  Gist, Christopher, 394
+
+  Gowanus, 213, 218, 233;
+    Canal, 214
+
+  Grant, Major, defeat of, 405
+
+  Grant, Mrs., of Laggan, 18
+
+  Grant’s Hill, fight at, 405
+
+  Gravesend settled by English, 222
+
+  Gray’s Ferry, Hessians at, 320
+
+  Great Britain, wars with, 373-382, 411, 413
+
+  Great Meadows, battle at, 399
+
+  Greeley, Horace, 205
+
+  Green, Ashbel, 292
+
+  Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, 122;
+    plans defensive works for Brooklyn, 232;
+    in battle of Princeton, 276
+
+  Greenwich, New Yorkers at, 188
+
+  _Griffin_, La Salle’s vessel, 384
+
+  Gustavus Adolphus and Usselinx, 335
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hale, Nathan, statue of, 195
+
+  _Half Moon_, Hudson’s, 2, 3, 110, 170
+
+  Hall, James, 35
+
+  Hamilton, Alexander, 205;
+    marriage of, 28;
+    political principles of, 180;
+    in Philadelphia, 320
+
+  Hamilton, Governor, 252
+
+  Hancock, John, 314, 412
+
+  Hand, General, 276, 281, 412
+
+  Harlem absorbed by New York, 188
+
+  Harrison, Provost C. C., of University of Pennsylvania, 324
+
+  Hart, John, Signer, 268
+
+  Hasbrouck, Col. J., 121, 127
+
+  Hasbrouck House, 126
+
+  Hawley, Jesse, and the Erie Canal, 382
+
+  Headley, J. T., 111, 135
+
+  Helvetius, Madame, 310
+
+  Henry, Joseph, 35, 292
+
+  Hessians, at Trenton, 270-274;
+    at Gray’s Ferry, 320
+
+  Hiawatha, real story of, 81-83
+
+  Hitchcock at battle of Princeton, 281
+
+  Hodge, Mr., at Buffalo, 373
+
+  Holland Land Company, 369
+
+  Holland, laws of, 85;
+    States-General of, 3, 71, 143
+
+  Hollendare, Peter, 339
+
+  Holy Trinity church, Wilmington, 350
+
+  Hopkins, Stephen, 20
+
+  Hopkinson, Francis, Signer, 269
+
+  Houdon’s bust of Franklin, 308
+
+  Howe, Admiral, 230, 271, 272
+
+  Howe, Lord, 194;
+    at New York, 230, 236;
+    at Brooklyn, 239
+
+  Howe, Lord Viscount, death of, 19, 22, 51
+
+  Howells, W. D., 205
+
+  Hudde at Fort Nassau, 337
+
+  Hudson, Henry, 2, 3, 45, 110, 140, 142, 143, 164
+
+  “Hugh Wynne,” 318
+
+  Hunter, Governor, 14
+
+
+  I
+
+  Independence Hall, 157, 317
+
+  Indians in history of Saratoga, 16 _ff._;
+    of Schenectady, 75-84, 91-93;
+    of Buffalo, 369;
+    of Pittsburgh, 394-411, 416
+
+  Ingoldsby, Major, 48
+
+  Ingoldsby, Richard, 112
+
+  Iroquois, _see_ Indians
+
+  Irvine, Gen. Wm., 413
+
+  Irving, Washington, 9, 30, 81, 110, 161-166, 205, 344;
+    quoted, 146, 147
+
+
+  J
+
+  James, Duke of York, 175, 346
+
+  James, Henry, 29
+
+  James II., 91
+
+  Jamestown, Va., 157
+
+  Jay, John, 132, 180, 205
+
+  Jefferson, Thomas, writes Declaration of Independence, 265, 318
+
+  Jensen, Sally, 122
+
+  Jogues, Father, 9, 76
+
+  Johnson, Sir John, 97
+
+  Johnson, Sir William, 17, 51, 52, 97
+
+  Johnstown Flood, 421
+
+  Jumel Mansion, 202-204
+
+  Jumonville, death of, 399
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kalm, 314
+
+  Kayadrossera patent, the, 45, 53, 55
+
+  Keith, Governor, 327
+
+  Kennedy, Colonel, 194
+
+  Kennedy House, the, 197
+
+  Kidd, Captain, 206
+
+  Kieft, Governor, 336, 337
+
+  King George’s War, 48
+
+  King’s College, 179;
+    _see_ Columbia College
+
+  Kip, Leonard, 29
+
+  Kipling, Rudyard, 206
+
+  Knickerbocker, Diedrich, 164
+
+  Knoll, Rev. M. C., 116
+
+  Knox, General, 122
+
+  Knox, Lucy, 122
+
+  Königsmark, rebellion of, 346
+
+  Kosciuszko at Saratoga, 58
+
+  Kossuth, Louis, 206
+
+
+  L
+
+  _La Dauphine_, Verrazzano’s ship, 2
+
+  Lafayette, 28, 206;
+    at Newburgh, 122, 132;
+    at Princeton, 292;
+    in the French Revolution, 418
+
+  Lake Erie, battle of, 376
+
+  Landon, J. S., on Schenectady, 71-106
+
+  Larned at Saratoga, 62
+
+  La Salle, 384
+
+  Lawrenceville School, 295
+
+  Le Brun, Napoleon, 330
+
+  Le Couteulx, L. S., founds asylum, 370
+
+  Lee, Bishop Alfred, 349, 350
+
+  Lee, R. H., 266
+
+  Leisler, Jacob, 91, 95, 177, 178
+
+  L’Enfant, Capt. P. C., and plan for the National Capital, 368
+
+  Lewis, Elizabeth, 352, 365
+
+  Lexington, battle of, 20, 228, 411
+
+  Li Hung Chang at New York, 206
+
+  Lincoln, A., his body brought to New York, 204
+
+  Lindstrom, P., Swedish engineer, 339, 341
+
+  Livingston, Catherine, 25
+
+  Livingston, Chancellor, 197, 205
+
+  Livingston, Philip, 25, 30, 36
+
+  Logstown and the Ohio Company, 394, 397
+
+  London, Philadelphia compared with, 300
+
+  Longfellow cited, 29, 83, 314
+
+  Long Island, battle of, 229-240
+
+  Lord, Rev. Dr. John, 389
+
+  Louisburg, expedition against, 405
+
+  Lovejoy, Mrs. Joshua, 377
+
+  Lovelace, Lord, 107, 175, 176
+
+  Low, Seth, Mayor of Brooklyn, 248
+
+  Lundy’s Lane, battle of, 380
+
+  Luther, Martin, 264
+
+  Lutherans, German, at Newburgh, 108-117
+
+  Lützen, battle of, 336
+
+  Luzerne, French envoy, 288
+
+
+  M
+
+  Mabie, H. W., on Tarrytown, 137-167
+
+  Maclean, John, 292
+
+  Madison, James, 290, 291;
+    quoted, 267
+
+  Mahany, R. B., on Buffalo, 367-391
+
+  Maidenhead, skirmish at, 276
+
+  _Maine_, the, 244
+
+  Manhattan, island of, 75, 80, 142, 169, 213, 214, 219
+
+  Manhattanville absorbed by New York, 188
+
+  Manning, Captain, 175
+
+  Manning, James, 254
+
+  Mantua, village of, 327
+
+  Marquis Ito, 206
+
+  Martin, Luther, 254
+
+  Martin, Thomas, Madison to, 267
+
+  Mather, Cotton, 221
+
+  Mauritius, 3, 7
+
+  Mawhood, Colonel, at Princeton, 280
+
+  _Mayflower_, the, 4, 5, 110
+
+  McCosh, President James, 295
+
+  McKean, Governor, 358
+
+  McKinly, President John, 355
+
+  McMahon, James P., 390
+
+  Megapolensis, Domine, 9
+
+  Mercer at battle of Princeton, 279-283
+
+  _Messenger, The_, of Ontario, 382
+
+  Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., 208
+
+  Meynders, Birgert, 118, 121
+
+  Midwout, 219, 220
+
+  Mifflin in battle of Princeton, 275
+
+  Miles, Colonel, at Brooklyn, 235
+
+  Miller, Rev. John, 10
+
+  Minquas River, 337, 357
+
+  Minuit, Peter, in New Netherlands, 172, 173, 336
+
+  Mischienza, the, 316, 320
+
+  Mohawks, _see_ Indians
+
+  Monmouth’s Rebellion, 302
+
+  Montcalm, death of, 407
+
+  Montgomery, Robert, 357
+
+  Montreal, 178;
+    massacre of, 46;
+    capture of, 407
+
+  Moravians come to Philadelphia, 302
+
+  Morgan, Gen. Daniel, at Saratoga, 58-62
+
+  Morgan, Col. George, to John Hancock, 412
+
+  Morris, Gouverneur, 180, 205;
+    favors Erie Canal, 382
+
+  Morris, Robert, 288, 314;
+    in the Trenton campaign, 275;
+    house, 320
+
+  Morristown, 285;
+    Washington marches to, 283
+
+  Morse, S. F. B., 35, 206
+
+  Morven, 265, 271, 273
+
+  Moses, Rhind’s statue of, 36
+
+  Mount McGregor, 46, 48
+
+  Music Fund Hall, Philadelphia, 325
+
+  Myggenborg, _see_ Elfsborg
+
+
+  N
+
+  Napier, General, cited, 381
+
+  Nassau Hall, 254, 258, 264, 269, 270, 281, 294, 296
+
+  Navy Yard, Brooklyn, 242-244
+
+  New Amsterdam, 143, 144, 346;
+    taken by the English, 175, 224;
+    name changed to New York, 175, 187, 224;
+    Buffalo first named, 367, 372
+
+  Newburgh, Adelaide Skeel on, 107-135;
+    the Palatine settlement, 107-117;
+    the coming of the Scotch and English, 117-121;
+    in the Revolution, 121-126;
+    Washington’s stay in, 126;
+    the Nicola letter, 127;
+    capture of Ettrick, 128-130;
+    Washington’s address to the unpaid troops, 131;
+    recent history, 132-135
+
+  New Castle, Del., 364
+
+  New Netherlands, fur trade in, 71
+
+  New Utrecht, 216
+
+  New York, 271, 317;
+    J. B. Gilder on, 169-211;
+    Dutch settlement, 169-175;
+    captured by the English, 175;
+    recaptured by the Dutch, 175;
+    governorship of Andros, 176;
+    resumption of Dutch authority, 177;
+    Leisler’s rule, 177;
+    in the Revolution, 178-184;
+    in the War of 1812, 184-186;
+    in the Civil War, 186;
+    expansion of, 187-189;
+    the Tammany Society, 189;
+    historic survivals in, 190-204;
+    characteristics of, 204-211
+
+  New York Central Railroad, 78
+
+  New York University, 207, 211
+
+  Niagara, Shirley’s expedition against, 51
+
+  Niagara Falls, 369, 386
+
+  Nicola, Colonel, letter to Washington, 127, 132
+
+  Nicolls, Colonel, at New Amsterdam, 175, 177, 224
+
+  Nieu Nederlandt, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9
+
+  Niles, Nathaniel, 254
+
+  Nott, President E., 105, 106
+
+
+  O
+
+  Ohio Company formed, 397
+
+  “Old French War,” 96
+
+  _Old Jersey_, the ship, 242
+
+  Old Swedes’ Church, Wilmington, 350-352
+
+  Oxenstiern revives the Usselinx charter, 336
+
+
+  P
+
+  Paige, E. W., cited, 83
+
+  Paine, Thomas, 205
+
+  Palatines, at Newburgh, 108-117;
+    at Philadelphia, 302
+
+  Palmer, the sculptor, 36
+
+  Paris, treaty of, 97;
+    New York compared with, 317
+
+  Parker, Judge, 36
+
+  Paterson, William, 252, 290
+
+  Patton, President, of Princeton, 295
+
+  Paulding, J., 160
+
+  Paulding, J. K., 110
+
+  Penn, John, house of, 312
+
+  Penn, Letitia, house of, 304
+
+  Penn, William, 333;
+    founds Philadelphia, 298-307, 316;
+    grants charter to Wilmington, 353
+
+  Penn family’s charter to Pennsylvania annulled, 413
+
+  Pennsylvania, charter to, 413;
+    dispute with Va., 414
+
+  Pennsylvania Historical Society, 323
+
+  Pennsylvania Hospital, 314
+
+  Pepper, Dr. William, services to the University of Pennsylvania, 324
+
+  Percy, Lord, at Brooklyn, 236
+
+  Perry, Commodore, 376
+
+  Philadelphia, Talcott Williams on, 297-334;
+    geographical site, 297;
+    early houses, 298;
+    coming of William Penn, 300-302;
+    rapid growth of city, 302-317;
+    in the Revolution, 317-320;
+    between 1790 and 1820, 320-323;
+    history of water supply, 323;
+    the University of Pennsylvania, 324;
+    the city before the Civil War, 325-329;
+    modern Philadelphia, 329-334
+
+  Philadelphia Library, 306
+
+  Philips, Frederick, and his Manor, 145-151
+
+  Phipps, Henry, conservatory of, 424
+
+  Pilgrims compared with Palatines, 113
+
+  Pitt, William, statue of, 194;
+    befriends colonies, 404
+
+  Pittsburgh, S. H. Church on, 393-426;
+    site determined by Washington, 393;
+    first permanent settlement, 397;
+    taken by French, 399;
+    the Braddock expedition, 399-404;
+    English take Fort Duquesne and name it Pittsburgh, 406;
+    Indians attack, 409;
+    in the Revolution, 411-413;
+    becomes the county seat, 414;
+    in the Indian war of 1791, 416;
+    the Whiskey Insurrection, 417;
+    incorporated, 418;
+    the strike of 1877, 420;
+    industrial importance, 422;
+    higher life of, 423-426
+
+  Plymouth Rock, 6
+
+  Poe, Edgar Allan, 205
+
+  Polhemus, Rev. Mr., at Brooklyn, 220, 221
+
+  Pontiac, confederacy of, 408
+
+  Poor at Saratoga, 62
+
+  Porter, General P. B., in War of 1812, 378, 381;
+    favors Erie Canal, 382
+
+  Pratt Institute, 248
+
+  Prince of Wales, 206
+
+  Princess Eulalia, 206
+
+  Princeton, W. M. Sloane on, 251-296;
+    first settlement, 251;
+    College of New Jersey established at Elizabethtown, 252;
+    removed to Princeton, 254;
+    parting from Yale, 254;
+    early character, 256-260;
+    Witherspoon and his administration, 260-266;
+    Revolutionary spirit in, 266-270;
+    the Trenton campaign, 272;
+    battle of Princeton, 274-284;
+    mutinous Continentals at, 285;
+    Congress meets at, 286;
+    Washington’s visits to, 287;
+    contributions to the Convention of 1787, 289-291;
+    modern Princeton, 291-296
+
+  Prinz, John, in New Sweden, 339-342
+
+  Pruyn, John V. L., 35, 36
+
+  Putnam, at Brooklyn, 234;
+    at Philadelphia, 272;
+    at Princeton, 285
+
+  Putnam, Gideon, at Saratoga, 69
+
+  Putnam, Harrington, on Brooklyn, 213-249
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quassaick, 107, 114, 118, 127, 128
+
+  Quebec, capture of, 407
+
+  Queen Anne, 108;
+    gives bell to Lutherans at Newburgh, 115, 117
+
+  Queen Anne’s War, 48, 96
+
+  _Queen Charlotte_, British war vessel, 375
+
+  Queen Charlotte, portrait of, 184
+
+  Queen’s Head Tavern, 184
+
+  Queenstown in War of 1812, 380
+
+
+  R
+
+  Raymond, President, of Union College, 106
+
+  Red Jacket in War of 1812, 380
+
+  Rensselaerswyck, 8, 28, 73, 80, 81, 87
+
+  Revolution, Philadelphia in the, 318
+
+  Reynolds, Marcus, quoted, 28
+
+  Rhind’s statue of Moses, 36
+
+  Riall, General, burns Buffalo, 377;
+    retreats, 380, 381
+
+  Richardson, H. H., 31, 424
+
+  Richardson, William, 390
+
+  Richmond Hill, 202
+
+  Riedesel, Madame, 64, 65
+
+  Ripley, General, at Fort Erie, 381
+
+  Rising, John Claudius, 341
+
+  Rittenhouse, 314;
+    his observatory, 318
+
+  Roe, E. P., 135
+
+  Rogers, Wm. F., 390
+
+  Romeyn, Domine, 102, 103
+
+  Roosevelt, Governor, cited, 178
+
+  Ross house, the Betsy, 316
+
+  Rudman, Pastor, cited, 345
+
+  Ruttenber, E. M., 135
+
+  Ryan, Bishop S. V., 389
+
+  Ryswyck, peace of, 95
+
+
+  S
+
+  St. Augustine, 157
+
+  St. Clair, defeat of, 416
+
+  St. Francis de Sales, Order of, 28
+
+  St. George’s church, Schenectady, 101
+
+  St. John, Mrs., 377
+
+  St. Luke’s church, Philadelphia, 326
+
+  St. Mark’s Church, Philadelphia, 326
+
+  St. Martin in the Fields, Gibbs’s, 317
+
+  St. Paul’s chapel, New York, 201, 202
+
+  St. Peter’s church, Albany, 19, 32
+
+  Santo Domingo, 357
+
+  Saratoga, E. H. Walworth on, 39-69;
+    site of, 39-42;
+    the name, 42-44;
+    French and Indian struggles for site, 45-48;
+    massacre of old Saratoga, 49;
+    Seven Years’ War, 50-52;
+    medicinal value of Saratoga waters discovered, 52;
+    the Fort Stanwix Conference, 53;
+    preliminary warfare of the American Revolution, 54-56;
+    Burgoyne’s defeat and surrender, 56-68;
+    General Schuyler makes old Saratoga his summer resort, 68;
+    Gideon Putnam founds the present Saratoga, 69
+
+  Sassoonan, 397
+
+  Schaets, Rev. Gideon, 89
+
+  Schenectady, 16, 29, 46;
+    J. S. Landon on, 71-106;
+    settled, 71;
+    subject to the Dutch West India Company, 71-73;
+    Arendt Van Curler’s directorship, 75-83;
+    land purchased from the Indians, 83;
+    character of the early settlement, 83-87;
+    under English rule, 87-90;
+    the first legislative assembly, 90;
+    government seized by Leisler, 91;
+    Indian wars, 92-96;
+    Schenectady in the Revolution, 97-99;
+    religious history, 100-103;
+    modern history, 104-106
+
+  Schenley, Mary, 424
+
+  Schermerhoorn, Symon, 16
+
+  Schonowe, 79, 81
+
+  Schoonmaker, Domine, 226
+
+  Schute, Swen, 343, 365
+
+  Schuyler, Elizabeth, marriage of, 28
+
+  Schuyler, Margaret, 29
+
+  Schuyler, Peter, 12, 46
+
+  Schuyler, Philip, shot by Indians, 49
+
+  Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 19, 22, 23, 27, 28;
+    in battle of Saratoga, 58-68;
+    visits Saratoga Springs, 68
+
+  Schuyler, Mrs. Philip, 18
+
+  Schuyler Mansion, 27
+
+  Schuylerville, 22, 41
+
+  Scott, Walter, 162
+
+  Scott, Gen. Winfield, in War of 1812, 378, 381
+
+  Selyns, Rev. H., at Brooklyn, 221
+
+  _Seneca Chief_, first boat on Erie Canal, 382
+
+  Seven Years’ War, 50
+
+  Seymour, Governor, quoted, 22
+
+  Shelton, Rev. Dr. Wm., 389
+
+  Sherman, Roger, 291
+
+  Shipley, Elizabeth, 365
+
+  Shipley, William, at Wilmington, 352, 365
+
+  Shirley, expedition of, 51
+
+  Six Nations, _see_ Indians
+
+  Skeel, Adelaide, on Newburgh, 107-135
+
+  Skipper Block, 170
+
+  Sleepy Hollow, 147, 164, 167
+
+  Sloane, W. M., on Princeton, 251-296
+
+  Sloughter, Governor, replaces Leisler, 177
+
+  Smith, James M., 390
+
+  Smithsonian Institution, 294
+
+  Spaulding, E. G., introduces Legal-Tender Act, 391
+
+  Spuyten Duyvil Creek, fight at, 170
+
+  Squaw Island, the _Detroit_ aground on, 374
+
+  Stackpole, Dr., composes Yankee Doodle, 30
+
+  Stanhope, Samuel, 292
+
+  Stanwix, General, builds second Fort Pitt, 407
+
+  Stark, General, 275;
+    at Fort Edward, 66;
+    at Princeton, 281
+
+  Stedman, E. C., 205
+
+  Steuben, 28;
+    at Newburgh, 132
+
+  Stirling, in battle of Long Island, 234-239;
+    in Trenton campaign, 271
+
+  Stockton, Richard, 252, 265, 269
+
+  Stoddard, R. H., 205
+
+  Stone, Gen. C. P., imprisoned at Fort Lafayette, 245, 246
+
+  Strasburg Cathedral, 34
+
+  Stuyvesant, Peter, at New Amsterdam, 9, 81, 144, 175-177, 218-221,
+        248;
+    buys land west of the Delaware, 340;
+    captures forts on the Delaware, 343
+
+  Suffolk County in the Revolution, 228
+
+  Sullivan, General, at Brooklyn, 235-237;
+    at Princeton, 285
+
+  Sunnyside, Washington Irving at, 162, 163
+
+  Swedes, on the Delaware, 335-344;
+    their church at Philadelphia, 301
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tammany Hall, history of, 189, 190
+
+  Tarrytown, H. W. Mabie on, 137-167;
+    described, 137-140;
+    early Dutch settlements, 140-145;
+    derivation of name, 146;
+    the Philips Manor-House, 148-150;
+    the old Dutch church, 150-156;
+    Tarrytown in the Revolution, 157-160;
+    capture of John André, 158-161;
+    Washington Irving, 161-164
+
+  Tatnall, Joseph, Washington visits, 357;
+    gives clock to Wilmington, 359
+
+  Tawasentha, Vale of, 29
+
+  Taylor, Bayard, 205
+
+  Tenacong, _see_ Tinicum
+
+  Thackeray, W. M., 206
+
+  Thaw, Wm., generosity to Pittsburgh, 424
+
+  Thesschenmaecher, Rev. Petrus, 88
+
+  Ticonderoga, 19, 40, 51, 54, 233, 405
+
+  Tiemann, Mayor, death of, 170
+
+  Tifft house, the, 377
+
+  Tilden, Samuel J., 205
+
+  Tinicum, Prinz’s fort at, 340
+
+  Torkillius, Rev. R., at Fort Christina, 338, 365
+
+  Townsend, Charles, 384
+
+  Townsend, Sam, 361
+
+  Tran Hook, _see_ Crane Hook
+
+  Treaty of 1783, 289
+
+  Trefalldigheet, 343
+
+  Trent, Captain Wm., establishes first settlement at Pittsburgh,
+        397-399
+
+  Trenton, battle of, 270-274
+
+  Trinity Church, New York, 227
+
+  Tryon, Governor, quoted, 56
+
+  Tusculum, 271
+
+
+  U
+
+  Union College, 102-106
+
+  University of Pennsylvania, 324
+
+  University Settlement, New York, 208
+
+  Usselinx, Wm., and his trading company, 335
+
+  Utrecht, 216;
+    treaty of, 96
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vallandigham, E. N., on Wilmington, 335-365
+
+  Van Curler, Arendt, at Schenectady, 75-84, 92
+
+  Vanderheyden Palace, 30
+
+  Van Rensselaer, Killiaen, 8, 75
+
+  Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 25
+
+  Van Rensselaer Island, 4
+
+  Van Rensselaer Manor-House, 25, 26
+
+  Van Slechtenhorst, Brandt, 9
+
+  Van Twiller, Walter, 336
+
+  Van Wart, Isaac, 160
+
+  Van Wyck house, 132
+
+  Van Wyck, James, 132
+
+  Verplanck house, 131
+
+  Verrazzano, 2
+
+  Versailles, peace of, 289
+
+  Virginia, dispute with Pennsylvania, 414
+
+  Vliessingen, _see_ Flushing
+
+  Von Königsmark, 346
+
+  Von Steuben, _see_ Steuben
+
+
+  W
+
+  Waalboght, 213
+
+  Wadsworth, Colonel, 122
+
+  Wallabout, village of, 224, 233, 242
+
+  _Walk-in-the-Water_, first steamboat on Lake Erie, 384
+
+  Walworth, E. H., on Saratoga, 39-70
+
+  War of 1812, _see_ various chapters
+
+  Washington, plan of city, 187, 368
+
+  Washington, George, and the site of Pittsburgh, 393;
+    at Great Meadows, 399;
+    with Braddock, 404;
+    opens road to Fort Duquesne, 405;
+    at Schenectady, 98;
+    in battle of Long Island, 238-240;
+    at Trenton and Princeton, 270-290;
+    at Saratoga, 69;
+    in New York, 181, 182, 194, 197-202;
+    at Newburgh, 114, 122, 126-131;
+    visits Wilmington, 355-358;
+    instructions to St. Clair, 416;
+    plan for the National Capital, 367;
+    quoted, 1, 23, 238
+
+  Watkins, Rev. H., 118
+
+  Wayne, Anthony, 125, 286, 416
+
+  Webb, Captain Thomas, 101
+
+  Weigand’s Tavern, Newburgh, 126
+
+  Wesley, John, 101
+
+  Western University of Pennsylvania, 416
+
+  West India Company, 143, 173
+
+  West Point, 122, 160, 378
+
+  Whiskey Insurrection, 417
+
+  Whitefield, George, 256
+
+  Whitman, Walt, 205
+
+  William and Mary, 91
+
+  William III., 177
+
+  William IV., 206
+
+  Williams, David, 160
+
+  Williams, Talcott, on Philadelphia, 297-334
+
+  Williams College, 26
+
+  Williams house, Newburgh, 122
+
+  Williams, William I., 389
+
+  Willing, Thomas, founds Wilmington, 352
+
+  Willingstown, 352
+
+  Willis, N. P., 110, 135
+
+  Wilmington, E. N. Vallandigham on, 335-365;
+    plans of Usselinx, 335;
+    expedition of Minuit, 336;
+    settlement on the Christina, 337;
+    governorship of Prinz, 339;
+    struggles of the Swedes and Dutch for the Delaware, 341-344;
+    Dutch rule, 344-346;
+    English supremacy, 346;
+    friendly services of Wm. Penn, 346-349;
+    Old Swedes’ church, 349;
+    Wilmington laid out, 352;
+    services of William Shipley, 352;
+    the earlier city, 353-360;
+    before and in the Civil War, 360-364;
+    modern changes, 364
+
+  Winthrop, Fitz John, 46
+
+  Witherspoon, John, 254, 260-271, 290, 291
+
+  Wiedrich, Michael, 390
+
+  Wilkeson, Samuel, 384
+
+  Wilkeson, John, 390
+
+  Worth, Captain, in War of 1812, 381
+
+  Wolfe, death of, 19, 52, 407
+
+  Wolfert’s Roost, 161
+
+  Wyncoop, Gitty, 122
+
+  Wyoming Valley, 49
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yale relations with Princeton, 254
+
+  Yorktown, 127, 182
+
+  Yorkville absorbed by New York, 188
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zoölogical Garden, Philadelphia, 323
+
+
+Historic Towns of New England
+
+Edited by LYMAN P. POWELL. With introduction by GEORGE P. MORRIS. With
+160 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $3.50.
+
+CONTENTS: =Portland=, by Samuel T. Pickard; =Rutland=, by Edwin D. Mead;
+=Salem=, by George D. Latimer; =Boston=, by Thomas Wentworth Higginson
+and Edward Everett Hale; =Cambridge=, by Samuel A. Eliot; =Concord=,
+by Frank A. Sanborn; =Plymouth=, by Ellen Watson; =Cape Cod Towns=, by
+Katharine Lee Bates; =Deerfield=, by George Sheldon; =Newport=, by Susan
+Coolidge; =Providence=, by William B. Weeden; =Hartford=, by Mary K.
+Talcott; =New Haven=, by Frederick Hull Cogswell.
+
+
+Historic Towns of the Middle States
+
+Edited by LYMAN P. POWELL. With introduction by Dr. ALBERT SHAW. With
+over 150 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $3.50.
+
+CONTENTS: =Albany=, by W. W. Battershall; =Saratoga=, by Ellen H.
+Walworth; =Schenectady=, by Judson S. Landon; =Newburgh=, by Adelaide
+Skeel; =Tarrytown=, by H. W. Mabie; =Brooklyn=, by Harrington Putnam;
+=New York=, by J. B. Gilder; =Buffalo=, by Rowland B. Mahany;
+=Pittsburgh=, by S. H. Church; =Philadelphia=, by Talcott Williams;
+=Princeton=, by W. M. Sloane; =Wilmington=, by E. N. Vallandigham.
+
+
+Some Colonial Homesteads
+
+And Their Stories. By MARION HARLAND. Second impression. With 86
+illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $3.00.
+
+“A notable book, dealing with early American days.... The name of the
+author is a guarantee not only of the greatest possible accuracy as to
+facts, but of attractive treatment of themes absorbingly interesting in
+themselves, ... the book is of rare elegance in paper, typography, and
+binding.”—_Rochester Democrat-Chronicle._
+
+
+More Colonial Homesteads
+
+And Their Stories. By MARION HARLAND. With over 70 illustrations. 8ᵒ,
+gilt top.
+
+
+Where Ghosts Walk
+
+The Haunts of Familiar Characters in History and Literature. By
+MARION HARLAND, author of “Some Colonial Homesteads,” etc. With 33
+illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $2.50.
+
+“In this volume fascinating pictures are thrown upon the screen so
+rapidly that we have not time to have done with our admiration for one
+before the next one is encountered.... Travel of this kind does not
+weary. It fascinates.”—_New York Times._
+
+
+BELLES-LETTRES
+
+
+Browning, Poet and Man
+
+A Survey. By ELISABETH LUTHER CARY, author of “Tennyson; His Homes, His
+Friends, and His Works.” With cover design by MARGARET ARMSTRONG. With 25
+illustrations in photogravure and some text illustrations. Large 8ᵒ, gilt
+top (in a box), $3.75.
+
+This volume forms a companion work to Miss Cary’s book on Tennyson issued
+last year, and which met with such a cordial reception.
+
+
+Tennyson
+
+His Homes, His Friends, and His Work. By ELISABETH LUTHER CARY. With
+18 illustrations in photogravure and some text illustrations. Second
+edition. Large 8ᵒ, gilt top (in a box), $3.75.
+
+“The multitudes of admirers of Tennyson in the United States will mark
+this beautiful volume as very satisfactory. The text is clear, terse, and
+intelligent, and the matter admirably arranged, while the mechanical work
+is faultless, with art work especially marked for excellence.”—_Chicago
+Inter-Ocean._
+
+
+Petrarch
+
+The First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters. A Selection from his
+Correspondence with Boccaccio and other Friends. Designed to illustrate
+the Beginnings of the Renaissance. Translated from the original Latin
+together with Historical Introductions and Notes, by JAMES HARVEY
+ROBINSON, Professor of History in Columbia University, with the
+Collaboration of HENRY WINCHESTER ROLFE, sometime Professor of Latin in
+Swarthmore College. Illustrated. 8ᵒ, $2.00.
+
+“Petrarch is widely known as a poet of the Italian language whose
+love for Laura is immortalized in a long series of sonnets. It was
+an admirable idea for Prof. Robinson to translate for us a selection
+from the letters of Petrarch, and to intersperse their thoughtful and
+scholarly, fresh and interesting, notes and comments.”—_N. Y. Times._
+
+
+Literary Hearthstones
+
+Studies of the Home Life of Certain Writers and Thinkers. By MARION
+HARLAND, author of “Some Colonial Homesteads and Their Stories,” “Where
+Ghosts Walk,” etc. Put up in sets of two volumes each, in boxes. Fully
+illustrated. 16ᵒ.
+
+The first issues will be:
+
+    =Charlotte Brontë.=
+    =William Cowper.=
+    =Hannah More.=
+    =John Knox.=
+
+In this series, Marion Harland presents, not dry biographies, but, as
+indicated in the sub-title, studies of the home-life of certain writers
+and thinkers. The volumes will be found as interesting as stories, and,
+indeed, they have been prepared in the same method as would be pursued in
+writing a story, that is to say, with a due sense of proportion.
+
+
+                 G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77274 ***
diff --git a/77274-h/77274-h.htm b/77274-h/77274-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45f4760
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/77274-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,14315 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+<head>
+    <meta charset="UTF-8">
+    <title>
+      Historic Towns of the Middle States | Project Gutenberg
+    </title>
+  <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover">
+    <style>
+
+a {
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+body {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+}
+
+h1,h2,h3 {
+    text-align: center;
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+h2.nobreak {
+    page-break-before: avoid;
+}
+
+hr.chap {
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    clear: both;
+    width: 65%;
+    margin-left: 17.5%;
+    margin-right: 17.5%;
+}
+
+img.w100 {
+    width: 100%;
+}
+
+div.chapter {
+    page-break-before: always;
+}
+
+ul {
+    list-style-type: none;
+}
+
+li.indx {
+    margin-top: .5em;
+    padding-left: 2em;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+li.ifrst {
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    padding-left: 5em;
+}
+
+li.isub1 {
+    padding-left: 4em;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+p {
+    margin-top: 0.5em;
+    text-align: justify;
+    margin-bottom: 0.5em;
+    text-indent: 1em;
+}
+
+table {
+    margin: 1em auto 1em auto;
+    max-width: 40em;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+
+td {
+    padding-left: 2.25em;
+    padding-right: 0.25em;
+    vertical-align: top;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+.tdc {
+    text-align: center;
+    text-indent: 0;
+    padding: 0.75em 0.25em 0.5em 0.25em;
+}
+
+.sub {
+    padding-left: 3.25em;
+    font-size: 90%;
+    text-align: justify;
+}
+
+.tdpg {
+    vertical-align: bottom;
+    text-align: right;
+}
+
+.ad {
+    margin: auto;
+    max-width: 35em;
+}
+
+.ad h3 {
+    text-align: left;
+}
+
+.ad p.noindent {
+    margin-left: 1em;
+}
+
+blockquote {
+    margin: 1.5em 10%;
+}
+
+.center {
+    text-align: center;
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+figcaption p {
+    text-align: center;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    font-size: 90%;
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+.figcenter {
+    margin: auto;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.footnotes {
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    border: dashed 1px;
+}
+
+.footnote {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+    font-size: 0.9em;
+}
+
+.footnote .label {
+    position: absolute;
+    right: 84%;
+    text-align: right;
+}
+
+.fnanchor {
+    vertical-align: super;
+    font-size: .8em;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+.gothic {
+    font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Old English', serif;
+}
+
+.hanging {
+    padding-left: 2em;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+.larger {
+    font-size: 150%;
+}
+
+.noindent {
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+.pagenum {
+    position: absolute;
+    right: 4%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+    font-style: normal;
+}
+
+.poetry-container {
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.poetry {
+    display: inline-block;
+    text-align: left;
+}
+
+.poetry .stanza {
+    margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;
+}
+
+.poetry .verse {
+    padding-left: 3em;
+}
+
+.poetry .indent0 {
+    text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+.right {
+    text-align: right;
+}
+
+.smaller {
+    font-size: 80%;
+}
+
+.smcap {
+    font-variant: small-caps;
+    font-style: normal;
+}
+
+.tb {
+    margin-top: 2em;
+}
+
+.titlepage {
+    text-align: center;
+    margin-top: 3em;
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+.transnote {
+    background-color: #E6E6FA;
+    color: black;
+    text-align: center;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    padding: 0.5em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+}
+
+.x-ebookmaker img {
+    max-width: 100%;
+    width: auto;
+    height: auto;
+}
+
+.x-ebookmaker .poetry {
+    display: block;
+    margin-left: 1.5em;
+}
+
+.x-ebookmaker blockquote {
+    margin: 1.5em 5%;
+}
+
+/* Illustration classes */
+.illowp100 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp90 {width: 90%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp90 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp56 {width: 56%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp56 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp83 {width: 83%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp83 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp58 {width: 58%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp58 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp93 {width: 93%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp93 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp88 {width: 88%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp88 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp63 {width: 63%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp63 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp85 {width: 85%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp85 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp55 {width: 55%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp55 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp31 {width: 31%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp31 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp37 {width: 37%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp37 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp68 {width: 68%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp68 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp75 {width: 75%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp75 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp48 {width: 48%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp48 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp52 {width: 52%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp52 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp66 {width: 66%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp66 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp62 {width: 62%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp62 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp51 {width: 51%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp51 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp41 {width: 41%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp41 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp80 {width: 80%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp80 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp50 {width: 50%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp50 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp61 {width: 61%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp61 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp53 {width: 53%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp53 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp69 {width: 69%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp69 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp95 {width: 95%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp95 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp65 {width: 65%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp65 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp71 {width: 71%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp71 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp78 {width: 78%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp78 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp45 {width: 45%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp45 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp87 {width: 87%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp87 {width: 100%;}
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77274 ***</div>
+
+<div class="chapter ad">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak gothic">American Historic Towns.</h2>
+
+<h3>Historic Towns of New England.</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With Introduction
+by <span class="smcap">George P. Morris</span>. Fully illustrated.
+Large 8ᵒ, $3.50.</p>
+
+<h3>Historic Towns of the Middle States.</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With Introduction
+by <span class="smcap">Albert Shaw</span>. Fully illustrated. Large
+8ᵒ, $3.50</p>
+
+<p class="center">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, <span class="smcap">New York and London</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus001" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus001.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p><i>The “Half-Moon” on the Hudson—1609.</i></p>
+      <p><i>From a painting by L. W. Seavey.</i></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[i]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage gothic">American Historic Towns</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">HISTORIC TOWNS<br>
+<span class="smaller">OF</span><br>
+THE MIDDLE STATES</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">Edited by</span><br>
+LYMAN P. POWELL</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">Illustrated</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS<br>
+NEW YORK &amp; LONDON<br>
+<span class="gothic">The Knickerbocker Press</span><br>
+1899</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1899<br>
+BY<br>
+G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</span></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller">Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller gothic">The Knickerbocker Press, New York</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In offering to the public the second volume
+of <i>American Historic Towns</i> the editor
+desires to bring three facts to the consideration
+of the reader.</p>
+
+<p>1. This being the middle volume of a series
+dealing with the older towns along, or near,
+the Eastern coast, it is hoped that the title
+<i>Historic Towns of the Middle States</i> will seem
+not inappropriate.</p>
+
+<p>2. The plan which underlay the making of
+the first volume, <i>Historic Towns of New England</i>,
+has in the main been followed. Each
+author has invariably been chosen because
+of unique fitness for his special task. The
+editor believes that in every case the enthusiasm
+of the native or the resident will be found
+wedded to the perspective of the <i>litterateur</i> or
+scholar. No effort has been made to harmonize
+divergencies in style or judgment, for obvious
+reasons. The success of the first volume
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span>has set the stamp of approval on the method
+of the series, and the editor is glad to announce
+that a volume on the Southern towns
+will shortly follow this.</p>
+
+<p>3. The chapter on Princeton first served as
+an address in 1894 before the Historical Pilgrims
+on the last day of their Pilgrimage,
+which is described in <i>Historic Towns of New
+England</i>, pp. iii.-v.</p>
+
+<p>To the making of this volume many have
+contributed in various ways. The editor is
+under special obligation to his wife, Gertrude
+Wilson Powell, for such assistance as makes
+her really a co-editor of the volume. Dr.
+Albert Shaw, and Mr. Melvil Dewey too have
+given freely of their counsel and encouragement,
+and the editor is happy to acknowledge
+their great kindness.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap" style="padding-left: 1em;">St. John’s Rectory</span>,<br>
+<span class="smcap">Lansdowne, Pennsylvania</span>,<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em;">October 17, 1899.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header2.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+    <td>Albert Shaw</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">xv</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Albany</span></td>
+    <td>Walton W. Battershall</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#ALBANY">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Saratoga</span></td>
+    <td>Ellen Hardin Walworth</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#SARATOGA">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Schenectady</span></td>
+    <td>Judson S. Landon</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#SCHENECTADY">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td>Adelaide Skeel</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#NEWBURGH">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Tarrytown-on-Hudson</span></td>
+    <td>Hamilton Wright Mabie</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">New York City</span></td>
+    <td>Joseph B. Gilder</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#NEW_YORK_CITY">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Brooklyn</span></td>
+    <td>Harrington Putnam</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#BROOKLYN">213</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Princeton</span></td>
+    <td>William M. Sloane</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PRINCETON">251</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td>Talcott Williams</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PHILADELPHIA">297</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Wilmington</span></td>
+    <td>E. N. Vallandigham</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#WILMINGTON">335</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Buffalo</span></td>
+    <td>Rowland B. Mahany</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#BUFFALO">367</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Pittsburgh</span></td>
+    <td>Samuel Harden Church</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PITTSBURGH">393</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header3.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="transnote" id="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber’s Note: The illustrations listed as “Seal of Tarrytown”
+and “Seal of New York City” were not, in fact, printed in the book.
+Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break, which
+may be on a different page.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The “Half-Moon” on the Hudson, 1609</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus001"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by L. W. Seavey.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">ALBANY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Chart of Nieu Nederlandt</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus002">5</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Albany, 1695</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus003">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Dutch Church, Erected in 1715 on Site of Original Church Erected in 1656</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus004">13</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">St. Peter’s Church Erected in 1715. Fort Frederick in the Background</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus005">15</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a water-color sketch in the British Museum.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Major-General Philip Schuyler</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus006">23</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by Colonel Trumbull.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Stephen Van Rensselaer</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus007">25</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by Ezra Ames.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Van Rensselaer Manor-House, 1765</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus008">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Schuyler Mansion, 1760</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus009">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">West Side of Pearl Street, from State Street to Maiden Lane, 1814</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus010">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">View of Albany, 1899</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus011">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">John V. L. Pruyn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus012">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Albany</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus013">37</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">SARATOGA</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Saratoga Lake, N. Y.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus014">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Map Showing Historic and Other Drives in the Vicinity of Saratoga Springs</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus015">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Saratoga Battle Monument, Schuylerville, N. Y.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus016">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">North Broadway, Saratoga Springs, 1898</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus017">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">General Philip Schuyler</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus018">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Bronze statue in niche of Saratoga monument,
+    Schuylerville, N. Y.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Congress Spring in 1820</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus019">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Kayadrossera Patent, with Great Seal of Queen Anne Pendant, 1708</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus020">55</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Original in Saratoga County Clerk’s Office.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Women of the Revolution</span>, 1776</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus021">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From tablet on Saratoga battle monument,
+    Schuylerville, N. Y.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“Old Well,” Freeman’s Farm, Battle-ground, Bemis Heights, Sept. 19, 1777</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus022">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">General Daniel Morgan</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus023">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Congress Spring, 1898</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus024">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Sign, “Putnam and the Wolf,” on Putnam’s Tavern, Saratoga Springs</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus025">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Original sign in Grand Union Hotel, Saratoga Springs, N. Y.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Saratoga</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus026">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">SCHENECTADY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Colonial House, Union Street</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus027">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">View on State Street</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus028">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“The Blue Gate” Entrance to Union College Grounds</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus029">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Glen-Sanders Mansion, Erected 1714</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus030">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">First Reformed (Dutch) Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus031">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Ellis Hospital</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus032">90</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Edison Hotel</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus033">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Union College, 1795</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus034">99</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Statue, Site of “Old Fort”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus035">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“The Brook that Bounds thro’ Union’s Grounds,” Union College</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus036">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Eliphalet Nott</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus037">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">President of Union College for sixty years.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Schenectady</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus038">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">NEWBURGH</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington’s Headquarters at Newburgh</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus039">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Joel T. Headley</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus040">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Lutheran Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus041">113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Andrew J. Downing</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus042">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Henry Kirke Brown</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus043">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Headquarters of Major-General Knox at Vail’s Gate</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus044">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Clinton’s Headquarters at Little Britain, near Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus045">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Clinton Statue in Colden Square, Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus046">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Williams House</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus047">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Monument on Temple Hill, near Newburgh</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus048">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Verplanck House</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus049">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Baron Steuben’s headquarters, where the “Nicola Letter”
+    was written.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington’s Headquarters at Fishkill</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus050">133</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Charles Downing</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus051">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Newburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus052">135</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Bird’s-eye View of Tarrytown</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus053">139</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph by F. Ahrens.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Pocantico River</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus054">149</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Manor-House (“Flypse’s Castle”) and Mill, Tarrytown</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus055">151</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Old Dutch Church, Sleepy Hollow</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus056">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a drawing by W. J. Wilson.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Interior of the Old Dutch Church, Sleepy
+    Hollow, Prior to Its Restoration in 1897</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus057">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph by F. Ahrens.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Monument to the Captors of André</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus058">159</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a photograph by F. Ahrens.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington Irving</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus059">161</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">“Sunnyside”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus060">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The home of Washington Irving.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Jacob Mott House, where Katrina Van Tassel was Married</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus061">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Now occupied by the new Washington Irving High School.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Tarrytown</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#transnote">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Sleepy Hollow Mill</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus062">167</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">NEW YORK CITY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">First Seal of the City, 1623-1654</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus063">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Map of Original Grants</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus064">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Fort in Governor Kieft’s Day</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus065">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Peter Stuyvesant</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus066">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of the City in 1686</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus067">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">John Jay</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus068">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Alexander Hamilton</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus069">180</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Fraunces Tavern</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus070">183</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Stadt Huys</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus071">191</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Stained-Glass Window in “Bowling Green
+    Offices,” Showing Green about 1760</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus072">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Government House</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus073">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Federal Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus074">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">St. Paul’s Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus075">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">City Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus076">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Grant’s Tomb, Riverside Drive</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus077">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington Arch</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus078">209</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of New York City</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#transnote">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">BROOKLYN</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">View in Brooklyn in the Olden Times</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus079">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Denyse’s Ferry</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus080">217</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The first place at which the British and Hessians landed
+    on Long Island, August 22, 1776. Now Fort Hamilton.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Bushwick Town-House and Church, 1800</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus081">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Section of Map of Brooklyn, 1776</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus082">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Brower’s Mill, Gowanus</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus083">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The Yellow Mill is seen in the distance.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Monument to Maryland’s “400”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus084">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Navy Yard</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus085">243</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">In foreground 5.5-inch breech-loading gun, with mount
+    and shield, taken from Spanish cruiser <i>Vizcaya</i>, after destruction
+    of Spanish fleet, July 3, 1898; also submarine mine from Guantanamo.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Fort Lafayette, New York Narrows</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus086">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Brooklyn Institute Museum</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus087">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Henry Ward Beecher</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus088">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Brooklyn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus089">249</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">PRINCETON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Line of Historic Catalpas</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus090">253</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">A View of the Front Campus</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus091">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">John Witherspoon</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus092">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Washington’s Headquarters at Rocky Hill,
+    N. J., near Princeton</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus093">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Morven</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus094">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Richard Stockton, “The Signer”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus095">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Hall in the Morven House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus096">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Battle of Princeton. Death of Mercer</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus097">277</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the painting by Col. J. Trumbull.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Nassau Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus098">287</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">President James McCosh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus099">293</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Princeton</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus100">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">PHILADELPHIA</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Reading the Declaration of Independence</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus101">299</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an old French print.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Thomas Penn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus102">303</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From a painting owned by the Historical Society
+    of Pennsylvania, copied by M. I. Naylor from the portrait in the
+    possession of Major Dugald Stuart.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Second Street, Philadelphia, Showing the
+    Old Court House on the Left</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus103">305</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an engraving by W. Birch &amp; Son.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Franklin in 1777</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus104">307</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">After the print reproduced from the drawing of Cochin.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Philadelphia Library</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus105">309</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The old building on Fifth Street, now demolished.
+    From an engraving by W. Birch &amp; Son.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Carpenter’s Hall, Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus106">313</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Wherein met the First Continental Congress, 1774.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Pennsylvania Hospital</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus107">315</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an engraving by W. Birch &amp; Son.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Independence Hall, Philadelphia, before 1876</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus108">319</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Morris House, Germantown, Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus109">321</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Dr. William Pepper</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus110">324</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Frank Thomson</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus111">326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Announcement of the Declaration of Independence</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus112">331</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Philadelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus113">333</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">WILMINGTON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Christina Fort, 1655</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus114">338</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Residence of the late Thomas F. Bayard</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus115">342</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Swedes’ Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus116">345</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Rev. Eric Bjork</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus117">348</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Bishop Lee</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus118">349</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Thomas F. Bayard</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus119">351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Shipley Building</span>&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus120">354</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old Friends’ Meeting-House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus121">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">House of the Historical Society</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus122">359</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">City Hall</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus123">361</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Newcastle County Court House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus124">363</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Wilmington</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus125">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">BUFFALO</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Joseph Ellicott</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus126">368</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Founder of Buffalo.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Lafayette Square</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus127">371</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">A Glimpse of Buffalo Harbor</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus128">375</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">St. Paul’s Church</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus129">379</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Millard Fillmore</span>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus130">383</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Beacon on Old Breakwater</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus131">386</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Delaware Avenue, Showing Bishop Quigley’s House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus132">388</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Dr. John Cronyn</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus133">389</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">William I. Williams</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus134">390</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Buffalo</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus135">391</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="tdc">PITTSBURGH</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">An Early Resident of Pittsburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus136">395</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From the statue by T. A. Mills in the Carnegie Museum.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Sun-dial Used at Fort Duquesne</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus137">398</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Earl of Chatham</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus138">403</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">From an oil painting in the possession of the Historical
+    Society of Pennsylvania.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Blockhouse of Fort Pitt. Built in 1764</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus139">406</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Fort Pitt</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus140">409</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Phipps Conservatory</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus141">415</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Coal Fleet</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus142">419</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Carnegie Institute</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus143">421</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Court House</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus144">425</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Seal of Pittsburgh</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus145">426</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[xv]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ALBERT SHAW</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The designation “Middle States” has a
+negative, rather than a positive, significance.
+In our later history, as well as in that
+of our colonizing and federalizing periods, the
+term “New England” has had a definite value
+for many purposes besides those of geographical
+convenience: and it is equally true that
+“the South” has meant very much in our
+American life besides a mere territorial expression.
+But the “Middle States” lack the
+sharply distinguishing characteristics of the
+other groups. In more senses than the strictly
+literal one, the two immense States of New
+York and Pennsylvania, with one or two smaller
+neighbors, have occupied middle ground.</p>
+
+<p>If New York, on the one hand, has been
+somewhat closely related to New England,
+Pennsylvania has had many neighborly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</span>associations with Maryland and Virginia. New
+Jersey, meanwhile, has been a close link between
+Pennsylvania and New York. The development
+of New England was dominated in
+a marvellous way by a set of ideas, religious,
+political and philosophical, that belonged to a
+certain phase of the English Reformation. Virginia
+and other settlements to the southward
+had their origins in a colonizing movement
+that was more typically representative of contemporary
+English manners, views and ways
+of living. The aristocratic system would have
+disappeared rapidly enough in the South but
+for the gradual extension of an exotic institution,—that
+of African slavery.</p>
+
+<p>The Middle States had a more varied origin,—one
+that does not lend itself so readily to the
+purposes of contrast and generalization. The
+Hudson, called by the Dutch the North River,
+and the Delaware, which they called the South
+River, were both entered by Henry Hudson,
+an Englishman in the employ of the Dutch
+East India Company, in 1609; and apart from
+an extremely limited settlement of Swedes on
+the west bank of the Delaware, it was the
+Dutch who controlled the beginnings of European
+settlement along the seaboard of what
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</span>afterward came to be known as the Middle
+States section. The Dutch colonization was
+not large, but it had a strong and persistent
+influence upon the subsequent development of
+New York and the region round about.</p>
+
+<p>The gradual predominance in New York of
+men of English speech and origin came about
+partly by infiltration from the New England
+colonies and partly by direct migration from
+England. There resulted a natural and harmonious
+fusion between the Dutch pioneers
+on the Hudson and the English-speaking colonists.
+Various Dutch institutions survived
+long after the English language had come into
+general use.</p>
+
+<p>Before the grant of Pennsylvania to William
+Penn, the settlers on the Delaware had been
+mainly Swedish, Dutch or otherwise from continental
+Europe. William Penn’s colonists
+at the outset were largely English Quakers,
+and some years later there arrived great numbers
+of Germans, some French Huguenots,
+and a good many Scotch-Irish Protestants.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, as compared with New England on
+the one hand and the Southern colonies on
+the other, the Middle States had cosmopolitan,
+rather than purely English, origins. This
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</span>cosmopolitanism has remained, as a leading
+factor in all their subsequent history. The
+spirit of compromise and tolerance that had
+been developed in the middle section by the
+contact of different nationalities was of incalculable
+value when the time came for the co-operation
+of the thirteen colonies in the struggle
+for independence, and in the subsequent formation
+of their federal union.</p>
+
+<p>If the colony which developed into the Empire
+State, and that which came to be known
+as the Keystone State, had occupied some
+other geographical position than the one they
+held as a buffer between New England and the
+South, the history of America might well have
+taken a wholly different course. For there
+was almost as much difference in institutions,
+life and points of view between the New Englanders
+and the Virginians of Colonial days as
+between the New Englanders and the Canadian
+Frenchmen across the St. Lawrence. But
+the transition from New England to New York
+was easy, and involved no violent contrasts.
+There had been a steady movement of population
+from the New England States westward
+across the eastern boundary line of the State
+of New York. On the other hand, it was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[xix]</span>comparatively easy for Maryland and Virginia
+to co-operate with Pennsylvania. In so far, indeed,
+as population had extended back from
+the tide-water districts into the hill country
+and the Appalachian valleys, the settlement
+both of Maryland and Virginia had proceeded
+very largely from Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Middle States had a great mission
+to perform in uniting and holding together the
+more extreme sections. In the development,
+after the Revolutionary War, of the country
+west of the Alleghanies, this harmonizing influence
+of the Middle States was very conspicuously
+shown in the creation of the great
+commonwealth of Ohio, and only to a less degree
+in the making of a number of other States
+in what has now come to be called the Middle
+West—the region that produced men of the
+type of Lincoln and Grant, and that joined
+with the old Middle States in later crises to
+preserve the Union and fuse its elements into a
+homogeneous nation.</p>
+
+<p>No communities in the world lend themselves
+more profitably to the study of history
+than these which are described in the present
+volume. Concrete illustration aids no less in
+the study of history than in that of the physical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">[xx]</span>sciences; and these towns of the Middle States
+illustrate not only the more recent tendencies
+that have marked the course of human
+history, but also lead us back by easy stages
+to an insight into conditions of an earlier time.
+For example, the survivals of the Dutch <i>régime</i>
+in New York quicken a sympathetic interest
+that greatly aids the comprehension of
+the international career of the Netherlands.
+On the very day when these remarks are written,
+the larger news of the world—that which
+is history in the making—concerns itself with
+two widely severed scenes of early Dutch colonization.
+From Paris comes the decision of
+the Venezuela arbitration tribunal, involving
+principally the material and legal facts as to
+the extent of Dutch exploration and settlement
+in the same general period as the Dutch
+colonization of New York. The relations of
+the Dutch and English in successions and exchanges
+of jurisdiction on the northern coast
+of South America can only be understood in
+the light of the history of the settlements at
+the mouth of the Hudson River.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner the conditions of Dutch settlement
+in South Africa in the middle of the
+seventeenth century are best comprehended
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</span>in connection with the story of contemporary
+Dutch colonization in America. The Knickerbockers
+of New York and the Boers of
+the Transvaal are of common origin,—a fact
+frankly recognized by the Holland Society
+of New York in its expressions of sympathy
+with the Dutch element in South Africa in its
+struggle against fate.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the communities of Pennsylvania
+affords a convenient initiation into much
+of the complex religious and ecclesiastical history
+of Europe. Penn brought the Quakers
+and other fine English stock from the middle
+and north of England for reasons that go to
+the very heart of the English life of the seventeenth
+century. A little later the Protestant
+Germans of the Palatinate came in great numbers,
+impelled by motives to understand which
+is to find oneself essentially comprehending
+the conditions of Church and State that so
+disturbed and harassed Western Europe for a
+long period. Thus, to study the great city of
+Philadelphia in its origins, its later accretions
+and its existing conditions, is to find inviting
+avenues leading into many fields of historical
+inquiry both of the new world and the old.</p>
+
+<p>What single spot could one find anywhere
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</span>that would more naturally stimulate the study
+of political and economic history in the nineteenth
+century than old Castle Garden at the
+lower end of New York City, through which
+millions upon millions of immigrants have entered
+the Western world to find contentment
+and prosperity? Many of these came from
+Ireland; and the municipal life of New York
+City has been profoundly affected by that fact.
+To answer the question why these people left
+Ireland and, in leaving, why their destination
+was New York rather than some port in the
+British colonies, is to review the history of
+the Irish land system, the Irish Church and
+the political administration of Ireland for several
+generations.</p>
+
+<p>An enormous element of the present population
+of New York, as well as of the country at
+large, is made up of a comparatively recent
+German immigration, to understand which one
+must learn something of the German revolutionary
+movement of 1848, the growth of German
+militarism and the conditions under which
+educational progress in Germany has outstripped
+the average material prosperity. Still
+more recently there has been a huge immigration
+of Russian Jews, with local effects of a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</span>most marked character in the city of New
+York. To know why these Jews have come
+is to look into racial, political, and economic
+conditions throughout the great empire of the
+Czar.</p>
+
+<p>To study the main routes of communication
+in a region like our Middle States is to gain an
+insight into the relations of physical conditions
+to historical development that will be of no
+little use in the study of other origins and
+remoter periods. It would be hard to exaggerate
+the importance, for instance, of the part
+that the Hudson River has played in the history
+of the Western Hemisphere since its
+discovery and settlement by the Europeans.
+The route by way of the Hudson, Lake
+George and Lake Champlain afforded in the
+early times the one interior passage to the
+St. Lawrence from the settlements on our
+seaboard.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the land adjacent to the river was
+granted in large tracts under the Dutch system
+to patroons, so called, who were virtually
+feudal lords. Upon some of these tracts there
+still survive various peculiarities of the feudal
+system of land tenure. To know something
+of what feudalism meant as respects the control
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</span>of the land, the student might find a worse
+method than to trace back the history of one
+of these Hudson River estates to the period of
+the Dutch grant, in order to get so much nearer
+to the survivals of the mediæval system in
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>At the spot where I live on the Hudson,
+and where I am now writing, the environment
+is suggestive of almost three centuries of
+American history. I look out upon the great
+stream which Hudson navigated in the <i>Half
+Moon</i> in 1609, and upon which sailing craft
+have been plying almost continually ever
+since. I see great steamers passing where
+Fulton first experimented with steam navigation.
+The highway near by is the old Albany
+post-road, this immediate part of which was
+known as Edgar’s Lane and was opened in
+1644. This morning I heard the pleasant
+notes of a coaching-horn, and looked out to
+see a stately four-in-hand on its way to the
+city, a forcible reminder of at least a century
+and a half of regular mail coaching on that
+same road. My home is a part of what was
+the old Philipse manor; and at Yonkers, a few
+miles below, one finds the manor-house, now
+in constant use as a municipal building. It
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxv">[xxv]</span>was partly built in 1682, and assumed its present
+dimensions in about 1745.</p>
+
+<p>On this very ground, and on the hills lying
+to the eastward, Washington’s army was encamped
+for a number of weeks in 1777, and
+near by is the well-preserved colonial house
+where Washington and Rochambeau sojourned
+for some time, and where the Yorktown campaign
+was planned. In the river at this point,
+on several occasions, the British frigates made
+appearance, the last of these being the final
+meeting between General Washington and
+General Sir Guy Carleton, in May, 1783, on
+the suspension of hostilities. A few miles
+farther up the road one comes to the lane that
+leads to Washington Irving’s “Sunnyside,”
+with its tablet stating that the house was first
+built in the year 1650.</p>
+
+<p>With these older historical souvenirs in
+mind, I turn to the southward, and there, as a
+reminder that the current of American history
+flows on, and that our past is in no manner
+detached from the present and the future, I
+see, standing out in bold relief on the horizon,
+the tomb of General Grant, while anchored in
+the river lies the <i>Olympia</i>, the flag-ship of
+Admiral Dewey, just now returned from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvi">[xxvi]</span>adventures as fraught with history-making
+results as was the presence of Hudson’s <i>Half
+Moon</i> in this same river two hundred and
+ninety years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The historical significance of the Hudson
+might be illustrated in some such way at many
+another point upon its banks. The location
+of Albany is particularly to be noted as one
+evidently intended by nature for an important
+rendezvous. In the earlier period Albany and
+the Saratoga district, and certain points of advantage
+in the Mohawk Valley, were of great
+strategic importance. They were natural
+gateways, which had to be held first against
+the Indians and Frenchmen, and afterward
+against the British. Their later importance
+has had to do with canals, railroads and the
+development of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>But of Albany it must be said that it has also
+the distinction of being one of the three or
+four chief law-making centres of the English-speaking
+world. In no other way has the
+State of New York exerted so wide an influence
+upon the country at large as in the
+working out of laws and institutions which
+have been re-enacted almost without change
+by a great number of the other States of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvii">[xxvii]</span>Union. Thus Albany has been a great training
+school in politics and legislation.</p>
+
+<p>Before the days of railroad building, the
+Erie Canal was the greatest undertaking that
+this country had witnessed in the improvement
+of its transportation facilities. This waterway
+connected the Great Lakes with the Atlantic
+by way of the Mohawk and Hudson valleys;
+and among other results of a far-reaching
+nature there followed the development of the
+city of Buffalo, a commercial and manufacturing
+community founded in the opening years
+of the nineteenth century, and destined in the
+twentieth to achieve such growth and splendor
+as few men are yet bold enough to anticipate.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen in our generation fierce rivalry
+for the occupation of Khartoum, at the head of
+Nile navigation, with one expedition succeeding
+another until the final success of the
+English under General Kitchener. The possession
+of Khartoum was known to carry with
+it the control of the fertile Soudan beyond, as
+well as to affect the permanent mastery of the
+valley of the lower Nile to the Delta. In
+some such manner the French and English in
+the middle of the eighteenth century appreciated
+the strategic importance of the point at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxviii">[xxviii]</span>the junction of the Alleghany and the Monongahela
+rivers, where the Ohio took its start,
+and from which navigation was unobstructed
+all the way to the Gulf of Mexico. It was in
+large part the struggle for the site of Pittsburgh
+that gave Washington the military training
+and the large perception of the future of
+America that fitted him for his great tasks of
+leadership. The development of Pittsburgh
+and the opening of the Ohio furnish most
+instructive and interesting chapters in the
+history of our country.</p>
+
+<p>The quaint or curious or heroic beginnings
+must always have their fascination; and it is
+likely enough that for a long time to come
+they will take a little more than their normal
+or proportionate share of the page of history.
+But real history is learning also to concern
+itself with other things. The story of Princeton,
+now so largely that of Revolutionary
+annals, will henceforth increasingly be the story
+of the life and work of a great university.
+That of Pittsburgh will become in expanding
+proportions the story of the development of
+the arts and crafts and of manufacturing in
+this country, and of the struggle of skilled labor
+for an ever-larger share in the advantages
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxix">[xxix]</span>made possible by the enormous increase
+in the volume of production. The story of
+Philadelphia will, to an increasing extent, be
+that of the best housed and most contented of
+all the great communities in the world, full of
+evidences of private thrift and the domestic
+virtues, while exhibiting the paradox of a
+relatively low degree of efficiency in matters of
+common concern like municipal administration.</p>
+
+<p>The historic towns of the Middle States are
+now engaged in the making of history in ways
+very different from those of the Colonial and
+Revolutionary periods, but in ways certainly
+not less important. But their future will be
+the wiser and happier for a studious devotion
+to the records of their honorable past, and
+they cannot be too zealous in the perpetuation
+of the old landmarks.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="footer" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/footer.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header3.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h1>HISTORIC TOWNS OF<br>
+THE MIDDLE STATES</h1>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ALBANY">ALBANY</h2>
+
+<p class="center">“This antient and respectable city.”—(<i>Washington, 1782.</i>)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By WALTON W. BATTERSHALL</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Albany, unlike the proverbial happy woman,
+has not only age but a history. Its
+age is indicated in its claim to be the second
+oldest existing settlement in the original
+thirteen colonies. The claim is fairly sustained,
+but we must remember that the alleged
+discoveries and settlements of those nomadic
+times are a trifle equivocal. On the other
+hand, the historical significance of Albany is
+based on two unquestioned facts: for a century
+it guarded the imperilled north and west frontiers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>of Anglo-Saxon civilization on the continent;
+for another century it has been the
+legislative seat of the most powerful State in
+the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of September, 1609, <i>old style</i>,
+the yacht <i>De Halve Maen</i>, six months from
+Amsterdam, in command of Henry Hudson,
+dropped anchor a few miles below the present
+site of Albany. Four days spent in the exchange
+of civilities with the Indians and the
+taking of soundings from the ship’s boat
+farther up the stream, convinced the speculative
+explorer that the beautiful river among
+the hills gave no promise of a water path to
+China, and the <i>Half-Moon</i>, freighted with wild
+fruits, peltries and pleasant impressions, turned
+her prow homeward.</p>
+
+<p>From the Dutch and also the English point
+of view, the English skipper of the Dutch ship
+had discovered the river. It appears however
+that in 1524 Verrazzano put a French keel, <i>La
+Dauphine</i>, far up the same stream, to which
+he gave the name La Grande, and, some time
+after, French fur traders built a rude <i>château</i>,
+or, as we would say, fortified trading-post, on
+Castle Island, just off the hills of Albany. But
+the France of Francis I. had no colonizing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>grip, and La Nouvelle France was simply a
+name which stretched along the Atlantic seaboard
+on the French charts of the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>On the return of Henry Hudson, his discovery
+was claimed by his patrons, the Dutch
+East India Company. They named the river
+the Mauritius&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> (Prince Maurice’s River), and
+the outlying country, known as Nieu Nederlandt,
+had good report in Holland for its furs
+and friendly savages.</p>
+
+<p>The Amsterdam merchants were alert, and
+other Dutch vessels, following in the wake of
+the <i>Half-Moon</i>, pushed up the river to the head
+of navigation. There they found on the west
+bank the Maquaas, or Mohawks, and on the
+east bank the Mahicans, or Mohegans, with
+whom they had profitable transactions.</p>
+
+<p>To consolidate and protect their ventures,
+a group of merchants petitioned the States-General
+of Holland for the exclusive privilege
+of traffic with the aborigines on the river.
+The elaborate map of Nieu Nederlandt which
+they presented with their petition was discovered
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>in 1841 in the royal archives at the
+Hague, and a facsimile is now in the State
+Library at Albany.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> A license for three years
+was granted. Thereupon, in 1615, the ruined
+<i>château</i> on Castle Island was rebuilt, equipped
+with two cannon and garrisoned with a dozen
+Dutch soldiers. In compliment to the Stadtholder,
+it received the name of Fort Nassau.</p>
+
+<p>This occupancy in force of Castle Island
+(now called Van Rensselaer Island) was brief,
+for the spring freshets proved too much for
+even the amphibious Dutch musketeers and
+traders, and it hardly can be called a settlement.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact, that the valley of
+the Hudson narrowly missed the honor of
+being settled by the passengers of the <i>Mayflower</i>.
+Under the November skies of 1620,
+that historic vessel, with its valuable cargo of
+religious and political seed-corn, for several
+days had been beating about the point of Cape
+Cod. Old Governor Bradford, with quaint
+spelling and phrasing, tells the story of the
+mishap:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“After some deliberation had amongst them selves and
+with yᵉ mʳ of yᵉ ship, they tacked aboute and resolved
+to stande for yᵉ southward (yᵉ wind and weather being
+faire) to finde some place aboute Hudsons river for
+their habitation. But after they had sailed yᵗ course
+aboute halfe yᵉ day, they fell amongst dangerous shoulds
+and roring breakers, and they were so farr intangled
+ther with as they conceived them selves in great danger;
+&amp; yᵉ wind shrinking upon them withall they resolved to
+bear up again for the Cape.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="illus002" style="max-width: 50.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus002.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD CHART OF NIEU NEDERLANDT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span></p>
+
+<p>Thus Plymouth Rock became the intellectual
+door-stone of the New World, and the
+banks of the Hudson inherited one of the sad
+“might-have-beens” of history. However,
+Douglas Campbell, in his trenchant and disturbing
+book, <i>The Puritan in Holland, England
+and America</i>, has told us that the distinctive
+principles of our American social and political
+life show, on critical inspection, the Dutch
+hall-mark.</p>
+
+<p>The America of 1621 was much more of a
+“dark continent” than the Africa of fifty years
+ago. The adjective applies both to the skin
+of the autochthons and the mind of the explorers.
+In the commercial circles of Amsterdam,
+Nieu Nederlandt was supposed to be a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>part of the West Indies. Therefore it was
+that the new company which was devised for
+its exploitation and chartered in the year
+mentioned, took the name of The Dutch West
+India Company.</p>
+
+<p>Under its auspices, in March, 1624, the ship
+<i>Nieu Nederlandt</i> sailed from Amsterdam by
+the accustomed route of the Canary Islands
+for the Mauritius River. She carried thirty
+families, chiefly Walloons, refugees from Belgium
+who had settled in Holland, and a few
+Dutch freemen. Some of the families were
+landed on Manhattan Island, but the majority
+proceeded up the river and selected for their
+settlement the fat meadow on the west shore
+above Castle Island. Under the shadow of
+the clay hill on which the Capitol now lifts its
+masses of sculptured granite, they built rude
+huts sheathed in bark, and a little log fort
+which they named Fort Orange. The Indians
+were friendly and eager to barter, and enthusiastic
+reports were at once sent over to Holland,
+with corroborative otter and beaver skins.</p>
+
+<p>Two years after this settlement at Fort
+Orange, the Dutch West India Company purchased
+Manhattan Island from the Indians for
+sixty guilders in high-priced goods and, planting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span>a colony and fort on the south end of the
+island, brought up the population of Nieu
+Nederlandt to two hundred souls. The Company,
+desiring to stimulate colonization, in 1629
+projected the manorial or patroon system; a
+combination of feudal idea and Latin name,
+<i>patronus</i>. Killiaen Van Rensselaer, one of the
+directors and a rich merchant of Amsterdam,
+at once obtained an extensive grant of land
+south of Fort Orange and, by the purchase of
+the land from the Indians and the planting of a
+colony, became the patroon of Rensselaerswyck.
+He never visited his “colonie,” but before his
+death in 1646, he had sent from Holland over
+two hundred artisans and farmers, and included
+in his manor a territory forty-eight by twenty-four
+miles, and also another tract of sixty-two
+thousand acres.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Albany began with a Dutch imprint,
+which to this day has given to the city its distinctive
+mark. Forty years of Dutch sagacity
+and thrift rapidly developed the colony. It
+was on the whole a prosperous period, enlivened
+by chronic disputes between the garrison and
+the manor, and disquieting rumors regarding
+belligerent Indians and the French. It throws
+on a small canvas sturdy personages and stirring
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>events. Brandt Van Slechtenhorst, the
+stiff upholder of the manor claims against
+the doughty Pieter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch
+Director-General; Domine Megapolensis, the
+first Dutch minister; and the flitting figure of
+the Jesuit missionary, Father Jogues with his
+hands mangled by the Mohawks and kissed by
+the Queen of France, would make any canvas
+picturesque. To take Washington Irving’s
+delicious bit of humor too seriously shows a
+melancholy lack of humor.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly the Dutch burghers of Albany did
+not take very seriously the English occupation
+of Nieu Nederlandt in 1664. The seizure was
+colored by an old claim of uncertain dimensions
+based upon the Cabot discoveries, which for a
+long time had strained the relations between
+England and Holland concerning colonial matters.
+The capitulation was bloodless, and to
+Albany it brought little change, save that the
+English flag, in place of the Dutch, fluttered
+over the ramparts of Fort Orange, which took
+the name of Fort Albany in commemoration of
+the Scotch title of the Duke of York, the new
+lord of the province. The great manorial
+grant was confirmed, and in all its habits of
+thought and life the colony remained Dutch.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>The happiest change and perhaps the most
+startling shock came from the fact that the
+Duke of York, bigot as he was, broke the tradition
+of the period and introduced in his
+province religious toleration.</p>
+
+<p>The English came, but the Dutch remained.
+The old Holland stock on the bank of the Hudson
+kept its root in the soil and has made vital
+contributions to the American hybrid, which
+have had scant recognition in our popular histories.
+The fact is, the Dutch were not given
+to writing books. They had fought for their
+religion and motherland, and had held them
+both against the assault of a powerful foe, but
+the recital of the story they left to the more expert
+tongues and more eloquent pens of Englishmen.
+Their type of character and social
+usage has proved its vigor and worth by its
+quiet persistence and dominance in New York
+life of to-day. In old Albany, even under English
+rule, ideas and customs which had their
+birth behind the dykes of Holland were conspicuously
+in the ascendant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus003" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus003.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PLAN OF ALBANY, 1695.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p>
+
+<p>Albany became a city in 1686 by a judicious
+charter granted by Governor Dongan. A diagram
+in the Rev. John Miller’s <i>Description of
+the Province and City of New York</i>, published
+in London, 1695, gives us an idea of the new-born
+city. It consisted of about a hundred
+houses surrounded by a stockade, which was
+pierced to the north and south by narrow gateways.
+Above the stockade the most conspicuous
+objects were the pyramidal roof of the
+Dutch church at the foot of Jonker Street (now
+State Street), surmounted by three small
+cannon, and, on the eminence at the upper
+end of the street, the bastions of Fort Frederick,
+which had inherited the responsibilities and
+honors of the dismantled Fort Orange.</p>
+
+<p>For about forty years after the peaceful
+seizure by the English, the old Dutch church,
+where the prosperous burghers worshipped,
+and a Lutheran church of somewhat intermittent
+life but hospitable to outsiders sufficed for
+the religious needs of the city. The officers of
+the garrison, however, and probably most of the
+soldiers were Church of England men. There
+was much in the service of the Dutch Church
+of that day which must have suggested pleasant
+reminiscence. Christmas, Easter and Whitsunday
+were festivals brought from Holland,
+and were duly celebrated in the church
+and at the fireside. Queerly enough, in the accounts
+of Pieter Schuyler, the deacon of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>Dutch church in 1683 and the first mayor of the
+city, we read that “the 13th of January was
+observed as a day of fasting and prayer, to divert
+God’s heavy judgment from falling on the
+English nation for the murder of King Charles,
+martyr of blessed memory,” and that the expenses
+therefor were seventeen guilders.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus004" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus004.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD DUTCH CHURCH, ERECTED IN 1715 ON SITE OF ORIGINAL
+    CHURCH ERECTED IN 1656.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But the theological coin of the Synod of
+Dort, whether acceptable or not to the English,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span>was more or less inaccessible, being hid in
+the napkin of the Dutch language. Evidently
+there was need of an English house of worship
+in Albany. In 1714, therefore, Governor
+Hunter issued letters patent granting a plot of
+ground in Jonker Street below the fort for a
+church and cemetery. The Common Council
+made protest. The point at issue was a question,
+not of doctrine, but of municipal rights.
+They issued notice to suspend the laying of the
+foundations. They arrested the workmen. They
+petitioned the Governor. They sent a messenger
+by express in a canoe to New York,—a
+journey in those days of such magnitude that
+the church was well under way by the time the
+return voyage was accomplished. Despite all
+obstacles, the work went on and in the course
+of a year the first English church west of
+the Hudson was built. The two churches,
+the Dutch at the foot and the English at the
+head of State Street, were the chief ecclesiastical
+landmarks of eighteenth-century Albany.
+Like rocks in a stream, they stood in the broad
+thoroughfare and preserved the magnificent
+approach to the future Capitol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus005" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus005.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ST. PETER’S CHURCH, ERECTED IN 1715, FORT FREDERICK IN THE BACKGROUND.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A WATER-COLOR SKETCH IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span></p>
+
+<p>Little as it was, Albany was the nest of important
+events and a maker of history in those
+troublous days. Second to New York in
+size and resources, it served as a wary sentinel
+and tremulous alarm-bell to the exposed province.
+For well-nigh a century, all beyond it
+to the west and north, except the hamlet of
+Schenectady and the French settlements on
+the St. Lawrence, was wilderness and savages.
+It occupied a post of the gravest peril and responsibility.
+We get a glimpse of the situation
+and of the current history in the scene on
+that Sunday morning, the 9th of February,
+four years after the granting of the charter,
+when Symon Schermerhoorn, shot through the
+thigh, told at the north gate of the stockade
+his breathless story of the night attack and the
+horrible massacre at Schenectady.</p>
+
+<p>Between the hostile French in Canada and
+the little frontier city on the Hudson roamed
+the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy, upon
+whose friendship and fealty in large measure
+hung the destiny of the English possessions.
+The stockade, thirteen feet high, would have
+been of little account if that living bulwark of
+savage allies had yielded to the arms or the
+bribes of the French. That the bulwark did
+not yield, that the fealty of the Indians was
+won and, through every peril, kept unbroken,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>was owing to the sagacity and honorable dealing
+of the government and burghers of Albany.
+<i>The House of Peace</i>—this is the name which
+the Mohawk sachem, at one of the council-fires,
+gave to the Albany of those olden days, and,
+in the graphic phrase of his Indian oratory, he
+pictured at a stroke its political value and place
+in history; for there, by repeated formal treaties
+and habitual friendly intercourse, were
+riveted the “Covenant Chains” which made
+the confederation of the Six Nations the guardians
+of the feeble province.</p>
+
+<p>There is a scene in <i>The History of New York</i>,
+by William Dunlap, which is illustrative. The
+date is 1746 and the central figure is the celebrated
+Col. William Johnson, Indian agent,
+whom George II. made a “baronet of Great
+Britain.”</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“When the Indians came near the town of Albany on
+the 8th of August, Mr. Johnson put himself at the head
+of the Mohawks, dressed and painted as an Indian war-captain.
+The Indians followed him painted for war.
+As they passed the fort, they saluted by a running fire,
+which the governor answered by cannon. The chiefs
+were afterwards received in the fort-hall and treated to
+wine. A good deal of private manœuvring with the individual
+sachems was found necessary to make them declare
+for war with France before a public council was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>held. The Iroquois took to the 23d of the month for
+deliberation, and then answered, the governor being
+present.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>During the French wars, Albany, from a military
+point of view, was probably the most
+animated spot on the continent. It was the
+storehouse for munitions of war and the rendezvous
+for the troops. English regulars and
+provincial militia swarmed in and about the
+city. After the unsuccessful campaigns of
+1756 and 1757, the town was filled with refugees,
+reciting the slaughter of the garrison at
+Fort William Henry, and the murder and havoc
+wrought by the Indians in pay of the French.
+Hundreds of loyal Indians, with their squaws
+and papooses, encamped under the stockade.
+The houses and barns were filled with wounded
+soldiers brought from the seat of war. In the
+pauses of the campaigns, notwithstanding the
+horrible rumors and actual disasters, the “dangerously
+accomplished” English officers made
+merry life in old Albany, picturesque details
+of which are given in that charming chronicle
+of colonial days, <i>Memoirs of an American
+Lady</i> (Mrs. Philip Schuyler), by Mrs. Grant
+of Laggan.</p>
+
+<p>In the opening of the campaign of 1758 there
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>was grief and consternation in the province.
+Tidings came that Lord Viscount Howe had
+been killed in a skirmish on the march against
+Fort Ticonderoga. The body of the brilliant
+soldier was brought to Albany by his friend,
+Captain Philip Schuyler, and was buried beneath
+the chancel of the English church. The
+stone recently unearthed in the village of Ticonderoga,
+which bears the inscription, evidently
+scratched by a knife or bayonet, <i>Mem of Lo
+Howe killed Trout Brook</i>, probably marked
+the spot where Lord Howe fell. There is
+abundant evidence that his body now lies beneath
+the vestibule of St. Peter’s Church. The
+<i>Church Book</i> of the parish contains the following
+entry: <i>1758, Sept. 5th. To cash Rt for
+ground to lay the Body of Lord how &amp; Pall
+£5. 6. 0</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year, the fateful victory of
+Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham gave Canada
+to England and ended the hard-fought duel
+between the Latin and the Anglo-Saxon for
+the sovereignty of the continent.</p>
+
+<p>Some years before this, the Stadt Huys, the
+old City Hall of Albany, was the scene of a
+significant event which was the prelude of one
+still more momentous. There in 1754 Commissioners
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>from the several provinces convened
+to renew the “Covenant Chain” with the Six
+Nations, and to discuss the best methods for
+uniting and defending the colonial interests.
+The foremost spirits and political prophets of
+the colonies composed the assembly. Numerous
+Indian sachems, with their stately bearing
+and barbaric splendor, decorated the scene of
+the deliberations. The “Plan” adopted by
+the convention was not accepted by the Crown,
+but it was the first attempt to articulate the
+idea of a colonial union, and it bore two names,
+Benjamin Franklin and Stephen Hopkins,
+which in due time were affixed to the Declaration
+of Independence.</p>
+
+<p>Before the lightning flashed in the volley at
+Lexington, there were centres of influence
+throughout the colonies breeding storm. Albany
+was one of them. The heart of the old
+Dutch town was fired with the indignations
+and enthusiasms of the time. There were
+tories of course, but the temper of the city and
+the attitude of those who controlled the situation
+are indicated by the fact that, when the
+Province of New York had fairly opened the
+fight, the old fort on the hill was extemporized
+into a tory jail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p>
+
+<p>As early as November, 1774, the freeholders
+of the city appointed a <i>Committee of Safety
+and Correspondence</i>, which proved a vigorous
+agent in propagating the war spirit and
+furnishing men and money for the Continental
+army. The following names appear on its
+lists: John Barclay, <i>Chairman</i>, Jacob C. Ten
+Eyck, Henry I. Bogert, Peter Silvester, Henry
+Wendell, Volkert P. Douw, John Bay, Gysbert
+Marselis, John R. Bleecker, Robert Yates,
+Stephen De Lancey, Abraham Cuyler, John
+H. Ten Eyck, Abraham Ten Broeck, Gerret
+Lansingh, Jr., Anthony E. Bratt, Samuel
+Stringer, Abraham Yates, Jr., and Cornelis
+van Santvoordt. In the records of the committee
+occurs this significant minute: “Pursuant
+to a resolution of yesterday, the
+Declaration of Independence was this day read
+and published at the City Hall to a large Concourse
+of the Inhabitants of this City and the
+Continental Troops in this City and received
+with applause and satisfaction.”</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of, and all through the
+struggle for independence, Albany was a strategic
+point of the utmost importance. The war-office
+in London and the British commanders
+in the field recognized that it was the key to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>the situation in the north. There is a passage
+in the oration of Governor Seymour at the
+Centennial Commemoration at Schuylerville,
+the actual scene of Burgoyne’s surrender,
+which condenses and interprets one of the
+most important chapters in the history of the
+Revolution.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“It was the design of the British government in the
+campaign of 1777 to capture the centre and stronghold
+of this commanding system of mountains and valleys.
+It aimed at its very heart,—the confluence of the Hudson
+and the Mohawk. The fleets, the armies, and the savage
+allies of Britain were to follow their converging lines to
+Albany, and there strike the decisive blow.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>As sometimes happens, the blow struck
+the striker. Col. Philip Schuyler, the young
+officer who brought the body of Lord Howe
+to its burial, was an ardent patriot and the
+most distinguished citizen of Albany. On the
+recommendation of the Provincial Congress of
+New York, he had been appointed by the
+Continental Congress a major-general in the
+armies of the United Colonies and had assumed
+command of the Northern Department. He
+was displaced in favor of General Gates, but
+he retained the confidence of Washington, and
+it was he who planned and conducted the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>campaign which resulted in the victory of
+Bemis Heights and the surrender of Burgoyne.
+This event broke the formidable menace that
+hung over the
+province and the
+colonial cause.
+The defeated
+British general
+found himself in
+the hands of a
+courteous foe,
+and for several
+months he meditated
+and mitigated
+his disaster
+amid the
+elegant hospitalities
+of the
+Schuyler mansion
+in Albany.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus006" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus006.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MAJOR-GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A PAINTING BY COL. TRUMBULL.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1797, “this antient and respectable city
+of Albany” (to quote the courtly compliment
+of Washington) became the capital of the
+State. At the close of the Revolution, New
+York had not yet determined its seat of government.
+From 1777 to 1796 it peregrinated
+between Kingston, Poughkeepsie, Albany and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>the city of New York. Not until the twentieth
+session of the Legislature was the long
+dispute settled. The geographical advantages
+of Albany finally carried the day, and for the
+last hundred years the site of the frontier fort
+has been a political arena and an illustrious
+seat of legislative and judicial power.</p>
+
+<p>The Albany of “modern times,” as the
+phrase is understood in our American life in
+which everything is new except human nature,
+has preserved few of the ancient landmarks.
+The only souvenirs are the bronze tablets
+which were devised at the Bicentennial in
+1886, and which now designate the historic
+sites in the city. If one, reverent of ancient
+and vanished things, make pilgrimage to the
+tablet near the curb on the lower edge of the
+Capitol Park (a block above the site of Fort
+Frederick), to the one on the corner of Broadway
+and Steuben Street (the site of the northeast
+gate), and to the one near the curb on
+lower Broadway two blocks from State Street
+(the site of the southeast gate), he will define
+quite accurately the girdle of the <i>palisadoes</i>
+which protected old Albany.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus007" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus007.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>STEPHEN VAN RENSSELAER.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A PAINTING BY EZRA AMES.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>If he pass the memorial of the northeast
+gateway, a place of memorable outgoings and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>incomings, and continue up Broadway about
+three quarters of a mile, he will find a bronze
+tablet bearing the inscription: “Opposite
+Van Rensselaer Manor-House. Erected 1765.
+Residence of the
+Patroons. This
+spot is the site of
+the First Manor-House.”
+It was
+an unpretentious
+one-story
+building of Holland
+brick, half
+fortress and half
+dwelling. The
+final Manor-House,
+on the
+other side of the
+road, was a structure
+of another
+fashion. At the
+time of its erection, 1765, it was considered the
+handsomest residence in the colonies. Thither
+Stephen Van Rensselaer brought his young
+bride, Catherine, daughter of Philip Livingston,
+and his babe, who became General Van Rensselaer.
+It stood amid the drooping elms of a large
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>park and was decorated with a taste and luxury
+startling to the period. In 1843 the building
+was enlarged and enriched by the elder Upjohn.
+Once a stately mansion, the scene of
+splendid hospitalities, it has shared the American
+fate of obstructive antiquities in thriving
+towns. The railroad and the “lumber district”
+crowded and finally strangled it. For several
+years it stood empty and dismantled, and obviously
+had outlived both its beauty and its
+use. In 1893 the stone and timbers were
+transported to the Campus of Williams College,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>where they were reconstructed into the
+Sigma Phi Society building, which perpetuates
+a remote suggestion of the famous Manor-House.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus008" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus008.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VAN RENSSELAER MANOR-HOUSE, 1765.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the southern part of the city, on Clinton
+Street, is a bronze tablet which designates the
+sister of the Manor-House, the Schuyler mansion,
+built by the wife of General Philip Schuyler
+while he was in England in 1760. This
+historic relic stands on a plateau above the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>street, surrounded by a remnant of the original
+garden, but the broad avenue, shaded by elms,
+which once gave approach to the mansion
+from the river, is overgrown with houses.
+Though used at present as an orphan asylum
+under the charge of the Order of St. Francis
+de Sales, it retains substantially its original
+features. It is a dignified and spacious house;
+not remarkable architecturally, but fragrant
+with history. Here Burgoyne enjoyed his
+imprisonment. Here Washington, Lafayette,
+Count de Rochambeau, Baron Steuben, Benjamin
+Franklin, Charles Carroll of Carrollton,
+Aaron Burr, and other notable men of old
+were entertained. Here Alexander Hamilton
+and Elizabeth Schuyler were married, December
+14, 1780. Besides famous guests and weddings,
+its chief feature of historic interest is
+the staircase, apropos of which, we quote from
+Mr. Marcus Reynolds’s article on <i>The Colonial
+Buildings of Rensselaerswyck</i> in <i>The Architectural
+Record</i> of 1895.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Here is shown the famous tomahawk mark. In
+1781 a plan was made to capture General Schuyler and
+take him to Canada. A party of tories, Canadians and
+Indians surrounded the house for several days, and at
+length forced an entrance. The family took refuge in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>upper story, leaving behind in their haste the youngest
+member of the family, Margaret Schuyler, afterward the
+wife of the patroon. An elder sister going to rescue the
+infant, was pursued by an Indian, who threw his tomahawk
+at her as she fled up the stairs. The weapon entered
+the hand-rail near the newel, and the mark is still
+shown, which would be conclusive evidence if the same
+story were not told of the Glen house in Schenectady,
+the only house unburnt in the massacre of 1690.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="illus009" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus009.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SCHUYLER MANSION, 1760.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>With all its historic associations, Albany is
+not conspicuous for the scenery it has furnished
+for the enchantments of poetry and romance;
+still it is not altogether destitute of
+literary honors. Its colonial life figures in the
+<i>Satanstoe</i> of the great Fenimore Cooper and
+in Harold Frederick’s <i>In the Valley</i>. The
+Normanskill, which tumbles into the Hudson
+at the south end of the city, flows through the
+Vale of Tawasentha, the scene of Longfellow’s
+Hiawatha. The hills and forests about the city
+suggested many a delicate detail in the woodland
+rhythms of Alfred Street, who made his
+home and burial-place in Albany. Its old Dutch
+life with its sedate charm has been pictured by a
+living Albanian, Leonard Kip; and probably
+the house still stands on Pearl Street or Broadway,
+in which Henry James found the charming
+girl who stood for his <i>Portrait of a Lady</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span></p>
+
+<p>On the east bank of the Hudson, in old
+Greene Bosch, opposite the city, decays the dishonored
+ruin of Fort Crailo. The date, more
+or less mythical, is 1642. It was the headquarters
+of General Abercrombie, and in the
+garden back of the house a derisive British
+surgeon, Dr. Stackpole, composed the immortal
+jingle of Yankee Doodle. If, in 1800, one
+stood on the southeast corner of State and
+North Pearl Streets, opposite the famous elm
+which Philip Livingston planted in 1735, his
+eye glancing up the street to the north would
+be arrested by a picturesque relic of Dutch
+Albany, the Vanderheyden Palace. Of course
+it has joined the departed, but its ghost appears
+in Washington Irving’s <i>Bracebridge Hall</i>, and
+its old weather-vane now swings above the
+porch of Sunnyside.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the colonial structures were fine
+and famous in their day, but in truth, in our
+American towns, imposing architecture is a
+thing of recent date. Few cities give more
+favorable sites for architectural effects than
+the three hills of Albany. It is not too much
+to say that the wealth and taste of its citizens
+have conspired with its peculiar advantages of
+position. The architecture of Albany has an
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>exceptional value. The City Hall, with its Romanesque
+doorways and majestic campanile,
+is a fine specimen of the great Richardson.
+The Albany City Savings Bank, recently constructed,
+is a classical gem, inadequately set,
+but cut by a master hand. Its Corinthian
+monoliths and graceful dome satisfy the eye,
+and the whole structure is a suggestive instance
+of what trade can do in the interests of art.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus010" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus010.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WEST SIDE OF PEARL ST. FROM STATE ST. TO MAIDEN LANE, 1814.</p>
+      <p>1. VANDERHEYDEN HOUSE. 2. PRUYN HOUSE. 3. DR. WOODRUFF’S HOUSE.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A WATER-COLOR SKETCH BY JAMES EIGHTS.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The four examples of ecclesiastical architecture
+of more than local interest are the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>North Dutch Church, an exceptionally good
+specimen of the style which obtained in the
+beginning of the century; the Cathedral of the
+Immaculate Conception, with its lofty double
+spires emphasized by the site, and its spacious
+interior treated with taste and dignity; St.
+Peter’s Church, with its noble lines, artistic windows
+and finely detailed tower,—“one of the
+richest specimens of French Gothic in this
+country”; and the Cathedral of All Saints,
+whose unfinished exterior encloses columnar
+effects and a choir-vista which remind one of
+an impressive mediæval interior and give the
+edifice a distinctive place among the churches
+of America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus011" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus011.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VIEW OF ALBANY, 1899.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span></p>
+
+<p>These architectural monuments, however,
+and the city itself are overshadowed by the
+new Capitol. This massive structure, since its
+corner-stone was laid on the 24th of June, 1871,
+has absorbed over twenty millions of dollars.
+The enormous bulk, the difficult foundations,
+the obdurate granite, the elaborate sculptures,
+the mistakes and afterthoughts, sufficiently account
+for the money. The old Capitol, which
+stood in front of the southeast corner, well-nigh
+could be tucked into one of its great pavilions.
+The edifice is of such cost, size, and
+architectural importance, that one discusses it
+as he might discuss Strasburg Cathedral or
+the weather. Claiming simply the freedom of
+personal impression, one may say that its
+weakest feature is the eastern façade, which
+gives an inadequate suggestion of the size of
+the building and moreover is dwarfed by the
+projecting mass and lofty ascent of the gigantic
+stairway. He may also say that the
+Capitol declares its highest points of architectural
+interest in the constructive and decorative
+treatment of the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The edifice has been built with the advantage
+of large ideas and limitless resources, and the
+disadvantage of fluctuating ideas and a succession
+of architects. These facts have left
+their imprint on the structure but, with all that
+can be said in criticism of details and of unused
+possibilities, it can fairly be ranked among the
+great buildings of modern times.</p>
+
+<p>As one approaches Albany, the colossal bulk
+of the Capitol thrust against the sky seems to
+dominate the city as the great cathedrals of
+Europe dominate the towns that have grown
+or decayed under their shadow. But there are
+other structures and artistic things, representing
+the local life, that are worthy of remark.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span></p>
+
+<p>The State Museum of Natural History, in
+Geological Hall, a block below the Capitol,
+vies with the State Library as a credit to the
+State and the haunt of the student. It is one
+of the largest and best arranged museums in
+the country, and its collection of the paleozoic
+rocks of New York, which figure so largely in
+the nomenclature of geology, is a monument
+to an eminent name in the scientific world,
+James Hall, late State Geologist.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus012" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus012.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOHN V. L. PRUYN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Near the Capitol Park is the Albany Academy,
+in whose
+upper rooms
+Henry and Ten
+Eyck demonstrated
+the electrical
+facts
+which were applied
+by Morse.
+Up the hill, on
+the southwest
+corner of the
+city, stand the
+pavilions of the
+new Hospital,
+built in 1899, and
+the Dudley Observatory, of note in the stellar
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>world. On Washington Avenue is Harmanus
+Bleecker Hall, built from the fund held in trust
+for more than half a century by Chancellor
+Pruyn and Judge Parker. On State Street
+opposite the Capitol is the building of the
+Historical and Art Society, which, though
+new-born, has already done valuable work in
+collecting sequestered relics of history.</p>
+
+<p>Under the elms in Washington Park are
+two fine bronzes: Caverley’s statue of <i>Robert
+Burns</i> and Rhind’s statue of <i>Moses at the
+Rock of Horeb</i>. Fortunately one of the earliest
+and two of the noblest creations of the
+sculptor Palmer are in the city of his home:
+his <i>Faith at the Cross</i>, his <i>Livingston</i>, and his
+<i>Angel of the Resurrection</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Albany the Old has become Albany the
+New. In many ways the new is more energetic
+and more splendid than the old. The town is
+large enough to show the characteristic features
+of our American life in its more sensitive and
+vigorous centres, and small enough to retain
+local color and distinctive traits. It is self-centred,
+believes in itself, and has the instinct
+to discern and the habit of demanding the
+best things. It is a place where the finest
+flavors of the old life linger in and temper the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>broader spirit and more robust movement of
+the new life; a place that perpetuates its traditions
+of social elegance and hospitality; a
+place, too, that has been the cradle and home
+of men of commanding force, who have contributed
+to the highest life of the nation and
+have left their names on enduring structures of
+thought and art and economic organization.</p>
+
+<p>The city lies at the intersection of the great
+thoroughfares of traffic and travel in the richest
+and most densely populated portion of the
+republic. Its facilities for production and distribution
+may give it in the future an enormous
+industrial development. This fortune
+is not unlikely, but, to those who estimate
+in large ways the values of life, it cannot
+heighten the beauty or deepen the charm of
+the Albany of to-day.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="illus013" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF ALBANY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header2.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="SARATOGA">SARATOGA</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE STRUGGLE FOR THE GREAT WATERWAYS</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ELLEN HARDIN WALWORTH</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>There are names which are more than
+famous—they have a distinct individuality;
+their sound to the ear or appearance on the page
+arrests attention, arouses interest, and presents
+a clear picture to the mind. Such a name is
+Saratoga, with its romantic record, its picturesque
+scenery, and its beautiful village,—the
+“Queen of Spas.” Nature has furnished Saratoga
+with a regal setting on the lower spurs of
+the Adirondack Mountains, the last elevations
+of the Palmertown range, on the edge of the
+world’s first continent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus014" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus014.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SARATOGA LAKE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Here where the Laurentian rocks stand out
+boldly over the sands of the old Silurian sea,
+and where the mighty waterways sweep down
+from the great northern gulf southward, and
+from the great northwestern lakes eastward, lies
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>Saratoga Springs. These valleys, bearing the
+waters of Lake Champlain, Lake George, and
+the upper Hudson on the north, and of the
+Mohawk River on the west, have been for
+centuries the great war-paths of the Indians
+and of civilized nations. If America is not old,
+at least her maturity is marked in this region
+by the scars of war, and by the lines of struggle
+for the sovereignty of the great waterways.
+Here are veritable ruins,—old Fort Carillon,
+later “Old Ticonderoga,” Fort Frederick, afterward
+Crown Point, and traces here and there
+of the line of forts extending from the Indian
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>carrying-place at Fort Edward down on either
+bank of the Hudson to old Saratoga, now
+Schuylerville, where the great monument commemorative
+of Revolutionary victory marks
+the national character of that struggle, and
+where, eight miles below, at Bemis Heights,
+fourteen granite tablets, each a monument five
+or six feet in height, mark the fighting-ground.
+Through the Mohawk Valley are signs of the
+“Long House” of the Six Nations, of massacres
+and battles, that tell their story of three
+centuries.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus015" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus015.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HISTORIC AND OTHER DRIVES IN THE VICINITY OF SARATOGA SPRINGS.</p>
+      <p><span class="smcap">By E. H. WALWORTH.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The story of Saratoga cannot easily be
+limited to Saratoga Springs, although it has
+fifteen thousand inhabitants who retain their
+quaintly rural government and cling to the
+appellation of “village.” Village though it be,
+it is imposing with its stately hotels, spacious
+streets, large business houses, many beautiful
+villas, fine public halls, handsome churches, and
+numerous valuable mineral springs; which, like
+the residences, are set amid magnificent trees,
+forest pines and cultivated elms that rival the
+famous trees of New Haven. From the surrounding
+hills the village seems to nestle in the
+original wilderness. But it is always active,—in
+winter with its toboggan slide, snow-shoe
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>club, trotting matches on the ice-bound lake,
+and snow-bound streets rolled to marble
+smoothness for gay and luxurious sleigh-riding;
+in summer, its brilliancy is often compared
+with that of Paris. In the loss of the
+old-time social exclusiveness it has gained in
+cosmopolitan character and in the rich variety
+of its life and amusements.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp31" id="illus016" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus016.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SARATOGA BATTLE MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span></p>
+
+<p>In considering the story of Saratoga, we
+cannot confine our attention to the town of
+Saratoga Springs, with its sharply defined
+boundaries and rectangular lines of political division
+which mark the limit of the voters for supervisor
+at the annual town-meeting. But if we
+include the county in our narrative, then, indeed,
+may we recall the vision which presents
+the individuality of the name Saratoga.
+For Saratoga County is outlined by a great
+eastward and southern sweep of the Hudson
+River for seventy miles from its narrow gorge
+at Luzerne, where the wild savage chief of
+colonial days leaped across the mighty river to
+escape his pursuing foe, down over the precipitous
+Palmer’s Falls, and over the cavern-haunted
+Glen’s Falls, and onward to old Fort
+Edward, where its waters turn shortly to the
+south and pursue their troubled way along the
+“hillside country,” which received here its
+Indian name, “Se-rach-ta-gue,” which means
+“hillside country of the great river.” It is
+also said that in the Indian language Sa-ragh-to-ga
+means the “place of the swift water,” in
+allusion to the rapids and falls that are in contrast
+with the “still water” a few miles below.
+Thence the Hudson flows on until it receives
+the four sprouts or mouths of the Mohawk
+River, which spreads out from the precipitous
+falls at Cohoes. This great intersecting western
+valley separates the northern from the
+southern highlands of New York, and is, like
+the great northern valley, a natural highway
+and thoroughfare. In the angle formed by
+the junction of these two long, deep valleys or
+passes through the mountain ranges, “in the
+angle between the old Indian war-trails, in
+the angle between the pathways of armies, in
+the angle between the great modern routes of
+travel, in the angle formed by the junction of
+the Mohawk and Hudson rivers,” is Saratoga
+County, the Saratoga of history and romance.
+Not only the stealthy tread of the Iroquois
+sped over these hills, not only the swift canoe
+of the Algonquin shot over these streams, but
+also the disciplined armies of France and of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>England marched and countermarched, fought
+by day and bivouacked at night on this ground,
+from the time that Hendrick Hudson opened
+the lower valley of the Hudson River, and
+Samuel Champlain discovered the broad lake
+that bears his name, until the Revolutionary
+period closed.</p>
+
+<p>While Jamestown was still struggling for
+existence, and Plymouth Bay was still unknown,
+the contest had already begun in the
+northern valley of the Hudson which initiated
+its long service to the progress of the western
+world. This remarkable triangle, the Saratoga
+and Kay-ad-ros-se-ra of the Indian occupation,
+and the Saratoga County of the present time
+was, like Kentucky, “the dark and bloody
+ground,” the hunting- and fishing-place of the
+Five Nations on the south, and their enemies,
+the Algonquins, on the north. Here each
+summer, in search of fish and game, they built
+their hunting lodges on Saratoga Lake, called
+by the Dutch, who believed it to be the “head-waters”
+of the Hudson, “Aqua Capita.”
+Every season brought conflict between the savage
+tribes, and later the French, year after year,
+marched down from Quebec and Montreal to
+intimidate their unceasing foes on the Mohawk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1642, and again in 1645, the Iroquois in
+retaliation hastened along the old war-trail at
+the foot of Mount McGregor and returned
+each time laden with their tortured captives,
+the French prisoners and their Indian friends.
+The two famous expeditions of Courcelle,
+Governor of Canada, and of Lieut.-Gen. de
+Tracy, made their way in 1666 through the
+valley; first on snow-shoes, to starvation and
+despair—and again with the buoyant tread of
+a victorious legion. In 1689 the Iroquois followed
+the old trail on their way to that massacre
+of Montreal which emphasized what is
+justly called the “heroic age” of that poetic
+and devoted settlement. The French and
+Algonquins again in 1690 bivouacked at these
+springs as they descended to the cruel massacre
+of Schenectady. And in the same year the
+English, led by Fitz John Winthrop, made a
+fruitless march over the historic war-path.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus017" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus017.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NORTH BROADWAY, SARATOGA SPRINGS, 1898.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span></p>
+
+<p>The French, urged by Frontenac, came down
+the valley in 1693, destroyed the castles of the
+Mohawks, and started on their return with
+three hundred prisoners. The news created
+intense excitement through the whole Province
+of New York. Governor Fletcher hurried
+up from New York City, Major Peter
+Schuyler hastily gathered three hundred white
+men and three hundred savages for defence,
+and was joined by Major Ingoldsby from
+Albany with an additional force. Coming
+along the old trail, the French and Indians
+halted with their captives about six miles
+north of the village of Saratoga Springs, at a
+point near Mount McGregor at King’s Station.
+The battle-ground lies on the terrace, which is
+distinct from the foothills of the mountains,
+and has long been known as the “old Indian
+burying-ground.” On this plateau, so near
+the gay streets of Saratoga, the camp-fires of
+a thousand hostile men throwing up entrenchments
+flared through the night. On the following
+day the English sustained successfully
+three fierce assaults on their works, and the
+French, worn with the long journey, were glad
+to retreat in the darkness of a raging storm,
+as night fell on their wounded and captives.</p>
+
+<p>Again, during Queen Anne’s War, beginning
+in 1709, old Saratoga, which lies at the
+mouth of the Fishkill, was so seriously threatened
+that Major Schuyler built a fort below
+the mouth of the Batten Kill. In 1731, the
+French built Fort Frederick at Crown Point.
+From this stronghold, during King George’s
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>War, which began in 1744, they swung their
+forces with deadly effect upon the English
+settlements. The forts at Saratoga were then
+refitted and manned, but not in time to prevent
+the terrible massacre of old Saratoga
+in 1745.</p>
+
+<p>History has recorded and poetry sung the
+woes of Wyoming and of Cherry Valley, but
+the silence of the virgin forest has encompassed
+the tragic events that occurred at
+Saratoga on the fatal morning of the 17th of
+November, thirty years before the Revolution.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Profound peace had reigned in the old wilderness
+for a generation, and the fertile soil had filled the smiling
+land with fatness. Many dwellings and fruitful farms
+dotted the river bank; long stables were filled with
+sleek cattle, and around the mills were huge piles of timber
+waiting the market down the river.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">The scowling portholes of the old Schuyler
+mansion seemed to laugh between the tendrils
+of the creeping vines. Suddenly, in the early
+morning, the scene of peace and prosperity
+was changed to slaughter, pillage, and destruction.
+Philip Schuyler, the elder, was offered
+immunity in the midst of the fray, but he
+spurned safety at the expense of his neighbors,
+and was shot to death in his own doorway.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>The houses and forts were burned to the
+ground, the cattle killed or burned in their
+stalls, and only one
+or two inhabitants
+escaped to tell the
+tale.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="illus018" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus018.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER.</p>
+      <p>BRONZE STATUE IN NICHE OF SARATOGA MONUMENT,
+    SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This war was a
+prelude to the
+French and Indian,
+or Seven Years’
+War, which, with
+its five campaigns,
+raged continuously
+through the war-worn
+valley of the
+grand northern
+waterways. Nearly
+a century and a
+half of struggle,
+first of the French
+discoverers and
+missionaries with
+the savages, and
+then of the Frenchmen
+and Iroquois,
+and later the French, the Indians, and the
+English, had proved the importance of this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>valley as the northern doorway to the country.
+Of the three expeditions first planned to be
+sent simultaneously against the French—one
+under Braddock against Fort Duquesne, another
+under Shirley against Niagara, and another
+under Johnson against Crown Point,—the
+third was considered the most important.</p>
+
+<p>In August, Major-General William Johnson
+took command in person and pushed on to the
+outlet of Lake George, intending to build a
+fort at Ticonderoga as a defence against Crown
+Point, to which the French had extended their
+possessions in the last interval of peace. Before
+his design could be accomplished, desperate
+warfare disturbed the placid waters of
+the beautiful lakes and so discolored their outlying
+waters that time has not yet effaced the
+name of “Bloody Pond.”</p>
+
+<p>Abercrombie’s campaign in 1758 was a fatal
+mistake. The brilliant hope inspired by his
+fine army of Regulars with their splendid accoutrements,
+his thousands of boats paraded
+on the broad lake with banners flying and
+strains of music unknown in the wilderness, was
+turned to gloom when a few days later the boats
+returned laden with the dead and dying, and
+carrying the body of the beloved Lord Howe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span></p>
+
+<p>Again, in 1759, the war-trail of old Saratoga
+was trodden by an English army, twelve thousand
+strong, under the command of the successful
+Lord Amherst. In the autumn the
+final conflict came when the death of Wolfe
+signalled the triumph of England, and the
+great waterways passed under the sovereignty
+of the Anglo-Saxons.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus019" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus019.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CONGRESS SPRING IN 1820.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For some years, Sir William Johnson suffered
+from the effects of a wound received in
+the hip during the war. In 1767, his Indian
+friends told him about the “Great Medicine
+Waters” of Saratoga, and carried him by
+boat and on a stretcher to the mysterious
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>spring. The waters proved so beneficial that
+he was able to return over the “carrying-place”
+unaided and on foot. The waters
+which he drank were taken from the High
+Rock Spring of Saratoga Springs. Once
+they overflowed the cone-like rock through
+which they now rise and from which they
+are dipped, and the rock was gradually deposited
+and formed by the overflow. The
+process has lately been repeated by new
+springs like the Geyser and the Champion,
+which for some years threw the water several
+feet into the air, leaving a heavy cascade-like
+deposit about the opening. Gradually the waters
+subsided, the geyser effect was lost, and
+like the High Rock Spring they have fallen
+below the level of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In the year (1767) of Sir William Johnson’s
+expedition, the old land troubles with
+the Six Nations were settled amicably at the
+Fort Stanwix conference, where over three
+thousand red men met the English commissioners.
+The complaints of alleged frauds
+in purchase and surveys included the Kayadrossera
+patent, which covered 700,000 acres
+lying between the Hudson and the Mohawk, obtained
+by grant in 1703 and confirmed in 1708.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span></p>
+
+<p>Yet quiet did not prevail. The restless
+spirits of the wilderness were stirred by their
+first political aspirations. The Schuylers,
+whose possessions extended over the old Saratoga
+hunting-ground, awoke the farmers to
+an interest in the burning questions of the
+day. Sloops sailing up the Hudson brought
+rumors of riots in New York City, and of the
+resistance offered by the Sons of Liberty to
+the execution of the Stamp Act. When news
+came that no good patriot would wear imported
+garments, the women redoubled their
+efforts to produce from spinning-wheel and
+loom the homespun fabric. As the King grew
+more determined, and the people learned more
+clearly what rights were theirs, the British soldiers
+became violent and the patriots more
+indignant and outspoken. The first military order
+of the home government to put the forts at
+Crown Point and Ticonderoga on a war basis
+was quickly followed by the tramp of soldiers
+through the wilderness. The rumble of artillery
+and of commissary wagons broke once
+more the stillness of the forest. The farmers
+who lived along the old war-trail revived by
+the evening fireside the stories of the French
+and Indian wars. The Indians, quick to discern
+the coming storm, began once more, under
+the influence of the Johnson family (allied
+to them through Brandt and his sister), to
+destroy property and massacre the unprepared.
+The settlers of the “long valley” were bearing
+at this time the brunt of the preliminary
+warfare of the American Revolution. They
+met the issue bravely. While they fought,
+their wives and daughters gathered in the
+crops, melted into bullets the treasured pewter
+teapots and sugar-bowls, learned to shoot, to
+barricade their houses or their little forts, and
+to conceal themselves from prowling bands of
+Indians and savage Tories. It was then that
+the Royalist Governor Tryon, taking refuge on
+a war vessel, exclaimed, “The Americans from
+politicians are now becoming soldiers.” Had
+he witnessed the courageous deeds of the
+women of the great waterways, he would perhaps
+have added, “The women from housekeepers
+are becoming farmers and fighters.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="illus020" style="max-width: 50.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus020.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>KAYADROSSERA PATENT, WITH GREAT SEAL OF QUEEN ANNE PENDANT, 1708.</p>
+      <p>ORIGINAL IN SARATOGA COUNTY CLERK’S OFFICE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="illus021" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus021.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WOMEN OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776.</p>
+      <p>FROM TABLET ON SARATOGA BATTLE MONUMENT, SCHUYLERVILLE, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span></p>
+
+<p>New anxieties arose in the Province of New
+York as rumors multiplied of the advance in
+stately procession of a new and splendid army
+of the British, recently arrived in Canada,
+down the old war-path through Champlain
+and Lake George on the way to Albany to
+unite with the British wing ascending the
+Hudson River. Inspired by General Schuyler,
+commanding the American army, the farmers
+seized whatever firearms they could find and
+hurried to his camp. The women of Albany
+hammered the leaden weights from the windows
+of their houses, moulded them into
+bullets, and urged on the men. The militia
+of New England, aroused by the invasion,
+came by hundreds and by thousands until the
+river hills were covered. The hasty breastworks
+planned by Kosciuszko were completed,
+and the rude recruits were hurriedly formed
+into regiments and brigades. Gates, who
+superseded Schuyler, lay with his staff in the
+rear of the army, while Morgan with his
+riflemen held guard at the western extremity
+of the entrenched camp on the hills, with his
+headquarters at Neilson’s. This was the defensive
+camp of the Americans at Bemis
+Heights, and it stretched from the river bank
+westward over the hills about two miles and
+faced the north. Here they lay in wait for
+Burgoyne, who had rallied from his repulses at
+Bennington and Fort Stanwix, and was pressing
+down the bank of the Hudson River toward
+Albany from Fort Edward.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span></p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of September, a bridge of
+boats was stretched across the Hudson River—just
+below the mouth of the Batten Kill—for
+the passage of Burgoyne’s army. They
+halted for the first night amid the charred
+wheat-fields of General Schuyler’s farm on the
+south side of the Fishkill. On the morrow
+they hastened on to Coveville, and thence to
+Seward’s house, where again their white tents
+were spread over the country.</p>
+
+<p>On September 19th Burgoyne moved forward
+to outflank the American camp on the
+west. An obstinate fight of many hours about
+the old farm-well and in the great ravine followed,
+and the British failed in their attempt to
+pass the Americans or to weaken their line.
+But they held persistently to the position they
+had taken at Freeman’s Farm and at the close
+of the battle fortified their camp from the point
+on Freeman’s Farm in a line to the eastward
+on the bank of the river, where they built three
+redoubts upon three hills. The fortified camp
+of the Americans lay about a mile and a half
+below in a line parallel with the British. Here,
+within bugle-call of each other, for two weeks,
+the hostile forces sat upon the hills of Saratoga,
+frowning defiance at each other, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>ready to open the conflict at a moment’s
+warning.</p>
+
+<p>Burgoyne waited in vain for the Americans
+to attack him behind his works, and for a
+message, hourly expected, that Clinton would
+come from New York to his relief. Hunger
+pressed sorely upon the army. The brilliant
+conquests he had pictured to himself were
+fading from his grasp. He called his officers
+together in council. Silence and gloom hung
+over them. Should they advance or retreat?
+His imperious will dictated the advice he desired.
+Finally Fraser sustained the commander.
+An advance was ordered. On the 7th
+of October the British marched from their
+entrenchments in battle array. Burgoyne led
+the centre; Fraser a flanking column to the
+right; the royal artillery to the left, and the
+Hessians in reserve. Like a great bird of
+prey they settled in line of battle upon the
+broken ground that separated them from the
+American camp. Gates took up the gauntlet
+thus thrown down and exclaimed, “Order out
+Morgan to begin the game.” With a word to
+his command the watchful and heroic Morgan
+dashed into the struggle, scattered Burgoyne’s
+advance-guard, rushed on against the trained
+forces of Fraser, and swept them from the
+position to the left which they had taken in
+advance. With masterly skill and courage,
+Fraser rallied his men, and was forming a
+second line of defence, when he fell mortally
+wounded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus022" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus022.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“OLD WELL,” FREEMAN’S FARM, BATTLE-GROUND BEMIS HEIGHTS, SEPT. 19, 1777.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p>
+
+<p>The sharp whistle of Morgan called his
+men once more to action. They charged,
+while Poor and Larned attacked the centre
+and the right. The battle swayed back and
+forth through the great ravine. Another charge
+from Morgan and the British retreated to
+their entrenchments. At this moment the impatient
+Arnold, stung to madness by the slights
+put upon him by Gates, dashed across the
+field. He gathered the regiments under his
+leadership by his enthusiasm, bravery, and
+vehemence. He broke through the lines of
+entrenchments at Freeman’s Farm. Repulsed
+for a moment, he assailed the left and charged
+the strong redoubt of Breyman which flanked
+the British camp at the place now called
+Burgoyne’s Hill. The patriot army, fired
+with hope and courage, crowded fearlessly up
+to the very mouth of the belching guns of the
+redoubt, won the final victory of the day, and
+then, exhausted by the desperate fight, dropped
+down for a few hours’ rest before they took
+possession of the British camp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus023" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus023.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span></p>
+
+<p>But there was no rest for the defeated army.
+Silently and sullenly during these hours, they
+withdrew from the works at Freeman’s Farm,
+and huddled closely together under the three
+redoubts by the river. Here the women,
+Madam Riedesel, Lady Ackland, and others,
+trembled and wept over the dying Fraser.
+Here the hospital stood with its overflowing
+throng of the wounded and the dead. The
+great and princely army waited in doubt and
+despair while their commander wavered in
+his plans. Should he try to hold his dangerous
+ground, should he risk another engagement,
+should he retreat? The last course was
+chosen. On the following night a retreat
+began as the last minute-guns were fired
+magnanimously by the Americans, in honor
+of Fraser’s funeral, which took place at sunset.
+The sun fell behind the heights upon which
+the exultant Americans lay; heavy clouds
+followed, and quickly after, amid the drenching
+rain, the army of Burgoyne, abandoning their
+sick and wounded, began the retreat up the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>Retracing their steps from Bemis Heights,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>the scene of their disaster, they followed up the
+river road to the Fishkill and the Schuyler
+mansion, which they burned to the ground.
+Failing here in an attempt to make a stand
+against the advancing Americans, they fell
+back, formed an entrenched camp, and planted
+their batteries along the heights of old Saratoga.
+In this camp they still hoped to hold
+out until relief should come up the Hudson
+from New York. Here the romance and
+pathos of the campaign culminated, as described
+by Madam Riedesel, the accomplished
+and beautiful wife of the Hessian general, in
+her thrilling account of the retreat and of the
+agonizing days that followed. At the Marshall
+house, where she had taken refuge, the cannonballs
+thrown across the river crashed through
+its walls, and rolled along the floor, so that
+the sick and wounded were driven into the
+cellar where she and her children and the
+broken-hearted widows of the dead were suffering,
+watching, and starving. Frail by birth and
+rearing, Madam Riedesel stood in the doorway
+of the cellar, and with arms outspread across
+the open door held at bay the selfish, brutal
+men who would have crowded out the sick and
+dying. Burgoyne and his army, entrenched on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>the hills, and with the river below, yet had no
+water to drink, except a cupful brought now and
+then for the faint and wounded from the river
+by the British women, on whom the gallant
+Americans, ever tender toward woman, would
+not fire.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus024" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus024.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CONGRESS SPRING, 1898.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Finally, driven to the last extremity, with
+the Americans on the north, where Stark had
+seized Fort Edward, to the east, where Fellows
+held the river bank, and to the south, where
+Gates had thrown his victorious army, Burgoyne
+sent in his terms of surrender. Almost
+on the site of old Fort Hardy, his brave but
+unfortunate troops laid down their arms, and
+near the site of the old Schuyler mansion,
+which they had so recently burned, Burgoyne
+surrendered his sword to General Gates.
+Along the road, just across the Fishkill, the
+American army stretched in two lines, between
+which the disarmed prisoners were marched to
+the shrill notes of the fife and the measured
+beat of the drum, to the tune of “Yankee
+Doodle,” played for the first time as a national
+air.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus025" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus025.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SIGN “PUTNAM AND THE WOLF” ON PUTNAM’S TAVERN, SARATOGA SPRINGS.</p>
+      <p>ORIGINAL SIGN IN GRAND UNION HOTEL, SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p>
+
+<p>General Schuyler, the hospitable and magnanimous,
+was on the ground. Neither the
+slight he had received from Congress nor the
+injuries inflicted on him by the British could
+quench his generous nature. He rejoiced
+with his victorious countrymen, he sympathized
+with the fallen enemy, he protected and cared
+for the helpless women.</p>
+
+<p>During the summer of 1777 he had cut a
+road from his farm at old Saratoga through
+the wilderness to the High Rock Spring,
+already famous for its medicinal properties.
+He built a small frame house on the ledge of
+rocks overhanging the spring, and here for
+several summers his family came with him for
+rest and recreation as they had formerly gone
+to the comfortable mansion at old Saratoga.
+This was replaced by a rude cabin, and there,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>in 1783, Washington was entertained when,
+with General Clinton, he came to visit the
+Saratoga battle-ground. The party proceeded
+northward to Ticonderoga, and on their return
+stopped at High Rock Spring. General Washington
+was so strongly impressed with the
+value of the water and the beauty of the region
+that shortly afterward he tried to buy the property,
+but Livingston, Van Dam, and others had
+already secured it.</p>
+
+<p>The events of the Revolution had discouraged
+the few settlers who first came to the
+springs, and for years afterwards but two log
+cabins offered a shelter to adventurous tourists.
+In 1791, Gideon Putnam cleared his
+farm at Saratoga, and Governor Gilman of
+New Hampshire in 1792 discovered Congress
+Spring. Putnam built his large boarding-house
+and tavern, and far-seeing and liberal-minded,
+he purchased extensive tracts of land
+and secured the foundation of the beautiful and
+prosperous village which is now a delight to
+visitors and a valued home to its residents.
+It is essentially a place of “homes,” where
+people of large or small means are assured of
+that quiet and ease which cannot be found in
+cities or towns which depend for their prosperity
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>on active commercial or manufacturing
+interests.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus026" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus026.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF SARATOGA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="SCHENECTADY">SCHENECTADY</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE PROVINCIAL OUTPOST OF LIBERTY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By JUDSON S. LANDON</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Schenectady was settled in 1662. To
+give to the story of the settlement its
+proper character among the beginnings of
+free institutions in America it is necessary to
+recall the fact that the States-General of the
+Netherlands in 1621 chartered a trading concern,
+the Dutch West India Company, granted
+it the monopoly of the fur trade in New
+Netherland, and permitted it to govern, so long
+as it could, whatever colonies might inhabit the
+territory. The company thus formed ruled
+over the territory from 1624 to 1664, when the
+English, trumping up a stale claim of prior
+discovery, interfered and took possession.</p>
+
+<p>The company’s rule was arbitrary, but not
+without good features. Traders are not apt
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>to cavil over religious dogmas,—the company
+permitted freedom of conscience and worship.
+Subjects and servants render better obedience
+and service if treated with kindness and justice.
+The directors
+of the company
+seemed
+to know this,
+and professed
+to govern accordingly,
+but
+their governors
+sometimes
+found pretexts
+for the
+injustice
+which promised
+the surest
+profits.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus027" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus027.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>COLONIAL HOUSE, UNION STREET.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some of the colonists insisted that the
+people ought to have a part in the government.
+The Dutch governor, when he most
+needed their support, would promise concessions.
+He sometimes seemed to have begun
+to make them, but he made none that were
+substantial. Why should the trading company
+sentence itself to death?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
+
+<p>Agriculture was necessary for the food-supply
+of the new province, and promised
+customers for the imports from Holland.
+Liberal terms were extended to the agriculturist.
+Men of wealth were tempted by offers
+of vast tracts of land, with a sort of feudal
+sovereignty, on condition that each of them
+would establish fifty families upon his domain.
+Among others the manor or lordship of Rensselaerswyck
+was established, embracing nearly
+all the territory now comprised within the
+counties of Albany and Rensselaer. Literally
+its jurisdiction was subject to that of the West
+India Company, but practically it was independent
+of it. The company established a
+trading and governmental post at Beverwyck
+or Fort Orange, now Albany, and exercised
+supreme jurisdiction, exclusive of that of
+Rensselaerswyck, for at least musket-range
+about the fort.</p>
+
+<p>Among the colonists and traders who had
+been attracted to Beverwyck and Rensselaerswyck
+were some intelligent and enterprising
+men, mostly Protestant Dutchmen, who, after
+varied experience but general good fortune in
+the province, resolved to go apart by themselves
+and establish a community where justice
+equality and liberty could be secured and
+enjoyed, free from the overlordship of a
+patroon, and as remote as was practicable
+from contact with the grasping West India
+Company, either at Fort Orange or Manhattan.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus028" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus028.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VIEW ON STATE STREET.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span></p>
+
+<p>The leader of these men was the founder of
+Schenectady, Arendt Van Curler. He was
+the nephew of Killiaen Van Rensselaer, and
+came from Holland in 1630 as director of
+his uncle’s principality. This he managed
+with great success for many years. All accounts
+agree in describing him as a man
+of honor, benevolence, ability and activity.
+His unvarying fairness and tactful address
+soon secured for him the respect and confidence
+of all who knew him, and especially of
+the Mohawk Indians. In their opinion he
+was the greatest and best white man they ever
+knew. They decorated him while living with
+the distinction of “very good friend,” and
+honored him when dead by calling other
+governors “Curler” or “Corlear,” a title which
+still survives with the same meaning in the
+language of the scattered remnants of their
+tribe. It was through his good offices that
+peace was secured between the province and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>the Five Nations, among whom the Mohawks
+were the foremost, and preserved unbroken
+during his life. By following his policy peace
+was long maintained after his death.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty and fertility of the Mohawk
+country early attracted his attention. A letter
+addressed by him in 1643 to the “Noble Patroon”
+at Amsterdam exists, in which, after
+giving an account of his stewardship as manager
+of his uncle’s interests, he writes that the
+year before he had visited the Mohawk country,
+where he found three French prisoners,
+one of them being the celebrated Father
+Jogues, “a very learned scholar, who was very
+cruelly treated, his finger and thumb being cut
+off.” These prisoners were doomed to death,
+but Van Curler succeeded in effecting their release.
+Father Jogues, however, eager for the
+salvation of their souls, returned to them two
+years later, to suffer martyrdom at their hands.
+In this letter Van Curler writes:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Within a half-day’s journey from the Colonies lies
+the most beautiful land on the Mohawk river that eye
+ever saw, full a day’s journey long.” He says “it cannot
+be reached by boat owing to the strength of the
+stream and shallowness of the water, but can be reached
+by wagons.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus029" style="max-width: 26.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus029.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“THE BLUE GATE” ENTRANCE TO UNION COLLEGE GROUNDS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Another part of this letter is worth transcribing:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“I am at present betrothed to the widow of the late
+Mr. Jonas Bronck. May the good God vouchsafe to
+bless me in my undertaking, and please to grant that it may
+conduce to His honor and our mutual salvation. Amen.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">We know that the good lady long survived
+him, and as his widow was conceded some
+special privileges by the government.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span></p>
+
+<p>“The most beautiful land” upon which Van
+Curler looked, was the Mohawk Valley, embracing
+Schenectady and extending far to the
+westward.</p>
+
+<p>As he stood upon the crest of the upland
+southwest of the present city, where the sandy
+plain abruptly ends and gives place to the rich
+bottom-lands a hundred and fifty feet below,
+he looked northwesterly upon a wide expanse
+of meadow, through which the Mohawk River,
+gleaming in the sunlight, slowly wended. His
+eye rested upon the outline of that break in
+the mountains where the Mohawk has gorged
+its bed, through which in our day the New
+York Central Railroad passes from the seaboard
+to the Mississippi without climbing a
+foot-hill. It is the only level pass through the
+great Appalachian chain between the St. Lawrence
+Valley and the Gulf of Mexico. Not a
+tree and scarcely a bush grew upon this plain,
+but here and there were scattered patches of
+beans, corn and pumpkins, the fruit of the industry
+of the Mohawk women; and upon the
+higher ground where Schenectady now stands,
+the second great castle of the Mohawks, the
+Capitol of the Five Nations, stood, surrounded
+by many wigwams of the tribe. The nearer
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>hills and the more distant mountains were
+clothed with forests. This cleared and fertile
+intervale, set in its forest frame, was due to the
+volume of water which in the spring freshets
+pours down the river. Three miles east of
+the city its channel is crossed by great ledges
+of shale rock, through which the river has cut
+its way, which still remains too narrow for the
+immediate passage of its waters when greatly
+swollen. These, overflowing and enriching
+the bottom-lands above, also denude them of
+their forest growth.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian name of the place was Schonowe,
+the first syllable pronounced much like the
+Dutch “schoon,”—beautiful. Some of the
+Dutch, sharing Van Curler’s idea of the beauty
+of the place, wished to call it <i>Schoon</i>, beautiful,
+<i>achten</i>, esteemed, <i>del</i>, valley,—<i>Schoonachtendel</i>.
+The Indian name and the Dutch substitute
+were combined and confounded in a various
+and perplexing orthography which remains to
+us in the deeds, wills and other papers of that
+time, from which the name Schenectady was
+finally evolved.</p>
+
+<p>Although Van Curler was attracted thus
+early by this beautiful land, it was long before
+he could realize his purposes. He married
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>the Widow Bronck and continued the care of
+his uncle’s interest in the manor of Rensselaerswyck.
+But despite the success of his management
+the longer he stayed the more he saw and
+deplored the evils inherent in the feudal system.
+To his enlarged and benevolent mind the system
+itself was essentially one of serfdom.</p>
+
+<p>The patroon was lord of the manor, the
+owner of all the land and of a fixed share of
+all the produce of his subjects or tenants, with
+the right of a pre-emption of all the surplus
+beyond what was necessary for their support.
+They took an oath of allegiance to him: they
+could not hunt or fish or trade or leave the
+manor without his consent or that of his representative.
+If they sold their tenant right and
+improvements, a part of the price was his.
+His will was the law, for his subjects renounced
+their right of appeal to the provincial government
+from his decrees or those of his magistrates.
+He was an absentee, and measured the
+merit of his agents by the amount of their
+remittances. The government of the province
+as administered at Fort Orange or at Manhattan
+was as good as could be expected from a
+trading company, but was odious to men of
+Van Curler’s enlarged understanding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span></p>
+
+<p>The firearms of white men at Beverwyck and
+in Rensselaerswyck began to impair the value of
+the hunting grounds in their vicinity, and Van
+Curler learned that the Indians might consent
+to sell their lands at Schenectady. He looked
+about for associates in the purchase of the lands
+and their settlement, and sifted out fourteen.
+He applied to the Director General or Governor
+of the province, Peter Stuyvesant—whose
+real qualities and worth and those of his good
+subjects the pen of Irving has replaced with
+the genial travesties of his enduring caricature,—and
+obtained his reluctant consent to
+the purchase. He then applied to the Indian
+chiefs. They too were reluctant. Schonowe
+was the site of one of their most ancient castles.
+It had long been their favorite home. Their
+traditions covered many generations, but no
+tradition reached back to their first coming.
+Still they well remembered that Hiawatha had
+lived here, two centuries or more before.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus030" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus030.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GLEN-SANDERS MANSION, ERECTED 1714.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p>
+
+<p>Hiawatha, the chief, of whom the Great
+Spirit was an ancestor, and whose wisdom,
+goodness and valor far surpassed that of other
+men, was the founder of the confederacy of the
+Five Nations. He devoted his long life to the
+good of his people, teaching them to live nobler
+and better, and finally was borne in the flesh
+to the Happy Hunting Grounds. Longfellow
+sings of Hiawatha with no stint of poetic license,
+but his harmonious numbers do not surpass
+the Indian estimate of his qualities. No
+doubt there was such a man, of exceptional
+wisdom, valor and influence, and that he disappeared
+without being known to have died.
+Around his memory tradition, employing the
+figurative language of the Indians, accumulated
+myths and magnified them.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Curler was persistent, and in the end the
+Indians could not find it in their hearts to deny
+their “very good friend,” and the deed was
+formally executed and delivered at Fort Orange,
+July 2, 1661.</p>
+
+<p>The founders entered into possession. The
+Indians bade them welcome, and began to
+move their wigwams up the valley. It was
+their first step in the many stages of their
+unreturning journey toward the setting sun.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>Their own sun thus passed its zenith, but they
+did not know it.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists fixed their home or village
+lots upon the land above the sweep of the
+river floods, occupying for this purpose that
+part of the city west of the present Ferry
+Street. They assigned to each proprietor a
+village lot, two hundred feet square; a larger
+lot for a garden just south of the village, and a
+farm upon the bottom-lands beyond, with
+privileges in the outlying woodlands. Other
+settlers joined them. They sold them village
+lots and farm and garden lands, until the farm
+lands of the Van Curler grant were disposed
+of. Those who came still later bought village
+lots, but they had to buy farms of the Indians
+from lands outside of the Van Curler grant.
+Mechanics, traders and workmen came who did
+not want land, or lacked the means to buy it.
+Many of the proprietors were rich enough to
+own slaves, which—or shall I say whom?—they
+brought with them. Very soon by dint of
+industry their houses were built of the lumber
+sawed at their own mills, their farms were
+promising abundant crops, their gardens were
+blossoming, while their cattle were grazing
+in more distant pastures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p>
+
+<p>In this little republic the freeholders were
+the source of authority. By them and of them
+five trustees were elected “for maintaining
+good order and advancing their settlement.”
+The “Reformed Nether Dutch Church” was
+early established with its elders and deacons,
+and later, with its settled domine, maintained
+a guardianship over the people and especially
+the widows, orphans, and the poor. The
+community was under the titular jurisdiction
+of the province; the laws of Holland were in
+force with respect to contracts, property rights,
+and domestic relations, and were observed as a
+matter of course. The governor appointed
+the trustees or their nominees, <i>schepens</i> or
+justices of the peace, and they appointed a
+<i>schout</i> or constable, with large executive
+powers. This official, conscious of his power,
+and arrayed in a garb denoting it, solemnly
+pointed his pipe stem and sometimes even
+shook his sword, at the wayward. If any were
+so refractory as not to mend their ways after
+such an admonition, he haled them before the
+schepen. This magistrate, as his commission
+was construed, had the right so to supply the
+defects in the Dutch laws and the ordinances
+of “Their High Mightinesses, the noble
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>Dutch West India Company,” as to “make
+the punishment fit the crime.” This meant
+that he could impose such a fine as the schout
+thought collectible, or such other punishment
+as he would undertake to inflict. Causes of
+great gravity, such as complaints by the
+traders at Beverwyck that the accused had
+infringed upon their monopolies, were brought
+before that jurisdiction, but the records disclose
+no practical benefits to the complainants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus031" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus031.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FIRST REFORMED (DUTCH) CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1664, two years after the first settlement,
+the province and its government passed by
+conquest from the Dutch to the English.
+This made but little change at Schenectady.
+The system of government already begun was
+continued. The manor of Rensselaerswyck
+was confirmed to the patroon with some change
+in the sovereignty, but none in his property
+rights. Beverwyck became Albany, the county
+of Albany was established, and embraced
+Schenectady. The court at Albany took jurisdiction
+of such larger causes as the “Duke’s
+Laws,” conferred upon it, and the minor ones
+remained as before within the jurisdiction of
+the local magistrates. There were but few
+ministers of the gospel in the province, and it
+was not until 1684 that the Reverend Petrus
+Thesschenmaecher, a graduate of the University
+of Utrecht, was installed as their first
+resident pastor or domine. It was a memorable
+day, when that pious man, in his black
+silken robe, ascended the high pulpit of the
+church edifice which, loopholed for musketry
+together with his dwelling-house, awaited his
+coming, and in the deep solemn guttural of
+his Nether Dutch speech, led the worship
+of his dutiful flock. These Dutch Protestants
+did not agonize about God’s wrath like the
+Puritans; they assumed His loving care, as a
+child does its father’s. The ordinances and
+forms of worship prescribed by the Church
+were regarded as duties to be observed as
+well as privileges to be enjoyed, and the
+higher the social or official state of the individual,
+the more prominent and circumspect
+must he be in his religious observances. One
+of the documents of that day opens in these
+words: “We, the justices, consistory, together
+with the common people of Schanegtade, conceive
+ourselves in duty bound to take care of
+our reverend minister.” It is signed by the
+justices, elders, deacons and many others who,
+we must assume, were “common people.”
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>There remains a marriage contract in which
+a widower and a widow recite how much
+property each brings to the marriage state;
+the widow enumerating among other property
+three slaves, for whose freedom upon her
+decease, however, she provides. No doubt
+the justices, the consistory, the freeholders
+and the common people observed this order
+of precedence on this and all like occasions;
+the widow being preceded by a slave bearing
+a warming-box for her feet, a metrical version
+of the Psalms, and the book of devotion containing
+the liturgy, the <i>Heidelberg Catechism</i>,
+the <i>Confession of Faith</i> and the canons of the
+Church, as all these had been approved by the
+Synod of Dordrecht in 1619.</p>
+
+<p>Long before this learned graduate of the
+University of Utrecht was secured, the
+Rev. Gideon Schaets, minister at Albany, was
+permitted by his Church to visit Schenectady
+at least four times a year, upon a week day
+(“since it would be unjust to let the community
+be without preaching”—so the record
+at Albany recites), and administer the Lord’s
+Supper, baptize the children and officiate at
+marriages. Marriage, however, was a civil
+function over which a magistrate was competent
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>to preside. As early as 1681 the Church
+had an investment for the support of the
+poor of 3,000 guilders, which had reached
+4,000 guilders in 1690, when the Church
+perished in the
+destruction and
+massacre of
+that year.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus032" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus032.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ELLIS HOSPITAL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The inhabitants
+of this
+frontier village,
+who welcomed
+with open
+hands and glad
+hearts their first
+domine, might
+well be pardoned
+if there
+was a leaven of
+worldly pride in
+their greeting. Where else in all the provinces
+was there a more prosperous, more generous,
+more intelligent and better ordered people?
+There was no lack of substantial plenty. Who
+more than they were entitled to establish a
+Church and have a domine of their own? In October,
+1683, the first legislative assembly chosen
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>by the freeholders was summoned to convene in
+New York, to frame laws for the province. By
+the governor’s proclamation Schenectady had
+been accorded a representative, and thus its
+importance in the body politic was recognized.
+The village was the frontier bulwark of civilization,
+where the white man and the Mohawk
+Indian, by keeping faith with each other, kept
+bright the chain of friendship which made the
+Five Nations the allies of the Province of New
+York. To guard against French and Indian
+incursions, a stockade had been built around
+the village. This was a high fence made of
+three rows of posts set together firmly in the
+ground. There was a gate upon the north and
+south sides, and a fort within the stockade at
+each gate. Although often alarmed, it was
+not until the war between England and her
+allies and France, which was soon declared after
+James II. abdicated the crown of England in
+the revolution of 1688 and William and Mary
+came to the throne, that this frontier village
+was seriously threatened. Jacob Leisler, a
+Dutch trader and captain of a military company,
+of great zeal but of small ability, seized
+the government in the name of William and
+Mary and brought confusion among the people
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>by his presumption. The common people
+favored Leisler. They “blessed the great
+God of Heaven and Earth for deliverance
+from Tyranny, Popery, and Slavery.” The
+aristocracy opposed him, and complained that
+“Fort James was seized by the rabble, that
+hardly one person of sense and estate does
+countenance.” Their wisest leader, Van
+Curler, had long been dead;&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and the people
+of Schenectady became hopelessly divided.
+Warnings were frequent, but vigilance was
+relaxed, and at last the blow fell upon a
+defenceless people.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus033" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus033.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>EDISON HOTEL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the night of the 8th of February, 1690,
+one hundred and fourteen Frenchmen and
+ninety-six Indians, sent by Frontenac, Governor
+General of Canada, after a twenty-two
+days’ march from Montreal, through the snow
+and the wilderness, stole in through the open
+gates of the stockade, massacred sixty of the
+inhabitants, plundered and burned about sixty
+houses—leaving only six—and carried away
+thirty captives. The survivors, who were fortunate
+enough in the confusion to escape either
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>by accident or flight, numbered about two hundred
+and fifty. Their distress cannot be described.
+They buried their dead, their beloved
+pastor being among the slain. They made what
+provision they
+could against
+the severity of
+the winter and
+then took
+thought of the
+future. Should
+they abandon
+the place where
+for a quarter of
+a century they
+had lived in
+peace and
+plenty, and seek
+safety elsewhere?
+Help
+and counsel came to them from Albany,
+Esopus and New York, from Massachusetts
+and Connecticut, and not least from the
+friendly Mohawks, all encouraging them to
+stay. Indeed, there was no place of assured
+safety in the whole province. The war
+threatened all the English colonies. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>colonies sent their delegates to New York,
+where they concerted measures for the common
+defence. This was the first general
+American Congress. To abandon Schenectady
+would be to encourage the enemy, to endanger
+the whole province by discouraging its
+allies, the Iroquois or Five Nations, causing
+them to distrust the valor and prowess of the
+English arms, and possibly to embrace the oft
+proffered alliance of the French. Schenectady
+must be held, cost what it might. The survivors
+finally concluded to stay. Twenty-four of
+the freeholders subscribed to a paper, stating:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“In the first place, it is agreed to resort to the North
+Fort to secure our bodies and defend them.</p>
+
+<p>“Secondly, that the crops or fruits of the earth—that
+is, the winter grain, shall be in common for the use of all,
+and all the mowing lands for this year.</p>
+
+<p>“Thirdly, the widows shall draw their just due and
+portions.</p>
+
+<p>“If any one will voluntarily depart or draw up for
+Canada, he shall yet have his full share and the benefits.</p>
+
+<p>“Every one that shall stand to these articles shall obey
+the orders of their officers, on the penalty of such punishment
+as shall be seasonable, without expecting any
+favor, grace or dissimulation.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The survivors began the work of reconstruction
+and defence. Every able-bodied
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>man became both citizen and soldier, ready for
+service at home or on scout or picket or skirmish
+duty, wherever the approach of the enemy
+was to be feared. Schenectady became a military
+camp where the provincial troops, reinforced
+by detachments from New England and
+by their Iroquois allies, made good the safety
+of Schenectady and thus kept watch and ward
+over the English dominion in North America.
+They recognized Governor Leisler’s authority
+and sent a representative to the two sessions
+of his Assembly held in April and October,
+1690.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>The warlike state of things existed from
+1690 until after the peace of Ryswyck in 1697.
+Upon the return of peace, Schenectady began
+to resume its former state and prosperity. The
+people rebuilt their church and called the Rev.
+Bernardus Freerman as their pastor. How
+dear he became to them the many children
+named in his honor attest. The Dutch
+population was sprinkled with a few English-speaking
+soldiers who chose to make it their
+home. Its importance increased as a centre of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>trade, not only with the Indians, but with those
+hardy pioneers, who, attracted by the fertile
+lands, or the desire to join the friendly Indians
+in their hunting expeditions, pushed farther up
+the valley. The traders at Albany protested
+against this invasion of their monopoly, and
+also against the exercise of milling, weaving
+and tanning privileges, but in a famous law-suit
+in the Supreme Court of the province, the
+Albany monopolists were beaten, and Schenectady’s
+full right to freedom of trade and
+manufacture was established. Then came
+Queen Anne’s War with the French, lasting
+from 1701 to 1713, and Schenectady was again
+in peril, and again garrisoned, for the same
+reason and much in the same way as before;
+but, the Iroquois having made a treaty of
+peace with Canada, the brunt of the war fell
+upon New England and Schenectady passed
+safely through it.</p>
+
+<p>From the treaty of Utrecht in 1713 to the
+“Old French War,” 1744-48, peace prevailed.
+In the latter war many inhabitants of the
+village were killed in skirmishes or cut down by
+skulking Indians in the service of the French.
+In one skirmish, or rather massacre, at Beukendal,
+three miles northwest of Schenectady,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>twenty men were killed and thirteen captured
+and carried away. Then came the last French
+war, from 1753 to 1763. The English now
+had posts at Fort Hunter, Fort Schuyler,
+Fort Johnson and Oswego on the west, at
+Fort Ann and Fort Edward on the north. Sir
+William Johnson and others had established
+settlements up the Mohawk Valley. Sir William
+was general superintendent of Indian
+affairs and a Major-General in the English
+service. His influence over the Iroquois was
+commanding; his early victory at Lake George
+was important; the English carried the war
+into the French territory. Schenectady enjoyed
+immunity from attack, and was enabled,
+besides maintaining a garrison in its fort, to
+send its quotas of troops to distant service, one
+company assisting in the English siege and
+capture of Havana in 1762.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of Paris in 1763, by which the
+French yielded the dominion of North America
+to the English, seemed to promise a lasting
+peace. But the War of the Revolution came
+on. Our Indian allies, the Iroquois, remained
+faithful to their long allegiance to the English
+Crown, and became our enemies under the
+leadership of Sir John Johnson, who, succeeding
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>to the estate and title of his father, Sir
+William, adhered to the Crown, under which
+both became ennobled. Schenectady was
+again threatened, from the side of Canada,
+but by its former friends and allies. Aside
+from its contribution of six companies to the
+patriot cause, its position made it the base
+from which those who adhered to the English
+cause sought to send aid and comfort to the
+enemy. General Washington came here early
+in the struggle, and made arrangements for the
+frontier defence.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Schenectady patriots appointed a committee
+of vigilance and safety, who, as the one
+hundred and sixty-two written pages of their
+records show, repressed with strong hand and
+scant ceremony the slightest evasions of the
+orders of Congress and of the military authorities,
+and all attempts at treasonable intercourse
+with the enemy. Finally American independence
+was won, and Schenectady, after nearly a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>century of unrest, enjoyed the blessing of permanent
+peace. The forts and stockade soon
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="illus034" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus034.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>UNION COLLEGE, 1795.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Meantime the little village had steadily
+grown, becoming a chartered borough in 1765,
+and advancing to the dignity of a city in 1798.
+Schenectady received its first officially carried
+mail on the 3d day of April, 1763,—Benjamin
+Franklin being the colonial postmaster-general,—founded
+the Schenectady Academy in 1784,
+which became Union College in 1795, and
+read its first newspaper, <i>The Schenectady Gazette</i>,
+January 6, 1799.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="illus035" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus035.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>STATUE, SITE OF “OLD FORT.”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The military occupation and the increasing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>importance of the frontier trade added largely
+to the English population. As early as 1710,
+the Rev. Thomas
+Barclay, the
+English chaplain
+to the fort in Albany,
+preached
+once a month at
+Schenectady,
+where, as he
+writes, “there is
+a garrison of
+forty soldiers, besides
+about sixteen
+English and
+about one hundred
+Dutch families.”
+At that
+time the Dutch
+had no pastor.
+Mr. Barclay
+writes, “There is
+a convenient and
+well built church
+which they
+freely give me the use of.” It was not, however,
+until 1759, when there were three hundred
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>houses in the village, that the English
+population undertook the erection of a separate
+church. They “purchased a glebe lot and by
+subscription chiefly among themselves erected
+a neat stone church,” and called it St. George’s.
+This stone church, with its subsequent additions,
+is the handsome St. George’s of to-day.
+Its site had previously been covered by the
+English barracks. There is a tradition that
+the Presbyterians assisted in the erection of
+St. George’s with the understanding that the
+Anglicans were to go in at the west door and
+the Presbyterians at the south door, but that
+the Anglicans managed to get the church consecrated
+unknown to the Presbyterians. The
+latter, upon finding it out, were so indignant
+that they set about building a church for themselves.
+Be this as it may, the Presbyterians
+commenced building their church in 1770, and
+finished it with bell and steeple, the latter surmounted
+by a leaden ball gilded with “six
+books of gold leaf.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1767 the Methodist movement began
+here under the lead of Captain Thomas Webb,
+a local preacher bearing the license of John
+Wesley. The movement was favored and advanced
+by the preaching of that great orator,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>George Whitefield, then making his last American
+tour. The society, however, waited until
+1809 before building its first church edifice.
+In the same year Schenectady County was
+carved out of Albany County.</p>
+
+<p>All this while the English speech was gaining
+over the Dutch. Children of Dutch parents,
+despite the teaching of the nursery, would
+acquire and use the English idiom. Finally
+some of the members of the Dutch Church
+ventured to suggest the propriety of having
+service now and then in the English tongue.
+The staid burghers were shocked. But, the
+question once raised, the younger generation
+grew bolder, and the elder began to listen.
+Domine Romeyn, a graduate of Princeton College,
+a fluent master of both languages, and
+eminent for his varied learning and as the
+founder of Union College, was pastor of the
+Church from 1784 to 1804. He so far yielded
+to the new demand as to preach in English
+upon occasions of which he was careful to give
+previous notice. It was not until 1794 that
+the leading members of the Church represented
+to its consistory the necessity of increasing the
+services in English,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> “to the end that the church
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>be not scattered.” Ten years later, at the
+close of Domine Romeyn’s long ministry, the
+Dutch language ceased to be heard from the
+pulpit of the church. But there are still surviving
+a few—very few—inhabitants to whom
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>the Dutch is their mother tongue. One of
+them informs the writer that when he visited
+Holland he conversed with ease with the people,
+but that he sometimes used words not familiar
+to them and afterwards learned that
+these words were of Indian origin.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="illus036" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus036.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“THE BROOK THAT BOUNDS THRO’ UNION’S GROUNDS.”</p>
+      <p>UNION COLLEGE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As Schenectady is two hundred feet above
+tide-water at Albany, it early became the headquarters
+of the western trade, goods being carried
+to and from the West upon canoes, bateaux,
+and the “Schenectady Durham boats.” The
+trade developed into large proportions, and during
+the hundred years closing with the completion
+of the Erie Canal in 1825, many traders
+made fortunes which were considered large in
+those days. Upon the completion of the canal
+the commercial prosperity of the city declined.
+The decline seemed to be confirmed by the
+era of railroads, notwithstanding the “Mohawk
+and Hudson” was the first railroad built in the
+State, its first passenger train arriving in Schenectady
+from Albany, September 12, 1831, and
+on the second railroad, the “Saratoga and
+Schenectady,” the first train left Schenectady
+for Saratoga, July 12, 1832.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="illus037" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus037.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ELIPHALET NOTT,
+    PRESIDENT OF UNION COLLEGE FOR SIXTY YEARS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The business revival, however, came at last.
+For fifty years its locomotive works have been
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>renowned, finding customers even in England.
+Now, that oldest of powers and newest of merchandise,
+electricity, has its greatest plant here,
+from which its products seek the ends of the
+habitable globe. These, with many other industries,
+disturb the city’s ancient repose. It
+no longer comprises a people exclusively of
+Dutch, English and Scotch ancestry, but embraces
+a polyglot assemblage. For more than
+a century Union College, founded in an age
+less tolerant than our own upon the basis of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>Christian unity, implied by its name, over
+which the celebrated Doctor Nott presided for
+sixty years, and the accomplished Doctor Raymond
+now presides, has been sending forth
+year by year its graduates. Among them—as
+the College justly boasts—is a long list of leaders
+in Church and in State, in the halls of
+learning, among the votaries of science, where
+industrial and professional skill achieves the
+worthiest triumphs, and where human needs
+require the wisest methods of helpfulness;
+and every sign indicates that this long list
+will continue to lengthen.</p>
+
+<p>If there is any lesson, it is simple. The
+town was founded in the spirit of liberty and
+justice; the people cherished and cultivated
+the spirit so well that the Mohawk Indian for
+one hundred and twelve years respected and
+reciprocated. May the spirit long prevail!</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus038" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus038.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF SCHENECTADY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header5.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="NEWBURGH">NEWBURGH</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE PALATINE PARISH BY QUASSAICK</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ADELAIDE SKEEL</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Mr. Secretary Boyle to Lord Lovelace</span></p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Whitehall</span>, 10th Aug’st, 1708.</p>
+
+<p><i>My Lord:</i>—The Queen being graciously pleased to
+send fifty-two German Protestants to New York and
+to settle ’em there at Her own expenses, Her Majesty as
+a farther act of Charity is willing to provide also for the
+subsistence of Joshua de Kockerthal their Minister and
+it is Her Pleasure that you pass a grant to him of a
+reasonable Portion of Land for a Glebe not exceeding
+five hundred acres with liberty to sell a suitable proportion
+thereof for his better Maintenance till he shall
+be in a condition to live by the produce of the remainder.</p>
+
+<p class="center">I am, my Lord</p>
+
+<p class="center">Your L’dshp’s Most faithful humble servant</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">H. Boyle.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lord Lovelace.</span></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>A bridge of sighs spans the distance between
+the coming of Newburgh’s earliest settlers, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>German Lutherans from the lower Palatinate
+on the Rhine, to the later arrival of the English,
+Scotch, French and Irish. The Lutherans
+were religious exiles, whose villages had
+been burnt, whose homes had been destroyed
+and whose strong Protestant faith alone survived
+the wreck of their fortunes. Of this
+poverty-stricken company, nine with their
+wives and children were sent up Hudson’s
+River to occupy the present site of Newburgh.</p>
+
+<p>The first intention of Queen Anne of England
+to send these Germans to Jamaica where
+white people were needed, was set aside “lest
+the climate be not agreeable to their constitutions,
+being so much hotter than that of
+Germany.” Apropos of the intelligent consideration
+of these Commissioners of Emigration
+in 1709, one questions if the half-clad
+travellers who are described in an old document
+as “very necessitous,” found the climate
+of Hudson’s River agreeable to their constitutions
+in winter-time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus039" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus039.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span></p>
+
+<p>In winter time! Sailing up the river in
+summer-time past Sleepy Hollow and Spuyten
+Duyvil, beyond the wide Tappan Zee, through
+the Gate of the Highlands where the waters
+narrow and the mountains cross, where the
+fairies dance on old Cro’s Nest, and Storm
+King dons and doffs his weather cap, on into
+Newburgh Bay where the Beacons guard the
+Fishkill shores, and the Queen City of the
+Hudson rises in green terraces on the western
+bank, the tourist idly wonders if these Palatine
+pilgrims, worn by the ravages of persecution,
+had eyes to see the beauty of the land they
+were about to possess. It is possible, notwithstanding
+the ice-bound waters and snow-covered
+country, that their homesick hearts
+may have been warmed by the sight of a river
+not unlike their Rhine. As yet no Irving,
+Paulding, Cooper, Drake or Willis had cast
+the magic witchery of his tales over these
+scenes, yet a century before, the <i>Half-Moon</i>
+had passed this way and perhaps the stories
+Henry Hudson’s crew brought back of red
+devils dancing in rocky chambers amused the
+children aboard the sloop of the German
+Lutheran exiles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus040" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus040.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOEL T. HEADLEY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>More pertinent in historical research than
+such imaginings is the contrast between the
+temper of these voyagers and those others
+who sailed in the <i>Mayflower</i>, and before landing
+covenanted with one another “to submit
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>only to such government and governors as
+should be chosen by common consent.” The
+shores of the Hudson were no less fertile than
+those of Massachusetts, yet the Palatines
+showed far less aggressiveness than the Pilgrims,
+and far less courage to stand alone. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>story of these Lutherans here in Newburgh is
+a story of petitions first to one Right Honorable
+Lord and then to another,—petitions
+which, alas! were too often unheeded, although
+the petitioners sorely in need of help never
+failed to sign themselves</p>
+
+<p class="center">Your Honours<br>
+Most Dutyfull<br>
+and most obedient Company<br>
+at Quassek Creek and Tanskamir.</p>
+
+<p>In one letter to the Right Honourable Richard
+Ingoldsby Esq’ʳ, Lieutenant Governor
+and Commander-in-Chief over Her Majesty’s
+Provinces in New York, Nova Caesaria and
+Territories depending thereon in America &amp;c.
+as also to Her Majesty’s Honourable Council
+of this Province &amp;c. they plead that “they do
+not know where to address themselves to receive
+the remainder of their allowance of provision
+at 9d per day.”</p>
+
+<p>Again, in their search to find “a Gentleman
+who might be willing to support said Germans
+with the Remainder of their allowance the entire
+summ of which is not exceeding 195 lbs,
+3sh,” they but succeed in finding a gentleman
+whose offer of assistance they considered only
+as “fine talke and discourse out of his own
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>head”—by which one learns the supplicants
+were left hungry and cold on their hilly farms,
+waiting for help which came slowly and for
+crops which yielded but scantily.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="illus041" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus041.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE LUTHERAN CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Whoever institutes a comparison between
+the Palatines and the Pilgrims must remember
+the Pilgrims came to America, a compact society
+fortified by friends at home soon to follow,
+while the Palatines, beggared by the most
+terrible of religious
+persecutions,
+were
+sent, as individuals,
+by
+Queen Anne
+to her colonies,
+as to-day
+dependent
+children of the
+State are sent
+to the far
+West. They
+were absolute
+paupers, yet
+such was their moral excellence that a writer
+on Dutch Village Communities on the Hudson
+River indirectly commends these poor Germans.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“From the banks of the Rhine the germ of free local
+institutions borne on the tide of western emigration
+found along the Hudson a more fruitful soil than New
+England afforded for the growth of those forms of municipal,
+state and national government which have made the
+United States the leading Republic among nations, and
+thus in a new and historically important sense may the
+Hudson river be called the Rhine of America.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The patent granted the Lutherans known
+as the Palatine Parish by Quassaick contained
+within its boundaries forty acres for highways
+and five hundred for a Glebe. The Glebe is
+bounded by North Street on the north and by
+South Street on the south. Across its western
+border ran Liberty Street, then the King’s
+Highway, although no king save Washington,
+who refused the title, ever trod its dust. The
+Glebe was “for the use of the Lutheran minister
+and his successors forever,” but they
+really possessed it only about forty years,—thus
+liberally was “forever” interpreted two
+centuries ago.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Here’s a church, and here’s a steeple,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Here’s the minister and all the people,”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">says the nursery rhyme. Here the evolution
+of a parish has for its germ the church and
+steeple, the minister and all the people being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>a later development. The germ of this
+Lutheran parish was the minister, Joshua de
+Kockerthal,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> whose missionary labors on both
+sides of the river cannot be overestimated.
+After the minister came not the church nor the
+steeple, but the bell, a gift from no less a lady
+of quality than Queen Anne herself. It was
+highly prized by these Lutherans and loaned
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>to a church in New York on condition that
+“should we be able to build a church at our
+own expense at any time thereafter then the
+Lutheran Church of New York shall restore
+to us the same
+bell such as it
+now is or another
+of equal weight
+and value.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp51" id="illus042" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus042.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ANDREW J. DOWNING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The church
+was built probably
+in 1730, and
+the Reverend
+Michael Christian
+Knoll was
+appointed to
+minister in the
+parish, a part of
+his salary to be
+paid in cheeples
+of wheat, sustenance
+certainly
+more nourishing than the codfish received by
+the minister on Cape Cod in lieu of pew-rent in
+gold coin of the realm. The church itself,
+which was standing in 1846 within the memory
+of a few of Newburgh’s citizens, was about
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>twenty feet square without floor or chimney.
+The roof ran up into a point from its four walls,
+and on the peak a small cupola was placed in
+which hung Queen Anne’s bell. This bell, evidently
+not cast in the mould of the one unalterable
+Confession of Augsburg, but bewitched
+by its donor with Episcopacy, presently rang
+out changes and ceased to “call the living,
+mourn the dead and break the lightning” exclusively
+in behalf of the German Lutherans.</p>
+
+<p>The English were now buying farms from
+the discouraged Germans whose complaint that
+their patent was all upland can hardly be
+denied by any one who, aided by a rope, climbs
+Newburgh’s hilly streets to-day. The story,
+however, that the United States Government
+located the city’s post-office on a shelf-like site
+so that shy lovers in search of a billet-doux need
+not call at the window but may look down
+the building’s chimney from a street above is
+probably apocryphal.</p>
+
+<p>The Palatines abandoned Newburgh for a
+more fertile soil in Pennsylvania and elsewhere
+about 1747. The newcomers, who were
+mostly of English and Scotch descent, took
+their places, so that nothing remains to tell of
+the early settlers save the streets they laid out
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>and the church in the Old Town burying-ground
+whose site is now marked by Quassaick Chapter,
+Daughters of the American Revolution.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>According to history, the few remaining
+Lutherans did not give up their church without
+a struggle. On a certain bright July Sunday
+the two congregations met, each with its
+minister at the head, accompanied by many
+people from both sides of the river and the
+Justices of the Peace who carried staves of
+office. Birgert Meynders, a burly blacksmith
+and bold defender of the Lutheran faith, fell
+crushed by the falling door, and then the jubilant
+English rushed in to hold the fort. It was
+after this memorable riot that the Reverend
+Hezekiah Watkins,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> a most excellent clergyman,
+preached his first sermon in Newburgh,
+possibly from a text in the psalter for the
+day, “Why do the heathen so furiously rage
+together?”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus043" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus043.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HENRY KIRKE BROWN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span></p>
+
+<p>Legend says some Lutheran boys on a
+moonless August night stole the bell and
+buried it in a swamp where, punished for
+apostasy, it lay for years tongue-tied in the
+black mud while hoarse frogs croaked their
+pessimistic comments over it. The defeated
+Lutherans would doubtless have been pleased
+could they have foreseen half a century later
+when all that savored of England, were it
+book, bell or candle, was out of favor, the
+Anglicans in their turn ejected, the building
+used as a schoolhouse, and the rent of the
+Glebe lands pass entirely from the Church.</p>
+
+<p>The swamp in which the bell was hidden
+has of late years been transformed into one of
+Downing Park’s lakes, and from its smooth
+waters one may hear on summer evenings
+the ghostly tolling of bells, as bells toll in
+the buried cities beneath Swiss lakes. The
+tolling has a martial sound, a call to arms, as if
+the little bell had forgotten the smaller church
+squabble in the larger quarrel between King
+George and his Colonies. Some authorities
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>insist that the bell was dug up, and that it gladly
+used its long silent tongue in Freedom’s cause
+as behooved a Liberty Bell. It hung during
+the present century, old inhabitants tell us, in
+the cupola of the Newburgh Academy, and
+was at length sold and melted for a new one
+by an iconoclastic school Board.</p>
+
+<p>At the breaking out of the war for American
+Independence there were but a dozen or more
+houses on the Glebe, and a few to the south.
+Among these was the stone residence of Colonel
+Jonathan Hasbrouck which had been built
+in part by Birgert Meynders. Lieutenant
+Cadwallader Colden had his home near and
+there were many among his satellites willing to
+drink damnation to the Whigs when asked by
+the ever vigilant Committee of Safety to sign
+the pledge.</p>
+
+<p>It may be thought strange that Newburgh
+has been considered of great Revolutionary
+importance when no battles were fought nearer
+its vicinity than those of Stony Point and Forts
+Clinton and Montgomery, but, although the
+place had an hereditary tendency to toryism, its
+geographical environment filled it to overflowing
+with plucky patriots. It is well known that
+it was the design of the British to get possession
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>of the Hudson, and by cutting off the
+New England States to weaken the forces of
+the Continental Army. Appreciating this fact,
+Washington came up the river in 1776 as far
+as Constitution Island and, at the suggestion
+of Putnam, fortified West Point. Newburgh
+came under the same military direction, so
+that one leading officer after another made his
+headquarters in the vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>At Vail’s Gate, four miles south of Newburgh,
+is the Thomas Ellison house built by
+John Ellison, the headquarters of Generals
+Knox, Green and Gates, and of Colonels Biddle
+and Wadsworth. Here too the pretty Lucy
+Knox gave a dance at which General Washington
+tarried so late as to incur the displeasure
+of his wife. The names of Maria Colden,
+Gitty Wyncoop, and Sally Jensen, the belles
+of the ball, are scrawled on a window-pane in
+the dining-room.</p>
+
+<p>Following Silver Stream down to Moodna
+Creek, three or four miles south of Newburgh,
+we find the Williams house, the residence of
+General Lafayette, in the cellar of which the
+Dutch loan lies buried past finding, while opposite
+are the remains of the forge at which
+were made parts of the obstructions thrown
+across the river to prevent British ships from
+sailing up.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus044" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus044.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HEADQUARTERS OF MAJOR-GENERAL KNOX AT VAIL’S GATE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus045" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus045.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CLINTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT LITTLE BRITAIN, NEAR NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Westward at Little Britain, six miles from
+Newburgh, is Mrs. Fall’s house, the headquarters
+of George Clinton, and here on the floor
+is the stain where the spy who swallowed the
+bullet took the emetic and revealed the proposed
+treason. The old homestead of the
+Clinton family was in Little Britain, and hither
+James Clinton, after the attack on Forts Clinton
+and Montgomery, returned, his boots filled
+with blood. One of his great-grandchildren
+relates that he entered the dining-room where
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>the family were eating breakfast, and requesting
+his mother and sisters to retire lest they
+faint from the sight of his wounds, as was the
+habit of gentlewomen of the last century, told
+the story of his escape to his father. The statue
+of his distinguished brother, George,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> stands in
+Newburgh’s business centre on the Square
+which oddly enough bears the name of Colden,
+the leading family of colonial days. The distinguished
+Coldens, although not patriots,
+added a lustre to the town, and the Clintons
+will not quarrel with their shades.</p>
+
+<p>Mad Anthony Wayne, the Rough Rider of
+his day, had his headquarters on the Glebe
+near the present corner of Liberty Street and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>Broad. Weigand’s tavern, with the whipping-post
+in front of the door, a rendezvous of
+soldiers, stood on
+Liberty Street
+not far from the
+Lutheran Church.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp41" id="illus046" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus046.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CLINTON STATUE IN COLDEN SQUARE, AT NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Revolutionary
+interest in Newburgh
+focuses on
+the coming of
+Washington to
+the Hasbrouck
+house in March,
+1782, although recent
+research discredits
+the story
+pictured on the
+covers of our
+copybooks in
+school days of the
+disbanding of the
+whole Continental
+army on these
+grounds. In 1779-80 Washington had lived
+in the Ellison house, no longer standing, in
+New Windsor, a small village to the south
+on the river, separated from Newburgh
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>proper by the Quassaick Creek, but after the
+surrender of Yorktown, he and his family
+with his staff became the guests of Colonel
+Jonathan Hasbrouck in the stone house, on
+the corner of Washington and Liberty Streets.
+Here Washington wrote his reply to the
+Nicola letter, which in popular parlance offered
+him the crown. Here is the chair in
+which he sat when he took his pen in hand
+and dipped it in ink to put on paper words
+which after more than a hundred years glow
+with the fervor of their author’s single-hearted
+purpose.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Newburgh</span>, May 22d, 1782.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Colonel Lewis Nicola</span>,</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>:—With a mixture of great surprise and astonishment,
+I have read with attention the sentiments you have
+submitted to my perusal. Be assured, sir, no occurrence
+in the course of the War, has given me more painful
+sensations than your information of there being such
+ideas existing in the army as you have expressed, and I
+must view with abhorrence and reprehend with severity.
+For the present the communication of them will rest in
+my own bosom, unless some further agitation of the
+matter shall make a disclosure necessary.</p>
+
+<p>I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct
+could have given encouragement to an address,
+which to me seems big with the greatest mischiefs that
+can befall my country. If I am not deceived in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>knowledge of myself, you could not have found a person
+to whom your schemes are more disagreeable. At the
+same time, in justice to my own feelings, I must add that
+no man possesses a more sincere wish to see ample
+justice done to the army than I do, and so far as my
+powers and influence, in a constitutional way, extend,
+they shall be employed to the utmost of my abilities to
+effect it, should there be any occasion. Let me conjure
+you then, if you have any regard for your country, concern
+for yourself, or posterity, or respect for me, to
+banish these thoughts from your mind, and never communicate,
+as from yourself or anyone else, a sentiment
+of the like nature. With esteem, I am sir,</p>
+
+<p class="center">Your most obedient servant,</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">G. Washington</span>.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Leaving Washington’s Headquarters at
+Newburgh one turns southward and crosses
+Quassaick Creek, at one time known as the
+Vale of Avoca, to hear above the whirr of to-day’s
+many intersecting railroads the echoes of
+Indian paddles. It is said the ghosts of Indians
+still linger here in their canoes waiting to carry
+away Washington, for near is the site of the
+Ettrick house whose host treacherously invited
+the Commander-in-Chief to dinner with intent
+to kidnap him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus047" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus047.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE WILLIAMS HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span></p>
+
+<p>“General, you are my prisoner,” said Mr.
+Ettrick, pushing aside his wine-glass and rising
+from the table.</p>
+
+<p>“Pardon me, sir, but you are mine,” was the
+quiet answer, and instantly the life-guards
+appeared and poor Ettrick was put in chains,
+his pretty daughter escaping on account of the
+timely warning she had given her father’s
+guest.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus048" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus048.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MONUMENT ON TEMPLE HILL, NEAR NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="illus049" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus049.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE VERPLANCK HOUSE.</p>
+      <p>BARON STEUBEN’S HEADQUARTERS, WHERE THE “NICOLA LETTER” WAS WRITTEN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Standing on the slopes of Snake Hill, to
+the west of Newburgh, where was the last cantonment
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>of the American Army on the site of
+the Temple, a building used for Sunday services,
+for Masonic purposes and as a gathering-place
+for social entertainment, a site now
+marked by a
+monument,
+one hears
+again those
+words spoken
+by Washington
+when in
+March, 1783,
+the circulation
+of the
+Newburgh
+letters caused
+unrest among
+the unpaid
+troops.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“You see, gentlemen,” he said as he arose to read his
+address, putting on his spectacles as he spoke, “that I
+have not only grown grey but blind in your service....</p>
+
+<p>“Let me conjure you,” he continued, “by the name of
+our common country, as you value your own sacred honor,
+as you respect the rights of humanity, as you regard the
+military and national character of America, to express
+your utmost horror and detestation of the man who
+wishes under any specious pretense to overturn the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>liberties of our country and who wickedly attempts to
+open the flood-gates of civil discord....</p>
+
+<p>“By thus determining and thus acting you will pursue the
+plain and direct road to the attainment of your wishes
+... you will by the dignity of your conduct afford
+occasion to posterity to say when speaking of the glorious
+example you have exhibited to mankind, ‘Had this day
+been wanting, the world had never seen the last stage
+of perfection to which human nature is capable of
+attaining.’”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Crossing the river by the ferry sloop to
+Fishkill one finds in this Revolutionary centre
+of military supplies much of interest. Here
+were Baron Steuben’s headquarters in the
+Verplanck house, where the Nicola letter was
+written and the Society of Cincinnatus in part
+was formed; here at Swartwoutville the headquarters
+of Washington; here on the Wicopee,
+in the James Van Wyck house, the residence
+of John Jay, and at Brinkerhoff, in the home
+of Matthew Brinkerhoff, the roof which
+sheltered Lafayette when he lay ill of a fever.
+The Dutch Church in Fishkill has been made
+famous by Cooper’s <i>Spy</i>. Trinity Church was
+a hospital, and on the banks of the Hudson at
+Presqu’Ile one rests under the oak which
+shaded Washington when he waited for his
+letters to be brought to him from Newburgh.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus050" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus050.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT FISHKILL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“I cannot tell what you say, green leaves,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">I cannot tell what you say;</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">But I know that in you a spirit doth live</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">And a message to me this day.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Is it not a message of courage and patriotism
+which lives on in the descendants of the
+Hasbroucks,
+the Belknaps,
+the Williamses,
+the Fowlers, the
+Deyos, the
+Townsends, the
+Carpenters, the
+Weigands and
+others whose
+records emblazon
+the pages of
+Newburgh’s history?</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp51" id="illus051" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus051.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CHARLES DOWNING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In this last
+century not only
+material wealth
+has come to
+Newburgh, but
+the richest treasures of the town have been
+brought hither by its idealists, men to whom
+has been granted the gift of vision. Among
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>these are numbered preachers, poets, artists,
+historians, novelists, physicians, lawyers and
+philanthropists, and on this roll of honor are
+written the names of the Reverend John Forsythe,
+N. P. Willis, H. K. Brown, A. J. Downing,
+S. W. Eager, E. M. Ruttenber, J. T.
+Headley, E. P. Roe, Carroll Dunham, E. A.
+Brewster and Charles Downing.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus052" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus052.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF NEWBURGH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON">TARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON</h2>
+
+<p class="center">ITS HISTORIC ASSOCIATIONS AND LEGENDARY LORE</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By HAMILTON WRIGHT MABIE</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Tarrytown-on-the-Hudson is
+interesting from many points of view. It
+is beautiful in itself, with a touch of that ripe,
+old-world beauty which is the rich deposit of a
+long association of man with nature; a beauty
+which reveals its depth in the fulness of foliage,
+the girth of ancient trees, the texture of
+the grass, and that atmosphere of ancient and
+familiar use which, although invisible and impalpable,
+lends a peculiar charm to settled
+towns and countries. For Tarrytown has a
+long history—as history is reckoned in this
+new world—and an ancient date. It wears
+the air of a locality which was in full life in
+Colonial times. The old houses are few, but
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>the modern village is embowered in a landscape
+which has known human companionship
+and care these two centuries and more. A
+road may show the latest skill in road-making,
+but if it was once a highway along which
+coaches ran in the brave days of the old inns
+and the ancient whips and hostlers, there is
+always the suggestion of long use about it.
+It has been for so many decades a part of the
+landscape that nature seems to have had a
+hand in its making. The grass grows down
+to it and the earth slopes away from it as if
+these things had always been as they are. No
+one can walk through Tarrytown along its
+chief thoroughfare, without recognizing on
+every hand the signs of the old highway on
+which coach horns were once heard, and
+later the bugles rang as redcoats flashed
+through the trees or marched along the
+ancient way.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus053" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus053.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF TARRYTOWN.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p>
+
+<p>The village rises from the water’s edge to
+the summit of the low hill which runs parallel
+with the eastern shore of the Hudson for
+many miles; it has one main thoroughfare,
+bisected by many cross streets of a later date;
+it is, for the most part, carefully kept, as befits
+its age, its intelligence, and its wealth; and,
+looked at from the river, it is almost buried in
+a wealth of foliage. It has at all times an
+air of repose, as if it had done long ago with
+the hard work of settlement and organization,
+and had earned exemption from the rush and
+turmoil which characterize new communities.
+In this country a town which has passed its
+bicentennial has a right to conduct life with a
+certain dignity and repose. It is doubtful if
+Tarrytown ever knew any great bustle or
+uproar; from the beginning it is probable that
+its inhabitants did not suffer themselves to be
+driven into undue energy of mood or habit.
+A placid temper, a disposition to keep on easy
+terms with life and neither give nor ask more
+than becomes a man of a quiet habit of mind,
+have left their impress on the community. It
+is a place in which history is preserved rather
+than made, although when it had occasion to
+make history, the work was done with picturesque
+effectiveness.</p>
+
+<p>When Hendrik Hudson broke the quiet
+waters of the Tappan Zee for the first time,
+in September, 1609, with the keel of the <i>Half-Moon</i>,
+he saw along the eastern shore of the
+noble river which was to bear his name an
+unbroken forest. The region was singularly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>beautiful, with a stillness which it has not
+wholly lost; for rivers carrying deep currents
+always convey an impression of stillness. Mr.
+Curtis has spoken of the lyrical beauty of the
+Rhine and the epical beauty of the Hudson;
+the first passing, with rapid movement, through
+a long series of striking and romantic localities,
+the second flowing sedately through a
+landscape of larger compass, of more massive
+composition, of a beauty sustained through a
+hundred and fifty miles of noble scenery. It
+is, of course, a matter of pure fancy; but there
+seems to have been some kinship between the
+men who settled the continent and the localities
+they chose for their homes. The hardy French
+adventurers were peculiarly at home along the
+St. Lawrence and the trails from the Great
+Lakes to the Mississippi; the stern soil of New
+England would not have given its rare smile to
+men of a temper less strenuous than that of
+the Puritan and Pilgrim; the waterways of the
+James, the Potomac, and the Chesapeake lent
+themselves readily to the habits and occupations
+of English gentlemen in the new world;
+Florida and Louisiana seemed to find their
+elect explorers and settlers in the Spanish
+adventurers and gold-seekers; while the quiet
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>of the Hudson was hardly broken when the
+Dutch settlers began to till the land north of
+Manhattan Island and to build their substantial
+homes. They could be voluble and noisy
+when occasion required, but they were of a
+phlegmatic temper and leisurely by habit.</p>
+
+<p>The reports sent abroad by Hudson’s men
+when they found themselves once more in
+Holland in the late autumn of 1609, were repeated
+and passed from town to town among
+merchants who were as eager for trade as they
+were stolid in manner. Small ships were soon
+plying westward, bent upon trade with the
+well disposed Indians whom Hudson found
+scattered from Manhattan Island to the place
+where Albany now stands. The possibilities
+of profit in the fur trade were quickly discovered
+by these shrewd merchants; the
+nucleus of a settlement was made on the
+island, and rude huts hastily put together were
+the beginnings of one of the greatest of
+modern cities. The traders bought furs, tobacco,
+and corn in exchange for trinkets and
+rum; they hunted, fished, and lived after the
+manner of their time and kind, but for the
+most part on good terms with their Indian
+neighbors; at long intervals tiny ships from the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>old world crept into the harbor, and went
+back again laden with the skins of the beaver,
+the otter, and the sable. In 1621 the West
+India Company received a charter from the
+States-General of Holland, with the monopoly
+of the American trade, and a grant of the
+vast territory discovered by Hudson, which
+was called the New Netherlands. The great
+trading company, one of a small group of
+commercial organizations of almost sovereign
+powers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+drew its profits not only from barter with
+Indians, but from the sacking of cities on the
+Spanish Main and the capture of Spanish
+treasure-ships.</p>
+
+<p>In 1624 families arrived on the island and
+community life began in New Amsterdam; two
+years later the first governor of the Colony
+arrived with a company who brought their
+wives, children, cattle, and household goods of
+all kinds with them and, by giving these hostages
+to fortune, committed themselves irrevocably
+to the new world and its destinies.
+Manhattan Island was bought from the Indians
+for twenty-four dollars, and the name of
+New Amsterdam reminded the settlers of their
+blood and their history. It was not, however,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>until Peter Stuyvesant took up the reins of
+government with a firm hand and in a somewhat
+choleric temper that the little community
+ceased to be a trading-post and became a
+Dutch colonial town. The first comers were
+largely penniless; the later comers were men
+of position and substance. Many races were
+soon represented in the new town, but the
+Dutch remained for many years the ruling class.
+In 1664 the Colony passed into English hands
+and New Amsterdam became New York.</p>
+
+<p>The territory north of the island early attracted
+attention, and energetic and far-seeing
+men set about acquiring title and adding acre
+to acre until great estates were created. In
+Westchester County, which then bounded the
+city of New York on the north, six manors,
+including the greater part of its territory, were
+granted; that of Fordham leading the way in
+1671. The largest of these manors were Phillipsburgh
+and Cortlandt, and Tarrytown became
+the residence of a great landowner who
+secured manorial rights in 1693. This territorial
+magnate, a true lord of the manor so far
+as greatness of estate was concerned, was a
+man of humble birth, and a carpenter by trade.
+He came to New Amsterdam in 1647, and being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>a man of sagacity and foresight, soon found
+his chance in the opportunities of the new
+world, became a fur trader, married a rich
+widow, and in course of time became probably
+the richest man in the Colony. Vredryk Flypse,
+or Frederick Philips,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> knew how to take occasion
+by the hand when English rule was established
+in New York. He foresaw the increased
+value of the lands along the Hudson, and in
+1680, by the first of a series of grants, pieced
+out by various purchases, he became the
+owner of a noble domain, stretching from
+Spuyten Duyvil to the old Kill of Kitchawong,
+or Croton, and from the Hudson to the Bronx.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch settlers in the new world were less
+adventurous than their fellows of English and
+French blood, but they had early established
+trading-posts as far north on the Hudson as the
+present site of Albany, and they had crept
+quietly up the eastern shore of the river, and
+small farms were beginning to break the long
+line of forest. The beginnings of Tarrytown
+probably date back as far as 1645, but of its
+earliest history no authentic records remain.
+In 1683, when Frederick Philips began the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>building of a manor-house on the quiet Pocantico,
+he found a small community of farmers,
+living in a quiet, frugal way, and carrying
+on the business of life with thrift and industry
+but in a spirit of great tranquillity. The broad
+waters of Tappan Zee could hardly have
+caught the reflection of the primitive farm-houses
+hidden among the trees. These houses
+were unpretentious in dimension and appearance,
+but they had a substantial air. There
+was nothing provisional in the aspect of the
+scattered settlement; it struck tenacious roots
+into the soil from the very start.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“In the bosom of one of those spacious coves which
+indent the eastern shore of the Hudson,” writes Irving,
+in his vein of quiet humor, “at that broad expansion
+of the river denominated by the ancient Dutch
+navigators Tappan Zee, and where they always prudently
+shortened sail, and implored the protection of St. Nicholas
+when they crossed, there lies a small market-town
+or rural port, which by some is called Greensburgh, but
+which is more generally and properly known as Tarry
+Town. This name was given, we are told, in former
+days, by the good housewives of the adjacent country,
+from the inveterate propensity of their husbands to linger
+about the village tavern on market days.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>This derivation of the name of the delightful
+town which Irving loved so well, has probably
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>as much authority behind it as many derivations
+which have come to be unquestioned;
+but if Irving’s genial humor leaves some
+sceptics dissatisfied, they may take refuge in
+an alternative derivation, which traces the
+modern name to the more credible legend that
+one Terry was the earliest settler, whose name
+became fastened upon the little hamlet first as
+Terry’s town, which afterwards was naturally
+metamorphosed into Tarrytown. Be this as
+it may, a spirit of peace seems to have reigned
+in the region from the beginning, and the
+sturdy Dutch farmers kept the peace with
+their Indian neighbors. There are no traditions
+of midnight alarms in the early story
+of the community. Indian canoes were seen
+for many a year on Tappan Zee, and it is said
+that Indian hands assisted in raising the walls
+of the quaint and venerable church which still
+keeps watch over its earliest worshippers in
+the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. These pioneer
+settlers had few wants, and supplied them with
+home-made articles or hand-woven fabrics.
+Manhattan Island was too distant in time to
+be accessible for daily supplies; shops were
+still to come; and the peddler, with whose
+figure and habits Cooper was subsequently to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>make the whole world acquainted, distributed
+finery and small wares through the section.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="illus054" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus054.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE POCANTICO RIVER.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p>
+
+<p>Under the royal grant and license which authorized
+Frederick Philips to acquire certain
+tracts of land in Westchester County, says an
+old chronicler, the grantee agreed “to let any
+one settle on said land free, for certain stipulated
+years, in order that it should as soon as
+possible be cultivated and settled.” These
+terms seem to have been accepted by the few
+settlers already on the ground, and by others
+who were attracted by the impulse which the
+lord of the manor (for such Philips was in influence
+and authority) gave to local industry.
+The great estate was not secured in a day; it
+was consolidated by a series of purchases covering
+a period of years, and among these purchases
+was the site of the present village of
+Tarrytown, which was paid for in rum, cloth,
+tobacco, and hardware. The great proprietor
+laid the foundations of permanent community
+life by building, within a comparatively short
+time, a mill, a manor-house, and a church.
+The Pocantico flows into the Hudson just beyond
+the northern boundary of the Tarrytown
+of to-day; and on the shores of the quiet bay
+which puts in at that point, protected by a
+long and heavily wooded promontory which
+extends well into the river, Philips chose a
+sheltered and beautiful site for his home. His
+own ships brought building materials from
+Holland and unloaded them on the wharf
+built on the premises. The architecture of
+the manor-house was of the Dutch order so
+familiar along the Hudson; the heavy walls
+were of stone; the roof was spread on great
+hand-hewn rafters; the doors were divided
+into upper and lower sections, and swung on
+ponderous hinges; from the end of the wide
+hall, stairs ascended by easy rises to the
+upper floor. Through openings in the foundation
+walls on the southwest side small howitzers
+commanded the approach by land or
+water. A mill was quite as essential as a
+house, and the substantial structure which
+still resists the assaults of time in placid old
+age, bears witness to the thoroughness with
+which Philips did whatever fell to his hand.
+Beside its ancient pond the venerable mill
+still witnesses to a past which cannot be
+wholly lost while the little group of buildings
+remains.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus055" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus055.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD MANOR-HOUSE (“FLYPSE’S CASTLE”) AND MILL, TARRYTOWN.</p>
+      <p>FROM A DRAWING BY EDGAR MAHEW BACON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus056" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus056.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW.</p>
+      <p>FROM A DRAWING BY W. J. WILSON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To complete this interesting group, which
+Tarrytown ought to preserve with pious care,
+and at no great distance from the manor-house,
+stands the old Dutch church, one of
+the most quaint and best preserved monuments
+of early history on the continent. He
+would be a bold man who would venture to
+state definitely the date at which the building
+of this ancient edifice was begun; on that
+point a wide latitude must be permitted and
+discreet silence preserved. It answers all
+purposes of intelligent curiosity to be told
+that the foundations were probably laid as
+early as 1684, and that the building was completed,
+probably, not later than 1697. The bell
+which still hangs in the little steeple and which
+may be heard on quiet Sunday afternoons in
+the late summer or early autumn, when services
+are held in the ancient structure, was
+cast in 1685, and bears the inscription, “Si
+Deus pro nobis quis contra nos.” The church
+was built with characteristic solidity, the walls
+being more than two feet thick; a great pulpit
+with a sounding-board projected from the
+eastern end; the benches on which the congregation
+sat were without backs; and the
+doctrine expounded from the sacred desk was
+of a kindred soundness of fibre. Some concession
+to human weakness was shown to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>lord of the manor, in the comfortable and imposing
+arrangement of the large pews on the
+right and left of the minister. The farmers
+filled the body of the little church, while slaves,
+redemptioners, and other obscure persons, with
+the choir, sat in the tiny gallery. In 1697, the
+Rev. Guiliam Bertholf began a kind of visitorial
+ministry in the new church, coming three
+or four times a year to preach and administer
+the sacraments. He was a native of Sluis, in
+Holland, emigrated to the new world in 1684,
+and became a preacher nine years later. His
+ability and zeal gave him wide influence, and
+he was instrumental in organizing a number of
+churches of the Reformed faith and order.
+From this initial ministry until the present
+time, although the congregation has moved to
+a larger and modern edifice, the succession of
+faithful preachers has never been broken, and
+the historic pulpit of Tarrytown has never
+been more thoroughly identified with generous
+devotion, high character, and unusual gifts of
+nature and speech than during the last twenty-five
+years. During the stormy years of the
+Revolution the church was frequently closed;
+and at the close of the struggle the trappings
+which had distinguished the pews of the lord
+of the manor were torn down, and elders and
+deacons sitting in the seats once set apart for
+the local aristocracy emphasized the triumph
+of the democratic idea in Church and State.
+Not long afterwards another innovation was
+made by the substitution of English for Dutch
+in the services.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus057" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus057.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>INTERIOR OF OLD DUTCH CHURCH, SLEEPY HOLLOW,
+    PRIOR TO ITS RESTORATION IN 1897.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
+
+<p>In October, 1897, the two hundredth anniversary
+of the church was celebrated with
+services which recalled, with unusual completeness,
+the varied and instructive history
+of the old building and of the community.</p>
+
+<p>The modern village lies to the south of
+the church, which is hidden beneath ancient
+trees, and is still enveloped in an atmosphere
+of old-time silence and repose. The Pocantico
+flows beside it, almost unseen when the midsummer
+foliage is spread over it; while to the
+north, climbing a gentle slope and sinking
+softly down to the brook, is the ancient
+burying-ground, in which the first interments
+were made about 1645. The place is singularly
+peaceful and of a rare and gentle beauty; the
+gradual slope dotted with ancient graves, protected
+on the east by wooded heights, overhung
+with old trees, and commanding on the west
+glimpses of the broad expanse of the Tappan
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>Zee, and, from its higher levels, the tree-embowered
+village, the long line of shining water,
+and the distant front of the Palisades. There
+is probably no other locality in America, taking
+into account history, tradition, the old
+church, the manor-house, and the mill, which
+so entirely conserves the form and spirit of
+Dutch civilization in the new world. This
+group of buildings ranks in historic interest, if
+not in historic importance, with Faneuil Hall,
+Independence Hall, the ruined church tower
+at Jamestown, the old gateway at St. Augustine,
+and the Spanish cabildo on Jackson Square
+in New Orleans; and the time will come when
+pilgrimages will be made to this ancient and
+beautiful home of some of those ideals and
+habits of life which have given form and structure
+to American civilization.</p>
+
+<p>It was the misfortune of Tarrytown to lie in
+the path of both armies for many dreary
+months during the Revolution; and no section
+of the country felt the uncertainty and
+terrors of war more keenly. When Cooper
+looked about for an American subject for his
+second novel, his interest in the history of
+Westchester County, in the lower part of
+which he was for a number of years a resident,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>led him to a fortunate choice, and <i>The Spy</i> remains
+not only one of the best of American
+novels of incident, but a vivid report of the
+suspense and misery of the country between
+the Highlands of the Hudson, held by the
+American forces, and the city of New York in
+the hands of the British. That section was
+mercilessly harried by friend and foe. The
+few families which made the little hamlet of
+Tarrytown, never knew whether the Skinners
+or the Cowboys would appear next; the only
+certainty in the situation seems to have been
+that, sooner or later, whatever was portable
+and valuable would be carried off. There
+was much quiet courage in the form of patient
+endurance in those years when church and
+school were closed, crops gathered by hands
+that had not sown, houses burned in the dead
+of night, and all normal community life at an
+end. Caught in the centre of the storm of
+war, Tarrytown not only suffered severely but
+bore her losses with conspicuous fortitude and
+courage. In many sudden forays, as well as
+in the larger movements of the American
+forces, the men of Tarrytown played their parts
+with notable pluck and daring.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="illus058" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus058.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MONUMENT TO THE CAPTORS OF ANDRÉ.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY F. AHRENS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p>
+
+<p>The devotion of a majority of the people of
+the place to the American cause had its reward
+in the lasting association of the town
+with the most romantic and tragic episode of
+the war; and the incorruptible patriotism of
+three Westchester County men not only
+averted what might have been a crushing
+calamity, but immortalized the scene of their
+resistance to temptation. On the 24th day of
+September, 1780, Major André, bearing dispatches
+of a treasonable nature from General
+Benedict Arnold, then in command of the
+American forces at West Point, was captured
+on the highway at a place now marked by a
+monument, by John Paulding, David Williams,
+and Isaac Van Wart. These obscure militiamen,
+soon to become famous, were watching
+the road, when a horseman appeared riding
+toward the south. He was promptly challenged,
+ordered to dismount, and examined as
+to his business and destination. His answers
+to the questions put to him by his captors
+confirmed their suspicion that something of
+unusual importance was in the air. The determination
+to search the unfortunate young
+officer more thoroughly was met with offers
+of a large sum of money; but the militiamen
+were not to be bribed, and to their fidelity is
+due the discovery of the plot to place West
+Point in British hands. The moral effect of
+Arnold’s fall was counteracted in large measure
+by the incorruptibility of André’s captors,
+and the monument
+which
+marks this historic
+site commemorates
+the
+integrity of the
+American militiamen
+quite as
+much as the dramatic
+episode
+which ended the
+careers of Arnold
+and André.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus059" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus059.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON IRVING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus060" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus060.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“SUNNYSIDE.”</p>
+      <p>THE HOME OF WASHINGTON IRVING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span></p>
+
+<p>Tarrytown
+has had the
+double good fortune
+to be the scene of the most striking act of
+the drama of Arnold’s treason, and to be the custodian
+of one of the few American legends. In
+his youth, Washington Irving knew the region
+intimately. He was given to solitary walks,
+for he was a dreamer by nature and habit.
+Wolfert’s Roost was even then an old farm-house,
+built close to the water’s edge, where
+the glen broadens to the river. It had colonial
+and revolutionary associations, and, above all, it
+had the charm of a situation of singular beauty.
+Irving seems early to have fallen under the spell
+of the shaded waterside and the romantic glen.
+In 1835, after an absence of seventeen years
+in Europe and an extensive journey through
+the South and West, which bore fruit in <i>A
+Tour on the Prairies</i>, the recollections and
+affections of his youth drew him to Sunnyside,
+now about a mile and a half south of the railway
+station of Tarrytown, and he became the
+possessor of a home which will always be associated
+with our early literary history. The
+house was enlarged, and began to take on that
+air of ripe and reposeful beauty which made it
+an ideal home for a man of letters. Under
+this roof his later books were written, and here
+he was sought by the most interesting men of
+his time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus061" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus061.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE JACOB MOTT HOUSE WHERE KATRINA VAN TASSEL WAS MARRIED.</p>
+      <p>NOW OCCUPIED BY THE NEW WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL.
+    FROM A DRAWING BY EDGAR MAHEW BACON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span></p>
+
+<p>Irving’s familiarity with the Hudson River
+and its historical associations had already
+borne fruit in the <i>Sketch-Book</i> in two original
+and characteristic legends. Like his illustrious
+contemporary, Sir Walter Scott, Irving was a
+born lover of traditions of all sorts; a man with
+a genius for getting the poetry and romance
+out of the past. In <i>The History of New York</i>,
+impersonated in Diedrich Knickerbocker, he
+created a legend; in <i>Rip Van Winkle</i> and <i>The
+Legend of Sleepy Hollow</i> he gave lasting fame
+to two stories full of the Dutch spirit. Sleepy
+Hollow lies to the north and east of Tarrytown,
+within easy walking distance. It is
+still secluded and quiet and the stir of modern
+times has not broken in upon its ancient
+seclusion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus062" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus062.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD SLEEPY HOLLOW MILL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“A small brook glides through it, with just murmur
+enough to lull one to repose; and the occasional whistle
+of a quail, or tapping of a woodpecker, is almost the only
+sound that ever breaks in upon the uniform tranquillity....
+A drowsy, dreamy influence seems to hang over
+the land, and to pervade the very atmosphere. Some say
+that the place was bewitched by a high German doctor,
+during the early days of the settlement; others, that an
+old Indian chief, the prophet or wizard of his tribe, held
+his pow-wows there before the country was discovered by
+Master Hendrick Hudson. Certain it is, the place
+still continues under the sway of some witching power,
+that holds a spell over the minds of the good people,
+causing them to walk in a continual dream.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Since the days when these words were written
+the air of Sleepy Hollow has not escaped the
+general stirring of a more hurried age; but on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>summer afternoons the meditative visitor still
+finds the valley a place of silence and peace.
+The master of the spell which has brought so
+many pilgrims to Tarrytown sleeps in the
+ancient graveyard; the home which he loved
+with a love deepened by years of exile, still
+stands, somewhat enlarged, but not despoiled
+of its secluded and ivy-clad loveliness.</p>
+
+<p>Great estates have been formed about Tarrytown
+and stately homes line the shores of
+the river, but the place has kept something of
+its old simplicity and repose. It has never
+lacked the presence of those to whom its traditions
+of refined social habit and generous
+intellectual life have been sacred; and its distinction
+is still to be found in an atmosphere
+which is in no sense dependent on its later
+and larger prosperity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header6.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="NEW_YORK_CITY">NEW YORK CITY</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE COSMOPOLITAN CITY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By JOSEPH B. GILDER</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>By comparison with London, New York is
+a city of the second size, lacking some
+millions of the population of the modern
+Babylon. Even Paris, though less populous,
+outranks the American metropolis in
+many of the elements that go to the making
+of a great city. But in drawing these comparisons
+it must be remembered that only
+three centuries ago, when the French and English
+capitals had been places of importance
+for over a thousand years, New York was a
+wooded island, criss-crossed by innumerable
+streams, indented by morasses and infested
+by Indians and wild beasts. European civilization
+was wrinkled with age long before a
+permanent roof was erected on the island of
+Manhattan; and three lives such as that of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>ex-Mayor Tiemann, who died here in his
+ninety-fifth year, in the summer of 1899,
+would have spanned the entire history of the
+town from the Dutch discovery to the reign
+of Richard Croker.</p>
+
+<p>The first white man’s habitation in what is
+now New York was a grave; for the crew of
+Hudson’s <i>Half-Moon</i>, after their fight with
+the aborigines on
+the mainland above
+Spuyten Duyvil
+Creek, in September,
+1609, buried
+their dead before sailing
+homeward from
+their voyage of discovery
+up the great
+river named for their
+commander.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus063" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus063.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FIRST SEAL OF CITY. 1623-1654.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Four temporary dwellings, presumably little
+better than wigwams, housed Skipper Block
+and the crew of the <i>Tiger</i> near the lower end
+of the island, while they rebuilt their burned
+vessel, during the winter of 1613-14. The
+site of the present city was bought from the
+Indians on May 6, 1626, for trinkets worth
+sixty guilders, or four-and-twenty dollars—less
+than one tenth of the rate paid a few
+years since for a single square foot of land.
+Building was begun at once and pushed with
+vigor. Fort Amsterdam—a blockhouse partly
+shielded by palisades—marked the extreme
+southern limit of the island; and the first
+bark-roofed cottages were clustered close together
+under its harmless, necessary guns.
+A warehouse with stone walls and a thatched
+roof sprang up as soon as a stronghold had
+been built; and a horse-mill, with a loft fitted
+up for the simplest form of religious services.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus064" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus064.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MAP OF ORIGINAL GRANTS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p>
+
+<p>Fort Amsterdam was a fortress in name
+only. Scarcely had it been completed when
+it began to fall into disrepair; and the pigs
+were forever rooting in its sodded earthworks,
+and threatening its very foundations. Thus
+early was it that these four-footed scavengers
+made their appearance in the history of New
+York, playing as picturesque, though not as
+patriotic, a part therein as that of the legendary
+Roman geese. Not till well forward in
+the present century did they disappear from
+the streets and the annals of the city.</p>
+
+<p>Peter Minuit, the first Director of New
+Netherlands to hold his place for more than a
+year, and the first to organize a permanent
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>provincial government, sent home hopeful reports,
+and backed them with shipments of fur
+and timber; but the expenses of administering
+the colony ultimately exceeded its earnings,
+and the West India Company was disappointed
+of the revenue it had counted upon
+receiving from the new settlement.</p>
+
+<p>The little village grew but slowly. When
+it had spread so far northward as the line of
+what is now Wall Street—which is so far down-town
+to-day that many a New York woman,
+native-born, has yet to see it for the first time—a
+stockade was set up across the island,
+narrower then than now, to fence off the
+village from the farms (bouweries) of the more
+adventurous pioneers, and the forest that
+bordered them. This defense, completed in
+1653, consisted of palisades and posts, twelve
+feet high, with a sloping breastwork of earth
+and a ditch on its southern side. In less than
+two years its height was doubled to keep the
+Indians from leaping over it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus065" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus065.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE FORT IN KIEFT’S DAY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span></p>
+
+<p>But neither the Fort with its stone guns,
+nor this high wooden wall, was ever called
+upon to withstand a vigorous attack or resist a
+siege; for whenever the place was seriously
+threatened, its flag came fluttering down, and
+its keys were turned over to the enemy. This
+happened first in August, 1664, when Col.
+Richard Nicolls appeared in the bay, as deputy
+of the Duke of York, to whom Charles
+II. had granted all the territory between the
+Connecticut River and Delaware Bay, and
+demanded the Fort’s surrender. The claim of
+the English was nebulous to the last degree.
+As Freneau neatly put it,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“The soil they demanded, or threatened their worst,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Insisting that <i>Cabot had looked at it first</i>.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">But the flimsiest pretension, if vigorously
+backed, outvalues the strongest if less sturdily
+maintained; and Director Stuyvesant found
+his people unwilling to support him in defying
+the intruder. So down dropped the Dutch
+colors and up ran the British.</p>
+
+<p>Precisely nine years later, however, what
+had formerly been called New Amsterdam, but
+was now New York, yielded itself to a little
+Dutch fleet without striking a defensive blow.
+Captain Colve’s victory was so lightly won,
+indeed, that the English commander, Captain
+Manning, was courtmartialled for his apparent
+inefficiency, cowardice or treason, and the estates
+of the Governor, Colonel Lovelace, who,
+when the blow fell, was absent on affairs of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>state, were confiscated by the Duke. The
+triumph of the Hollanders was short-lived; for
+the year 1674 had not run its course when
+Major Edmund Andros assumed the governorship,
+and by the terms of a treaty of peace between
+England
+and the States-General,
+New
+Orange, as the
+place had been
+christened by
+the Dutch, again
+and finally became
+New York.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus066" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus066.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PETER STUYVESANT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>New York has
+been in turn a
+Dutch village,
+an English
+town, and an
+American city.
+In its infancy
+it was wholly Dutch; but in its early youth
+the population was so leavened by English
+immigration that the transition to English
+control was less violent than one might
+expect it to have been. English influence
+was powerful even in Stuyvesant’s day; and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>when Stuyvesant was supplanted by Nicolls,
+the Dutch element was still powerful in the
+councils of the little town. The new ruler
+moved slowly and cautiously in anglicizing the
+government, and almost all the changes he
+made were for the better. The brief resumption
+of Dutch authority
+in 1673 was reactionary
+and wholly
+detrimental to the interests
+of the community;
+and, all things
+considered, the peaceful
+cession of the
+town to England, a
+year later, was the happiest
+chance that could
+possibly have befallen.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp61" id="illus067" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus067.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY IN 1686.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A more violent and radical change was
+effected in 1689, when Jacob Leisler seized the
+occasion of the fall of the Stuart dynasty to
+grasp the reins of government which Andros
+had been forced to drop. By the aid of the
+militia and with the support of nearly all the less
+prosperous townsfolk, he administered public
+affairs till that good Dutchman William III.
+of England commissioned Governor Sloughter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>to hang the usurper and reign in his stead.
+Leisler’s rule had been in many respects an
+enlightened one, and years afterward his
+adherents succeeded in having his dishonored
+bones dug up and honorably reinterred. It
+was in this town, and at the instance of this
+earnest but ill-balanced and despotic champion
+of the poor, that the American Colonies took
+their first step toward concerted action, their
+objective being the overthrow of the French
+at Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking characteristic of New
+York has always been its cosmopolitanism.
+As Governor Roosevelt points out in his
+capital review of the city’s history, no less than
+eighteen different languages and dialects were
+spoken in the streets so long ago as the
+middle of the seventeenth century. The
+Dutch, the English and the Huguenot refugees
+from France predominated, but there
+were many Walloons and Germans, and a
+large body of black slaves. The riffraff of
+the Old World was to be found here, as well
+as the nobly adventurous; and, in fact, at all
+times since, the proportion of foreign-born
+residents has been very large.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus068" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus068.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOHN JAY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the period immediately preceding the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>Revolution, the desire for independence was
+far less general in New York than in Massachusetts
+or Virginia. The large land owners
+and leading merchants were mainly members
+of the Church of England; and while there
+was no state
+church, so called
+and admitted to
+be such, the Anglicans
+were first
+in wealth and
+fashion, and
+their organization
+enjoyed exclusive
+privileges.
+Even
+King’s College
+(now Columbia
+University) was
+placed officially
+under Church control. The court party included
+not only the Anglican clergy and almost
+all the laity, but even an influential section of the
+membership of the Dutch Reformed Church.
+It included such families as the De Peysters,
+the De Lanceys and the Philippses in the
+city and its suburbs; and the Johnsons, who
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>dominated central New York. There were
+Tories even on the Committee of Fifty-one
+that first authoritatively proposed the assembling
+of a Continental Congress. In no other
+colony was the Tory element so numerous
+and powerful; in
+none other were
+the patriots opposed
+by so active
+a spirit of
+loyalty to the
+Crown, and so
+vast a bulk of
+indifference on
+the part of property-owners,
+solicitous
+for nothing
+but the
+security of their
+possessions. At
+first the Schuylers,
+the Livingstons,
+and Hamilton,
+Jay and Morris found their support
+almost wholly among the masses, who rose
+not only against England, but also against the
+domination of the classes, which was more
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>oppressive in the aristocratic city of New
+York than in the democratic town of Boston,
+or in Philadelphia. Thus, it was the so-called
+Sons of Liberty that had led in the agitation
+which made the Stamp Act a dead letter, so far
+as this colony was concerned, and a decade
+later prevented the landing of taxed tea on
+New York wharves. And their demonstrative
+radicalism found little response in the
+minds of some of the ablest civil and military
+leaders contributed by this colony to
+the work of liberation and reconstruction.
+But the violence of the mob could not blind
+such men to the essential justice of the
+American cause, and the actual beginning of
+the war found a large majority of the best
+people of the colony definitely committed to
+a patriotic course. So when Washington and
+his army were driven hither from Brooklyn
+and hence to New Jersey, in 1776, New York
+was no longer the populous place it had been
+before their sympathizers fled from the terrors
+of hostile military rule.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus069" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus069.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ALEXANDER HAMILTON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For the next seven years this remained the
+chief British stronghold in America. If the
+eastern and southern colonies could be split
+apart by English control of the Hudson, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>backbone of the colonial federation would be
+broken—as the backbone of the Confederacy
+was broken, nearly a century later, by Sherman’s
+march to the sea. So every energy was
+bent toward dislodging the Continentals from
+this dividing-line. This was the immediate
+object of Arnold’s treachery, as well as of
+many an overt movement from south and
+north. But Washington outgeneralled the
+enemy and kept the federation intact, till the
+capture of Yorktown made New York no
+longer tenable by the foe. The city was well-nigh
+ruined by its experiences during these
+seven terrible years; and the outlying country
+to the north—Westchester County—suffered
+no less severely, being exposed to raids from
+the opposing bodies of regulars, and to constant
+marauding at the hands of free-booters,
+who pretended affiliation with one side or the
+other, sometimes in good faith, but often
+merely as a pretext for lawless depredations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus070" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus070.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FRAUNCES’S TAVERN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span></p>
+
+<p>The most joyously celebrated event in the
+annals of Manhattan was the city’s evacuation
+by the British at the close of the war. On
+the day that this occurred, November 25,
+1783, General Washington arrived in town
+and dined at Fraunces’s Tavern; and hither
+he repaired again, ten days later, on the eve
+of his departure for Annapolis, to bid farewell
+to his officers. In this same building,
+and in the same Long Room, the first meeting
+of the New York Chamber of Commerce
+had been held, in 1768, fifteen years before
+any similar association was organized in Great
+Britain. This hostelry had, indeed, been the
+fashionable rendezvous of New Yorkers since
+1762, when the shop at the southeast corner
+of Broad and Pearl Streets was converted to
+still more public uses by Samuel Fraunces
+(“Black Tom”), who in later years was to become
+the first President’s steward. At the
+beginning it was known as the Queen’s Head
+Tavern, its sign bearing a portrait of Queen
+Charlotte. Enlarged, and otherwise altered,
+but not improved, Fraunces’s Tavern is still,
+as it has always been, a public-house, though
+fashion has long since deserted it. It would
+be most deplorable if the march of improvement
+(in whose name, as in Liberty’s, so many
+offences are committed) should ever be allowed
+to obliterate this most aged and interesting
+relic of old New York.</p>
+
+<p>The war of 1812 was by no means popular
+with the representative merchants of New
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>York, despite the fact that the enforcement of
+England’s pretended right of search had acted
+almost as a blockade of the port for some years
+before the outbreak of hostilities. It had been
+a common occurrence for merchantmen in the
+lower bay to be stopped by a shot across their
+bows, and searched for possible British subjects
+among their crews. But when war came
+the fighting spirit was aroused, and many a
+privateer was fitted out to prey upon the enemy’s
+merchant marine. Rich prizes were
+taken, and desperate engagements were fought
+between the crews of brigs and schooners from
+New York and British men-of-war’s men who
+interfered with their privateering practices.
+A few years earlier (1807), Fulton had demonstrated
+on the Hudson the practicability of
+steam navigation; and now he built in New
+York, under Congressional direction, a steam
+frigate, iron-clad and heavily armed. This
+formidable craft might have been depended
+upon to raise the British blockade, had it not
+been raised still more effectually by a declaration
+of peace. The city did not suffer in this
+second war with England as it had suffered in
+the first. Instead of waiting for years, as
+before, to recuperate, it entered at once upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>a period of unprecedented growth. The return
+of peace stimulated immigration, and
+local prosperity was vastly augmented by the
+opening in 1825 of the Erie Canal.</p>
+
+<p>Until 1822, the mayor was appointed by a
+State council, presided over by the Governor;
+thereafter, until 1834, he was chosen by the
+municipal council; since then he has been
+elected by the people. But democratic rule
+was not always found to work satisfactorily,
+and in 1857 the control of local affairs was
+largely delegated to the legislature. This precaution
+proved of comparatively little value,
+however, and the Tweed ring of local office-holders
+found little difficulty in running things
+as they wished and robbing the tax-payers of
+millions upon millions. The charter of the
+city recently created by the amalgamation of
+New York, Brooklyn, etc., professed to restore
+home rule, in large measure; but so much of
+the supposed boon as it confers may be withdrawn
+at any time by State legislation, and
+bills withdrawing it piecemeal are, in fact,
+introduced at every session of the legislature.</p>
+
+<p>When secession threatened, in 1861, the
+Democratic city of New York was the least
+friendly of Northern communities in its attitude
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>toward the federal government. The common
+council, indeed, rapturously applauded the
+mayor’s formal suggestion that the city itself
+secede. But the first overt act of hostility at
+the South showed that, beneath this surface
+sympathy with the secessionists, the great
+mass of earnest citizens were ardent in adherence
+to the Union. Life and treasure
+were poured out more than abundantly. The
+Seventh Regiment—the “crack” militia organization
+of the city, if not of the nation—hurried
+off to Washington to guard the capital
+from surprise; and tens of thousands of volunteers
+followed to the front. No one city contributed
+more to the national cause. In fact
+the city’s contributions were too liberal for her
+own good; for the consequent dearth of able-bodied
+honest men at home left the community
+a prey to the enemies of society, and regiment
+after regiment had to be called back to restore
+order. The worst outbreaks were the so-called
+draft riots, caused by the enforced enlistment
+of troops; in these uprisings, negroes
+were the special object of the mob’s hostility.</p>
+
+<p>The first few huts in New Amsterdam were
+huddled together beneath the sheltering walls
+of the Fort. There was but one general direction
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>in which the hamlet could extend; yet it
+was long before the northward movement filled
+with shops and houses the space between the
+Fort and the line of Wall Street, and for several
+years thereafter the great Wall marked the
+boundary of the village. The Revolution found
+the border pushed forward to the edge of the
+Common, where the post-office stands to-day.
+The chief outlet from this point lay eastward,
+through what is now Park Row to the Bowery,
+and thence through the outlying farms to
+Westchester County, Connecticut and Boston.</p>
+
+<p>On the west side there was another outlet,
+skirting the Hudson River and extending to
+the little village of Greenwich; and the occasional
+outbreak of yellow fever in New York
+made this a popular resort. The influx of
+twenty thousand refugees during one of these
+scares, early in the present century, completely
+changed the character of this village, and although
+most of the newcomers returned to the
+lower end of the island, Greenwich had practically
+become, by 1830, an integral part of the
+city. The northward spread via Greenwich
+Street, the Bowery and Broadway continued,
+till Yorkville and Harlem on the east and Manhattanville
+and Bloomingdale on the west were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>absorbed by the growing city. In 1874 the
+Harlem was crossed, and New York ceased to
+be an island; in 1895 still further accessions
+were made in Westchester County. But the
+crowning event in the expansion of the city
+was the legislation by which, on January 1,
+1898, Brooklyn and the outlying towns and
+villages on Long Island, and all of Staten
+Island, were brought within the limits of New
+York—an act that raised the population at a
+stroke from less than 1,900,000 to near 3,400,000,
+and incidentally brought almost half the
+people of the State under the immediate rule
+of Tammany Hall.</p>
+
+<p>A word should be said as to the Society,
+named in honor of Tamanend, an Indian chief
+who signed one of the treaties by which William
+Penn acquired the site of the city of Philadelphia.
+One of many societies of the same
+name, organized for social and political purposes
+toward the close of the eighteenth century,
+it reflected, to a certain extent, a spirit
+which had prevailed among the younger officers
+of the Revolution who had felt the force
+of Rousseau’s idealization of primitive man.
+Its first meeting was held on “St. Tammany’s
+day” (May 12), 1789. In membership it was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>allied with the Sons of Liberty and the Sons
+of 1776, and it has always professed “intense
+Americanism,” so far as that phrase is synonymous
+with Anglophobia. At first its ranks
+were recruited from among the small merchants,
+retailers and mechanics of the city;
+and by coming into close touch with the mass
+of immigrants that form so large a proportion
+of the population, giving the newcomers employment
+in some cases, in others charitable
+aid, instructing the alien voter as to his political
+rights and privileges, and directing him in
+their exercise, it has built up an enormous voting
+machine, insufficient to defeat a united
+opposition, but almost invariably so fortunate in
+local contests as to find its opponents divided.
+While nominally Democratic in national
+affairs, Tammany has never scrupled to oppose
+the Democratic party in the pursuit of
+its own immediate end—the control of local
+offices and revenues. This powerful machine
+has now for several years been dominated by
+an illiterate immigrant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus071" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus071.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE STADT HUYS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p>
+
+<p>Comparatively recent as were the beginnings
+of the city, hardly a trace of the original village
+remains. Not a single building has come
+down to us from the Dutch period. It was to
+have been expected that something would
+survive the flight of less than three centuries.
+A happy chance might easily have preserved
+the stone “temple” erected within the walls of
+the Fort in 1652, or the slightly older warehouse,
+or some one of the many curious little
+stone or brick houses in which the burly
+burghers of the seventeenth century smoked
+their long pipes by the chimney-side, while
+their wives plied the spinning-wheel, their
+daughters spread the board, and their children,
+in padded breeches, played about the sanded
+floor.</p>
+
+<p>The Stadt Huys, originally built as an inn,
+to relieve Director Kieft of the burden of
+overmuch entertaining, dated back to the
+same year as the Dutch Reformed Church in
+the fortified enclosure. The organization of
+the old church is still maintained, and the
+functions of the city government have been
+performed in successive buildings to the present
+day; but the picturesque old government
+house—fifty feet square, three stories high in
+the walls and two in the attic, with windows in
+the gable of its crow-stepped roof,—that should
+have been cherished as a most interesting
+relic of the city’s earliest period, lasted but a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>little way into the present century, having
+then been used for over a hundred years for
+commercial purposes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus072" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus072.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>STAINED-GLASS WINDOW IN “BOWLING GREEN OFFICES.”</p>
+      <p>SHOWING GREEN ABOUT 1760.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Chief among the few other survivals from
+the early days, and antedating all of them, is
+Bowling Green. This oldest bit of park land
+in the city dates from the Dutch occupation.
+It lay immediately in front of the Fort, and no
+building has ever stood upon its diminutive,
+oblong site. The relatively old row of buildings
+(Steamship Row) which overlooks it
+from the south will ere long be replaced by a
+Custom House worthy of the second port of
+entry in the world. This will occupy the site
+of the old government house, which once
+served the purpose for which the new building
+is designed. In 1771, it was found advisable
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>to enclose the Green with an iron fence. Bereft
+of the crowns that surmounted the posts,
+the fence still surrounds it, though the equestrian
+statue of George III., which it was put up
+to protect, vanished in 1776. In the excitement
+that followed the reading of the Declaration
+of Independence, in that year, the crowd
+marched down Broadway from the Common,
+and tumbled the King from his pedestal. The
+leaden carcass was shipped to Connecticut,
+where the wife and daughter of Governor
+Wolcott cannily converted it into rebel bullets.
+An indignity similar in degree though different
+in kind was offered to America’s eloquent
+Parliamentary advocate, William Pitt, whose
+marble effigy at Wall and William Streets
+was decapitated during the Revolution by the
+Tories, and left standing for years as a mere
+“disturber of traffic.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus073" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus073.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GOVERNMENT HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The house at No. 1 Broadway, looking eastward
+over the lower end of Bowling Green,
+built in 1760 by Colonel Kennedy, afterward
+Earl of Cassilis, and occupied in turn by the
+American leaders, including Washington, and
+by the English, including Cornwallis, Howe
+and Sir Henry Clinton, was the scene of Major
+André’s last interview with the British commander
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>before his fatal journey to West Point.
+And in another house in Broadway overlooking
+the Green, Benedict Arnold had his quarters
+after his flight and the exposure of his infamous
+plot. Mention of the gallant young British
+officer, André, naturally suggests the name and
+fate of Nathan Hale, whose heroism is commemorated
+by a noble statue by MacMonnies,
+which faces Broadway from the lower corner
+of City Hall Park, not far from the spot where
+the American spy was hanged from an apple-tree.
+The Beekman “Mansion,” overlooking
+the East River near what is now Fifty-first
+Street, the scene of Hale’s trial and condemnation,
+survived till 1874; the Kennedy House,
+identified with André’s memory, lasted eight
+years longer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus074" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus074.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FEDERAL HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span></p>
+
+<p>A picturesque feature of the old town was
+the canal that ran from the city wall to the bay,
+becoming first an artery of trade, and then a
+centre of fashionable life, as Broad Street,
+which took its place, has since been a centre
+of commercial activity. It was directly opposite
+Broad Street, in Wall, that the foundations of
+the new City Hall were laid in 1699, the sale
+of the Stadt Huys helping to defray the
+cost of the more pretentious structure. The
+arms of the English Governor, Lord Bellomont,
+were blazoned on its walls; but two years
+later the marshal was called upon to remove
+and destroy them. When New York became
+the seat of the national government, the ninety-year-old
+City Hall, partly reconstructed and
+lavishly decorated, became the meeting-place
+of Congress. The most memorable day in its
+history was the 30th of April, 1789, when,
+attended by Chancellor Livingston and the
+committees of Senators and Representatives,
+standing upon its balcony in the presence of a
+great concourse, not merely of New Yorkers,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>but of Americans from all the colonies, gathered
+together from far and near, George Washington
+took the oath of office as first President of
+the United States. Where the Capitol then
+stood now stands the Sub-Treasury, with
+Ward’s bronze Washington looking gravely
+down from its steps upon the feverish turmoil
+of Wall Street.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest existing municipal building in
+New York is the Hall of Records, in City
+Hall Park, whose contents are erelong to be
+housed in a spacious, fire-proof edifice. It
+dates from the middle of the eighteenth century.
+Its site formed a part of the Common,
+and it stood appropriately convenient to the
+gallows, for it was originally a jail—the first
+building on the island ever designed exclusively
+for the detention of law-breakers. In popular
+parlance, as in practical use, it soon became
+the Debtors’ Prison. When the British occupied
+the town during the Revolution, it was
+turned to account as their principal military
+prison, being known as The Provost, in reference
+to the title of the brutal Cunningham,
+who was charged with the custody of American
+prisoners of war—amongst others, “that d—d
+rebel, Ethan Allen.” The building was a debtors’
+jail again from 1787 to 1830; on the
+completion of alterations projected at the
+latter date, it became, in 1835, the Register’s
+office, and as such will probably see the close
+of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus075" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus075.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ST. PAUL’S CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="illus076" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus076.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CITY HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Vastly more attractive to the eye than this
+treasury of real-estate records, and not wholly
+lacking in historic interest, is the adjacent
+City Hall. This really handsome building,
+in the style of the Italian Renaissance, was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>begun in 1803, and completed nine years later.
+The likelihood of the city’s extending beyond
+it seemed too slight to warrant lavishing upon
+its back the white marble which adds so much
+to the dignity and grace of its façade; the rear
+wall was accordingly constructed of a cheaper
+stone. In the “Governor’s room” on the
+second floor, used for official receptions, are
+the desk on which Washington wrote his first
+message to Congress, the chair in which he
+was inaugurated as President, and the chairs
+used by the first federal Congress.</p>
+
+<p>In the same neighborhood, just beyond the
+lower extremity of the old Common, now
+City Hall Park, stands St. Paul’s Chapel,
+Trinity parish—an edifice much older than
+the parish church, which for the past half-century,
+like its successive parent buildings,
+has stood farther down Broadway, opposing its
+bulk to the westward progress of Wall Street.
+Fenced off by iron palings, and bordered on
+each side by a strip of graveyard, the chapel
+turns a picturesque and perhaps scornful back
+upon the “topless towers” of Broadway—little
+dreamt of when its foundations were
+laid in 1766, or three-and-twenty years later,
+when President Washington attended service
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>there on the day of his first inauguration.
+These heaven-aspiring structures were only
+beginning to turn the street into a canyon
+when the first President’s successor in office sat
+in the same pew on the same day a century
+later (April 30, 1889).</p>
+
+<p>Private houses of historic interest abounded
+not many years ago, notable among them the
+country-seat called Richmond Hill, near the
+long since absorbed village of Greenwich—a
+stately dwelling, identified with many familiar
+names. John Adams lived there during a part
+of his first term as Vice-President, and Aaron
+Burr started thence on that fateful July morning
+in 1804 that saw the death of Hamilton at
+his hand, and the end of his own political
+career. Of equal note was the house on Murray
+Hill, where Mrs. Murray detained the
+British commander at lunch while the American
+troops, under Putnam, made their escape
+from the island in 1776.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus077" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus077.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span></p>
+
+<p>The so-called Jumel Mansion, built for
+Washington’s whilom flame, Miss Mary Philippse,
+by her successful suitor, Col. Roger
+Morris, and afterwards occupied by Washington
+as his headquarters, became in turn the
+property of the nation (Morris having been a
+royalist), of John Jacob Astor, and of Stephen
+Jumel, whose erratic widow married Aaron
+Burr, but soon tired of him, turned him out of
+doors and dropped his name. From its coign
+of vantage on Harlem Heights at 169th Street,
+this dignified colonial dwelling still looks down
+upon the Harlem River and across to Long
+Island Sound. And at the foot of East 61st
+Street is yet to be seen—vine-covered, and
+embowered in trees and shrubs—the substantial
+stone residence of Col. William Smith,
+who married the daughter of President Adams,
+and ruined himself by speculating in east-side
+real estate. But the scarcity of such relics,
+and their glaring incongruity with their surroundings,
+emphasize the divergence between
+the old New York and that which is termed
+the Greater.</p>
+
+<p>In the hall of Cooper Institute, Abraham
+Lincoln made that great speech which first
+fully revealed him to the people of the Eastern
+States; and hither he was brought, to lie in
+state in the City Hall, when a martyr’s death
+had disclosed his greatness still more clearly
+to all his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>Here have lived, for longer or shorter
+periods, sundry Presidents of the United
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>States, from Washington to Cleveland; the
+city has been the permanent or occasional home
+of statesmen such as Jay and Livingston,
+Alexander Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris;
+of political agitators such as Aaron Burr and
+“Commonsense” Paine, and political leaders
+like DeWitt Clinton and Samuel J. Tilden; of
+authors such as Washington Irving, whose
+burlesque local history marked him out as the
+father of American light literature, Fenimore
+Cooper, the most popular of American
+romance-writers, and Edgar Allan Poe and
+Walt Whitman, most individual of American
+poets. Here, for longer or shorter periods,
+have lived and labored Curtis, and Bayard
+Taylor, and Stoddard, and Stedman, and Aldrich,
+and Howells, and that greatest of poets
+among journalists and journalists among poets,
+William Cullen Bryant, editor of <i>The Evening
+Post</i> and one of the founders of the Century
+Club; and Horace Greeley, founder of <i>The
+Tribune</i>, and most famous of American editors
+since Benjamin Franklin. As a resident of
+Brooklyn, and editor of a metropolitan religious
+weekly, the best-known preacher of the century,
+Henry Ward Beecher, was virtually a
+citizen of New York. In the annals of invention,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>the names of four New Yorkers stand
+out conspicuously—Fulton and Ericsson and
+Edison and Morse. And of all the free-booters
+that ever terrorized the sea, none has
+left a more awful and enduring fame than a
+once respectable resident of Liberty Street,
+renowned in song and story for two centuries
+as Captain Kidd.</p>
+
+<p>The hospitality of New York and her
+people is proverbial. Every distinguished
+visitor to America for more than a century
+past has been entertained here, officially or informally.
+Among the city’s guests have been
+William IV. of England, while yet a sailor
+prince; Lafayette, Louis Kossuth, the Prince
+of Wales, the Grand Duke Alexis, the Emperor
+of Brazil, the Princess Eulalia, the Duke of
+Veragua, Li Hung Chang and the Marquis
+Ito. Almost all the greatest preachers, orators,
+players, singers, and instrumental performers
+of the nineteenth century have added to their
+fame or wealth by facing New York audiences;
+and among the great writers who have
+visited us have been Dickens, Thackeray, and
+Kipling.</p>
+
+<p>While New York is easily first among the
+cities of the New World in commercial importance,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>it is not on material bases only that her
+supremacy rests. No community throughout
+the world responds more generously to every
+appeal for sympathy or help, whether the call
+be local, national or foreign. Her interest is
+keen in educational work of every kind. Columbia
+University—one of the oldest of local
+institutions, and more than local in its aims
+and fame and influence—has of late, through
+the liberality of her sons and other citizens,
+been housed in a manner commensurate with
+her requirements and aspirations; and so also
+has the less venerable but justly honored New
+York University. And the past few years
+have seen Barnard College for women and the
+Teachers College (both allied with Columbia)
+emerge from the chrysalis state into forms of
+beauty and power. The public-school system,
+moreover,—thanks to a recent brief respite
+from Tammany control,—is in better condition
+to-day than at any previous period of
+Tammany administration.</p>
+
+<p>Of American literary activity, despite Boston’s
+ancient and deserved prestige, it cannot
+be denied that New York is to-day the centre,
+as it is the centre of the publishing trade, in
+books and periodicals. Boston, with her splendid
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>Public Library, has set an example which
+the metropolis has been slow to follow; but
+the consolidation of the Astor, Lenox and
+Tilden collections, and their prospective housing
+in a magnificent and admirably situated
+building, has gone far to remove the reproach
+incurred during long years of public indifference
+to popular needs. The venerable Society
+Library, the modern and many-branched Free
+Circulating Library and kindred institutions
+have helped to create and in part to meet
+the demand which the Public Library in its
+new home may reasonably be expected to
+satisfy. Equally important in their way are
+those half-social, half-educational essays toward
+the solution of some of the problems of
+the slums—the University Settlement of men
+and the College Settlement of women. As a
+further indication that New York is not wholly
+given over to the worship of Mammon, it may
+be mentioned that the Greek Club, with its
+fortnightly meetings for the reading and discussion
+of the classics, has been for more than
+three decades the only circle of its kind in
+existence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus078" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus078.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON ARCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span></p>
+
+<p>In art, the invaluable treasures of the Metropolitan
+Museum foster the love of what is
+enduringly beautiful in sculpture, painting,
+architecture, etc.; while the schools of this museum
+and of the National Academy of Design
+and the Society of American Artists, to say
+nothing of the more utilitarian classes of
+Cooper Institute and the School of Artist
+Artisans, afford instruction in art of such a sort
+as to render foreign study no longer indispensable,
+albeit no less attractive than of old.</p>
+
+<p>Of music, vocal and instrumental, such feasts
+are spread before the local amateur as can be
+matched for quality and abundance in no
+other city at home or abroad, and while this
+is not true of the drama also, as the Comédie
+Française has never come hither in a body, it
+is yet a fact that nearly all that is best is seen,
+sooner or later, on the New York stage.</p>
+
+<p>By what rapid strides the city is moving forward
+in some directions, while halting lamentably
+in others, needs not to be pointed out.
+There is expert testimony to the effect that in
+public morality it has at least held its own during
+the past half-century; we trust it may some day
+work out its salvation in things political, and
+cease to be the mild milch cow of thirsty demagogues.
+It can never vie in picturesqueness
+and historic interest with its European peers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span>in population and importance, nor atone by its
+singularly fortunate situation for its poverty in
+little parks and its richness in rough-paved,
+right-angled and treeless streets and avenues;
+yet it may some day rival even Paris in the
+absolute beauty of its public and private buildings
+and historic monuments. A brave beginning
+has been made, in the Washington Arch,
+the Madison Square Garden, the Columbia and
+the New York University buildings, the Washington,
+Hale and Farragut statues and certain
+churches, club-houses and private dwellings.
+And in the Cathedral of St. John, the Public
+Library, the Academy of Design and the
+Botanical and Zoölogical gardens, a further
+stride will be made erelong in the only directions
+in which æsthetic leadership seems
+possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header7.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="BROOKLYN">BROOKLYN</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE TOWN ON FREEDOM’S BATTLE-FIELD</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By HARRINGTON PUTNAM</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest Dutch settlements within the
+present borough limits are not so old as
+the first hamlets on Manhattan. More than a
+score of years after the houses and forts of New
+Amsterdam looked out across the East River,
+the forest-crested heights of the west end of
+Long Island remained in undisturbed Indian
+occupation.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch settlers were deterred, rather than
+attracted, by this magnificent stretch of green
+woodlands extending along the high shore.
+The Holland people were not accustomed to
+timber clearing and therefore sought access to
+the island by the smoother meadow-lands of
+Gowanus, and afterwards to the north where the
+sloping grasslands about the Waalboght invited
+the settler to essay gardening without too
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>much preparation with the axe. The early
+Long Island farmers advanced on the territory
+of Brooklyn by flank attacks, seeking to turn
+the wings of the extended forest, rather than
+boldly to engage in the struggle with the
+densely wooded heights in front. These pioneers
+were thrifty, energetic Hollanders and
+Huguenots whose farms soon required regular
+communication with Manhattan. In 1642 a
+public ferry was established between the present
+foot of Fulton Street and a landing in
+Peck’s Slip. The houses clustered about this
+Long Island landing constituted a little settlement
+called The Ferry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus079" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>VIEW IN BROOKLYN IN THE OLDEN TIMES.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p>
+
+<p>As the Indians were dispossessed from their
+maize-fields, the colonists found sites for a
+small village a mile or so inland. The modern
+visitor who comes up Fulton Street should
+stop about the corner of Hoyt and Smith
+Streets to locate this settlement and picture a
+primitive hamlet of small one-story frame
+cottages, sometimes surrounded by palisades
+for protection against attacks. The open
+lands were of small extent, with forest to the
+east and west, and streams running south into
+a wide morass, where is now Gowanus Canal.
+Undoubtedly the undrained land of this settlement,
+receiving copious moisture from the
+surrounding forests, contained many a marsh
+and fen like the homelands of Holland. So
+the settlers called it the brookland, or Breuckelen,
+after an ancient village of that name on
+the river Vecht in the Province of Utrecht.
+The records of old Breuckelen are traced by
+local antiquarians of Utrecht to the time of Tacitus.
+In its variant forms, Bracola, Broccke,
+Brocckede, Broicklede and Brocklandia, it describes
+a moist meadow-land. Or, as a Dutch
+writer declares, the town on the Vecht was
+called Breuckelen from the marshes (<i>a paludibus</i>).
+Its beautiful gardens and quaint castles,
+as the emigrants had beheld them when starting
+out from home, perhaps remained in the
+imagination of the Long Island settlers as an
+ideal of what their western home should some
+day become.</p>
+
+<p>Just as Utrecht and Amersfoort are near-by
+towns to Breuckelen in the Lowlands, so New
+Utrecht towards the south—near the present
+Fort Hamilton—and Amersfoort (Flatlands)
+attested the determination of these Netherlanders
+to preserve the associations of their
+origin between the Rhine and the Zuyder Zee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus080" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus080.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DENYSE’S FERRY.</p>
+      <p>THE FIRST PLACE AT WHICH THE BRITISH AND HESSIANS LANDED ON LONG ISLAND,
+    AUGUST 22, 1776. NOW FORT HAMILTON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span></p>
+
+<p>The life of these hard-working settlers was
+not all hardship. Their low houses with projecting
+roofs were strong and comfortable; the
+wide spacious fireplaces gave warmth to a
+generous hospitality that laid on the board
+wild turkeys and Gowanus oysters and other
+good eatables, followed after the repast by the
+long clay pipes, which, when over, left the
+weary toiler to be ushered to his night’s rest in
+a partitioned-off bunk or <i>betste</i>. But these
+material comforts were not all the results realized
+by the efforts of the first pioneers. These
+Dutch settlers were zealous for religion, liberty,
+and good schools; and from the first were not
+deficient in a commendable zeal for the public
+welfare.</p>
+
+<p>Under the form of Colonial government the
+burghers were invited to submit all difficulties
+to the Governor and council, who were fond of
+the exercise of a strong, minute, and careful
+paternalism. The country folk were not expected
+to intrude on the authorities their
+own ideas of liberty, but merely to obey loyally
+what good, old, obstinate, arbitrary Governor
+Stuyvesant should command. Yet even when
+he had spoken with the official concurrence
+of his council, the eager spirits in Breuckelen
+would often cavil, and boldly presume to come
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>over to Manhattan to stir up criticism and
+public remonstrance. So they were honored
+with a special order. The folk of Breuckelen,
+Amersfoort and Midwout (Flatbush) in 1653
+were directed to forbid their residents from attending
+political meetings in New Amsterdam.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the civic virtues were enforced
+in Breuckelen, and the good of the village put
+before the preference of a private citizen to
+retire from public office. The Governor would
+not allow any one to decline to serve in an official
+capacity. The schepen-elect of Breuckelen
+proposed not to continue in office for another
+term. He even said he would sooner go back
+to Holland than remain burdened by the duties
+of schepen. The Governor quickly took him
+at his word. The Sheriff was formally required
+to notify him of this order of the Governor
+which stated with remarkable clearness the
+obligation of good townsmen to the public and
+the penalty for its neglect:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“If you will not accept to serve as schepen for the welfare
+of the Village of Breuckelen, with others, your fellow
+residents, then you must prepare yourself to sail in
+the ship <i>King Solomon</i> for Holland, agreeably to your
+utterance.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span></p>
+
+<p>No further refusals to hold office appear to
+have embarrassed the council.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists of Breuckelen were specially
+solicitous for a meeting-house and domine.
+They insisted that they should have good
+measure in discourses and that if the services
+should be abbreviated by the preacher, then
+on their side no tithes should be forthcoming.
+The first meeting-house was begun in 1654 at
+Midwout (Flatbush). Soon they worshipped
+in the partly roofed building. After much difficulty
+and repeated applications to the Council
+it had been arranged that the Rev. Mr. Polhemus
+should have his morning discourse at
+Flatbush, with his evening service alternately
+at Midwout and in Breuckelen.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Stuyvesant may have fancied that
+he had composed the difficulty. Next winter,
+however, the Governor was presented with a
+further remonstrance against the cutting-short
+of these alternating evening devotions. They
+thus complained of this brief and scanty service:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“Every fortnight on Sundays he comes here, only in
+the afternoon for a quarter of an hour, when he only gives
+us a prayer in lieu of sermon, by which we can receive
+very little instruction; while often, while one supposes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>the prayer or sermon (whichever name might be preferred
+for it) is beginning, then it is actually at an end, by
+which he contributes very little to the edification of his
+congregation.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">To modern ears, this seems a strange grievance
+for legislation.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Stuyvesant, however, admonished
+the Breuckelen folk to pay their full tithes.
+Doubtless he privately reminded Mr. Polhemus
+of his duties and obligations to give his people
+full service.</p>
+
+<p>In three years they obtained a domine of
+their own. The Rev. Henricus Selyns, a
+learned and devout young clergyman of a
+prominent Amsterdam family came to Breuckelen
+in 1660. At first his parishioners worshipped
+in a barn, but a meeting-house was
+soon erected. His spiritual labors and influence
+were successful, and the four years of
+Mr. Selyns’s ministrations were affectionately
+remembered. Compelled to return to Holland
+by the last illness of his father, he came to
+America and settled in New York eighteen
+years later. His warm admiration for Cotton
+Mather is attested by a graceful Latin poem
+appended to the later editions of the <i>Magnalia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Breuckelen was equally fortunate in a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>schoolmaster—Carel de Beauvois—a cultured French
+Protestant from Leyden, who was appointed
+in Breuckelen in 1661. Besides his duties, in
+the church, of precentor and Scripture reader,
+it was stipulated that:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“He shall properly, diligently, and industriously attend
+to the school, instill in the minds of the young the
+fear of the Lord, and set them a good example; to open
+the school with prayer and close with a Psalm, also to
+exercise the scholars in the questions in the <i>groat regulen</i>
+of the Rev. pious and learned father Do. Johannes Megapolensis,
+Minister of the gospel in N. Amsterdam.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Here was a hamlet of but thirty-one families
+who were not satisfied until they could listen
+to the ablest preaching of the day, and were
+also favored with superior educational facilities.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Dutch order was changing.
+The neighboring village of Gravesend was being
+settled by the English. From Connecticut
+came Quakers, who sowed the seeds of non-conformity
+and inculcated a new and strange
+doctrine, that taxes should not be levied to
+maintain the clergy, a principle especially attractive
+to those whose tithes were paid with a
+grudging hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus081" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus081.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BUSHWICK TOWN-HOUSE AND CHURCH, 1800.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span></p>
+
+<p>At the end of the Dutch régime there were
+four or five little scattered hamlets within the
+present borough. The Wallabout had the
+larger French and Huguenot population.
+Eastward the English settlers were coming
+into farming competition with their Dutch
+neighbors.</p>
+
+<p>There was no great alarm or disappointment
+manifested on Long Island when on a morning
+in August, 1664, a British fleet was found to
+have assembled in the Narrows. Colonial
+militia under the British flag from New England
+came through the Sound and encamped
+on the Breuckelen shore. On September 8,
+1664, New Amsterdam yielded, and Governor
+Nicolls raised the flag of Great Britain on the
+fort. Then New Amsterdam became New
+York; Long Island and Staten Island, and
+probably part of Westchester County, were
+made an English “shire,” and Breuckelen,
+after some changes of spelling, was known as
+“Brooklyn in the West Riding of Yorkshire.”</p>
+
+<p>This settlement of Dutch and Huguenots,
+maintained under the Colonial government of
+New Amsterdam, in the score of years before
+the British conquest had acquired a distinctive
+character. Contrary to a prevalent opinion,
+these first Dutch settlements, in a sound and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>vigorous sense, were essentially democratic. In
+the absence of class privileges—the spirit to
+refer all questions to the supreme consideration
+of the general welfare; to subordinate individual
+claims to the rights and advantage of the
+public—Breuckelen and Vliessingen (Flushing)
+compared favorably in civic life with contemporary
+villages in New England. As Holland
+had been dyked against the sea by close, unremitting,
+and intimate co-operation—a spirit
+further developed in the protracted struggle for
+independence—so the smaller Dutch colonies
+in New York, while they kept their agricultural
+character, retained a collective rather than an
+individual ideal, which tended to exclude none
+from equal social opportunities. They never
+had to struggle with the incubus of a modified
+feudalism, which, though inevitably breaking
+up, was leaving its impress of regard for rank
+and class privilege in the American colonies
+of British origin.</p>
+
+<p>Colonial life under British rule was marked
+by more rigid laws as the communities grew.
+The careful protection of common-lands was
+strictly attended to, especially the town forests
+of Brooklyn against the encroachment of
+those who would surreptitiously cut away the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>timber. Trustees of the common woodlands
+were appointed; but in the year 1702 these
+lands were equitably divided and all allotted to
+each householder in Brooklyn to insure their
+better protection.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually the English language was spoken
+in the churches and upon ceremonious occasions.
+A waggish tale of Domine Schoonmaker
+of Flatbush relates his difficulties in a
+wedding service. Fluent and eloquent in his
+mother tongue, he essayed the ceremony in
+English, with the manner, gestures, and all the
+courteous dignity of the old school. His
+English failed him at the very close of the
+service. Conscious of the literalness of his
+extemporized translation of the formula, he
+finished with a bow, adding with solemnity and
+modulated emphasis, “I pronounce you two to
+be <i>one beef</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>English customs gradually came in vogue.
+More aristocratic usages superseded the democracy
+of the Dutch settlers. Slavery existed
+in Brooklyn as in New York. Brick and
+stone buildings arose along Fulton Street.
+Twice, in 1745 and 1752, the Colonial legislature
+of the Province met in Brooklyn, on account of
+the prevalence of smallpox in New York.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span></p>
+
+<p>The rural character of the town is well
+illustrated by an event in 1759. A large bear
+then passed along the farms in South Brooklyn,
+and being pursued took to the water near Red
+Hook, where he was shot from a boat.</p>
+
+<p>The ethics of 1774 approved the aid of lotteries
+to build an orthodox church in Brooklyn,
+which the public were assured should be of no
+doubtful laxity, but a church conformable to
+the discipline of the Church of England, and under
+the patronage of Trinity Church, New York.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of amusements in 1774, New
+Yorkers came to Brooklyn for many of their
+sports. Here horse-races were run. In that
+year an ambitious innkeeper on “Tower
+Hill”—a site along the present Columbia
+Heights between Middagh and Cranberry
+Streets—announced that there would be a
+<i>bull baited</i> there every Thursday afternoon.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the Revolution, Brooklyn
+numbered between three and four thousand
+persons grouped in four neighborhoods. There
+were then three ferries to New York. At the
+old (Fulton) ferry was a famous tavern which
+figured often in the times of British occupation.
+The two principal villages were then
+called Brooklyn-church and Brooklyn-ferry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span></p>
+
+<p>At the first movements of the Patriot party
+in New England the people of Kings County
+were little stirred. Suffolk County, at the
+eastern end of Long Island, more readily responded
+to the first news from Massachusetts.
+After the battle of Lexington, Brooklynites
+assembled and passed resolutions and elected
+delegates to the Provincial Congress.</p>
+
+<p>The modern visitor to the Borough of
+Brooklyn has difficulty to realize that what is
+now densely built up, and covered by grading
+and asphalt, marks the battle-ground of one
+of the greatest engagements of the Revolution.
+The houses of Charlestown cover the
+battle-ground of Bunker Hill, but that was a
+struggle over a single redoubt, while Brooklyn
+is built upon a line of battle nearly three
+miles in length. In the Civil War, Northern
+people recall the great disaster of the
+first battle of Bull Run, fought with modern
+armies and improved weapons. Yet in that
+all-day conflict, with the disastrous rout and
+pursuit, the Union loss in killed, wounded and
+prisoners probably was not as great numerically
+as the loss suffered by the American
+forces in the half-day of fierce fighting in
+Brooklyn. The Federal forces at Bull Run
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span>suffered in killed, wounded, and missing 2896,
+while the patriot losses in this, the first pitched
+battle of the Revolution, were estimated at
+3300 by the British, of whom 1097 were prisoners
+(three being generals); and late American
+historians are inclined to accept this estimate
+as approximately correct.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1776, a formidable fleet
+assembled in the lower Bay of New York.
+These vessels bore from Nova Scotia the armies
+that had evacuated Boston, and another fleet
+of nine war vessels and thirty-five transports
+brought in the forces under Clinton that had
+been repulsed in the attack on Fort Moultrie
+at Charleston. At last, on the 12th of August
+arrived the Hessian forces in eighty-two transport-ships
+guarded by six war vessels. On
+board were 7800 Hessians and 1000 English
+guards.</p>
+
+<p>The observer at the Narrows must have
+daily beheld a naval pageant such as can no
+more be seen in modern warfare. From the
+first distant glimpse of the line of sails standing
+in for Sandy Hook, until they finally
+manœuvred to their crowded anchorage by
+Staten Island, the effect was most picturesque.
+It was not a fleet of dark, sullen sea-dogs,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>with only an inconspicuous hull built to
+carry a destructive armament. The coloring
+of these vessels against the green background
+of Staten Island in the olden days of oak and
+hemp would have delighted a painter. The
+upper works outside were sometimes dark blue
+or canary yellow, surmounted by waving lines
+of gilt. Below were black streaks running fore
+and aft near the water-line; as the ships slowly
+lifted in a seaway, they disclosed a white under-surface
+that must have made an admirable target
+for the opposing gunner. The grand air
+of the frigates was further enhanced by elaborate
+ornamentation with emblematic devices
+about the carved figure-head, and heavy gilded
+scrollwork above the stern-lights, and high
+stern-gallery. From the bluffs along the Narrows,
+the view down upon the decks would
+show that all inboard surfaces, even the gun-carriages
+and the inner side of portholes, were
+painted blood-red—so as not to have the carnage
+of battle too much <i>en évidence</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At one time over four hundred transports,
+guarded by thirty-seven men-of-war, had gathered.
+Lord Howe on the land, and his brother,
+Admiral Howe, on the sea were in joint command.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp69" id="illus082" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus082.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SECTION OF MAP OF BROOKLYN, 1776.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span></p>
+
+<p>The patriot forces had carefully entrenched
+a line of defensive works, laid out by General
+Nathaniel Greene. The good judgment with
+which these forts were placed was attested by
+the deliberate adoption of almost the same line
+of redoubts and forts in the subsequent defences
+of Brooklyn by the engineers in the campaign
+of 1814, when Brooklyn was again prepared
+to resist British attack.</p>
+
+<p>The fortifications of Brooklyn in 1776 extended
+in an irregular line from Fort Defiance
+at Red Hook opposite Governor’s Island
+across to Fort Box on Bergen’s Hill near the
+corner of Court Street and First Place. At
+the junction of Clinton and Atlantic Streets, or
+a little easterly, was a steep conical hill called
+the Ponkiesburgh, and on top, surmounting a
+line of spiral trenches, a redoubt, called Corkscrew
+Fort. Between Atlantic, Pacific, Nevins,
+and Bond Streets was a redoubt mounting
+five guns called Fort Greene. Thence the line
+ran zigzag across the present Fulton Street, to
+the west of the junction of Flatbush and Fulton
+Avenues, along the hill slope to Fort Putnam,
+on the eminence now called Fort Greene
+Park, a commanding height where were mounted
+five guns. The number of guns mounted upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>the works from Fort Putnam to Fort Defiance
+was thirty-five—mainly eighteen-pounders—an
+armament in part captured from Ticonderoga.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus083" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus083.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BROWER’S MILL, GOWANUS.</p>
+      <p>THE YELLOW MILL IS SEEN IN THE DISTANCE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>From this fort the line extended northwesterly
+to a
+spring at the
+verge of the Wallabout,
+near the
+corner of Flushing
+and Portland
+Avenues. This
+interior line of defence
+was nearly
+two miles long.
+Between these forts were lines of trenches further
+defended by trees and sharpened stakes,
+forming an abatis, in the construction of
+which the Continental woodsmen were always
+proficient. Within this line of defence was
+Fort Stirling, which was back near Columbia
+Heights.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult after a century of grading and
+building to conceive that an extensive morass
+then covered nearly all the lands south of the
+present Hamilton Avenue, save about the
+small island height at Red Hook. Gowanus,
+with several large ponds raised by Brower’s
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span>Mill-dam, flooded and made impassable nearly
+all the area extending from Fourth Avenue to
+Smith Street. This was crossed by a narrow
+causeway along Freeke’s Mill-pond. On the
+higher lands beyond, extending from Greenwood
+along Prospect Park towards East New
+York, were dense woodlands, that were only
+practicable for an advancing army by certain
+passes or narrow wood-roads. The principal
+route from the Narrows to Brooklyn was
+along the site of Third Avenue by a good road
+then known as the Shore Road.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of August 27, 1776, was fought
+almost entirely outside this line of fortifications.
+Knowing that the British forces had
+been moving towards Brooklyn from the Narrows,
+General Putnam had posted troops in detachments
+in order to check the hostile columns
+as they should come through the wood-roads
+and passes. It was natural to expect the principal
+British advance by the Shore Road, as
+there they would be at all times within supporting
+distance of the fleet.</p>
+
+<p>On August 26th the Hessians under de
+Heister had occupied Flatbush, and Lord
+Cornwallis had reached nearly to Flatlands.</p>
+
+<p>In the forenoon of the 27th, Stirling commanded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span>the patriot right, extending from the
+shore near the foot of Twenty-third Street up
+Greenwood Heights about to the corner of
+Fifth Avenue and Third Street. This position
+was to repel the expected attack by the route
+of the Shore Road. Sullivan commanded the
+centre, which was an irregular congeries of
+militia posted along the summits of hills in
+Prospect Park and across the Flatbush Road.
+Colonel Miles with the 1st Pennsylvania regiment
+occupied the hills near the Clove Road
+to the south of Bedford, with some Connecticut
+levies continuing the line still further eastward.
+Instead of a co-ordinated supporting line
+of battle, these dispositions were intended as
+little more than a body of skirmishers, too
+widely strung-out to be opposed to an actual
+attack.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of a movement of British
+troops at daylight on the Shore Road, and the
+evident efforts of the fleet to sail up the Bay,
+which the light wind and ebb tide prevented,
+indicated that the hardest fighting would be
+by the right under Stirling. The entire patriot
+force inside and without the entrenchments
+was 5500. The British force was over 16,000
+men. While the troops were facing each
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span>other along this position, a strong flanking
+column under Sir Henry Clinton, with Lord
+Howe the commander-in-chief, had stealthily
+marched from Flatbush to East New York, during
+the night, and had followed a sunken road
+through the present Cemetery of the Evergreens,
+called the Jamaica Pass. This was
+about five miles to the east of Sullivan’s position.
+Before daylight, at about a mile from
+the Pass, the column halted and sent forward a
+force which captured the American patrol and
+officers, and soon after a detachment secured
+the Pass. The light infantry advanced at the
+first appearance of day, and occupied the
+heights of Bushwick, followed by the guards
+with the field-pieces under Lord Percy, and
+the 49th regiment with four guns and the
+baggage brought up the rear.</p>
+
+<p>After breakfasting, the flanking column
+marched along the turnpike to Bedford, where
+they arrived at half-past eight o’clock; thence
+they advanced along the rear of Miles’s troops,
+who were unconscious that they were being
+surrounded.</p>
+
+<p>Fearfully outnumbered as they were, the
+Americans were now attacked in front by
+the Hessians advancing from Flatbush under
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span>General de Heister, and in the rear by this
+flanking column. The result was disastrous.
+Sullivan’s command was cut to pieces and
+himself captured. Terrible slaughter occurred
+in the woods and the slopes towards Fourth
+Avenue. The only escape not closed by the
+British was across the mill-dam and marshes
+of Gowanus.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Cornwallis was detached to attack
+Stirling’s line, which had still held its
+position on the western side of Prospect
+Heights. Desperate indeed was the plight
+of this devoted remnant of the army, outnumbered
+on all sides. General Grant, the British
+commander in front, had pressed forward
+(after having repeatedly been driven back)
+and finally surrounded and captured Atlee’s
+riflemen. Stirling gallantly determined to attack
+Cornwallis, and drive him back and so
+get an opportunity to cross by Brower’s Mill-dam
+to the defences of Fort Box. Here was
+the heroism of the day. Taking command
+of Smallwood’s gallant Maryland regiment and
+forming in the vicinity of Fifth Avenue and
+Tenth Street, Stirling led these brave young
+Marylanders three times in a charge on Cornwallis’s
+lines. Closing their ranks as they were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span>cut down by grape and canister, the Maryland
+onset drove the British back behind the stone
+Cortelyou house. Once they forced the gunners
+from their guns, but at last, overwhelmed
+by numbers, the survivors fell back, leaving 256
+killed out of 400. It was the sight of this brilliant
+charge and the spirited but frightfully unequal
+contest that caused Washington to wring
+his hands in anguish and say: “Good God!
+what brave fellows I must lose this day!”</p>
+
+<p>While these Marylanders gallantly sacrificed
+their lives to hold Cornwallis in check, a large
+portion of Stirling’s command crossed the
+Gowanus Creek and brought the tattered colors
+of Smallwood’s regiment and over twenty
+prisoners within the lines. The battle was
+over at noon. The bodies of the gallant Maryland
+heroes—the flower of the army—were
+afterward buried on a small knoll or island.
+Third Avenue runs across it, between Seventh
+and Eighth Streets, but its site is far below the
+present street level.</p>
+
+<p>In estimating the service of these Marylanders,
+it is to be recalled that they were
+young, never before under fire, and were led
+without their own colonel, who was detached
+the day before for a court-martial in New
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span>York. When the charges were made, the
+troops had already been several hours fighting,
+and had to re-form under fire, after it was plain
+that the battle was lost. The attacks were
+up an ascent, against superior numbers, strong
+artillery, and an overwhelming body of seasoned
+veterans. Even the assault and death
+of Montgomery at Quebec were not more
+gallant. Unlike that hopeless attack, the
+Marylanders accomplished their purpose by
+their sacrifice, and stopped the advance of
+Cornwallis. The brilliancy, dash, and steady
+persistence of this charge have not been properly
+recognized.</p>
+
+<p>After the repulse of the patriot army, the
+battle ceased. The prudence of Lord Howe
+would not permit the English army to move
+upon the entrenchments. Bunker Hill with
+its terrible memories was too recent.</p>
+
+<p>The next day, the 28th, Washington reinforced
+the Brooklyn troops, increasing their
+number to 9000. Among them were Colonel
+Glover’s battalion of fishermen and sailors from
+Salem and Marblehead. On that day heavy
+rain prevented an attack. In the afternoon
+the British began regular siege approaches
+towards Fort Putnam by a trench starting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>from the present Clinton Avenue near the
+corner of De Kalb Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>A council of war decided on evacuation.
+Even in this extremity Washington caused an
+elaborate statement of reasons to be drawn up
+as the grounds of his action. That night,
+aided by the dense fog, the entire body were
+rowed over by Colonel Glover’s Marblehead
+boatmen. The skill and admirable mastery of
+detail in this retreat were Washington’s. For
+many hours he sat on his horse at the ferry,
+patiently superintending the embarkation. At
+least on one occasion he had to check a rush
+of impetuous and alarmed men from crowding
+into the boats. Finally with the last crew he
+embarked. The retreat of the entire force
+from Long Island was safely effected. At four
+o’clock only empty trenches were revealed to
+the invaders.</p>
+
+<p>In Prospect Park is a monument to the
+heroism of this gallant Maryland regiment.
+At different streets are memorial tablets to
+mark the lines of defence. Perhaps some day
+a statue of Washington, near the old ferry,
+will mark the spot where his prudence and skill
+saved the American Army.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus084" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus084.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MONUMENT TO MARYLAND’S “400.”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span></p>
+
+<p>During the British occupation the noble forests
+of Brooklyn were destroyed. One may
+search in vain for any oaks or elms about the
+City that are really ancient.</p>
+
+<p>The mention of the Wallabout and the present
+site of the Navy Yard recall some of the
+most painful memories of our history—the
+horrors of the prison-ships. Few indeed are
+the Revolutionary families that have not had
+deep sorrows connected with the ships <i>Whitby</i>,
+<i>Good Hope</i>, <i>Old Jersey</i>, <i>John</i>, <i>Falmouth</i>, and
+other hulks, where the martyrs ended their
+severe captivity. The bodies of the victims—having
+been removed from time to time—are
+now, it is hoped, in their final resting-place
+on the westerly front of Fort Greene
+Park opposite the Plaza. As yet no monument,
+not even an inscription, marks the spot
+where were reverently laid the bones of 11,500
+martyrs to American liberty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus085" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus085.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NAVY YARD. IN FOREGROUND 5.5-INCH B.-L. GUN, WITH MOUNT
+    AND SHIELD, TAKEN FROM SPANISH CRUISER “VIZCAYA” AFTER DESTRUCTION OF
+    SPANISH FLEET JULY 3, 1898, ALSO SUBMARINE MINE FROM GUANTANAMO.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Navy Yard, starting in 1824, has become
+the foremost in the country. Here are gathered
+trophies of the Nation’s battles on many seas.
+In a little enclosure near the Commandant’s
+office, are grouped captured ordnance, with a
+howitzer that did service under Hull on the
+<i>Constitution</i>. Trophies from the Spanish war
+have lately been added to this collection. Here
+are the guns taken from the burnt and shattered
+<i>Almirante Oquendo</i> and <i>Vizcaya</i>, and by them
+is mounted a submarine contact mine from the
+defences of Guantanamo, which the <i>Texas</i>
+broke adrift without exploding the deadly contents.
+Not far away was built the ill-fated
+battleship <i>Maine</i>. In these docks were outfitted
+many of the fleet that fought the battle of
+Santiago. In the Spanish war, the Brooklyn
+Navy Yard was where most of the yachts and
+merchant steamers, purchased in emergency,
+were converted into cruisers. Under Naval
+Constructor Bowles, the unparalleled record
+was made in 1898 of thirty-four vessels thus
+converted and fitted out for service in the auxiliary
+navy in ninety-three days!</p>
+
+<p>At the southern shore of the enlarged
+Brooklyn are the forts and batteries defending
+this part of Long Island. Under the modern
+defences of Fort Hamilton, still is preserved
+Fort Lafayette, an island structure of masonry,
+valueless for war, but ever to be kept for its
+associations. Built in 1812 to defend the Narrows,
+its name was changed at the time of Lafayette’s
+return in 1824. In 1861, it was used
+to imprison those from Maryland and the border
+States, whose loyalty the Federal Administration
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>distrusted. When the Judges of Brooklyn
+issued writs of <i>habeas corpus</i> to bring up
+these political suspects, and inquire into the
+justice of their captivity, the remedy was to
+hurry the prisoners to Fort Warren in Boston
+Harbor, beyond the reach of the process of
+New York courts.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus086" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus086.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FORT LAFAYETTE, N. Y. NARROWS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Here also, in 1862, a division commander of
+McClellan’s army was held prisoner. General
+Charles P. Stone, a graduate of West Point,
+was blamed for the disaster at Ball’s Bluff.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>By secret orders of Secretary Stanton, he was
+arrested at midnight, hurried to New York,
+and kept forty-nine days in solitary confinement
+in Fort Lafayette, without trial, charges,
+or answer to his appeals for a hearing! Congress
+finally vindicated him and set him free,
+after one hundred and eighty-nine days’ imprisonment.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus087" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus087.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BROOKLYN INSTITUTE MUSEUM.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The interior of the Fort was burned out in
+the winter of 1869. Its armament has never
+been replaced. The dark red circular walls
+stand at the opposite end of the Bay from the
+Statue of Liberty, and furnish an impressive
+contrast, in their memories of an American
+Bastille.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus088" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus088.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HENRY WARD BEECHER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span></p>
+
+<p>On the completion of the new Shore Road,
+following the contour of the Narrows, an admirable
+approach upon the bluff overlooking
+the Bay will lead the visitor to this Golden
+Gate of the commerce of New York.</p>
+
+<p>The traditions of home rule, local self-government,
+and civic conscience have come down
+from the early Brooklyn agitations against the
+government of Peter Stuyvesant. Brooklynites
+before consolidation with the greater city
+had a liberal home-rule charter that was first
+administered under Mayor Seth Low. Through
+his government, the “Brooklyn plan” became
+the ideal of other municipalities.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient zeal for education and schools
+has not declined. Besides the college, academy,
+and public schools, two Brooklyn institutions
+distinctively illustrate the modern trend
+of popular municipal education. The Pratt
+Institute, with its wide and helpful teaching in
+the industrial arts, is perhaps the most famous
+of all Brooklyn benevolences. But the enlarged
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span>and expanding Brooklyn Institute, with its
+multiform departments, its generous field of
+lectureships, and its museum, is destined to
+become the model for organizations planned
+to diffuse popular culture in cities.</p>
+
+<p>The regard of Brooklyn for the Church and
+the influence of the clergy on the life of
+Brooklyn are proverbial. To recall the names
+of Brooklyn’s clergy is to mention many leaders
+of the American pulpit. Not a little of their
+inspiration has come from the influence and
+history of Brooklyn itself. In its growth from
+village to city, and then to borough, it has
+developed along the lines of equality of social
+opportunity, and thus unconsciously has been
+reaping the fruits of the lives and examples of
+its Dutch founders.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus089" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus089.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF BROOKLYN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PRINCETON">PRINCETON</h2>
+
+<p class="center">PLANTING AND TILLING</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By WILLIAM M. SLOANE</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Princeton is by no means one of the
+oldest settlements in the State of New
+Jersey, and yet it has a history of more than
+two centuries, the first homestead having been
+established there in 1682. Although situated
+midway, or nearly so, between two of the
+largest Colonial towns, and nearly equidistant
+from the head of navigation on two important
+streams, the Raritan and the Delaware, it remained
+a quiet and unimportant hamlet for
+over half a century. Most of the travel between
+New York and Philadelphia went by
+way of Perth Amboy and Camden; there was
+little to interrupt the humble labors of the
+settlers in clearing the forest and tilling the
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the roll-call of Princeton’s pioneers reveals
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>names which are now synonymous with
+patriotism and famous wherever American history
+is studied: Stockton, Paterson, Boudinot,
+Randolph, and others almost as renowned.
+Their instinctive Americanism is first recorded
+in a successful protest to the provincial authorities
+against the quartering of British troops
+in their humble homes during the French and
+Indian War.</p>
+
+<p>October 22, 1746, the College of New Jersey
+was chartered by Governor Hamilton, an
+act notable in American history because the
+first of its kind performed without authorization
+from England or the consent even of
+the provincial legislature. The institution was
+opened under President Dickinson in May,
+1747, at Elizabethtown. After his death,
+which occurred in October of the same year,
+the few students were transferred to Newark
+and put under the care of the Rev. Aaron
+Burr, one of the twelve trustees. On the
+fourteenth of the following September, Jonathan
+Belcher, just appointed governor, granted
+a new charter fuller and more formal than the
+first. His interest in the college was from
+the outset very great, and his opinion, already
+formed, that Princeton was the most desirable
+spot for its permanent site ultimately prevailed,
+the citizens of the hamlet proving more active
+and liberal than those of New Brunswick, already
+a good-sized town, to which likewise
+terms were proposed “for fixing the college in
+that place.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus090" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus090.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>“THE LINE OF HISTORIC CATALPAS.”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span></p>
+
+<p>Thereafter the little settlement grew rapidly
+and soon became a considerable village. In
+1756 the new buildings were virtually completed
+and the college was transferred to its
+future home. Notable men from throughout
+the State and from the cities of New York
+and Philadelphia became interested in the
+new seat of learning. More noteworthy still
+were those who taught and those who studied
+in it. Within a decade after the completion
+of Nassau Hall the names of Burr, Edwards,
+Witherspoon, of Livingston, Rush and Ellsworth,
+of James Manning, Luther Martin and
+Nathaniel Niles became Princeton names.
+The stream of influential patronage once
+started continued to flow until long after the
+Revolution. It included men from New England
+on the one hand, and from the South on
+the other, with, of course, a powerful element
+from the Middle States.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus091" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus091.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>A VIEW OF THE FRONT CAMPUS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span></p>
+
+<p>Princeton College is the child of Yale. But
+the parting was not entirely amicable. Theological
+controversy grew very fierce, even for
+the Connecticut Valley, in the days of Whitefield’s
+preaching. The conservatives or Old
+Lights held the reins and were not kindly disposed
+toward the innovators or New Lights.
+The trouble culminated in the expulsion from
+Yale of David Brainerd because, defying the
+Faculty’s express command, he attended New
+Light meetings and would not profess penitence
+for his fault. This occurred in 1739;
+thereafter an even stronger feeling of discontent
+smouldered among the liberal Calvinists
+until finally the way was clear for founding a
+new training-school for the ministry and the
+learned professions on broad and generous
+lines. Brainerd became a most successful and
+famous missionary. He was betrothed to the
+daughter of Jonathan Edwards and died at her
+father’s house, a victim of his own laborious
+and devoted life. This was less than a year after
+the College of New Jersey had been founded by
+a body of liberal-minded men of all orthodox
+denominations, under the influence of a few
+leaders who sympathized with both Brainerd
+and the Edwards theology. The first charter
+was granted by an Episcopalian governor to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>four Presbyterian clergymen, and one of the
+original trustees was a Quaker. Governor
+Belcher, who enlarged the charter and made
+the College “his adopted daughter,” was a
+man of the most catholic feeling. Fourteen
+of the trustees under the permanent constitution
+were Presbyterian clergymen, an arrangement
+corresponding to the similar one whereby
+the majority of the governing body of Yale
+was composed of Congregational ministers.
+This wise guardianship has kept the two universities
+true to their traditions, and the flourishing
+condition of both is the strongest proof anywhere
+afforded that temporal affairs do not
+necessarily suffer when committed to the
+charge of spiritual advisers. Considerable
+sums of money were raised in England by the
+personal solicitation of Tennent and Davies,
+two clergymen sent out for the purpose by
+the Trustees. The ten laymen of the first
+Princeton board represented various orthodox
+denominations, including Episcopalians and
+Quakers. There is not a syllable in the charter
+concerning creeds, confessions, or religious
+tests. It is very significant of the vast improvement
+in public morality that a college
+founded under such auspices a hundred and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span>fifty years ago was partly endowed and supported
+by lotteries authorized and drawn both
+in Connecticut and New Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>From the day when the College was installed
+in its grand new home, history-making went on
+apace in Princeton. Nassau Hall was a majestic
+building for those days; distinguished
+foreign visitors to America all noted its dimensions
+and architecture in their written accounts
+of travel. Indeed, even now, with the tasteless
+alterations of chimneys, roofs and towers
+made necessary by fire and carried through
+with ruthless economy, it may be considered
+one of the great monumental college buildings
+in America. It is, however, far more
+than this; we assert without fear of contradiction
+that it has no peer as the most historic
+university pile in the world. This contention
+rests on the fact that it saw the discomfiture of
+the British at the ebb-tide of the American rebellion,
+harbored the Government of the United
+States in its critical moments and cradled the
+Constitution-makers of the greatest existing
+republic. No other university hall has been
+by turns fortress and barrack, legislative chamber
+and political nursery in the birththroes of
+any land comparable to our land.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span></p>
+
+<p>The building was designed to be complete
+in itself; it contained lodgings for a hundred
+and forty-seven students, with a refectory,
+library and chapel. The class which entered
+under Dickinson, the first president, had six
+members, of whom five became clergymen.
+His untimely death a year after his election
+made his administration the shortest but one
+in the College history. During the ten years
+of Burr’s tenure of office (1747-1757) the total
+number of students was a hundred and fourteen;
+half of them entered the ministry. The
+short presidency of Jonathan Edwards lasted
+but a few months. It gave the glory of his
+name, that of America’s greatest metaphysician,
+to the College, the sacred memories of his residence
+to the venerable mansion now occupied
+by the Dean, and the hallowed custody of his
+mortal remains to the Princeton graveyard, a
+spot to which thousands have made their pilgrimage
+for the sake of his great renown. In
+this enclosure he lies beside his son-in-law,
+the Rev. Aaron Burr, who was his predecessor.
+At his feet are the ashes of the brilliant and erratic
+grandson, the Aaron Burr so well known
+to students of American history. President
+Davies, who followed Edwards, held his office
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span>for only two years, and was succeeded by Finley
+who presided for five. Under the latter
+the number of students present at one time
+rose to one hundred
+and twenty.
+All told, a hundred
+and thirty
+sat under his instruction,
+and of
+these less than
+half, fifty-nine,
+became clergymen.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus092" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus092.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOHN WITHERSPOON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This tendency
+to send fewer
+and fewer men
+into the ministry
+is highly
+significant. It
+reached its climax under the next president—the
+great Scotchman whose name is among the
+most honored in the history of his adopted
+country—John Witherspoon. His incumbency
+was coincident with the Revolutionary epoch,
+lasting from 1768 to 1794. In those twenty-six
+years four hundred and sixty-nine young men
+graduated from the College; of these, only
+a hundred and fourteen, less than a quarter,
+became clergymen, an average of between four
+and five a year. This phenomenon was due to
+the fact that Witherspoon, though lecturing
+on Divinity like his predecessors, was vastly
+more interested in political than in religious philosophy.
+So notorious was this fact that many
+a pious youth bent on entering the ministry
+passed the very doors of liberal Princeton to
+seek the intense atmosphere of Yale orthodoxy,
+while many a boy patriot from New England
+came hither to seek the distinction of being
+taught by Dr. Witherspoon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus093" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus093.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WASHINGTON’S HEADQUARTERS AT ROCKY HILL, N. J.
+    (NEAR PRINCETON.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span></p>
+
+<p>The first eight years of Witherspoon’s presidency
+embraced the period of political ferment
+in the Colonies which ushered in the War
+of the Revolution. From the very beginning
+of his residence in America, the new president
+espoused the Colonial cause in every conflict
+with Great Britain; he was soon accounted
+“as high a son of liberty as any man in
+America.” Not content with enlarging and
+improving the College course, he collected
+funds throughout the Colonies from Boston to
+Charleston, and even laid Jamaica under contribution
+to fill the depleted College chest.
+From the pulpit of the old First Church his
+voice rang out in denunciation of the English
+administration, until in his native land he was
+branded as a rebel and a traitor. The spread
+of the Reformation was more largely due to
+the fact that Luther was a professor in the
+University of Wittenberg than to any other
+single cause; the adherence to the Revolution
+of the powerful Scotch and Scotch-Irish element
+in the Colonies was chiefly if not entirely
+secured by the teachings of John Witherspoon
+from his professor’s chair in Nassau Hall. To
+him and John Dickinson, author of the <i>Farmer’s
+Letters</i>, belongs the credit of having convinced
+the sober middle classes of the great middle
+Colonies that the breach with England was not
+merely inevitable, but just and to their interest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus094" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus094.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MORVEN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span></p>
+
+<p>But Witherspoon was more than a teacher,
+he was a practical statesman. His country-seat
+was a farm on the southern slope of Rocky
+Hill, about a mile due north of Nassau Hall.
+Its solid stone walls still bear the classic name
+which he gave it, of Tusculum. In his hours
+of retirement at that beloved home he seems
+to have brooded more on the rights of man
+than on human depravity, more on law than on
+theology, more on Providence in His present
+dealings with men than on the remoter meanings
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span>of God’s Word. In the convention which
+framed the constitution of New Jersey, he
+amazed the other delegates by his technical
+knowledge of administration and led in their
+constructive labors; he assisted in the overthrow
+of William Franklin, the royal governor;
+was elected to the Continental Congress,
+and in the critical hour spurred on the lagging
+members who hesitated to take the fatal step
+of authorizing their president and secretary to
+sign and issue the Declaration of Independence.
+With solemn emphasis he declared:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“For my own part, of property I have some, of reputation
+more. That reputation is staked, that property is
+pledged on the issue of this contest; and although these
+gray hairs must soon descend into the sepulchre, I would
+infinitely rather that they descend thither by the hand of
+the executioner, than desert at this crisis the sacred
+cause of my country.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The word “God” occurs but once in that
+famous document. Jefferson wrote it with a
+small “g.” Witherspoon was the solitary
+clergyman among the signers; neither he nor
+his neighbor, friend, and supporter, Richard
+Stockton, of Morven, who was a member of his
+church, set their hands the less firmly to sign
+the paper. Finally, Witherspoon was a member
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span>of the secret committee of Congress which
+really found the means of moral and material
+support for the war down to its close. He was
+chosen in the dark hours of November, 1776,
+to confer with Washington on the military
+crisis; he was a member, with Richard Henry
+Lee and John Adams, of the committee appointed
+that same winter to fire the drooping
+spirits of the rebels when Congress was driven
+from Philadelphia to Baltimore. He was a
+member, too, of the boards of war and finance,
+wrote state papers on the currency, and framed
+many of the most important bills passed by the
+Continental Congress. It was not unnatural
+that when, at the close of the war, Congress
+was terrified by unpaid and unruly Continentals
+battering at its doors in Philadelphia, it should
+seek refuge and council, as it did, in John
+Witherspoon’s college.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it happened that Nassau Hall became
+one of the hearthstones on which the fires of
+patriotism burned brightest. From 1766 to
+1776 there were graduated two hundred and
+thirty young Americans. What their temper
+and feeling must have been may be judged
+from the names of those among them who
+afterwards became eminent in public life. Ephraim
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>Brevard, Pierrepont Edwards, Churchill
+Houston, John Henry, John Beatty, James
+Linn, Frederick Frelinghuysen, Gunning Bedford,
+Hugh Brackinridge, Philip Freneau,
+James Madison, Aaron Burr, Henry Lee,
+Aaron Ogden, Brockholst Livingston, and
+Wm. Richardson Davie. Those ten years
+produced twelve Princetonians who sat in the
+Continental Congress, six who sat in the
+Constitutional Convention, one President of
+the United States, one Vice-President, twenty-four
+members of Congress, three Judges of the
+Supreme Court, one Secretary of State, one
+Postmaster-General, three Attorneys-General,
+and two foreign ministers. It may well be
+supposed that the clergymen who were their
+comrades in those days of ferment were, like
+their great teacher, no opponents of political
+preaching. The influence of such a body of
+young men, when young men seized and held
+the reins, was incalculable.</p>
+
+<p>“We have no public news,” writes James
+Madison from Princeton on July 23, 1770, to
+his friend, Thomas Martin,</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">“but the base conduct of the merchants in New York in
+breaking through their spirited resolutions not to import;
+a distinct account of which, I suppose, will be in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>Virginia <i>Gazette</i> before this arrives. The letter to the
+merchants in Philadelphia, requesting their concurrence,
+was lately burned by the students of this place in the
+college yard, all of them appearing in their black gowns
+and the bell tolling.... There are about 115
+in the College and in the Grammar School, all of them
+in American cloth.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>“Last week, to show our patriotism,” wrote
+in 1774 another Princeton student, Charles
+Beatty,</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">“we gathered all the steward’s winter store of tea, and
+having made a fire in the campus we there burnt near a
+dozen pounds, tolled the bell, and made many spirited
+resolves. But this was not all. Poor Mr. Hutchinson’s
+effigy shared the same fate with the tea, having a tea-canister
+tied about his neck.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus095" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus095.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>RICHARD STOCKTON</p>
+      <p>“THE SIGNER”.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>With such a nursery of patriotism at its very
+hub, the temper of the surrounding community
+can easily be pictured. The proposition
+for a provincial congress came from Princeton.
+John Hart, a farmer from the neighboring
+township of Hopewell, and Abraham
+Clark, a farmer’s son from the neighboring
+county, were associated with graduates from
+Princeton College and delegates from Princeton
+town in conducting its deliberations. Both
+were made delegates to the Continental Congress
+and both, along with Witherspoon and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span>Stockton, were signers of the Declaration of
+Independence. Even Francis Hopkinson, the
+fifth signer for this State, a Philadelphian in
+reality, though a temporary resident of Bordentown,
+was, as the friend and co-worker of
+Freneau and Brackinridge, intimately associated
+with Princeton influence. When rebellion
+was finally in full swing, the Committee of
+Safety for New Jersey held its sessions here,
+probably in Nassau Hall, possibly in the famous
+tavern. It is well known that neither the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span>Continental Army nor the people of the United
+States at large were profoundly impressed by
+the Declaration of Independence. This was
+not the case in Princeton, for the correspondent
+of a Philadelphia paper wrote that on
+July 9, 1776, “Nassau Hall was grandly illuminated
+and independency proclaimed under a
+triple volley of musketry, and universal acclamation
+for the prosperity of the United States,
+with the greatest decorum.”</p>
+
+<p>Seven days previous to this demonstration,
+the Provincial Congress, sitting at Trenton,
+had adopted a new State constitution; nine
+days later the first Legislature of the State assembled
+in Nassau Hall—the College library
+room—and chose Livingston governor. They
+continued more or less intermittently in session
+until the following October after the invasion
+of the State by British forces. Before the
+invaders they fled to Trenton, then to Burlington,
+to Pittstown, and finally to Haddonfield.
+After the battles of Princeton and
+Trenton they promptly returned to their first
+seat and resumed their sessions.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The storm of war broke upon Princeton early
+in December of the same year, 1776. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>British Army, landed from Howe’s fleet in New
+York Bay, had entirely worsted the American
+forces. Brooklyn, New York, Fort Washington
+with Fort Lee had been successively abandoned,
+and Washington in his memorable retreat
+across this State reached Princeton on
+the first of December. Stirling, with one
+thousand two hundred Continentals, was left
+as a rear-guard, while the Commander-in-Chief
+with the rest, one thousand eight hundred, and
+his stores, pushed on to Trenton, whence he
+crossed in safety to the right bank of the Delaware.
+On the seventh, Cornwallis entered
+Princeton at the head of six thousand Anglo-Hessian
+veterans, driving Stirling before him.
+The invaders were quartered in the College and
+in the church. Both Tusculum and Morven,
+the estates of the arch-rebels Witherspoon and
+Stockton, were pillaged, and the new house of
+Sergeant was burnt. All the neighboring
+farms were laid under contribution for forage.</p>
+
+<p>Popular disaffection followed in the course
+of Washington’s retreat. Large numbers of
+the people and many of the State officials accepted
+the English offers of amnesty. The
+patriots were compelled to abandon their
+homes and flee across the Delaware. Two regiments
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>were left by Cornwallis in Princeton as
+a garrison. The rest of his troops were established
+in winter quarters at New Brunswick,
+Trenton and Bordentown. Washington’s thin
+and starving line stretched along the Delaware
+from Coryell’s Ferry to Bristol. Congress fled
+to Baltimore. Putnam, with no confidence in
+Washington’s ability even to hold his ground,
+was making ready for a desperate defence of
+Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p>There was as yet no French alliance, no adequate
+supply of money raised either at home
+or abroad, no regular or even semi-regular
+army,—nothing, apparently, but a disorderly
+little rebellion; for the first promise of constancy
+in New England and of regular support
+for a considerable force of volunteers had had
+as yet no fulfilment. The English felt that
+the early ardor of radical and noisy rebels
+would fade like a mist before Howe’s success;
+Canada was lost; New York as far as the
+Highlands was in British hands; so also were
+New Jersey and Long Island, which latter virtually
+controlled Connecticut. Howe believed
+the rebellion was broken; Cornwallis had engaged
+passage to return home.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus096" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus096.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HALL IN THE MORVEN HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span></p>
+
+<p>While the British were lulled into security,
+Washington and the patriots, though desperate,
+were undaunted. A well considered and
+daring plan for a decisive sally from their lines
+was formed and carried to a successful issue.
+On Christmas night two thousand four hundred
+men were ferried over the Delaware nine
+miles above Trenton; the crossing was most
+dangerous, owing to the swollen waters and
+the floating ice; the ensuing march was made
+in the teeth of a dreadful storm. The affair at
+Trenton was scarcely a battle, it was rather a
+surprise; the one thousand two hundred Hessians
+were taken unawares and only a hundred
+and sixty-two escaped; nearly a thousand were
+captured. What made it a great event was
+its electrical effect in restoring courage to
+patriots everywhere, together with the inestimable
+value to Washington’s troops of the captured
+stores and arms. He did not occupy
+the place at all, but returned immediately to
+his encampment on the other shore to
+refit.</p>
+
+<p>The ensuing week was certainly the most
+remarkable of the Revolution. The English in
+New York were thrown into consternation.
+Cornwallis hastened back to Princeton, where
+he collected between seven and eight thousand
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>men, the flower of the British army. Washington’s
+force, on the other hand, was reinforced
+with a speed and zeal bordering on the
+miraculous. Three thousand volunteers came
+in from the neighborhood and from Philadelphia.
+The term of service for nine hundred
+of his men would expire on New Year’s day;
+these were easily induced, in the new turn of
+affairs, to remain six weeks longer. Washington
+and John Stark both pledged their
+private fortunes and Robert Morris raised
+fifty thousand dollars in Philadelphia. The
+mourning of the patriots throughout the Middle
+States was changed into rejoicing.</p>
+
+<p>On the thirtieth of December the American
+army began to recross the Delaware; the
+movement was slow and difficult owing to the
+ice, but was completed the following day. On
+January 1, 1777, Washington wrote from Trenton
+that he had about two thousand two hundred
+men with him, that Mifflin had about one
+thousand eight hundred men at Bordentown
+on the right wing and that Cadwalader had
+about as many more at Crosswicks, some miles
+to the east. He thought that no more than
+one thousand eight hundred of those who
+passed the river with himself were available
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span>for fighting, but he intended to “pursue the
+enemy and break up their quarters.”</p>
+
+<p>Next day Cornwallis, leaving three regiments
+and a company of cavalry at Princeton,
+set out by the old “King’s Highway” for
+Trenton. At Maidenhead, now Lawrenceville,
+there was a skirmish between his van and the
+American outposts; thence for over five miles
+his march was harassed by irregular bodies of
+his foe, General Hand being stationed in command
+of a detachment at Shabbakong creek,
+and General Greene about a mile this side of
+Trenton. It was four o’clock, and therefore
+late in the short winter day when the English
+General reached the outskirts of the city.
+There stood Washington himself with a few
+more detachments, ready still further to delay
+the British march through the town. Withdrawing
+slowly, the last Continental crossed
+the bridge over the Assanpink in safety, to fall
+behind earthworks, which in anticipation of the
+event had been thrown up and fortified with
+batteries on the high banks behind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus097" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus097.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BATTLE OF PRINCETON—DEATH OF MERCER.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PAINTING BY COL. J. TRUMBULL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span></p>
+
+<p>The British attacked at once, but were repulsed;
+undismayed they pressed on again,
+and again they were driven back across the
+narrow stream. The spirited conflict continued
+until nightfall, when the assailants
+finally gave up and withdrew to bivouac,
+hoping to renew the fight next morning. In
+this affair on the Assanpink about a hundred
+and fifty, mostly British, were killed. Cornwallis
+dispatched messengers to summon the
+men he had left at Maidenhead and Princeton,
+determined if possible to surround, overwhelm
+and annihilate Washington next day. But the
+battle on the Assanpink was destined to be the
+only real fighting in Trenton. Washington had
+in mind the strategic move which rendered this
+campaign one of his greatest, if not his very
+greatest. He determined to outflank his foe
+by a circuitous march to Princeton over the
+unguarded road on the south side of the
+Assanpink.</p>
+
+<p>The night was dark and cold; the camp-fires
+of both lines burned strong and bright.
+Behind those of Cornwallis there was a bustle
+of preparation for the next day’s battle; behind
+those of Washington there was a stealthy
+making ready for retreat. The baggage was
+packed and dispatched to Burlington; a few
+men were detached to keep the fires well fed
+and clear; the rest silently stole away about
+midnight. Their march was long, between
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span>sixteen and eighteen miles, and difficult because
+the frost had turned the mud on the
+roads into hummocks. But at sunrise on the
+third of January the head of the column had
+crossed Stony Brook by the bridge on the
+Quaker road, and stood about a mile and three-quarters
+from Princeton, awaiting the result of
+a council of war. They were masked by the
+piece of woods which is still standing behind
+the Quaker meeting-house. It was determined
+that Washington with the main column should
+march across the fields, through a kind of
+depression in the rolling land intervening between
+the meeting-house and Princeton, in
+order to reach the town as quickly as possible.
+Mercer, with three hundred and fifty men and
+two field-pieces, was to follow the road half a
+mile farther to its junction with the King’s
+Highway, and there blow up the upper bridge
+over Stony Brook, that by which Cornwallis’s
+reserve, marching to Trenton, must cross the
+stream. This would likewise detain Cornwallis
+himself on his return in pursuit.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">There were three actions in the battle of
+Princeton. Two of the three English regiments
+left in reserve at Princeton were under
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span>way betimes to join Cornwallis at Trenton.
+One of these under Colonel Mawhood, with
+three companies of horse, had already crossed
+Stony Brook and had climbed the hill beyond,
+before they descried Mercer following the road
+in the valley below; the other was half a
+mile behind, north of the stream. Mawhood
+quickly turned back and, uniting the two, engaged
+Mercer. The Americans were armed
+with rifles which had no bayonets, and although
+nearly equal in number to the enemy they
+were first slowly then rapidly driven up the
+hill to the ridge south of the King’s Highway
+and east of the Quaker road. They stood
+firm before the firing of the English, but yielded
+when the enemy charged bayonets. In this
+encounter Mercer was severely wounded and
+left for dead. Many other officers were likewise
+wounded as they hung back, striving to
+rally the flying troops.</p>
+
+<p>Washington, hearing the firing, stopped
+immediately and, leaving the rest of his column
+to follow their line of march, put himself
+at the head of the Pennsylvania volunteers
+and wheeled. Summoning two pieces of artillery
+he turned to join the retreating forces of
+Mercer. The British reached the crest of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span>hill in pursuit before they saw Washington’s
+column. The sight brought them to a halt,
+and while they formed their artillery came
+up. It seemed to Washington a most critical
+moment. In an instant Mercer’s command
+was fused with his own men, and placing himself
+well out before the line he gave the order
+to advance. There was no halt until the
+Commander himself was within thirty yards of
+the foe; at that instant both lines volleyed
+simultaneously. The fire was hasty and ineffective.
+Washington, as if by a miracle, was
+unscathed. As the smoke blew away, an
+American brigade came in under Hitchcock,
+while Hand with his riflemen attacked the
+British flank. In a few moments Mawhood
+gave up the fight; his troops, after a few brave
+efforts, broke and retreated over the hill up the
+valley of Stony Brook. The bridge was then
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the head of the American column
+had reached the outskirts of Princeton. There,
+on the edge of the ravine now known as Springdale,
+was posted still a third British force composed
+of soldiers from the 40th and 55th Line.
+The Americans, with Stark at their head,
+attacked and drove them back as far as Nassau
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>Hall, into which the fugitives hastily threw
+themselves. From the windows scattered
+remnants of their regiments could be seen
+fleeing through fields and byways toward New
+Brunswick. The American artillery began to
+play on the walls of the building; one ball, it
+is said, crashed through the roof and tore from
+its frame the portrait of George II., hanging
+in the Prayer Hall; another is still imbedded in
+the venerable walls. A Princeton militiaman,
+with the assistance of his neighbors, finally burst
+the door and the little garrison surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>When Donop retreated from Bordentown to
+Princeton after the battle of Trenton, he threw
+up an arrow-head breastwork at the point not
+far from where Mercer and Stockton Streets
+now join; on this still lay a cannon of the size
+known as a thirty-two pounder, the carriage of
+which was dismantled. It was early morning
+when Cornwallis became aware that his expected
+battle would not be fought at Trenton;
+the roar of artillery gave him the terrible assurance
+that the blow had been struck on his
+weakened flank,—that his precious stores at
+New Brunswick were in danger. Swiftly he
+issued the necessary orders and appeared at
+the west end of the town on the King’s Highway,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span>just as Washington was leaving Princeton,
+his van having been delayed in crossing
+Stony Brook. The citizens had loaded the gun
+in the breastwork and on the approach of the
+intruders they fired it. This utterly deceived
+the English generals, for they thought themselves
+facing a well-manned battery. It was
+some time, tradition says an hour, before they
+were undeceived and in that precious interval
+Washington collected his army and marched
+away. His forces were too weak to risk the
+venture of seizing New Brunswick, even temporarily;
+accordingly he turned northwestward
+and reached Morristown in safety. There and
+at Middlebrook his headquarters practically
+remained for the rest of the war. The English
+were content to secure New Brunswick.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle of Princeton there were engaged
+somewhat under two thousand men on each
+side. The actual fighting lasted less than half
+an hour. We lost very few men—so few that
+the number cannot be accurately reckoned—possibly
+thirty; but we lost a brave general,
+Hugh Mercer, a colonel, a major, and three
+captains. The English soldiers fought with
+unsurpassed gallantry. They lost two hundred
+killed and two hundred and fifty captured, but
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span>no officers of distinction. It was not, therefore,
+a big fight, but it was none the less a
+great and decisive battle. How important
+Washington felt it to be, is attested by his
+personal exposure of himself. How decisive
+the great military critics have considered it, is
+shown by the fact that the campaign of which
+it was the finishing stroke is held by them to
+have been typical of his genius as a strategist.
+The two affairs of Trenton and Princeton are
+in the short histories of the Revolution generally
+reckoned together. And naturally so,
+since they occurred so near to one another in
+time and place. But, strategically and tactically
+examined, the battle of Trenton made
+good Washington’s position behind the Delaware;
+the battle of Princeton secured New
+Jersey and the Middle States.</p>
+
+<p>After the preliminary actions which took
+place in New England the remainder of the
+Revolution falls into three portions—the struggle
+for the Hudson, to secure communication
+between New England and the Middle States;
+the struggle for the Delaware, to secure communication
+between the Middle States and the
+South; and thirdly, the effort to regain the
+South. After the battle of Princeton, Washington
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>was able to establish a line from Amboy
+around by the west and south to Morristown;
+New England, the Middle and Southern
+States were in communication with each other
+and free. As a result of the first campaign by
+a numerous and well-equipped Anglo-German
+army the English held nothing but Newport
+in Rhode Island and New York City, with
+posts at King’s Bridge on the north and at New
+Brunswick on the south. The proof was
+finally secured that Washington with a permanent
+army such as the Colonies might, unassisted,
+have furnished him, would have been a
+match for any land force the English could
+have transported to America.</p>
+
+<p>For the remaining years of the war Princeton
+was held by the Americans. Both the
+Legislature of the State and the Council of
+Safety held their meetings within its precincts;
+for a time Putnam was in command of the little
+garrison, for a time Sullivan. Early in 1781
+thirteen hundred mutinous Pennsylvanians of
+Washington’s army marched away from Morristown
+and came in a body to Princeton.
+They were met by emissaries from Clinton who
+strove to entice them from their allegiance.
+But, though mutinous, they were not traitors,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span>for they seized the British emissaries and
+handed them over to General Wayne to be
+treated as spies. A committee of Congress appeared
+and made such arrangements as pacified
+them. In the autumn of the same year the
+victory of Yorktown was celebrated with illuminations
+and general rejoicings. The College
+was again in session with forty students
+and local prosperity was restored. In 1782
+there was held a meeting to support a continuance
+of the war.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus098" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus098.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NASSAU HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Revolutionary epoch was fitly brought
+to a close by a meeting of Congress in Nassau
+Hall. On June 20, 1783, three hundred
+Pennsylvania soldiers who were discontented
+with the terms of their discharge marched from
+Lancaster to Philadelphia and beset the doors
+of Congress, holding that assembly imprisoned
+for three hours under threat of violence if
+their wrongs were not redressed. The legislators
+resolved to adjourn to Princeton. They
+were made heartily welcome, the college halls
+were put at their disposal, and the houses of
+the citizens were hospitably opened for their
+entertainment. Their sessions were held regularly
+in the College library for over four
+months, until the fourth of November, when
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span>they adjourned to meet at Annapolis three
+weeks later. Washington was in Princeton
+twice during this time: once at commencement
+in September, when he made a present of fifty
+guineas to the trustees—a sum they spent for
+the portrait by Peale which now hangs in
+Nassau Hall, filling, it is said, the very frame
+from which that of George II. was shot away
+during the battle. The second time he came
+in October, at the request of Boudinot, President
+of Congress, and a trustee of the College,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span>to give advice concerning such weighty matters
+as the organization of a standing army to
+defend the frontiers, of a militia to maintain
+internal order, and of the military school. The
+Commander-in-Chief was received in solemn
+session and congratulated by the President on
+the success of the war. He replied in fitting
+terms. According to tradition he occupied
+while in attendance on Congress a room in
+a house now replaced by the handsome Pyne
+dormitory on the corner of Witherspoon and
+Nassau Streets, but his residence was the
+colonial mansion three miles away on the hill
+above the town of Rocky Hill which has been
+preserved as a historical monument and revolutionary
+museum by the liberality of Mrs. Josephine
+Swann. It was from this place that he
+issued his famous farewell address to the army.</p>
+
+<p>But the greatest occasion in Princeton’s
+history was on the thirty-first of the same
+month. Congress had assembled in the Prayer
+Hall to receive in solemn audience the minister
+plenipotentiary from the Netherlands. There
+were present, besides the members, Washington,
+Morris, the superintendent of finance,
+Luzerne, the French envoy, and many other
+men of eminence. The company had just
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span>assembled when news came that the Treaty of
+Peace had been signed at Versailles. Many
+brilliant and beautiful women were present, and
+their unchecked delight doubled the enthusiasm
+of all. The reception was the most splendid
+public function thus far held by the now independent
+republic. On the twenty-fifth of
+November the British evacuated New York.
+Washington left Princeton to attend the ceremony,
+and afterward journeyed by Annapolis
+to his home at Mt. Vernon. He believed that,
+his military career being concluded, he was to
+spend the rest of his days as a private gentleman.</p>
+
+<p>Providence had ordained otherwise. He had
+carried the difficult, strange and desultory War
+of the Revolution to a successful end; he
+had, by wise counsel and firmness, averted the
+dangers of a civil war which seemed imminent,
+so far as he could judge from the temper of
+those about his headquarters at Newburgh.
+Once more he was to enter the arena of embittered
+strife, but in a conflict political and not
+military. Three of the five great actions in
+which he was personally present during the
+Revolution were fought on Jersey soil; his
+next leadership was displayed in a contest
+waged in Philadelphia, but largely by Jerseymen
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span>or Princetonians. Princeton’s place in
+American history can not be understood
+without consideration of the Constitutional
+Convention, where the passions of localism,
+separatism and sectional prejudice broke forth
+afresh. The assembly contained many wise
+and far-seeing men. Of its fifty-five members,
+thirty-two were men of academic training.
+There were one each from London, Oxford,
+Edinburgh and Aberdeen, and five had been
+connected with the checkered fortunes of
+William and Mary. The University of Pennsylvania
+sent one, Columbia two, Harvard
+three, Yale four and Princeton nine. The
+most serious dissension, as is well known, was
+concerning the relative importance of large and
+small States in legislation. The Virginia, or
+large-States plan, was for two houses, basing
+representation in both on population. It was
+essentially the work of James Madison, a pupil
+of Witherspoon. The Jersey, or small-State,
+plan was for one house, wherein each State
+should have equal representation. It was the
+cherished idea of Paterson, another Princetonian.
+Over these two schemes the battle
+waged fiercely until it seemed that even Washington,
+the presiding officer, could not command
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span>peace or force a compromise, and that
+the convention was on the verge of dissolution.
+Connecticut had ever been accustomed to two
+houses—one representing the people, one the
+towns. It was the compromise suggested on
+this analogy by Sherman and Ellsworth, and
+urged by them, with the assistance of Davie
+from Georgia, which finally prevailed. Ellsworth
+and Davie were both Princetonians.
+Madison joined hands with Washington in the
+successful struggle for the acceptance of the
+new Constitution in Virginia—both Ellsworth
+and Paterson, their end attained, became the
+most ardent Federalists.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Princeton during this century
+has of course not been so dramatic as it was in
+the last, but the town and neighborhood have
+secured the permanent influence foreshadowed
+by its Revolutionary record. They shared in
+the control of State and nation, they gave
+their sons freely to the service of the country
+in each of the three wars since fought. But of
+course the story of Princeton is, in the main,
+the story of the University. Reopening its
+doors under Witherspoon with about forty
+students, its graduating class as early as 1806
+numbered fifty-four, and thence to the outbreak
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span>of the Civil War it enjoyed almost unbroken
+prosperity under four presidents, Samuel
+Stanhope Smith, Ashbel Green, James Carnahan
+and John Maclean. The first care of its
+friends was to provide for thorough training
+in science, so that it has the honor of having
+had the first American professor of chemistry.
+For a time it likewise had a professor of
+theology; but the founding of the Theological
+Seminary in 1812 and its permanent location
+in Princeton the following year committed
+that branch of learning to an institution which
+has since become one of the most important
+in the country. From time to time new buildings
+were added to both College and Seminary
+as necessity required. How stern the college
+discipline was is shown by the fact that at
+intervals, fortunately rare, students were sent
+to their homes in numbers scarcely credible
+in this quieter age; on one occasion a hundred
+and twenty-five out of something over two
+hundred. In 1824 Lafayette graciously accepted
+the degree of Bachelor of Laws from
+the authorities while passing from New York
+to Washington. In 1832 Joseph Henry was
+made professor of natural philosophy, a chair
+he held with the highest distinction, for it was
+in his Princeton laboratory that he made his
+epochal discoveries in electricity, stepping-stones
+to the revolution of the world by its
+use; in 1848 he was made director of the
+Smithsonian Institute. In 1846 was organized
+a Law School; its three professors were men of
+the highest distinction, but the project was
+premature. In 1855 flames destroyed all but
+the walls of Nassau Hall, whereupon it was
+speedily remodelled as it still stands; the
+variation, slight as it was from the original,
+appears to have been in the interest of economy
+rather than beauty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus099" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus099.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PRESIDENT JAMES McCOSH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span></p>
+
+<p>The only serious check in Princeton’s prosperity
+was caused by the Civil War. Though
+a large proportion of the students had always
+come from the Southern States, the rest were
+enthusiastic in their Northern sympathies, and
+the national flag was hoisted by them over
+Nassau Hall in April, 1861. The minority
+tore it down, but it was promptly restored to
+its place by a gallant citizen of the town, who
+in climbing to the apex of the cupola twisted
+the shaft of the weather-vane and fixed the
+arrow with its head to the north. Thus it
+remained until conciliation was complete a
+few years since (1896), when the pivot was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span>repaired so that the historic index may point
+in all directions at the will of the winds. The
+withdrawal of the Southern students left the
+numbers of the ever-loyal University at a low
+ebb, and it was not until after the accession of
+James McCosh to the presidency that the
+new clientage which has so munificently supported
+him and his successor was secured. It
+is also gratifying to note that the sons of the
+old Princeton Confederates are returning in
+ever greater numbers. The presidencies of
+Dr. McCosh and Dr. Patton are too near to
+belong to history. The evidences of the enormous
+strides made in material equipment are
+on every hand: splendid and beautiful buildings,
+professors of distinction in great numbers,
+and a body of students numbering, along with
+those of the Seminary, about fifteen hundred.
+Near by is the famous Lawrenceville School,
+itself an epochal institution in the history of
+our secondary training. Wherever men converse
+of science, literature or art, the names
+of Princeton’s sons must be considered; but
+her chiefest glory thus far has been in her
+contributions to political and educational life.
+Representative of a definite theory and practice
+in her sphere, she breeds men in abundance
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span>to uphold her banner in the face of all
+assaults.</p>
+
+<p>Time, place and the men—these are the
+factors of history; the first and the last vanish,
+the scenes alone remain. If history is to be
+made real, if we are to know in the concrete,
+from the experience of the men and women
+who have left the stage, what alone is possible
+for ourselves and our race, we do well to see
+and ponder the places which knew those who
+have gone before. Princeton possesses, in
+Nassau Hall, a focus of patriotism—a cradle of
+liberty. In her battle-field, the spot where culminated
+one of the greatest
+campaigns of one of
+the greatest of generals;
+and in her sons one sees
+the triumph of the moral
+forces which combine in
+true greatness. The lesson
+to be learned from
+Princeton’s historic scenes should be that intellect
+and not numbers controls the world; that
+ideas and not force overmaster bigness; that
+truth and right, supported by strong purpose
+and high principle, prevail in the end.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus100" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus100.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF PRINCETON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header5.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PHILADELPHIA">PHILADELPHIA</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE CITY PENN FOUNDED AND TO WHICH FRANKLIN GAVE DISTINCTION</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By TALCOTT WILLIAMS</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Cities are of nature. Their long life
+flows in ways she has made longer than
+the changing rule of which they are part.
+Nations and boundaries are of man and his
+laws. Artificial creations all. Cities and their
+sites are of the same forces as form the
+rivers and ports, the passes and pathways on
+which they stand and last as long. Rome outlives
+its empire, and Damascus the shock of
+massacre from Chedorlaomer to Timur. The
+cities of Europe are still where they were
+twenty centuries ago. The civil structure into
+which they fit has changed until nothing is left
+of what once was. These things are missed
+in the general. They come to be seen in the
+particular.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span></p>
+
+<p>Philadelphia stands, and necessarily stands
+on the straight, ruler-like “Falls line” which
+passes through every city site from New York
+to Montgomery, because this prodigious slip
+changes river navigation wherever it crosses a
+river valley. Where marine navigation stopped
+to-day and then, Penn put his city, its site
+a peninsula about which two rivers joined, a
+rich alluvial plain, covered with glacial clay,
+with schistose rocks cropping out across it, the
+palæozoic marble of the Atlantic coast hard
+by, and a strip of green serpentine crossing
+the country from the highest points in the
+future limits of the city to Chester County,
+its first granary and feeding ground. These
+things—the half-sunken Lower Delaware River
+spreading into Delaware Bay, the term of
+navigation at the junction of two rivers, and
+the abrupt approach to the sea of a formation
+elsewhere miles from the ocean—make Philadelphia
+all it is in outer look, a flat city built
+of its own clay, garnished with its own marble,
+a seaport knowing the sea only in its rivers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus101" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus101.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN OLD FRENCH PRINT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span></p>
+
+<p>In this inland port, as you float in either
+river, seafaring masts and main rigging, black
+and tarred, silhouette against the tender green
+of growing fields. The early houses were
+brick of the glacier’s leaving, matching London
+in color; for both are ground out of the same
+earth mill. Its early stone houses were of the
+narrow contorted gray schists, and marble quarries
+had been opened, exhausted and closed
+to trim the brick before the Revolution.
+Later these were varied by the green serpentine,
+a hideous, dull color, the red sandstone
+of the fertile inland plains, and at last, as railroads
+made it easy to seek a door-step 1,000
+miles away, the marble of Vermont built
+the City Hall, the granites of Cape Ann the
+Post Office, and Ohio ashlar a growing number
+of private homes, matching London once
+more as a close congener of the Portland stone
+Penn saw builded into St. Paul’s. The outer
+resemblance to London noted by Matthew
+Arnold and many an one besides, rests, as such
+things do, on concrete fact.</p>
+
+<p>William Penn in 1682 came into no empty
+Western world. The Dutch and Swede had
+been entering these waters for near a century.
+They were charted, tracked and known. Uneasy
+frontier alarms were over. Farms dotted
+all the region. For the first time, in <i>Fox’s
+Journal</i>, a decade before Penn, we catch the
+accent and atmosphere of the American settler
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>living lonely and safe. He was as yet neither
+of these in New England, New York or the
+Southern States. The Swedes had left their
+work in Swedes’ Church, with its timber, roof
+and tower recalling North Europe, as its carved
+angels do the wood sculpture of the pine forest.
+There was a tavern, the Blue Anchor, possibly
+(not probably) still standing, waiting for Penn
+at the little boat harbor, now Dock Street.
+A thriving commerce of a ship a week was
+already busying the river with its boats. On
+the crest of the low hill that rose from this
+boat-haven, Penn planted the house which now
+stands in the Park. On this crest ran Market,
+and where the land began to dip to the Schuylkill,
+Broad Street crossed, the first streets to be
+run by the prospector and real-estate speculator,
+on a plan by whose geometrical extensions
+both are still guided, in these days of new
+boulevards in old cities the oldest and least
+changed of any city plan in civilized lands.
+On this background of growing farms and
+frequent vessels, Penn sketched the Commonwealth.
+He and his were fortunate in his
+bringings. He came from Central England,
+that central mark and beach line from which
+so large a portion of the worthier of the race
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span>spring. He drew his settlers in the north of
+the kingdom from the line of Fox’s trips,
+whose Cumberland and Lancashire converts
+dotted the region about Philadelphia with
+names familiar in his <i>Journal</i>, Lancaster,
+Swarthmore, Merion, and Haverford. All
+South England had been stirred by Monmouth’s
+Rebellion and the Revolution, the
+work of the South as the Commonwealth had
+its leader in the North. Philadelphia, therefore,
+drew chiefly from Saxon, and less from
+Danish or Celtic England, than had New
+England. Its leaders came from the thrifty
+business classes of London, “city” people, instead
+of from the gentry as had Virginia’s.
+Ten years later, Louis was harrying the Palatinate,
+and a German population, skilled in
+the mechanic arts, came and gave Philadelphia
+its manufacturing foundation. Penn was pietistic,
+his mother was from Holland, and this
+gave him continental acquaintance and sympathy
+with continental dissent, which later
+brought the Moravians and gave the colony
+relations with Central Europe, an early and
+prolific press, and patience with political oppression,
+a dubious virtue still surviving.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus102" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus102.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THOMAS PENN.</p>
+      <p>FROM A PAINTING OWNED BY THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, AND COPIED BY
+    M. I. NAYLOR FROM THE PORTRAIT IN POSSESSION OF MAJOR DUGALD STUART.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus103" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus103.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SECOND STREET, PHILADELPHIA, SHOWING THE OLD COURTHOUSE ON THE LEFT.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN ENGRAVING MADE BY BIRCH &amp; SON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span></p>
+
+<p>The town grew like a weed and as rank.
+Grain was cheap, thanks to the limestone plain
+just beyond the low primitive rocks. Trade
+flowed in from the West Indies and Europe.
+In thirty years the place was bigger than any in
+the provinces. The Proprietor’s square house
+set the fashion, built from imported brick.
+Farmsteads on the road out to the German
+town of the new immigrants were built of the
+gray schists of the region. Ship-building began.
+Pirates lurked in the river below. The
+Proprietor’s official residence, now gone, fronted
+on the fouling pool where boats came, and
+matched the English country-house of South
+England. A little State House, which closely
+resembled in outer look the market-house of
+the same period on Second Street to the south,
+was built on Market Street, near the open rising
+ground on which Letitia Penn’s dwelling
+stood. Merchants’ homes were on its low hill;
+some of those still there are probably of this
+period when of imported brick. There is a
+row of houses on Swanson Street recalling the
+mechanics’ homes. In green quiet still held,
+the Friends’ meeting-house was erected—the
+present building far later. Low houses and
+warehouses clustered about what is now Dock
+Street—probably not one left. The swarm of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span>some two thousand houses stretched along the
+river for what is now a square or two. Beyond
+were a few fields. Dense forests stood
+to the Schuylkill, and crowned all the little
+hills about, save that Fairmount stood bare,
+as is indeed the fashion of the sterile, rocky
+height. Schools were opened, of which one
+survives in the “Penn charter” school on
+Twelfth and Market. The city began its chartered
+existence, and the portraits of its first
+mayors, whose descendants are still part of the
+active life of the city, recall those of Guildhall,
+not as with like New England iconography,
+the Puritan remonstrants of James and Charles.
+An almanac was issued from the press of Bradford,
+whose solitary copy in the Historical
+Society begins printing for the State. A polyglot
+literature was in progress, apparent in
+more than one collection. The long, low,
+brick-built town left its image in 1720 in the
+picture in the entrance of the Philadelphia
+Library. Market stalls filled the river end of
+the street to which they gave a name, and
+these the civic organization, the peak-towered
+State House, the courts, the brick houses, the
+Proprietor’s residence, the city ordinances, the
+entire machinery of life, followed and imitated
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span>as closely as might be, on the edge of the
+wilderness, the market borough of an English
+shire. The town had had its first big boom
+and was near wallowing in its first reaction,—houses
+empty, more money in demand, debts
+oppressive, and all hope gone, when (1723)
+the great genius, Benjamin Franklin, who was
+to be its second founder and save it from
+Friend and Precisian, Palatinate Dutch, German,
+and Pietist, walked up Market Street
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span>and turned down Fourth in early morning.
+He was to give Philadelphia its better civilization.
+For near seventy years, he was to be, so
+far as the civilized world was concerned, the
+city and all in it worth knowing. By supreme
+good fortune all his past, or at least as much
+as it is desirable to know, is laid bare to
+the visitor. The houses in which he is said
+to have had his lodging as apprentice—old
+enough for this, at least—look down from
+Lodge Street on Dock Square. His old
+home on Market, between Third and Fourth,
+is long since gone, but it stood back from the
+street and was doubtless of the type of the
+roomy old houses now on Third south of Walnut,
+or the house of Hamilton in Woodlawn
+Cemetery. The letter-books of Franklin, with
+his correspondence for over twenty years, are at
+the American Philosophical Society which he
+founded, which first commemorated his death,
+and, a century later, the centenary of his obsequies.
+The best of his portraits is there,
+Houdon’s bust of the old man, and the roomy-seated
+chair of “Dr. Heavysides.” His dress
+buckles are in the Historical Society, and the
+teacups over which he bowed his compliments,
+and some speeches which Madame Helvetius
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span>rightly held more dearer than compliments,
+frowsy as Mrs. Adams found her. There, too,
+is the dubious portrait, which, whether it is
+Franklin in his youth or no, looks the youth
+of his male descendants. Part of his electric
+machine, and his printing-press, are in the
+Franklin Institute, part in the Philadelphia Library,
+which he also founded, and a Leyden jar,
+perhaps of the great experiment, at the American
+Philosophical Society. The fire-bucket
+of his company, and the sword he wore in his
+brief but not inglorious military service, are
+in the Historical Society. One probable site
+of the field in which he flew his kite is filled by
+the present Record building. His statue is on
+the front of the library at Juniper and Locust;
+another—worthy—is to the right on Chestnut
+Street, looking on the flow of men and women
+in the city life he loved, for in the country
+he never willingly spent a day. Not a stage
+of his life but can still be followed by the
+historical pilgrim in Philadelphia. He can
+follow in Franklin’s steps,—the steep slope
+up which he walked to enter—with old landing-stairs
+still in place south of Market—the
+Fourth Street corner, the site of his job office,
+the purlieus of Dock Street, from whence came
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span>the mire that never quite left his garments,
+the lots of the Market Street home where his
+better years were passed, his pew at Christ’s
+Church, the State House he entered for a half-century
+in so many capacities—King’s officer,
+contractor, colonial legislator, rebellious congressman,
+signer of the Declaration and Constitution,—his
+eye through all the years on the
+gilded sun one can yet trace on the back of
+the President’s chair—and last, when his own
+sun was at its setting, as member of the Constitutional
+Convention of his own State, and
+his modest grave at Fifth and Arch, where
+one may still uncover at the last memory of
+the most human of all Americans. Most of
+us, least of other lands, prefiguring in life,
+work, and character our invincible patience,
+our good humor, our quenchless curiosity, our
+careless disorder in trifles, our easy success in
+serious affairs, our sluttish phrase, our high
+spirit, the even equality of our manners,
+our perpetual relish for the simple environment
+and the homelier joys of our life, our
+neglect of means and detail, our perseverance
+and achievement in the final end, our
+self-consciousness and our easy conviction
+that neither fate itself, nor our own careless
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span>disregard of a less wise past, can rob us of our
+appointed place in the advancing files of time.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="illus104" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus104.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FRANKLIN IN 1777.</p>
+      <p>AFTER THE PRINT REPRODUCED FROM THE DRAWING OF COHIN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus105" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus105.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE PHILADELPHIA LIBRARY.</p>
+      <p>THE OLD BUILDING ON FIFTH STREET, NOW DEMOLISHED. FROM THE ENGRAVING BY W. BIRCH &amp; SON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Franklin’s busy march through these streets
+bridged two great periods. His half-century
+before the Revolution, fifty-two years from his
+landing to Lexington, was a season of prodigious
+material expansion whose signs are all
+about the city. Then were built those pleasant
+places in the Park, and homes like that of
+John Penn’s in the Zoölogical Garden, ending
+in the privateer’s house which was later to be
+Arnold’s headquarters, to-day Mt. Pleasant.
+John Bartram built his stone house, set up its
+pillars and laid out his Botanical Garden, both
+happily standing and city property, his cypress
+alone dead,—slow failing through the years in
+which one lover has each spring sought it,—but
+much of his sylvan wealth remains, still a
+record of his science and of the economic conditions
+which gave him means for his long and
+costly trips. For when there were neither
+roads nor railroads the “distance-rent” of
+farm land near a city was enormous. The
+farm hard by swept in all the profit of days of
+teaming of which the railroad has long since
+robbed it and diffused it over a wide area,
+levelling up, as is our American way. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span>home, the life, the leisure, the acquaintance
+and the society possible 150 years ago to a
+man who farmed suburban acres are all attested
+when you stand in Bartram’s garden by
+the river on the gray rock of the only rock
+wine-press this side of the Atlantic, and remember
+that on this curving path Washington,
+Franklin, Hancock, Rittenhouse, Morris,
+and Kalm, and a score more of the century’s
+great, supped in the cool, open evening with a
+host whom the first two found at a sudden
+coming bare-headed, barefooted and plowing.
+The Revolutionary houses of the environs tell
+of the farm-profits of this period; so do the
+“clasped hands” and the “green tree” on the
+fronts of the olden homes—few or none dating
+back of the Revolution—which record the organization
+of rival insurance companies; the
+earliest building of the Pennsylvania Hospital
+on Pine with quaint old-world aspect, the little
+strip of wall at Tenth and Spruce, once part of
+the almshouse which Longfellow blended with
+the hospital in <i>Evangeline</i>; Carpenters’ Hall,
+the only Guild house in the colonies; the bit
+of wall still standing of the brewery at Fifth
+and Wharton; of the first play-house in the city
+and, most important of all, the two chief colonial
+monuments of the city, Christ Church and
+Independence Hall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus106" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus106.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CARPENTERS’ HALL, PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+      <p>WHEREIN MET THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, 1774.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus107" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus107.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE PENNSYLVANIA HOSPITAL.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING BY W. BIRCH &amp; SON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span></p>
+
+<p>These buildings mark much. The city from
+a mere “Front” Street on the river, and two behind
+it, had grown up to Seventh and Eighth
+in a half ellipse which ran in thriving homes
+from Kensington, grew thronged about Chestnut,
+now passing Market in the race,—so that
+Market and Arch have the oldest house-fronts
+to-day,—and then thinned out again towards
+the scene of the Mischienza. In this area are
+scattered the mansions of the Colonial and immediate
+post-Revolutionary period, with Mrs.
+Ross’s house on Arch Street as type of the
+mechanic’s dwelling of the day, happily preserved
+and now bought as a memorial of the
+flag first made there. Beyond them begins
+the modern city of this century, of machine-made
+brick, of lumber sawed by steam, and
+house plans fitted to the growing value of
+the city lot. The growth which thus expanded
+the city of Penn into the city of Franklin
+was no mere accretion of population. It
+came of a profitable trade, of a share in adventures
+by sea and land, not always legal, and
+always dangerous, and of a close connection
+between the merchants of this city and those
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span>of London, from which the ancestors of more
+than one Philadelphia Friend were drawn, for
+Penn had borne his testimony in the Grace
+Church and Wheeler Street meeting-houses in
+London. When the richer men of the city
+came to erect its chief church, it was Gibbs’s
+St. Martin in the Fields which suggested the
+interior of the building on Second Street, and
+it was London brick architecture which was
+followed in Independence Hall and its open
+arches,—now restored,—despoiling the record
+of recent history to decorate and sometimes
+disfigure an earlier period, as is the manner
+and method of restoration the world over.
+These buildings in their size, their grace, their
+Georgian flavor, their cost,—for both were extravagant
+as times then went,—stood for an
+opulent mercantile connection between the
+metropolis of colonial and of royal England, a
+connection never quite lost, as the resemblance
+of the younger city to the older has never
+quite vanished. New York suggests Paris in
+spots, but no Philadelphian in his wildest flight
+ever thought that Philadelphia did.</p>
+
+<p>When the Revolution came, Philadelphia
+sacrificed its English trade as promptly as
+ninety years later the city, loyal to its principles,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span>sacrificed its Southern trade, and in
+both times and both sacrifices New York
+lagged to the rear in action and came to the
+front in assertion. Independence Hall still
+looked out on green fields to the west, and
+Rittenhouse’s little observatory—earliest of
+American star-gazing spots, whose telescope,
+earliest of our astronomical instruments, is in
+the American Philosophical Society—still
+stood in the square where Howe’s artillery was
+to be parked. The jail of “Hugh Wynne”
+was on the southeast corner of Sixth and
+Chestnut, on whose site Binney’s home was
+to stand later, the hero of another struggle for
+freedom. In the northeast corner of Washington
+Square was the potter’s field, last
+opened a century ago for yellow-fever victims.
+The house, Dutch built, and hence close to the
+street edge, in which Jefferson was to write
+the draft of the Declaration, preserved by
+the American Philosophical Society, was on
+Seventh and Market, its commemoration tablet
+on the wrong lot. A tavern fronted the
+Hall, and its stables ran opposite to the main
+door, its flies worrying the Continental Congress
+on a hot historic afternoon. The sharp
+rise which still ascends between Callowhill and
+Spring Garden was crested by the British
+works, of which the first was at Second and
+Poplar. From the Market Street Bridge it is
+still possible to make out the hill on which
+Hamilton planted his field-pieces to engage
+the British <i>tête-du-pont</i>, held by the 72d Highlanders.
+The Hessians camped in the open
+space at Gray’s Ferry, as the bridge of many
+years is still called. The stately house which
+held the Mischienza has disappeared only
+within a few years. The houses on the main
+street of Germantown still bear the mark of
+the battle, and look unchanged on the street
+whose fogs still veil it as on the day of conflict.
+The city now had from the river the sky-line
+which it substantially retained up to twenty
+years ago, when the steeples and the towers
+the Revolutionary period knew were dwarfed
+by the many-storied steel frames of to-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus108" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus108.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, BEFORE 1876.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="illus109" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus109.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE MORRIS HOUSE, GERMANTOWN, PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The returning tide of prosperity after the
+Revolution has left one mark in the Morris
+dwelling on the south side of Eighth, between
+Locust and Walnut, type of the wealthy
+home of the day. The biggest of the period
+was Robert Morris’s, on the site of the Press
+Building, left as his “folly.” The peak-roofed
+house in roomy squares now gave way for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span>thirty years to the house built flush to the
+street, which in the generation between 1790
+and 1820 spread the growing city up to Tenth
+Street or so, and of which many are left.
+With this growth dwellings pushed beyond
+South on one side and beyond Vine on the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span>other, the fringe of the city limits becoming
+an Alsatia still apparent, mechanics’ homes
+crowding just beyond as they still do, until
+met north and even south by more pretentious
+dwellings. In this thirty years the city grew
+from 42,000 to 108,000, and it faced first the
+problem to which only the American and
+Australian city has proved fully equal in all
+the round of semitropical summers north or
+south of the equator. The city, as it inherited
+from England its city government, had also
+inherited from there its well-water supply, its
+surface drainage, its slovenly streets, its practice
+of crowding the homes of the poor on
+back lots, so as to fill the area on which they
+stood with unsavory wynds, and its habit of
+intramural interment and intramural slaughter-houses,
+all which, even the Latin cities of two
+thousand years ago, taught by hotter summers,
+had outgrown. In the tepid temperature and
+light but even rain-fall in England these
+worked few ills until the middle of this century.
+Under our torrid summer, our tropical
+rain-fall, and our swift changes, all these things
+meant disease and death, and the unconscious
+problem which faced the city a century ago
+and left its mark on the map was recorded in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span>yellow fever, born of water-supply and filth
+together with overcrowding, and all the evils
+of bad water and overcrowding.</p>
+
+<p>Water-works were at last built, the most
+considerable then known, their site where the
+Public Buildings stand and their picture in
+the Historical Society; a systematic street
+scavenging began, building on the back of
+lots was prohibited, years before New York,
+and two generations before the European city;
+a fixed yardage, small, but sufficient to transform
+the city map, was required of each dwelling;
+paving and sewerage commenced, the
+almshouse was moved, a city hospital was established,
+and a most important legal decision
+made easy the purchase of house lots by the
+poor and frugal. The solution was not complete.
+Typhoid lurks where yellow fever once
+raged, but crowding was prevented and the
+city has no slums in the region outside of the
+area which has been built over since the ordinances
+of the first twenty to thirty years of
+this century stopped overcrowding and saved
+its poorer citizens from the awful fate inflicted
+by the titled avarice and civic mislegislation of
+London and Glasgow. Nor ought any one to
+look across the Schuylkill from the Zoölogical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span>Garden at the lovely and related group which
+houses the Fairmount Water-works without a
+thrill of pride that this was the beginning of
+the problem of preserving health in heat and
+rain, which since the world began had meant
+pestilence to the city in like climes. As is the
+American habit, the supply
+looked first to quantity, and
+later to quality; and as is
+also the American habit,
+both will be secured in the
+end. So the large provision
+for the almshouse of seventy
+years ago has given the
+space for the University and its buildings, its
+cognate institutions, hospitals and museums,
+taken collectively, one of the most liberal
+grants made by any modern city to the work
+of higher education not under its own control,
+a grant which owed its initiative and early success
+to Dr. William Pepper, whose statue overlooks
+the site he secured to learning and to
+science. There the University has grown,
+covered its site with a score of buildings,
+added department to department, doubled
+its students in a decade, received more in
+gifts under its present Provost, Mr. Charles
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span>C. Harrison, than had come to it in all
+the century and a half of its history, knit
+the community to it and given it intellectual
+leadership by a group of affiliated
+societies, linked itself to the public schools
+by municipal scholarships supported by the
+city, opened courses for teachers, spread
+its lectures over the State and in all ways
+made itself not only an institution of learning
+for students, but of teaching for the
+community.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus110" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus110.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DR. WILLIAM PEPPER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus111" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus111.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>FRANK THOMSON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The development of civic institutions in the
+first quarter of the century was accompanied
+by the founding, each to-day housed in conspicuous
+recent edifices of the past decade, of
+State-aided institutions for the Deaf and Dumb,
+1820, for the Blind, 1833, and the House of
+Refuge, 1828. This philanthropic impulse
+came, as such generally does, as part of a
+rapid material development which, in a score
+of years ending with the commercial crash of
+1837-39, had laid the foundations of the manufacturing
+activity and the internal commerce
+of Philadelphia. It was in this period that
+the Music Fund Hall (1824), Eighth above
+South, was built. The Exchange, 1832, the
+most pretentious building of its day, was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span>erected near the close of the period, and the
+pillared row, following a London model, was
+built on Spruce between Ninth and Tenth, the
+largest and most costly private dwellings of its
+day. The next Colonnade row, nearly twenty
+years later, occupied the site, and gave the
+name to the Colonnade Hotel,
+Fifteenth and Chestnut.
+St. Mark’s and St. Luke’s
+stood for opposite extremes
+of the church edifices of the
+forties. The taste of the
+Federalists and Whigs of
+the day filled the city with
+the pseudo-classic, from which Europe was just
+departing—the United States bank, now the
+Custom-house, the Mint, the building in which
+Girard had his bank, back of the Exchange,
+and lastly Girard College, not easily forgot,
+however unfit for its purpose, if once seen
+from St. George’s hill on its airy height. The
+ship-building firm of Cramps was established
+1830, and Baldwin’s Locomotive Works 1837,
+both products of the same period of activity.
+Ten years later began the Pennsylvania railroad
+comparable to a kingdom in revenue
+power and the ability of chiefs like Frank
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span>Thomson. The city flowed across Broad
+Street, and solid blocks pushed their way in
+brick and white marble, turning later to New
+York’s brown-stone, up each flank of the city
+on Pine and on Arch, spreading out in an area
+beyond Broad Street, which the crash of credit,
+and the failure of the State for a season to pay
+the interest on its bonds, left tenantless, often
+roofless, covered with mortgages and the prediction,
+heard first under Governor Keith,
+1725, repeated within this decade, that the city
+would never need the houses which a boom
+had erected.</p>
+
+<p>The city of the period before the war had
+now been built and the suburbs had grown
+close to the consolidation of 1854. Railroad
+access had created, across the Schuylkill, the
+village of Mantua, which was to become West
+Philadelphia as it extended southward and
+was reached by new bridges and street-car
+lines. To the north, just beyond the old
+British redoubts, factory owners, managers
+and foremen, mechanics and operatives, with
+the retailers they required, had built their
+homes on the higher ground, north of the
+great industries growing on the low and lightly
+taxed land, easily accessible by railroads from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span>the coal-fields, beyond the old city limits at
+Vine, and extending to Callowhill and beyond.
+This created the city of Spring Garden. The
+river settlements, the Northern Liberties, Kensington,
+Richmond, grew under the triple influence
+of manufacturers and cheap coal, out
+of the villages whose farm-houses, taverns and
+mechanics’ dwellings of the early years of the
+century still dot the raw newer dwellings of
+the past forty years. Like settlements had
+grown in Southwark and Manayunk. The
+gaps and sutures still remain to mark the old
+divisions. The squalid stretches of South
+Street from river to river, for nearly a century
+the resort of cheap stores which sought city
+trade, and avoided city taxes. The like ragged
+selvedge along Vine, influenced, too, along
+much of the line by low, open ground. The
+gap fringing both banks of the Schuylkill, marking
+days when the railroad and the Market
+Street bridge made the more distant uprise of
+Fortieth Street more accessible than the lower
+region nearer. The bare and vacant patches
+about Germantown Junction, over which the
+old village has never quite grown down to meet
+the approaching city, where for various reasons
+of grade, access was not easy, and where
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span>institutions like Girard College and the Penitentiary,
+with a cemetery or two, like rocks in
+a moving stream, have stopped and divided
+the glacier-like spread of the city. These
+things have made Philadelphia, like London, a
+city of accretions from divers centres, and
+not, like Paris or New York, a steady, symmetrical
+and continuous growth from one
+organic centre.</p>
+
+<p>The war found a city which, united, had
+more than the area of London (Philadelphia,
+82,807 acres; London, 74,692), and at almost
+every stage of the growth of the two a quarter
+of the population of the vaster metropolis.
+Since room is the chief factor in civic comfort,
+there has never been a year in which the
+average man has not been just about four
+times as comfortable in Philadelphia as in
+London, and he has always had higher wages
+by a quarter to a half, paid less for food and
+lodgings, and paid more for clothing, light and
+coal. He has lived here, a family to a house,
+where a quarter of London has been a family
+to two rooms. Most of all, for twenty years
+past has this growth of the small houses of
+labor gone on, their number swelling faster
+than the tale of families seeking them. These
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span>conditions, secured by a wise civic policy early
+in the century, had reached the full development,
+which they have since maintained,
+at the opening of the war. Inexpressibly
+dull was the extension the city now made,
+the dreary reaches of homes, which oppress
+the stranger west of Eleventh Street, and
+appear in unvarying blocks on the North and
+South Streets, the building operations of the
+’40s and ’50s, in whose even rows were the last,
+worst expression of the dull, utilitarian spirit
+of the pre-war, pre-centennial period. Napoleon
+LeBrun built the Cathedral and the
+Academy of Music, a brick shell holding a
+shapely and grandiose interior, and Walton and
+McArthur added to the pseudo-classic. When
+the Jayne Block went up on Chestnut, east of
+Third, it was believed to be the largest single
+business building yet erected on the continent.
+The Girard, 1852, was one of its largest hotels,
+and echoed the Italian palace front which
+Barry had taught London in his Reform Club.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus112" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus112.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.</p>
+      <p>STATE HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span></p>
+
+<p>The development in manufactures after the
+war, railroad expansion and the somewhat deceptive
+prosperity of the Centennial gave the
+city the same sudden burst which Chicago had
+in 1893, and Philadelphia took on the aspect
+in the next twenty years, 1876 to 1896, which
+the great city will always hold. Cheap freights
+poured in new building-stones, and the easily
+worked green serpentine was used in the University
+buildings and the Academy of Natural
+Science on Logan Square. It was employed in
+the Academy of Fine Arts, less agreeable than
+the earlier front of the same institution, now a
+theatre on Chestnut. The architectural impulse
+first felt at the Centennial broke up the
+traditions of a century, and building of the last
+twenty-five years, often <i>bizarre</i>, always shows,
+even in the humblest row, intent, design and
+recognition, however uncouth, of the just claim
+of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The seeing eye and loving can still trace all
+these changes of a century. The very kernel
+of the city, and its warehouses about Dock
+Square, and the river front, the expansion before
+the Revolution, the pause just after, the
+growth in the period after 1787, the addition
+early in the century and the great growth
+before and after the war and for twenty years
+past. Each has its character and quality, its
+message and purport, and these as they extended
+have met a growth as distinct and
+recognizable, north, west and south. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span>marks of these things and their metes and
+bounds, the current and course of population,
+the monuments of the past, the changing fashion
+of each decade and the desire of the
+present, these are all written in this moving
+tide of houses which has flooded all the wood-grown
+fields of two centuries ago. Generation
+by generation has seen a wider comfort,
+a higher level of life, an improving education
+and more abundant resource for the Many for
+whom this city has always existed. Dull, sordid,
+narrow, much of this life has been. From
+its dawn, it has had its seasons of stagnant
+corruption, and Penn but wrote the despair of
+all who have served it since,
+yet no man has labored and
+lived in it but has come to
+know its charm, to feel its
+life, to trust to the sure tides
+of its being, welling always
+towards a more complete
+comfort, and to love this vast amorphous city
+which broods over its children with a perpetual
+home nurture.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus113" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus113.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header2.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WILMINGTON">WILMINGTON</h2>
+
+<p class="center">“Her mingled streams of Swedish, Dutch and English blood.”</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By E. N. VALLANDIGHAM</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>When the adventurous William Usselinx,
+native of Antwerp and merchant of
+Stockholm, was growing old, he proposed to
+King Gustavus Adolphus that Sweden organize
+a trading company to operate in Asia,
+Africa, America, and Terra Magellanica. The
+King lent ear to Usselinx, and Usselinx was
+able to picture to the Swedish people the
+beauty and fertility of the region bordering on
+the Delaware, “a fine land, in which all the
+necessaries and comforts of life are to be enjoyed
+in overflowing abundance.” The proposed
+plans sped well for a time; the King
+pledged a great sum from the royal treasury
+in aid of the new company, and the Swedish
+people, nobles and commons, subscribed to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span>stock. But the King was shortly to be busied
+in the wars of Germany, and when he died at
+his great victory of Lützen, the plans of Usselinx
+were yet unexecuted. One biographer of
+Gustavus, indeed, says that the little fleet intended
+for America was seized by the Spaniards,
+but it is by no means certain that such
+a fleet ever set sail.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Christina, the daughter of Gustavus,
+permitted her able chancellor, Oxenstiern, to
+revive the charter of Usselinx, and Oxenstiern
+employed to take out a Swedish colony to the
+Delaware probably the fittest man in all the
+world for that task, Peter Minuet, sometime
+Governor of New Netherlands, driven from
+his post by the jealous factors that they
+might put in his place the more pliant Walter
+Van Twiller, surnamed the Doubter. The
+exact date of Minuet’s expedition is unknown,
+but Kieft, who succeeded Van Twiller in the
+Governorship of New Netherlands, made protest
+in May, 1638, against the presence upon
+the Delaware of Peter Minuet, “who stylest
+thyself commander in the service of her
+Majesty the Queen of Sweden.” Kieft warned
+Peter “that the whole South River [the Delaware]
+of the New Netherlands, both the upper
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span>and the lower, has been our property for many
+years, occupied by our forts, and sealed by our
+blood.”</p>
+
+<p>When Kieft’s protest reached the newly
+arrived Swedes, they were already in snug
+quarters on the edge of the River Minquas, as
+the Indians called it, or Christina, as the newcomers
+named it (set down on modern maps
+as Christiana, but in the mouths of those that
+navigate its waters, called Christeen); for they
+had sailed up the Delaware in the <i>Bird Grip</i>,
+or <i>Griffin</i>, and the <i>Key of Calmar</i>, and entering
+the Minquas, had come to anchor in
+deep water close against a natural wharf of
+rock, well within the present limits of Wilmington.
+Thus was made the true beginning of the
+city, though no part of the region it now occupies
+bore the name of Wilmington until a
+full century later.</p>
+
+<p>The newcomers built close to their original
+place of anchorage a little fort, and behind it
+a little village. Hudde, the Dutch commander
+at Fort Nassau, thirty miles up the Delaware,
+describing the Swedish fortification
+seven years later, says that it was “nearly encircled
+by a marsh, except on the northwest
+side, where it can be approached by land.”
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span>The fort was then and for years afterward, the
+only place of worship in the immediate region,
+and here from the founding of the colony
+the Rev. Reorus Torkillius, a Swedish clergyman
+of Latinized name, conducted the Lutheran
+service in the Swedish language. Thus
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span>church and state were planted together. Pastor
+Campanius, who came five years after
+Torkillius, found that beside Fort Christina
+had sprung up the village of Christina Harbor,
+or Christinaham, and Engineer Lindstrom,
+who came when the settlement was
+not yet twenty years old, has left us a map of
+this earliest Wilmington.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="illus114" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus114.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PLAN OF CHRISTINA FORT, 1655.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Before the Dutch had time to call the Swedish
+intruders to a reckoning Minuet died,
+and John Prinz was sent out as Governor.
+There had been the short intervening reign of
+Peter Hollendare. Prinz came under a cloud,
+having lost his rank as First Lieutenant by
+his over-hasty surrender of Chemnitz. Probably
+this fact may account for his restless
+energy as Governor of New Sweden. He
+sought to regain in the new world repute
+lost in the old. Prinz came with two ships,
+an armed transport, munitions of war, troops,
+and many immigrants, and with instructions
+to maintain and promote piety and education,
+to develop the resources of the colony, agricultural
+and mineral, to make friends with
+the Indians, and to live at peace with all
+neighboring Europeans. But he was to resent
+by force of arms, if need be, the pretensions of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span>the Dutch to any territorial or other rights
+upon the west side of the Delaware.</p>
+
+<p>Prinz built at Tinicum, or Tenacong as the
+Indians called it, near the present city of
+Chester, Pennsylvania, a fort to threaten the
+Dutch Fort Nassau, above; and likewise at the
+mouth of Salem Creek, on the Jersey shore,
+where the English had a small settlement, he
+built Fort Elfsborg, or Elsinborough. Both
+were promptly armed and garrisoned. He
+built still another fort, this time on the Schuylkill,
+within gunshot of its mouth, and in 1646
+he ordered a Dutch trading-vessel from that
+river. Furthermore, he caused to be torn
+down with despiteful words the arms of the
+Dutch, set up in sign of possession upon the
+present site of Philadelphia, and when reminded
+of the Dutch West India Company’s
+prior claim, he profanely answered that
+although Satan was the earliest possessor of
+hell, doubtless he sometimes welcomed new
+comers.</p>
+
+<p>But a day of reckoning was speedily to
+come, for Peter Stuyvesant, Governor of the
+New Netherlands, moved by the amazing
+activity of Prinz, bought from the Indians all
+the west side of the Delaware from Minquas
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span>Creek to Bompties (or Bombay) Hook, and
+in 1651, as some say,—before the building of
+Elfsborg as others say,—built Fort Casimir at
+Sand Huken, now Newcastle, on the Delaware,
+five miles below Fort Christina, and
+within sight of Elfsborg. Whichever fort
+was built first, it is pretty certain that the
+Swedes soon deserted Elfsborg, after naming
+it in disgust Myggenborg, which means Fort
+Mosquito. The excuse for the desertion was
+the insupportable insect pests of the region;
+so early did the New Jersey mosquito earn
+the reputation that clings to him even to this
+day. As for Prinz, alarmed at the activity
+of the Dutch, he vainly petitioned the home
+government for aid, and at length went off to
+Europe, leaving as deputy his son-in-law, John
+Pappegoja.</p>
+
+<p>And now the comedy of outflanking was to
+be followed by the comedy of bloodless capture
+and recapture, for Prinz had not been
+long gone when there arrived in the Delaware
+from Sweden, in the man-of-war <i>Eagle</i>, John
+Claudius Rising, as commissary and counsellor
+to the Governor, and Peter Lindstrom, military
+engineer, together with arms and soldiers.
+The Dutch at Fort Casimir were living in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span>unsuspicious peace when the <i>Eagle</i> suddenly
+appeared before the fort and demanded that
+the place surrender, as occupying Swedish
+ground. Rising enforced his demand by landing
+thirty soldiers, and the Dutch yielded upon
+favorable terms which secured to them all
+their property, public and private, and granted
+as well the honors of war. As the capture
+was made on Trinity Sunday, the name of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span>place was changed by the Swedes to Trefalldigheet,
+or Fort Trinity. This incident,
+which befell in the year 1655, is notable as the
+first passage at arms, if such it may be called,
+between rival European claimants to the western
+shore of the Delaware.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus115" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus115.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>RESIDENCE OF THE LATE THOMAS F. BAYARD.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But Rising’s prompt policy of aggression
+was a mistake, for it left the Dutch no alternative
+but counter-aggression; and accordingly
+Peter Stuyvesant, with seven ships and six
+hundred or seven hundred men, appeared before
+the deserted Elfsborg late in August, 1655,
+captured a few straggling Swedes ashore, endured
+the mosquitoes for one night only, and
+next day, having landed a force north of Fort
+Trinity to cut it off from Fort Christina, demanded
+that the garrison surrender. Swen
+Schute, the Swedish commander, despite a
+name that ought to have been formidable in
+war, was as obligingly prompt in compliance as
+the Dutch commander had been a few months
+earlier. There was, as before, a friendly arrangement
+as to the guaranty of property,
+public and private, but Swen Schute never
+dared return to Sweden lest he be brought to
+book for his alacrity in surrendering.</p>
+
+<p>Now came the taking of Fort Christina,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span>immortalized by Washington Irving’s genius of
+burlesque. Rising, aware of his weakness, professed
+to believe that the Dutch had no further
+hostile intent, but when they invested Fort
+Christina on three sides, planted cannon, and
+called for the surrender of the place in forty-eight
+hours, he first temporized, then put on a
+bold face, and finally, without striking a blow,
+surrendered. So ended Swedish rule in Delaware,
+and so began the short-lived Dutch
+supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch guaranteed to the vanquished
+religious liberty and all other reasonable privileges,
+so that few Swedes took the chance
+afforded of selling their property and removing
+out of the jurisdiction. The Swedes, indeed,
+were soon reconciled to Dutch rule, and
+in fact the colony remained, in all save politics,
+as truly Swedish as it had been before. The
+Dutch children learned the Swedish tongue,
+and as the Swedes far outnumbered the Dutch,
+the latter were soon lost in the mass of the
+former. When a nephew of Prinz visited the
+country, late in the seventeenth century, he
+found that the people “used the old Swedish
+way in all things.” Pastor Rudman wrote
+home to Sweden that the mother tongue was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span>still spoken in all its purity by the colonists at
+Christinaham, and as a matter of fact it did
+not entirely cease to be used in the services
+of the Swedish church until more than a century
+and a quarter had elapsed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="illus116" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus116.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD SWEDES CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Luckily for the Swedes they were too busy
+to trouble themselves about a change of masters,
+and when the agents of James, Duke of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span>York, having possessed themselves of New
+Amsterdam in 1664, after Charles I. had magnificently
+given to James all the country between
+the Connecticut and the east bank of
+the Delaware, also seized New Sweden as a
+dependency of New Netherlands, the good
+folk at Christinaham accepted the new situation
+and went about their business. The attempted
+rebellion of Königsmark, “the Long
+Finn,” who called himself a son of General
+Count William Von Königsmark, and the
+historical interlude of the Dutch occupation in
+1673 and 1674, when the forts changed hands,
+in the usual bloodless fashion, twice in a few
+months, did not profoundly shake the community
+on the Minquas. The second surrender
+left the English in secure possession.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of this apparent indifference to
+governmental changes, one thing did move the
+Swedes, and was doubtless in part responsible
+for the welcome they gave the return of the
+Dutch: this was a tariff imposed by the
+English rulers upon all inward-bound merchandise
+passing the capes of the Delaware.
+At this juncture there came to the rescue
+the best friend the Swedes had yet found
+in the new world, a man so wise and just
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span>in his dealing with civilized man and savage
+on this side the Atlantic, so generous, tolerant,
+large-minded and large-hearted in all that
+concerned the great powers entrusted to him,
+that one can hardly understand how even
+so audacious an iconoclast as Macaulay had
+the hardihood to assail his memory. This
+man was William Penn, who, having recently
+become trustee for Quaker estates in West
+Jersey, made prompt protest against the tariff
+and had it revoked—an early triumph for the
+principle of no taxation without representation.</p>
+
+<p>When, soon after, he became proprietor
+of the “Three Counties on the Delaware,”
+the Swedes of Christinaham and the region
+round about knew him and were glad. Penn
+had an equally good opinion of the Swedes,
+for he says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“As they are a proper people, and strong of body,
+so they have fine children, and almost every house
+full. It is rare to find one of them without three or
+four boys and as many girls, some six, seven and
+eight sons. And I must do them that right to say I
+see few young men more sober and laborious.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>A Swedish writer of about the same period
+notes that the Swedish farmers are as well
+clad as the residents of cities. Penn describes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span>the houses in his new possessions as of a
+single story and divided into three apartments.
+A house and a barn suitable to a colonist
+might be built for seventy-five dollars.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="illus117" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus117.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>REV. ERIC BJORK.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="illus118" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus118.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BISHOP LEE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Penn noted, however, that the Swedes were
+not so well educated as they should have been,
+and a few years later they were in such need
+of religious instruction, although they had but
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span>recently lost their pastor, that, partly through
+the representations of the proprietor and partly
+through the importunities of the Swedes themselves,
+the King of Sweden was induced to
+send out to Delaware the Rev. Eric Bjork.
+This good and energetic man, finding inconveniently
+situated the Swedish Lutheran church
+erected in 1667 at Crane Hook, or Tran Hook,
+near the mouth of the Christiana, conceived
+and executed the plan of building a new
+church near the scene of the original Swedish
+landing at the Rocks. The new edifice was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span>the Old Swedes of to-day, which celebrated the
+two hundredth anniversary of its dedication on
+the 28th of last May. This venerable church,
+now Holy Trinity of the Protestant Episcopal
+Diocese of Delaware, is revered and cherished
+as the one visible link which joins the city of
+Wilmington to her earliest past. In the churchyard
+lie the dead of many generations, and
+of almost all denominations. Here, side by
+side with the Swedish colonists of the early
+eighteenth century, lies the late Bishop Alfred
+Lee of the Episcopal Church, who in life, as
+learned as he was modest, was one of the
+American Committee for the Revision of the
+King James Bible. Here, too, was recently
+laid to rest, amid many of his kinsfolk, the
+late Ambassador Thomas F. Bayard, worn
+with long and honorable public service.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to the late Dr. Horace Burr we
+have an English translation of the earliest
+records of Old Swedes. In these records is
+contained a curious account of the difficulties
+attendant upon the building of the new church.
+There were quarrels over the glebe, the
+usual troubles with the contractor, and the
+inevitable changes of plan after the work was
+under way. Hired sawyers were paid so much
+per foot, and “drink.” In order to save wages
+the men of the parish came as they found
+leisure and hewed the timbers. Masons and
+other skilled mechanics came from Philadelphia,
+then “a clever little town,” and with
+them came Dick, a negro mortar-mixer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="illus119" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus119.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THOMAS F. BAYARD.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the erection of the new
+church, the community seems to have grown
+away from the scene of the original landing,
+until in 1731 Thomas Willing, son-in-law of
+Andrew Justison, of Swedish blood, laid out
+upon the Christiana front, half a mile from the
+Rocks, a new town modelled upon the rectangular
+plan of Philadelphia. The first house
+in Willingstown, built at the corner of Front
+and Market streets, bore in its brick gable
+a stone with the inscription, “J. W. S.,
+1732.” Three years later the place was only
+a small hamlet, but in that year Willingstown
+had a new birth, for then William Shipley,
+a wealthy, well educated and energetic
+English Friend of Ridley in Pennsylvania,
+came to the place and made himself, so to
+speak, its second founder. He came through
+the influence of his second wife, Elizabeth
+Lewis, a preacher of his own sect, who saw
+in a vision a goodly land lying at the foot
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span>of a hill and traversed by two rivers, one wild
+and dashing, the other sluggish and serpentine,
+and visiting by accident the region of the
+Swedish settlement on the Christiana, recognized
+the landscape of her vision.</p>
+
+<p>William Shipley built his house—an admirable
+example of eighteenth-century brickwork—at
+the corner of Fourth and Shipley
+streets, where it recently gave place to a
+modern business building. He built, also, a
+market-house for the town at the corner of
+Fourth and Market streets, and in doing so,
+paved the way for a quarrel with the partisans
+of the Second Street market-house, a body of
+citizens including many Swedes.</p>
+
+<p>So potent was the magic of William Shipley’s
+presence that in four years the town had
+reached six hundred inhabitants. Next year
+it received a borough charter from Penn, and
+its name was changed to Wilmington, in
+honor of Lord Wilmington, says Ebeling,
+the German historian. It was a tight little
+borough, the Wilmington of that day and of
+fifteen or twenty years later. The burgesses,
+who at first met about in taverns, at length
+were comfortably housed in a neat little Town
+Hall built upon arches over one end of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span>Second Street market. There were fairs during
+most of the eighteenth century; fairs to
+which hundreds came in holiday attire and
+dancing shoes to make merry to the sound of
+bagpipe, flute, fiddle and trombone. It is significant
+of grave Quaker austerity, perhaps,
+that the fairs were suppressed by act of Legislature
+in 1785, as nurseries of vice, a scandal
+to religion, and an offence to well ordered
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span>persons. There may have been some excuse
+for this severity, for indeed with the coming of
+the English had come something of the brutality
+of eighteenth-century English manners.
+Bullies fought naked to the waist in the
+market-place, and hired ruffians nearly cut
+down the posts that supported William Shipley’s
+market-house. The most picturesque
+modern survival of Wilmington in the eighteenth
+century is the King Street open-air
+market, and with it remains the statute against
+forestalling, made to meet the case of some
+early monopolist.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus120" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus120.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SHIPLEY BUILDING.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Wilmington’s Quaker peace was little disturbed
+by echoes of European wars in the
+eighteenth century, though in 1741 the Christiana
+was fortified against possible Spanish
+pirates; but when the war of the Revolution
+came, Wilmington was loyal and ready. Old
+folk still preserve the tradition of Washington’s
+presence in the city just before the
+battle of the Brandywine, of his gay French
+officers in the sober house of a Quaker citizen,
+of President John McKinly’s capture at midnight
+by a detachment of British sent in after
+the battle, of the British wounded crowding the
+houses of citizens and probably saving the town
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span>from bombardment by British ships of war in
+the Delaware. Tradition recalls, too, the visit
+of Washington in his hour of victory, when he
+journeyed homeward to Mount Vernon, of his
+other visit on his journey northward to be
+inaugurated as President at New York, and
+of still another visit in 1791, when he made his
+famous progress through the country. On
+that last visit, riding in his chariot of state
+through little Brandywine village, opposite
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span>Wilmington, on the left bank of the Brandywine,
+he stopped at the house of miller Joseph
+Tatnall, to learn that he was at the mill, and
+then, with those great strides of his, walked
+through the village street to the edge of the
+stream, entered the mill, and talked with the
+courageous patriot Quaker of his services to
+the army during the war.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="illus121" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus121.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>OLD FRIENDS’ MEETING-HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>By this time the borough had travelled far
+from the crudity of Swedish days and had
+even departed somewhat from the severity of
+Quaker tradition. There were French emigrants
+from the black terror in Santo Domingo,
+and from the red terror in France.
+There were soon to be other French immigrants,—Du
+Ponts, bringing a mingled flavor
+of aristocracy, learning and benevolence, destined
+to found great factories and to give
+patriot soldiers and sailors to the land of their
+adoption, and yet to retain even to the fifth
+generation the Gallic face, and air, and manner.</p>
+
+<p>Wealth and elegance were come to the little
+community on the Minquas. Had not Robert
+Montgomery made the tour of Europe, and
+did he not for four months during the plague
+of yellow fever at Philadelphia entertain Governor
+McKean of Pennsylvania? Did not
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span>another wealthy citizen entertain one hundred
+refugees of the same period? And there was
+Gunning Bedford, Jr., <i>aide-de-camp</i> and friend
+to Washington, inheritor of his crimson satin
+Masonic sash, his appointee as first Federal
+Judge for the District of Delaware. He
+and his wife, a Read of distinguished colonial
+stock, entertained friend and stranger with
+splendid hospitality in the very house in Market
+Street that had been the headquarters of
+Washington’s French officers. The Bedfords
+were Presbyterians. Gunning Bedford, Jr.,
+worshipped in the quaint little First Presbyterian
+Church in Market Street near Tenth,
+now reverently preserved and occupied by the
+Delaware Historical Society. Hard by in the
+churchyard you may see Judge Bedford’s
+tomb, a low but graceful domed shaft facing
+the public street, so that all may read the lesson
+of civic virtue, and bearing an inscription
+that closes thus:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“His form was goodly, his temper amiable,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">His manners winning, and his discharge</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">Of private duties exemplary.</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Reader, may his example stimulate you to improve
+the talents—be they five, or two, or one—with which God
+has entrusted you.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span></p>
+
+<p>Wilmington built her new Town Hall just a
+century ago last year, and Friend Joseph Tatnall
+gave the clock that shone in its tower
+and told the hours. The clock went out of
+use more than thirty years ago, but the building
+remains, not altogether spoiled by modern
+additions, sacred because of its associations,
+and testifying to the solidity with which the
+city fathers built in the last century.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="illus122" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus122.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>HOUSE OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When the City Hall was built Penn’s
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span>charter, unamended, still served the community,
+and continued to serve until 1809, when it was
+amended and the borough limits were enlarged.
+The town was yet merely a borough
+when the War of 1812 came on, and Senator
+James A. Bayard, the first of four Bayards to
+represent Delaware in the United States Senate,
+helped with his own hands to build a fort
+almost upon the site of Fort Christina. A
+city charter came in 1832. The mayor was
+elected for three years by the city council,
+and the first mayor chosen was Richard H.
+Bayard.</p>
+
+<p>Wilmington as the intellectual centre of the
+State was naturally also the home of radical
+thought. Quaker sentiment had sunk deep
+into the community. An anti-slavery society
+was organized early. A great meeting at
+the Town Hall in 1820 adopted resolutions
+against the extension of slavery into the territories.
+Sam Townsend, a picturesque and
+characteristic figure in the mid-century politics
+of the State, was amazed and horrified to find
+that his brother, home after a week’s visit to
+Wilmington, had returned with a tincture of
+abolitionism. Sam and his neighbors labored
+with the erring one, but could not meet his arguments
+against holding one’s fellow-men in
+bondage until Sam bethought him to deny
+the humanity of the negro, and thus snatched
+the brother as a brand from the burning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus123" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus123.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CITY HALL.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span></p>
+
+<p>Wilmington was a station on the “underground
+railroad,” and Thomas Garrett, a Quaker
+of Pennsylvanian birth, was the station-master—a
+man of prudence but of dauntless courage,
+who, left penniless at sixty by reason of a fine
+imposed upon him for violation of the Fugitive
+Slave Law, declared upon the court-house steps
+in his peculiar lisp: “I did it; I’m glad I did
+it; and I’d do it again.” The Civil War came
+too soon for him, he said, for he had hoped
+to help away three thousand slaves, and had
+stopped at two thousand seven hundred.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp53" id="illus124" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus124.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>NEWCASTLE COUNTY COURT HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[364]</span></p>
+
+<p>The conflict found Wilmington a little city
+of rough-cobbled streets, the metropolis of a
+small surrounding territory, visited daily by
+country folk, who drove twelve or fifteen miles,—came
+“to town,” as the phrase went,—and
+having made their purchases, drove home, whipping
+in dread past “Folly Woods,” since the
+days of Sandy Flash a place of evil reputation.
+The firing upon Fort Sumter stirred the community
+to its depths, and the city lost no time
+in sending to the front more than her quota
+of volunteers. Flags fluttered out all over the
+city. Barbers made haste to add to their poles
+a third stripe, a blue one, in token of loyalty.
+Amid all the enthusiasm it was a time of acrid
+bitterness, for Delaware was a border State
+with citizens holding openly or secretly opinions
+of many shades other than that recognized
+as true blue. There were reported sullen
+threats of incendiarism on the part of the disaffected;
+there were many arrests of the disloyal,
+and stubborn but entirely conscientious
+men, who would not take the oath of allegiance
+and were imprisoned or publicly shamed.
+It was no time for a nice weighing of motives,
+and the fires of the war-time hatreds
+were nearly a generation in cooling. The
+city came out of the war chastened by sorrow
+and pained by bitter contention, but ready
+for a newer and broader life. She has since
+grown to 70,000 people. Her boundaries
+have been extended to the Delaware; her factories
+have vastly increased in volume and variety.
+Miles of territory have been covered
+with new homes. Water-works, sewers and
+parks have been created. New Castle, the
+old Dutch capital of New Amstel, has yielded
+up the court-house to Wilmington, but has
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span>held on to the whipping-post, as perhaps not
+quite in keeping with the modern mood of the
+city. But in spite of growth and change the
+old Quaker spirit, the ineradicable instinct of
+sobriety and decency, remains along with the
+Swedish and Dutch names two and a half centuries
+ago. When the hush of evening falls
+upon the city and the crowds have melted
+from the sidewalks, then in the dusk of the
+deserted streets one may easily imagine the
+distinguished William Shipley and the gracious
+Elizabeth, the grin of broad-faced Dutchmen
+fresh from the harrowing of Swen Schute,
+the spectral figures of tow-haired Swedish
+farmers, or the grave, black-clad form of
+Pastor Torkillius with solemn eyes bent upon
+wondering peasant lads and lasses.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus125" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus125.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY OF WILMINGTON.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header7.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="BUFFALO">BUFFALO</h2>
+
+<p class="center">“THE QUEEN CITY OF THE LAKES”</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By ROWLAND B. MAHANY</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Few cities of the United States have a history
+more picturesque than Buffalo, or
+more typical of the forces that have made the
+Republic great. At the time of the adoption
+of the Federal constitution, in 1787, not a single
+white settler dwelt on the site of what is
+now the Queen of the Lakes; and it was not
+until after the second presidency of Washington,
+that Joseph Ellicott, the founder of Buffalo,
+laid out the plan of the town, which he
+called New Amsterdam. Ellicott was a man
+of great ability, force and foresight, and with
+prophetic vision he saw the future importance
+of the city, which is now the fourth commercial
+entrepôt of the world. He had been the
+assistant of his brother, Andrew Ellicott, the
+first Surveyor General of the United States;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span>and the two brothers, together with General
+Washington,—himself an engineer by profession,—had
+collaborated
+with
+Captain Pierre
+Charles L’Enfant
+the plan of
+the National
+Capital. With
+the beautiful design
+of Washington
+City fresh
+in his mind, Joseph
+Ellicott
+gave to the village
+of New
+Amsterdam a
+similar system of
+radiating broad avenues, embracing in the territory
+they enclosed rectangular systems of
+streets. The avenues were 99 feet in width
+and the streets 66 feet. The surveys were
+begun in 1798 and completed in 1805. Indirectly,
+therefore, Buffalo is indebted to
+President Washington for some of its topographical
+features.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus126" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus126.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>JOSEPH ELLICOTT.</p>
+      <p>FOUNDER OF BUFFALO.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The early history of the village is not unlike
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span>that of most of our inland cities which have
+grown from conditions common to the Canadian
+and to the western frontier; and differs,
+perhaps, chiefly in this regard, that owing to
+the natural advantages of the town’s situation
+and its proximity to the great cataract of
+Niagara Falls, its annals are rich with instances
+of exploration, of war and of romance;
+for adventure and enterprise met here at the
+beginning of the century.</p>
+
+<p>The period when the Mohawks, the Eries,
+the Hurons, the Tuscaroras, the Neuters (so
+called because they were a peaceful tribe) and
+the Senecas were the sole possessors of this
+region was succeeded by the epoch of the
+French traders, whose business was in turn
+absorbed by their Dutch competitors. These
+gave way to the alert descendants of New
+England, who yielded back again the supremacy
+to a group of Dutch capitalists, composing
+the Holland Land Company, whose first agent
+was Joseph Ellicott.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive scenery of Buffalo must have
+been almost incomparable in its beauty. The
+wooded hills, the fertile plains, the superb
+river and the mighty lake enchanted alike the
+savage and the civilized beholder. Even now,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span>when commerce has invaded the loveliness of
+the prospect by investing one of the greatest
+harbors in the world with a fortress of elevators
+and crowding it with a forest of masts,
+artists and tourists unite in saying that the
+Buffalo sunsets are not rivalled anywhere save
+by those on the Bay of Naples.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806, the first schoolhouse was built on
+the corner of Swan and Pearl streets,—the
+humble pioneer of an educational system that
+now embraces sixty modern grammar schools,
+three collegiate High Schools, and innumerable
+independent and private institutions of
+learning. Notable among these latter is the
+Le Couteulx Asylum for the instruction of the
+deaf and dumb. This beneficent institution
+owes its origin to the liberality of the Le
+Couteulx family. Louis Stephen Le Couteulx
+de Caumont, a Norman-French gentleman of
+station and culture, was the founder of the
+family in Buffalo. He came to New Amsterdam
+in 1804.</p>
+
+<p>On February 10, 1810, the “Town of Buffaloe”
+was created by an act of the legislature.
+This was the name originally given to the settlement
+by the Senecas, and there is little
+doubt that it was derived from the visits of the
+bison to the neighboring salt-licks. However
+that may be, the village of New Amsterdam
+was merged in 1810 into the town of Buffalo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus127" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus127.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>LAFAYETTE SQUARE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span></p>
+
+<p>With the disappearance of the Dutch appellation
+of the town, vanished also the Dutch
+nomenclature of the streets. Van Staphorst
+and Willink Avenues were connected and
+called Main Street; Stadinzky Avenue, a name
+suggestive of the Polish element that later was
+to swell in such numbers the population of the
+city, became Church Street; Niagara Street
+succeeded Schimmelpennick Avenue; and
+Vollenhoven Avenue was changed into Erie
+Street.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of some of Buffalo’s thoroughfares
+is interesting and amusing. Utica Street
+was formerly a lane on the old Hodge farm,
+and led from the Cold Spring region to
+the Elmwood Avenue district. The people
+using it, however, were very careless about
+closing the gates, and this so irritated Mr.
+Hodge that he locked the gates and closed
+the lane. An indignation meeting was called
+in the little schoolhouse at Cold Spring. The
+schoolmaster was the chief speaker, and unless
+tradition does violence to his grammar, the
+principal part of his speech consisted of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span>declaration that “them Hodges is maintainin’
+a ‘pent-up Uticky.’” When Mr. Hodge heard
+of the meeting, he relented and offered to give
+the people the lane on condition that the town
+government would lay out a street. The offer
+was accepted and the new thoroughfare was
+called Utica Street in commemoration of the
+schoolmaster’s speech.</p>
+
+<p>The inevitable newspaper appeared on the
+3d of October, 1811, when the Buffalo <i>Gazette</i>
+issued its first number. The <i>Gazette</i>
+was the forerunner of journals which to-day
+recognize as their only competitors the Metropolitan
+press.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of June, 1812, the tidings of
+war with Great Britain reached Buffalo, and on
+August 13th the first gun of the struggle is said
+to have been fired by the battery at Black Rock,
+then a rival, now a suburb, of Buffalo. The excitement
+was intense; for all recognized that
+the growing town, because of its frontier situation,
+was sure to be one of the theatres of hostilities.
+Nor was this a mistaken idea, as
+subsequent events proved. Immediately after
+the declaration of war, the British soldiers from
+the Canadian garrison at Fort Erie, directly
+across the river from Buffalo, made an incursion,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span>and captured the schooner <i>Connecticut</i>,
+at anchor in the Buffalo Creek. This humiliation,
+however, was more than wiped out by the
+daring exploit of Lieutenant Jesse D. Elliott,
+U. S. N., who, on October 9, 1812, crossed the
+river, and boldly attacked two vessels lying under
+the guns of Fort Erie. One of these, the <i>Detroit</i>,
+of six guns, had been captured by the British
+at the surrender of that town; the other was
+the <i>Caledonia</i>, of two guns. With a loss of two
+killed and five wounded, Elliott’s force captured
+both vessels and took prisoners, officers
+and men, to the number of seventy-one. Forty-seven
+American prisoners taken by the British
+at the River Raisin, were released by Elliott.
+The <i>Detroit</i> was carried down the stream when
+the cables were cut, and ran aground on Squaw
+Island. The British opened a lively cannonading
+from the Canadian shore and attempted
+to recapture the vessel, but were driven off by
+the Americans, who, unable to float it, burned
+it to the water’s edge. For his brilliant coup,
+Lieutenant Elliott was voted a sword of honor
+by Congress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus128" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus128.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>A GLIMPSE OF BUFFALO HARBOR.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span></p>
+
+<p>One great advantage the British possessed
+early in the war was their superiority on the
+Lakes. The <i>Queen Charlotte</i>, of twenty-two
+guns, the <i>Hunter</i>, of twelve guns, and a small
+armed schooner patrolled the Erie coast-line in
+the neighborhood of Buffalo, and kept the inhabitants
+of the region in a constant state of
+fear and excitement. To remedy this disadvantage,
+the Government, in the spring of
+1813, sent Captain Oliver Hazard Perry to fit
+out a war fleet at Erie, Pennsylvania. He arrived
+in Buffalo in March, and thence proceeded
+to his destination. The Government
+had purchased a number of merchant craft,
+and these he immediately began converting
+into men-of-war. Some new vessels also were
+built. Five gunboats were fitted out at Buffalo
+on Scajaquada Creek. On September 10,
+1813, Perry, with an inferior force, both in the
+number of men and guns, gave battle to the
+British and captured or destroyed their entire
+fleet. This victory was not only the most notable
+of the war, but is one of the most conspicuous
+in our naval history. In the midst
+of the battle Perry’s ship was sunk, and he left
+it in an open boat, and, under the fire of the
+enemy, went to another vessel of his fleet,
+whence he directed the operations that rendered
+the battle of Lake Erie an illustrious
+triumph for American arms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span></p>
+
+<p>In a few months, however, the exultation of
+Buffalo’s citizens was turned into mourning
+through the burning of the town by the British.
+On the 29th of December, General
+Riall, with twelve hundred men, regulars, militia
+and Indians, landed below Scajaquada
+Creek, and owing to the confusion which prevailed
+in the councils of the local military
+commanders, captured the town with little
+difficulty. The inhabitants had fled, and every
+dwelling, with one or two exceptions, was given
+over to the flames. Mrs. St. John and two of
+her daughters remained to protect their house,
+and owing to the chivalry of Colonel Elliott,
+the commander of the Indians, neither the
+ladies nor their household possessions were
+molested. Mrs. Joshua Lovejoy, who also remained
+in her home, where the Tifft House
+now stands, was imprudent enough to have an
+altercation with the Indians, and was slain by
+one of them. Her house was burned, and her
+dead body with it.</p>
+
+<p>On the withdrawal of the British, the citizens
+returned from their flight, bringing back
+with them such household goods as they had
+gathered together on their hasty departure,
+and forthwith the rebuilding of Buffalo commenced.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[378]</span>The American loss in the engagement
+preceding the capture of the town was
+heavy. Between forty and fifty of our troops
+were killed, as many more wounded, and about
+ninety prisoners were carried off by the victors.
+From all these reverses the people of the little
+town measurably recovered in the succeeding
+five or six months. On April 10, 1814, Brigadier-General
+Winfield Scott came to Buffalo,
+and shortly after, Major-General Brown arrived.
+The preparations for an advance on the Canadian
+position were pushed forward as rapidly
+as possible, and on July 3d the movement began.
+Three brigades,—two of regulars, one of
+volunteers,—accompanied by a few Indians,
+crossed the river, and captured Fort Erie.
+Thence proceeding down the Canadian bank,
+they engaged the enemy at Chippewa on July
+5th, and won a decisive victory.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans wore temporary uniforms of
+gray, and it was in honor of the conspicuous
+gallantry displayed by our troops in this conflict
+that gray was adopted as the uniform for
+the West Point cadets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="illus129" style="max-width: 26.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus129.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>ST. PAUL’S CHURCH.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span></p>
+
+<p>The volunteer brigade was commanded by
+General Peter B. Porter, for many years a
+member of Congress from Erie County, and
+afterwards Secretary of War for a brief period
+under John Quincy Adams. General Porter
+distinguished himself also in the battle of
+Lundy’s Lane, and throughout the war gained
+such reputation for valor, skill and eloquence,
+that to him has been assigned the credit of
+being the pioneer in organizing the volunteer
+system of the American Army.</p>
+
+<p>During all this war the famous Seneca chief,
+Red Jacket, took an active part in behalf of
+the Americans, and though he had little love
+for the white men on either side of the controversy,
+still his influence was cast in favor of
+those who were the neighbors and friends of
+his people. Innumerable anecdotes are told
+of the wisdom, oratory and dignity of the
+great sachem, and a later generation has raised
+in Forest Lawn Cemetery an imposing statue
+to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle of Chippewa, General Riall,
+the British commander, retreated to Queenstown,
+and thence to Fort George, the Americans
+in pursuit. The British, however, were
+reinforced and General Brown decided to return
+to Fort Erie. Riall, in turn, pursued.
+On July 25th the contending forces met near
+Lundy’s Lane, and one of the most fiercely
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[381]</span>fought battles of the war followed. The conflict
+began a little before nightfall, and raged
+until nearly ten o’clock, when the Americans
+held undisputed possession of the field. General
+Riall and one hundred and sixty-eight
+prisoners were captured. Both General Brown
+and General Scott were wounded, as was also
+Captain Worth, afterwards famous in the
+Mexican War.</p>
+
+<p>The command of the American forces then
+devolved upon General Ripley, who took up
+his position at Fort Erie and was there besieged
+by Lieutenant-General Drummond.
+On August 3d, the British directed a savage
+onslaught against the Fort, but were driven
+back with loss. They continued, however,
+to invest the American position. On September
+17th, General Porter headed an attack on
+the besieging force, and such was the gallantry
+of the American volunteers that the British
+veterans were dispersed. General Napier,
+the English military historian, cites this sortie
+as one of the few in all history that at a single
+stroke compelled the raising of a siege. The
+Governor brevetted Porter a major-general,
+and Congress voted him a gold medal.</p>
+
+<p>With this exploit at Fort Erie, the War of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span>1812 was practically over, so far as the interests
+of Buffalo were concerned. When the
+American troops retired from Fort Erie, they
+blew it up, and its ruins are one of the picturesque
+features of the region about Buffalo.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial greatness of the city is
+indissolubly associated with the Erie Canal.
+In 1807-8 Jesse Hawley of Geneva wrote a
+series of articles in the <i>Ontario Messenger</i>. In
+these he advocated the construction of a grand
+canal connecting Lake Erie with the Atlantic
+Ocean. This idea found favor with Joseph
+Ellicott, DeWitt Clinton, Gouverneur Morris,
+and Peter B. Porter, and so strong did the
+sentiment for the project become, that in 1816
+a bill passed the Assembly, directing that the
+work of construction be commenced. The
+Senate, however, decided that additional surveys
+should be made. The work of preparation
+was inaugurated July 14, 1817; and on
+the 9th of August, 1823, the work of actual
+construction began in Erie County by the
+breaking of ground for the canal, near the
+place where is now the Commercial Street
+bridge in Buffalo. The great waterway was
+completed on October 25, 1825, and the first
+boat, <i>Seneca Chief</i>, started on its voyage from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span>Buffalo to the Hudson. DeWitt Clinton,
+then the Governor of the State and chief
+promoter of the canal, graced the ceremonies
+with his presence.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="illus130" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus130.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>MILLARD FILLMORE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In this connection, it is interesting to observe
+that, in 1819, the question whether Buffalo or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span>Black Rock should be the western terminus of
+the canal was settled in favor of the former
+through the public spirit and enterprise of
+Charles Townsend, Samuel Wilkeson, Oliver
+Forward and George Coit. These men gave
+each a bond of $8,000 for the purpose of
+securing a loan of $12,000 from the State to
+construct a harbor, the State reserving the
+right to accept or reject, as it pleased, the
+completed work. From this time on, Judge
+Wilkeson devoted his immense energies and
+great executive ability to the interests of Buffalo
+in connection with the canal, and to him
+may justly be ascribed the credit of being the
+founder of her lake commerce. It was altogether
+appropriate, therefore, that, on the
+opening of the canal, he should have been
+given the honor of pouring into the lake the
+water brought from the ocean, an event described
+as the Wedding of the Atlantic and
+Lake Erie. It recalled the marriage in old
+time of Venice and the Adriatic.</p>
+
+<p>Near where LaSalle, in 1679, built his little
+sailing vessel, the <i>Griffin</i>, three New York
+capitalists completed on May 28, 1818, the
+first steamboat that plied the waters of Lake
+Erie. This was fittingly named, after the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[385]</span>Wyandot chieftain, <i>Walk-in-the-Water</i>. The
+little vessel was lost three years later, but it
+marked the beginning of steam navigation on
+the Lakes—since grown to such perfection as
+to rival the navigation of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Erie Canal has been
+incomparably great, not merely in the rise of
+one city, but, in a larger sense, in the development
+of the State and the nation. The commercial
+forces which it generated have aided
+in building up the wealth of the Middle West,
+and the impetus of the resultant enterprise has
+finally reached every industry of the continent.
+To the canal, more than to any other factor,
+Buffalo owes its growth and importance. The
+little hamlet founded by Joseph Ellicott now
+has a population of 390,000. The city’s coal
+receipts in 1898 were 2,455,191 tons; its lumber
+receipts, 189,075,938 feet; its grain receipts,
+267,395,434 bushels. It has a harbor
+enclosed by a new breakwater nearly four
+miles in length, and costing over $2,000,000.
+The coal interests have constructed the greatest
+trestles in the world. Forty-one elevators,
+with a capacity of 20,920,000 bushels, line the
+harbor. There are 3500 manufactories. The
+park system comprises thousands of acres, with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span>seventeen miles of park driveways. Twenty-six
+railroads enter the city, with 250 passenger
+trains daily, and have nearly 700 miles of
+trackage within the city limits. The electric
+power from Niagara Falls is delivered at Buffalo
+in practically unlimited quantities. There
+are 24 banks, and 184 churches. The city has
+116 miles of street paved with stone, 6 miles
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[387]</span>paved with brick, and 225 miles with asphalt,
+or more asphalt than any other city in the
+world, not excepting Paris, Washington, or
+London. Two public libraries contain more
+than 180,000 volumes. In handling flour and
+wheat, Buffalo is the first city in the world.
+Its fresh-fish industry aggregates an annual
+distribution of 15,000,000 pounds. Buffalo’s
+horse market is the most important in the
+country; and in cattle and hogs, the trade of
+the city is second only to that of Chicago.
+The sheep market is the largest in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="illus131" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus131.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BEACON ON OLD BREAKWATER.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The climate of Buffalo, with the exception
+of high winds during certain portions of the
+winter, is probably as delightful as that enjoyed
+by any city on the globe. In summer,
+the temperature is nearly always moderate,
+and when other cities suffer from extreme
+heat, the people of Buffalo are blessed with
+the conditions common to late summer in
+other regions.</p>
+
+<p>The residence portion of the city is celebrated
+for its beauty. The avenues are wide,
+the dwellings elegant and commodious, the
+lawn effects charming, and the trees superb.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus132" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus132.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DELAWARE AVENUE, SHOWING BISHOP QUIGLEY’S HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Buffalo is entering upon what might be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[388]</span>termed its metropolitan period. New forces,
+new ideas, are building splendid superstructures
+on the foundations established by the generation
+now passing away. From the time of the
+city’s incorporation, in 1832, the bench and
+the bar, the medical and the clerical professions,
+have been especially rich with the names
+of those who have left a lasting impress upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span>the thought of the city, the state and the nation.
+The political life and the business progress
+have been dignified by men of intellect
+and character.
+Such names as
+the Right Reverend
+Arthur
+Cleveland Coxe,
+Protestant Episcopal
+Bishop of
+Western New
+York; the Right
+Reverend Stephen
+Vincent
+Ryan, Roman
+Catholic Bishop
+of Buffalo; John
+Ganson, one of
+the giants of the
+legal profession; Millard Fillmore, a former
+President of the United States; Doctors
+George N. Burwell and John Cronyn, cultured
+physicians of the old school; William I. Williams,
+the pioneer of Buffalo’s unrivalled paved
+streets; the Reverend Doctor William Shelton,
+rector of St. Paul’s Church; the Reverend
+Doctor John Lord, perhaps the most famous
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span>of Buffalo’s Presbyterian divines; James M.
+Smith, Justice of the Supreme Court, recall
+types of men whose ability, integrity and civic
+worth would
+contribute to
+advance civilization
+in any community.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus133" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus133.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>DR. JOHN CRONYN.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="illus134" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus134.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>WILLIAM I. WILLIAMS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>During the
+Civil War, Buffalo
+did its patriotic
+share
+towards the
+preservation of
+the Union. The
+names of William
+F. Rogers,
+Michael Wiedrich,
+James P.
+McMahon, Daniel D. Bidwell, Edward P.
+Chapin, John Wilkeson and William Richardson
+are cherished by the people of Buffalo and
+Erie County as typical of the soldiers who, in
+regiment after regiment, enlisted there for the
+war.</p>
+
+<p>In legislation, also, the city contributed its
+part to the successful prosecution of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[391]</span>struggle. On December 30, 1861, Mr. E. G.
+Spaulding, member of Congress from Buffalo,
+introduced the bill which afterwards became
+famous as the Legal-Tender Act, whereby the
+Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to
+issue $50,000,000 in Treasury notes, payable
+on demand, in denominations of not less than
+$5, these to be the legal tender for all debts,
+public and private, and exchangeable for the
+bonds of the Government at par.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly every element of American progress
+has entered into the growth of this beautiful
+city. Its development has been brilliant in
+enterprise, luminous in education, rich in romance,
+splendid in achievement, and noble in
+patriotism. In a word, Buffalo has kept pace
+with the Great Republic.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus135" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus135.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY OF BUFFALO.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[393]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PITTSBURGH">PITTSBURGH</h2>
+
+<p class="center">THE INDUSTRIAL CITY</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By SAMUEL HARDEN CHURCH</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>George Washington, the Father
+of his Country, is equally the Father of
+Pittsburgh, for he came thither in November,
+1753, and established the location of the now
+imperial city by choosing it as the best place
+for a fort. Washington was then twenty-one
+years old. He had by that time written his
+precocious one hundred and ten maxims of
+civility and good behavior; had declined to
+be a midshipman in the British Navy; had
+made his only sea-voyage to Barbadoes; had
+surveyed the estates of Lord Fairfax, going
+for months into the forest without fear of savage
+Indians or wild beasts, and was now a
+major of Virginia militia. In pursuance of the
+claim of Virginia that she owned that part of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[394]</span>Pennsylvania in which Pittsburgh is situated,
+Washington came there as the agent of Governor
+Dinwiddie to treat with the Indians.
+With an eye alert for the dangers of the wilderness,
+and with Christopher Gist beside him,
+the young Virginian pushed his cautious way to
+“The Point” of land where the confluence of
+the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers forms
+the Ohio. That, he declared, with clear military
+instinct, was the best site for a fort; and
+he rejected the promontory two miles below,
+which the Indians had recommended for that
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="illus136" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus136.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>AN EARLY RESIDENT OF PITTSBURGH.</p>
+      <p>(FROM A STATUE BY T. A. MILLS IN THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[396]</span></p>
+
+<p>As early as 1728 a daring hunter or trader
+found the Indians at the head waters of the
+Ohio,—among them the Delawares, Shawanese,
+Mohicans and Iroquois,—whither they
+tracked the bear from their village of Logstown,
+seventeen miles down the river. They
+also employed the country roundabout as a
+highway for their march to battle against
+other tribes, and against each other. At that
+time France and England were disputing for
+the new continent. France, by right of her
+discovery of the Mississippi, claimed all the
+lands drained by that river and its tributaries,—a
+contention which would naturally
+plant her banner upon the summit of the
+Alleghany Mountains.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> England, on the other
+hand, claimed everything from ocean-shore
+to ocean-shore. This situation produced war,
+and Pittsburgh became the strategic key of
+the great Middle West. The French made
+early endeavors to win the allegiance of the
+Indians, and they felt encouraged to press
+their friendly overtures because they usually
+came among the red men for trading or exploration,
+while the English invariably seized
+and occupied their lands. In 1731 some
+French settlers did attempt to build a group
+of houses at Pittsburgh, but the Indians compelled
+them to go away. The next year the
+Governor of Pennsylvania summoned two
+Indian chiefs from Pittsburgh to say why they
+had been going to see the French Governor
+at Montreal; and they gave answer that he
+had sent for them only to express the hope
+that both English and French traders might
+meet at Pittsburgh and carry on trade amicably.
+The Governor of Pennsylvania sought
+to induce the tribes to draw themselves
+farther east, where they might be made to feel
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[397]</span>the hand of authority, but Sassoonan, their
+chief, forbade them to stir. An Iroquois
+chief who joined his entreaties to those of the
+Governor was soon afterward killed by some
+Shawanese braves, but they were forced to
+flee into Virginia to escape the vengeance of
+his tribe.</p>
+
+<p>Louis Celeron, a French officer, made an
+exploration of the country contiguous to
+Pittsburgh in 1747, and formally enjoined the
+Governor of Pennsylvania not to occupy the
+ground, as France claimed its sovereignty. A
+year later the Ohio Company was formed, with
+a charter ceding an immense tract of land for
+sale and development, including Pittsburgh.
+This corporation built some storehouses at
+Logstown to facilitate their trade with the
+Indians, which were captured by the French,
+together with skins and commodities valued
+at £20,000; and the purposes of the Company
+were never accomplished.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus137" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus137.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SUN-DIAL USED AT FORT DUQUESNE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As soon as Washington’s advice as to the
+location of the fort was received, Captain William
+Trent was dispatched to Pittsburgh with
+a force of soldiers and workmen, packhorses
+and materials, and he began in all haste to
+erect a stronghold. The French had already
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[398]</span>built forts on the northern lakes, and they now
+sent Captain Contrecœur down the Allegheny
+with one thousand French, Canadians and
+Indians, and eighteen pieces of cannon, in a
+flotilla of sixty bateaux and three hundred
+canoes. Trent had planted himself in Pittsburgh
+on February 17, 1754,—a date important
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span>because it marks the first permanent white
+settlement there. But his work had been retarded
+alike by the small number of his men
+and the severity of the winter; and when
+Contrecœur arrived in April, the young subaltern
+who commanded in Trent’s absence
+surrendered the unfinished works, and was
+permitted to march away with his thirty-three
+men. The French completed the fort and
+named it Duquesne, in honor of the Governor
+of Canada; and they held possession of it for
+four years.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately on the loss of this fort, Virginia
+sent a force under Washington to retake
+it. Washington surprised a French detachment
+near Great Meadows, and killed their
+commander, Jumonville. When a larger expedition
+came against him, he put up a stockade
+near the site of Uniontown, naming it Fort
+Necessity, which he was compelled to yield
+on terms of marching away with the honors
+of war.</p>
+
+<p>The next year (1755) General Edward
+Braddock came over with two regiments of
+British soldiers, and, after augmenting his
+force with Colonial troops and a few Indians,
+began his fatal march upon Fort Duquesne.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[400]</span>Braddock’s testy disposition, his consuming
+egotism, his contempt for the Colonial soldiers
+and his stubborn adherence to military maxims
+that were inapplicable to the warfare of the
+wilderness alienated the respect and confidence
+of the American contingent, robbed him of an
+easy victory and cost him his life. Benjamin
+Franklin had warned him against the imminent
+risk of Indian ambuscades, but he had
+contemptuously replied: “These savages may
+indeed be a formidable enemy to your raw
+American militia; but upon the King’s regular
+and disciplined troops, sir, it is impossible
+they should make any impression.” Some of
+his English staff-officers urged him to send
+the rangers in advance and to deploy his Indians
+as scouts, but he rejected their prudent
+suggestions with a sneer. On July 9th
+his army, comprising twenty-two hundred
+soldiers and one hundred and fifty Indians,
+was marching down the south bank of the
+Monongahela. The variant color and fashion
+of the expedition,—the red-coated regulars, the
+blue-coated Americans, the naval detachment,
+the rangers in deerskin shirts and leggings,
+the savages half-naked and befeathered, the
+glint of sword and gun in the hot daylight,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[401]</span>the long wagon train, the lumbering cannon,
+the drove of bullocks, the royal banner and
+the Colonial gonfalon,—the pomp and puissance
+of it all composed a spectacle of martial
+splendor unseen in that country before. On
+the right was the tranquil river, and on the
+left the trackless wilderness whence the startled
+deer sprang away into a deeper solitude. At
+noon the expedition crossed the river and
+pressed on toward Fort Duquesne, ten miles
+below, expectant of victory. What need to
+send out scouts when the King’s troops are
+here? Let young George Washington and
+the rest urge it all they may; the thing is
+beneath the dignity of his Majesty’s General.</p>
+
+<p>But here, when they have crossed, is a level
+plain, elevated but a few feet above the surface
+of the river, extending nearly half a mile landwards,
+and then gradually ascending into thickly
+wooded hills, with Fort Duquesne beyond.
+The troops in front had crossed the plain and
+plunged into the road through the forest for
+a hundred feet, when a heavy discharge of
+musketry and arrows was poured upon them,
+which wrought in them a consternation all the
+greater because they could see no foe anywhere.
+They shot at random, but without
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[402]</span>effect, while the hidden enemy kept up an incessant
+and destructive fire. In this distressing
+situation their courage forsook them, and
+they fell back into the plain. Braddock rode
+in among them, and he and his officers persistently
+endeavored to rally them, but without
+success. The Colonial troops adopted the Indian
+method, and each man fought for himself
+behind a tree. This was forbidden by Braddock,
+who attempted to form his men in platoons
+and columns, making their slaughter
+inevitable. The French and Indians, concealed
+in the ravines and behind trees, kept up a cruel
+and deadly fire, until the British soldiers lost
+all presence of mind and began to shoot each
+other and their own officers, and hundreds
+were thus slain. The Virginia companies
+charged gallantly up a hill with a loss of
+but three men, but when they reached the
+summit the British soldiery, mistaking them
+for the enemy, fired upon them, killing fifty
+out of eighty men. The Colonial troops then
+resumed the Indian fashion of fighting from
+behind trees, which provoked Braddock, who
+had had five horses killed under him in three
+hours, to storm at them and strike them with
+his sword. At this moment he was fatally
+wounded, and many of his men now fled away
+from the hopeless action. Washington had
+had two horses killed and received three
+bullets through his coat. Being the only
+mounted officer who was not disabled, he
+drew up the troops still on the field, directed
+their retreat, maintaining himself at the rear
+with great coolness and courage, and brought
+away his wounded general. Sixty-four British
+and American officers, and nearly one
+thousand privates, were killed or wounded
+in this battle, while the total French and Indian
+loss was not over sixty. A few prisoners
+captured by the Indians were brought to Pittsburgh
+and burnt at the stake. Four days after
+the fight Braddock died, exclaiming to the last,
+“Who would have thought it!”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[403]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus138" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus138.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE EARL OF CHATHAM.</p>
+      <p>FROM AN OIL PAINTING IN THE POSSESSION OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[404]</span></p>
+
+<p>Despondency seized the English settlers
+after Braddock’s defeat. But two years afterward
+William Pitt became Prime Minister,
+and he thrilled the nation with his appeal to
+protect the Colonies against France and the
+savages. His letters inspired the Americans
+with new hope, and he promised to send
+them British troops and to supply their own
+militia with arms, ammunition, tents and provisions
+at the King’s charge. He sent twelve
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span>thousand soldiers from England, which were
+joined to a Colonial force aggregating fifty
+thousand men,—the most formidable army yet
+seen in the new world. The plan of campaign
+embraced three expeditions: the first against
+Louisburg, in the island of Cape Breton, which
+was successful; the second against Ticonderoga,
+which succeeded after a defeat; and the
+third against Fort Duquesne. General Forbes
+commanded this expedition, comprising about
+seven thousand men. The militia from Virginia,
+North Carolina and Maryland was led
+by Washington. On September 12, 1758,
+Major Grant, a Highlander, led an advance-guard
+of 850 men to a point two miles from
+the fort, which is still called Grant’s Hill,
+where he rashly permitted himself to be surrounded
+and attacked by the French and Indians,
+half his force being killed or wounded,
+and himself slain. Washington followed soon
+after, and opened a road for the advance of
+the main body under Forbes. Fort Frontenac,
+on Lake Ontario, had just been taken by
+General Amherst, with the result that supplies
+for Fort Duquesne were cut off. When, therefore,
+the French commandant learned of the
+advance of a superior force, having no hope of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span>reinforcements, he blew up the fort, set fire to
+the adjacent buildings and drew his garrison
+away.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus139" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus139.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>BLOCKHOUSE OF FORT PITT. BUILT IN 1764.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On Saturday, November 25, 1758, the English
+took possession of the place, and on the
+next day General Forbes wrote to Governor
+Denny from “Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh,
+the 26th of November, 1758,” and this was the
+first use of that name. On this same Sunday
+the Rev. Mr. Beatty, a Presbyterian chaplain,
+preached a sermon in thanksgiving for the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span>superiority of British arms,—the first Protestant
+service in Pittsburgh. The French had
+had a Roman Catholic chaplain, Father Baron,
+during their occupancy.</p>
+
+<p>The English proceeded to build a new fort
+about two hundred yards from the site of Fort
+Duquesne, which they called Fort Pitt. This
+stronghold at Pittsburgh cut off French transportation
+to the Mississippi by way of the
+Ohio River, and the only remaining route, by
+way of the Great Lakes, was soon afterward
+closed by the fall of Fort Niagara. The fall
+of Quebec, with the death of the two opposing
+Generals, Montcalm and Wolfe, and the capture
+of Montreal, ended the claims of France
+to sovereignty in the new world.</p>
+
+<p>The new fort being found too small, General
+Stanwix built a second Fort Pitt, much
+larger and stronger, designed for a garrison of
+one thousand men. The Indians viewed the
+newcomers with suspicion, but Colonel Henry
+Bouquet assured them, with diplomatic tergiversation,
+that, “We have not come here to
+take possession of your country in a hostile
+manner, as the French did when they came
+among you, but to open a large and extensive
+trade with you and all other nations of Indians
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span>to the westward.” A redoubt (the “Block-House”)
+built by Colonel Bouquet in 1764
+still stands, in a very good state of preservation,
+being cared for by the Daughters of the
+American Revolution. The protection of the
+garrison naturally attracted a few traders, merchants
+and pioneers to Pittsburgh, and a permanent
+population began to grow.</p>
+
+<p>But the indigenous race continued to resent
+the extension of white encroachment; and
+they formed a secret confederacy under Pontiac,
+the renowned Ottawa chief, who planned a
+simultaneous attack on all the white frontier
+posts. This uprising was attended by atrocious
+cruelties at many of the points attacked, but
+we may take note here of the movement only
+as it affected Pittsburgh. At the grand council
+held by the tribes, a bundle of sticks had
+been given to every tribe, each bundle containing
+as many sticks as there were days intervening
+before the deadly assault should begin.
+One stick was to be drawn from the bundle
+every day until but one remained, which was
+to signal the outbreak for that day. This was
+the best calendar the barbarian could devise.
+At Pittsburgh, a Delaware squaw who was
+friendly to the whites had stealthily taken out
+three of the sticks, thus precipitating the attack
+on Fort Pitt three days in advance of the
+time appointed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[409]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp87" id="illus140" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus140.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PLAN OF FORT PITT.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span></p>
+
+<p>The last stick was reached on June 22, 1763,
+and the Delawares and Shawanese began the
+assault in the afternoon, under Simon Ecuyer.
+The people of Pittsburgh took shelter in the
+fort, and held out while waiting for reinforcements.
+Colonel Bouquet hurried forward a
+force of five hundred men, but they were intercepted
+at Bushy Run, where a bloody battle
+was fought. Bouquet had fifty men killed and
+sixty wounded, but inflicted a much greater
+loss on his savage foes, and gained the fort,
+relieving the siege. As soon as Bouquet could
+recruit his command, he moved down the Ohio,
+attacked the Indians, liberated some of their
+prisoners and taught the red men to respect
+the power that controlled at Pittsburgh.</p>
+
+<p>In 1768 the Indians ceded their lands about
+Pittsburgh to the Colonies, and civilization was
+then free to spread over them. In 1774 a land
+office was opened in Pittsburgh by Governor
+Dunmore, and land-warrants were granted on
+payment of two shillings and sixpence purchase
+money, at the rate of ten pounds per
+one hundred acres.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span></p>
+
+<p>With the French out of the country, the
+Colonies began to feel the oppression of a
+British policy which British statesmen and
+historians to-day most bitterly denounce.
+Their opposition to tyranny found its natural
+expression in the battle of Lexington, April
+19, 1775. The fires of patriotism leapt through
+the continent, and the little settlement at
+Pittsburgh was quickly aflame with the national
+spirit. On May 16th a convention was held
+at Pittsburgh, which resolved that</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“This committee have the highest sense of the spirited
+behavior of their brethren in New England, and do
+most cordially approve of their opposing the invaders
+of American rights and privileges to the utmost extreme,
+and that each member of this committee, respectively,
+will animate and encourage their neighborhood to follow
+the brave example.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>No foreign soldiers were sent over the
+mountains to Pittsburgh, but a more merciless
+foe, who would attack and harass with
+remorseless cruelty, was impressed into the
+English service, despite the horrified protests
+of some of her wisest statesmen. American
+treaties with the Indians had no force against
+the allurements of foreign gold, and under this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span>unholy alliance men were burnt at the stake,
+women were carried away, and cabins were
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>With the aim of regaining the friendship
+of the Indians, Congress appointed commissioners
+who met the tribes at Pittsburgh; and
+Colonel George Morgan, Indian agent, writes
+to John Hancock, November 8, 1776:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>“I have the happiness to inform you that the cloud
+that threatened to break over us is likely to disperse.
+The Six Nations, with the Muncies, Delawares, Shawanese
+and Mohicans, who have been assembled here with
+their principal chiefs and warriors to the number of
+644, have given the strongest assurance of their determination
+to preserve inviolate the peace and neutrality
+with the United States.”</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">These amicable expectations were not realized,
+and General Edward Hand came to
+Pittsburgh the next year and planned an expedition
+against the Indians. Colonel Broadhead
+took out Hand’s expedition in the
+summer and burnt the Indian towns.</p>
+
+<p>The depreciation of paper currency, or Continental
+money, had by this time brought the
+serious burden of high prices upon the people.
+The traders, who demanded apparently exorbitant
+rates for their goods, were denounced in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[413]</span>public meetings at Pittsburgh as being “now
+commonly known by the disgraceful epithet
+of speculators, of more malignant natures
+than the savage Mingoes in the wilderness.”
+This hardship grew in severity until the
+finances were put upon a more stable basis.</p>
+
+<p>By 1781, there were demoralization and
+mutiny at Fort Pitt, and General William Irvine
+was put in command. His firm hand
+soon restored the garrison to obedience. The
+close of the war with Great Britain was celebrated
+by the issue of a general order at
+the fort, November 6, 1781, requiring all, as a
+sailor would say, “to splice the main-brace.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>Up to this time the Penn family had held
+the charter to Pennsylvania; but as they had
+maintained a steadfast allegiance to the mother
+country, the General Assembly annulled their
+title, except to allow them to retain the ownership
+of various manors throughout the State,
+embracing half a million acres.</p>
+
+<p>In order to relieve the people of Pittsburgh
+from going to Greensburg to the court-house
+in their sacred right of suing and being sued,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[414]</span>the General Assembly erected Allegheny
+County out of parts of Westmoreland and
+Washington counties, September 24, 1788.
+This county originally comprised, in addition
+to its present limits, what are now Armstrong,
+Beaver, Butler, Crawford, Erie, Mercer, Venango
+and Warren counties. The act required
+that the court-house and jail should be
+located in Allegheny (just across the river from
+Pittsburgh), but as there was no protection
+against Indians there, an amendment established
+Pittsburgh as the county-seat. The
+first court was held at Fort Pitt; and the next
+day a ducking-stool was erected for the district,
+at “The Point” in the three rivers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1785, the dispute between Virginia and
+Pennsylvania for the possession of Pittsburgh
+was settled by the award of a joint commission
+in favor of Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>A writer says that in 1786 Pittsburgh contained
+thirty-six log houses, one stone and one
+frame house and five small stores. Another
+records that the population “is almost entirely
+Scots and Irish, who live in log houses.” A
+third says of these log houses, “Now and then
+one had assumed the appearance of neatness
+and comfort.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[415]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus141" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus141.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>PHIPPS CONSERVATORY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span></p>
+
+<p>The first newspaper, the Pittsburgh <i>Gazette</i>,
+was established July 29, 1786. A mail route
+to Philadelphia, by horseback, was adopted in
+the same year. On September 29, 1787, the
+Legislature granted a charter to the Pittsburgh
+Academy, a school that has grown steadily in
+usefulness and power, and is now the Western
+University of Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>In 1791, the Indians became vindictive and
+dangerous, and General Arthur St. Clair, with a
+force of twenty-three hundred men, was sent
+down the river to punish them. Neglecting
+President Washington’s imperative injunction
+to avoid a surprise, he led his command into an
+ambush and lost half of it in the most disastrous
+battle with the redskins since the time of
+Braddock. In the general alarm that ensued,
+Fort Pitt being in a state of decay a new fort
+was built in Pittsburgh at Ninth and Tenth
+streets and Penn Avenue,—a stronghold that
+included bastions, blockhouses, barracks, etc.,
+and was named Fort Lafayette. General Anthony
+Wayne was then selected to command
+another expedition against the savages, and he
+arrived in Pittsburgh in June, 1792. After
+drilling his troops and making preparations for
+two years, in the course of which he erected
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span>several forts in the West, including Fort Defiance
+and Fort Wayne, he fought the Indians
+and crushed their strength and spirit. On his
+return a lasting peace was made with them,
+and there were no further raids about Pittsburgh.</p>
+
+<p>The Whiskey Insurrection demands a brief
+reference. Whiskey is a steady concomitant
+of civilization. As soon as the white settlers
+had planted themselves securely at Pittsburgh,
+they made requisition on Philadelphia for six
+thousand kegs of flour and three thousand
+kegs of whiskey—a disproportion as startling
+as Falstaff’s intolerable deal of sack to one
+half-pennyworth of bread. Congress, in 1791,
+passed an excise law to assist in paying the
+war debt. The measure was very unpopular,
+and its operation was forcibly resisted, particularly
+in Pittsburgh, which was noted then,
+as now, for the quantity and quality of its
+whiskey. There were distilleries on nearly
+every stream emptying into the Monongahela.
+The time and circumstances made the tax odious.
+The Revolutionary War had just closed,
+the pioneers were in the midst of great Indian
+troubles, and money was scarce, of low value
+and very hard to obtain. The people of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[418]</span>new country were unused to the exercise of
+stringent laws. The progress of the French
+Revolution encouraged the settlers to account
+themselves oppressed by similar tyrannies,
+against which some of them persuaded themselves
+similar resistance should be made.
+Genêt, the French demagogue, was sowing
+sedition everywhere. Lafayette’s participation
+in the French Revolution gave it in America,
+where he was deservedly beloved, a prestige
+which it could never have gained for itself.
+Distillers who paid the tax were assaulted;
+some of them were tarred and feathered;
+others were taken into the forest and tied to
+trees; their houses and barns were burned;
+their property was carried away or destroyed.
+Several thousand insurgents assembled at
+Braddock’s Field, and marched on Pittsburgh,
+where the citizens gave them food and submitted
+to a reign of terror. Then President
+Washington sent an army of fifteen thousand
+troops against them, and they melted away, as
+a mob will ever do when the strong arm of
+Government smites it without fear or respect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="illus142" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus142.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>THE COAL FLEET.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[420]</span></p>
+
+<p>Pittsburgh was incorporated a borough in
+1794. Her first glassworks was built in 1797;
+and both her population and her industries
+multiplied until she was made a city in 1816.
+In 1845 (April 10th), a great fire destroyed
+about one third of the total area of the city,
+including most of the large business houses
+and factories, the bridge over the Monongahela,
+the large hotel known as the Monongahela
+House and several churches;—in all
+about eleven hundred buildings. The Legislature
+appropriated $50,000 for the relief of
+the sufferers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1877, the municipal government, being,
+in its personnel, at the moment incompetent
+to preserve the fundamental principles on
+which it was established, permitted a strike of
+railroad employees to grow without restriction
+as to the observance of law and order until it
+became an insurrection. Three million dollars’
+worth of property was destroyed by riot and
+incendiarism in a few hours. When at last
+outraged authority was properly shifted from
+the supine city chieftains to the indomitable
+State itself, it became necessary, before order
+could be restored, for troops to fire, with a
+sacrifice of human life. The lesson was worth
+all it cost, and anarchy has never dared to
+raise its head in the corporation limits since
+that time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[421]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus143" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus143.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>CARNEGIE INSTITUTE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1889, the great flood at Johnstown, accompanied
+by a frightful loss of life and destruction
+of property, touched the common
+heart of humanity all over the world. The
+closeness of Johnstown geographically made
+the sorrow at Pittsburgh most poignant and
+profound. In a few hours almost the whole
+population had brought its offerings for the
+stricken community, and besides clothing, provisions
+and every conceivable thing necessary
+for relief and comfort, the people of Pittsburgh
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span>contributed $250,000 to restore so far
+as possible the material portion of the loss.</p>
+
+<p>Pittsburgh has thus passed through many
+battles, trials, afflictions and adversities, and
+has grown in the strength of giants until it
+now embraces in the limits of the county a
+population of over one million. The tax valuation
+of her property is $554,000,000. Her share
+is more than one half of the whole production
+in the United States of steel, steel rails, coke,
+oil, plate glass, glassware, harness-leather and
+iron pipe. She mines one quarter of the bituminous
+coal of the United States. She has
+2500 mills and factories, with an annual product
+worth $250,000,000, and a pay-roll of $75,000,000.
+Her electric street-railway system
+multiplies itself through her streets for 250
+miles. Natural-gas fuel is conveyed into her
+mills and houses through 1000 miles of iron
+pipe. Her output of coke makes one train
+ten miles long every day throughout the year.
+Her tonnage by river and rail exceeds the
+tonnage by river and rail of any other city in
+the world; it is equal to one half the combined
+tonnage of the Atlantic and Pacific
+coasts. Her rail tonnage is three times as
+large as that of New York or Chicago, double
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[423]</span>that of London, four times that of Paris, and
+greater than the combined tonnage of New
+York, Boston and Chicago. Two hundred
+and fifty passenger trains and six thousand
+loaded freight-cars run to and from her terminals
+every day. Nowhere else in the world
+is there so large a Bessemer-steel plant, crucible-steel
+plant, plate-glass plant, chimney-glass
+plant, table-glass plant, air-brake plant, steel-rail
+plant, cork works, tube works or steel
+freight-car works. Her armor sheathes our
+battleships, as well as those of Russia and
+Japan. She equips the navies of the world
+with projectiles and range-finders. Her bridges
+span the rivers of India, China, Egypt and the
+Argentine Republic; and her locomotives,
+rails and bridges are used on the Siberian railroad.
+She builds electric railways for Great
+Britain and Brazil, and telescopes for Germany
+and Denmark. Indeed, she distributes her
+varied manufactures into the channels of trade
+all over the earth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="illus144" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus144.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>COURT HOUSE.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But while these surpassing industries have
+given Pittsburgh her wealth, population, supremacy
+and power, commercial materialism
+is not the <i>ultima thule</i> of her people. She
+has the largest and handsomest court-house in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[425]</span>the world, the crowning architectural triumph
+of H. H. Richardson. Her churches and
+schoolhouses are found in nearly every block.
+She spends a quarter of a million annually on
+her parks,—Schenley and Highland. She
+maintains by popular support one of the three
+symphony orchestras in America. She has
+given many famous names to Science, Literature
+and Art. Her astronomical observatory
+is known throughout the world. Her rich
+men are often liberal beyond their own needs—particularly
+so William Thaw, who spent
+millions for education and benevolence; Mrs.
+Mary Schenley, who has given the city a
+great park, four hundred picturesque acres
+in the very heart of its boundaries; and
+Henry Phipps, who erected the largest conservatory
+for plants and flowers in our country.
+There is one other, Andrew Carnegie, whose
+wise and continuous use of vast wealth for the
+public good is nearly beyond human precedent.
+Mr. Carnegie has spent many millions
+on libraries, art galleries and scientific
+museums in Pittsburgh alone, and millions
+more for similar institutions in other parts of
+the world. The Carnegie Institute at Pittsburgh,
+comprising Art Galleries, Library,
+Museum and Music Hall, now in its fourth
+year, is the rallying-ground of the whole people
+in their growing love of æsthetic and spiritual
+life. Its doors are open all day, from nine in
+the morning until ten at night, free to the
+people. And the people use it with delight,
+more than five hundred thousand of them having
+thronged its halls in this past year.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[426]</span></p>
+
+<p>Pittsburgh is truly an imperial city.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="illus145" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/illus145.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      <p>SEAL OF THE CITY.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> Reproduced by permission of Augustus Pruyn, Albany, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> Reproduced by permission of Dr. Samuel B. Ward, Albany, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>King Washington</i>, by Adelaide Skeel and
+William H. Brearley.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> From <i>Book of Newburgh</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">[5]</a> <i>From Spirit of ’76</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">[6]</a> From <i>American Patriots</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">[7]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>Bowling Green</i>, by Spencer Trask.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">[8]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>Bowling Green</i>, by Spencer Trask.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">[9]</a> Reproduced by permission from <i>The Outlook</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">[10]</a> Reproduced by permission of Lewis C. Vandegrift, Wilmington, Del.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">[11]</a> Reproduced by permission of Henry C. Conrad, Wilmington, Del.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">[12]</a> Reproduced by permission of Buffalo Historical Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">[13]</a> Subsequently the river bore the name of North River, to distinguish
+it from the Delaware, the South River of Nieu Nederlandt.
+In fact the fair stream has been renamed as often as a
+Parisian street. Albany has shared the fate of the river.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">[14]</a> The Chart illustrating this article is one of a later date.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">[15]</a> See page 93, Bradford’s <i>History of Plimoth Plantation. From
+the original manuscript</i>. Boston, 1898. This original MS. in the
+above year was transferred with appropriate ceremonies from the
+library of the Archiepiscopal Palace at Fulham to the archives of
+the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">[16]</a> The writer is indebted to As-que-sent-wah, a member of the
+Onondaga tribe, an authority upon Indian local lore, and well known
+among white men as Edward Winslow Paige, for an account of the
+tradition which fixes the residence of Hiawatha at Schonowe. Mr.
+Paige owns the lot at the west end of Union Street on the bank of
+the Binnekill, upon which the castle and residence stood. He
+points out to the visitor existing traces of the Indian occupation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">[17]</a> He was drowned in October, 1667, in Lake Champlain, while
+journeying to Canada in response to the pressing invitation of the
+Governor General to visit him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">[18]</a> Governor Leisler was afterwards unjustly condemned and executed
+for high treason; the destruction of Schenectady being one
+of the charges against him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">[19]</a> He came again in 1782, when the struggle was practically
+over. The authorities and the people did their utmost in his
+honor. This he suitably acknowledged in a letter addressed “To
+the magistrates and military authorities of the township of Schenectady,”
+closing in these words: “May the complete blessings of
+peace soon reward your arduous struggle for the freedom and independence
+of our common country.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">[20]</a> “Ten eynde de Gemeente niet verstroyt werde.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">EPITAPH OF JOSHUA DE KOCKERTHAL, IN BURYING-GROUND AT
+SAUGERTIES, N. Y.</p>
+
+<p>Wisse Wandersman Unter diesem Steine Rusht nebst Seiner Sibylla
+Charlotte Ein Rechter Wandersman Per Hoch Jeutsehen in Nord
+America ihr Josua und der selben an Der Ost and West seite Der Hudson’s
+River rein Lutherischer Prediger. Seine erste an Kunft war mit
+Lrd Lovelace, 1707-8, den 1 Januar. Seine sweite mit Col. Hunter
+1710 d. 14 Juny. Seine Englandische ruc reise unterbrach Seine
+Seelen Himmelische reise an St. Johannis sage 1719. Regherstu
+mehr Ku wissen So untersuche in Welaneh thons vaterland, Wer
+war de Kockerthal, Wer Harschias, Wer Winchenbuch, B. Berkenmayer,
+S. Heurtin, L. Brevort.</p>
+
+<p class="center">MDCCXLII.</p>
+
+<p>Know, Wanderer, under this stone rests beside his Sybilla Charlotte
+a right wanderer, the Joshua of the High Dutch in N. America, the
+pure Lutheran Preacher of them on the East and West side of the
+Hudson River. His first arrival was with Lord Lovelace in 1707,
+the first of January. His second with Colonel Hunter, 1710, the
+fourteenth of June. His voyage back to England was prevented
+(literally interrupted) by the voyage of his soul to Heaven, on St.
+John’s Day, 1719. Do you wish to know more? Seek in Melancthon’s
+fatherland who was Kockerthal, who was Harschias, who
+Winchenbuch, B. Berkenmayer, S. Heurtin, L. Brevort.</p>
+
+<p class="center">1742.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">[22]</a> On this Glebe site was erected about 1730 the Lutheran Church
+of the Palatine Parish by Quassaick. Reverend Michael Christian
+Knoll, Pastor.</p>
+
+<p>From July 19, 1747, the Reverend Hezekiah Watkins of the
+Church of England held services for about twenty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>Erected by Quassaick Chapter, <span class="smcap">Daughters of the American Revolution</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">In Memory of<br>
+REVEREND HEZEKIAH WATKINS<br>
+YALE 1737 ORDAINED 1754 IN ENGLAND<br>
+SENT HERE BY VEN. SOC. P. G. IN F. P.<br>
+FOUNDED THE PARISHES OF<br>
+S. DAVID’S, S. ANDREW’S AND S. GEORGE’S<br>
+RESIDENT MINISTER AT NEWBURGH<br>
+FROM 1752 UNTIL HIS DEATH.<br>
+APRIL 10, 1765. AET. 57.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Tablet in S. George’s Church, Newburgh.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">GEORGE CLINTON<br>
+MEMBER OF CONTINENTAL CONGRESS<br>
+1775-1777<br>
+BRIGADIER-GENERAL CONTINENTAL ARMY<br>
+1777<br>
+GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK<br>
+1777-85—1801-4<br>
+VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES<br>
+1804-1812</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Cara Patria Carior Libertas.</i></p>
+
+<p>Inscription on Clinton Statue in Colden Square, Newburgh.
+Statue by Henry Kirke Brown. Presented to the city by the Historical
+Society of Newburgh Bay and the Highlands and other citizens.
+Unveiled on the 119th anniversary of the battles of Forts
+Clinton and Montgomery in the Highlands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">[25]</a> The change from Vredryk Flypse to Frederick Philips was synchronously
+made—both names being changed at the same time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">[26]</a> The word is commonly spelt thus for the mountains, but thus—<i>Allegheny</i>—for
+the river, county and city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">[27]</a> “The commissaries will issue a gill of whiskey, extraordinary, to
+the non-commissioned officers and privates, upon this joyful occasion.”—General
+Irvine’s Order.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[427]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/header7.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">A</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abercrombie, General, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ackland, Lady, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adams, John, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adams, Mrs. John, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adams, John Quincy, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albany, W. W. Battershall on, <a href="#Page_1">1-37</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">settled by Dutch, <a href="#Page_1">1-9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">captured by English, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">incorporated, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">English church built, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its frontier position, <a href="#Page_15">15-18</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">during the French wars, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">convention of 1754, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_20">20-23</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">becomes the State Capital, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">historic survivals in, <a href="#Page_24">24-37</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">architecture of, <a href="#Page_30">30-32</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Capitol described, <a href="#Page_32">32-34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aldrich, T. B., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Allegheny, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Almirante Oquendo</i>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Philosophical Society, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amersfoort, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amherst, Lord, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">André, John, in New York, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of, <a href="#Page_158">158-161</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Andros, Edmund, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Army, American, volunteer system organized, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnold, B., at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treason of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnold, Matthew, cited, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">As-que-sent-wah, <i>see</i> <a href="#Paige">E. W. Paige</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">B</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin’s Locomotive Works, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baltimore, Congress flees to, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barbadoes, Washington’s voyage to, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barclay, Rev. T., quoted, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barnard College, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baron, Father, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bartram, John, and his garden, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Battershall, W. W., on Albany, <a href="#Page_1">1-37</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bayard, James A., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bayard, Richard A., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bayard, Thomas F., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beatty, Charles, quoted, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beatty, Rev., preaches first Protestant sermon at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bedford, Gunning, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bedford, Gunning, Jr., <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[428]</span>Beecher, H. W., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beekman Mansion, <a href="#Page_195">195-197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belcher, Governor J., <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bemis Heights, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bennington, battle of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bertholf, Rev. G., at Tarrytown, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beverwyck, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biddle, Colonel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bidwell, D. D., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Binney, Horace, house of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bird Grip</i>, Swedish vessel, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bjork, Rev. Eric, builds Old Swedes’ Church, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black Rock, battery at, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Block House,” the Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bloomingdale, absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blue Anchor, the Swedish tavern, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bordentown, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boston, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boudinot, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bouquet, Col. Henry, builds the “Block House,” <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defeats Indians, <a href="#Page_407">407-410</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bowles, naval constructor, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bowling Green, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boyle, H., <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brackinridge, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bracola, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Braddock, defeat and death of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399-404</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Braddock’s Field, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bradford, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bradford, press of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brainerd, David, expelled from Yale, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brandt, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brazil, Emperor of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breuckelen, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brewster, E. A., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brinkerhoff, M., <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broadhead, Colonel, attacks Indians, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brocklandia, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broecke, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broeckede, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broicklede, <i>see</i> <a href="#Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronck, Jonas, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Brooklyn">Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Harrington Putnam on, <a href="#Page_213">213-249</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch settlement, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch settlers described, <a href="#Page_216">216-220</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first church, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">British rule, <a href="#Page_224">224-227</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_228">228-240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Navy Yard, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fort Lafayette, <a href="#Page_244">244-248</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brooklyn Institute, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown, General, in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown, H. K., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bryant, Wm. Cullen, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffalo, Rowland B. Mahany on, <a href="#Page_367">367-391</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">founding of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early history, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">incorporated, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">strategic position in the War of 1812, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Perry’s victory, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">burning of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of Chippewa, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lundy’s Lane, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">unsuccessful siege by the British of Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382-384</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the modern city, <a href="#Page_385">385-391</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burgoyne, surrender at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58-68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">imprisoned at Albany, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burns, Robert, statue of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burr, Aaron, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burr, Rev. Aaron, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burr, Dr. Horace, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burwell, Dr. G. N., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bushy Run, battle at, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">C</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cadwalader, in battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Caledonia</i>, captured in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[429]</span>Campanius, at Fort Christina, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Campbell, Douglas, cited, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Canada acquired by England, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnahan, James, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnegie, Andrew, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnegie Institute, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carpenters’ Hall, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caverley’s statue of Burns, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Celeron, Louis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Centennial Exhibition of 1876, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Champlain, Samuel, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chapin, E. P., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles I., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles II., <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemnitz, surrender of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cherry Valley, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chippewa, battle of, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christiana, Swedes settle on the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">fortified, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christina, Queen, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christina Harbor, village of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christinaham, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Church, S. H., on Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_393">393-426</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cincinnatus, Society of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clark, Abraham, signer, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, DeWitt, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, General George, at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_124">124-126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clinton, James, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coit, George, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colden, C., <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colden, Maria, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">College Settlement, New York, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colonnade Hotel, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Columbia">Columbia University, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colve, Captain, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress, first general American, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress, Continental, Witherspoon elected to, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">flees to Baltimore, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">meets in Nassau Hall, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the Indians, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress, U. S., and Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress Spring, <i>see</i> <a href="#Saratoga">Saratoga</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Connecticut</i>, the, captured in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Constitution</i>, the, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constitution, U. S., adoption of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contrecœur, Captain, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Convention of 1787, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cooper, J. Fenimore, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cooper Institute, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cornwallis, Lord, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_234">234-237</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Trenton and Princeton, <a href="#Page_271">271-283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Courcelle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coxe, Right Reverend A. C., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cramps, shipbuilders, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Crane_Hook">Crane Hook, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cronyn, Dr. John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crown Point, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curtis, G. W., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">D</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Daughters of the American Revolution,” <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Davies, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Beauvois, Carel, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Kockerthal, Joshua, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delaware, Washington crossing the, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delaware Historical Society, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[430]</span>Denny, Governor, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Rochambeau, Count, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">de Tracy, Lieutenant-General, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Detroit</i>, the, captured in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dickens, Charles, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dickinson, John, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dickinson, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinwiddie, Governor, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dongan, Governor, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Donop at Princeton, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dordrecht, Synod of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dort, Synod of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Downing, A. J., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Downing, Charles, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drummond, Lieutenant-General, besieges Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duke Alexis, the Grand, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duke of Veragua, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duke of York, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dunham, Carroll, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dunlap, Wm., quoted, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dunmore, Governor, at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Du Ponts, the, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch church, Tarrytown, <a href="#Page_152">152-156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch East India Company, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch West India Company, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">E</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eager, S. W., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eagle</i>, the, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ebeling cited, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ecuyer, Simon, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edison, Thomas, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edwards, Jonathan, at Princeton, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Elfsborg">Elfsborg, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elizabethtown, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellicott, Andrew, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellicott, Joseph, founds Buffalo, <a href="#Page_367">367-369</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elliott, Lieut. J. D., in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellison house, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ellsworth, Oliver, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elsinborough, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emperor of Brazil, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erie Canal, history of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382-385</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ettrick house, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">F</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fairfax, Lord, estates of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fairmount Water-works, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fall’s house, at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Faneuil Hall, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fillmore, Millard, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finley, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Five Nations, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flash, Sandy, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fletcher, Governor, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flypse, Vredryk, <i>see</i> <a href="#Philips">Philips</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forbes, General, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forsythe, Rev. John, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forts: Albany, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ann, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Box, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Carillon, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Casimir, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christina, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clinton, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Corkscrew, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Crailo, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Defiance, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Duquesne, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Edward, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elfsborg, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Erie, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frederick, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frontenac, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">George, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Greene, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hamilton, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hardy, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hunter, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Johnson, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lafayette, <a href="#Page_244">244-248</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lee, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Montgomery, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nassau, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Necessity, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Niagara, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orange, <a href="#Page_7">7-9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pitt, <a href="#Page_407">407-410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Putnam, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span>Schuyler, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stanwix, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sterling, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sumter, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wayne, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">William Henry, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fort Stanwix Conference, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forward, Oliver, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Fox’s Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Francis I., <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_400">400</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franklin Institute, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franklin, William, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fraser at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_60">60-64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fraunces, Samuel, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fraunces’s Tavern, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederick, Harold, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freeman’s Farm, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freerman, Rev. B., <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">French and Indian Wars, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freneau, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frontenac, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the Schenectady Massacre, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fugitive Slave Law, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fulton, Robert, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">G</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ganson, John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garrett, Thomas, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gates, General, displaces Schuyler, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_57">57-68</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gazette, The</i>, of Buffalo, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Genêt, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">George II., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">portrait of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">George III., statue of, in Bowling Green, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germantown in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbs’s St. Martin in the Fields, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gilder, J. B., on New York City, <a href="#Page_169">169-211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gilman, Governor, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Girard College, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gist, Christopher, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gowanus, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canal, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant, Major, defeat of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant, Mrs., of Laggan, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant’s Hill, fight at, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gravesend settled by English, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gray’s Ferry, Hessians at, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Great Britain, wars with, <a href="#Page_373">373-382</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Great Meadows, battle at, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greeley, Horace, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Green, Ashbel, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">plans defensive works for Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greenwich, New Yorkers at, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Griffin</i>, La Salle’s vessel, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gustavus Adolphus and Usselinx, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">H</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hale, Nathan, statue of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Half Moon</i>, Hudson’s, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hall, James, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamilton, Alexander, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">marriage of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">political principles of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamilton, Governor, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hancock, John, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hand, General, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harlem absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harrison, Provost C. C., of University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hart, John, Signer, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hasbrouck, Col. J., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hasbrouck House, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hawley, Jesse, and the Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Headley, J. T., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span>Helvetius, Madame, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry, Joseph, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hessians, at Trenton, <a href="#Page_270">270-274</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Gray’s Ferry, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hiawatha, real story of, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hitchcock at battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hodge, Mr., at Buffalo, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holland Land Company, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holland, laws of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">States-General of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hollendare, Peter, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holy Trinity church, Wilmington, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hopkins, Stephen, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hopkinson, Francis, Signer, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Houdon’s bust of Franklin, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howe, Admiral, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howe, Lord, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at New York, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howe, Lord Viscount, death of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howells, W. D., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hudde at Fort Nassau, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hudson, Henry, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Hugh Wynne,” <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hunter, Governor, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">I</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Independence Hall, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Indians">Indians in history of Saratoga, <a href="#Page_16">16 <i>ff.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Schenectady, <a href="#Page_75">75-84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-93</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Buffalo, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_394">394-411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingoldsby, Major, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingoldsby, Richard, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iroquois, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irvine, Gen. Wm., <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irving, Washington, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-166</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">J</li>
+
+<li class="indx">James, Duke of York, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James, Henry, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James II., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jamestown, Va., <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jay, John, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jefferson, Thomas, writes Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jensen, Sally, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jogues, Father, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Johnson, Sir John, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Johnson, Sir William, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Johnstown Flood, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jumel Mansion, <a href="#Page_202">202-204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jumonville, death of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">K</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kalm, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kayadrossera patent, the, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keith, Governor, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kennedy, Colonel, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kennedy House, the, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kidd, Captain, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kieft, Governor, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">King George’s War, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">King’s College, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <a href="#Columbia">Columbia College</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kip, Leonard, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kipling, Rudyard, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knickerbocker, Diedrich, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knoll, Rev. M. C., <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knox, General, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knox, Lucy, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Königsmark, rebellion of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kosciuszko at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kossuth, Louis, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">L</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>La Dauphine</i>, Verrazzano’s ship, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lafayette, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Princeton, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the French Revolution, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lake Erie, battle of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Landon, J. S., on Schenectady, <a href="#Page_71">71-106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[433]</span>Larned at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">La Salle, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lawrenceville School, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Le Brun, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Le Couteulx, L. S., founds asylum, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lee, Bishop Alfred, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lee, R. H., <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leisler, Jacob, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">L’Enfant, Capt. P. C., and plan for the National Capital, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lewis, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lexington, battle of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Li Hung Chang at New York, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lincoln, A., his body brought to New York, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lindstrom, P., Swedish engineer, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingston, Catherine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingston, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingston, Philip, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Logstown and the Ohio Company, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">London, Philadelphia compared with, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Longfellow cited, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Long Island, battle of, <a href="#Page_229">229-240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lord, Rev. Dr. John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louisburg, expedition against, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lovejoy, Mrs. Joshua, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lovelace, Lord, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Low, Seth, Mayor of Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lundy’s Lane, battle of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luther, Martin, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lutherans, German, at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_108">108-117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lützen, battle of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luzerne, French envoy, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">M</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mabie, H. W., on Tarrytown, <a href="#Page_137">137-167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maclean, John, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Madison, James, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mahany, R. B., on Buffalo, <a href="#Page_367">367-391</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maidenhead, skirmish at, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Maine</i>, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manhattan, island of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manhattanville absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manning, Captain, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manning, James, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mantua, village of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marquis Ito, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martin, Luther, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martin, Thomas, Madison to, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mather, Cotton, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauritius, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mawhood, Colonel, at Princeton, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mayflower</i>, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McCosh, President James, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McKean, Governor, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McKinly, President John, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">McMahon, James P., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Megapolensis, Domine, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mercer at battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_279">279-283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Messenger, The</i>, of Ontario, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meynders, Birgert, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Midwout, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mifflin in battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miles, Colonel, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miller, Rev. John, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Minquas River, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Minuit, Peter, in New Netherlands, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mischienza, the, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mohawks, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monmouth’s Rebellion, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montcalm, death of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montgomery, Robert, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[434]</span>Montreal, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">massacre of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moravians come to Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morgan, Gen. Daniel, at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_58">58-62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morgan, Col. George, to John Hancock, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morris, Gouverneur, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morris, Robert, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Trenton campaign, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morristown, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington marches to, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morse, S. F. B., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morven, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moses, Rhind’s statue of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mount McGregor, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Music Fund Hall, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Myggenborg, <i>see</i> <a href="#Elfsborg">Elfsborg</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">N</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napier, General, cited, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nassau Hall, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Navy Yard, Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">taken by the English, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name changed to New York, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Buffalo first named, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Newburgh, Adelaide Skeel on, <a href="#Page_107">107-135</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Palatine settlement, <a href="#Page_107">107-117</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the coming of the Scotch and English, <a href="#Page_117">117-121</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_121">121-126</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington’s stay in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Nicola letter, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of Ettrick, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington’s address to the unpaid troops, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">recent history, <a href="#Page_132">132-135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Castle, Del., <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Netherlands, fur trade in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Utrecht, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New York, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">J. B. Gilder on, <a href="#Page_169">169-211</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch settlement, <a href="#Page_169">169-175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">captured by the English, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">recaptured by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">governorship of Andros, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">resumption of Dutch authority, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leisler’s rule, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_178">178-184</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the War of 1812, <a href="#Page_184">184-186</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Civil War, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">expansion of, <a href="#Page_187">187-189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Tammany Society, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">historic survivals in, <a href="#Page_190">190-204</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_204">204-211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New York Central Railroad, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New York University, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niagara, Shirley’s expedition against, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niagara Falls, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicola, Colonel, letter to Washington, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicolls, Colonel, at New Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nieu Nederlandt, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niles, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nott, President E., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">O</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ohio Company formed, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Old French War,” <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Old Jersey</i>, the ship, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old Swedes’ Church, Wilmington, <a href="#Page_350">350-352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxenstiern revives the Usselinx charter, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">P</li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Paige">Paige, E. W., cited, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paine, Thomas, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palatines, at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_108">108-117</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palmer, the sculptor, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paris, treaty of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">New York compared with, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span>Parker, Judge, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paterson, William, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Patton, President, of Princeton, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paulding, J., <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paulding, J. K., <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn, John, house of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn, Letitia, house of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn, William, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">founds Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_298">298-307</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">grants charter to Wilmington, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penn family’s charter to Pennsylvania annulled, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pennsylvania, charter to, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">dispute with Va., <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pennsylvania Historical Society, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pennsylvania Hospital, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pepper, Dr. William, services to the University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Percy, Lord, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perry, Commodore, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philadelphia, Talcott Williams on, <a href="#Page_297">297-334</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geographical site, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early houses, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">coming of William Penn, <a href="#Page_300">300-302</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">rapid growth of city, <a href="#Page_302">302-317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_317">317-320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">between 1790 and 1820, <a href="#Page_320">320-323</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">history of water supply, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the city before the Civil War, <a href="#Page_325">325-329</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_329">329-334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philadelphia Library, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Philips">Philips, Frederick, and his Manor, <a href="#Page_145">145-151</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phipps, Henry, conservatory of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pilgrims compared with Palatines, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pitt, William, statue of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">befriends colonies, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pittsburgh, S. H. Church on, <a href="#Page_393">393-426</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">site determined by Washington, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first permanent settlement, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">taken by French, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Braddock expedition, <a href="#Page_399">399-404</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">English take Fort Duquesne and name it Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indians attack, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_411">411-413</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">becomes the county seat, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Indian war of 1791, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">incorporated, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the strike of 1877, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">industrial importance, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">higher life of, <a href="#Page_423">423-426</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plymouth Rock, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poe, Edgar Allan, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polhemus, Rev. Mr., at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pontiac, confederacy of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poor at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porter, General P. B., in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favors Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pratt Institute, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Princess Eulalia, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Princeton, W. M. Sloane on, <a href="#Page_251">251-296</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first settlement, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">College of New Jersey established at Elizabethtown, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">removed to Princeton, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">parting from Yale, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early character, <a href="#Page_256">256-260</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Witherspoon and his administration, <a href="#Page_260">260-266</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_266">266-270</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Trenton campaign, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of Princeton, <a href="#Page_274">274-284</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mutinous Continentals at, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Congress meets at, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington’s visits to, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">contributions to the Convention of 1787, <a href="#Page_289">289-291</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern Princeton, <a href="#Page_291">291-296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prinz, John, in New Sweden, <a href="#Page_339">339-342</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pruyn, John V. L., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Putnam, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[436]</span>at Princeton, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Putnam, Gideon, at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Putnam, Harrington, on Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_213">213-249</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Q</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quassaick, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quebec, capture of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">gives bell to Lutherans at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Anne’s War, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Queen Charlotte</i>, British war vessel, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Charlotte, portrait of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen’s Head Tavern, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queenstown in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">R</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raymond, President, of Union College, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Red Jacket in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rensselaerswyck, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Revolution, Philadelphia in the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reynolds, Marcus, quoted, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhind’s statue of Moses, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riall, General, burns Buffalo, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">retreats, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richardson, H. H., <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richardson, William, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richmond Hill, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riedesel, Madame, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ripley, General, at Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rising, John Claudius, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rittenhouse, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his observatory, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roe, E. P., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rogers, Wm. F., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Romeyn, Domine, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roosevelt, Governor, cited, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ross house, the Betsy, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rudman, Pastor, cited, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruttenber, E. M., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryan, Bishop S. V., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryswyck, peace of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">S</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Augustine, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Clair, defeat of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Francis de Sales, Order of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. George’s church, Schenectady, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. John, Mrs., <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Luke’s church, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Mark’s Church, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Martin in the Fields, Gibbs’s, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Paul’s chapel, New York, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Peter’s church, Albany, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Santo Domingo, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Saratoga">Saratoga, E. H. Walworth on, <a href="#Page_39">39-69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">site of, <a href="#Page_39">39-42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the name, <a href="#Page_42">42-44</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">French and Indian struggles for site, <a href="#Page_45">45-48</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">massacre of old Saratoga, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Seven Years’ War, <a href="#Page_50">50-52</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">medicinal value of Saratoga waters discovered, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Fort Stanwix Conference, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">preliminary warfare of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_54">54-56</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burgoyne’s defeat and surrender, <a href="#Page_56">56-68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">General Schuyler makes old Saratoga his summer resort, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gideon Putnam founds the present Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sassoonan, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schaets, Rev. Gideon, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schenectady, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">J. S. Landon on, <a href="#Page_71">71-106</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">settled, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">subject to the Dutch West India Company, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arendt Van Curler’s directorship, <a href="#Page_75">75-83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[437]</span>land purchased from the Indians, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character of the early settlement, <a href="#Page_83">83-87</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">under English rule, <a href="#Page_87">87-90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the first legislative assembly, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">government seized by Leisler, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indian wars, <a href="#Page_92">92-96</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Schenectady in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_97">97-99</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">religious history, <a href="#Page_100">100-103</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern history, <a href="#Page_104">104-106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schenley, Mary, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schermerhoorn, Symon, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schonowe, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schoonmaker, Domine, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schute, Swen, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Elizabeth, marriage of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Margaret, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Peter, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Philip, shot by Indians, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Gen. Philip, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in battle of Saratoga, <a href="#Page_58">58-68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">visits Saratoga Springs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler, Mrs. Philip, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuyler Mansion, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuylerville, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scott, Walter, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scott, Gen. Winfield, in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Selyns, Rev. H., at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Seneca Chief</i>, first boat on Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seven Years’ War, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seymour, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shelton, Rev. Dr. Wm., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sherman, Roger, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shipley, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shipley, William, at Wilmington, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shirley, expedition of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Six Nations, <i>see</i> <a href="#Indians">Indians</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skeel, Adelaide, on Newburgh, <a href="#Page_107">107-135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skipper Block, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sleepy Hollow, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sloane, W. M., on Princeton, <a href="#Page_251">251-296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sloughter, Governor, replaces Leisler, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smith, James M., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smithsonian Institution, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spaulding, E. G., introduces Legal-Tender Act, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spuyten Duyvil Creek, fight at, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Squaw Island, the <i>Detroit</i> aground on, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stackpole, Dr., composes Yankee Doodle, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanhope, Samuel, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanwix, General, builds second Fort Pitt, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stark, General, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Fort Edward, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Princeton, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stedman, E. C., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Steuben">Steuben, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stirling, in battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_234">234-239</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Trenton campaign, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stockton, Richard, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stoddard, R. H., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stone, Gen. C. P., imprisoned at Fort Lafayette, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strasburg Cathedral, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stuyvesant, Peter, at New Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175-177</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218-221</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">buys land west of the Delaware, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">captures forts on the Delaware, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suffolk County in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sullivan, General, at Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_235">235-237</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Princeton, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sunnyside, Washington Irving at, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swedes, on the Delaware, <a href="#Page_335">335-344</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their church at Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">T</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tammany Hall, history of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[438]</span>Tarrytown, H. W. Mabie on, <a href="#Page_137">137-167</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">described, <a href="#Page_137">137-140</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">early Dutch settlements, <a href="#Page_140">140-145</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">derivation of name, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Philips Manor-House, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the old Dutch church, <a href="#Page_150">150-156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tarrytown in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_157">157-160</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">capture of John André, <a href="#Page_158">158-161</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington Irving, <a href="#Page_161">161-164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tatnall, Joseph, Washington visits, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">gives clock to Wilmington, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tawasentha, Vale of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taylor, Bayard, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tenacong, <i>see</i> <a href="#Tinicum">Tinicum</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thackeray, W. M., <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thaw, Wm., generosity to Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thesschenmaecher, Rev. Petrus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiemann, Mayor, death of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tifft house, the, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tilden, Samuel J., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Tinicum">Tinicum, Prinz’s fort at, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torkillius, Rev. R., at Fort Christina, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Townsend, Charles, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Townsend, Sam, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tran Hook, <i>see</i> <a href="#Crane_Hook">Crane Hook</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Treaty of 1783, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trefalldigheet, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trent, Captain Wm., establishes first settlement at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_397">397-399</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trenton, battle of, <a href="#Page_270">270-274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trinity Church, New York, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tryon, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tusculum, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">U</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union College, <a href="#Page_102">102-106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">University Settlement, New York, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usselinx, Wm., and his trading company, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utrecht, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treaty of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">V</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vallandigham, E. N., on Wilmington, <a href="#Page_335">335-365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Curler, Arendt, at Schenectady, <a href="#Page_75">75-84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vanderheyden Palace, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer, Killiaen, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer, Stephen, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer Island, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer Manor-House, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Slechtenhorst, Brandt, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Twiller, Walter, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Wart, Isaac, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Wyck house, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Wyck, James, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Verplanck house, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Verrazzano, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Versailles, peace of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virginia, dispute with Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vliessingen, <i>see</i> Flushing</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Von Königsmark, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Von Steuben, <i>see</i> <a href="#Steuben">Steuben</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">W</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waalboght, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wadsworth, Colonel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wallabout, village of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Walk-in-the-Water</i>, first steamboat on Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Walworth, E. H., on Saratoga, <a href="#Page_39">39-70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">War of 1812, <i>see</i> various chapters</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Washington, plan of city, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Washington, George, and the site of Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Great Meadows, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">with Braddock, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opens road to Fort Duquesne, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Schenectady, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span>in battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_238">238-240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Trenton and Princeton, <a href="#Page_270">270-290</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in New York, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197-202</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Newburgh, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126-131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">visits Wilmington, <a href="#Page_355">355-358</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">instructions to St. Clair, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">plan for the National Capital, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Watkins, Rev. H., <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wayne, Anthony, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Webb, Captain Thomas, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weigand’s Tavern, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wesley, John, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Western University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">West India Company, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">West Point, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitefield, George, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitman, Walt, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William and Mary, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William III., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William IV., <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams, David, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams, Talcott, on Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_297">297-334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams College, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams house, Newburgh, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams, William I., <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willing, Thomas, founds Wilmington, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willingstown, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willis, N. P., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilmington, E. N. Vallandigham on, <a href="#Page_335">335-365</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">plans of Usselinx, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">expedition of Minuit, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">settlement on the Christina, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">governorship of Prinz, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">struggles of the Swedes and Dutch for the Delaware, <a href="#Page_341">341-344</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch rule, <a href="#Page_344">344-346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">English supremacy, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">friendly services of Wm. Penn, <a href="#Page_346">346-349</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Old Swedes’ church, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wilmington laid out, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">services of William Shipley, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the earlier city, <a href="#Page_353">353-360</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">before and in the Civil War, <a href="#Page_360">360-364</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">modern changes, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Winthrop, Fitz John, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Witherspoon, John, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260-271</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wiedrich, Michael, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilkeson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilkeson, John, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Worth, Captain, in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolfe, death of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolfert’s Roost, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wyncoop, Gitty, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wyoming Valley, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Y</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yale relations with Princeton, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yorktown, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yorkville absorbed by New York, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Z</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zoölogical Garden, Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<h2>Historic Towns of New England</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With introduction by <span class="smcap">George
+P. Morris</span>. With 160 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $3.50.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: <b>Portland</b>, by Samuel T. Pickard; <b>Rutland</b>, by Edwin
+D. Mead; <b>Salem</b>, by George D. Latimer; <b>Boston</b>, by Thomas Wentworth
+Higginson and Edward Everett Hale; <b>Cambridge</b>, by Samuel A.
+Eliot; <b>Concord</b>, by Frank A. Sanborn; <b>Plymouth</b>, by Ellen Watson;
+<b>Cape Cod Towns</b>, by Katharine Lee Bates; <b>Deerfield</b>, by George Sheldon;
+<b>Newport</b>, by Susan Coolidge; <b>Providence</b>, by William B. Weeden;
+<b>Hartford</b>, by Mary K. Talcott; <b>New Haven</b>, by Frederick Hull Cogswell.</p>
+
+<h2>Historic Towns of the Middle States</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">Edited by <span class="smcap">Lyman P. Powell</span>. With introduction by Dr.
+<span class="smcap">Albert Shaw</span>. With over 150 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt
+top, $3.50.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: <b>Albany</b>, by W. W. Battershall; <b>Saratoga</b>, by Ellen
+H. Walworth; <b>Schenectady</b>, by Judson S. Landon; <b>Newburgh</b>, by
+Adelaide Skeel; <b>Tarrytown</b>, by H. W. Mabie; <b>Brooklyn</b>, by Harrington
+Putnam; <b>New York</b>, by J. B. Gilder; <b>Buffalo</b>, by Rowland B.
+Mahany; <b>Pittsburgh</b>, by S. H. Church; <b>Philadelphia</b>, by Talcott
+Williams; <b>Princeton</b>, by W. M. Sloane; <b>Wilmington</b>, by E. N. Vallandigham.</p>
+
+<h2>Some Colonial Homesteads</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">And Their Stories. By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>. Second impression.
+With 86 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $3.00.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“A notable book, dealing with early American days.... The
+name of the author is a guarantee not only of the greatest possible accuracy
+as to facts, but of attractive treatment of themes absorbingly interesting in
+themselves, ... the book is of rare elegance in paper, typography,
+and binding.”—<i>Rochester Democrat-Chronicle.</i></p>
+
+<h2>More Colonial Homesteads</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">And Their Stories. By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>. With over 70
+illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top.</p>
+
+<h2>Where Ghosts Walk</h2>
+
+<p class="hanging">The Haunts of Familiar Characters in History and Literature.
+By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>, author of “Some Colonial Homesteads,”
+etc. With 33 illustrations. 8ᵒ, gilt top, $2.50.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“In this volume fascinating pictures are thrown upon the screen so
+rapidly that we have not time to have done with our admiration for one
+before the next one is encountered.... Travel of this kind does not
+weary. It fascinates.”—<i>New York Times.</i></p>
+
+<h2>BELLES-LETTRES</h2>
+
+<h3>Browning, Poet and Man</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">A Survey. By <span class="smcap">Elisabeth Luther Cary</span>, author of “Tennyson;
+His Homes, His Friends, and His Works.” With
+cover design by <span class="smcap">Margaret Armstrong</span>. With 25 illustrations
+in photogravure and some text illustrations. Large
+8ᵒ, gilt top (in a box), $3.75.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">This volume forms a companion work to Miss Cary’s book on Tennyson
+issued last year, and which met with such a cordial reception.</p>
+
+<h3>Tennyson</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">His Homes, His Friends, and His Work. By <span class="smcap">Elisabeth
+Luther Cary</span>. With 18 illustrations in photogravure
+and some text illustrations. Second edition. Large 8ᵒ,
+gilt top (in a box), $3.75.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“The multitudes of admirers of Tennyson in the United States will
+mark this beautiful volume as very satisfactory. The text is clear, terse,
+and intelligent, and the matter admirably arranged, while the mechanical
+work is faultless, with art work especially marked for excellence.”—<i>Chicago
+Inter-Ocean.</i></p>
+
+<h3>Petrarch</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">The First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters. A Selection
+from his Correspondence with Boccaccio and other
+Friends. Designed to illustrate the Beginnings of the
+Renaissance. Translated from the original Latin together
+with Historical Introductions and Notes, by <span class="smcap">James Harvey
+Robinson</span>, Professor of History in Columbia University,
+with the Collaboration of <span class="smcap">Henry Winchester Rolfe</span>,
+sometime Professor of Latin in Swarthmore College.
+Illustrated. 8ᵒ, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">“Petrarch is widely known as a poet of the Italian language whose
+love for Laura is immortalized in a long series of sonnets. It was an
+admirable idea for Prof. Robinson to translate for us a selection from the
+letters of Petrarch, and to intersperse their thoughtful and scholarly, fresh
+and interesting, notes and comments.”—<i>N. Y. Times.</i></p>
+
+<h3>Literary Hearthstones</h3>
+
+<p class="hanging">Studies of the Home Life of Certain Writers and Thinkers.
+By <span class="smcap">Marion Harland</span>, author of “Some Colonial Homesteads
+and Their Stories,” “Where Ghosts Walk,” etc.
+Put up in sets of two volumes each, in boxes. Fully
+illustrated. 16ᵒ.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">The first issues will be:</p>
+
+<table class="smaller">
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <ul>
+        <li><b>Charlotte Brontë.</b></li>
+        <li><b>William Cowper.</b></li>
+      </ul>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <ul>
+        <li><b>Hannah More.</b></li>
+        <li><b>John Knox.</b></li>
+      </ul>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="smaller">In this series, Marion Harland presents, not dry biographies, but, as
+indicated in the sub-title, studies of the home-life of certain writers and
+thinkers. The volumes will be found as interesting as stories, and, indeed,
+they have been prepared in the same method as would be pursued in writing
+a story, that is to say, with a due sense of proportion.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, <span class="smcap">New York and London</span></p>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77274 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/77274-h/images/cover.jpg b/77274-h/images/cover.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cf8f1c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/cover.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/footer.jpg b/77274-h/images/footer.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17f91b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/footer.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/header1.jpg b/77274-h/images/header1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..651924e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/header1.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/header2.jpg b/77274-h/images/header2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..de852e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/header2.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/header3.jpg b/77274-h/images/header3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84c5d3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/header3.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/header4.jpg b/77274-h/images/header4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..65eb8c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/header4.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/header5.jpg b/77274-h/images/header5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1607178
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/header5.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/header6.jpg b/77274-h/images/header6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b198df4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/header6.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/header7.jpg b/77274-h/images/header7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6edd6d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/header7.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus001.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..697d0a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus001.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus002.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus002.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38dcc09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus002.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus003.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus003.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82acb58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus003.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus004.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus004.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fba061
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus004.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus005.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..847982c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus005.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus006.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus006.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b51201
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus006.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus007.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus007.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d6bd9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus007.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus008.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus008.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea3cfcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus008.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus009.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus009.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd9f394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus009.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus010.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus010.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b7c371
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus010.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus011.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus011.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..405a45d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus011.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus012.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus012.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df035bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus012.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus013.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus013.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..30815c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus013.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus014.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus014.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94a35f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus014.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus015.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus015.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e44f3d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus015.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus016.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus016.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aedc8c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus016.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus017.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus017.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ae5d72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus017.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus018.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus018.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9532011
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus018.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus019.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus019.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c96ed5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus019.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus020.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus020.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bad4010
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus020.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus021.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus021.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1f1abc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus021.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus022.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus022.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ec6176
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus022.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus023.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus023.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e87aac8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus023.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus024.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus024.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a13e706
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus024.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus025.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus025.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a83f313
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus025.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus026.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus026.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0019d1f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus026.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus027.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus027.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5cc20f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus027.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus028.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus028.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7123efd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus028.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus029.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus029.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5dc3305
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus029.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus030.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus030.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a5f446
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus030.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus031.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus031.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3c66b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus031.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus032.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus032.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc9a1fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus032.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus033.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus033.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a640738
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus033.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus034.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus034.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd8d673
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus034.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus035.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus035.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a463d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus035.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus036.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus036.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7be683d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus036.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus037.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus037.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db3b46e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus037.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus038.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus038.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f42f5eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus038.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus039.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus039.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa0a4fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus039.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus040.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus040.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a15c8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus040.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus041.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus041.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70c9d59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus041.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus042.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus042.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76065df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus042.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus043.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus043.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e47f353
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus043.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus044.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus044.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2ec12f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus044.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus045.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus045.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ef2ce1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus045.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus046.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus046.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3060df0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus046.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus047.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus047.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a9d163
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus047.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus048.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus048.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49f804f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus048.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus049.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus049.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b98abb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus049.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus050.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus050.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1042af3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus050.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus051.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus051.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a6fb1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus051.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus052.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus052.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..646ab18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus052.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus053.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus053.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f024d63
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus053.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus054.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus054.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41a9f71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus054.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus055.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus055.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..380d895
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus055.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus056.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus056.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..371c12f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus056.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus057.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus057.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..230b6e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus057.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus058.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus058.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77b0064
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus058.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus059.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus059.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11ca20d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus059.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus060.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus060.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10e597f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus060.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus061.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus061.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d9535f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus061.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus062.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus062.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..867a49c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus062.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus063.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus063.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cfba7df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus063.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus064.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus064.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9741c1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus064.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus065.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus065.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac06849
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus065.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus066.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus066.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ae95ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus066.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus067.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus067.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd5a2da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus067.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus068.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus068.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61a962c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus068.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus069.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus069.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..516faac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus069.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus070.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus070.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d33c5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus070.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus071.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus071.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1fa8f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus071.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus072.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus072.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ba0dd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus072.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus073.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus073.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42555ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus073.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus074.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus074.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f55df8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus074.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus075.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus075.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec882c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus075.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus076.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus076.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2923b59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus076.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus077.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus077.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a937cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus077.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus078.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus078.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29abd9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus078.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus079.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus079.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16ab8a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus079.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus080.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus080.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7a143e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus080.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus081.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus081.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f997b9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus081.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus082.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus082.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0b6601
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus082.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus083.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus083.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c54aceb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus083.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus084.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus084.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f8d644d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus084.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus085.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus085.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20a2449
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus085.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus086.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus086.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e83796
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus086.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus087.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus087.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b704bda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus087.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus088.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus088.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39a3beb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus088.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus089.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus089.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62a729b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus089.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus090.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus090.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc73045
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus090.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus091.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus091.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92a173a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus091.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus092.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus092.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b854997
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus092.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus093.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus093.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e4cfac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus093.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus094.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus094.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..630e147
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus094.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus095.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus095.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69df206
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus095.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus096.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus096.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c98295d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus096.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus097.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus097.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f35b01
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus097.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus098.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus098.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..360429d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus098.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus099.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus099.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b97f566
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus099.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus100.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus100.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec5a619
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus100.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus101.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus101.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..98dce6c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus101.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus102.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus102.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3eb65c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus102.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus103.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus103.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..624ff52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus103.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus104.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus104.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee05736
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus104.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus105.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus105.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..982f732
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus105.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus106.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus106.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56b8195
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus106.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus107.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus107.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af075d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus107.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus108.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus108.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cf552f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus108.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus109.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus109.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee09e9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus109.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus110.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus110.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae765e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus110.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus111.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus111.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea11248
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus111.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus112.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus112.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef8af6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus112.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus113.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus113.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f24b17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus113.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus114.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus114.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e4ebd0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus114.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus115.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus115.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e1a8ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus115.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus116.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus116.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39d7da5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus116.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus117.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus117.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f60725
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus117.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus118.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus118.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..422600d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus118.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus119.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus119.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..499fd56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus119.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus120.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus120.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b1b2b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus120.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus121.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus121.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40f224a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus121.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus122.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus122.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d39922
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus122.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus123.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus123.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f10000
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus123.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus124.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus124.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e97857
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus124.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus125.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus125.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..feeddf0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus125.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus126.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus126.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..147e025
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus126.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus127.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus127.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fda616
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus127.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus128.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus128.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8185e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus128.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus129.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus129.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef9acf2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus129.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus130.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus130.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ccb545
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus130.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus131.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus131.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..485d5a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus131.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus132.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus132.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d764ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus132.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus133.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus133.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20425bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus133.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus134.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus134.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e675c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus134.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus135.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus135.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f9f72f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus135.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus136.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus136.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01d777f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus136.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus137.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus137.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc9b268
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus137.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus138.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus138.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5ad132
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus138.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus139.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus139.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d983819
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus139.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus140.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus140.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f7017e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus140.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus141.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus141.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab055d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus141.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus142.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus142.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8f6876
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus142.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus143.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus143.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c1f3b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus143.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus144.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus144.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c60383f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus144.jpg
diff --git a/77274-h/images/illus145.jpg b/77274-h/images/illus145.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c36597
--- /dev/null
+++ b/77274-h/images/illus145.jpg
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c72794
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1897393
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #77274
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77274)