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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77232 ***
+
+
+
+
+                                BOLIVIA
+
+            THE CENTRAL HIGHWAY OF SOUTH AMERICA, A LAND OF
+                  RICH RESOURCES AND VARIED INTEREST
+
+  [Illustration: _Copyright 1907, by G. Barrie & Sons_]
+
+  [Illustration: HIS EXCELLENCY
+
+  SEÑOR DON ISMAEL MONTES
+
+  PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA]
+
+
+
+
+                        _MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT_
+
+                                BOLIVIA
+
+            THE CENTRAL HIGHWAY OF SOUTH AMERICA, A LAND OF
+                  RICH RESOURCES AND VARIED INTEREST
+
+    [Illustration]
+
+                PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY
+
+                         GEORGE BARRIE & SONS
+
+          LONDON: C. D. CAZENOVE & SON, 26 HENRIETTA STREET,
+                         COVENT GARDEN, W. C.
+
+                         PARIS: 19 RUE SCRIBE
+
+
+
+
+               COPYRIGHT, 1907, BY GEORGE BARRIE & SONS
+
+
+
+
+                           TO HIS EXCELLENCY
+
+                        Señor Don Ismael Montes
+
+                         PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA
+
+        WHOSE NOBILITY OF CHARACTER HAS MADE HIM BELOVED BY HIS
+                PEOPLE AND ESTEEMED AND HONORED BY ALL
+
+                  This Book is Respectfully Dedicated
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+    DEDICATION                                                        5
+
+    LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS                                             9
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                     13
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+    PRE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD--SPANISH INVASION AND CONQUEST              17
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+    ALTO PERU UNDER THE VICEROYALTY                                  35
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+    HISTORY OF THE INDEPENDENCE                                      51
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+    PROGRESS UNDER THE REPUBLIC                                      71
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+    THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION                                        91
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+    THE PRESIDENT’S CABINET--DEPENDENCIES OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT   103
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+    THE LADIES OF THE CABINET--SOCIAL LIFE--CHARITIES               119
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+    LA PAZ--THE PRESENT SEAT OF GOVERNMENT                          135
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+    INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS--LITERATURE, ORATORY, ART, AND MUSIC      153
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+    SUCRE, THE CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA                                   175
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+    EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS--SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION                189
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+    A NEW ERA FOR BOLIVIA--IMPORTANT PUBLIC
+      WORKS--RAILWAYS--TELEGRAPH LINES                              203
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+
+    A THOUSAND-MILE TRIP ON MULEBACK--INCIDENTS OF TRAVEL
+      IN BOLIVIA                                                    221
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+    LAKE TITICACA AND ITS LEGENDS--THE SHRINE OF COPACABANA         241
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+
+    TIAHUANACO--COLOSSAL REMAINS OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION            255
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+    THE FERTILE REGION OF THE YUNGAS                                267
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+
+    COCHABAMBA, THE GARDEN CITY                                     279
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+
+    BOLIVIA A FIELD FOR LARGE ENTERPRISES--NATURAL
+      CONDITIONS--IMMIGRATION--CLIMATE                              291
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+
+    THE OLD MINT OF POTOSI--BOLIVIAN COINAGE AND BANKING
+      LAWS--COMMERCE                                                305
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+
+    CELEBRATED MINES OF BOLIVIA--THE CERRO DE
+      POTOSI--HUANCHACA SILVER MINES                                321
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+
+    POTOSI, THE FAMOUS VILLA IMPERIAL OF COLONIAL SPAIN--ONE
+      OF BOLIVIA’S MOST PICTURESQUE CITIES                          337
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+
+    RICH SILVER, TIN, AND COPPER MINES OF WESTERN
+      BOLIVIA--MINING LAWS                                          351
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIII
+
+    ORURO AND ITS PROSPEROUS MINES                                  365
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIV
+
+    GOLD MINING IN BOLIVIA--TUPIZA AND ITS MINES--BISMUTH           377
+
+                              CHAPTER XXV
+
+    SANTA CRUZ, THE CENTRE OF A RICH AGRICULTURAL DISTRICT          389
+
+                             CHAPTER XXVI
+
+    TARIJA--EXPLORATIONS IN THE CHACO                               403
+
+                             CHAPTER XXVII
+
+    EL BENI, THE BOLIVIAN EL DORADO                                 415
+
+                            CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+    THE TERRITORIO DE COLONIAS--THE BOUNDARY LINE WITH
+      BRAZIL--CHIEF WATERWAYS                                       427
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIX
+
+    THE PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS OF BOLIVIA--THEIR CUSTOMS AND
+      RELIGION--THE CHOLO--PICTURESQUE TYPES                        439
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+    HIS EXCELLENCY SENOR DON ISMAEL MONTES, PRESIDENT
+      OF BOLIVIA                                              _Fronts._
+
+    ARMS OF BOLIVIA                                        _Title page_
+
+    GENERAL SIMON BOLIVAR                                            17
+
+    GOVERNMENT PALACE, LA PAZ                                        19
+
+    THE NEW GOVERNMENT PALACE, SUCRE                                 21
+
+    THE ALAMEDA, THE FAVORITE PROMENADE OF LA PAZ                    25
+
+    FOUNTAIN IN MURILLO PLAZA, LA PAZ                                26
+
+    PRESIDENT’S COACH                                                27
+
+    MONUMENT TO GENERAL BALLIVIAN, LA PAZ                            28
+
+    PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR LA PAZ                                    29
+
+    ALAMEDA GATEWAY, LA PAZ                                          30
+
+    ILLIMANI                                                         32
+
+    DOORWAY AND PATIO, COLONIAL PERIOD, LA PAZ                       34
+
+    DOORWAY OF SAN LORENZO CHURCH, POTOSI                            35
+
+    FACADE OF SAN FRANCISCO CHURCH, LA PAZ                           37
+
+    JESUIT CONVENT TOWER IN POTOSI                                   38
+
+    COLONIAL SUN-DIAL, SUCRE                                         39
+
+    CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO, LA PAZ                                  41
+
+    TYPICAL DOORWAY, COLONIAL PERIOD, LA PAZ                         43
+
+    CONVENT OF SANTA TERESA, COCHABAMBA                              44
+
+    PORTAL OF HOUSE IN POTOSI                                        45
+
+    PANTHEON OF SAN BERNARDO, POTOSI                                 47
+
+    ENTRANCE TO CATHEDRAL, SUCRE                                     48
+
+    THE BATTALION CAMPERO ON PARADE IN SUCRE                         50
+
+    DON ANTONIO SUCRE                                                51
+
+    CROWDS ON THE WAY TO A PATRIOTIC CELEBRATION                     53
+
+    GENERAL PEDRO DOMINGO MURILLO                                    55
+
+    REVIEWING TROOPS IN THE AVENUE ARCE, LA PAZ                      58
+
+    MONUMENT TO GENERAL SUCRE IN LA PAZ                              61
+
+    FACSIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL TREATY OF AYACUCHO             63, 64, 65
+
+    GROUP OF CAVALRY ON THE ALTOS OF LA PAZ                          68
+
+    CAVALRY ON PARADE IN SUCRE                                       70
+
+    GENERAL JOSE MANUEL PANDO                                        71
+
+    GENERAL ANDRES SANTA CRUZ                                        73
+
+    GENERAL JOSE BALLIVIAN                                           74
+
+    GENERAL MANUEL ISIDORO BELZU                                     75
+
+    DR  JOSE MARIA LINARES                                           76
+
+    COLONEL ADOLFO BALLIVIAN                                         77
+
+    SENOR DON TOMAS FRIAS                                            78
+
+    GENERAL NARCISO CAMPERO                                          79
+
+    SENOR DON GREGORIO PACHECO                                       81
+
+    SENOR DON ANICETO ARCE                                           83
+
+    SENOR DON MARIANO BAPTISTA                                       84
+
+    GENERAL CLODOMIRO MONTES                                         88
+
+    THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF 1905                                    90
+
+    SENOR DON ELIODORO VILLAZON                                      91
+
+    HIS GRACE ARCHBISHOP PIFFERI OF LA PLATA, SUCRE                  92
+
+    LEGISLATIVE PALACE, SUCRE                                        94
+
+    SENOR DR  VALENTIN ABECIA                                        96
+
+    CALLE DE RECREO, LA PAZ                                          97
+
+    SENOR DR  MIGUEL DE LOS SANTOS TABORGA                           98
+
+    STREET SCENE, LA PAZ                                            100
+
+    THE FOREIGN MINISTER AND DIPLOMATIC CORPS                       102
+
+    SENOR DON CLAUDIO PINILLA                                       103
+
+    RECEPTION ROOM OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE, LA PAZ                    105
+
+    SENOR DON ANIBAL CAPRILES                                       106
+
+    SENOR DON JUAN M  SARACHO                                       107
+
+    OFFICES OF JUSTICE AND INSTRUCTION                              109
+
+    SENOR DON DANIEL DEL CASTILLO                                   110
+
+    THE QUARTEL, LA PAZ                                             111
+
+    SENOR DR  JOSE QUINTEROS                                        112
+
+    SENOR DON MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN                              114
+
+    PLAZA MURILLO, LA PAZ                                           116
+
+    MUNICIPAL THEATRE, LA PAZ                                       118
+
+    A BEAUTIFUL BOLIVIAN                                            119
+
+    SENORA DONA BETHSABE DE MONTES                                  121
+
+    SENORA DONA HORTENSIA DE PINILLA                                122
+
+    CARNIVAL DAYS IN COCHABAMBA                                     123
+
+    SENORA DONA ISABEL DE CAPRILES                                  124
+
+    SENORA DONA V. DEL CASTILLO                                     125
+
+    AUTOMOBILE PARTY IN COCHABAMBA                                  125
+
+    SENORA DE MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN                              126
+
+    PREPARING FOR A TOURNAMENT, LA PAZ                              127
+
+    SENORA DE JOSE MANUEL PANDO                                     128
+
+    A CHALET IN THE ALAMEDA, LA PAZ                                 129
+
+    SENORA DE AGUIRRE ACHA                                          130
+
+    RESIDENCE OF SENOR ALEXANDER, LA PAZ                            131
+
+    A BOLIVIAN DEBUTANTE                                            132
+
+    A GENERAL VIEW OF LA PAZ                                        134
+
+    COAT OF ARMS OF LA PAZ                                          135
+
+    POST OFFICE, LA PAZ                                             136
+
+    STREET SCENE, LA PAZ                                            137
+
+    HOSPITAL AND MUSEUM, LA PAZ                                     138
+
+    PRINCIPAL ALTAR IN THE JESUIT TEMPLE, LA PAZ                    139
+
+    AVENIDA ARCE, LA PAZ                                            140
+
+    CONVENT OF THE CONCEPTION, LA PAZ                               141
+
+    PLAZA AND GRAN HOTEL GUIBERT, LA PAZ                            142
+
+    CALLE AMERICA, LA PAZ                                           143
+
+    PUBLIC LIBRARY, LA PAZ                                          144
+
+    A BUSINESS STREET IN LA PAZ                                     145
+
+    CHURCH OF LA MERCED, LA PAZ                                     146
+
+    CALLE DEL COMERCIO, LA PAZ                                      147
+
+    SUBURBS OF LA PAZ, ILLIMANI IN THE DISTANCE                     148
+
+    INSTITUTE OF HYGIENE, LA PAZ                                    150
+
+    CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, LA PAZ                                 152
+
+    SENOR DON JOSE ROSENDO GUTIERREZ                                153
+
+    SENOR DR. NICOLAS ARMENTIA                                      154
+
+    OLD PAINTING ON COPPER, CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE                      155
+
+    SENOR DON EVARISTO VALLE                                        156
+
+    SENOR DON NATANIEL AGUIRRE                                      157
+
+    OLD PAINTING IN THE MINT OF POTOSI                              158
+
+    SENOR DR. JOSE MARIA SANTIVANEZ                                 159
+
+    GENERAL DON ELIODORO CAMACHO                                    160
+
+    AN OLD PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE                       162
+
+    SENOR DON JUAN CARILLO                                          163
+
+    SENOR DON AVELINO ARAMAYO                                       165
+
+    PAINTING IN THE MINT OF POTOSI                                  166
+
+    SENOR DR. JULIO RODRIGUEZ                                       168
+
+    SENOR DR. ANDRES MUNOZ                                          169
+
+    INDIANS OF POTOSI. A PAINTING BY VALDEZ                         170
+
+    SENORITA ADELA ZAMUDIO, “SOLEDAD”                               172
+
+    VIEW OF SUCRE FROM THE SUBURBS                                  174
+
+    COAT OF ARMS OF CHARCAS, NOW SUCRE                              175
+
+    COLONEL DON JULIO LA FAYE                                       176
+
+    THE PRINCIPALITY OF GLORIETA, SUBURBS OF SUCRE                  177
+
+    THE CATHEDRAL TOWER, SUCRE                                      178
+
+    MUNICIPAL PALACE, SUCRE                                         179
+
+    VIEW OF ONE OF SUCRE’S BEAUTIFUL PLAZAS                         180
+
+    GROUP IN THE ASYLUM FOR THE AGED, SUCRE                         181
+
+    GATEWAY OF THE ALAMEDA, SUCRE                                   182
+
+    MARKET SCENE IN THE OUTSKIRTS OF SUCRE                          183
+
+    THE HACIENDA GUEREO, SUBURBS OF SUCRE                           184
+
+    THE MISSES RODRIGUEZ, SUCRE                                     186
+
+    MILITARY COLLEGE, LA PAZ                                        188
+
+    ENTRANCE TO DON BOSCO COLLEGE, LA PAZ                           189
+
+    SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, LA PAZ                                      191
+
+    SENOR DR  IGNACIO TERAN                                         194
+
+    BOOKBINDING IN DON BOSCO COLLEGE, LA PAZ                        195
+
+    PATIO OF PICHINCHA COLLEGE, POTOSI                              196
+
+    SENOR DR  RODOLFO SORIA GALVARRO                                198
+
+    PATIO OF JUNIN COLLEGE, SUCRE                                   200
+
+    PUENTE SUCRE                                                    202
+
+    PUENTE SUCRE, LOOKING TO THE POTOSI TERMINUS                    203
+
+    RAILWAY STATION OF PULACAYO, HUANCHACA MINES                    205
+
+    CASCADE ON THE PROPOSED ROUTE OF THE ARICA AND LA PAZ
+      RAILWAY                                                       207
+
+    RAILWAY CUT BETWEEN GUAQUI AND LA PAZ                           208
+
+    SCENE ON THE GUAQUI AND LA PAZ RAILWAY                          209
+
+    DAM AT ACHACHALLA                                               211
+
+    TRAIN ARRIVING IN GUAQUI FROM LA PAZ                            212
+
+    CARAVAN ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO ORURO                        213
+
+    MOTORING IN THE SUBURBS OF LA PAZ                               215
+
+    ROAD LEADING TO MINES NEAR ORURO                                217
+
+    STONE BRIDGES BETWEEN POTOSI AND CHALLAPATA                     218
+
+    LAKE OF SAN PEDRO, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ                         220
+
+    POSTILION OF THE ANDES                                          221
+
+    ANCIENT SEPULCHRES BETWEEN LA PAZ AND ORURO                     223
+
+    PILLARS OF SANDSTONE, NEAR PORCO                                225
+
+    RIVER ROCHA, NEAR COCHABAMBA                                    227
+
+    WEAVING THE PONCHO ON A PRIMITIVE LOOM                          228
+
+    INDIANS IN FEAST COSTUMES                                       229
+
+    THE DEVIL’S BRIDGE ACROSS THE PILCOMAYO RIVER                   230
+
+    PUENTE SAN BARTOLOME BETWEEN POTOSI AND YOCALLA                 231
+
+    A FREQUENT MORNING ENCOUNTER ON THE JOURNEY                     232
+
+    THE LLAMA, THE PROUDEST OF BURDEN BEARERS                       233
+
+    COSTUMES WORN BY THE INDIANS ON THE PILGRIMAGE TO THE
+      SHRINE OF COPACABANA                                          234
+
+    A COUNTRY ROAD NEAR LA PAZ                                      235
+
+    CHALLAPATA                                                      236
+
+    QUICHUA INDIAN GIRL OF POTOSI                                   238
+
+    PROCESSION OF THE VIRGIN AT COPACABANA                          240
+
+    THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA                                        241
+
+    SHRINE OF THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA                              242
+
+    LANDING PLACE AT COPACABANA, LAKE TITICACA                      243
+
+    CROSSES CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK                                244
+
+    PENINSULA AND CITY OF COPACABANA                                245
+
+    RUINS OF INCA TEMPLE ON THE ISLAND OF THE SUN                   246
+
+    VIEW OF MOUNT SORATA FROM LAKE TITICACA                         248
+
+    ABOVE THE SNOW LINE, MOUNT ILLIMANI                             249
+
+    INCA PALACE, ISLAND OF THE SUN                                  250
+
+    INDIAN PADDLING HIS “BALSA” ON LAKE TITICACA                    252
+
+    EXCAVATION, SHOWING CARVINGS, TIAHUANACO                        254
+
+    A VASE FOUND AT TIAHUANACO                                      255
+
+    MONOLITH SHOWING HIEROGLYPHICS                                  258
+
+    RUINS OF THE DOORWAY OF THE TEMPLE                              259
+
+    ARCHED GATEWAYS OF TIAHUANACO                                   260
+
+    PORTAL OF A CHURCH, TIAHUANACO                                  261
+
+    CYCLOPEAN STONES OF TUNCA PUNCO                                 261
+
+    ANCIENT DOORWAY, CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK                       262
+
+    STONE HEADS EXCAVATED AMONG THE RUINS                           263
+
+    IDOL OF UNKNOWN ANTIQUITY                                       264
+
+    RUINS OF AN UNFINISHED STAIRWAY                                 264
+
+    HARVESTING COCA IN THE YUNGAS                                   266
+
+    STREET SCENE IN THE YUNGAS                                      267
+
+    COROICO, CAPITAL OF NORTH YUNGAS                                268
+
+    PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF COROICO, NORTH YUNGAS                        269
+
+    CHULUMANI, CAPITAL OF SOUTH YUNGAS                              270
+
+    INDIAN COCA GATHERERS IN THE YUNGAS                             271
+
+    A CALLAPO, OR RAFT, ON THE RIVER LOAYZA                         272
+
+    BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER LOAYZA                                    273
+
+    PALCA, ON THE ROUTE TO THE YUNGAS                               273
+
+    CUTTING SUGAR CANE IN THE YUNGAS                                274
+
+    TOWN OF IRUPANA, IN THE YUNGAS                                  275
+
+    TYPICAL INDIAN OF THE YUNGAS                                    276
+
+    THE PLAZA, COCHABAMBA                                           278
+
+    THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA                                         279
+
+    LA PUERTA DE COCHABAMBA                                         280
+
+    THERMAL SPRINGS NEAR COCHABAMBA                                 281
+
+    CALLE COMERCIO, COCHABAMBA                                      282
+
+    FEAST DAY OF SAN SEBASTIAN, COCHABAMBA                          283
+
+    PAVILION IN THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA                             284
+
+    CHURCH OF SAN PEDRO, COCHABAMBA                                 286
+
+    LOVERS’ TREE IN CALA-CALA, COCHABAMBA                           288
+
+    CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE                                  290
+
+    PICTURESQUE SCENE IN THE RUBBER REGION                          291
+
+    VINEYARDS OF PARANI, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ                       293
+
+    ENTRANCE TO CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE                      294
+
+    FERTILE VALLEY ON THE ROUTE OF THE ARICA AND LA PAZ RAILWAY     295
+
+    CATTLE FAIR IN SUCRE                                            296
+
+    COACH ROAD TO OBRAJES, NEAR LA PAZ                              297
+
+    VALLEY OF SOPOCACHI, NEAR LA PAZ                                298
+
+    SINKING GROUND, CERRO DE MILLUNI                                299
+
+    SHEEP RANCH ON THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU                             300
+
+    THE MARKET PLACE, COCHABAMBA                                    301
+
+    FRUIT VENDOR OF COCHABAMBA                                      302
+
+    PATIO OF THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ                              304
+
+    WOODEN MACHINERY IN THE OLD MINT OF POTOSÍ                      305
+
+    FOUNDRY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ                                     306
+
+    LA PAZ CUSTOM HOUSE                                             307
+
+    TUPIZA CUSTOM HOUSE ON THE ARGENTINE BORDER                     308
+
+    ARGANDONA BANK, SUCRE                                           309
+
+    GERMAN-CHILEAN BANK, ORURO                                      310
+
+    NATIONAL BANK OF BOLIVIA, SUCRE                                 311
+
+    IMPORTING HOUSE OF MORALES AND BERTRAM, SUCRE                   312
+
+    IMPORTING HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, CHALLAPATA                   313
+
+    STREET OF THE BANKS, SUCRE                                      314
+
+    GUAQUI, ON LAKE TITICACA                                        315
+
+    PUERTO SUAREZ, A PORT ON THE PARAGUAY RIVER                     316
+
+    THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ                                       318
+
+    WOMEN EXPERTS SORTING ORES, HUANCHACA SILVER MINES              320
+
+    ENTRANCE TO PULACAYO MINE, HUANCHACA                            321
+
+    PORCO, SITE OF THE OLDEST SILVER MINES IN BOLIVIA               323
+
+    SILVER AND TIN MINES, REAL SOCAVON, POTOSÍ                      324
+
+    ESTABLISHMENT OF SOUX AND HERNANDEZ, POTOSÍ                     325
+
+    ASSORTED TIN ORES                                               326
+
+    BARS OF TIN, MINES OF BEBIN BROTHERS, POTOSÍ                    327
+
+    CARTS OF SILVER ORE FROM HUANCHACA MINES                        328
+
+    LOADING TIN ON CARTS, MULES, AND LLAMAS, SOUX AND HERNANDEZ
+      SMELTING FOUNDRY, POTOSÍ                                      329
+
+    VIEW OF HUANCHACA, CENTRE OF RICH SILVER MINES                  330
+
+    AQUEDUCT OF YURA                                                331
+
+    GENERAL VIEW OF PULACAYO MINES, HUANCHACA                       331
+
+    LAKE AND DAM IN THE CORDILLERA                                  333
+
+    ARRIEROS PHOTOGRAPHED FOR IDENTIFICATION, POTOSÍ                334
+
+    PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF POTOSÍ DURING A PROCESSION                   336
+
+    MONUMENT OF LIBERTY, POTOSÍ                                     337
+
+    THE IMPERIAL CITY OF POTOSÍ                                     338
+
+    CITY HALL, POTOSÍ                                               339
+
+    PICHINCHA PLAZA, POTOSÍ                                         339
+
+    ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL STREETS OF POTOSÍ                          340
+
+    STREET SCENE SHOWING CERRO DE POTOSÍ                            341
+
+    OLD COLONIAL DOORWAY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ                        342
+
+    CERRO DE POTOSÍ, OVERLOOKING THE CITY                           343
+
+    THERMAL SPRINGS OF TARAPAYA, NEAR POTOSÍ                        344
+
+    ARTIFICIAL LAKE OF SAN SEBASTIAN, NEAR POTOSÍ                   345
+
+    COMMERCIAL HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, POTOSÍ                      346
+
+    BREAD VENDOR, POTOSÍ                                            346
+
+    ARTIFICIAL LAKE ILLIMANI, NEAR POTOSÍ                           347
+
+    COAT OF ARMS OF POTOSÍ                                          348
+
+    COROCORO, CENTRE OF THE GREATEST COPPER MINES IN SOUTH
+      AMERICA                                                       350
+
+    IN THE HEART OF THE COROCORO COPPER REGION                      351
+
+    COLQUECHACA, CELEBRATED FOR ITS MINES                           353
+
+    MINING TOWN OF INQUISIVI                                        354
+
+    CARRYING FREIGHT TO THE MINES OF QUIMSACRUZ                     355
+
+    FAMOUS ROSICLER SILVER MINES, COLQUECHACA                       356
+
+    IRON MOUNTAIN ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO THE MINES              357
+
+    MOUNT KAKA-ACA                                                  358
+
+    TRANSPORTATION OF COPPER FROM THE COROCORO MINES                359
+
+    THREE PRINCIPAL MINING ESTABLISHMENTS OF COROCORO               361
+
+    MINING DISTRICT OF QUIMSACRUZ, NEAR ORURO                       362
+
+    CITY OF ORURO                                                   364
+
+    COAT OF ARMS OF ORURO                                           365
+
+    MAIN PLAZA, ORURO                                               367
+
+    SAN JOSE, ORURO                                                 369
+
+    MINERS’ HOLIDAY AT SAN JOSE, ORURO                              370
+
+    MINE OF SAN JOSE, ORURO                                         371
+
+    SILVER AND TIN SMELTING WORKS, POOPO                            373
+
+    BERENGUELA TIN MINES                                            374
+
+    GOLD WASHING AT CHUQUIAGUILLO, NEAR LA PAZ                      376
+
+    DISTANT GLIMPSE OF TUPIZA, THROUGH A TUNNEL                     377
+
+    RICH GOLD MINING REGION OF CHUQUIAGUILLO                        378
+
+    ADMINISTRATION HOUSE, CHUQUIAGUILLO MINES                       379
+
+    MOUNTAIN OF CHOROLQUE, SITE OF THE HIGHEST TIN AND BISMUTH
+      MINES IN THE WORLD                                            381
+
+    QUECHISLA, MINING ESTABLISHMENT                                 382
+
+    DREDGE IN CONSTRUCTION AT SAN JUAN DE ORO MINES, TUPIZA         383
+
+    PICTURESQUE VIEW OF TUPIZA                                      385
+
+    PLAZA OF TUPIZA                                                 386
+
+    THE INDIAN MISSION OF SANTA CRUZ                                388
+
+    COAT OF ARMS OF SANTA CRUZ                                      389
+
+    GOVERNMENT PALACE, SANTA CRUZ                                   391
+
+    CALLE FLORIDA, SANTA CRUZ                                       392
+
+    OLD QUARTER OF SANTA CRUZ                                       393
+
+    PICTURESQUE PLAZA OF SANTA CRUZ                                 394
+
+    CALLE DEL COMERCIO, SANTA CRUZ                                  395
+
+    SANTA CRUZ, SHOWING LAKE IN THE VICINITY                        396
+
+    CACIQUE AND HIS FAMILY, SANTA CRUZ                              397
+
+    LAS BARRERAS, A HACIENDA NEAR SANTA CRUZ                        399
+
+    THE CACTUS OF SANTA CRUZ                                        400
+
+    OPENING THE ROAD FROM PUERTO PACHECO, ON THE PARAGUAY RIVER     402
+
+    GIANT TREE IN TARIJA                                            403
+
+    THE NARROWS, NEAR TARIJA                                        405
+
+    BOLIVIAN COMMISSION OF LIMITS, IN THE CHACO                     407
+
+    PALM TREES IN THE GRAN CHACO                                    408
+
+    SCENE ON THE PILCOMAYO RIVER                                    409
+
+    CAMP OF CHOROTIS IN THE BOLIVIAN CHACO                          410
+
+    COAT OF ARMS OF TARIJA                                          412
+
+    STEAMBOAT ON THE MAMORE RIVER, EL BENI                          414
+
+    THE RUBBER GATHERER AT WORK, EL BENI                            415
+
+    MISSION OF COVENDO ON THE BENI RIVER                            416
+
+    THE ACRE DELEGATION LEAVING TRINIDAD                            417
+
+    CALLAPOS ON THE BENI RIVER                                      418
+
+    CUTTING A PATH THROUGH THE FOREST                               418
+
+    A CAMP IN THE RUBBER FOREST, EL BENI                            419
+
+    CARRYING PROVISIONS TO THE RUBBER CAMP                          420
+
+    VIEW NEAR SUAPI CENTRAL, UPPER BENI                             421
+
+    NAVIGATION ON THE UPPER BENI                                    422
+
+    RUBBER TREES, EL BENI                                           423
+
+    GRAN CRUZ HACIENDA                                              424
+
+    COAT OF ARMS OF EL BENI                                         424
+
+    RIVER BOAT ON THE MADRE DE DIOS, TERRITORIO DE COLONIAS         426
+
+    A CHOZA, HUT OF RUBBER GATHERERS                                427
+
+    THE KNAUDT EXPEDITION IN CAMP                                   428
+
+    A BATELON ON THE MADRE DE DIOS                                  429
+
+    RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO, MADEIRA RIVER                              430
+
+    VIEW OF THE MADEIRA RIVER                                       431
+
+    FORDING THE RIVER PIQUENDO                                      431
+
+    CONFLUENCE OF THE BENI AND MAMORE RIVERS, VILLA BELLA           432
+
+    RIVER PORT OF GUARAYOS                                          433
+
+    SCENE ON THE MAMORE RIVER                                       433
+
+    CAMP OF RUBBER GATHERERS                                        434
+
+    TRANSHIPPING CARGO AT THE RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO, ON THE
+      MADEIRA RIVER                                                 435
+
+    GLIMPSE OF FOREST AND STREAM IN THE RUBBER REGION               436
+
+    DANCING THE KENA-KENA                                           438
+
+    INDIAN WATER CARRIER OF LA PAZ                                  439
+
+    PICTURESQUE TYPE OF THE COCHABAMBA INDIAN                       440
+
+    TEMBETAS, INDIANS OF SANTA CRUZ                                 440
+
+    INDIANS OF POTOSÍ                                               441
+
+    THE STIRRUP-CUP                                                 442
+
+    QUICHUA INDIAN                                                  443
+
+    A GENIAL BEGGAR OF COCHABAMBA                                   443
+
+    INDIANS IN FIESTA AT TRINIDAD, THE BENI                         444
+
+    CHOLA OF POTOSÍ, IN COSTUME OF FIESTA                           445
+
+    CHOROTIS, INDIANS OF THE CHACO                                  445
+
+    CHOLA OF THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU                                   446
+
+    THE MODE OF CARRYING THE BABY                                   446
+
+    A CHOLA BELLE OF POTOSÍ                                         447
+
+    AYMARA INDIANS OF TITICACA PLATEAU                              447
+
+    GUARAYO INDIANS                                                 448
+
+    A BRIDAL COUPLE                                                 449
+
+    ALL SOULS’ DAY IN THE CEMETERY                                  450
+
+    MAP OF BOLIVIA                                         _Facing_ 450
+
+
+
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Writers on South America generally dismiss Bolivia with a brief
+description which affords no adequate idea of its real place among
+the republics of the New World or of its unique interest from many
+points of view. The present volume, the fourth of my series on the
+Latin-American republics, is devoted to this important country
+with the object of making it better known, not only as the home
+of a liberty-loving nation, but as a land of unlimited commercial
+possibilities, destined to command universal attention.
+
+The history of Bolivia is particularly fascinating for the glimpses its
+monuments give of the unsolved mysteries of antiquity, and because its
+people supply the keynote to the interpretation of Spanish-American
+character. The colonists of Alto Peru became Americanized earlier than
+did the people of any of the other Spanish possessions in the New
+World. The Criollo’s sympathies were, from the first, more American
+than Spanish; and while he preserved many inherited characteristics, he
+acquired others which in time developed within him that unconquerable
+spirit of freedom--the influence of the West working its spell upon
+heart and life--which led inevitably to national independence.
+
+Aside from its historical and scientific interest, Bolivia is a subject
+worthy of study for more practical reasons. By its position as the
+central highway of South America, it is the natural distributing point
+for traffic across the continent, lying midway between the Atlantic
+and Pacific coast countries, its borders touching Brazil, Paraguay,
+Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Its industrial possibilities are awakening
+general interest and enterprise, and there is every prospect of a
+speedy revival of the prestige which this country enjoyed three
+centuries ago, as one of the richest and most prosperous lands in the
+world, when the name of its famous city of Potosí gave to the language
+of all countries a synonym for fabulous wealth.
+
+No one can make a just and impartial study of the South American
+countries and their people without regretting the widespread ignorance
+that prevails regarding them; and as my work progresses, each year
+finds me more enthusiastic on the subject of their present conditions
+and the prospects which they enjoy. It has been said that my fault
+lies in seeing the best rather than the worst side of life in South
+America, and the critics have blamed me, in some instances, for failing
+to describe more fully the less admirable features of these countries.
+But it is quite as possible to err through a disposition to magnify the
+shortcomings of a nation as from too lenient judgment. Books written
+on any country by visiting foreigners show how unfair and exaggerated
+the criticisms of a pessimistic alien can be in the opinion of those
+best informed. The story of Bolivia is that of strong, sturdy, and
+determined people, who have abounding faith in their country’s future
+and persistent courage to direct its destiny.
+
+During my stay in Bolivia, and especially while making my journey of
+a thousand miles on muleback in the interior, visiting the capital
+and other cities, I found this beautiful country most attractive
+and interesting. The magnificent scenery, the glorious climate, the
+absolute security with which one may travel unmolested from one end
+of the country to the other, and, above all, the gracious and kindly
+welcome received everywhere are among the recollections of my visit
+which remain a constant delight, and inspire me with the desire to make
+better known both the land and its charming people.
+
+The unfailing attentions shown me will always be remembered with
+appreciation. With sincere gratitude I thank His Excellency President
+Ismael Montes and the ministers of his Cabinet for many courtesies. I
+am honored to have received from the illustrious representative of the
+Bolivian nation constant evidences of gracious and kindly interest in
+my work and I feel deeply indebted to his distinguished ministers for
+their generous coöperation, by facilitating my journeys through the
+country and providing me with important information.
+
+                                               MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT.
+
+_Philadelphia, October 25, 1906._
+
+
+
+
+                                BOLIVIA
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+          PRE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD--SPANISH INVASION AND CONQUEST
+
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL SIMON BOLIVAR]
+
+Few countries offer a more interesting field of study than Bolivia,
+a land of varied attraction, with mystery and romance enveloping the
+story of its antiquity and lending a magic charm to its many legends
+and traditions; with records of daring and devotion illuminating the
+often triste pages of its existence under Spanish domination, and
+marking a worthy preface to the annals of sturdy patriotism revealed in
+the long struggle for freedom which began two centuries before South
+American independence was an accomplished fact; with the history of the
+republic,--with all that makes this land worth knowing as the dear home
+of a brave nation.
+
+To the popular imagination Bolivia presents only the picture of a
+country somewhere in South America, above the clouds, consisting of
+inaccessible peaks and unfathomable gorges, with an occasional plateau
+to give diversity to what a clever writer has called “the roof of the
+western world,” where llamas are believed to pose eternally on rocky
+cliffs, and gaily plumed Indians to form picturesque groups forever
+against a background of Inca architecture. This is an archaic idea,
+but it is held tenaciously in the minds of a majority of people.
+Bolivia is a land so rarely visited by the foreigner that it is not
+remarkable that the most extraordinary notions prevail regarding it.
+A few have read of the fabulous riches of Potosí, but it is not many
+years ago that a distinguished European asked where “the country called
+Potosí” was situated; and the vast wealth of Bolivia, apparently so
+unlimited that a traveller was impressed to describe the country as
+“a table of silver supported by legs of gold,” is yet a treasure
+whose value has never been fairly calculated. It is a closed book
+to the tourist, though it presents aspects of grandeur undreamed of
+except by the few who have witnessed its beauty, who have felt the
+compelling majesty of snow-capped Illimani and wonderful Sorata, and
+to whom the legends of Titicaca have been told in the white moonlight
+as they glided across its mirror-like surface, seemingly enveloped in
+the glory of a higher sphere,--so clear is the moonlight on this lake
+above the clouds,--their souls thrilling in unison with the wondrous
+harmony of the perfect picture. To the lover of varied scenery there
+is a fascination about this almost untravelled country, with its bleak
+Andean plateaus and densely wooded plains, its towering mountains,
+rugged cañons, and fertile valleys, bounded as it is on one side by a
+desert so barren that not a blade of grass could find nourishment, and
+on the other by the greatest river system of the globe, which receives
+and pours out continually enough water to fertilize a whole continent.
+Although third in territory and one of the richest in natural resources
+among the South American republics, Bolivia occupies the most remote
+position and is the least influenced by foreign association, placed as
+it is in the heart of the continent, with no outlet to the sea except
+through neighboring countries, and consequently having had, up to
+the present, scant opportunity to establish extensive international
+relations. As the country is now entering upon a new era of progress,
+increasing its productiveness, building railroads in every direction to
+connect the various centres of industry with Atlantic and Pacific ports
+and the great Amazon waterways, and making improvements in all branches
+of national administration, its Arcadian character is becoming modified
+to conform to twentieth century conditions in the New World, and the
+advance of modern thought is making its influence felt on the Titicaca
+plateau and in the Amazon valley as surely as in any other region of
+South America.
+
+It is often said that nothing is a greater obstacle to modern progress
+than the inheritance of ancient monuments, and his majesty of Greece
+is credited with the statement that he would be glad to have every
+vestige of ancient Athenian architecture disappear, so that his country
+might be given a little consideration for what twentieth century Greeks
+are doing. Bolivia’s heritage of some of the most remarkable ruins of
+antiquity has been so great an attraction to foreign writers that it
+has diverted their interest almost entirely from modern Bolivia; though
+it is true that the subject of these ruins is one which deserves the
+attention of the world, one worthy of all the scientific research given
+to it, pointing as it does to a solution of the important problem of
+the priority of races in the New World.
+
+Many theories have been advanced regarding the monumental ruins
+that exist in the region of Lake Titicaca--particularly those of
+Tiahuanaco--as to their origin, the people who built them, the period
+to which they belong and the degree of civilization which they
+indicate, but very little is really known about them, and imagination
+has free rein to picture the conditions that may have existed before
+the Spanish conquest brought Bolivian history into the realm of certain
+knowledge. There is nothing to indicate that the primitive inhabitants
+of what is now Bolivian territory reached an important degree of
+advancement in any other part of the country than that known to
+ethnologists generally as Aymaráland, which is supposed to be--though
+this, too, is questioned--the cradle of the Aymará race, whose origin
+is very obscure, but whose people are considered by many writers as the
+authors of the most colossal examples of ancient architecture existing
+on the South American continent. This region is comprised in the
+southern part of what is now the department of La Paz, chiefly in that
+section which borders Lake Titicaca. Unfortunately, everything relating
+to it prior to the period of the Spanish conquest is so shrouded in
+mystery as to yield few satisfactory results to the most careful
+investigation beyond the apparently certain evidence that it was not
+a contemporaneous civilization that wrought such marvels of progress,
+but the peoples of successive and often remotely separated periods not
+necessarily of identical origin. According to some authorities, the
+Tiahuanaco whose ruins are now to be seen, and which was already a
+shattered record of past greatness when the Incas set up their dynasty,
+is but the remains of a second Tiahuanaco, the first having been
+swallowed up at a previous period, forgotten ages ago, when a great
+seismic upheaval changed the face of the Bolivian plateau and buried
+out of sight evidences of culture advanced far beyond anything the same
+race attained subsequently. Archæologists generally agree in claiming
+that at least three distinct periods of culture are recorded in the
+form and character of prehistoric remains now being excavated in this
+locality. Naturally it is this part of Bolivia which is the centre of
+interest in the study of the pre-Columbian epoch.
+
+  [Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, LA PAZ.]
+
+The theory accepted by many ethnologists, that the Indians of America
+are of Asiatic origin, is met, on the other hand, by the assertion of
+some more recent investigators--notably those composing the expedition
+organized by Mr. Morris K. Jessup, president of the American Museum
+of Natural History, and sent out by him ten years ago to study this
+question--that man did not emigrate from Asia to America, as many
+racial similarities seemed to prove, but that the emigration was from
+America to Asia, the evidences of human life on the American continent
+proving greater antiquity of origin here than in Asia. The latter
+possibility gives unique value to the study of a country within whose
+territory have been found indications of human habitation in ages
+remote beyond any determined period. May it not be that Bolivia has an
+especial claim to universal attention as the true birthplace of the
+human race, and the chief centre of its progress at a time antedating
+the chronicles of Old World empires?
+
+Aymará mythology is very similar to that of the Orient. According to
+the oldest traditions, at the beginning of the world, the god Khunu,
+the creator of all things, became so angry because of the vices of
+mankind that he visited a great drought upon the earth, converting
+fertile regions into deserts: he deprived humanity of the means of
+living, and they became lower than the beasts. Then Pachacamac, the
+supreme spirit of the universe, restored that which had been destroyed
+by Khunu and gave new life to mankind. A second time Khunu showed
+his wrath and sent a great flood and darkness upon the earth. The
+few people who were saved from destruction in this calamity sent up
+prayers to heaven, and in answer the sun appeared behind the rock
+Inti-Karka, on the sacred lake of the same name, since corrupted into
+Titicaca. Soon after this appeared also the great god Viracocha, the
+name signifying “foam of the sea,” so called because he rose out of
+the waters of the lake. Viracocha created the sun, moon and stars,
+plants and animals, as well as men. Tiahuanaco is full of carvings
+representing this deity, and it is the opinion of noted archæologists,
+among others Professor Max Uhle, who has made a special study of the
+field, that Tiahuanaco was built as a temple of this deity, and that it
+was not, at least in later periods, a centre of population, as has been
+generally believed.
+
+As far back as any records exist that serve to trace the history
+of the Aymarás, there appears to be confusion regarding their
+identity with the Collas, Umasuyas, Yungas, and other tribes that
+are generally considered as offshoots of the parent Aymará stock.
+All these tribes were natives of the country now called Bolivia, and
+were governed by _mallcus_, or chiefs, chosen in some cases for
+their military valor and in others for their venerable character. The
+Collas, or Charcas, were the most powerful and numerous, and gave
+their name to the whole country, which was called Collasuyo by the
+Incas to distinguish it as a southern province of the great empire
+of Tahuantinsuyo, “the kingdom of four regions,” the remaining three
+having been called Antisuyo, “to the east,” Cuntisuyo, “to the west”
+and Chinchasuyo, “to the north.”
+
+At the period generally credited to the advent of the Incas, the
+inhabitants of Collasuyo had already reached decadence and were given
+up to decimating wars and struggles among themselves. That the
+Collas, or Charcas, tribes belonged to the same stock as the Aymarás
+is disputed by some of the best authorities, who believe the latter an
+entirely distinct race, of Mongolian origin, who came to Bolivia by way
+of Arica on the Pacific coast, many centuries ago, and settled on the
+Lake Titicaca plateau because it was the centre of a region belonging
+to a people of peaceable habits, living, not on the barren heights, but
+in the valleys and on the slopes around. These authorities give the
+Aymarás no share in the construction of the great monuments, which they
+claim were built there only as sanctuaries, apart from the habitations
+of the people, explaining that because of their great solidity of
+construction they have survived the changes which brought about the
+decadence and oblivion of the race that built them.
+
+  [Illustration: THE NEW GOVERNMENT PALACE, SUCRE.]
+
+The Bolivian historian Señor Don José Maria Camacho apparently favors
+the theory which gives the Aymarás credit for the culture that
+found expression in these colossal structures. In an entertaining
+chapter on this subject he writes: “It is presumable that in order
+to have attained the degree of prosperity which their monuments
+reveal, as well as to have arrived at the state of decadence in
+which the Quichuas found them, the Aymarás must have experienced,
+through a long succession of centuries, great social changes and
+the devastating inroads of other tribes.” The same author gives an
+interesting description of these people, with particular reference
+to their government, religion, and mode of life. In addition to the
+_mallcu_, or supreme chief, there were the _jilakatas_, or
+secondary authorities, and, in some parts, there were also sacerdotal
+chiefs, whose word was the law of the community. “The Aymarás,” says
+Señor Camacho, “believed in the existence of God, whom they called
+Pachacamac, which means ‘eternal.’ They supposed that he revealed
+himself to the eyes of mankind in every object of Nature; from which
+their religion degenerated into complete fetichism, losing its
+spiritual significance entirely. They believed in the existence of the
+soul and in its immortality; in the evil spirit; in the resurrection of
+the body; and in eternal reward and punishment. They were acquainted
+with the meaning of prayer, knew of confession and penance, and were
+accustomed to offer sacrifices. Their most celebrated sanctuary was
+Inti-Karka, signifying ‘the rock of the sun,’ a name that has extended
+to the island on which it was located and to Lake Titicaca itself.
+Each tribe of the Aymarás was distinguished from the others in dress
+and more particularly by the cap, a knitted kind of headgear, and this
+distinction still prevails. The tribes had ideas of military art, were
+skilled in constructing fortresses, which they called _pucaras_,
+some of which remain to the present day; they used the lance, the
+sling, and the arrow. Their chief industry was agriculture; they had
+many herds of llamas, and paid careful attention to the cultivation of
+their fields. Commerce was reduced to a limited exchange of products.
+They had an idea of hieroglyphic writing. Their language is reputed by
+eminent philologists to be one of the mother tongues--the most ancient,
+richest, and most complete in existence.”
+
+One of the chief difficulties in the way of acquiring adequate
+information regarding the religious beliefs of the races that were
+conquered by the Spaniards is the tendency of the Indians to engraft
+Christian teachings on their Aymará and Quichua traditions to such a
+degree that it is not possible to know exactly where the influence of
+the Church enters into their records. There is much confusion also
+between Aymará and Quichua deities. Pachacamac and Viracocha are
+apparently only different names of the same deity, commonly used both
+in Quichua and Aymará traditions, and in many cases the influence of
+Aymará traditions upon the religion of the Incas is marked as clearly
+as are the traditions of the Children of the Sun to-day upon the modern
+religious beliefs of these Indians, gained through four centuries of
+Christian teaching. No foreigner who has visited the land of the Incas
+can fail to observe the strange interpretation which they put upon
+Bible truths.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ALAMEDA, THE FAVORITE PROMENADE OF LA PAZ.]
+
+According to various existing traditions the Aymarás and the Quichuas
+had been rival races from time immemorial, alternately superseding
+each other until the final change gave the Quichuas uninterrupted
+ascendancy, under the dominion of the Inca dynasty, and they achieved
+a degree of advancement and culture beyond that of any other primitive
+race of South America within the period of existing records. It is
+a singular fact, awaiting explanation by the ethnologists, that the
+Aymarás appear to have been always confined almost exclusively to the
+Titicaca plateau, while the Quichuas are found not only in the region
+extending from the lake northward to Cuzco, but in the departments
+of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Potosí, and Oruro. There is a theory,
+accepted by some ethnologists, that the Aymarás and the Quichuas were
+of the same origin, the Aymarás having evolved in the course of many
+generations, and under the harsh necessities of the rigorous soil
+and climate of the plateau, into a hardy race of highlanders,
+differing in character and even in appearance, from their Quichua
+brothers who had been subjected to less severe natural conditions in
+their development on the fertile mountain slopes and in the valleys
+of the regions they occupied. It seems incredible that offspring of
+the same race should develop a higher degree of culture on the arid
+plateau than in the fertile valley; yet the evidences of advancement
+among the ancient inhabitants of the Titicaca region indicate that they
+were leaders of progress among their contemporaries, who have left no
+monuments equal to those of the Titicaca plateau. It has been claimed
+that the great empire of Tahuantinsuyo was built upon a foundation
+purely Aymará, and that the first Inca obtained from Collasuyo his
+ideas regarding government, religion, and even architecture, which
+were afterward developed according to the genius of his successors.
+The most reasonable theory seems to be that the Quichua culture had
+been in process of development long ages before the establishment of
+Inca empire, and that it may be traced to a source identical with the
+origin of the Collas, whether this race be related to or distinct from
+the Aymarás. The question affords a prolific subject of controversy,
+and remains unsettled in the minds of impartial students of ethnology
+and archæology. Whether the Aymarás are too primitive a people to
+have had any connection with the history of the wonderful monuments
+of the Titicaca plateau; whether the Quichuas in long periods of
+culture, possibly interrupted, and dating from great antiquity,
+constructed these colossal monoliths; whether these Quichuas were of
+Peruvian origin, and the Aymarás also first came from the region of
+the Apurímac in that country; or whether the Quichuas were first the
+inhabitants of Collasuyo and had their ancestral domain in the land of
+the Charcas,--who, according to some ethnologists, belong to the same
+parent stock as the Quichuas,--all are theories for the scientists to
+settle when more extensive investigation shall afford better ground for
+establishing proofs.
+
+The poetical story of the first Inca’s appearance is worthy of the race
+that invented it. The Inca historian, Garcilaso de la Vega, one of the
+most picturesque figures in the landscape of ancient Peru, even as he
+himself paints it for us, and the only contemporary authority of note
+on the history of the Peruvian empire, relates in inimitable style the
+story of the first Inca’s appearance. In his _Comentarios Reales_
+he tells us that the Sun, the life-giving and fructifying deity of the
+universe, was moved to pity by the contemplation of degraded humanity,
+and in order to redeem it he sent down from heaven his two children,
+Manco-Ccapac and Mama Ocllo, causing them to appear on the island of
+Inti-Karka, where, after the great food, brought upon the earth by
+the god Khunu (meaning snow, and supposed to have reference to the
+glacial period), the Sun had beneficently extended his first rays.
+This mysterious pair, who were at the same time brother and sister and
+husband and wife, crossed the plains north of the Lake Inti-Karka,
+carrying with them a sceptre in the form of a bar of gold, which was to
+determine the place of their permanent abode by the facility with which
+it buried itself in the earth. They proclaimed themselves children of
+the Sun, and announced as their mission the civilization of all savage
+tribes and the establishment of an empire which would be under their
+own benevolent government, as divine rulers who inherited their rights
+from their father the Sun.
+
+  [Illustration: FOUNTAIN IN MURILLO PLAZA, LA PAZ.]
+
+The historian adds, with the naïve gravity of a true descendant of the
+Incas, that as the sacred bar buried itself most easily in the soil of
+Cuzco, that locality was made the site of the Inca capital. The first
+Inca was called Manco-Ccapac, and his wife Mama Oclla. Pedro Kramer, in
+his _Historia de Bolivia_, says the name _Manco_ is evidently
+a corruption of _mallcu_, and that Manco-Ccapac was an Aymara
+chief or _sacerdóte_, of great talent and superior knowledge,
+who probably left his home on account of the wars of extermination
+which the Aymarás were carrying on at that time, and, with his sister,
+embarked in one of the little _balsas_, or canoes, made of rushes
+which are used at the present day on Lake Titicaca, the two making
+their way to one of the islands in the lake, where they remained hidden
+until it was safe for them to continue their voyage to the opposite
+or western border. There they landed and became acquainted with the
+neighboring Quichua tribes, continuing further north on their journey,
+until they arrived in Cuzco. They found themselves in the midst of
+a people of hospitable disposition and submissive character, who,
+seeing that the pilgrims were superior in wisdom and beauty, began
+by respecting them and ended by rendering them mystic reverence. The
+royal pair founded a city which they called Cuzco, “the navel of the
+universe,” and began the organization of the great Inca empire of
+Tahuantinsuyo, with which the history of Bolivia is also associated.
+The Bolivia of to-day is represented in Collasuyo, the inhabitants of
+which were tributary to the Cuzco monarchs, required to send their
+share of gold to the royal coffers, to labor in the royal mines, and
+to serve in the royal household. But the subjection of Collasuyo to
+Inca authority did not take place until the reign of the fourth Inca.
+Even then the warlike Bolivian highlander was not entirely subdued, and
+he remained a troublesome vassal of the empire throughout the entire
+period of Inca rule.
+
+When the fourth Inca, Maita-Ccapac, marched into Collasuyo at the head
+of an army of twelve thousand men, he was met by the natives with
+sturdy and determined resistance, but he conquered by superior force
+of arms, returning well satisfied with the result of the invasion. It
+was upon the occasion of this visit that he became so impressed with
+the grandeur of the Tiahuanaco ruins that he thought of making this
+place the seat of his empire. His successor, the Inca Ccapac-Yupanqui,
+extended the empire eastward and southward, marching over a great
+deal of territory and subduing numerous tribes. There was continued
+opposition to the invaders on the part of both the Aymarás and the
+Charcas, and repeated revolts kept the country in a ferment of warfare.
+Pachacutec, one of the wisest of the Incas, visited Collasuyo, spending
+several years in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, and making an
+expedition to Oruro, one of the most important pueblos.
+
+  [Illustration: PRESIDENT’S COACH IN THE ANNUAL INDEPENDENCE
+  DAY PROCESSION, LA PAZ.]
+
+The Incas were by no means insensible to the advanced culture
+everywhere shown in the monuments and temples of Collasuyo. They copied
+much from the works of the vanquished race, and some authorities go so
+far as to say that they got all their ideas of civilization from this
+source, modifying little and adding less; others assert, as proof to
+the contrary, that there is nothing to establish this claim beyond the
+similarity naturally existing in the ideas of races allied in thought
+through long periods of mutual interchange.
+
+But, leaving aside all puzzling problems, there is a witchery of
+romance in the story of the great Incas descending upon Collasuyo in
+all the glory and pomp of royal power, and setting up their court on
+a scale of truly Oriental magnificence upon the sacred island of the
+Sun, in the sacred Lake Titicaca, over twelve thousand feet above the
+sea, in the heart of a continent at that time unknown to Pizarro’s
+hosts, a continent of savages beyond the limits of the vast Peruvian
+empire, which according to some authorities extended over the greater
+part of South America and counted among its vassals twenty millions of
+people. No wonder that the great Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui spent many years
+in this enchanting spot, and erected in the vicinity of the lake and
+on its various islands his wonderful palaces! One is only at a loss to
+imagine why the sacred golden rod of Manco-Ccapac did not sink itself
+with greater facility into the Rock of the Sun in the beginning of Inca
+history. It is related that Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui erected not only a
+sumptuous palace, but a temple dedicated to the sun, the richest of the
+whole empire: temples were also dedicated to thunder and lightning, a
+monastery was built for the sons of nobles, a sanctuary for the vestal
+virgins, houses were erected for the Inca’s followers; the Rock of the
+Sun was paved with silver and gold, the neighboring island of Coati
+(from Coya, the Moon, wife of the Sun) was consecrated to the moon, and
+temples were erected there, the ruins of which still remain, as well
+as those of the sun temple on the island of Titicaca. The Inca fasted
+for a whole year, it is stated in the records, abstaining from meat
+and _aji_--a pepper seed indispensable in the Quichua and Aymará
+cuisine--in order to prove his devotion and the serious purpose of his
+pilgrimage.
+
+  [Illustration: MONUMENT TO GENERAL BALLIVIAN IN THE ALAMEDA,
+  LA PAZ.]
+
+It was in Collasuyo that Huayna-Ccapac, the father of the ill-fated
+Atahuallpa, spent his earlier years, having been left in charge of
+the palaces and temples erected on Lake Titicaca by his father,
+Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui. He became learned in the culture of the ancient
+inhabitants of the lake region, and while under the spell of its charm,
+or through an inspiration of spiritual understanding, he taught the
+existence of a deity superior to the sun, invisible to mortal eyes, the
+source of all power. Huayna-Ccapac was one of the most illustrious
+of his race and added much to the prestige of the empire by his
+conquests and discoveries. He explored the rich mines of Porco, south
+of Potosí, visited the thriving pueblo of Chuquiapu,--on the site of
+the present city of La Paz,--and celebrated there with great splendor
+the religious festival of “Raymi.” One of his sons, Manco, famed later
+for the determined campaign he led against the Spaniards, and who was
+put to death by order of Almagro, Pizarro’s general, was a native of
+Collasuyo, having been born at Tiahuanaco.
+
+At the very height of power and in the full brilliancy of Collasuyo’s
+glory, when Huayna-Ccapac was visiting his wonderful palaces and
+temples on the sacred lake, and all was apparently peace and security
+in the vast realm, which had so steadily extended its boundaries since
+the first Inca placed his sceptre in the soil of Cuzco that there
+remained little to conquer worth the effort; when no cloud seemed
+visible in the sky,--suddenly an awful presage of coming evil gripped
+the heart of the great Inca in a spasm of foreboding. Strange signs
+appeared in the heavens, lightning struck down one of the Inca’s
+palaces, earthquakes threatened, and, to complete the catalogue of
+bad omens, the news was spread that white and bearded men, sailing in
+houses of wood,--whose coming had been predicted by the Inca Ripac more
+than a century before,--had been seen in the Pacific.
+
+  [Illustration: PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR LA PAZ.]
+
+To relieve the sadness of his heart under such terrible conditions, the
+Inca left his beloved Collasuyo and repaired to Quito to seek refuge
+from care in the sweet companionship of his favorite, Pacha, the mother
+of his best beloved son, Atahuallpa. The story of his death and of the
+succession of his two sons, Atahuallpa and Huascar, the former to the
+throne of Quito and the latter to that of Peru,--their quarrels and
+the consequent weakening of the Empire’s defence at the very moment
+when greatest strength was needed,--the events connected with the
+imprisonment and death of Atahuallpa, and the occupation of his throne
+by Francisco Pizarro,--belong rather to Peruvian than to Bolivian
+history.
+
+  [Illustration: ALAMEDA GATEWAY, LA PAZ.]
+
+The first invasion of Bolivia by the Spaniards was made under the
+orders of Pizarro’s companion in the conquest, Diego de Almagro,
+who chose the route through Collasuyo on his march to Chile. The
+vanguard of this expedition was placed in charge of Juan de Saavedra,
+who founded the first Spanish town on Bolivian soil at Paria, a few
+miles from Oruro. Continuing southward, Almagro’s party made a halt
+at Tupiza, and then pursued their ill-fated course southward, leaving
+the rich mines of Charcas unexplored and plunging into the horrors of
+a trans-Andean journey altogether the most terrible in suffering and
+deprivation that is recorded in the annals of the Spanish conquest.
+Afterward, the unhappy adventurer expressed the keenest regret that he
+had not remained in Charcas and colonized it instead of continuing the
+profitless march which proved his ruin.
+
+It was not long before Spanish cupidity turned its attention to the
+valuable mines known to exist in this part of the Inca’s former
+dominions. Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, brothers of the conqueror,
+undertook the invasion of the country, but after a short time Hernando
+returned to Cuzco, and Gonzalo became chiefly identified with the
+history of Spanish conquest in Bolivia. His first victory of note
+was in the valley of Cochabamba, followed by a more signal triumph
+over the Charcas Indians in Chuquisaca, which gave him practically
+undisputed sway. By order of Francisco Pizarro, Pedro Anzures founded,
+on the site of an Indian village, the city of Chuquisaca, also called
+Charcas, the seat of the royal Audiencia, and, later, La Plata, the
+archiepiscopal see. It is now known as Sucre, in honor of the hero
+of the Independence. Unwearying in the pursuit of adventure, Gonzalo
+Pizarro set out on an expedition into the forests of the Amazon, which
+yielded little in results. Upon his return, he devoted his attention
+to the development of rich mines of which he had taken possession in
+Porco, until altered conditions in political affairs led him to head a
+rebellion against the newly appointed viceroy, Blasco Nuñez de Vela,
+in a struggle to gain the supremacy as Governor of Peru. The viceroy
+had been sent out from Spain with orders from the Emperor Charles V.
+to reform the abuses of the system of _encomienda_, by which the
+conquerors claimed ownership not only of the land, but of the Indians
+who occupied it, under the pretext of converting them to Christianity,
+and treated them with unparalleled cruelty. The opposition of Gonzalo
+Pizarro and others to this action on the part of Spain led to open
+warfare; and Gonzalo marched to Lima, the new Spanish capital,
+defeated the viceroy’s army, and executed the viceroy. Then, finding
+that a reactionary sentiment had been stirred up in Chuquisaca by his
+rival, Centeno, and that there was a strong party arrayed against
+his authority there, he commissioned the redoubtable old warrior
+Carvajal, one of the most uncompromising fighters of the conquest, to
+restore tranquillity. The chase which Carvajal gave Centeno, and the
+territory the two armies covered without engaging in battle,--Centeno
+being finally obliged to disperse his troops,--were subjects of keen
+ridicule, and the battle was nicknamed the “fight of claws.” Gonzalo
+Pizarro himself soon afterward met and vanquished Centeno at the battle
+of Huarina, on the borders of Lake Titicaca. But the good fortune of
+Pizarro was short-lived. About this time the Emperor Charles V. sent
+out Pedro de la Gasca, with instructions to establish order in the new
+colony. La Gasca attacked Pizarro’s forces at Sacsahuana, near Cuzco,
+gaining a complete victory, and destroying forever the power of the
+Pizarro party, which had been already weakened by the disaffection of
+his followers, owing to his own pusillanimity and Carvajal’s cruelty.
+Both Gonzalo Pizarro and Carvajal were put to death.
+
+As a memorial of the peace which had been achieved by his victory
+over Pizarro, La Gasca gave orders to Captain Alonso de Mendoza to
+found a city in the valley of Chuquiapu, which he desired should be
+established, in the phrase of Tacitus, “with a greater number of good
+customs than laws.” The foundation of the city was begun on the first
+anniversary of the battle of Sacsahuana, October 20, 1545, and it was
+named Nuestra Señora de La Paz. The Villa Imperial de Potosí had been
+founded a few months before by Diego Centeno and Alonso Santandia, upon
+the discovery of the rich mines that were later to make it one of the
+famous cities of the world.
+
+In the founding of La Paz, the Titicaca plateau became again the
+honored spot chosen to mark the birth of a new régime in South
+America. It was peculiarly fitting that this locality, which bears
+witness to succeeding periods of primitive culture, and to the rise
+and development of the greatest of native dynasties, should have been
+selected to commemorate the successful establishment of a greater
+power on the continent and the beginning of a new national existence.
+Centuries later, when this power proved insupportable through greed
+and injustice, the same site was once more chosen to mark a fresh
+beginning, when the march of civilization was signalized by the first
+proclamation of the patriots of Independence. And the last honor was
+the most glorious of all; for in choosing the City of Peace on the
+Titicaca plateau as the sacred spot whereon to set the seal of victory
+upon one of the noblest efforts of mankind--the effort to establish
+the rights of human liberty. Destiny has bestowed a noble distinction
+upon the Bolivian nation, and one which should inspire its posterity to
+deeds of highest worth.
+
+  [Illustration: ILLIMANI.]
+
+  [Illustration: DOORWAY AND PATIO OF A PRIVATE RESIDENCE,
+  COLONIAL PERIOD, LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                    ALTO PERU UNDER THE VICEROYALTY
+
+
+  [Illustration: CARVED STONE DOORWAY OF SAN LORENZO CHURCH,
+  POTOSÍ.]
+
+The great empire of the Incas fell to pieces like a house of cards.
+The splendor of their palaces, the riches of their sacred temples, the
+very pride of the people seemed to crumble into ruins in a day. It
+is remarkable that a culture representing centuries of progress and
+revealing such a high order of intelligence as that of the Incas could
+apparently fade away within an incredibly short time. Of the twenty
+million souls, more or less, composing the Peruvian empire, only the
+Inca and a few nobles had been imprisoned or killed. The Spaniards
+were a mere handful against those that remained. It has been said that
+if the imprisoned Inca could have summoned his faithful subjects they
+would quickly have slain every Spaniard on the continent. But he was
+not permitted to speak to his people, and they had never been taught to
+act independently of his will. The Inca had held as a royal prerogative
+the divine power of initiative, and it was forbidden to the masses to
+think or act upon their own responsibility. When the final calamity
+came, and there was no longer anyone in authority to tell them what
+to do, they could do nothing; and in this fact lies the secret of
+the Spaniards easy conquest of the Inca’s subjects when once the Inca
+himself had been disposed of. They were like sheep without a shepherd,
+and their conquerors behaved like wolves. Bolivia suffered the same
+fate as the rest of the fallen empire--its inhabitants were enslaved
+and held under the rigorous system of Spanish rule as firmly as those
+of other provinces. This system was established at the point of the
+sword.
+
+The Spaniards had come to the New World in quest of gold, and the
+history of Spanish rule in America is a record of plunder in the
+beginning and unjust extortion to the end. There was no religious
+sentiment connected with the voluntary exile of the conquerors from
+their native land, as in the case of the Pilgrim Fathers of New
+England, nor did the idea of colonization appeal to them except as it
+was necessary to the realization of their golden dreams of avarice.
+The filibustering adventurers led on by Pizarro would have scorned the
+routine of toil which the Puritans were willing to face daily for the
+sake of the principles that had brought them across the sea, and in
+the hope of establishing a home in their new country. Yet, in their
+religious zeal and fury against witchcraft and unbelief, the Puritans
+were often as cruel as their Spanish contemporaries in Peru, showing
+that the spirit of those times was a malignant one, whether aroused to
+pious frenzy or inflamed by grosser passions.
+
+When the chief leaders among the conquerors fell in the struggle for
+power that succeeded the invasion, their places were quickly filled
+by men better qualified than those belligerent nomads to establish a
+settled order of things in the conquered territory, and to proceed
+systematically toward the accomplishment of the chief purpose of their
+authority,--to fill up the royal coffers with gold. Within fifty
+years after Pizarro landed with his followers on the shores of Peru
+in 1533, not only was the Spanish conquest an accomplished fact, but
+the various disturbances naturally arising out of jealousy among the
+conquerors had been quelled, the unsatisfactory _encomienda_ had
+been abolished, and the colonial system had been perfected and put in
+operation. The Collasuyo of the Inca empire became the Charcas of the
+conquerors, and this name was again changed by the colonial authorities
+to Alto Peru. The great Council of the Indies, the supreme tribunal
+instituted in Cádiz, Spain, primarily to protect the Indians and
+finally to take charge of all colonial affairs, formulated the laws
+that ruled the Spanish colonies in the New World. One of its first
+acts was to abolish the two governments of New Castile and New Toledo,
+into which the conquerors had divided Spanish South America,--the
+limits of which had been the cause of all the fatal strife between
+Pizarro and Almagro,--and to create the viceroyalty of Peru in 1542,
+with authority over all these possessions. The viceroy represented the
+highest colonial power, and presided over the two Audiencias Reales,
+or royal audiences, into which the viceroyalty was divided. These
+were the Audiencia of Lima, which comprised the territory hitherto
+known as New Castile, and the Audiencia of Charcas, which covered the
+former New Toledo. The Audiencias were supreme courts, annexed to the
+viceroyalties, but directly responsible to the crown. They exercised
+both judicial and administrative functions.
+
+One of the most important offices in the history of Spanish government
+in America was held by the Audiencia of Charcas, created in 1559,
+when the Marquis of Cañete was Viceroy of Peru. Its jurisdiction
+extended over the whole southern and eastern part of Spanish
+America, its chief seat being Chuquisaca, or Charcas, the capital
+of Alto Peru. Established in the very heart of the Spanish South
+American possessions, in a locality almost inaccessibly remote from
+the viceroy’s capital at Lima, the Audiencia of Charcas wielded an
+authority as independent and powerful within its jurisdiction as that
+of the viceroy himself; while its capital became the centre of what was
+equivalent to a second viceregal court. Chuquisaca gained additional
+prestige from its importance as the episcopal see of the diocese of
+Charcas and as the seat of the University of San Francisco Xavier,
+which became renowned throughout Spanish America for its learning,
+ranking with the University of Salamanca, in Spain. To this Audiencia’s
+jurisdiction were subject the governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and
+Buenos Aires, and the missions of Chiquitos and Mojos.
+
+  [Illustration: FAÇADE OF SAN FRANCISCO CHURCH, LA PAZ. STONE
+  CARVING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+Referring to the exalted privileges of the Audiencia, Gabriel Réné
+Moreno, a Bolivian writer of note, says: “The Audiencia was at the same
+time a royal chancery, which used the royal seal and headed its decrees
+with the name of the reigning sovereign, as if he were present.” Among
+its multiple duties, as recorded in the archives of the Council of the
+Indies, were: “To be vigilant in behalf of the Indians, to see that
+they are given Christian instruction and good treatment, for which
+purpose a protector shall be named; to be informed in reference to the
+king’s tax, and in all that relates to the preservation of the royal
+prerogatives; to collect the legacies of ecclesiastical benefices; to
+approve the lists of fees of curates, notaries, and inspectors, without
+which requisite they have no legal force.” Furthermore, in addition to
+the central government, which in matters of administration, policy, and
+finance was exercised by the Audiencia, the _oidores_, or judges,
+discharged innumerable special functions. The Audiencia of Charcas
+was composed of five _oidores_ and two fiscal assessors. The
+_oidores_ were required to visit the territories of their separate
+jurisdictions every three years. In civil cases only was it permitted
+to appeal to the Council of the Indies from the Audiencia’s decision.
+But in spite of the number and variety of the Audiencia’s duties, the
+records of colonial history show that the greater part of the time was
+spent in the discussion of formalities, in grand ceremonies and an
+extravagant display of pompous authority, though this tendency does not
+seem to have brought any adverse criticism from the higher authority
+of Lima. In the _Memoria de Los Vireyes_, or viceroys’ report,
+the Audiencia is cordially recommended for its efficiency, the Duke
+of Palata writing of it: “The Audiencia of Charcas ranks next to that
+of Lima, and is above all the others; and for the reason that it is
+usually composed of ministers who have risen through other tribunals,
+it has the most distinguished ability in government, and in eight years
+has given me nothing to execute or to amend.” A more intimate view of
+the character of the _oidores_ is given in an entertaining picture
+of these times, very effectively described:
+
+  [Illustration: JESUIT CONVENT TOWER IN POTOSÍ. CERRO DE
+  POTOSÍ IN THE DISTANCE.]
+
+“The Audiencia planted its royal trident in the sea of political and
+social agitation. The implacable levies of the _mita_, the great
+traffic of the mines at the height of their production, the daily
+demands of civil society, the procedures of public administration,
+the sanctity of domestic life, the property, existence, and honor of
+individuals, everything passed over the Audiencia’s palm, sliding from
+it like falling seed that nothing can stop or hinder. Nothing was
+so inalterable in the midst of alterations as the Audiencia. In the
+disturbances that made a sanguinary path for the first footsteps of the
+colony; in the disputes of Basques and Castilians--equally illiterate
+and opulent--over the arms of the city of Potosí; in those incessant
+quarrels among _chapetones_, _mestizos_, and _criollos_ who peopled
+the cities and towns of the province with factions, the Audiencia
+discharged the office of a severe proconsul, whose cohorts always
+subjugated, never pacified. In the pursuit of its judgments, the furore
+of noisy discords from all directions arrived at the peaceful city that
+served as its court like the violent winds that blow over mountains and
+plains to whirl into the basin of Lake Titicaca and disturb its quiet
+waters. But in the immunity of the royal canopy of his stone palace
+the monarch never broke down the inviolable law of his tribunal, and
+neither from the vehement shock of caste nor from that of interest
+did his tall judicial _vara_, or sceptre, come out shortened. It is
+certain that in the chief city of the viceroys the Audiencia did not
+enjoy the predominance, veneration, or impunity of the _oidores_ in
+La Plata. Here the counsellor’s robe possessed doubtless some of the
+virtues of a sacrament; at least, it imprinted on the soul of him who
+wore it an ineffaceable sign, and that sign was arrogance. _Oidor_ and
+haughty _grand seigneur_ were, in Alto Peru, one and the same. Woe to
+the lawyer, litigant, or voter who incurred the anger of an _oidor_!
+Because if he wished to escape from abusive reproofs, suspension from
+office, correctional banishment and vexations, it would be best for him
+to go far away. When these magnates did not ride to the tribunal in
+chaises, it is notorious that they were preceded by two lictors, so as
+to flaunt the toga before the people with Roman majesty. The passer-by
+must halt in their presence, and if on horseback dismount while they
+passed, and everybody must escort the satrap to his destination at a
+respectful distance.”
+
+  [Illustration: COLONIAL SUN DIAL IN PATIO OF PALACE OF
+  JUSTICE. SUCRE.]
+
+What autocrats they were, these _oidores_ of the Audiencia of
+Charcas! And with what splendor they moved among the people, in whose
+eyes the distant figure of the viceroy diminished and his Catholic
+majesty faded to the vanishing point, as the magnificent “toga” passed,
+its folds sweeping over the streets that belonged as much to its wearer
+as Spain belonged to the king, or Lima to the viceroy! The extreme
+homage paid to these mediterranean despots is illustrated in a clever
+little anecdote which relates how a rich and aged lady of Chuquisaca,
+wishing at her death to manifest her devotion, left in her testament a
+legacy of four thousand pesos with the stipulation that it should be
+used to buy an _oidor’s_ toga for the Holy Sacrament; because,
+she explained, when clothed with this honor, the people would find
+themselves obliged to accompany the viaticum, whereas without it very
+few would do so. Then came the puzzling question: “But if the Holy
+Sacrament, decorated with the _oidor’s_ toga, should meet another
+_oidor_ on the road, to which should the retinue make its reverend
+obeisance?” It was decided that as the case was one of equal rank,
+obeisance should be made to the Holy Sacrament, having the preference
+accorded to age! Bolivian wit is never so keen as when pointing a
+satire with an amusing illustration, and this little story is worthy of
+its author, whoever he may be!
+
+The Audiencia of Charcas found its most arduous duties connected
+with the demands from the mother country for the largest possible
+contributions to the royal treasury, and her equally imperious demands
+for protection for the Indian subjects of the crown. To fulfil both
+requirements taxed the genius of the wisest of his Catholic majesty’s
+representatives. In justice to the Council of the Indies, it must be
+said that constant efforts were made to ameliorate the condition of the
+unfortunate Indians, but they were effectively nullified through the
+greed for gold which could only be satisfied by increasing the tasks of
+these unhappy slaves, who died by thousands under the rigorous system
+of the _mita_. The _mita_ was established by the greatest
+of the viceroys of Peru, Don Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa,
+who governed from 1569 to 1581. His purpose was to promote the most
+rapid and satisfactory development of the mines, especially those of
+Potosí, and, undoubtedly, also to improve the condition both of the
+colonists and the Indians. The _mita_ was a system of forced labor
+by which all Indians between eighteen and fifty years of age were
+obliged to work in the mines by turns during a certain period, covering
+in all about five or six years of _mita_, or turn. This system
+ameliorated the previous condition of the Indians by establishing a
+species of organized discipline. It was an institution of Inca origin,
+as the Quichua word _mita_ indicates. The Spaniards only modified
+it, giving it a more restricted meaning, as under the rule of the
+Incas there were no property rights for the individual, while the
+Spanish code gave such rights and exempted from the _mita_ all
+Indians who were landowners. Indeed, much of the legislation adopted
+by the learned Council of the Indies was an adaptation rather than
+a change of Inca statutes. But in their reckless application of the
+_mita_ the Spaniards made it a terrible hardship for the Indians,
+and the cruelties practised upon them caused a rapid diminution in
+their number, though it is extremely doubtful whether the mortality
+reached the enormous figures named by some writers. The Bolivian
+historian José Maria Camacho estimates the loss of life “from overwork
+and intemperance” under the _mita_ system as “nearly eight
+millions.” After the establishment of the _mita_, the viceroy
+Toledo abolished the system of _encomiendas_, and the Indians
+were required to live in districts, or communities, in which each of
+them received a lot, or _sayaña_, to cultivate; he was obliged to
+pay tribute, at first in specie, and afterward in money. Later, this
+tribute was made a per capita tax. By right of conquest, the Spanish
+crown had declared its ownership of all the lands and peoples of the
+conquered territory, but by purchase the colonists and the natives
+could secure deeds to lands cultivated by them outside of the limits of
+concessions. The Indians were not excluded from this privilege, though
+the opportunities of availing themselves of it were rare.
+
+The task of exploring and civilizing the vast regions to the north
+and east of the Andes range--the valleys of the Amazon and its
+tributaries--was a slow and perilous undertaking, owing to the nature
+of the climate and the difficulties of transportation. The roads
+built by the Incas continued to be the only highways long after the
+conquest; and in the territories of Mojos, Chiquitos, and the Chaco,
+many exploring expeditions were destroyed by the savages. Mojos was
+the favorite objective point of the explorations, on account of the
+many legends about its mysterious “El Dorado,” supposed to be a hill
+in the centre of a lake, where all the treasures of the earth were to
+be found. The owner of this wonderful place was called the Gran Señor
+de Mojos. Its inhabitants, the Chunchos, were the most savage of the
+aborigines, and have remained uncivilized to the present day. In the
+heart of the Chiquitos territory, the town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra
+was founded by Ñuflo de Chávez in 1560. Later, it was removed to its
+present site, in 1592.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO, LA PAZ.]
+
+With the exception of the floating population that followed the
+exploiting of the mines, the colonists lived in cities, which were
+founded in rapid succession. In 1570 the viceroy gave orders for
+the foundation of a town in the fertile valley of Cochapampa, and
+four years later the present city of Cochabamba was built under
+the direction of Don Sebastian Barba de Padilla, with the name of
+Villa de Oropesa, in honor of the greatest viceroy of the colonial
+epoch. The same year Tarija was founded by Don Luis de Fuentes, with
+the name of San Bernardo de la Frontera. It was the purpose of the
+viceroy to provide a centre of civilization from which to carry on the
+work of subduing and evangelizing the savage tribes of the Chichas,
+Chiriguanos, Tobas, Guaycurús, and other hordes of the Chaco frontier.
+Oruro, named from the neighboring hills of Uru-Uru, was founded in
+1604, with the more distinguished title of San Felipe de Austria; but
+this high-sounding cognomen was ignored completely, except in official
+documents, the town remaining always Oruro, as it is to-day. It became
+famous for its silver mines, and has always been an important mining
+town.
+
+For two centuries after the conquest all interest in the Spanish
+colonies was centred in the mines. The Cerro de Potosí--as the mountain
+is called which poured out a constant stream of silver so abundant that
+the “king’s fifth” in one year amounted to more than three million
+ducats--became a synonym for opulence, and “rich as Potosí” meant, in
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, all that “rich as Crœsus”
+signified to the ancients. In the general rush to the mines every other
+resource of the country was neglected, although soon after the conquest
+sheep and cattle were imported and agriculture was developed on a small
+scale, to meet the needs of the colonists. The Indians had fared little
+better on the farms than in the mines, under the atrocious system of
+_encomiendas_; and even after this was abolished, the landed
+proprietors evaded the law and exacted tribute from them, on their
+estates, the government also “farming out” the Indians to landowners
+under the provision which required one-seventh of the male population
+to work for the state.
+
+As was the case in all the Spanish colonies immediately after the
+conquest, the tillage of the soil became more particularly the
+occupation of the religious brotherhoods who settled in the new
+countries and constituted themselves the protectors and teachers of
+the Indians. In all the communities, or _parcialidades_, into
+which the Indian population was divided, the Church of Rome was
+represented by missionaries of the various orders, in addition to
+the ecclesiastical authorities of the government; and the missions
+established by the Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans, and other orders
+were the only civilizing agencies that reached the savages of the
+remote interior.
+
+Historians of the South American countries have never yet done justice
+to the noble work accomplished by the early missionaries of the Roman
+Catholic Church in behalf of the Indians. It is easy to look back upon
+their labor from the standpoint of twentieth century development,
+and point out where it was at fault and how the results failed to
+realize the highest purpose, but no one can deny the proofs of earnest
+zeal and devotion for the cause of Christianity that led these noble
+“pathfinders” of the Faith to bury themselves in the wilds of an
+unknown land, among savages who put little value on human life, and
+under the dangerous conditions of a tropical climate as unhealthy as
+pest and fever could make it. There could be no material compensation
+for the hardships and cares endured, and only the exalted spirit of
+the true missionary of the Cross could have been proof against the
+discouragements and disappointments, the loneliness and self-effacement
+which such a life inevitably signified. Later, when improved conditions
+lightened somewhat the burden, and a life of greater comfort was
+possible, the missionary spirit seemed to lose its original zeal, and
+many evils crept into the various systems. But, on the whole, the Roman
+Catholic missionary may claim the greatest honor for his important
+share in the Christianizing of the South American Indian.
+
+  [Illustration: TYPICAL DOORWAY, COLONIAL PERIOD, LA PAZ.]
+
+The Jesuits were among the first to establish their missions in
+the new colony, and chose as the initial field of their labors the
+shores of Lake Titicaca. With the marvellous organizing ability that
+characterized the order they quickly extended the sphere of their
+activity. They made a systematic study of the language of the Indians
+and prepared dictionaries for use in their propaganda. As early as
+1580, while the art of printing was still in its infancy and the
+printing press a most expensive luxury, this enterprising order was
+provided with a thorough equipment of types and machinery, and issued
+its own printed books and documents. The Franciscan brotherhood began
+its labors chiefly among the Chunchos of the Beni, and the Chiriguanos
+of the Chaco, and the record of the missions of Apolobamba and Tarija
+show that the missionaries’ zeal did more than the Spanish arms to
+effect the conquest of these provinces. Literature relating to the
+history of these missions is limited, though Bishop Armentia, of
+La Paz, is the author of several interesting works on the missions
+of Apolobamba in the departments of La Paz and the Beni, to which
+are added the records of the Franciscan College of Tarija, by the
+missionaries of that college, giving further information regarding
+the labors of Franciscan and other orders in this field. From these
+sources are obtained glimpses of the life of the pioneers of truth in
+the wilds of the New World that show wonderful examples of faith and
+patience. Sometimes a whole mission, after having been established at
+the cost of many lives, would be swept by fever or plague and almost
+totally destroyed, just at the moment when it seemed most flourishing.
+At other times a sudden uprising of savages would change a quiet pueblo
+into a scene of carnage and death. It was indeed taking their lives in
+their hands in those days for the missionaries to undertake the spread
+of the Gospel. Yet the various orders, Jesuit, Franciscan, Dominican,
+and Capuchin, worked zealously and persistently, until there is to-day
+hardly an Indian _choza_, or wigwam, that has not its crucifix
+and the image of the _Santissima Virgen_. So thoroughly have the
+missionaries done this work that they have interfered greatly with the
+progress of ethnologists in their efforts to trace the beliefs and
+traditions of the Indians back to a period earlier than that of Spanish
+occupation. These scientists complain that there is hardly a trace of
+Indian lore that is not marked with the influence of the missionaries’
+teaching, from the Caribbean Sea to Cape Horn, and from the Atlantic
+to the Pacific Ocean. Nearly all the grammars and dictionaries in
+existence, giving instruction in the languages of South American
+Indians, have been written by the missionaries of those regions, or by
+learned prelates who have at some time been engaged in work among them.
+Probably no student of his day has done more in this respect than the
+scholarly bishop already mentioned, who has contributed articles and
+books on every subject relating to the mission field in South America.
+His grammars and dictionaries of the Quichua, Aymará, and other tongues
+are standard works.
+
+While missionaries were following the arms of Spain into the forests
+or converting the Indians of the _parcialidades_ under the
+_mita_ régime, the welfare of the Spanish colonists in the cities
+was not neglected. The magnificent churches, convents, and schools,
+many of which still remain as wonders of colonial architecture, testify
+to the religious spirit that prevailed everywhere. Toward the close
+of the sixteenth and in the beginning of the seventeenth century the
+records of the Church shine with brilliant lustre. Three saints were
+added to the calendar: the devout pilgrim Francisco Solano, who, when
+passing through Chuquisaca in 1585, erected the four crosses that
+still mark the roads leading out of the city; the venerable Archbishop
+Toribio of Lima, whose good deeds are recounted to this day with
+reverence in the City of the Kings; and Saint Rose of Lima, the only
+saint of American birth and origin. La Paz was made a cathedral city in
+1605, also Misque in the same year; and Chuquisaca became the seat of
+the archbishopric of La Plata in 1609.
+
+  [Illustration: CONVENT OF SANTA TERESA, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+The great wealth displayed in the colonial churches, their massive
+construction, exquisitely carved doors, and richly furnished altars,
+impress all who visit them. It is not unusual to find in these old
+churches masterpieces of art, wood carving of the most elaborate and
+finished character, and whole altars, as well as their candlesticks,
+of solid silver. The Virgin of Guadalupe in Sucre, an image of solid
+gold, is covered with precious jewels worth a king’s ransom. The old
+doorway of the convent of San Francisco in La Paz, and of that of San
+Lorenzo in Potosí, are like patterns of lacework in delicacy of detail.
+The evidences of greatest wealth are seen in the old churches of Sucre
+and Potosí, as it was in these cities that colonial fortunes were most
+easily made. Sucre, as the capital of Charcas and the archiepiscopal
+see, was the social and political metropólis, while Potosí was the
+centre of commercial interest as the locality of the great silver
+mines.
+
+  [Illustration: PORTAL OF HOUSE BUILT BY MARQUIS DE OTAVI IN
+  POTOSÍ, SHOWING COAT OF ARMS.]
+
+All through the earlier years of the seventeenth century Potosí was the
+scene of sanguinary struggles between the Vicuñas and the Vascongados,
+who were engaged in fighting out a feud that had begun with the
+conquerors, when two opposing factions arrayed themselves against each
+other to compete for political power. The Vascongados, or Basques, had
+succeeded in securing nearly all the public offices; and the Vicuñas--a
+name given to the Basques’ opponents, the Castilians, Andalusians,
+and Creoles, who wore caps made of vicuña wool to distinguish their
+party--revolted against the unequal division of honors and declared war
+to the knife against their rivals. As the ranks of the Vicuñas were
+continually reinforced by Creole natives, this war gradually assumed
+the character of a struggle between Spaniards and native Americans,
+which continued for a hundred years and may be regarded as one of the
+influences tending toward the weakening of Spain’s prestige in this
+part of her colonial possessions. The resentment of the Vicuñas was
+inflamed by the evident disposition of the high Spanish authorities to
+protect the Vascongados in their increasing power. The leader of the
+Vicuñas, Alonzo Ibañez, was found guilty of a conspiracy to overthrow
+the royal authority, and was executed, together with his followers. His
+memory is held in reverence by the Bolivians as the first martyr to
+the cause of independence in America. An old-fashioned sun-dial in the
+_patio_ of the Mint in Potosí marks the spot on which Ibañez was
+sacrificed for his patriotism. This occurred two hundred years before
+Bolivia gained her freedom as a nation, but it marked only the first of
+a series of efforts of equal boldness, and, alas! of equally disastrous
+results, that succeeded one another all through the period of colonial
+rule. Some of these rebellions were started by the _cholos_, of
+mixed Spanish and Indian blood, and others by the Indians, under the
+leadership of the descendants of the Incas. In every case the origin of
+the uprising was an attempt on the part of the authorities to oppress
+still further the lower classes. About the middle of the seventeenth
+century the _cholos_ of La Paz revolted under Antonio Gallardo,
+killed the _corregidor_ and other officials, and, with the
+watchword “America for the Americans!”--which he sounded a hundred and
+fifty years before Monroe caught the inspiration,--led a “liberating
+army” to the attack of Puno, on the western shore of Lake Titicaca. He
+was killed in the battle of Puno, and his followers were hanged.
+
+The eighteenth century was as prolific of revolts as the seventeenth
+had been, and they were less easily quelled. Not all the power of the
+viceroy, supplemented by the Audiencia of Charcas, could repress the
+indignation of the people when they were goaded beyond endurance by
+injustices put upon them; and when an order came to Cochabamba that
+the _mestizos_, or _cholos_, were to be included with the
+Indians in the payment of tribute,--although it was afterward proved
+to be a false report,--the Cochabambans united in rebellion under the
+leadership of Alejo Calatayud and swore to “exterminate the Spaniards.”
+The municipality called a meeting, and proposed a settlement of the
+difficulty; and, as a result, it was agreed that the Creoles, the
+natives of the country, should be given preference in public offices
+and that no Spaniard should be permitted to act as _corregidor_.
+Calatayud was afterward treacherously taken prisoner at a banquet
+given in his honor, and put to a cruel death. These events coming to
+the ears of the viceroy, he immediately took steps to avoid future
+insurrections, wisely foreseeing the danger to Spanish power in such
+determined and persistent outbreaks.
+
+But the spirit of independence had illumined the minds and hearts of
+the oppressed, and it was not an easy matter for the authorities to
+extinguish it. A few years after the death of Calatayud a conspiracy
+was discovered in Oruro, headed by Juan Vela de Cordova, who had issued
+a _manifiesto_, or circular, to all the neighboring provinces,
+urging them to “throw off the Spanish yoke.” The conspirators were
+condemned to death; but their execution served only to increase
+sympathy with their cause, and the tide of insurrection swept into a
+deeper and wider channel. The names of Ibañez, Gallardo, Calatayud, and
+Vela de Cordova are revered in Bolivia as precursors of the American
+Independence. The last of them was executed more than a quarter of a
+century before the episode of the Boston Tea Party, which initiated the
+War of Independence in the United States.
+
+The impossibility of centralizing at Lima all the administration
+of the South American colonies became so evident to the Spanish
+government before the middle of the eighteenth century that steps
+were taken to divide these possessions into groups; and in 1740 the
+viceroyalty of Bogotá was created, followed in 1776 by the creation
+of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. The Audiencia of Charcas was
+separated from Lima and attached to Buenos Aires; so that, from this
+time until the establishment of the republic, Bolivian history was
+identified with that of Argentina, which hitherto had had no great
+political significance and was practically unknown to commerce except
+through its small seaport, Buenos Aires. In 1782 the territory of
+the Audiencia of Charcas was divided into four provinces, Chuquisaca,
+La Paz, Potosí, and Santa Cruz. Chuquisaca covered the jurisdiction
+of the archbishopric of La Plata; La Paz included, in addition to the
+territory of the bishopric, the provinces of Lampa, Carabaya, and
+Azangaro, which were afterward annexed to the Audiencia of Cuzco and
+now belong to Peru; Potosí was formed by the present department of that
+name, together with those of Atacama--which now belongs to Chile--and
+Tarija; and Santa Cruz comprised the present departments of Cochabamba
+and the Beni, in addition to what is now its own. Mojos and Chiquitos
+remained under the direct jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Charcas.
+The four provinces were ruled by _intendentes_ named by the king,
+and their sub-divided _partidos_ were governed by sub-delegates,
+appointed by the viceroy on the nomination of the _intendentes_,
+for a term of five years. The municipalities, or _cabildos_,
+composed of aldermen and presided over by the governor, or _jefe
+politico_, exercised the same functions as the municipal councils of
+the present day.
+
+  [Illustration: PANTHEON OF SAN BERNARDO, POTOSÍ, OLD COLONIAL
+  CEMETERY.]
+
+The viceroyalty of Buenos Aires had jurisdiction over the territory of
+the present republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. The
+first viceroy was Don Pedro de Zeballos y Cortez, followed two years
+later by the Viceroy Don Juan José de Vertiz, under whose rule occurred
+the last and most powerful revolts in the history of the colonial
+government. In 1780 the Catari brothers, three Indians of Alto Peru who
+had suffered injustice at the hands of the governor of their community,
+rose in revolt, and, securing a large following in Charcas, Oruro,
+Cochabamba, and La Paz, attacked the government. A fierce struggle took
+place between the forces sent out by the Audiencia and the desperate
+Indians. The Audiencia finally offered a premium of two thousand pesos
+for the head of each of the Cataris, and they were delivered up through
+the treachery of their own companions.
+
+But this was not the end. About this time an Indian outbreak occurred
+in Cuzco, under the leadership of Tupac-Amaru, a descendant of the
+Incas, who sent messages to the Cataris to join him. The messages
+fell into the hands of an Indian of Ayoayo, near La Paz, who took up
+the cause under the name of Tupac-Catari, and secured a following
+of eighty thousand men, with whom he marched on La Paz, besieging
+the city and holding it at his mercy during more than three months,
+until a force from the Audiencia came to its relief and the besiegers
+were obliged to retire. Meantime, a brother of Tupac-Amaru, with an
+army of fourteen thousand men, laid siege to Sorata, and destroyed
+it, with twenty thousand inhabitants, by breaking a dike that he had
+built to dam the streams descending from the summit of Mount Sorata,
+thus flooding the town. This was the last effort of the Inca’s
+unhappy people to secure their freedom; it cost the lives of about
+fifty thousand of their oppressors and more than that number among
+themselves. The same year a _cholo_, Sebastian Pagador, led a
+popular uprising in Oruro, but after a few promising successes he was
+met by defeat and suffered the extreme penalty with torture. The close
+of the eighteenth century witnessed events rapidly approaching the
+inevitable climax.
+
+Throughout the entire history of colonial rule in Alto Peru runs
+the record of struggles for freedom. It was an unequal fight, often
+amounting to little more than a determined protest against the
+injustice of a powerful master. But resistance and revolt under
+oppression are unmistakable signs of latent force, and are far more
+hopeful than the dull submission that marks the truly enslaved.
+Whatever may have been the condition of the people under the stern
+system of Spanish government, an inherent dignity was manifested even
+among those of humblest origin in their persistent efforts to secure
+their inalienable rights. Every lover of human liberty must feel a glow
+of pride in the splendid courage that could face such fearful odds as
+arrogant Spain presented to her downtrodden subjects in Alto Peru; and
+the pen must be tipped with divine fire to do justice to the records of
+heroism that culminated in the sacrifice of the immortal “promartyrs of
+the Independence.”
+
+  [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO CATHEDRAL, SUCRE.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE BATTALION CAMPERO ON PARADE IN SUCRE.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                      HISTORY OF THE INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+In Alto Peru alone, of all the South American colonies, the battle
+cry of freedom was, from first to last, an unequivocal and fearless
+declaration of independence. It is significant of the character and
+sentiment of the whole people that such an audacious stand was possible
+from the beginning. In all the other South American countries, loyalty
+to King Ferdinand of Spain, who had been deposed by the Bonapartes,
+was the pretext for resisting the authority of the viceroys. Even when
+the leaders of the revolution themselves favored complete emancipation
+they were obliged to disguise their ultimate purpose, as the masses
+were still too apathetic or too fearful to look upon the power of
+Spain as other than inevitable and eternal. They could not be brought
+so suddenly to strike for absolute freedom. It was the despair of the
+Venezuelan patriot Miranda that his beloved countrymen would not catch
+the inspiration of his noble purpose, and in Buenos Aires, Chile,
+Quito, it was first the declaration of loyalty to the Spanish crown and
+not a demand for independence that brought about the overthrow of the
+viceroys and the establishment of the patriot Juntas de Gobierno.
+
+  [Illustration: DON ANTONIO SUCRE, “GRAN MARISCAL DE AYACUCHO.”]
+
+Alto Peru probably suffered more than any other colony of Spain from
+injustice and oppression. Although its mines had yielded fabulous
+wealth to the royal treasury, it was the least favored of the Spanish
+provinces, the most neglected, and its people were the most barbarously
+treated. The cruel system of the _mita_ had so depopulated the
+Indian race that the few who remained were obliged to do more than
+human strength could endure in order to make up for the scarcity of
+laborers. In common with the rest of the colonies, it was prohibited to
+Alto Peru to cultivate anything that was grown in the mother country;
+commerce with foreign countries was forbidden; only Spaniards or
+their children could hold public office; merchandise was sold to the
+Indians by the _corregidores_, to whom they were always in debt;
+instruction was little more than a name, as no books were allowed in
+the country except books of devotion. A Bolivian writer on the history
+of his country says: “The natives of the country were excluded from
+all posts of honor and profit except when they were able to purchase
+them at the cost of large sums of money; so that out of one hundred and
+seventy viceroys, only four were born in the country; of six hundred
+and two captains-general, or presidents, fourteen were American; of
+five hundred and fifty bishops, five hundred were Europeans; political
+liberty was excluded from our soil.” In fact, the last thought,
+apparently, which the Spanish authorities gave to this province was
+that which concerned its well being, at least, until later years of
+colonial rule, when the warning given to Spain by the example of the
+British colonies in North America suggested the necessity for reforms,
+and a new commercial regulation was put in force, thirty-three ports
+were opened to foreign trade, and greater privileges were granted the
+natives of the country than formerly. But the reform came too late.
+Even the concession granted by the Council of Regency in 1810 to permit
+the colonies to send representatives to the Cortes could no longer stay
+the current of public opinion.
+
+Everyone is familiar with the story of Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and
+the capture and imprisonment of King Ferdinand in 1808, when Napoleon’s
+brother, Joseph Bonaparte, was placed on the Spanish throne, and a
+Council of Regency at Cadiz governed the affairs of the colonies. The
+effort of King Ferdinand’s sister, the Princess Carlota de Braganza,
+to usurp his dominions in America is only of interest in the history
+of the revolution of Alto Peru because it furnished a pretext for the
+decisive steps finally taken by the patriots to carry out a plan of
+campaign which they had been preparing in secret for a long time. An
+ambitious agent of the princess, Don José Manuel Goyeneche, who had
+been sent on a mission to interview the South American authorities in
+her favor, visited Chuquisaca in 1809, and succeeded in winning the
+president of the Audiencia and the bishop of the diocese as allies
+of the princess. The right of the _oidores_ to a voice in this
+matter was ignored, and those who declared their opposition were
+promptly ordered to prison. Though the order was fulfilled in the case
+of only one of them, and the president was dismissed from office and
+imprisoned for his share in the affair, the patriots saw in this event
+an opportunity to spread the gospel of freedom more openly, and a few
+devoted apostles set out to make a propaganda of liberty throughout the
+country. Among them were the intrepid leaders of the revolution which
+was installed the following year in Buenos Aires, Cornelio Saavedra,
+who became president of the junta there, Bernardo Monteagudo, and
+Manuel Moreno.
+
+The revolution inaugurated on the plateau of Alto Peru on the memorable
+16th of July, 1809,--the echoes of which will not cease to vibrate
+in the heart of the Bolivian nation as long as a patriot lives to
+love his native land,--was not the result of a sudden impulse, but
+the natural outcome of deliberate and persistent determination. For
+years the leaven had been working, until there was not a pueblo whose
+inhabitants were ignorant of the approaching crisis or unwilling to
+fight for the cause. In their various uprisings throughout the whole
+period of colonial rule, the people had been unconsciously preparing
+to initiate one of the greatest patriotic movements in the history of
+modern times. With the first years of the nineteenth century, definite
+indications of the tendency of affairs began to appear; and from
+memoirs written during that period it has been proved that as early
+as 1798 the inhabitants of La Paz “meditated the independence of the
+whole continent, and communicated this project to various cities of the
+kingdom, in every one of which it found patriots ready to undertake the
+enterprise.”
+
+  [Illustration: CROWDS THRONGING COUNTRY ROADS ON THEIR WAY TO
+  JOIN A PATRIOTIC CELEBRATION IN LA PAZ.]
+
+La Paz was singularly fitted to be the theatre of the opening scene in
+this drama of liberty. Remote from the chief seat of Spanish authority,
+out of close range of the Audiencia’s power, the spirit of independence
+had been fostered by the tolerance, if not actual complicity, of its
+governor, in whose house members of the revolutionary clubs from
+various parts of the country were frequently entertained. These clubs
+were the organizing headquarters of the patriots in Chuquisaca, La Paz,
+Potosí, Cochabamba, and other cities, and it was their combined effort
+which installed the revolution in La Paz, by the issuing, in the name
+of the Junta Tuitiva, of a proclamation which clearly shows the object
+and scope of the patriots’ programme.
+
+The history of the revolution of La Paz displays constant evidence of
+the energy, ability, and patriotic ardor of its chief, the president
+of the Junta Tuitiva, Don Pedro Domingo Murillo, the first of the
+“promartyrs of the Independence.” The events of this revolution,
+which was so important in the annals of the Bolivian nation, as the
+spark that ignited the continent in a flame of patriotic war, have
+been recorded by one of Bolivia’s foremost writers, Don José Rosendo
+Gutierrez, from whose gifted pen the story appears, with all the charm
+that a graceful literary style lends to the relation of glorious
+episodes.
+
+The important crisis, so long awaited, came at seven o’clock in
+the evening of July 16, 1809. The conspirators, at whose head were
+Murillo, Indaburu, and Graneros, took possession of the quartel and
+imprisoned the governor. Assembled in open Cabildo, Drs. Gregorio
+Garcia Lanza, Juan Bautista Sagárnaga, and Basilio Catacora were named
+representatives of the people and admitted and recognized as such. The
+first act was the Declaration of Independence, which ran: “In the noble
+and valorous city of Our Lady of La Paz, at eight o’clock at night,
+on the 16th of July, 1809, assembled in the Salon of the Cabildo, the
+undersigned, in the name of the people, declare and swear to defend
+with their blood and fortune the independence of the country.” The
+signers constituted themselves a Junta Tuitiva, of which Pedro Domingo
+Murillo was elected president. It was organized as a separate body from
+the Cabildo, in this way avoiding the confusion from which the Buenos
+Aires junta suffered later through its ill-defined relation to that
+corporation.
+
+The Junta Tuitiva of La Paz made the first effort in South America
+toward democratic government in accordance with republican ideas. Its
+laws were inspired by motives of democracy and brotherhood; and one of
+its first acts was to give to the race which had been disinherited by
+the conqueror a voice in the new government, by appointing an Indian to
+the junta from each district. Perpetual alliance was sworn to between
+the European Spaniards and the Americans. Its proclamation is a proof
+of the courage and sincerity of its authors:
+
+“Until now we have tolerated a kind of exile in the very bosom of
+our own country; we have seen with indifference for more than three
+centuries our primitive liberty submitted to the despotism and tyranny
+of an unjust usurper, who, degrading us below human kind, has reputed
+us to be savages and looked upon us as slaves; we have kept a silence
+very like the stupidity which was attributed to us, suffering with
+tranquillity that the merit of the Americans should be always a sure
+presage of their humiliation and their ruin. It is high time, then,
+to shake off a yoke so fatal to our happiness. It is high time to
+organize a new system of government, founded on the interest of this
+our country, which has been so depressed by the spurious politics of
+Madrid. It is high time, in short, to raise the standard of liberty
+in these unfortunate colonies, acquired without the least title and
+conserved with the greatest injustice and tyranny.”
+
+Commenting on the proclamation of the junta, Señor Gutierrez says:
+“This was not all of the programme of July. If there had been nothing
+more than the document mentioned, the aspiration toward independence
+would have been reduced to a mere insurrection. But the programme
+of emancipation came united with the social reorganization of the
+continent. It insinuated the ideas of democracy and the civil
+constitution. The programme of July was not only the _despedida_
+of the day previous: the placing of the cornerstone in the edifice of
+the day following.”
+
+The sad history of the unequal fight between the few heroic patriots
+and the trained army sent to meet them by the Viceroy of Peru; the
+unfortunate quarrels between the revolutionary leaders at a moment
+when united strength was indispensable; the antagonism of the Bishop
+of La Paz, whose anathemas frightened the superstitious Indians and
+half-breeds out of the patriots’ ranks; all the events that conspired
+to bring about the disastrous defeat, capture, and final execution of
+Murillo and his followers, only serve to show what a bitter struggle
+was to be expected before final victory could be hoped for. But the
+promartyrs “blazed the trail” and opened a pathway toward liberty which
+would later direct the eager footsteps of millions. When the patriot
+Murillo, humble of origin, but of great intelligence and a noble heart,
+said his farewell from the scaffold on January 29, 1810, exclaiming,
+in the words of another martyr: “The torch which I have lighted shall
+never be extinguished,” he made a prophecy which time has amply
+justified and verified.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL PEDRO DOMINGO MURILLO, THE FATHER OF
+  BOLIVIAN INDEPENDENCE.]
+
+Four months after the death of Murillo, the patriots, Saavedra,
+Monteagudo, Moreno, and others, who had gone from Chuquisaca,
+Cochabamba, and Potosí to stir up the revolution in Buenos Aires and
+secure aid for their countrymen, had an army already equipped and on
+the march to Alto Peru. With General Cornelio Saavedra as president,
+the Buenos Aires junta had been organized, the viceroy deposed, and
+a strong revolutionary party, in which General Belgrano and other
+Argentine leaders were prominent, had pledged itself to lend assistance
+to continue the fight so heroically begun on the heights of La Paz.
+Undaunted by the brutal message sent to his Bolivian general by the
+Viceroy of Peru, “that the Americans had been born to be slaves and
+to vegetate in obscurity and depression,” the auxiliary army from
+Buenos Aires, under the command of Balcarce, Diaz Velez, and Castelli,
+advanced six thousand strong to meet the viceroy’s troops under Nieto,
+Córdova, and Basagoitia on the field of Suipacha. After an hour of
+hard fighting the patriots won the day, and the royalist leaders
+were shot, to avenge the cruelty shown the year before to the La Paz
+patriots, when eighty-six of their number were put to death or exiled
+to celebrate the victory over Murillo. Meantime, a revolution in
+Cochabamba had resulted in a triumph for the patriots; and the leaders,
+Manuel Esteban Arze and Melchor Guzman Quiton marched on Oruro with a
+force of one thousand five hundred men, meeting the royalists at Aroma
+and completely defeating them. This was the first patriot victory on
+the Bolivian Plateau, and it was after this battle that the Buenos
+Aires _Gazette_ wrote: “Alto Peru will be free because Cochabamba
+wills it so.” The royalist forces sent by the Viceroy of Peru to combat
+the revolutionists in Alto Peru and Argentina were under the command
+of the same Goyeneche who had treacherously sought to overthrow the
+existing authority in favor of the Princess of Braganza. It was by his
+orders that the wholesale slaughter of the vanquished had taken place
+in La Paz in 1809, and it was his ignoble part to bring defeat and
+disaster to the auxiliary army by violating an armistice of forty days
+and suddenly invading the camp at Guaqui on June 20, 1811. The patriots
+were forced to retreat, the Cochabamba cavalry, under Francisco
+del Rivero, coming to the rescue too late to save the situation.
+The auxiliary army was broken up, Castelli and Balcarce retired to
+Chuquisaca, and Diaz Velez joined Rivero later in Cochabamba. Goyeneche
+pursued his advantage as far as Cochabamba, where, by great superiority
+in number and military training, his troops were able to defeat the
+inexperienced and poorly armed inhabitants. His victory was celebrated
+with crime and rapine for the space of three days, after which a
+military tribunal was held to punish the revolutionists, many of whom
+were condemned to death. Meantime, a second auxiliary army from Buenos
+Aires, under the command of General Belgrano, met the royalists at
+Tucuman, September 24, 1812, and again at Salta, February 20, 1813,
+completely defeating them in both engagements, and obliging their
+leader, Pio Tristan, to swear “never again to take up arms against
+the patriots.” Goyeneche having satiated his taste for cruelty in
+Cochabamba set out for Potosí, but on learning of the approach of
+Belgrano’s army, he turned his four thousand troops hastily toward
+Oruro, and asked his retirement. The viceroy sent General Joaquin
+Pezuela to take Goyeneche’s place.
+
+The auxiliary army, stimulated by victory, advanced toward Oruro to
+engage Pezuela’s forces and secure a stronghold for the patriots on
+the plateau, but, taken at a disadvantage, it was defeated after
+stubborn fighting at Vilcapugio and Ayuma. Pursued by Pezuela, Belgrano
+was forced to retreat beyond the Argentine border and once more the
+royalists held complete sway in Alto Peru. The “reign of terror” which
+followed was so ruthless that thousands of patriots fled to Argentina
+to escape the royalist vengeance. Yet the spirit of revolution was not
+subdued, and in the midst of defeat, persecution, and death, an ardent
+patriot of the south, Don Juan Antonio Alvarez de Arenales, assembling
+the remnant of the defeated army of Ayuma, marched on to Cochabamba
+and Santa Cruz, and retiring to Vallegrande, succeeded in organizing
+an army of four thousand strong. Pezuela sent Don Joaquin Blanco to
+meet Arenales and an engagement took place on the field of La Florida,
+resulting in an overwhelming victory for the patriots, May 12, 1814.
+Blanco died on the battlefield. But, although the news of the victory
+at La Florida was encouraging, it was not sufficient to make up for the
+disastrous defeats of Belgrano’s army.
+
+To a people less tenacious of purpose, the apparent hopelessness of the
+situation, after the battle of Ayuma, would have brought despondency;
+but the valiant heroes who held freedom worth undying effort, were not
+to be turned aside from their purpose by defeat. When they could no
+longer march with an army into the field, they formed themselves into
+patriot bands all over the country and carried on a system of guerrilla
+warfare that harassed the enemy on all sides. Indomitable warriors,
+they set up the standard of their “Republiquetas,” as Bartolomé Mitre
+calls them, in the cañons of Ayopaya and Omasuyos to the north; in
+Chayanta, which dominated the routes between Oruro, Cochabamba, and
+Chuquisaca; in Mizque, surrounding Cochabamba and communicating with
+Santa Cruz and Vallegrande; in Cinti and Porco, extending to Tarija and
+the Chaco. In each of these guerrilla centres there were innumerable
+small bands led by various chiefs, all more or less under the guidance
+of a few principals, whose names are honored by posterity for the
+splendid records of bravery they perpetuate. In the north were Don José
+Miguel Lanza and the indomitable Muñecas; in the central districts,
+Arenales and Arze; in the east, Warnes and Mercado; and in the south
+the valorous Padilla, the brave Camargo, Zarate, and Betanzos. After
+reading the story of their skilful art of war, their unwavering
+courage and unflinching patriotism, one cannot help deploring the
+circumstances which prevented their combining in the open field to
+overthrow the enemy whom they so continually harassed and outwitted.
+Even their defeats shed glory on the national spirit, undaunted in
+the face of death, unconquered on the scaffold. Mitre extols the
+_guerrilleros_ in unmeasured terms, and the Chilean historian,
+Sotomayor Valdez, says: “Out of the one hundred and two leaders, more
+or less obscure, only nine survived the fifteen years’ struggle which
+followed the defeat at Viloma of the third auxiliary army, commanded
+by General Rondeau, on November 29, 1815. The remaining ninety-three
+perished in the battlefield or on the gallows, and there was not a
+single capitulation.”
+
+One of the most renowned of the guerrilla chiefs was Don Manuel
+Ascension Padilla, whose military genius and devoted patriotism were
+unsurpassed. He was highly esteemed by General Belgrano for his
+services to the auxiliary army, and by Don Esteban Arze, who conferred
+on him the title of _commandante_. Dr. Valentin Abecia, in an
+interesting biography of this guerrilla chief, compares him to Morelos
+of Mexico, and regards him as one of the greatest figures among the
+heroes of the Independence, “a hero with the soul of a child and the
+heart of a lion.” And no one thinks of the warrior without at once
+calling to mind the noble woman who fought by his side, Doña Juana de
+Padilla, his devoted and beautiful wife. “The Padillas” are enshrined
+among the dearest memories of the long fight for freedom in Alto Peru;
+and if “Don Manuel” was admired for his military skill, “Doña Juana”
+was beloved for her tenderness to the sick and wounded. The Indians
+adored her “like the image of the Virgin.” In the field, as well as in
+the camp, she was her husband’s ally and helper, and after his death
+she continued to fight in the sacred cause until independence was won.
+According to the _Revista Nacional_, of Buenos Aires, she took
+part in seventeen combats, commanded a battalion at Viloma, and was
+wounded at Villar, where her husband was killed; she was given the
+title of acting lieutenant-colonel by the Argentine government.
+
+  [Illustration: REVIEWING TROOPS IN THE AVENUE ARCE, LA PAZ.]
+
+Padilla was among the first of the patriots to insist upon a separate
+constitution for his country, feeling that the revolutionists of Buenos
+Aires were disposed to show scant consideration for the interests of
+Alto Peru in their treatment of this part of the junta’s territory. He
+expressed this sentiment in a letter to General Rondeau in 1815, to the
+great disgust of that officer. After repeated and futile efforts on
+the part of the royalists to capture Padilla, while he eluded them on
+every side, besieged Chuquisaca for a whole month, and brought despair
+to the viceroy’s troops, a battle took place at Villar on September 14,
+1816. Both sides fought with fury, a thousand victims falling without
+any sign of yielding on either side, when suddenly Padilla fell dead,
+pierced by a sabre; and his faithful followers lost heart for the
+fray, suffering their first and only defeat. They were taken prisoners
+and barbarously put to death.
+
+The guerrilla chief Lanza, one of the most audacious and cunning of
+them all, led the royalists a “wild goose chase” among the mountains of
+Ayopaya, without giving them a single advantage. Camargo was no less
+successful in guerrilla tactics, until through treachery he was killed,
+with eight hundred of his followers, and his head sent on a pike to
+Pezuela in token of a famous capture. Warnes, the daring “border chief”
+of Santa Cruz, fell in a battle with the enemy, after his men had
+killed two thousand eight hundred royalists out of an army of three
+thousand. The victorious general ordered the execution of nine hundred
+patriots, of all ages and both sexes, to soothe his vengeance. Muñecas,
+the curate whose patriotism was no less active than his piety, was
+captured after brave resistance, and assassinated while on his way to
+trial. History teems with examples of the tenacity and boldness with
+which the _guerrilleros_ fought to the end.
+
+On July 9, 1816, the Congress of Tucuman declared the independence of
+the Argentine provinces. Several notable patriots of Alto Peru were in
+the assembly, among others Pedro Carrasco, president of the congress,
+and Pedro Ignacio Rivero, Cochabambans; and José Mariano Serrano,
+secretary of the congress, who edited the Act of Independence of
+Argentina, and Mariano Sanchez Loria, Chuquisacans. The important rôle
+played by the patriots of Alto Peru in the organization and development
+of the revolutionary party of Buenos Aires, and the framing of the
+Argentine constitution, was due, in great part, to the educational
+advantages which Alto Peru offered at that time in the celebrated
+universities of Chuquisaca and Carolina, which were among the first in
+Spanish America.
+
+One of the first acts of the Argentine government after the assembly
+of the Congress of Tucuman was to send a fourth auxiliary army into
+Alto Peru. General Pezuela had been appointed Viceroy of Peru, and had
+sent General Ramirez to take his place in the command of the royalist
+army. After six months, Ramirez was replaced by General La Serna, who
+came from Spain with officers and soldiers of very different calibre
+from those who had sacked and plundered the country under Goyeneche and
+Pezuela. But General La Serna remained only long enough to realize the
+horrible condition in which his predecessors had left the people, and
+then resigned his command in favor of General Ramirez, who returned to
+the field in time to meet the fourth Argentine army of patriots, under
+La Madrid. The royalists, led by one of Ramirez’s officers, Captain
+Andrés Santa Cruz, who became president of the republic of Bolivia
+later, fought the auxiliary army in two engagements, resulting in a
+final victory for the royalists, June 24, 1817. Thus, the fourth effort
+of the Argentine revolutionists to help the cause in Alto Peru proved
+as disastrous a failure as the three preceding, and the fight was again
+left to the _guerrilleros_, to whom was chiefly due whatever
+the patriot cause gained during the long fifteen years’ struggle. So
+exasperating were their tactics, and so effective their methods, that
+one of the royalist generals was forced to exclaim, with more fervor
+than hope: _Esta guerra es eterna!_--“This war is eternal!”
+Olañeta, sent by the viceroy to conquer Lanza, wrote to his chief:
+“Lanza sustained the fight with infernal obstinacy!”
+
+The four years of guerrilla warfare that followed the defeat of the
+last auxiliary army from Buenos Aires made a continuous record of
+alternating successes and defeats. Olañeta, named general of division
+of the royalists, fought a wearisome series of engagements with the
+various guerrilla leaders, gaining little or nothing in spite of
+the superior number and experience of his troops. General Valdez,
+who had charge of the garrisons of Oruro and La Paz, was thoroughly
+disheartened. The outlook seemed to justify the exclamation: “This war
+is eternal.”
+
+In July, 1821, the news came from Lima which gave promise of the rapid
+approach of a crisis in the affairs of Alto Peru. The great liberating
+army of Chile and Argentina, under the command of General San Martin,
+had disembarked in Pisco; his squadron had captured the best Spanish
+ships in the harbor of Callao; the patriots were now in possession of
+Lima, the viceroy having fled from the capital, and the independence of
+Peru was assured in a proclamation bearing the date of July 28, 1821.
+Meantime, La Serna had been appointed viceroy to replace Pezuela.
+
+The general rejoicing with which the devoted patriots of Alto Peru
+received the glad tidings of the arrival of San Martin’s conquering
+hosts may well be imagined. In all the chief cities there were meetings
+of the revolutionists, and new courage animated the hearts of the whole
+people. Early in August of 1823, an army of six thousand men, commanded
+by General Andrés Santa Cruz, who had joined the patriot cause, was
+sent by the junta of Lima to establish the independence of Alto Peru.
+General Santa Cruz was accompanied by Augustin Gamarra, who commanded
+one-half of the division.
+
+With the arrival of the liberating troops, the famous _guerrilleros_
+joined the ranks and fought with new zeal in the cause to which
+they had given all their energy for fifteen long years. One cannot
+help smiling with satisfaction upon reading that Olañeta, who had
+received special instructions from the viceroy a few years before “to
+conquer the guerrilla chief Lanza at all hazards,” fled precipitately
+in January, 1825, at the notice of the approaching troops of the
+independent army “commanded by General José Miguel Lanza!”
+
+On the fifteenth anniversary of the martyrdom which the first patriots
+of the Independence suffered in the plaza of La Paz, at the same
+hour which had witnessed their execution, the last of the Spanish
+authorities evacuated the city, January 29, 1825. The same day, the
+Independent Army of Alto Peru, commanded by General José Miguel Lanza,
+brother of the martyred patriot, made its solemn entry into the city;
+and on the following day General Lanza read the proclamation of Alto
+Peru’s independence, and, in the name and with the authority of General
+Bolivar and General Sucre, he assumed command of the province of La
+Paz, with the title of “president,” which was equivalent to that of
+“prefect.” What more fitting than that the noble veteran of the cause,
+who had sustained it through good fortune and evil, in the army ranks
+and on the guerrilla hunts, the famous warrior who had won and lost
+with equal equanimity and had never grown disheartened, should be the
+chosen patriot to issue the proclamation of national independence!
+
+The war of independence was ended. The record of final victory had
+been sealed on the battlefield of Ayacucho, on December 9, 1824, when
+General Antonio José de Sucre, who commanded the liberating army in
+the absence of his chief, General Simon Bolivar, swept away the last
+shred of hope harbored by the royalists, and realized forever the
+liberty of America from European domination. The meeting in Lima of
+the two great liberators of South America, San Martin of the Chile
+and Argentine army and Bolivar of the Colombian, had resulted in the
+withdrawal of San Martin from the field, leaving Bolivar in possession,
+as dictator, a title bestowed upon him by the Congress of Lima. The
+first victory of Bolivar’s troops over those of the Viceroy La Serna
+was on the field of Junin, near Cerro de Pasco, where the royalist
+general Canterac was completely defeated and put to flight. Bolivar
+then returned to Lima, leaving General Sucre in command of the army,
+which met the viceroy in the decisive battle of Ayacucho. The Spanish
+troops were overthrown and the viceroy was taken prisoner. General
+Sucre, with the magnanimity that characterized him, conceded an
+honorable capitulation to the vanquished, authorizing facilities for
+their embarking to return to Spain.
+
+  [Illustration: MONUMENT TO GENERAL SUCRE IN THE ALAMEDA, LA
+  PAZ.]
+
+The capitulation of Ayacucho is thus described by the Bolivian
+historian, Luis M. Guzman: “The victory of Ayacucho had broken the
+Spanish yoke. Great were the losses of that memorable day. The viceroy
+La Serna had fallen wounded and a prisoner at the beginning of the
+combat. The lieutenant-general Canterac, as the remaining chief of
+the royalist army, hastened to formulate on the very field of battle
+the eighteen articles in which is comprehended the capitulation of
+Ayacucho. In them the Spanish general proposes to save the honor of
+his arms; to secure the persons and properties of Spanish subjects;
+to guarantee the civil and military posts of those who may wish
+to serve in the independent army; to facilitate the departure of
+troops returning voluntarily to Spain, and to provide for their
+transportation; to give full amnesty for their political opinions. The
+vanquished royalists were permitted to dictate the conditions of peace,
+which were admitted with few modifications by the victorious patriots.
+Thus General Sucre triumphed twice over his enemies. His valor
+overthrew them on the field of battle; his heroic generosity disarmed
+them with gratitude. A more exigent conqueror would have turned against
+himself the arm of despair, which might still have proved fatal for the
+independent army, because of the numerous royalist troops and garrisons
+that yet remained at various points of upper and lower Peru.”
+
+General Sucre signed two copies of the capitulation, one of which
+is preserved in the archives of Madrid. The other, from which the
+photograph was made to illustrate this chapter, is a valued possession
+of Señora Hortensia Gutierrez de Pinilla, the wife of Bolivia’s foreign
+minister, and daughter of one of its foremost scholars. It is treasured
+with patriotic pride, and occupies the place of honor in the library of
+her beautiful home in La Paz, where it hangs beside a portrait of the
+“Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho.”
+
+The victorious army of the Independence, with General Sucre at its
+head, marched from the battlefield of Ayacucho to Cuzco and thence, by
+way of Lake Titicaca and the Desaguadero River, to La Paz. When the
+news of its approach to La Paz was heralded abroad, the city went wild
+with joy. For miles around the scene was one of animated expectancy.
+A committee of distinguished citizens, headed by General Lanza and
+Casimiro Olañeta,--the latter a nephew of the royalist leader,--met
+the conquering hero a few leagues out of the city and welcomed him
+on behalf of the nation. On February 7, 1825, he made his triumphal
+entrance, amid the jubilant acclamations of the people, under arches
+of victory garlanded with roses, and through streets gaily decorated
+with flags and banners bearing mottoes of eulogy. At the plaza the
+hero paused, to pay a tribute to the memory of Murillo and the other
+martyred patriots of 1809; and as tears came to his eyes in the
+contemplation of the scene, now gay with the joyous manifestations
+of a free people, once sad in the shadow of the gallows on which the
+nation’s brave sons were sacrificed, the impressive moment created a
+sudden stillness, broken again immediately by a burst of cheers and
+shouts from the enthusiastic multitude. Feasting, music, and dancing
+reigned throughout the city; and the visitors were entertained with
+balls, soirées, and banquets for a month. Two days after his arrival,
+General Sucre issued a decree convoking a national assembly in Oruro
+to determine the future government of the country. In March he set out
+to visit the interior, leaving a division of his army in La Paz under
+command of General José Maria Córdova. In every city his arrival was
+the signal for general rejoicing.
+
+The first national assembly met in Chuquisaca in June, 1825. To General
+Sucre belongs the honor of having been the prime organizer of the
+republic, and the best beloved of its leaders. In the hall where the
+first national assembly met hangs the portrait of the grand-marshal
+of Ayacucho, and the words of his testament: “Still another reward I
+ask of the entire nation and of its administrators: not to destroy the
+work of my creation; to preserve, amid all dangers, the independence
+of Bolivia.” And the last words of their liberator have been made the
+watchword of the nation.
+
+  [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL TREATY OF AYACUCHO,
+  WHICH SEALED THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE FROM SPAIN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL TREATY OF AYACUCHO,
+  WHICH SEALED THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE FROM SPAIN.]
+
+  [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL TREATY OF AYACUCHO,
+  WHICH SEALED THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE FROM SPAIN.]
+
+During the deliberations of the first congress two despatches were
+received of portentous significance. One came from the International
+Congress of La Plata, leaving to the provinces of Alto Peru perfect
+freedom to constitute themselves an independent republic, although
+they had been a part of the viceroyalty of La Plata under the colonial
+régime. The other was a high-handed message from General Bolivar,
+declaring Alto Peru subject to the authority of the Congress of Lima,
+and ordering the Congress of Chuquisaca to suspend its sessions.
+Indignation blazed up fiercely at the unwarrantable attitude of the
+great liberator in thus summarily disposing of the destiny of a
+free and independent people who had given the best blood of the country
+to secure its sovereign freedom. The fiery and eloquent Olañeta, the
+_guerrillero_ Lanza, and others, protested in vigorous terms
+against any such despotism, and, overriding Bolivar’s proclamation, a
+unanimous vote declared that Alto Peru, “which, on the South American
+continent, had been the altar on which was spilled the first blood of
+the free and the tomb in which lay buried the last of the tyrants,”
+constituted a sovereign state, “independent of all nations, both of
+the Old and the New World, to be governed by its own people and ruled
+by the constitution, laws, and authorities which they should believe
+most conducive to the future happiness of the nation.” The president
+of the assembly, Don José Mariano Serrano,--the illustrious patriot
+who, as secretary of the Congress of Tucuman nine years before, had,
+as we have seen, edited the first constitution of the Argentine
+republic,--wrote the Act of Independence of Bolivia, which bears the
+date of August 6, 1825. The new state took the name Bolivar, afterward
+changed to Bolivia, in honor of the great liberator, and for its
+government adopted the republican unitarian system. Chuquisaca was
+made the provisional capital, under the name of Sucre, to commemorate
+the part taken in the national organization of the new republic by the
+great Bolivar’s most distinguished general. Also, with that discretion
+which is the better part of valor, in order to avoid a conflict with
+Bolivar, a deputation was sent by the congress to convey to that
+general assurances of gratitude and esteem in recognition of his great
+service to the cause of independence, and to offer his excellency the
+presidency of the new republic which had been named in his honor. It
+was a diplomatic stroke that won the heart of the liberator--a man not
+without vanity.
+
+General Sucre returned to La Paz to meet General Bolivar, who arrived
+on the 18th of August, 1825, amid such demonstrations of enthusiasm
+as had never before been witnessed in that city. It was the first
+meeting between Bolivar and Sucre since they had parted after the
+battle of Junin, and the scene was an affecting one, as was also
+Bolivar’s inspired eulogy of the noble troops who had won the day at
+Ayacucho. The victorious regiment, dressed in full parade uniform in
+honor of the arrival of the commander-in-chief, was the first to greet
+General Bolivar upon his arrival at the _Altos_, the heights
+above the city. Under the gallant escort of his beloved troops the
+liberator descended, surrounded by an admiring multitude, who pressed
+so eagerly on the advancing hero that the procession could only make
+slow progress, enthusiastic _vivas_ continually ringing out from
+the midst of the jubilant crowds. At the entrance to the city, where a
+grand triumphal gateway had been erected, a golden key was presented
+to the liberator by two citizens, who thanked him in the name of the
+people for the eminent services he had rendered the cause of liberty.
+Opening the gates with impressive ceremony he passed into the city,
+and was received by the municipal authorities with the honor due to
+such a distinguished guest. In the principal plaza, now the Plaza
+Murillo, General Bolivar addressed his army with the affection and
+pride that a great leader feels when he stands in the presence of
+faithful followers who have successfully carried out his plans, upon
+which depended not only the welfare of the nation, but the glory of
+his own name in the records of posterity. Napoleon felt the sentiment
+when he eulogized his magnificent army. Bolivar felt it when he stood
+in the midst of the serried troops that filled the plaza Murillo, and,
+in a voice that thrilled by its magnetic quality and fascinated by its
+eloquence, expressed in a few words his appreciation and admiration
+of their loyal services to the cause of patriotism. From his heart he
+spoke: “Soldiers! At last the moment that I have longed for has come,
+to salute and embrace you with the affection which I feel and which
+you deserve, after your glorious and marvellous deeds on the field
+of Ayacucho, whose victory, bestowing upon you imperishable fame and
+renown, has crowned your generous efforts in favor of the liberty of
+America. The strength, valor, constancy, and loyalty with which you
+have fulfilled your vow to save America from its tyrants and oppressors
+are sufficient merits upon which to enter the temple of immortality and
+glory, and to rest there from the fatigues of the illustrious campaign
+which you have just ended, defeating and annihilating the hosts of
+tyrants who for three centuries dared to stain the soil of America
+with their accursed footprints! Soldiers! Finished the memorable task
+that has finally brought us to the feet of yonder colossus [Illimani],
+which at this moment looks down upon you as if in proud contemplation,
+we shall constitute these provinces free, and we shall leave them in
+possession of their political and social rights. May their happiness
+be as genuine and their liberty as true as the aspirations of the
+Liberating Army and of your general!”
+
+The Colombian troops were deeply moved while listening to the voice
+of their beloved general; and as soon as the last words were spoken,
+they broke into enthusiastic cheers, and shouts of _Viva el General
+Bolivar!_ were repeated on all sides. General Sucre responded in
+behalf of the army, and then, in the name of the city of La Paz,
+presented a gold chain to the liberator, attempting to put it over
+his head as a token of admiration and esteem, “woven by the hands
+of Liberty and Victory for their best-beloved son, the genius of
+Colombia, the hero of South America.” Bolivar resisted, and placed
+the chain around Sucre’s neck, saying: “He it was who gave liberty to
+Peru on the field of Ayacucho;” to which the modest victor replied:
+“Your name alone made me conquer at Ayacucho!” It must have been a
+pretty exhibition of the politeness so characteristic of the race,
+and altogether appropriate between two such distinguished heroes. The
+author of this description, Don Luis Crespo, says the chain was finally
+given by General Sucre to his chief of division, José Maria Córdova.
+
+General Bolivar received with great ceremony the deputation from the
+national assembly; and after accepting at their hands the supreme
+gift of the nation, which he eulogized as his _hija predilecta_,
+“best-beloved daughter,” he left La Paz on September 20, 1825, in
+company with General Sucre and a part of his army, and proceeded to the
+capital, where his welcome was one worthy of the city which had been
+for nearly three centuries the metropolis of social and intellectual
+culture in Alto Peru.
+
+With the arrival of Bolivar in Sucre, and his inauguration as first
+president of the republic of Bolivia, closes the “storm and stress”
+period that had lasted throughout the long war of independence. After
+having been the first to start the patriotic movement in South America,
+and the first to promulgate its doctrines in the sister province of
+La Plata,--which owed the organization of its revolutionary junta and
+the preparation of its first republican constitution to the genius
+of patriots of Alto Peru,--this long-suffering nation finally reaped
+the reward of its labors, though it was the last to benefit by the
+blessings of a free and independent government. But when the dawn of
+a new life broke over its hills and lighted its valleys with the joy
+of hope, the sun shone out all the clearer to brighten the day of
+its birth as an independent nation, because of the shadows that had
+enveloped the night before.
+
+  [Illustration: GROUP OF CAVALRY ON THE ALTOS OF LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: REGIMENT OF CAVALRY ON PARADE IN SUCRE.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+                      PROGRESS UNDER THE REPUBLIC
+
+
+Amid the joyous acclaims of a grateful people, who heralded him
+as the “Father of the Republic” and its “Protector,” Bolivar was
+inaugurated first President of Bolivia in the month of November, 1825,
+the young republic thus enjoying the prestige of having at the head
+of its government the hero whom all the world delighted to honor, the
+victorious chief of the army that had crushed the last remnant of
+Spanish power in South America, the invincible “Liberator,” the “George
+Washington of South American independence.”
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL JOSÉ MANUEL PANDO, PRESIDENT,
+  1900–1904.]
+
+With characteristic energy and execution, President Bolivar essayed
+to guide the first steps of his _hija predilecta_ in the path of
+national progress and development. But military genius is not always
+associated with the qualities most desirable in the executive chief of
+a nation, and Bolivar was the brilliant soldier rather than the keen
+statesman. His administration was marked by an effort to accomplish
+more than could possibly be done with deliberation. Although he
+remained only a few months in the country to which he had been called
+as president for life, relinquishing the high office in January, 1826,
+to return to Lima, Peru, he instituted innumerable political and
+administrative reforms in that short time, as the national historian
+remarks, “with marked precipitation.” From Lima he sent a draft of the
+constitution, which was adopted by Congress. The limits of the new
+republic, as fixed by Bolivar, left much to be desired, and seemed
+a scant recognition of the noble part played by this brave people
+in the great war which had begun and ended on its patriotic soil;
+and although the country owes a debt of gratitude to the heroic but
+capricious soldier and legislator whose name it bears, it also owes
+him a great and apparently irreparable misfortune, which from the
+beginning has hindered its progress and which has been the cause of
+a series of disasters requiring the most devoted patriotism and the
+best statesmanship to avert dire consequences. The inadequate and
+seemingly unjust allotment of seaboard to the new republic may be held
+responsible for many of the evils which assailed it in the beginning,
+and of which the effects are only now being permanently overcome.
+Northward, Bolivian territory reaches twelve degrees south latitude,
+where it touches the eastern frontier of Peru at seventy-one degrees
+west longitude, according to Bolivian claims; the line following that
+boundary only reached the coast at twenty-two degrees south latitude,
+and at twenty-five degrees the Chilean boundary began. Later, as is
+well known, Bolivia lost even this small strip of seaboard. The history
+of this demarcation is an interesting one. In accepting the offer
+of the Bolivian Congress, Bolivar had promised not only to preside
+over the future destinies of the republic, but to use his influence
+with Peru to obtain the concession of the seaboard from the port of
+Arica, latitude eighteen degrees, southward to the limit of twenty-two
+degrees. This concession would have given Bolivia the two good ports
+of Arica and Iquique, and it would have endowed the country with the
+immense riches, then undiscovered, of the nitrate regions. The two
+ports left to Bolivia by Bolivar’s settlement of the limits, Cobija
+and Antofagasta, were very inferior, had no water or vegetation, and
+communication with the interior through them was difficult and costly.
+General Santa Cruz, who at that time was provisional President of
+Peru, opposed the concession to Bolivia of the limits asked for, and
+converted Bolivar to his opinion, though Santa Cruz was a Bolivian
+and later the president of his country. It has been suggested by some
+authorities on the history of these early days of the republic, that
+Bolivar, who had imbibed the pseudo-classical ideas of the French
+revolutionists, wished to make Bolivia an ideal country, a new Arcadia
+in the Western world. Whatever may have been the purpose of the great
+liberator, there can be no doubt that the industrial and commercial
+development of Bolivia was retarded and international relations were
+practically prevented by her lack of a good seaboard with excellent
+ports. But Bolivar does not appear to have given much thought to the
+future of his “best-beloved daughter.” The boundaries of the republic
+of Bolivia followed in general the limits that had been fixed for Alto
+Peru under the régime of the Audiencia of Charcas.
+
+Before leaving, Bolivar recommended for the presidency of Bolivia
+his great general, José Antonio de Sucre, to whose efforts had been
+due the first organization of the government after the withdrawal
+of the Spanish authorities. Although a Venezuelan by birth, General
+Sucre had already proved himself a friend of the new republic, and
+his election was a unanimous expression of the will of the people.
+The second Congress, which met in Sucre on May 25, 1826, and remained
+in session until January 11, 1827, was chiefly occupied in undoing
+much of what President Bolivar had so hastily done, and in making
+efforts to establish the government upon a firm basis. The French
+system of political division into departments, provinces, cantons, and
+vice-cantons was adopted; and the constitution was modified in some
+of its more objectionable features, which included “life tenure” and
+“irresponsibility” of the president. Education was encouraged by the
+institution of primary and secondary schools and universities, the
+University of the capital, henceforth called Sucre, obtaining some
+distinction. Hospitals were founded, jails built, freedom of the press
+was guaranteed, the financial system was perfected, and the national
+debt recognized. The payment of a million dollars was guaranteed
+to the Colombian and Peruvian soldiers who had fought at Junin and
+Ayacucho. The Indians have always been regarded rather as protégés of
+the government than as independent citizens, and they were not allowed
+a vote for Congress; they remained subject to the poll tax, and, up to
+the present day, they have shown little inclination to take part in
+political affairs, outside of municipal government.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL ANDRÉS SANTA CRUZ, PRESIDENT,
+  1829–1839.]
+
+In spite of the best efforts of Sucre to establish law and order in the
+new republic, and to govern in accordance with the high ideals which
+ruled all his actions, winning for him the title of the “philosopher
+soldier,” difficulties arose which finally resulted in his resignation
+from the presidency and his withdrawal from the country. It was not
+entirely the fault of the Bolivians that Sucre was so ruthlessly
+sacrificed. The neighboring republics plotted to accomplish his
+overthrow on the pretext that the Colombian troops who remained in
+the country were a menace to its freedom, and that the president had
+retained them because of his monarchical aspirations, which threatened
+the liberty not only of Bolivia, but of the neighboring republics.
+Notwithstanding the fact that the Colombian troops, which had become
+insubordinate, were banished at the point of the sword, Sucre was
+accused, with Bolivar, of having designs to establish a monarchy, and
+a secret party was formed to depose him. In 1828 the garrison of the
+capital mutinied, killing the officer on guard; Sucre, who hurried
+to the scene, was attacked and had his right arm broken. Colonel
+Lopez arrived from Potosí at the head of a small battalion in time
+to witness the cruel onslaught upon the president, and to crush the
+mutiny, but not in time to save the life of the brave General José
+Miguel Lanza, the illustrious _guerrillero_, who was killed while
+defending his beloved chief. Had Sucre really held the ideas attributed
+to him by his enemies, he might have made himself a dictator, which
+would, perhaps, have been a blessing for the country in that period
+of political confusion. But he quietly resigned his office and left
+Bolivia, delegating his authority to a cabinet council, and leaving in
+supreme command General José Maria Pérez de Urdininea, the president
+of the council. The story of Sucre’s life is brief and glorious. Born
+in Cumaná, Venezuela, on February 3, 1795, he was “a child of the
+revolution” from his tender youth. Consecrated to the cause of American
+liberty, and excelling in genius, he rapidly scaled the heights of fame
+until at the age of thirty he was one of the most eminent personalities
+of the independence, as the hero of Ayacucho. After his withdrawal
+from Bolivia in 1828 he returned to his native land, where two years
+later he was assassinated, at the age of thirty-five. His memory is
+everywhere revered in Bolivia, and many handsome monuments have been
+erected in his honor.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL JOSÉ BALLIVIAN, THE HERO OF INGAVI,
+  PRESIDENT, 1843–1847.]
+
+Meantime, Bolivar had tried to impose his _Constitucion Boliviano_
+on the Peruvians, who promptly rebelled, refusing to accept what they
+considered an effort to establish absolute authority. The constitution
+not only declared the presidency to be an office for life, but gave
+the president almost unlimited power. A strong party overthrew the
+constitution and the authority of Bolivar, and proclaiming its
+intention to save Bolivia also from the foreign power of Colombia, or
+as the party leader expressed it “to place itself between the victim
+and the assassins,” sent an army under the command of General Gamarra
+to take possession of the country. The mutiny at Sucre afforded the
+necessary pretext for an invasion and Gamarra marched on La Paz,
+Cochabamba, and Potosí, receiving everywhere a welcome from the
+disaffected politicians who looked upon the opponent of Bolivar’s party
+as an ally rather than an invader. After the departure of General
+Sucre, Congress elected as his successor General Andrés Santa Cruz,
+president. As General Santa Cruz was in Chile, Vice-president General
+José Miguel de Velasco governed in his absence. Disturbances were
+general during the period that followed General Sucre’s withdrawal.
+Anarchy threatened the young republic when suddenly deprived of the
+guidance of that master spirit, the statesman above reproach, who, in
+refusing to govern except according to the constitution, had found
+himself unable to govern at all. General Pedro Blanco declared his
+sympathy with the cause of Gamarra, and Colonel Ramon Loaiza, at
+Gamarra’s instigation, stirred up a revolt in the department of La Paz,
+which declared for autonomy under the name of Alto Peru; the uprising
+was quelled, as was also an invasion in eastern Bolivia led by the
+royalist Aguilera. General Blanco secured a following and succeeded in
+being elected president, with Colonel Loaiza as vice-president, but his
+term of office lasted only a week, when he was seized, imprisoned, and
+assassinated.
+
+General Santa Cruz arrived in La Paz in May, 1829, where he inaugurated
+his administration, taking the oath of office at the hands of General
+José Ballivian, Prefect of La Paz, on the 24th of the same month. He
+set out almost immediately for Sucre, arriving there on the 29th of
+May. The administration of General Santa Cruz was one of the most
+important in the history of the republic. He was an able ruler, and
+possessed the combined qualities of soldier and statesman in a
+remarkable degree. His army was the best organized and equipped in
+South America. By the promulgation of the Santa Cruz Code, he gave to
+Bolivia the first legislative system perfected in a South American
+republic. His rule was despotic, but effective, the very character
+necessary for the establishment of order out of the chaos in which
+the government had been involved after Sucre’s withdrawal. His first
+act was to grant a general amnesty, but he retained the death penalty
+for sedition and executed it upon several occasions. In 1831 he
+convoked the fifth Congress in La Paz, it being the first time that
+the national legislature had met in that city since the proclamation
+of the republic. A second national constitution was promulgated, which
+remains in effect to the present day with few modifications, and a
+treaty of peace was signed with Peru. The national revenues, which had
+fallen from two million dollars under the viceroyalty to practically
+nothing, were regulated, and the new finance minister, Don José M.
+Lara, was able to show a revenue of one million five hundred thousand
+dollars, the chief sources of which were the customs duties, the sale
+of Jesuit landed property, the export taxes on ores,--then fixed at
+eight and one-half per cent ad valorem,--the production of the mint
+of Potosí, and the Indian poll tax. Reforms were made in education,
+and the universities of La Paz and Cochabamba were established, as
+well as a school of arts in the latter city. The province of Tarija
+was made a department, and a census of the republic was taken, showing
+a population of one million one hundred thousand inhabitants. The
+issuing of a debased coinage was one of the errors of Santa Cruz’s
+administration, resulting, as it did, in the discredit of the country
+financially, a condition of affairs which lasted for nearly thirty
+years, until, under the administration of President Achá, the present
+coinage system was introduced. Another mistake of the great statesman,
+or what is regarded as such by many Bolivians, was his refusal to
+consider a proposal from the government of Peru, through Gamarra,--who,
+although not president, was the ruling power in its politics,--that
+Bolivia should give up to Peru all Lake Titicaca, half of which came
+within Bolivian limits, and the peninsula of Copacabaña upon which is
+located a sacred shrine of the Virgin, in return for the cession by
+Peru of the department of Tarapacá with its excellent coast line and
+harbors. It is generally believed that, in the rejection of this offer,
+Santa Cruz had a motive that looked toward the carrying out of a much
+more ambitious plan of “expansion.”
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL MANUEL ISIDORO BELZU, PRESIDENT,
+  1849–1855.]
+
+The controlling desire of Santa Cruz’s life was to accomplish the union
+of Bolivia and Peru in a confederation, of which he was to be the
+executive and administrative chief. Taking advantage of the quarrels
+which at this time were going on in Peru between President Orbegoso
+on the one hand and Gamarra and Salaverry on the other, and under the
+pretext of lending aid to Orbegoso, General Santa Cruz marched into
+Peru in 1835 with his splendid army, leaving the government affairs of
+Bolivia in the hands of Vice-President Velasco. Gamarra and Salaverry
+were defeated, Salaverry was killed, and Santa Cruz assumed the
+Protectorate. Congresses met at Sicuani and at Huaura and decreed the
+division of Peru into two states, North Peru and South Peru, to which
+Bolivia was united by the decree of an extraordinary Congress held in
+Tapacarí, Bolivia, in 1836, which approved all that had been done and
+authorized the establishment of the Peru-Bolivian confederation. Santa
+Cruz appointed General Orbegoso president of North Peru, General Pio
+Tristan president of South Peru, and General Velasco president of the
+Bolivian state. Representatives from the three states met in Tacna, May
+1, 1837, and signed the pact of the confederation.
+
+  [Illustration: DR. JOSÉ MARIA LINARES, THE PRESIDENT,
+  1857–1861.]
+
+It did not require extraordinary foresight on the part of the more
+patriotic Bolivians to judge of the probable outcome of such an
+arrangement; and the secondary position which Santa Cruz appeared
+disposed to give his own country raised a storm of protest in the
+capital, where Mariano Calvo had taken Velasco’s place at the head
+of the government. Congress met at Sucre, and the pact was rejected
+with the firm declaration that “it would never be considered!” In the
+meantime, the Peru-Bolivian confederation was regarded by the remaining
+republics of South America as a menace to the balance of power, and
+Chile and Argentina offered their aid to Gamarra to overthrow it.
+Chile sent two armed expeditions, the first of which was defeated,
+the second achieving complete victory under the brilliant command of
+General Manuel Bulnes, who overthrew the army of the Confederation
+at Yungay, January 20, 1839. Defeated at Yungay and receiving news
+at the same moment that a popular revolution, under the leadership
+of General José Ballivian and General Velasco of the “Restoration
+Party,” had been organized against his authority in Bolivia, General
+Santa Cruz resigned the Protectorate and embarked for Guayaquil. Here
+he made several ineffectual efforts to regain prestige in Bolivia,
+but, finding his position hopeless, he finally left South America for
+France. His subsequent career was uneventful, though he became a friend
+and counsellor of Louis Napoleon; and, in 1849, was appointed Bolivian
+minister in Paris. He died in 1865.
+
+General Santa Cruz was one of the greatest presidents Bolivia ever
+had. He worked for immigration, recognizing the necessity for a larger
+population to develop the vast natural resources of the country,
+without which all efforts toward progress and prosperity must be slow
+and comparatively fruitless. He gave attention to its agricultural,
+commercial, and social interests; and, during the few years of peace
+that followed his inauguration, he rendered invaluable services to the
+republic. Had he been a devoted patriot like General Porfirio Diaz,
+of Mexico, his dictatorship might have permanently advanced Bolivia
+politically and socially beyond any other South American republic.
+But his thirst for conquest led him into expensive wars that cost
+the country more than was gained, and left it a heritage of military
+despotism which made it a prey to all kinds of political abuses. The
+destiny of the republic, through frequent subsequent administrations,
+rested in the hands of a military autocrat who imposed his absolute
+will upon the nation for good or evil, until some rival leader was
+able to wrest the supreme power from him. The progress of the country
+depended upon the character of its executive, and, although many of
+the presidents who succeeded Santa Cruz were patriotic and capable
+leaders, there were a few, as is the case in every republic, whose
+administrations are records of caprice and folly. In nearly all of the
+South American republics the success of the struggle for independence
+had brought in its train the evils that often accompany military
+prestige. The soldiers who had won glory on the battlefield could not
+be contented with the humdrum life of organized politics. This was
+particularly true in Bolivia, in consequence of the continued successes
+of its armies under Santa Cruz, when defeat had come so seldom that the
+idea of laying down their arms was thoroughly repugnant. When there was
+no longer a common enemy against whom to turn their practised weapons,
+they found cause for rebellion among themselves, the haughty spirit of
+the soldier,--Spain’s particular legacy to her offspring,--being with
+difficulty subdued; so that few of the presidents who came immediately
+after Santa Cruz completed their term of office, and many died in exile.
+
+After the defeat and departure of Santa Cruz, General Velasco
+became provisional president, and, in 1839, Congress elected him
+constitutional president. This Congress adopted a fourth constitution,
+more liberal than any that had preceded it. Opposing the government of
+Velasco, who had committed some political indiscretions and had given
+offence by congratulating Chile on the victory of Yungay, in which
+so many Bolivians were killed, General José Ballivian led a campaign
+against the president, and, though it was unsuccessful, Velasco’s term
+of office was cut short a year later when friends of Ballivian, who in
+the meantime had been exiled to Peru, secured his recall and election
+to the presidency in 1841. Velasco, who, after his deposition had fled
+to Argentina, returned with an army to fight Ballivian, but the news
+that Gamarra was again invading the country with the determination to
+conquer and annex it to Peru so fired his patriotism that he gave up
+his troops to Ballivian to fight in the common cause. It was a noble
+act, which reconquered for him the hearts of the whole people.
+
+  [Illustration: COLONEL ADOLFO BALLIVIAN, PRESIDENT, 1873.
+  DIED, 1874.]
+
+The history of the celebrated battle of Ingavi, which was one of the
+most glorious in the annals of the republic, reflects great honor on
+the arms of Bolivia, as it was won against heavy odds, the Peruvians
+having six thousand troops in the field while the Bolivians had only
+four thousand. But General Ballivian was a genius in command, and
+he prepared his troops for a precipitate attack on the enemy, the
+trained _guerrilleros_ making their “rush” in such an impetuous
+onslaught that the Peruvian ranks were broken; victory was assured,
+General Gamarra fell dead, pierced by two bullets; and General
+Castilla, one of the leaders, afterward President of Peru, was taken
+prisoner. At Puno, whither Ballivian pursued the retreating army, a
+treaty of peace was signed which stipulated that everything should be
+reciprocally condoned, without demands of any character on the part
+of either. With the victory of Ingavi, Bolivia closed the last scene
+in the struggle for independence, remaining henceforth secure in the
+right to govern the territory allotted by the liberator, unmolested
+by invaders. Ballivian was the hero of the hour, and his memory is
+enshrined in the patriotic hearts of his countrymen, who have forgiven
+the follies that grew out of his ambitious and despotic nature, and
+remember only that he was a true and loyal patriot, and the chief
+instrument of his country’s salvation in a great crisis. But though
+it is easy to forgive the faults of Ballivian after a lapse of half
+a century or more, his people found it impossible to support them at
+the time when they were in full activity. One of the first acts of
+Ballivian’s Congress was to repeal the liberal constitution of 1839
+and to proclaim the constitution of 1843, which gave the greatest
+power in the government to the chief executive. This constitution was
+nicknamed the “Military Ordinance,” which its opponents said, “should
+be read only in the glitter of the sword of Ingavi.” It revealed the
+military spirit of the president in every line, and was one of the
+strongest influences in creating opposition to his power. On the other
+hand, the same dominating character that dictated a system of rigid
+discipline was strong to overcome the difficulties in the way of the
+country’s development, and new roads were built, exploring expeditions
+were sent to the Beni and to the Chaco, and the department of the Beni
+was created. An office of statistics was established, and a new census
+was taken, which gave Bolivia a population of more than two million.
+The military code was promulgated, and a military school instituted;
+the bishopric of Cochabamba was created. A new educational system was
+established, due to the efforts of Ballivian’s minister Don Tomás
+Frias, who was afterward one of Bolivia’s most distinguished presidents.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON TOMÁS FRIAS, PRESIDENT, 1874–1877.]
+
+Ballivian was a man of letters and a friend of philosophers and poets.
+During his administration Bolivia enjoyed great prestige among other
+nations, and France, England, the United States, as well as the South
+American powers, sent diplomatic representatives to Sucre. At this
+time Bolivia was the only South American republic whose independence
+had not been recognized by Spain, and the government took advantage of
+the residence in Europe of Dr. José Maria Linares, one of Bolivia’s
+cleverest statesmen and a descendant of a noble family of Spain, to
+accredit him to the court of Madrid as its diplomatic representative,
+with power to negotiate the recognition of the young republic by the
+mother country, and to effect a treaty of peace and friendship. Dr.
+Linares secured the desired recognition and treaty in 1848, though
+the final ratification did not take place until some years later.
+The rigorous military discipline of Ballivian brought about his
+downfall. The final stroke occurred when one of his chief officers,
+Colonel, afterward General, Manuel Isidoro Belzu, was punished for
+insubordination by being reduced to the rank of a common soldier to
+serve in the little garrison of Obrajes. In strong resentment of this
+indignity Belzu roused the soldiers to revolt. Though the mutiny was
+quelled, the spirit of revolution had been spreading for some time
+among the partisans of Velasco, and they took advantage of the moment
+to break out in open insurrection; the populace rose in La Paz, and in
+the face of a general rebellion, north and south, Ballivian preferred
+resigning the presidency and leaving the country to plunging the nation
+in the horrors of a civil war. One of the revolutionary leaders,
+Eusebio Guilarte, was proclaimed president, but after ten days’ stormy
+experience in that uncertain post of honor, the mutiny of his soldiers
+forced him to flee, and he, too, left the country. Belzu was the
+idol of the soldiers and of the common people, and they demanded his
+election to the supreme office. But he deferred to Velasco, who, for
+the fourth time, became president of Bolivia, assuming the dictatorship
+until Congress should meet to confirm the choice of the people, which
+took place on August 6, 1848. Belzu was appointed war minister, and
+Don Casimiro Olañeta, “the silver-tongued orator” of the Independence,
+was also a member of the Cabinet. A continued conflict between these
+two leaders demoralized the politics of the government and opened the
+way for another revolution, which resulted in Belzu’s elevation to
+the supreme power. When Velasco found it necessary to take up arms in
+defence of his government he left, in his place, the president of the
+Congress, Dr. José Maria Linares, who, however, was forced to flee from
+the country soon after, in consequence of the victory of Belzu’s troops
+over those of Velasco in the battle of Yamparaez. After this defeat,
+Velasco retired to private life. Linares joined Ballivian in Chile, and
+they planned an attempt to defeat the “Belcistas,” as Belzu’s followers
+were called. An invasion was made from the south, but all efforts were
+futile to overcome the enormous popularity of Belzu, who represented
+the democratic spirit, as opposed to the aristocratic, for which
+Ballivian and Linares stood. Finding their position hopeless, Ballivian
+again left the country and went to Brazil, where he died of yellow
+fever two years afterward. Linares prepared his forces for the campaign
+which later gained for him the dictatorship of Bolivia, when he became
+one of the few admirable autocrats of South American history.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL NARCISO CAMPERO, PRESIDENT, 1880–1884.]
+
+The government of Belzu, seized by force of arms, had to be maintained
+by continuous warfare. The various party chiefs kept up a series of
+revolts, and on one occasion Belzu was shot in the Alameda of Sucre.
+After his recovery, he convoked a Congress which confirmed him in the
+presidency. In the brief period of peace with which his term of office
+was blessed, he erected many handsome public buildings, revised the
+statutes, and promoted some important reforms. A clever orator, Don
+Evaristo Valle, achieved distinction during Belzu’s administration
+through his fiery philippics, in which he scored the “democratic
+despot” with brilliant emphasis and effect. But if the president’s
+enemies were bitter and unrelenting, his followers were devoted to him
+to the end, and the Belcistas, as his party was called, have always
+had representation in subsequent politics. In 1855, General Belzu,
+declaring himself tired of the struggle, resigned office in favor of
+his son-in-law, General Jorge Córdova. He retired at once to Europe.
+The presidency of Córdova was brief and stormy, and two years after his
+inauguration, a revolution, carefully planned by Linares, drove him
+from power and from Bolivia.
+
+The dictator Linares, as he is known to posterity, in distinction
+from many presidents of his country whose government was more
+despotic, though less frankly declared, assumed the reins of power
+constitutionally in 1857, and as dictator next year, with the avowed
+intention of making a “clean sweep” of existing evils and reforming the
+whole political system. His keen intellect and sincerity of purpose
+made him respected, even by his enemies, and his patriotic principles
+were above question. Perhaps he was over-zealous. It is difficult to
+set the proper pace when a desire to effect numerous reforms impels
+the eager disciplinarian onward in the path of power. Linares began
+by creating a Council of State, with whom he conferred upon all
+matters relating to the administration. He decreed a reduction of the
+president’s salary and those of his advisers; he reformed the army; he
+changed the electoral divisions of the country, which he distributed
+in thirty-two _jefaturas_, or political districts, whose chiefs
+were directly responsible to the central government; he created or
+restored the municipalities, making them as independent as possible of
+the central power; he systematized the public accounts, introducing
+economies which improved the national credit; he reorganized the
+judicial system and established a new criminal code; and he ordered the
+founding in every diocese of seminaries for educational purposes, and
+the reform of the clergy.
+
+Naturally, so many reforms raised up a host of enemies; even some
+of the dictator’s friends protested against the severity of his
+discipline, and the signs grew more ominous with each new evidence
+of despotism. He was unrelenting in the punishment of conspirators
+and insubordinate officials, and throttled the press with an iron
+censorship. The murmurs grew louder as the pressure became heavier;
+and when a _coup d’état_, under the leadership of his ministers
+José Maria de Achá and Ruperto Fernandez, aided by the commander Manuel
+Antonio Sanchez, suddenly divested the dictator of his power on January
+14, 1861, and these persons constituted themselves a Junta de Gobierno,
+the popular voice was as ready to sanction his exile as it had been to
+welcome his accession to power. With a broken spirit. Dr. Linares left
+his country, and a few months later he died in poverty in Valparaiso.
+
+The scent of the battlefield was still too sweet in the nostrils of the
+_guerrilleros_ and their descendants to make a civil government
+permanent, under whatever form it might be established; and though
+the Congress, which was called together by the Junta de Gobierno
+a few weeks after the _coup d’état_, proclaimed as president
+General José Maria de Achá, who governed constitutionally and with a
+leniency quite the reverse of Linares’s strict discipline, he had to
+contend with mutiny and insurrection all through the period of his
+administration. President Achá was as earnest in the laborious task
+of governing his people as his predecessor had been, and, until the
+last unfortunate step of his official career, he seems to have shown
+greater tact. He introduced for the first time the use of postage
+stamps, created the engineers’ corps to superintend the opening of
+roads and building of bridges, established the first coach road
+between Cochabamba and the cities along the neighboring valleys, sent
+explorations to the Chaco, and perfected the monetary system. The
+mistake which closed his administration and drove him into exile was an
+effort to have General Agreda elected his successor. This was regarded
+by sensitive supporters of the constitution as a breach of prerogative,
+and, as one historian says, “it was resolved to break down by force the
+impositions of power.”
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON GREGORIO PACHECO, PRESIDENT,
+  1884–1888.]
+
+Whatever may be said in criticism of the Bolivian character as
+displayed in the events of the first fifty years of the republic, it
+must be admitted that there was plenty of vigor in the young nation;
+the great difficulty in directing it seemed to be to strike the
+medium between easy-going authority, which the military spirit of
+the times quickly nullified, and uncompromising despotism, which was
+never found strong enough to hold permanent sway over an independent
+and liberty-loving people. General Achá, one of the best of the
+presidents, came nearer to achieving the correct medium than many
+of his colleagues. He was succeeded by the _ne plus ultra_ of
+despots, General Mariano Melgarejo, a reckless soldier who had risen
+from the ranks through sheer audacity, and who seemed to possess
+in an extraordinary degree that gift of tyranny which has been a
+picturesque attribute of autocrats in all ages. His absolute contempt
+for the rights of his fellow men and his resolute fearlessness were
+predominating traits. Once, during the six years of his rule, he was
+driven out of the capital by Belzu, who had returned from Europe;
+but, routed as he was, he returned to his palace, killed Belzu, and,
+presenting himself to the multitude, exclaimed: “Belzu is dead!--Who
+lives now?” The answering shout of the populace, _Viva Melgarejo!_
+proved how much better than Linares the new despot understood the
+rabble. In all parts of the republic, the news that Melgarejo had
+seized the reins of power, abrogating the constitution of 1861, and
+that he wished to impose upon the people the system of despotic
+government which had been the cause of so much bloodshed and misery
+in the past, roused up a spirit of revolt which threatened all the
+horrors of civil war. Melgarejo had none of the scruples which had
+led Ballivian to avoid plunging the nation into war by abdicating his
+position. When they rebelled, he sacrificed them ruthlessly. One of
+his decrees subjected to the death penalty not only those who took up
+arms against him, but those who refused to give him their services. He
+instituted a reign of terror, and his follies were as demoralizing to
+the national politics as the episodes of his private life were to the
+social well-being. Chile took advantage of the situation to secure,
+through flattery of the despot’s vanity, a revision of the boundaries
+and the final extension of her limits to twenty-four degrees south
+latitude in a strip running back from the ocean to the Andes. Brazil
+sent a clever representative, who bestowed on Melgarejo decorations
+from the emperor in exchange for leagues of Bolivian land on both banks
+of the Guaporé River, the principal tributary of the Madeira, thus
+losing Bolivia the right of navigation on one of the chief branches
+of the Amazon. The evils of Melgarejo’s government brought a train of
+terrible consequences to the country, from which it required a long
+time to recuperate. Not only was progress crippled at home, but the
+national credit was compromised and a heavy foreign debt incurred
+for the first time in the history of the republic. The coinage was
+debased beyond precedent, the Indian lands were illegally seized and
+sold, and there seemed no limit to the crimes perpetrated against the
+constitution. By sheer audacity, Melgarejo maintained his position for
+six years, until a revolution, headed by General Agustin Morales, of La
+Paz, brought about his downfall and banishment in January, 1872. His
+successor, General Morales, whose administration was an improvement on
+that of Melgarejo, and who showed a disposition to amend the evils of
+his predecessor, returning their lands to the Indians, and nullifying
+many of Melgarejo’s decrees, was not the man needed to guide the
+country through the stormy transition period of statehood. A far better
+fortune awaited the people in the election of the successor to General
+Morales, who was taken off by a pistol-shot during a quarrel between
+the president and one of his officers.
+
+Out of the darkness of the crisis in which Bolivia had been plunged
+by the dictator Melgarejo, the light of a better day began to appear.
+Morales was succeeded by a man of scrupulous integrity and patriotism.
+Dr. Tomás Frias, as provisional president, which office he held only
+until the president elected by Congress in extraordinary session in
+1873, Colonel Adolfo Ballivian, could arrive from London, where he was
+residing as financial agent of the Bolivian government. The election
+of President Adolfo Ballivian was carried out without bribery, undue
+influence, or martial pressure. It was the will of the whole people.
+Colonel Ballivian, a son of the hero of Ingavi, was highly educated,
+had travelled extensively, had a reputation for unsullied honor, and,
+having made a special study of political and social science in Europe,
+might be expected to bring political order out of his country’s chaos
+and lead it into the paths of peace and prosperity. Colonel Ballivian
+organized his ministry with some of the best statesmen of the republic,
+the names of Baptista, Bustillo, Calvo, M. Ballivian, and, later, the
+noted financier Dalence, being a guarantee of good government. But the
+broken health of the president made it impossible for him to attend to
+the affairs of state; and nine months after his inauguration, he died
+in Sucre on February 18, 1874. The entire nation mourned the loss of
+this beloved and distinguished son, whose death came as a blow to the
+most sanguine hopes. Vice-president Frias succeeded Ballivian; but his
+government was constantly disturbed by insurrections, until finally
+his trusted war minister, General Daza, organized a _coup d’état_
+and assumed the dictatorship, first imprisoning the president with his
+ministers and then banishing him. Don Tomás Frias was a statesman of
+unimpeachable honor and great simplicity of character. One biographer
+says: “He was the only man, of those we have known, who reached the
+greatest heights, the most important posts, without seeking them
+and perhaps even against his desire. His brain was never turned by
+exaltation, he was never intoxicated by adulation, and he never became
+arrogant with power.” Like so many of Bolivia’s best men, he died in
+exile, in Florence, Italy, in 1884. President Daza assumed the supreme
+power in 1876. His wise choice of ministers gave to his administration
+an importance which his own limited knowledge of statecraft would
+never have gained. Notable reforms were made in civil and criminal
+legislation and in the coinage; and a new constitution was framed,
+containing the most advanced republican principles.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON ANICETO ARCE, PRESIDENT, 1888–1892.]
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON MARIANO BAPTISTA, PRESIDENT,
+  1892–1896.]
+
+The question of boundaries between Bolivia and Chile, which had been
+a threatening evil for many years, reached the acute stage during
+Daza’s administration. In 1876, Chile put pressure on Bolivia to make
+her sign a treaty, giving the latter half shares in guano and minerals
+to be discovered in the Bolivian maritime department. In consequence
+of this, a dispute arose between a Bolivian tax collector and an
+Anglo-Chilean nitrate company in Antofagasta about a small export
+duty of ten centavos per quintal--about three cents gold--decreed
+on nitrate, which the company declared Bolivia had no right to levy
+under the terms of the treaty, and which it refused to pay. The
+Bolivian government sent armed police to collect the money, the
+company telegraphed the news to Santiago; and Chile, without awaiting
+explanations or listening to proposals for arbitration, sent troops
+to occupy the port of Antofagasta. Bolivia presented a particularly
+favorable opportunity for Chilean “expansion” just at that time, as it
+was visited by a terrible plague, which decimated the country, while
+famine added to the horrors of the situation. In three weeks, over two
+hundred deaths from starvation were reported in the very heart of the
+agricultural region, and in other places the mortality was higher.
+Notwithstanding such tragic circumstances, Bolivia was obliged to
+declare war. A few years previous a secret treaty of defensive alliance
+had been made between Bolivia and Peru, during the administration of
+Adolfo Ballivian, for the purpose of checking the aggressive spirit
+of Chile, whose determination to get possession of the seaboard
+provinces to the north of her limits had become more and more apparent,
+especially since the discovery of the guano beds and the rich silver
+mines of that region. Remembering this treaty, Peru hastened to offer
+support to Bolivia; and Chile declared war on Peru and Bolivia on April
+5, 1879. As soon as the Bolivian army could be organized, the order
+was given to march to Peru, and General Daza, with eight thousand men,
+arrived in Tacna early in May, having left the affairs of government
+in the hands of a council of ministers. Chile had been increasing and
+strengthening her navy for years, and her armies were well disciplined
+and in splendid condition. General Daza showed himself in a bad light
+from the beginning of the war, and the Bolivian soldiers, who performed
+miracles of heroism, were justly indignant and embittered over the
+apparent pusillanimity of their chief. He was replaced in the command
+of the army by Colonel Eliodoro Camacho, a valiant soldier, and in the
+government of his country by General Narciso Campero, a statesman of
+ability and patriotism. But the allies were not prepared for combat.
+The outcome of the war was a crushing defeat of their armies and the
+seizure by Chile of the whole seaboard of Bolivia and part of the
+Peruvian coast. In 1880 the government of the United States had offered
+to mediate between the belligerents, and a conference was held on
+board the United States gunboat _Lackawanna_, Señores Baptista
+and Carrillo representing Bolivia. But Chile rejected all proposals
+of mediation; and the war was renewed, with the well-known results.
+According to one of Chile’s most prominent statesmen, the acquisition
+of these northern provinces has been a curse rather than a blessing,
+paralyzing the other industries of the country by concentrating all
+labor in the development of its nitrate fields.
+
+President Narciso Campero, assisted by his able finance minister, Dr.
+Eliodoro Villazon, now vice-president of the republic, distinguished
+himself by the honorable and efficient character of his administration.
+He chose his ministers wisely, and associated with him in the
+government were such statesmen as Don Nataniel Aguirre, who, as
+president of the National Congress of 1880, framed the constitution
+which now rules the republic; Don Antonio Quijarro, who had served
+his country at home and abroad with credit; Don Fidel Aranibar, and
+others of like distinction. Notwithstanding the depleted treasury,
+President Campero built new roads, established telegraph lines, and
+sent exploring expeditions to the Chaco. He reorganized the army, and
+established army hospitals, and homes for the widows of soldiers who
+had died in battle. He created a Supreme Council of Instruction, and
+brought about many reforms.
+
+The tendency of the times was toward a complete change from the
+unsettled conditions which had so long played havoc with Bolivian
+politics. After the war two political parties came to the front, the
+Constitutional and the Liberal. Don Gregorio Pacheco, Don Aniceto Arce,
+and Don Mariano Baptista were the leaders of the Constitutional party,
+and Don Eliodoro Camacho was the chief representative of the Liberals.
+When Pacheco was elected to succeed Campero in 1884, it is related that
+one of the ardent followers of General Camacho, the defeated candidate,
+exclaimed, in the frenzy of the moment: _A la revolucion!_ to
+which Camacho sternly replied: _Mueran las revoluciones!_--“Let
+revolutions die!” And from this period dates the installation of a new
+order of things, in which the predominating effort of all parties has
+been, as far as possible, to avoid revolutions. President Pacheco’s
+administration was marked by profound peace; and the financial
+condition improved, owing to the great wealth that poured out of the
+Huanchaca, Colquechaca, and other silver mines.
+
+Dr. Aniceto Arce was elected president to succeed Señor Pacheco in
+1888. A clever statesman and politician, he did much for the country’s
+progress. During his presidency the first railroad in Bolivia was
+built, from Antofagasta to Uyuni, soon afterward continued to Oruro,
+its present terminus. He ordered the improvement of coach roads and the
+construction of bridges, the Puente Arce being one of the handsomest
+monuments to his administrative enterprise. Telegraph lines were
+extended, and other facilities granted. General Pando explored the
+Territorio de Colonias. At the expiration of Arce’s government, Dr.
+Mariano Baptista was elected, in 1892. Conditions were not so favorable
+for progress under his administration, owing to the depreciation
+of silver and the unsatisfactory state of the mining industry, the
+chief source of the country’s revenue. But important expeditions
+were sent out to explore the regions of the Beni and the Territorio
+de Colonias. In July, 1893, the National Delegation of the Northwest
+of the Republic was sent to the Beni, under the direction of Señores
+Lisimaco Gutierrez, Manuel Vicente Ballivian, Román Paz, Colonel
+Juan L. Muñoz, Lieutenant Rosendo Rojas, and Pastor Valdivieso. The
+town called Villa de Riberalta was founded at the confluence of the
+Madre de Dios and the Beni, and political and judicial authority was
+established in these remote regions, where the rich rubber forests of
+the Acre, or Aquiry, as it is more correctly written, are located. The
+following year General Pando, the intrepid explorer of these regions,
+to whose indefatigable energy the state owes most of the important
+knowledge it has obtained regarding their wealth and territory, was
+commissioned to mark the limits with Brazil, a work he carried out with
+perfect satisfaction to his government. In 1897, during the succeeding
+administration of President Fernandez Alonso, General Pando headed
+another expedition to the rubber regions, making complete studies of
+the Peruvian boundary question, and laying the foundation for vast
+commercial development in that part of Bolivia.
+
+President Alonso, who was elected in 1896, devoted especial attention
+to public works and the completion of many handsome public buildings
+was due to his energy. He is not regarded as a brilliant statesman,
+but rather as a clever lawyer and an orator of distinction. His
+administration was brought to an abrupt end through a dispute that
+arose over the question of the permanent residence of the executive.
+A bill was brought up demanding that Sucre be the permanent residence
+of the president and his Cabinet. It was approved by both houses. A
+request was then made for further discussion of the subject in an
+extra Congress, to be held in the neutral city of Cochabamba; and
+when this was denied, La Paz representatives protested and retired.
+A movement for separation was initiated in La Paz by Señor Fernando
+Guachalla, one of the most illustrious statesmen of the country, and
+after unsatisfactory efforts to conciliate the government, the people
+of La Paz declared for the Federation. A Junta de Gobierno was formed,
+composed of Señores Guachalla, Serapio Reyes Ortiz, José Manuel Pando,
+and Macario Pinilla; and as President Alonso advanced from Sucre at the
+head of his troops, General Pando took command of the revolutionary
+forces of La Paz, and the two armies met in several engagements, the
+last of which, fought near Oruro, April 10, 1899, terminated the
+revolution in a complete victory for General Pando’s army. The Junta de
+Gobierno convoked the national assembly to meet in Oruro on October 20,
+1899, when General Pando was elected president, with Don Lucio Velasco
+and Don Anibal Capriles vice-presidents. The constitution of 1880 was
+adopted.
+
+President Pando represented the enterprising spirit of the day, and
+in maintaining the claims of La Paz as a more suitable centre for
+the political government, he probably did so from a conviction that
+it is more accessible than Sucre, which has at present no railway
+communication. General Pando planned for the extension of the railway
+systems to all parts of the republic and, soon after his election,
+the line was commenced from La Paz to Lake Titicaca, through which
+transportation by rail and steamship was secured to the seaport of
+Mollendo. He reorganized the army and the finances, initiated the
+settlement of all boundary disputes by arbitration, and headed an
+expedition to the Acre to stop the Brazilian advances into that
+territory. A treaty was afterward negotiated at Rio de Janeiro, by
+which Brazil paid Bolivia two million pounds sterling in consideration
+of the cession of part of Bolivia’s territory.
+
+The election of General Ismael Montes to the presidency in May,
+1904, was one of the most popular in the history of the republic,
+and signalizes the firm establishment of peace and progress in this
+interesting country. President Montes is a son of General Clodomiro
+Montes, who is the head of the army, and a soldier and tactician of
+distinguished ability. One of the first acts of his government was the
+settlement of the dispute with Chile regarding the seacoast privileges,
+which had been going on ever since the close of the War of the Pacific.
+While Chile concedes no port to Bolivia, freedom of import is granted,
+an indemnity of three hundred thousand pounds sterling is paid, and
+Chile agrees to spend two million pounds sterling in building railways
+from her ports to the Bolivian interior.
+
+Never in the history of the republic have conditions been more
+favorable, politically and financially, for national development and
+prosperity. Bolivia has no foreign debt. The only one which could
+have been considered such was a balance of claims to the amount of
+six million five hundred thousand dollars in gold, held principally
+by Chileans as indemnities on account of the War of the Pacific, and
+this was assumed by the government of Chile in agreement with the
+terms of the treaty recently signed between the two countries. On
+the other hand, Bolivia has at her disposal large credits in foreign
+banks. Of the two million pounds sterling which Brazil paid within
+the past two years as indemnity for the cession of a part of the Acre
+territory, one million pounds sterling has been placed on deposit
+with Rothschild and Sons in London, and one million pounds sterling
+with the Comptoir National d’Escompte of Paris. Both of these sums
+are reserved exclusively for the construction of projected railways,
+which, it is calculated, will cost from four to five million pounds
+sterling. In addition to these sums, Bolivia also has, in the Comptoir
+National d’Escompte of Paris, one hundred and fifty thousand pounds
+sterling, paid by Chile according to the terms of the treaty previously
+mentioned. It is further agreed that Chile is to pay the same sum next
+year, and also to guarantee the interest, at the rate of five per cent
+per annum for thirty years, on capital invested in the construction
+of the following Bolivian railways: Uyuni to Potosí; Oruro to La
+Paz; Oruro to Cochabamba and Cochabamba to Santa Cruz; La Paz to the
+region of the Beni; Potosí to Sucre, Lagunillas, and Santa Cruz; this
+guarantee rests on the condition that the annual expenses of this
+obligation do not surpass the sum of one hundred thousand pounds
+sterling. Chile is also obliged by the treaty to build a railway from
+the port of Arica on the Pacific coast to the Altos of La Paz. The
+maximum of the obligations exacted by the payment of the above interest
+and of the part of the railway to pass through Bolivian territory has
+been estimated at one million seven hundred thousand pounds sterling.
+The Bolivian section of the railway from Arica to La Paz will be ceded
+to Bolivia after fifteen years from the date of its completion. From
+this it will be seen that Bolivia, instead of being in debt to foreign
+countries, as are other South American republics, has important credits
+which have already attracted foreign capital, and must, in the future,
+continue to invite increased investments from foreigners.
+
+The administration of President Montes places Bolivia in line with
+the countries which, at the beginning of the twentieth century, are
+combining their forces to make this the Golden Age of the New World.
+All eyes are turned now toward the Western Hemisphere, and although at
+the present moment universal interest is more absorbed in the northern
+than in the southern continent, the popular gaze is sure to be directed
+soon, with the same attraction, to the great land south of the Isthmus,
+and it may be expected to rest with especial concentration on the
+twentieth century Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL CLODOMIRO MONTES.]
+
+  [Illustration: CLOSING SESSIONS OF THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF
+  1905, LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                       THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION
+
+
+The Bolivian constitution is one of the most liberal in South America.
+Out of the _Constitución Boliviano_, given by the great liberator
+in the first days of the republic, has been evolved the code of the
+government as it stands to-day, a credit to the democratic principles
+of the nation and a monument to the good judgment of its leaders,
+establishing the sovereign rule of the majority in the common interest
+of the whole people. It is a reflection of the patriotic sentiments
+and the clear judgment of those who framed it, and in adhering to
+its principles the Bolivian nation need take no second place in the
+political progress of the twentieth century.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON ELIODORO VILLAZÓN, FIRST
+  VICE-PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA.]
+
+The present constitution was adopted October 28, 1880, under the
+presidency of General Campero, and few amendments have been made since
+its inauguration. By its terms the republic of Bolivia is constituted
+a sovereign and independent nation, under a Unitarian, democratic
+representative government. The exercise of its sovereign powers is
+vested in the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches of the
+government, each of which is independent of the others.
+
+The legislative power is in the hands of a national Congress,
+consisting of two chambers, the Camara de Diputados, or House of
+Representatives, and the Camara de Senadores, or the Senate. The Camara
+de Diputados is composed of seventy-two members, elected by direct vote
+of the people for a term of four years, the _camara_ being renewed
+by halves, every two years. To qualify for a deputy the citizen must
+be twenty-five years of age and have an annual income of two hundred
+bolivianos. The Camara de Senadores consists of sixteen members, two
+for each department. The senators are also elected by a direct vote
+of the people, the senatorial term being for six years, with a renewal
+by thirds every two years. A senator must be thirty-five years of
+age and have an annual income of four hundred bolivianos. Senators
+and deputies may be reëlected indefinitely. Congress meets annually,
+usually opening on the 6th of August, in the capital of the republic,
+unless for sufficient reason it is convoked to meet elsewhere. The
+regular session lasts sixty days, though it may be extended to ninety
+days. Extraordinary sessions may be assembled by a concurrent vote
+of the majority of both _camaras_, or by proclamation of the
+executive, giving the place, time, and object of such session. The
+first vice-president of the republic is also president of the Senate
+and of Congress. The legislative power provides for the necessities of
+the state, dictating its laws in accordance with the precepts of the
+constitution.
+
+  [Illustration: HIS GRACE ARCHBISHOP PIFFERI OF LA PLATA,
+  SUCRE.]
+
+The executive power is vested in the president and two vice-presidents
+of the republic, whose authority is exercised through the secretaries
+or members of the Cabinet. The president and vice-presidents are
+elected every four years by direct vote of the people, and are
+ineligible for the next succeeding term. In case that no candidate
+obtains an absolute plurality of votes, Congress then chooses the three
+who hold the highest majority, and by its vote decides the successful
+candidate. The president directs the foreign policy, manages the public
+interest, is commander-in-chief of the army, and patron of the official
+Church. The vice-presidents are appointed to take charge of the
+presidential duties successively in case of the resignation, absence,
+or death of the president, the qualifications for first or second
+vice-presidents being the same as for a senator, except that they must
+necessarily be native born Bolivians. By appointment of the president,
+six secretaries form a Cabinet of State to assist the chief executive
+in the various departments of the administration; these ministers are
+jointly responsible with the president for all administrative acts in
+their respective offices, and the ministers are jointly responsible
+for all acts performed in their Cabinet meetings. Decrees and orders
+issued by the president must also bear the signature of the minister
+or secretary of the respective departments, to be enforced. Cabinet
+ministers may take part in the debates of either chamber of Congress,
+but must leave the place before a vote is cast. Each minister is
+required to send to Congress, at its opening session annually, a
+complete report of the work done in his department during the year.
+
+The judiciary power of the government is represented by a National
+Supreme Court, Superior District Courts, Lower District Courts,
+courts for the preparation of criminal cases, and parochial courts.
+The Supreme Court resides in Sucre, the capital of the republic, and
+consists of seven ministers of justice, appointed by the Chamber of
+Deputies from a ternary list, submitted by the Senate. To be eligible
+to the supreme bench, it is necessary to be a Bolivian by birth or
+naturalization, to be not less than forty-five years of age, to have
+resided permanently in the country for five years, to have been a
+judge in a superior court of justice or district attorney for five
+years, and to have been a practising lawyer in good standing for
+ten years. According to the constitution, the duties of the Supreme
+Court, in addition to those devolving upon it by virtue of the laws
+of the nation, are, in general terms: To hear and determine on
+appeals for the reversing of a sentence passed by the lower courts,
+and to establish the chief points at issue; to hear and determine on
+all questions of a purely legal nature, upon the decision of which
+depends the constitutionality of a law, decree, or other resolution;
+to hear and determine all cases concerning the responsibility of
+diplomatic and consular agents, judges of the superior courts, district
+attorneys, and other public officers for offences committed in the
+discharge of their respective duties; to hear and determine on cases
+arising from contracts, negotiations, and concessions granted by the
+executive power, and on suits brought against the executive, arising
+from executive action; to hear and determine on matters relating to
+the national patronage exercised by the supreme government, and to
+settle controversies between municipal councils, between these and the
+political authorities, and between either of them and the provincial
+municipal boards. Publicity of judicial proceedings is the essential
+condition of the administration of justice, except in cases which might
+offend against public morals.
+
+The Ministerio Publico, or Fiscal, a judicial organization, is
+established to protect the constitutional guarantees and to see to the
+fulfilment of the laws. Its ministers, or _fiscales_, are agents
+of the executive power, and in the tribunals represent the interests
+of society. The administration of justice is gratuitous. The highest
+authority of the _ministerio_, called a _fiscal general_,
+is an official elected by the executive for a period of ten years
+from a ternary proposed by the Camara de Diputados. He coöperates
+with the Supreme Court in decisions relating to justice, and with
+the executive in matters of administration. He is assisted in the
+discharge of his duties by district _fiscales_, who have charge
+of the duties of the Ministerio Publico in each department; their
+relation with the Superior District Court is the same as that existing
+between the _fiscal general_ and the Supreme Court. They supervise
+the administration of the public treasury and form part of the Board
+of Public Auction. The _fiscales de partido_ and _agentes
+fiscales_ rank in inferior importance, exercising supervision in
+matters under the jurisdiction of the lower district courts, the
+prefectures, and the municipalities. There is also a _fiscal de
+gobierno_, who advises in matters of public administration.
+
+  [Illustration: LEGISLATIVE PALACE, SUCRE.]
+
+Under the constitution, the government of each of the eight departments
+into which the state is divided is placed in the hands of a prefect,
+who, by virtue of his office, is also a colonel in the army, and
+directly responsible to the executive power. He is appointed by
+the president of the republic, and is the immediate representative
+or agent of the executive power, having under his jurisdiction all
+public functionaries of whatever class and denomination within the
+limit of his department; he is elected for a term of four years. The
+president also appoints the sub-prefects, who govern the provinces;
+the _corregidores_, or district authorities, and the _alcaldes
+territoriales_, or petty justices of the smaller subdivisions,
+are appointed by the prefect. The _alcaldes territoriales_ are
+quite distinct in their official capacity from the chief municipal
+authority, the mayor, who is also called _alcalde_. In addition
+to the political administration of the departments, there is in
+each department capital a Municipal Council, and in each provincial
+capital and river port a Municipal Board, or junta. Municipal agents
+are appointed annually by the respective juntas of the provinces,
+with authority in the smaller subdivisions known as cantons. In the
+more important departments the municipal councils consist of twelve
+members, while in others there are nine. These corporations have
+authority to make mutual agreements or contracts for the construction
+and maintenance of roads and highways between two or more of their
+respective departments, whenever such agreements affect the revenue or
+moneys of the municipal treasuries of the departments interested.
+
+Besides the divisions of the republic into departments, provinces,
+and cantons, there are ecclesiastical divisions in conformity with
+the terms of the national constitution, by which the chief executive
+is the patron of the ecclesiastical government of the country. The
+established church of Bolivia is, according to law, the Roman Catholic,
+one of the clauses of the constitution reading: “The State recognizes
+and supports the Roman Apostolic Catholic religion, the public exercise
+of any other worship being prohibited, except in the Colonies, where
+it is tolerated.” It is necessary to add that in the legislature of
+1905 a bill was introduced declaring the necessity for changing the
+last part of this clause to read: “the public exercise of all other
+worships being permitted.” The passage of this bill places Bolivia in
+the vanguard among the Spanish-American countries, so far as religious
+freedom is concerned. The ecclesiastical divisions consist of one
+archbishopric and three bishoprics. The archbishopric of La Plata
+embraces the departments of Chuquisaca, Potosí, Oruro, and Tarija,
+having the cathedral church at Sucre, and covering a territory of
+nearly five hundred thousand square kilomètres, with a population
+of about eight hundred thousand. It has authority over one hundred
+and forty-six parishes, five monasteries, and three colleges for the
+propagation of the Faith. The cathedral church was erected into an
+episcopal see in 1552 and raised to an archbishopric in 1609. Five
+bishops and twenty-eight archbishops have successively ruled the
+diocese up to the present time. The archbishop is appointed by the
+executive from a ternary list submitted by the Senate. The bishops
+are appointed in the same way. The bishopric of La Paz, created in
+1605 by Pope Paul V., contains one hundred and two parishes, three
+convents, two monasteries, and a missionary college. The bishopric of
+Cochabamba, erected by Pope Pius IX. in 1847, has sixty-nine parishes,
+three monasteries, a convent, and a missionary college. The bishopric
+of Santa Cruz, which includes the department of the Beni as well as
+that of Santa Cruz, was also established in 1605, and has at present
+seventy-three parishes and a missionary home. The missionary work of
+the Church among the Indians of the remote districts, where Christian
+teaching can only be done in this way, is in charge of missionary
+colleges established for the _Propaganda Fide_, there being at
+present about eighteen missions in the heart of the rubber forests
+and in the remote wilds of the Chaco. Missionaries have gone to
+Bolivia from time to time, representing Protestant church societies
+of North America and England, but their chief work has been teaching
+and proselyting. They have not relieved the Catholic Church of any
+of its arduous labors among the indigenes. Just why missionaries
+should be sent to the Spanish-Americans any more than to the Spaniards
+is a little difficult to understand, though they have undoubtedly
+rendered valuable services as school teachers, in spite of their being
+handicapped with the ill-chosen title of “missionaries.”
+
+The constitution confirms the adoption of the national emblems, and
+the national anniversaries for the celebration of great events in the
+history of the country. The Bolivian coat of arms very beautifully and
+artistically symbolizes the resources of this rich country, and is
+emblematic of the national aspirations. It is of elliptical form, the
+band which marks the oval having on its lower half nine stars, and on
+the upper half the word “Bolivia.” Within the oval is the figure of
+the noble Cerro de Potosí, in coloring a faithful reproduction of that
+wonderful mountain of metal, red, brown, purple, and grey in spots
+where eager miners have burrowed into its sides; to the right of the
+_cerro_ stands an alpaca, the denizen of its plateaux, and to the
+left a sheaf of wheat and a breadfruit tree, to typify the wealth of
+its valleys and forests. The rising sun, bright in the glory of its
+beaming rays, is seen behind the _cerro_. On each side of the
+oval are three national flags draped in graceful folds, a cannon, two
+rifles; an Inca hatchet to the left and a liberty cap to the right
+leave just space enough between, at the top of the shield, for the
+great condor of the Andes, posing ready for flight, in the midst of
+two wreaths of laurel and olive, the outside field being pearl blue.
+The Cerro de Potosí symbolizes the mineral, the sheaf of wheat the
+vegetable, and the alpaca the animal kingdom; the rising sun represents
+the hopeful future of the country, the nine stars stand for the nine
+departments into which the republic was divided, before the territorial
+change made in 1905, the flags are emblematic of the national
+patriotism, the rifles and cannon represent the arms of defence, the
+laurel is for victory, and the olive for peace, the condor, to which
+tradition attributes the faculty of seeing through infinite space
+and from remote distances, is chosen because it bears a significant
+relation to the dearest interests of the beloved country. The national
+flag is tricolored, formed of three horizontal bands of red, gold, and
+green, of equal width, placed with the red across the top, the gold
+in the middle, and the green below. In the centre of the flag is the
+national coat of arms, between two branches of laurel and olive. The
+red of the flag symbolizes the animal kingdom; the gold the mineral;
+and the green the vegetable. The national holidays are February 3d,
+which is the birthday anniversary of General Sucre; July 24th, General
+Bolivar’s birthday; August 6th, Independence Day; and December 9th,
+the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho, or the general independence
+day of all Spanish South America. Upon these occasions the patriotism
+of the people bursts forth in a flood of oratory, and the churches are
+filled with the devout, who offer prayers for the prosperity of the
+beloved _patria_.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. VALENTIN ABECIA, SECOND
+  VICE-PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA.]
+
+While the constitution represents a perfect system of legislative,
+executive, and judicial government, its most remarkable feature is
+shown in the equitable and liberal character of those clauses which
+relate to the guarantee of individual rights and liberty. In conformity
+with the best principles of freedom, slavery is abolished, all slaves
+becoming free upon their arrival in Bolivian territory. Suffrage is
+granted to all single male citizens who have reached twenty-one years
+of age and to married men when they have attained the age of eighteen,
+provided they are able to read and write, possess an income of two
+hundred bolivianos, and that their names are inscribed in the civil
+register. Personal security is protected, and torture or other corporal
+punishment is absolutely forbidden under any and all circumstances.
+The death penalty is abolished, except as a punishment for murder,
+parricide, and treason. Arrest or imprisonment must be made in strict
+accordance with the law, but in cases of _flagrante delicto_,
+can be made without a warrant and by any person. Civil and criminal
+law apply equally to all. Political offences cannot be punished by
+confiscation of property. Political and civil rights are freely
+granted, the freedom of the press and the right of peaceable assembly
+are recognized, any lawful trade or profession may be pursued, and
+it is permitted to teach under government supervision. The sanctity
+of the home is inviolable, all property, private correspondence,
+trademarks, and copyrights are protected, and private correspondence,
+if violated, cannot be used as legal evidence. The public debt, and all
+contracts and agreements entered into by the state, according to law,
+are guaranteed. The right of transit throughout the republic is free,
+except as restricted by international law.
+
+  [Illustration: CALLE DE RECREO, LA PAZ.]
+
+As the constitution provides that “all men enjoy in Bolivia the same
+civil rights, the exercise of which is regulated by civil law,”
+the foreigner receives due consideration. If he wishes to become a
+citizen, he may declare this intention before the municipal authorities
+wherever his place of residence is located, after having been a
+resident of the republic for one year, or he may obtain his certificate
+of naturalization as a concession from the Chamber of Deputies. In
+any case he enjoys the immunities granted by the law to sons of the
+country; he may freely manifest his political and religious ideas
+without molestation; he pays the same taxes as the native Bolivian, and
+is not obliged to serve in the army. As a citizen he may be appointed
+a deputy, senator, minister of state, minister of justice, prefect,
+general or captain in the army. The foreigner may make his home in any
+part of the republic that offers an inducement to enterprise, feeling
+that there is no danger of molestation, unless he choose to seek
+adventure in the trackless forests of the Chaco or to hunt big game in
+the remote regions of the Beni. A traveller may journey through the
+country peacefully, and, indeed, the rural districts of Bolivia are as
+safe as the streets of a quiet town of New England. Never has Bolivia
+faced a more promising outlook than at the present time, when peace
+reigns in its foreign and domestic relations; when industrial progress
+is showing greater signs of activity than ever before; when public
+instruction is broadening out, and seeking higher levels; and when,
+as the president’s message of 1905 expresses it, there is “a strongly
+accentuated tendency toward the improvement of the national finances.”
+This very satisfactory condition of affairs is largely due to the
+superior executive and administrative ability of the president, his
+excellency, General Ismael Montes, who, since his election in 1904, has
+consecrated every effort to promote the progress and well-being of his
+country.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. MIGUEL DE LOS SANTOS TABORGA, THE
+  LATE ARCHBISHOP OF LA PLATA.]
+
+One of the youngest presidents in the world, being still in the early
+forties, the chief executive of Bolivia exemplifies in his life and
+character the highest aspirations of patriotism and public-spirited
+enterprise. President Montes is by birth a Paceño, as natives of La
+Paz are called, and his public career began at a very early age, his
+sterling moral qualities and the vigor and energy of his mind combining
+to make him a conspicuous figure among the students of the university
+long before he became noted as a lawyer of ability and a journalist
+famous for the austerity of his principles and his uncompromising
+fidelity to the laws of justice and equity. In the midst of the most
+turbulent crises of politics, his voice and his pen have always been
+guided by serene and unwavering judgment. It was soon recognized that
+the young politician possessed the rare qualities of a leader, and that
+he was destined to achieve the highest positions of the state. When
+the Liberal revolution was installed in La Paz, he rose rapidly in the
+esteem of the Federal party, and was made colonel and chief of staff
+of the army which under General Pando defeated and overthrew President
+Alonso. Later, as minister of war in President Pando’s Cabinet, his
+genius as an organizer and as an executive chief became noted through
+many reforms, and the fortitude of his character was evinced in an
+especial manner. At the head of a division, he took part in the Acre
+campaign against Brazil, marching with his troops across the mountains
+and through the forests of northern Bolivia to the remote frontier. In
+a second expedition to Acre, which he made in company with President
+Pando, his animated and audacious spirit, the correctness of his manner
+of living, and the strict system of discipline maintained in his army,
+as well as the serenity of his disposition and his indefatigable zeal,
+so completely won the admiration of his countrymen, that he began to be
+looked upon as their choice for a political chief, and to be named as
+the prospective president of the country. The proof of the political
+prestige which he had gained without apparent effort is seen in the
+triumph of his election, with its enormous majority. The administration
+of President Montes is marked by progress in every department, of
+a character to reveal constantly the calm, strong, and independent
+judgment of a statesman who looks always forward, like a good helmsman
+guiding the ship of state without fear and without favor across the
+uncertain sea of national politics.
+
+The president’s first representative, Señor Dr. Don Eliodoro Villazón,
+vice-president of the republic and president of the national Congress,
+is among the greatest of Bolivia’s statesmen. His career has been one
+of marked distinction, not only during the present administration,
+but through a long period of devoted service to his country. It is a
+pronounced trait of his character that “his word is as good as his
+bond,” and that in all his acts are shown a lofty sense of duty and a
+firm and unwavering purpose. As diplomatist, orator, financier, and
+politician, Dr. Villazón ranks with the best that South America has
+produced, and, as Mr. Elihu Root observed in a recent address on the
+subject, “there are many remarkably good statesmen in South America.”
+
+The second vice-president, Señor Dr. Don Valentin Abecia, represents
+the best ideals of the nation in his sterling character and superior
+intellectual gifts. Dr. Abecia is not only a statesman, but a scholar
+as well, and he has done a great deal to stimulate a love of learning
+in his country. As president of the Geographic Society of Sucre,
+and as director of the Medical School, his name is associated with
+modern progress in Bolivia along the lines of research and scientific
+experiment. In politics, Dr. Abecia is esteemed for his correct
+principles and scrupulous honor.
+
+In the ecclesiastical government of Bolivia the executive is
+represented by the Archbishop of La Plata, one of the highest
+dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church, reverenced for his great
+piety and esteemed for rare mental gifts. Archbishop Pifferi was
+appointed to succeed the much beloved Archbishop Taborga, by whose
+death in December, 1905, the whole Bolivian nation was plunged into
+grief, so greatly had the noble prelate, during a long and useful
+lifetime, endeared himself to the hearts of the people. The present
+archbishop is of Italian birth, and is fifty-eight years of age. He
+came to Bolivia first as a missionary of the Franciscan order in 1872,
+and from the Franciscan college at Tarija he directed his labors to
+the savage districts of the northern Chaco, where he became very
+popular with the Indians, learning their language and constituting
+himself their protector. From this “footstool of humility,” the young
+missionary rose to be prefect of missions, then to be guardian of
+the order in Tarija, and later commissary-general of the Franciscan
+order in Bolivia, during which time he visited every mission in the
+country, travelling two thousand five hundred miles on muleback. After
+twenty-seven years in Bolivia he returned to Rome, remaining only for
+a short time, when he was appointed by Pope Leo XIII. Apostolic Vicar
+of the Beni. Soon afterward, Archbishop Taborga, with the approval of
+President Montes, called him to the charge of archbishop’s coadjutor,
+with the right of succession, and he was consecrated in Rome in
+October, 1905. Archbishop Taborga died before the arrival of his
+assistant; and as soon as Archbishop Pifferi reached La Paz, he was
+notified of his succession to the archiepiscopal see by the foreign
+minister, Señor Don Claudio Pinilla, who is also the minister of
+worship. The illustrious Bishop of La Paz, Dr. Armentia, is one of the
+most learned churchmen of South America, and the Bishops of Cochabamba
+and Santa Cruz are devoted propagandists of the national religion.
+
+Never in the history of the republic have the ruling powers in both
+Church and state worked with greater zeal for the interests of national
+progress and prosperity than under the existing government, and the
+outlook is promising for the advancement of the country in all that
+pertains to its development.
+
+  [Illustration: STREET SCENE, LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF BOLIVIA IN
+  CONFERENCE WITH THE FOREIGN DIPLOMATIC CORPS.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+             THE PRESIDENT’S CABINET--DEPENDENCIES OF THE
+                           STATE DEPARTMENT
+
+
+With a liberal constitution and a president ambitious for his country’s
+progress and prosperity, Bolivia has the additional guarantee of good
+government assured in a judiciously chosen Cabinet of state. By good
+judgment in the appointment of his ministers, as well as in other acts
+of executive authority, President Montes has contributed to make the
+present administration an epoch in the history of national progress.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON CLAUDIO PINILLA, MINISTER OF FOREIGN
+  AFFAIRS.]
+
+The work of the state department is in charge of six _ministerios_:
+foreign affairs and worship, government and promotion, justice and
+instruction, finance and industry, war, colonization and agriculture.
+Through the department of foreign affairs the international relations
+of the government are maintained, foreign treaties are made, the
+representatives of the government abroad are appointed, and all details
+of the administration as it affects Bolivia’s attitude toward other
+nations are consummated. Under the present government the Foreign
+Office has been particularly occupied with the settlement of boundary
+questions, and, as the minister’s annual report for last year shows,
+with very satisfactory results. A problem of first importance to
+Bolivia, especially since the loss of its seaboard, has been that
+of establishing the frontiers and securing necessary privileges of
+transportation over the railroads, and of shipment through the seaports
+of neighboring republics. Referring to this purpose, the president
+said in his last annual message to Congress: “The executive has not
+believed that even the legitimate and patriotic aim to preserve the
+territorial integrity should be sufficient, without counting upon other
+elements, to stand in the way of diplomatic arrangements counselled
+by reason and imposed by circumstances.” And, he adds, with correct
+judgment: “Bolivia can live and develop with more or less kilometres
+of territory, but it cannot do so, however immeasurable its extent,
+without industries, without credit, without economic vitality.” It
+is this tone of practical statesmanship which animates the entire
+Cabinet as well as the president. The minister of foreign affairs,
+Señor Don Claudio Pinilla, is particularly well equipped for the duties
+of his office at this time when boundary questions are of paramount
+importance, having rendered his country valuable services in settling
+international disputes not only under the present government, but
+in the capacity of special envoy to Brazil during General Pando’s
+presidency, when he succeeded in arranging the difficult Acre dispute
+to the eminent credit of his diplomatic perspicacity. A Paceño by
+birth, Señor Pinilla began his public career in his twenty-fifth
+year, while still a student of law, being chosen as a member of the
+commission sent in 1883 to Caraccas to carry to the land of the great
+liberator a message from Bolivia on the centenary of the hero’s birth.
+In 1884 Señor Pinilla received his degree as a lawyer, and a year later
+he entered the diplomatic service, being appointed secretary of the
+Bolivian legation in Paraguay. The chief work of the legation was the
+concluding of a treaty of limits between the two countries, and the
+young secretary, who, in the meantime, had attracted much attention
+by his clear and well-defined discussion of international questions
+in the press, remained in Paraguay as _chargé d’affaires_, upon the
+return of the minister after the treaty settlement. In his new capacity
+he displayed the energy of a great character by his close study and
+complete mastery of every detail that concerned his country’s relation
+with Paraguay. He initiated plans for its improvement through the
+opening up of new roads between the two countries, in recognition of
+which he was presented with a gold medal by the national Senate of
+Bolivia in 1888. From Paraguay Señor Pinilla was called to be secretary
+to the president, and from that post he was sent to Chile as secretary
+of the Bolivian legation. During all this time the young diplomat
+devoted his attention especially to the study of international limits,
+and when in 1896 he was appointed minister to Peru, it was understood
+that he had been chosen because of his complete knowledge of the
+boundary question, the chief purpose of his mission to Lima being to
+represent his government’s interests in the solution of this difficult
+problem. It was during his residence at Lima that the Federal party of
+La Paz, of which his brother Señor Don Macario Pinilla was one of the
+leaders, declared against Alonso’s government; and as he was heartily
+in sympathy with his brother’s cause, he resigned the post of minister
+to Peru in order to join the ranks of the revolutionists. After the
+overthrow of President Alonso and the election of President Pando he
+was sent as minister to Chile. Later, when the solution of the Acre
+territory dispute between Bolivia and Brazil called for great diplomacy
+and a thorough knowledge of boundary questions, the government found in
+Señor Pinilla a representative worthy of its utmost confidence, and he
+was sent to Rio de Janeiro, accomplishing the purpose of his mission
+with signal success. As a statesman his knowledge of human nature, his
+keen observation and unfailing discretion, and the enthusiasm of his
+energy in promoting the interests of his country have won for him the
+general respect of the people.
+
+  [Illustration: RECEPTION ROOM OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE, LA PAZ.]
+
+Through the Foreign Office the relations of the government with its
+diplomatic and consular representatives are sustained, many of whom are
+among the country’s best statesmen and scholars, and in charge of its
+legations in London, Paris, Washington, and other foreign capitals.
+The Bolivian minister at the Court of Saint James, Dr. Fernando E.
+Guachalla, is one of the most gifted of South American diplomats. His
+experience has been gained in several very difficult missions, in which
+he acquitted himself with distinction. After the treaty of Ancón,
+by which Peru withdrew from alliance with Bolivia, Señor Guachalla
+was sent to Lima as secretary of the Bolivian legation, remaining as
+_chargé d’affaires_ when the minister returned. In this post,
+of special importance at such a time, he proved himself possessed of
+superior diplomatic ability, and here he laid the foundation of a
+career remarkable in fruitful results and increasing in importance,
+as the extraordinary talents of the man became better known and
+recognized. When the revolution of 1891, which was first federalist and
+then liberal and reactionary, was installed, Dr. Guachalla was made
+secretary-general of its governing board; and after the establishment
+of General Pando’s government, he was appointed minister of foreign
+affairs. At the head of a special mission he visited Mexico, and was
+one of the leading figures in the Pan-American Congress there; soon
+afterward he received the appointment of minister to Washington. It
+was during his stay at the capital of the United States that the
+complications of the Acre difficulty began to approach an international
+crisis, and from Washington his government sent him to Rio de Janeiro
+to confer with Minister Pinilla in the negotiations for the settlement
+of that thorny question with Brazil. Like Señor Pinilla, Dr. Guachalla
+has given especial attention to the boundary question. After the
+conclusion of the Acre affair he was appointed minister to Buenos
+Aires, where he was called upon to discuss problems connected with the
+Argentine arbitration of the Peru-Bolivian boundary dispute, which
+required skilful judgment and an accurate knowledge of the subject.
+In 1906 Dr. Guachalla was appointed to his present post as Bolivian
+minister at the court of Great Britain.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON ANIBAL CAPRILES, MINISTER OF
+  GOVERNMENT AND PROMOTION.]
+
+At Paris and Berlin the legation of Bolivia is in charge of Señor Don
+Francisco Argandoña, Prince de Glorieta, whose magnificent property is
+one of the show places of Sucre, though the prince and princess live
+chiefly in Paris, where they are well known and much beloved. As a
+prince of the papal court, the minister has great influence in church
+circles, and as Bolivia’s richest banker his word is important in the
+financial world. He is a clever diplomatist, and has been successful
+in settling important international questions. The government is
+represented at Washington by one of the most experienced diplomats
+in the foreign service, Señor Don Ignacio Calderón, who has lived at
+the North American capital for many years. His influence has been
+valuable in promoting the friendly relations that exist between the two
+countries, politically and commercially. His distinguished wife is a
+native of the United States, and his children were born in that country.
+
+In the recent negotiations between Bolivia and Peru regarding their
+commercial relations, which had been unfavorably affected by Bolivia’s
+treaty with Chile, the Bolivian minister at Lima, Señor Don Benedicto
+Goitia, whose ability as a politician and a parliamentarian places him
+among the leaders of his country, was called upon to act on behalf of
+Bolivian interests, and the success of his mission won the applause of
+his countrymen. The Bolivian highlands have given to the world more
+than one diplomat of extraordinary talent, entitled to be named among
+the most distinguished representatives of the great world powers. Force
+of will and fearlessness seem to be the predominating characteristics
+of the people of the region. Perhaps the free air of the altitude
+“above the heights to which fear may climb” favors a dispassionate
+study of one’s fellowman, his strength and his weakness, and the will
+is more able to assert itself because sure of its power. Considering
+the limited scope allowed for the exercise of his talent, the Bolivian
+diplomat has frequently shown wonderful qualities; and as in the
+twentieth century diplomacy bids fair to be a more important national
+equipment in any country than a strong army and navy, it is essential
+that this branch of the government should receive especial attention.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON JUAN M. SARACHO, MINISTER OF JUSTICE
+  AND INSTRUCTION.]
+
+The department of government and public works, or, as it is called,
+Ministerio de Gobierno y Fomento, directs the affairs of the
+interior as distinct from foreign affairs. Everything relating to
+departmental, provincial, and municipal government, and the promotion
+of public works is under the supervision of this _ministerio_,
+and it is one of the most important branches of the administration,
+particularly at present, when the government is devoting constant and
+profound attention to the improvement of its political system and the
+development of public works. In the annual report of this department
+recently presented to Congress, it is seen that many reforms have
+been made in matters affecting the well-being of society, such as
+sanitation, police surveillance, the protection of the Indian from
+abuses of the petty authorities, and the better regulation of the
+government’s mail service. Bolivia is a member of the Universal
+Postal Union; newspapers and printed matter are mailed free to any
+point within the republic; the law punishes severely any tampering
+with the mail or fraudulent use of its privileges. The system of
+post-office money orders has been established between Bolivia and the
+principal foreign countries, and a parcel post service was recently
+adopted between Bolivia and the United States. The annual report of
+the director-general of post offices, Señor Dr. Victor Sanjinés,
+shows that seven hundred and seventy-nine thousand seven hundred and
+ninety letters, packages, etc., were received from foreign sources,
+and two hundred and fifty-five thousand eight hundred and seventeen
+sent to foreign addresses last year. The internal mail service shows
+the receipts and despatching of mail to have been about equal, nearly
+two million letters. The foreign correspondence is despatched through
+the ports of Peru, Chile, and Argentina, according to agreement with
+those countries. In the interior of the republic there is a weekly
+service to all parts of the country, and the more accessible districts
+have semi-weekly delivery of mails. Germany ranks first on the list
+of foreign correspondence other than South American, France and
+the United States coming next about evenly. The minister’s report
+shows a marked improvement in the revenues from the mail service,
+both foreign and domestic; last year’s returns noting an increase
+of fifteen thousand bolivianos over those of the previous year. In
+public works, which are under the supervision of this department,
+in the branch of _fomento_, or promotion, progress has been
+stimulated as never before in the history of the country, the uppermost
+question at the present moment in the councils of state being the
+construction of a great system of railroads in accordance with a plan
+which aims to unite the most thickly populated centres, and proposes
+to bring railway facilities to the mining districts and to promote
+commercial interchange on the Amazon, the Paraguay, the La Plata, and
+the Pacific. The minister of this department, Dr. Anibal Capriles,
+voices the national sentiment in his report to Congress this year,
+when he says: “We aspire to gradual, homogeneous development by our
+own efforts, and this is the policy which the present administration
+seeks to carry out, with the support of the best popular element and
+upon the ample basis of justice and right. As should be the case, the
+administration recognizes neither political parties nor territorial
+circumscriptions; eminently national, it has acted with equal zeal in
+all sections of the republic, studying the most urgent necessities
+and seeking to make the improvements respond to legitimate interests.
+The plan of the government has been, in brief, to work steadily and
+surely under the shelter of order and liberty.” Dr. Capriles is himself
+an indefatigable worker, with extraordinary executive ability, and
+under his systematic direction of affairs, the various branches of his
+department despatch daily an enormous amount and variety of work. A
+native of Cochabamba, Dr. Capriles received his earliest lessons in
+patriotism and political science in that city. While a student at the
+university he became associated with the brightest minds of the country
+in the publication of periodicals devoted to the liberal principles
+which are represented in the present government. He was the leader of
+the opposition during Alonso’s administration, and became the head of
+the revolutionary party in Cochabamba, which seconded the movement in
+La Paz, in 1898, contributing to bring about the change that resulted
+in the establishment of the present governing power. Elected second
+vice-president by the conventional assembly and appointed minister of
+government two years later, Dr. Capriles has held high offices in the
+administrations of President Pando and President Montes, having been
+acting president during the six months that General Pando was with his
+army in the Acre territory. Dr. Capriles is a writer of distinguished
+ability, and his biography of General Sucre is one of the valued
+contributions to South American literature.
+
+  [Illustration: OFFICES OF THE MINISTER OF JUSTICE AND
+  INSTRUCTION.]
+
+Impressed with the necessity for giving increased attention to
+the administration of justice and public instruction, the present
+government has initiated important reforms in this department in
+accordance with the suggestions of the minister, Señor Don Juan M.
+Saracho, who has made a careful study of existing conditions and the
+possibilities of improvement. A characteristic feature of the present
+Cabinet is the absolute fearlessness of its attitude, collectively
+and individually, in treating of any evils of the body politic which
+require amendment. The period of soothing and flattering messages to
+Congress has passed with the gold-laced _poseur_ whom tradition
+loves to picture in Spanish-American politics; and the annual report
+of a Cabinet minister to-day may be expected to present a true idea
+of the actual state of affairs in his department. Señor Saracho gives
+the result of his year’s administration in clear-cut phrases, urging
+reform where needed, and expressing satisfaction where progress has
+been encouraging. In every branch there is the manifest determination
+to strengthen the efficiency of the public service, to cut off
+whatever is useless and cumbersome and to build up a perfect system.
+The question of public instruction occupies a very prominent place
+in Señor Saracho’s department, and public opinion has not been slow
+to grasp the importance of establishing schools in every part of the
+republic upon a more advanced basis than that formerly existing, when
+the primary school was unknown and the university was within reach of
+only a favored few. The present minister of instruction proposes fewer
+universities and a greater number of primary schools, which is the only
+practical basis of popular education. In accordance with the liberal
+views which he has held throughout his public career, Señor Saracho
+believes in the right of every citizen to share the privileges of
+public instruction, and he regards this as one of the great principles
+of national progress. He has devoted much attention to questions of
+education, and long before his appointment to the Cabinet, when as a
+rising lawyer he made his home in Potosí after being graduated from
+the university in Sucre, he was recognized as an enthusiastic advocate
+of popular education. Although a native of Tarija, Señor Saracho’s
+home has been for many years in Potosí. Upon the fall of President
+Alonso’s government he was elected representative from that city to
+the national convention at Oruro, in October, 1899, where he became
+president of the committee on the constitution, and vice-president of
+the assembly. After the close of its sessions he was appointed rector
+of the University of Potosí, and he remained in this post until elected
+senator from the department of Tarija in 1902, being chosen secretary
+of the Senate in 1903. At the close of 1903 President Pando called
+him to the ministry of justice and public instruction, and upon his
+resignation at the end of President Pando’s term of office, he was
+again appointed by President Montes. Señor Saracho possesses a thorough
+knowledge of existing conditions in his country and has absolute
+confidence in its future greatness. His optimism is wholesome, genial,
+and of a character to inspire a like sentiment in all who come within
+the influence of his singularly magnetic voice.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON DANIEL DEL CASTILLO, MINISTER OF
+  FINANCE.]
+
+As the treasury is the barometer by which a nation judges its “weather
+prospect”; and as the prosperity or depression of industrial activity
+is a sure indication of general conditions, the department of finance
+and industry has especial interest from an economic standpoint.
+Under its direction all the financial operations of the government
+are consummated. The general income of the republic is divided into
+national, departmental, and municipal revenues. The national revenue
+arises from customs taxes; duties on the exportation of silver,
+tin, copper, bismuth, gold, and rubber; imports paid by anonymous
+societies and mining enterprises; bridge tolls; imported alcohols and
+_aguardientes_; consular bills, mortgages, trademarks, mining
+patents, stamped paper, and stamps; the mint, the state telegraph,
+land taxes, pensions, and university degrees. The national resources
+have been increased recently by the Brazilian and Chilean indemnities.
+These sums will be spent in the construction of railroads. The national
+revenues are administered by the director of the national treasury
+in accordance with the budgets of the various _ministerios_
+endorsed by the minister of finance. The departmental revenues arise
+chiefly from the territorial contribution of Indians, taxes on landed
+property, duties on the importation and exportation of cattle, on
+legacies, tithes, taxes on hides and skins, and from other sources
+peculiar to each department. The departmental funds are administered
+by the director of the public treasury in each department. Congress
+discusses and votes the general budget, national and departmental,
+annually, designating the revenues and determining the expenses; the
+minister of finance and the prefects of the departments supervise the
+disposal of the budget in accordance with the decision of Congress.
+The annual budget balances at about ten million bolivianos. As has been
+said, Bolivia has no external debt; the internal debt is stated at four
+million bolivianos. A national office of public credit is charged to
+certify the internal debt. A national tribunal of accounts exists for
+the purpose of settling accounts in all branches of the administration,
+national, departmental, and municipal. It is composed of five
+magistrates elected by the president from a ternary list provided by
+the Senate; the principal accountants are named by the president from a
+ternary list of the tribunal, and the remaining employés are appointed
+by the tribunal. The magistrates of the tribunal can be removed only
+under sentence of the supreme court of justice.
+
+  [Illustration: THE QUARTEL, LA PAZ.]
+
+The promising financial outlook of the country is indicated by the
+spontaneous offers of loans that have come recently from English and
+Belgian capitalists, amounting in the first case to a million, and in
+the second to two million pounds sterling. The minister of finance
+and industry, Señor Don Daniel del Castillo, comments on these offers
+in his report for 1905, regarding them as a proof of the favorable
+condition of Bolivian credit in European markets, and as a guarantee
+of the facility with which funds could be obtained if necessary to
+develop the national industries. Señor Castillo is very hopeful for the
+future of industrial enterprise in his country, when the new railways
+are completed, to facilitate transportation, and when regulations
+are once established to protect infant industries. An ardent patriot
+and for years one of the staunch leaders of the liberal party now in
+power, Señor Castillo represents the spirit of the new Bolivia, which
+has outgrown the ebullitions of juvenile temper, and has settled down
+to the task of full grown government. A statesman of high ideals and
+practical methods, he devotes all his talents to the public service,
+and in the councils of state is distinguished for his correct decisions
+and far-seeing judgment.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. JOSÉ QUINTEROS, MINISTER OF WAR.]
+
+The war department is now chiefly occupied with the reorganization of
+the army, in fulfilment of a decree of the president, issued March 3,
+1905, calling for a new military registration of all Bolivians from
+eighteen years of age upward, without distinction of social class.
+It is the intention of the government to give no opportunity for the
+evasion of the law which makes military service obligatory, and the
+minister of war, Señor Dr. José S. Quinteros, says: “When it is a
+question of the militarization of the country and of the national
+defence, there are no privileged social classes, no exclusions for
+professional reasons; every Bolivian, of whatever social condition and
+whatever profession, is obliged to fulfil the sacred duty of preparing
+himself and educating himself in a military sense. And the best school
+of military education and apprenticeship is the quartel; it is there
+that practical lessons in military science are given, and that one
+learns the love of country, consecrating to it the sacrifice of one’s
+life if necessary.” By following the proposed system of giving military
+education and instruction to all Bolivians within the quartels, calling
+them into the service at determined periods, it is believed that
+within a few years Bolivia will be able to count on a large number of
+citizens prepared for war. By the laws of the country, every citizen is
+a soldier except the clergy, the only sons of aged parents, fathers of
+more than two children, and those whose brothers have died in national
+war. Those who enjoy immunity from conscription are required to pay a
+small semi-annual tax during the years in which they would otherwise
+serve. The Bolivian army is divided into two principal categories,
+the troops of the line and the reserves; the latter are again divided
+into the pledged troops of the line, composed of young men between
+twenty and twenty-five years of age, who form an integral part of the
+army of the line and may be sent to the quartel at a moment’s notice
+if necessary; the ordinary reserve, of men from twenty-five to thirty
+years of age; the extraordinary reserve, from thirty to forty years
+of age; and the territorial guard, from forty to fifty years of age.
+The total strength of the army, counting it in these divisions, is one
+hundred and two thousand five hundred and sixty men.
+
+The military departments correspond to the political departments, the
+prefect being also _commandante general_. In each department
+capital there is a chief of staff, who is a subaltern of the
+_commandante general_, and has charge of the transmission of
+military judgments in civil as well as criminal cases. The republic is
+also divided into five military zones: the north, which includes the
+department of La Paz; the centre, including Oruro and Cochabamba; the
+south, Chuquisaca, Potosí, and Tarija; the east, Santa Cruz; and the
+northwest, including the Beni and the Territorio Nacional de Colonias.
+The military park is in La Paz, where it occupies the edifice of the
+Intendencia de la Guerra; its dependencies are in Oruro and Potosí.
+The Escuela de Guerra, which has for its object the preparation of
+technical experts for the service of the general staff and instructors
+for the army, is under the direction of the war department, as is also
+the Colegio Militar, designed to give practical military training in
+all its branches. The general inspection of the army is in charge of
+General of Division Clodomiro Montes, who has recently made a journey
+through the republic, completing a thorough investigation of the
+various branches of military service. The result of his observations
+has been to confirm the necessity for a new military census and a
+reorganization of the army. General Montes is a distinguished figure
+in military circles, not only of his own country, but abroad, with a
+brave and honorable war record, and in his effort to raise the military
+standard of Bolivia he is adding an additional service to the many
+he has rendered in behalf of the nation. The minister of war, Dr.
+Quinteros, a native of the “Villa Imperial,” Potosí, is one of the
+youngest members of the Cabinet, though his name is well known not
+only in political, but in literary circles of South America, where
+his works on constitutional law have been widely read. He was several
+times elected deputy before entering the present Cabinet as minister,
+and in 1903 was president of the Chamber of Deputies. A lawyer of
+distinguished talents, he has contributed in an important degree to
+the advancement of knowledge in legal matters, especially through his
+lectures to the students of the law classes in the University of San
+Francisco Xavier, Sucre, where he occupied the chair of jurisprudence
+for several years.
+
+In order to give adequate attention to the important questions of
+immigration, colonization, and agriculture, the government organized
+in October, 1904, the Ministerio de Colonias y Agricultura, appointing
+as minister Señor Manuel Vicente Ballivian, whose thorough knowledge
+of all subjects relating to Bolivia, whether historical, political,
+or commercial, makes him a veritable encyclopædia of information. So
+universally is he recognized as an authority in this respect, that
+he is quoted in nearly all books of reference on Bolivia in whatever
+country or language. Señor Ballivian is an accomplished linguist and a
+writer of great talent, as well as a statesman, inheriting many of the
+distinguished gifts of his illustrious family, of whom General José
+Ballivian, Dr. Adolfo Ballivian, and the minister’s father, Don Vicente
+Ballivian y Rojas, are particularly noted for their fine intellects.
+Señor Ballivian has translated into Spanish all the more important
+works written on his country by foreigners, and he has contributed to
+its bibliography scores of interesting books and pamphlets written
+by himself. In all his works the chief purpose is the dissemination
+of knowledge regarding the immense resources of Bolivia, and the
+opportunity it offers as a field for great industrial enterprises. When
+called to the ministry of colonization and agriculture, Señor Ballivian
+had already made his services most valuable to the government through
+the Geographic Society of La Paz, of which he is president, and the
+National Bureau of Immigration, Statistics, and Geographic Propaganda,
+which is under his direction. In his first annual report to Congress,
+Señor Ballivian gives his plan for promoting immigration, which is
+to secure only those colonists who come voluntarily to the country,
+attracted by its great resources, good climate, and favorable laws,
+thus avoiding the disastrous consequences of promiscuous immigration,
+such as has afflicted neighboring republics, where the too liberal
+importation of immigrants has frequently resulted in the necessity
+for shipping the newcomers back to Europe at great expense. It is
+the opinion of Señor Ballivian, endorsed by the government, that
+more satisfactory colonization will be accomplished if immigrants
+are brought out at their own risk, after being supplied with full
+information about the country through the consulates and immigration
+agencies, which will be provided with literature in various languages
+for distribution as propaganda.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN, MINISTER
+  OF COLONIZATION AND AGRICULTURE.]
+
+Bearing on the subject of colonization, an important law governing
+the acquisition of unfilled lands was passed by Congress in October,
+1905. According to its provisions, state lands can be acquired only
+by purchase, except under special dispositions and laws. The unit of
+measurement is the hectare, equivalent to a trifle less than two and
+one-half acres. The ownership of land does not carry unrestricted
+rights as to minerals, which are regulated by mining laws. Everyone,
+native or foreigner, capable of conforming to the civil law is
+permitted to purchase from the state as much as twenty thousand
+hectares, paying cash therefor at the rate of ten centavos, equivalent
+to four and one-half cents gold, per hectare, for land suitable to
+agriculture and cattle raising; for lands which contain productive
+rubber trees the price is one boliviano per hectare. Purchasers are
+obliged to establish on their lands at least one family for each
+thousand hectares. Concessions for more than twenty thousand hectares
+are subject to the approval of Congress. After the land has been
+granted, it is measured and the limits are marked by two experts,
+one of whom is appointed by the government and the other by the
+purchaser, the expenses of both being paid by the purchaser; on the
+termination of this work, the respective authorities are notified and
+the concession is recorded in the prescribed registers. For purposes of
+immigration the government reserves such lands as it deems necessary,
+holding certain tracts also for distribution among the Indians, for
+establishing government institutions, founding villages, building
+roads, and promoting foreign investment and enterprise. Neither those
+acquiring lands nor their successors are permitted to oppose the
+opening of roads and streets through their property or the building
+of railroads across their lands, when an increase of population
+requires it, nor will they have the right of indemnity, except for the
+construction work done on the land which the roads cover. All matters
+relating to these land laws are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
+minister of colonies. The executive and the _delegados nacionales_
+of the Territorio de Colonias and the Gran Chaco have the power to sell
+the government lands within their respective territorial limits, in
+conformity with the provisions of the present law and the regulations
+authorized by the executive for its execution. Not only has the
+government made every possible effort to facilitate the opening up of
+hitherto uncultivated regions, but it has promulgated particularly
+favorable laws to govern the adjudication of lands and the guarantees
+and protection which are offered to the foreigner. Furthermore, the
+districts, or _zonas_, which are to be appropriated to purposes
+of colonization, have been specified by law and arranged in groups
+according to the nature of products and climate.
+
+In addition to the Territorio de Colonias, which offers special
+inducements for colonization, there are vast lands in the Departments
+of the Beni, Santa Cruz, and Chuquisaca, along the eastern boundary
+of the republic. Probably the most promising field for immigration,
+considering the favorable climate as well as the great resources and
+proximity to the Argentine railway system and the waterways of La
+Plata, is the province of the Gran Chaco, belonging to the department
+of Tarija. This province is now being settled under the direction of
+the intrepid prefect of the department, Señor Don Leocadio Trigo,
+who has travelled through the savage wilds that still exist in this
+region, beyond the most remote districts explored by his predecessors
+in office. He has succeeded in subduing hitherto intransigent tribes,
+and has established government authority in districts never before
+subjected to the laws of civilization. Roads have been opened and
+_postas_ built to facilitate communication between the Chaco
+and the rest of the republic. In his recent message, the minister of
+colonization warmly commends the zeal and patriotism which accomplished
+a work so important to the interests of national progress.
+
+While active efforts toward colonization are thus in progress, the work
+of stimulating agricultural development is occupying the minister’s
+attention in an equal degree. Juntas de Fomento Agricola y Ganadero,
+which are boards for the promotion of agriculture and stock raising,
+have been established throughout the republic, and model farms are
+being instituted for the technical training of agriculturists. A school
+of agriculture has just been founded in the port of Rurrenabaque,
+in the Territorio Nacional de Colonias, and another in Tarija. The
+government proposes also to give elementary lessons in agriculture
+in the primary schools, followed by agricultural studies of a more
+advanced character in the secondary schools. The National Bureau
+of Immigration, Statistics, and Geographic Propaganda is annexed
+to the Department of Colonization and Agriculture, and, under the
+indefatigable efforts of Señor Ballivian, the national statistics are
+being compiled in a satisfactory way. In the section of geographic
+propaganda, the minister’s predilection for scientific study and
+research is seen in the institution of a National Museum of Natural
+History; and among the works of geographic propaganda issued by the
+bureau, the material coming from Señor Ballivian’s pen indicates the
+wide range of knowledge he possesses on this subject. The museum
+contains specimens of the production of the soil, objects of interest
+in historical research, as prehistoric fossils and archæological
+specimens; collections of minerals and of plants and animals; of
+weapons and ornaments of the aborigines; to which is added a rare
+collection of coins. As the museum is of recent existence, it is still
+in process of classification, but promises to be one of the most
+interesting and attractive of the national institutions.
+
+The president confers with each of the ministers of his Cabinet upon
+an appointed day of each week, and with the entire Cabinet in council
+once a week. By this method the chief executive is in constant touch
+with all the departments of the government, and the administration
+is directed by the supreme power in perfect accord with the various
+_ministerios_.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAZA MURILLO IN FRONT OF THE GOVERNMENT
+  PALACE, LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: MUNICIPAL THEATRE, LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+           THE LADIES OF THE CABINET--SOCIAL LIFE--CHARITIES
+
+
+  [Illustration: A BEAUTIFUL BOLIVIAN.]
+
+Under the viceroyalty, when the Audiencia of Charcas represented the
+authority of Spain throughout the greater part of South America, and
+occupied a position hardly second in power to that of the viceroy, the
+capital of Alto Peru, then called Chuquisaca, now Sucre, was the centre
+of culture and fashion for the whole territory comprised in the present
+republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. Imagination can easily
+picture the little court of the Audiencia, and mentally place in its
+charming circle the ladies who gave prestige to its social functions.
+From the stately old palaces with their carved doorways, they look out
+to-day; for the same type of beauty may be seen in the capital now as
+then, a few of the same wonderful palaces remain, and the owner is as
+queenly, as beautiful, and as charming as she could possibly have been
+a century ago. It is always the ladies of the court, the Cabinet, the
+diplomatic corps, who stretch the silken cord of harmony across the gap
+between political and social life and give to the state its ornamental
+feature, without which it would present a cold and unattractive
+spectacle. The Court of Saint James, the White House, the Escurial,
+are names which call to mind, with more pleasure and fascination than
+their chief purpose inspires in most of us, a vision of gay throngs
+in silks and laces and jewels, with Cupid in the midst and proud
+Jupiter benignly looking on. A gallant young minister of state remarked
+recently to the wife of a colleague: “Ah, madam, the Cabinet is only
+a necessary evil; the ladies of the Cabinet are its indispensable
+blessing!” Life at the capitals would often be a dreary routine were
+it not for the gracious hostesses of the administration, who inspire
+by their sympathy, and give a charming note of gayety to leisure hours
+with their brilliant balls, receptions, and other entertainments.
+
+In Bolivia the president and his ministers are nearly all young men;
+and although the president’s wife enjoys the matronly prestige which a
+house full of beautiful children gives, she still looks but little over
+twenty. Possessing a gentle dignity of manner and the rare charm of an
+exquisitely modulated voice, it is a pleasure to be in her company and
+to listen to her genial conversation. The executive mansion is thronged
+on her day of reception, as everyone loves and esteems the _Señora
+Presidenta_. The poor and unfortunate adore her for her numerous
+benefactions and for her kindly interest in their troubles and needs.
+The home of the president was recently plunged into mourning by the
+death of his eldest daughter, a singularly beautiful and attractive
+young lady, universally admired for her winsome disposition and the
+extraordinary loveliness of her character. The entire nation manifested
+its grief with demonstrations of profound sympathy.
+
+Señora de Pando, the wife of the ex-president, and Señora de Villazón,
+the first vice-president’s wife, while representing distinctly
+different types of Bolivian beauty, are both remarkably handsome
+women. Señora de Pando, who is now in Europe, is a stately figure,
+the _grande dame_ whom painters love to put on canvas; like
+her illustrious husband, she is greatly esteemed and beloved by the
+Bolivian people. Señora de Villazón is of the pure Spanish-American
+type, combining Old World ideals of beauty and grace with a blithe
+spirit which is altogether American and shows nothing of the melancholy
+temperament so often characteristic of the Spaniards. Señora de
+Abecia, the wife of the second vice-president, who, as well as Señora
+de Villazón, is a resident of Sucre, is one of the most charming
+social leaders at the capital. Sucre is among the most European of
+South American cities in its social life and customs, several of its
+representative families having lived a long time abroad, while a great
+many of the younger generation finished their education in French or
+English schools. This influence of the Old World is noticeable in the
+best circles of society, and especially among its more conservative
+leaders. Señora de Abecia is distinguished for her gentle refinement
+and culture; and when she receives in company with her daughter, they
+might easily be mistaken for sisters.
+
+Whether or not the climate and the philosophical contentment which
+pervades Bolivian life be responsible, the years seem to pass with
+no more than a graceful bow to the favored ladies of this country.
+The wife of the foreign minister, Señora de Pinilla, impresses one
+as being remarkably young when she presents her grown son, several
+inches taller than herself, who, by the way, has just distinguished
+himself and brought honor to his country as the only American who has
+ever carried away the highest honors, ahead of European students, at
+one of the first schools of Belgium. A daughter, now of the “sweet
+girl graduate” period, and several younger children make life merry
+in this most attractive household. Señora de Pinilla has genius as a
+social leader, and she entertains with liberal hospitality, possessing
+many of the gifts of mind and heart which were characteristic of her
+illustrious father, Señor Don José Rosendo Gutierrez, and which made
+him so generally beloved. Señora de Capriles, the wife of the minister
+of government, spends much of her time at the easel, and the results
+of her study of art are seen in several beautiful pictures which adorn
+her handsome home. The opportunity for studying art is limited in
+Bolivia; and though the country has produced many good artists, the
+circumstances have never been quite favorable to a development of
+this talent, so few teachers being available. Señora de Capriles has
+evidently received instruction abroad, as her work shows the influence
+of European schools.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORA DOÑA BETHSABÉ DE MONTES, WIFE OF THE
+  PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA.]
+
+The Señoras de Montes, de Pinilla, and de Capriles live in La Paz,
+which is at present the seat of government. Señora de Saracho, the wife
+of the minister of justice and instruction, has her home in the city of
+Potosí, far from the centre of official life, under the shadow of the
+famous mountain which poured so much silver into the lap of Spain in
+colonial days, and which is still supplying rich metals to the markets
+of the world. In a picturesque old _palacio_,--everything old in
+Potosí is picturesque,--on one of the sloping hills of the “Imperial
+Town,” Señora de Saracho lives the ideal home life, welcoming with
+true courtesy and kindliness the visitor to that interesting city,
+and charming everyone who meets her by her sweet graciousness and
+unaffected goodness. Whenever it is possible for the minister to get
+away from the arduous duties of his office, he leaves at once for
+Potosí, where he takes his holiday with his beloved family and among
+his precious books. Señora del Castillo, whose husband is finance
+minister, lives in La Paz. She belongs to a very old and aristocratic
+family and is one of the most popular of the Cabinet ladies. In company
+with her clever husband, she holds charming receptions, and entertains
+a host of friends with delightful hospitality.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORA DOÑA HORTENSIA DE PINILLA.]
+
+There has never been a time in the history of the republic when
+the name of Ballivian has not been prominent in social as well as
+political affairs, and the present head of the family inherits the
+best characteristics of his noble race. His home is the centre of
+intellectual and social life in La Paz, and Señora de Ballivian, with
+clever sons and lovely daughters to assist her, entertains sumptuously.
+The salon of this gracious hostess is a feature of the social season.
+Her _tertulias_ are more than evening receptions; they are marked
+by a reunion of the best talent, and there is often music, singing,
+the discussion of interesting topics of varied character,--indeed,
+everything that gives a salon its charm. As Señor Ballivian speaks
+many languages fluently, and as Señora Ballivian and her children are
+similarly gifted, foreign visitors to La Paz are especially happy to be
+invited to these “at homes,” which are always enjoyable.
+
+  [Illustration: CARNIVAL DAYS IN COCHABAMBA.]
+
+The customs of good society are more or less the same in all lands,
+and the popular methods of entertainment vary little in any country
+from those of all others. Climate and circumstances may influence the
+social routine in a moderate degree, but even these are less taken into
+account than may be generally supposed. When a foreigner arrives in La
+Paz for the first time, and the altitude of over twelve thousand feet
+makes breathing difficult to him, to say nothing of the effort required
+to climb the streets of the city which are nearly all at a considerable
+angle toward the perpendicular, his first impression is likely to be:
+“It is impossible to go about and enjoy life when the mere effort of
+breathing tires one!” but a short residence serves to cure most people
+of the _soroche_, as this mountain sickness is called, and in the
+social functions which mark the summer season, none of the guests are
+more constantly in evidence than the foreigner, who promenades, dances,
+and banquets with the greatest apparent enjoyment. Long horseback
+rides into the country around La Paz constitute a favorite form of
+amusement, and coaching parties, automobile outings, or picnics by
+train to Tiahuanaco and Lake Titicaca are frequently arranged. Life may
+be passed very agreeably in the City of Peace, and as the government
+officials, with few exceptions, and the entire diplomatic corps, reside
+there, society is represented in its most attractive features. While
+La Paz has the prestige which the residence of the executive and the
+diplomatic corps gives it, Sucre is the centre of the social world as
+represented in some of the wealthiest and most aristocratic families
+of the republic. Cochabamba, the garden city, is the home of many of
+Bolivia’s intellectual leaders, artists, poets, and other great men,
+and it is the centre around which are grouped the great estates of
+several of the most prominent landowners. Potosí rests a good deal on
+the laurels won in colonial days, when it was a city of fabulous wealth
+and fanciful legends, though its society is charming and cultured;
+Oruro is called the “Gringo city,” so many foreigners having made
+it their home, contributing to give it something of a cosmopolitan
+character. Social life in Santa Cruz is simple, but frank and cordial,
+and the generous hospitality of its people is proverbial. The bustle
+and whirl of a strenuous existence do not disturb the serenity of
+any Bolivian city. La Paz leisurely takes its coffee between nine
+and ten in the morning, and by five o’clock in the evening the day’s
+work is done, as it should be. What more barbarous than the mad rush
+and scrimmage that characterize the life of the average modern city
+from daybreak until dark! Humanity seems to be caught on a wheel of
+progress, which, the faster it turns in its onward course, the more
+recklessly it grinds the unfortunate victim. It is to be hoped that
+future generations will evolve a more comfortable system, and, if
+it must be rapid, let it be a less tragic process. The proprietress
+of a silkworm industry in Cochabamba complained recently that it
+was impossible to get help to tend the cocoons at night as no one
+would work all night, no matter how well paid. Perhaps this state of
+affairs indicates an indifference to opportunities for bettering one’s
+condition in life and a too easy contentment, but there is, after all,
+something refreshing in the contemplation of an entire community able
+to take its rest undisturbed in the night hours. Isn’t it a glimpse
+of the “simple life” so much lauded by the latter-day philosophers?
+The happiness and well-being of Bolivian society do not depend upon
+the regularity of a suburban train service, upon the attractions of
+the theatrical season, or upon any of the well-known public amusements
+which have become essential to the enjoyment of leisure in the big
+centres of the Old and the New World. At the same time, the chief
+cities have their theatres, one of the best being the Teatro Municipal
+of La Paz, which was built under the administration of General José
+Ballivian and opened to the public in 1845. It has a seating capacity
+for about a thousand spectators, divided into parquet, first and second
+balconies, and a third gallery, which is called the _gallinero_,
+or hencoop, occupied by the miscellaneous crowd familiarly called
+gallery gods in English and American theatres.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORA DOÑA ISABEL DE CAPRILES.]
+
+Outdoor sports and pastimes are popular, and there are several
+clubs under whose management races and horse shows are held. The
+_cancha_, or race track, of La Paz, situated in the suburb
+Sopocachi, is used not only for the races, but for various other
+_fiestas_, and upon many occasions entertainments are held there
+in the interests of charity. A feature of social life found in all
+Spanish-American countries is the promenade in the plaza, which is
+as attractive in the Bolivian cities as elsewhere. La Paz, Sucre,
+Cochabamba, Potosí, Oruro, and Santa Cruz have their large public
+squares, ornamented with trees and flowers, and having paved walks all
+around for the promenade. A band of music plays in the evening two or
+three times a week, and society puts on its gala dress and spends an
+hour or two in the plaza, the young ladies walking in one direction
+and the young men in the opposite, so that there is a constant
+meeting of “dark eyes” that “look love to eyes which speak again.”
+Under the marvellously clear light of the moon as it shines over La
+Paz, the effect of the brilliant throng is particularly pleasing and
+picturesque. Bolivians like to enjoy the beauties of nature, and
+live a great deal out of doors. Many take their annual outing in
+a trip by coach to the wonderful health resorts of the Yungas, to
+far-famed Sorata, or to the thermal springs in the neighborhood of
+La Paz, Cochabamba, Sucre, and Potosí. It is quite a popular custom
+for society to go to the seashore during a part of the year, and the
+ports of Mollendo, Arica, and Antofagasta are favorite resorts. With
+the completion of the new railway from La Paz to Arica, the trip can
+be made in a few hours by fast train, so that the popularity of that
+beautiful little coast city may be expected to grow rapidly, not only
+as a commercial port, but as a fashionable bathing resort. Many rich
+families of the principal cities have homes in the country also, where
+they spend a few months every year. The valleys around La Paz, Sucre,
+and Cochabamba are dotted with prosperous-looking haciendas, and there
+are several really magnificent estates. A favorite outing for La Paz
+people is a drive or horseback ride along the road to Obrajes; and
+delightful picnic parties are held in the picturesque little park of
+the town of Obrajes, which overlooks some of the most beautiful scenery
+imaginable. La Paz itself being at too great an altitude to permit of
+luxurious vegetation, it is a treat to find, within a few hours’ ride,
+all the charm of green fields and shady groves. The suburban homes of
+La Paz are many of them very attractive, and pretty chalets look out
+from the hillsides all around.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORA DOÑA V. DEL CASTILLO.]
+
+  [Illustration: AN AUTOMOBILE PARTY IN COCHABAMBA.]
+
+In the city itself some of the handsomest houses are old palaces of
+the time of the viceroyalty, which, in spite of the necessity for
+modernizing their interiors to provide for twentieth-century comfort,
+still possess that charm of solidity and individuality of design
+which makes them easily recognizable from the dwellings of recent
+construction. Their spacious drawing rooms are particularly adapted
+to the entertainment of large parties, and one can imagine that an
+additional touch of romance is given to the gayeties of a ballroom
+about which cling traditions of brilliant social events celebrated a
+century ago. If walls could speak, what tales of chivalry and beauty
+we might hear regarding those days when splendid festivities were
+held to honor the arrival of a noble representative of the court of
+Spain, or to welcome some illustrious envoy of Rome! Society entertains
+with less pomp and pageantry in these republican days; but romance
+knows no epoch, and the old walls, if they could speak, could still
+repeat pretty compliments exchanged “when hearts are young and faces
+fair.” Bridge parties and five o’clock teas are among the more modern
+entertainments of La Paz society. Several of the foreign legations are
+presided over by bachelors, conspicuously those of the United States
+and Germany, though the Hon. W. B. Sorsby, the American minister, and
+Baron von Brück, the German minister, are both excellent hosts, and
+their legations are frequently the scene of charming reunions of La
+Paz society. From reasons of climate, the annual exodus to the country
+is less marked in La Paz than in other cities. Many families remain in
+their town houses all the year round, as there is but little difference
+in the temperature, except that in the winter months of May, June, and
+July it is less agreeable than during the rest of the year, because
+of heavy rains. When the La Paz people seek a change, it is usually
+a change of altitude that is needed, as a few find that the rarefied
+atmosphere produces a tension of the nerves.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORA DE MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN.]
+
+The same is true of Potosí, those who require a change frequently
+making a trip to Sucre, which is between three and four thousand feet
+lower than Potosí. The marvellous thermal springs around Potosí, at
+Miraflores, Yocalla, and Don Diego, attract large numbers of invalids.
+The air of La Paz and Potosí is, naturally, pure and healthful, and
+is especially recommended for those who suffer from asthma, many
+remarkable cures having been effected at Potosí, where the conditions
+are particularly favorable. It is sometimes said that the great
+fortunes made in Potosí are spent in Sucre, the more agreeable climate
+of the latter city making it a very desirable place of residence.
+Numbers of wealthy people live in Sucre, some of whom divide their time
+between Paris and that city, while others find life most enjoyable in
+the country, on their haciendas.
+
+  [Illustration: PREPARING FOR A TOURNAMENT ON THE AVENUE ARCE,
+  LA PAZ.]
+
+Ex-President Don Aniceto Arce, who lived several years in Paris in
+great luxury, with a large household, entertaining almost constantly
+with lavish hospitality, is enjoying the later years of his busy life
+in Sucre, and principally at his beautiful country estate, which covers
+many leagues in the same province. The Alvarez place, near Yotála,
+a few miles out of Sucre, is an ideal country home, with gardens,
+fountains, and a great marble bathing pool; and in the suburbs of the
+city the principality of Glorieta, the Guereo estate, Florida, and
+other handsome properties, testify to the delightful character of
+social life amid surroundings which apparently leave nothing to be
+desired. Under the auspices of the principal clubs in each city, balls
+and banquets are given from time to time, which are celebrated with the
+_éclat_ usual to such functions the world over. At a ball recently
+given by the Union Club of Sucre, at least three-fourths of the ladies
+wore gowns imported from Paris. The dancing differed little from
+the conventional standard in all countries, except that the opening
+quadrille was the stately _quadrilla imperial_, inherited from
+colonial days, when the Audiencia of Charcas gave to its entertainments
+the grandeur and formality of court functions. In preserving this
+tradition of the past, the society of Sucre retains a very picturesque
+and beautiful custom. There is no capital in South America of which
+the society is more aristocratic, refined, and cultured than that of
+Sucre. In the homes of its rich people are to be found rare _objets
+d’art_, of which the great marvel is that they were transported to
+their destination across leagues of country in ox-carts or on muleback
+without damage. Great French mirrors, reaching from floor to ceiling,
+adorn the drawing rooms; crystal candelabra, hardly to be duplicated in
+any market to-day, hang from the ceilings; rare old tapestries and fine
+paintings deck the walls; and in cabinets of exquisite design are to
+be seen collections of miniatures, snuffboxes, and other heirlooms of
+great value. In some cases these treasures have been in the possession
+of the family for several generations. Señor Don Arturo Urriolagoitia,
+a connoisseur and collector of rare antiquities, has wonderfully carved
+pieces of old furniture of colonial times, fine tapestries, silver and
+gold ornaments of Inca manufacture, and a collection of very old coins,
+among them the celebrated Roman coin bearing on its face the head of
+Christ, about which so much discussion arose a short time ago, though
+Señor Urriolagoitia had his coin long before the famous “discovery.”
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORA DE JOSÉ MANUEL PANDO.]
+
+Sucre and Cochabamba are located at equal distances from the railroad
+line between Oruro and Antofagasta, and upon the completion of the
+proposed railway system they will both be directly connected with it.
+At present it requires from two to five days by coach or muleback to
+reach the railway from either point; so that social life in Cochabamba,
+as well as in Sucre, is undisturbed by continued changes. Cochabamba
+families who trace their origin as far back as the conquest represent
+the stability of social forms and ceremonies; and although the
+old-time “pomp and circumstance” of colonial days has given place to
+a republican simplicity, there is still the same pride of race and
+dignity of character that distinguished the upper classes of this city
+in its earliest history. The climate is ideal, and the city occupies a
+magnificent location under the shelter of the white-crowned mountain
+of Tunari. The ladies of Cochabamba are often spoken of as _hijas de
+Tunari_, “daughters of Tunari,” and they are proud of the pretty
+title. The automobile has invaded Cochabamba, as it has other Bolivian
+cities, and auto-parties are popular forms of amusement. Garden parties
+are frequent, and the morning horseback ride is among the features of
+the social routine. At Cala-Cala, a picturesque suburb, visitors are
+shown the “Lovers’ Tree”; and, from the well-worn path that leads to
+it, the shade of its ample branches, and the romantic seclusion of the
+spot, one judges that the dear old friend of youth and beauty has not
+lived in vain nor has the title been a misnomer.
+
+  [Illustration: A CHALET IN THE ALAMEDA, LA PAZ.]
+
+Much of the Bolivian lady’s time is devoted to charity. Like all her
+South American sisters, she is attentive to the duties of her church
+and the various benevolent institutions which it sustains. According to
+the national constitution, the municipalities are charged with the care
+of charitable institutions, the government making provision for their
+maintenance; but in addition to the establishments provided for by the
+state, many others have been organized by humanitarian and benevolent
+societies in every department, whose members devote themselves with
+charity and patriotism to the duty of relieving the sufferings of the
+poor and the invalid. In nearly all cases, the management of these
+hospitals and asylums is in charge of the Sisters of Charity, under the
+supervision of a board of directors chosen to represent the society.
+In times of famine or epidemic, which have occurred in consequence
+of failures of the crops in the interior districts, the benevolent
+societies take it upon themselves to assist the government in
+ministering to the relief of the stricken communities. Poverty, in the
+extreme condition in which it is encountered in the overcrowded cities
+of Europe and North America, is practically unknown in Bolivia. As it
+exists, it is generally the result of indolence or improvidence, and
+often arises from absolute indifference to comfort or the most ordinary
+requirements of well-being. The Indian is, in this respect, the most
+serious charge of the state, as his habits are those of the simple
+child of Nature who gives no thought for to-morrow, and is satisfied so
+long as his handful of parched corn and his drink of _chicha_ are
+forthcoming for the day. When these fail by reason of sickness or old
+age, which forbid his earning them, he becomes an object of charity,
+and depends upon the _patron_ or some benevolent society for the
+necessaries of life. Many of the rich landowners have quite an army
+of old retainers who live on their bounty, and nearly all persons of
+wealth contribute to charities. The Prince and Princess de Glorieta
+maintain an orphans’ asylum out of their private fortune, and visitors
+to Sucre are surprised to find at Glorieta a private institution so
+well attended and thoroughly equipped with a good staff of teachers.
+The girls are taught plain sewing, dressmaking, and kindred domestic
+work, and the boys carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, and other
+customary trades of men. The asylum has a band of music well drilled,
+composed of all the boys belonging to the institution. This band paid
+a delicate compliment recently to two appreciative North American
+visitors by rendering _The Star-spangled Banner_, which they
+played remarkably well.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORA DE AGUIRRE ACHÁ.]
+
+There are in Bolivia more than twenty hospitals, each of which receives
+a subsidy from the government. In nearly all of these the attendants
+are Sisters of Charity, and the ladies of various charitable societies
+are frequent donors. In La Paz the hospitals Landaeta, Loayza, and the
+Lazareto are among the most important, and they are in charge of the
+Santa Ana Sisters of Charity. The Hospital Landaeta, for men, was the
+first founded in La Paz, in 1555, under the direction and government
+of the Cabildo, or Municipal Council. In 1629 it was given over to
+the Brotherhood of Saint John, and in 1664 was rebuilt; among the
+contributors to its improvement and endowment was Señor Don Martin
+Landaeta by whose name it is now known. It has a medical and a surgical
+department; a dispensary for oculist work, a pharmacy, and a hall
+for autopsies. The Loayza Hospital was founded in 1803 by General
+José Ramon de Loayza, and in 1884 a charitable lady of La Paz, Señora
+Sanjinés Uriarte, ordered additions to be built to it at her own
+cost. The budget for hospital service has doubled in less than twenty
+years, showing the increased recognition of the demands of such an
+institution. In Sucre especial attention has been paid to the hygienic
+conditions of the hospitals and asylums, which are eminently creditable
+to the city; the Hospital of Santa Barbara and the Asylum 25 de Mayo
+are particularly well installed and attended. The only insane asylum
+in the republic is the Manicomio Pacheco, of Sucre, so called in honor
+of its illustrious founder, General Gregorio Pacheco, who presented it
+to the nation on October 10, 1884. It is built in modern style, and
+its various _salas_ are commodious and well ventilated. It was
+constructed at an outlay of one hundred and twenty-one thousand seven
+hundred and eighty bolivianos, not including the cost of the site. By
+a law passed in 1885 the national Congress accepted this munificent
+gift of the philanthropic patriot and declared the establishment to
+be of national character, assigning to it a subsidy from the treasury
+of the republic. In Cochabamba the Hospital Viedma takes care of all
+patients sent to it. The Asylum of the Buen Pastor, in La Paz, and
+similar institutions in other cities are designed to provide for the
+helpless and the infirm of all ages. The Buen Pastor, “Asylum of the
+Good Shepherd,” was founded out of funds bequeathed for the purpose by
+the charitable Señoras Felipa Cordero and Tadea Guachalla, who left a
+large fortune to be disposed of in this way. The noble object of this
+asylum is to gather into the fold unfortunate women who have stepped
+aside from the path of virtue, and endeavor to save them from further
+vice and crime. It seeks also to give instruction to women, for which
+purpose a girls’ college has been attached to the institution for
+boarding and day pupils. The Orphans’ Home of La Paz is another notable
+charity which has accomplished much good, under the direction of the
+nuns of Saint Vincent de Paul. The boys’ quarters include a refectory,
+school, tailor shop, printing office, and shoemaking and carpentering
+departments, comprising the entire ground floor, with a spacious
+playground; the girls have laundry rooms, bakery, kitchen, sewing room,
+and embroidery frames. The annual cost of this institution is about
+fifty thousand bolivianos, and the officials and inmates number about
+three hundred. Contributions have been made to this worthy charity
+by many of the best-known people of Bolivian society, among them the
+benevolent Señora Modesta Sanjinés Uriarte, who spent her life in deeds
+of kindness to humanity, and left a legacy for their continuance after
+her death.
+
+  [Illustration: RESIDENCE OF SEÑOR SOLOMON ALEXANDER, LA PAZ.]
+
+In Cochabamba the sentiment of love for humanity has inspired many
+benevolent efforts on the part of ladies of wealth, and the poor
+and suffering are generally cared for with great kindness. In the
+provinces of the Yungas, notably in Coroico, Chulumani, and Achacachi,
+and in the city of Sorata, hospitals have been founded. Oruro has
+two hospitals, of which one is exclusively for the miners; Tarija
+also has two, the San Juan de Dios and the Lazareto; Potosí, Tupiza,
+Colquechaca, Pulacayo, Santa Cruz, and the Beni--all have hospitals.
+In addition to these, the government maintains offices of hygiene and
+bacteriology in the principal cities; and every effort is made to aid
+the cause of charity by removing the unsanitary conditions which are
+so often responsible for sickness, and consequent distress and want,
+among the very poor. Indeed, it is practically useless to attempt the
+amelioration of existing evils which owe their origin to disease and
+poverty without first improving the surroundings of the suffering and
+unfortunate. With this object in view, the charitable people of Bolivia
+are considering the importance of building better asylums for the sick
+and the infirm; and in some cities, as in Cochabamba, the young ladies
+especially are taking a more active interest than ever before in
+establishing charitable institutions. The demand for charity is greater
+some years than others; and when, as within a comparatively recent
+period, severe droughts in the agricultural districts have brought
+distress in their train, the richer classes have frequently been called
+upon to aid the government in relieving the dire situation. Charitable
+entertainments are sometimes held for the purpose of raising funds for
+benevolent enterprises, and wealthy people contribute largely to the
+various church societies organized especially to take charge of their
+less fortunate fellow creatures.
+
+The first duty of society is to its fellow man; and the more devoted
+the social world shows itself to the cause of the weak and the
+helpless, the more beautiful is the national character. In spending
+much time and money for benevolent purposes the ladies of Bolivia
+prove themselves worthy of all admiration, and render still more
+attractive their many graces of mind and person by adding to these the
+incomparable charm of a kind heart and a willing helpfulness.
+
+  [Illustration: A BOLIVIAN DÉBUTANTE.]
+
+  [Illustration: A GENERAL VIEW OF LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+                LA PAZ--THE PRESENT SEAT OF GOVERNMENT
+
+
+  [Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF LA PAZ.]
+
+The City of Peace, standing amid the highest summits of the Andes,
+under the white light reflected from the snows of Illimani and Sorata,
+and flashing back, like the flame of a torch, the dazzling sunshine
+that beats upon her towers, not only symbolizes the lofty human
+sentiment, which at the beginning of the twentieth century inspires
+the world to look for universal concord as the crowning glory of
+civilization, but also typifies the ideal for which her brave sons were
+the first to suffer martyrdom in the vanguard of the struggle for South
+American independence. If the white-robed Illimani is a worthy sentinel
+to guard the sanctuary of Peace, the blue sky itself is a fitting cap
+of Liberty for the fair goddess whose torch, glowing above the clouds,
+showed a continent the way to freedom a century ago. Very slowly at
+first, the ideals of tranquillity and liberty developed under the
+stifling influences of tyranny and greed, and there was little in the
+early history of the city which in 1548 the Spanish governor christened
+“Our Lady of Peace” to give promise of the fulfilment of her destiny.
+During nearly three centuries of colonial rule, the red ribbon of war
+fluttered more conspicuously upon the breast of Our Lady than did the
+pure emblem of her benign mission, and the sunshine blazing on her
+walls often typified a funeral pyre rather than the torch of liberty.
+But her people were brave and resolute, and if her history is full of
+incidents of vital struggle, full of tragic episodes, and the records
+of scenes worthy of Homeric description, it is also a history of
+victories and triumphs and of a continued march onward in the direction
+of progress. The Paceños are strong and fearless in their patriotism,
+whether leading the battle in the national cause or resisting an attack
+against it, and their influence has long been powerful in shaping the
+destinies of the country. Unity is a notable characteristic of the
+people, and genuine sympathy exists between the highest and the lowest
+when they are inspired to deeds of devotion for the _patria_. It
+has been very beautifully said that “whether in the _palacio_ of
+luxury or in the _choza_ of poverty, there is but one voice and
+one heart, one soul and one duty; the defence of the country and the
+maintenance of its independence, the lustre of its honor in peace and
+the brilliancy of its arms in war, is the constant preoccupation of its
+loyal sons.”
+
+  [Illustration: POST OFFICE, LA PAZ.]
+
+Now that the times of change and confusion have given place to a period
+of steady activity, La Paz is growing rapidly as a metropolitan centre,
+with increasing political, social, and commercial importance, which
+is enhanced by its advantageous situation, in comparison with that of
+other cities of Bolivia; with the exception of Oruro, it is as yet
+the only city of importance having direct railway connection, and the
+route via Lake Titicaca, across which steamers travel twice a week,
+places it within easy access of the Peruvian seaport, Mollendo. Within
+a short time it will have a quicker route, requiring only a few hours,
+to the seaport of Arica. The approach to the city by railway from
+Guaqui, the port of Lake Titicaca, through which passengers from Peru
+enter Bolivia on their way to La Paz, is a surprise which impresses all
+tourists by its novelty. After a two hours’ ride across the plateau,
+with the great Andean range always in view and the snowy peaks of
+Illimani and Sorata claiming special attention as they stand out in
+pristine splendor against the bluest of skies, suddenly a great pit
+yawns in front of the traveller, one thousand five hundred feet deep,
+walled on three sides, and opening into a _quebrada_, or cañon,
+on the fourth; in its depth, sloping toward the cañon and appearing
+like a cluster of miniature dwellings, as seen from the heights above,
+lies La Paz, twelve thousand five hundred feet above the level of
+the sea, one of the highest cities of the world. The great Titicaca
+plateau which stretches a hundred thousand square kilomètres around
+the lake, approaches its limit at La Paz, where the Andes rise in
+towering majesty, the rugged depths of their _quebradas_ giving
+picturesqueness to a scene of imposing grandeur. The descent from the
+railroad terminus at El Alto, as the station on the heights above La
+Paz is called, to the city, is made in an electric car, built after the
+latest modern style, and having a capacity equal to that of the cars
+used in the service of the large North American cities. The panorama
+presented to view as the car glides down the mountain and around its
+curves is ever-varying and unique, the red-tiled roofs of the city,
+the patches of green where parks and gardens have been carefully
+cultivated, and the generally foreign appearance, lending a charm
+which the quaintness of gayly dressed figures that move along the road
+behind groups of llamas or donkeys loaded with produce, on their way to
+market, renders still more absorbingly interesting. The Indian of the
+plateau is as gorgeous a spectacle as the imagination can dream of, his
+_poncho_, or shawl, suggesting a splash of red, yellow, or green
+against the most sombre of backgrounds, for there is nothing hilarious
+in the manner of the Aymará; he takes his pleasures, like his troubles,
+with a more stoic indifference than his neighbor, the Quichua, who
+seems more gentle and more volatile in character. These are differences
+often noted between the inhabitants of high altitudes and those of the
+valleys; at twelve thousand feet above sea level one learns not to be
+too demonstrative.
+
+  [Illustration: STREET SCENE, SHOWING HILLS IN THE DISTANCE,
+  LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: HOSPITAL AND MUSEUM, LA PAZ.]
+
+The city of La Paz is located at the source of the Chuquiapu River,
+which flows through a cleft in the Andean range, believed to have
+formerly connected Lake Titicaca with the Amazon system. The history
+of the city is as old as the records of time. Under the Aymará
+dynasties it was called Chuquiabo, and was celebrated as one of the
+most ancient towns in the province of Collasuyo; later, when the Incas
+conquered this territory, the name was changed to Chuquiapu, by which
+it was known until upon its site was founded the City of Our Lady of
+Peace, the name being again changed, after the crowning victory of the
+Independence, to La Paz de Ayacucho, by which the city is now known.
+From the most ancient times it has been famous as the centre of a
+rich gold-producing region, the name Chuquiapu signifying “the place
+of gold”; and in primitive days the people of this town worshipped
+with especial reverence a _guaca_, or idol, which they called
+Choque Guanca,--“the lord of gold never decreasing.” Another object of
+adoration among the earliest inhabitants was the snow-capped Illimani,
+its name meaning “everlasting,” though the origin of the word is said
+to be Hillemana,--“where the sun rises,”--from the location of the
+mountain, which stands eastward of the city. After the conquest, the
+cupidity of the Spaniards soon attracted them to the locality where
+gold was known to be abundant; and Francisco Pizarro himself visited
+the place in 1540, setting apart as his own one of its principal gold
+mines, which produced for him a large fortune. During the quarrels
+and fighting that marked the years following the conquest, when the
+struggle for supremacy separated the conquerors into opposing forces,
+Chuquiapu was a central battlefield, from its position midway between
+Charcas and the Spanish strongholds in Peru; and it was appropriately
+chosen as the site upon which to commemorate the establishment of peace
+after the defeat and death of the disturbing warrior, Gonzalo Pizarro.
+Consistently with Spanish custom, the founders, after taking possession
+in the name of King Charles V., began the building of a church, which
+they dedicated to San Pedro; later, King Charles presented the city
+with an image of the Virgin of Pilar de Zaragoza as _patrona_,
+which to-day is revered as Our Lady of the Assumption. The present
+church of San Sebastian is a reconstruction of the San Pedro church.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINCIPAL ALTAR IN THE JESUIT TEMPLE, LA PAZ.]
+
+At the time of its foundation the city numbered fifty Spanish
+residents; and so slowly did colonists arrive in this remote mountain
+retreat, even with the powerful attraction which its mineral resources
+held for the adventurous fortune seekers of those days, that a quarter
+of a century later the citizens of pure Spanish blood numbered only a
+little more than two hundred. Gradually the city was built up, with
+plazas, streets, and roads to the outlying country districts, and some
+of the buildings erected at that time are still in existence. The
+renowned Spanish historian Pedro Cieza de León visited La Paz soon
+after the conquest, and the Inca historian Garcilaso de la Vega, to
+whom the modern writers on this and previous periods of South American
+culture are chiefly indebted, spent some time in the study of its
+events. The coat of arms presented by Charles V. is still preserved
+as a precious heritage; surmounted by a helmet on which rests a dove
+with the olive branch in its beak, the centre shows a garland of roses
+intertwined with four serpents, and in the distant perspective a snow
+mountain, from the base of which a river flows, having on its opposite
+banks the lion and the lamb in peaceful and friendly attitude; the
+entire design is emblematic of peace, the border of the shield bearing
+the legend: “Discords in harmony, they united in peace and love and
+founded the city of La Paz for perpetual memory.”
+
+Although La Paz had its _triste_ scenes of conflict and disaster
+in colonial days, it had also its events of great rejoicing and
+magnificent display, as upon the occasion when the most illustrious of
+the viceroys, Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa, visited the city
+in 1572, attended with all the pomp and ceremony that distinguished
+a viceregal reception in those days of abounding formalities; the
+short residence of his court in its midst converted the City of Peace
+into a scene of splendor and gayety, and constituted a social triumph
+which remained a proud recollection for years afterward. The viceroy
+enacted notable reforms in the administration of the city and province,
+especially regarding the government of the Indians, whom he desired,
+above all things, to bring within the influences of civilization and
+Christian teaching.
+
+  [Illustration: AVENIDA ARCE, LA PAZ.]
+
+It was the exception and not the rule when the Spaniards devoted
+themselves to the interests of the conquered race; and as the first
+century passed, the injustice which had begun against the Indians
+was further directed against all the American born, the Spanish
+authorities showing favor to immigrants from their own country,
+regardless of merit, while the natives of the new country were
+oppressed and downtrodden. It was this disposition which first divided
+the colony into two opposing parties, and which finally accomplished
+its independence from Spain. To La Paz, as has been stated elsewhere,
+belongs the honor of having numbered among its sons the redoubtable
+hero who raised the standard of “America for the Americans” more
+than two hundred years ago. The same city supported one of the most
+determined and terrible sieges recorded in history, fighting day and
+night for one hundred and sixty-nine days against the memorable attack
+of the Indian Tupac-Catari. In recognition of such noble heroism,
+the city received from the Spanish crown in 1794 the royal decree
+bestowing upon it the title of “most noble, valorous, and faithful.”
+The brave commander of the besieged city, Don Sebastian de Segurola,
+was made first Governor-Intendent of La Paz, in reward for his services.
+
+Among the precious archives of the city is preserved the story of one
+of the greatest heroes of the New World, the patriot Murillo, whose
+martyrdom set the seal of glory upon a career of unfailing devotion to
+the cause of liberty, and proved a beacon light to illumine the field
+of battle and bring courage to the hearts of struggling patriots,
+from the Titicaca plateau to the remotest corners of Spanish dominion
+in America. Indeed, La Paz was one of the chief centres around which
+gathered the lovers of liberty among the oppressed during all the
+centuries of colonial rule in Alto Peru; and though the systematic
+efforts of the few cultured leaders of republicanism, whose training
+had been received in the University of Chuquisaca and fortified by
+European travel, brought to a climax the final preparations for the
+revolution that swept the Spaniards from the continent, the persistent
+and determined fight of the Paceños, through long centuries, had its
+powerful effect upon the spirit of the revolution from the beginning.
+
+Since the establishment of the republic, La Paz has continued to play
+an important part as the aggressive power in politics; the attitude
+of the Paceños has never been a negative one, but, whether right or
+wrong, they have been unequivocal in the declaration of their purposes
+and meaning. There is something modernly “strenuous” in the La Paz
+character. This is shown in the predominating qualities of its leading
+men, who have been particularly noted for their great energy, resource,
+and self-poise.
+
+  [Illustration: CONVENT OF THE CONCEPTION, LA PAZ.]
+
+The population of La Paz, according to the last census, is seventy
+thousand, of which about one thousand are foreigners, the Germans
+leading in number among those of foreign birth here, as in nearly
+all other South American cities. Although the city lies within the
+tropics, at sixteen degrees south latitude and sixty-eight degrees west
+longitude from Greenwich, its altitude so affects the climate that the
+weather is cool even in the hottest months and very cold during the
+winter season. The most agreeable months for visiting La Paz are those
+of spring, which are September, October, and November in countries
+south of the equator. Notwithstanding the formerly isolated position
+of the city, its great altitude and the difficulties of communication
+with the outside world, the degree of progress attained has been in
+some respects remarkable. Until 1903 there was no railway out of the
+city, the nearest connecting line being that from Oruro to Antofagasta,
+reached only after a two or three days’ ride by diligence from La
+Paz to Oruro; and it is only about ten years since the Oruro and
+Antofagasta Railway was established in complete and permanent service.
+Previous to that time, all the inconveniences attending transportation
+over long distances, and with the drawbacks inevitable to the nature
+of a mountainous country, had to be overcome by the people of La Paz
+in their effort to build up and improve their city. The only freight
+system was one of carts, mules, and llamas, and the proverbial
+disinclination to haste, which is characteristic of the Indian driver,
+and excusable at such great altitude, made the process of construction
+slower and even more expensive than it would be under favorable
+circumstances. Yet the city has many fine buildings, some of them four
+or five stories in height, though the general average is of two-story
+construction. The streets are well paved, usually of the same width
+as the traditional Spanish _calle_; some of them are of quite
+modern appearance. As the city is built, for the greater part, on the
+sloping hillsides, walking is only pleasant in the parks and avenues,
+for the location of which level ground has been chosen. Owing to its
+sheltered location, the difficulties attending the culture of trees and
+flowers at such a height are less than might be imagined. The Plaza
+Murillo is a beautiful garden, perfumed by the sweetest of roses and
+other flowers, and shaded by broad-branching trees, while the Alameda
+is an ideal _paseo_, arched by many stately trees, and possessing
+the charm of an urban park, with its fountains and pools, and handsome
+monuments adorning it, erected to commemorate noted historical events,
+or to honor the heroes to whose bravery the nation owes a debt of
+eternal gratitude.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAZA AND GRAN HOTEL GUIBERT, LA PAZ.]
+
+The Plaza Murillo, to-day a popular breathing space between the ascents
+of the hilly streets, and brilliant several evenings each week with the
+gayety of passing throngs whose light footsteps keep time to the music
+of the inspiring military band, occupies the spot where the first
+declaration of Bolivian independence from Spain was proclaimed in 1809,
+and where the gibbet was erected upon which the celebrated martyr of
+liberty, Pedro Domingo Murillo, paid with his life for declaring the
+noble principles of patriotism which all the world has since learned to
+honor and admire. It has also been the scene of many thrilling episodes
+in the history of the republic, and it was the centre around which
+culminated some of the most important climaxes of the civil wars which
+from time to time disturbed the peace of the country, until government
+was finally established upon a firm basis. Through the initiative of
+Señor Don Felipe Pinilla in 1894, the plaza was converted into the
+present beautiful park; the handsome fountain of marble adorning the
+centre was, however, constructed in 1855, the work of an Indian of
+remarkable talent, Feliciano Cantula.
+
+  [Illustration: CALLE AMERICA, LA PAZ.]
+
+The Alameda, like the Plaza Murillo, has its historical value, having
+been the theatre of war upon many notable occasions. But nothing
+more suggestive of peace exists in the city to-day than this avenue
+of trees, with its broad driveways, promenades, sequestered resting
+places, and its numerous attractions for grown people and children
+in the graceful swans of its pools, the goldfish that play in its
+fountains, and similar charming features. It is divided into five
+avenues, the central _paseo_ being particularly beautiful because
+of its adornment, while the outer avenues are paved for vehicles and
+promenaders. Rows of trees separate the drives and walks, and give
+to the Alameda the appearance of a well-wooded park, which is nearly
+half a mile in length. At night it is lighted by twenty large electric
+lights, placed at intervals down the central avenue. The main arch of
+the gateway at the entrance from the suburban Plaza de la Concordia and
+the Avenida Arce was taken from a convent cloister and set up in 1828,
+the remaining portals being of much more recent date. On passing out of
+the Alameda through the picturesque gateway, the popular _paseo_
+is prolonged through the Plaza de la Concordia and the Avenida Arce--or
+“12 de Diciembre,” as it has been recently renamed--as far as Obrajes,
+about a league from the city. To the south from the Plaza de la
+Concordia, and a mile distant, lies Sopocachi, a very pretty suburb
+located on the hill of the same name and commanding a superb view.
+Potopoto, on the road from the city to Obrajes, is one of the most
+fertile and picturesque stretches of the _campiña_, or suburbs,
+presenting a perspective of exuberant vegetation; and, overlooking it,
+the heights of Santa Barbara offer an attractive site for the erection
+of pretty chalets. These suburbs are almost as much frequented as the
+Alameda; and as they form an extension of this popular thoroughfare
+of leisure, they are being continually improved and beautified to
+harmonize with it.
+
+La Paz being the present seat of national government, all the palaces
+of the administration are located here, with the exception of the
+Supreme Court and the archbishop’s palace, which remain at the official
+capital, Sucre. The executive palace occupies a handsome three-story
+stone building, overlooking the principal plaza; and facing the same
+public square, stand the buildings in which are the offices of the
+minister of foreign affairs and those of the minister of justice
+and instruction. The presidential palace is of modern construction,
+having been built in 1883 to replace the old palace, called El Palacio
+Terrible, which was destroyed by fire. The old palace was begun by
+General José Ballivian in 1845, and completed by President Belzu in
+1852, when it was formally occupied for the first time. It was the
+scene of most of the dramatic climaxes which diversified the political
+history of Bolivia through the years during which the palace existed,
+and it witnessed the vagaries of one or two rulers who seem to have
+taken the worst of the Roman emperors for their models.
+
+  [Illustration: PUBLIC LIBRARY, LA PAZ.]
+
+With the date of its destruction began a period of peace, signalizing
+the political regeneration of the country. President Frias, who made
+a temporary palace of the ruined edifice, was one of the best rulers
+under the new system. He was opposed to the “gold braid” features
+which had been so conspicuous among some of his predecessors, and he
+possessed none of the affectations of power. A humorous story, which
+not only reveals the democratic spirit of the president, but shows
+the _amour propre_ of his aid-de-camp as well, illustrates the
+point. While passing along the street, on foot, accompanied by his aid,
+President Frias became annoyed by the change of position which his
+officer made at every turn in order to keep the curb, and, turning to
+the young man, he said: “I don’t like this dancing the quadrille on
+the street; please keep your place, without changing it at every turn.”
+A few moments later the “quadrille” was repeated, and the president
+reprimanded his aid, at the same time explaining that he did not object
+to walking next to the curb. “Ah! your excellency,” replied the young
+officer, “I do not change on your account, but on my own. Everybody
+will think that I do not know the etiquette of the street, which
+requires me to walk next to the curb when accompanying the president.”
+The story may have been embellished in the telling, but it serves to
+illustrate two very different, though thoroughly Bolivian, types of
+character.
+
+The building now occupied by the chief executive was finished and
+opened, on July 24, 1883, for the inauguration of the National
+Exposition to celebrate the first centenary of the birth of Simon
+Bolivar, the great liberator. It is rather too small for the purposes
+of an executive palace, and will be abandoned on the completion of
+the new palace, which is being built on an adjoining corner of the
+square. But it presents a very attractive appearance, and is of solid
+construction, being built of hewn stone; the corridors which surround
+the interior _patio_ are supported by stone pillars, the portico
+and grand staircase being of marble. The new palace will be two stories
+in height, but much more spacious than the present one; the first floor
+will be occupied by the executive, and the second by the legislative
+bodies. It will be one of the handsomest modern buildings in La Paz.
+
+  [Illustration: A BUSINESS STREET IN LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF LA MERCED, LA PAZ.]
+
+The magnificent cathedral of La Paz, which has been under construction
+for three-quarters of a century, and which, when completed, will
+probably be the largest and costliest cathedral built in South America
+since the Independence, stands beside the present government palace,
+occupying the remainder of that side of the principal plaza. The
+cathedral was begun in 1835, but many circumstances have combined to
+delay the work, the cost of which is enormous, while the facilities
+for carrying it to completion are limited. The original design for the
+cathedral was made by a Bolivian architect, Padre Manuel Sanauja, who
+was also the architect of the beautiful cathedral of Potosí. In 1843,
+the foundations were laid and President Ballivian brought stonecutters
+from Europe to teach the natives how to chisel and polish the stones,
+so that the work might continue without depending upon foreign help.
+The Indians proved very apt pupils and their work is quite as good
+as that of their teachers. But it could hardly be expected that an
+undertaking of such great importance, and essentially a product of
+peaceful conditions, would progress rapidly in the troublous times of
+the first fifty years of the republic. It was continually interrupted,
+and in 1883 an additional delay was caused by the loss of the plans.
+An order was sent to an Italian architect of distinction, Count
+Vespignani, the principal architect of the Vatican, to make new plans,
+and the work was renewed. After several changes, the direction of
+the edifice was given, by a resolution of the government in 1900, to
+Señor Camponoro, who, finding Count Vespignani’s plans inadequate,
+prepared others, which were adopted. The work is now proceeding with
+regularity, and will no doubt be completed soon. The edifice will
+have capacity for seating twelve thousand people, and will cover a
+surface of four thousand square mètres. It is of Greco-Roman style,
+and the interior has five naves, all the pillars which support the
+arches being of polished stone. The two towers will reach a height of
+nearly two hundred feet, and the central cupola will be one hundred
+and fifty feet high. The principal altar will be of _berenguela_,
+a native marble, which is found in abundance in several provinces.
+About one hundred thousand bolivianos are provided annually for this
+colossal work. Besides the cathedral, the city possesses many beautiful
+churches; according to statistics, there are thirteen churches, five
+public chapels, five convents, and three monasteries. Of these the old
+church and convent of San Francisco have peculiar interest, as they
+occupy the second church building erected in the city in 1547. The
+present edifice was built during the eighteenth century and completed
+in 1778, when it was dedicated with impressive ceremonies. Next to the
+new cathedral, it is the most beautiful church in La Paz, at least as
+seen from the outside, as the façade is entirely composed of carved
+stone of exquisite design and workmanship. The interior has three
+naves, and there are eight altars, besides the main altar which is of
+carved cedar in decorative design. The convent, which can accommodate
+two hundred inmates, though only fourteen friars occupy it at present,
+has recently been reconstructed with funds provided by the legacy of
+Señora Maria Galindo, one of the many rich women of La Paz who have
+left fortunes to the church and to charities. Its library is one of
+the largest in Bolivia. Another old church is Santo Domingo, which
+serves as the cathedral. All the great church pageants and the civic
+_fiestas_ are celebrated here. There is little variety in the
+architecture of the remaining churches and convents, all of which
+follow a similar style. Among the more important of the modern public
+buildings, the post office and the building occupied by the Direccion
+General de Telegrafos attract attention. The penitentiary of San Pedro
+is a large modern structure, and a visit to its various wards is an
+interesting experience. It was built during the administration of
+President Pacheco, who laid the cornerstone on July 15, 1885. It covers
+nine thousand square mètres, and the interior is divided into two
+separate wings, one for men and the other for women. The ventilation
+and sanitary conditions are fairly good, and the inmates are well cared
+for.
+
+  [Illustration: CALLE DEL COMERCIO, LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: SUBURBS OF LA PAZ, WITH VIEW OF ILLIMANI IN
+  THE DISTANCE.]
+
+The National Custom House, which occupies what was formerly part of
+the cloister of San Francisco, is one of the public buildings which
+is constantly increasing in importance as the commercial life of the
+city develops and extends. It is the centre of a busy section; just
+across the street, an open-air market attracts the miscellaneous crowd
+which is a feature of “Cheapside” all over the world. The principal
+market occupies the site of the former convent of the friars of Saint
+Augustine. It is centrally located, and is a sight worth seeing on
+the popular market days. Not only is the market building full to
+overflowing, but all the neighboring streets are packed with people
+from one end to the other. Groups of vendors sit along the edge of the
+curb, with their vegetables, fruits, and flowers spread in front of
+them on the ground; and as there is often a whole family in charge of a
+bunch of flowers, the conversation necessary to close even the smallest
+bargain would tax the vocabulary of a diplomat. Politeness will often
+do more than money to accomplish a desirable purchase. The question
+of disposing of her stock seems to be the least of the marketwoman’s
+thoughts. Apparently, she seeks first a congenial atmosphere, where
+she can share in the general gossip, and then she disposes of her
+baby,--there is nearly always a baby, a cunning little brown creature,
+good-natured and wide-eyed, and wearing little more than a knitted cap
+with earflaps, which finishes in a sharp cone on the crown of its tiny
+head,--and she is ready for all who come, and equally contented whether
+anyone buys or not, so far as one can tell from her countenance. As
+the crowd in the market place often includes sightseers and their
+friends, it is not unusual to encounter high hats and frock coats,
+Parisian daintiness and tourist severity, in the midst of the more
+permanent features of the market, and the effect is like a glimpse of
+Broadway or Piccadilly in a Turkish bazaar--though the prevailing type
+of marketwoman is more Japanese than Turkish. The “color scheme” of
+the La Paz market is one of ravishing splendor. It glows and radiates
+like a moving prism under the strong light of the sun on the high
+plateau. Wherever there is color it seems intensified, and the bright
+blues, yellows, and greens of the _ponchos_ and voluminous velvet
+skirts are not more persistent than the tones of the adobe walls in
+this neighborhood, painted to match the costumes. Even the vegetables
+and the flowers appear dyed in the deepest hues; the sky is bluer,
+the fleecy clouds are whiter; it is as if Nature amused herself in
+this little corner of her domain by putting great splashes of color
+on everything, to offset the severity of her grays and browns in the
+dreary stretches of highland plain which she has so prodigally bestowed
+on Bolivia, and which geographers call the Altaplanicie.
+
+Leaving the market reluctantly, as foreigners usually do, a sightseeing
+tour takes one to numerous other buildings of interest, among them
+the Military College in the Alameda, the School of Medicine, the
+Intendencia de la Guerra, or War Office, the university, the Museum
+and Public Library, and the spacious rooms of the Geographic Society
+of La Paz, the best-equipped institution of its kind in this part of
+the country. The Municipal Theatre is one of the city’s attractive
+features, and the principal club is the favorite resort of the most
+prominent men in political, financial, and literary circles. It is
+exclusively a man’s club, though receptions and balls are given from
+time to time to which the families and friends of the members are
+invited. A few months ago the distinguished courtesy of honorary
+membership was extended to two North American ladies, the first
+“petticoats” to invade this Eveless paradise with the rights of
+membership. It afforded an opportunity to see the club under the best
+auspices; and the experience served to prove that the best clubs, like
+the best gentlemen, are much the same the world over, whether housed
+in marble palaces or amid more modest, and often more comfortable,
+surroundings. The club building overlooks the Plaza Murillo and its
+windows command a view of the evening promenade, when La Paz society
+takes its outing under the trees of that pretty park. There are ten
+plazas in the city, several of them beautiful: the Plaza Alonzo de
+Mendoza was the Churupampa of the inhabitants of Chuquiapu before
+the Spaniards came, and is a popular resort for the people of this
+district; it is in the northwestern part of the city, near the church
+of San Sebastian. Although one fails to notice at first that La Paz
+is crossed not only by the Chuquiapu, but by other small rivers, this
+fact is made prominent as attention is called to the existence of no
+less than twenty-one bridges over these streams in various parts of
+the city. The bridges are of solid construction, that of San Francisco
+being of iron, and of French manufacture. Nearly all the others are of
+stone construction.
+
+Commercially, La Paz is the most important city of Bolivia, and
+everything indicates an increase in international trade. A Chamber
+of Commerce has been organized to promote business interests, and
+the existence of six banks and several banking agencies facilitates
+commercial transactions. The industrial enterprises of the city are
+growing, the annual production from its manufactures being estimated
+at five million bolivianos, though industrial development is in its
+infancy. To the prefect of the department. General Fermin Prudencio,
+is due much of the credit for public improvements inaugurated within
+the past few years. A Municipal Council, composed of twelve members,
+has charge of the affairs of the municipality. The city is lighted by
+electricity, and has a complete telephone system. It has some modern
+conveniences which would be entirely unlooked for in the far-away city
+of La Paz, even at the present period of universal progress. Imagine
+the surprise of finding a trolley car waiting at the Alto station when
+one arrives from Lake Titicaca, ready to take one “coasting” down an
+incline of one thousand five hundred feet and around swinging curves,
+at a rate of speed that makes automobiling tame sport! A telegraph
+system which permits a private conference at one’s leisure with the
+remote department capitals, while seated in a comfortable _sala_
+of the director-general’s office, is a modern convenience not to be
+improved upon. Hotels provided with electric lights and electric bells,
+with telephone and messenger service, as at the Gran Hotel Guibert, are
+not so behind the times as we are taught to believe everything must be
+which is encountered beyond the highways of travel. We are very proud
+of the modern conveniences which we enjoy in the great cities of North
+America and Europe, such as manufactured ice in summer, and fruits
+shipped from the tropics for the Christmas treat; but La Paz sends
+messengers in the morning to the ice fields of Illimani and to the
+fruit farms of her valleys, and these luxuries are brought back in time
+for dinner, fresh from the source of production.
+
+There are few cities of South America which look out on a brighter
+prospect than the City of Peace. La Paz lies in the heart of South
+America, and when modern enterprise shall develop the vast resources
+of that almost unknown continent, then all railroads crossing it must
+pass through Bolivia and close to the door of its Andean metropolis. A
+few years may be expected to work many changes, but though the patron
+saint of the Titicaca plateau may lose a very picturesque identity in
+the evolution of a more modern type, there will always be a rare and
+peculiar charm about this eloquent symbol of New World ideals, “Nuestra
+Señora de La Paz.”
+
+  [Illustration: INSTITUTE OF HYGIENE AND BACTERIOLOGY, LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH AND PLAZA OF SAN FRANCISCO, LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+              INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS--LITERATURE, ORATORY,
+                            ART, AND MUSIC
+
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON JOSÉ ROSENDO GUTIERREZ.]
+
+Cradled in revolution and nurtured with difficulty under the most
+adverse conditions, the intellectual life of Bolivia has, in spite of
+all obstacles, developed in both strength and beauty. In literature,
+oratory, art, and music the nation has given proof of surprising
+activity. Under Spanish rule, books were almost an unknown luxury,
+and with the exception of the few that were brought into the country
+surreptitiously from time to time, prayer books and the lives of the
+saints constituted all the literature to be obtained. One of the
+earliest influences in bringing about the War of Independence in South
+America was the secret distribution among the educated classes, and
+particularly among the students of the University of Chuquisaca, of
+the books written by Voltaire and the Encyclopædists, and brought over
+to America by wealthy people of Chuquisaca and Potosí, who, while
+visiting the French capital,--then, as now, the Mecca of wealthy South
+Americans,--had imbibed the liberal ideas so popular in France in the
+latter half of the eighteenth century, ideas which lighted the first
+spark in the mighty social conflagration that wrecked the aristocratic
+institutions of France, and illumined the political skies of two
+continents in the reflection of its blaze. But the majority of the
+people had little opportunity and less training for the appreciation of
+literature, and all efforts toward literary expression were confined to
+religious writers. Then, for half a century after the establishment of
+the republic, the unsettled political and social conditions were not
+favorable to intellectual development, so that it is only within a
+quarter of a century, or less, that Bolivian literature, art, and music
+have received uninterrupted encouragement.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. NICOLÁS ARMENTIA, BISHOP OF LA PAZ.]
+
+But at every period of the nation’s history there have been writers of
+talent, orators who have thrilled by the grace and fluency of their
+magnetic speech, and earnest students of art and music. Poets have sung
+their sweet carols amid the smoke of the battlefield and under the
+harsh discipline of poverty and neglect. Indeed it seems that adversity
+is often the friend of poetic inspiration, and that the poet was right
+who said:
+
+    “Great souls are cradled into poetry through wrong,
+    They learn in suffering what they teach in song.”
+
+If art and letters flourish best among the nations which enjoy peace
+and prosperity, the genius that inspires them does not always develop
+under the same conditions in the individual. The muse is oftener
+wooed by the sorrowful than the gay, and her kindest smile is not for
+the palace of pleasure and mirth, but for the soul that is lonely.
+The merriest stanzas are written with heartache or in bitterness of
+spirit, and the world is charmed by epigrams that have blossomed out
+of mental and moral anguish. Probably the time of peace and plenty is
+more propitious for poetry, because it comes after a period filled with
+events and marked by conditions that make poets and philosophers out of
+all available mentality.
+
+Don Ricardo Bustamente, who, according to a distinguished Spanish
+critic, was the chief of Bolivian poets, wrote the best of his
+inspired verses just after the most unsettled period of the republic.
+He wrote only as a pastime or a distraction from the duties of a
+busy statesman and diplomat, for he filled important offices of the
+government, both at home and abroad, at one time occupying the office
+of Cabinet minister. One of his later poems, regarded by some as his
+masterpiece, is an epic entitled _Hispano-America Libertada_,
+which he published in 1883, on the occasion of the centenary of
+Bolivar, in homage to the memory of the great liberator. Don Mariano
+Ricardo Terrazas, author of _The Siege of Paris_ and _Mysteries
+of the Heart_, and Manuel José Cortés, contemporaries of Bustamente,
+wrote better prose than poetry, but the unhappy poet Galindo, the
+poet Tovar, and Luis Vila are remembered among the noted writers of
+verse. The same period gave to posterity the poet Don Mariano Ramallo,
+who like Bustamente, wrote only in rare intervals of leisure, his
+duties as minister of the Supreme Court occupying most of his time.
+He was devoted to literature and founded a society, La Colmena, to
+which the aspirants to literary fame were proud to belong. He was
+a journalist of considerable talent, the editor of the _Official
+Gazette_ during the administration of General Ballivian, and later
+editor-in-chief of _La Epoca_, the first and one of the most
+important dailies of Bolivia. Don Felix Reyes Ortiz, a contemporary of
+Bustamente and Ramallo, was not only a graceful writer of poetry, but a
+brilliant orator, a journalist, and a literary critic of distinguished
+ability, and one of the ablest jurists of his time. His versatility
+was remarkable. Like Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna, of Chile, he seemed
+to possess the gift of prolific genius, and his writings include
+political essays, poetical compositions, and books on religion, law,
+and education, besides editorial articles on an infinite variety of
+subjects published in numerous newspapers of which he was the founder
+and editor. He also published several statistical works, and was
+president of the Circulo Literario of La Paz, one of the many societies
+organized by the littérateurs of Bolivia. Don Serapio Reyes Ortiz, a
+brother of Don Felix, is also to be counted among the intellectual
+leaders of his country, though noted more particularly as a diplomatist
+and jurist than as a writer. Few Bolivians have contributed in a
+greater degree to the intellectual advancement of their country, and
+none has been more constantly identified with its history in the past
+thirty years, during which he has held office as minister of foreign
+affairs, president of the council of state, minister plenipotentiary to
+Peru, and vice-president of the republic.
+
+  [Illustration: THE VISION OF SAN CAYETANO. OLD PAINTING ON
+  COPPER, CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE.]
+
+Prominent among those who have rendered important services to the state
+as well as to literature, Don José Rosendo Gutierrez is remembered as a
+lawyer of great talent, a diplomat and one of the best known Bolivian
+writers. Having acquired a large fortune in the practice of law, Señor
+Gutierrez was able, in his later years, to gratify a long-cherished
+desire to collect a library of Bolivian literature, and at his death
+he left as a bequest to his daughter, Señora Doña Hortensia Gutierrez
+de Pinilla, one of the most complete collections extant of books on
+Bolivia. The work to which he devoted the last years of his life was
+the compilation of a Bolivian bibliography, for which he secured a
+list of two thousand books and pamphlets, about seventy-five per cent
+being pamphlets, nearly all of them written by Bolivians. Political
+literature predominates, then follow, in the order of production,
+novels, legends, and miscellany, there being comparatively little of a
+historical or scientific character. The immense service rendered to the
+intellectual interests of the country by this collection and tabulation
+of the national literature can hardly be estimated. The plan of the
+work is divided into three parts, the first of which embraces all
+books and pamphlets published in Bolivia, or on subjects relating to
+Bolivia from the year 1825 to the present day; the second comprises all
+periodicals, with notices as to their duration, objects, contributions,
+etc.; and the third includes all South American publications written
+by South Americans which require to be consulted in a study of the
+races, customs, and institutions of the country. During a career of
+unusual activity, Señor Gutierrez still found time to write verse, and
+his _Songs at the Foot of Illimani_ are gems of sentiment. He
+was senator for La Paz during the last years of his life. He had the
+honor to receive more foreign decorations and titles than any other
+Bolivian, being Commendador of the Order of the Rose, Chevalier of the
+Order of Leopold, Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, and a member of
+many historic and geographic societies. He was a self-made man, having
+begun life amid the most adverse circumstances, and achieving by his
+own efforts the highest honors paid to intellect and moral character.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON EVARISTO VALLE.]
+
+Another noted bibliophilist, Don Vicente Ballivian y Rojas, has
+rendered invaluable service to his country by the collection and
+publication of manuscripts written on the history of colonial times
+and of the earlier years of the republic. Owing to blindness, the
+enthusiastic scholar was obliged to give up his work after finishing
+the first volume of the _Archivo Boliviano_, which was published
+in Paris in 1872. Señor Ballivian y Rojas was the first of his
+countrymen to undertake this kind of work, in which he has been
+succeeded by many others. The present minister of colonization and
+agriculture, Don Manuel Vicente Ballivian, is, like his illustrious
+father, a bibliophilist. He has collected everything written on the
+subject of his country that is of value for reference and general
+reading, and the Geographic Society of La Paz, of which he is
+president, has a complete library of information on Bolivia, whose most
+important works are those written by himself.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON NATANIEL AGUIRRE.]
+
+Don Gabriel Réné Moreno, a native of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, who
+has been for many years a resident of Santiago, Chile, where he is
+librarian of the Instituto Nacional, and Don Samuel Velasco Flor, of
+Potosí, who resided in Sucre for a long time before his death, each
+in his own way collected books on Bolivia or of Bolivian authorship,
+and accumulated large and useful libraries. Señor Velasco Flor was not
+only a bibliophilist, but a linguist, and had a perfect knowledge of
+the Quichua language, a rare accomplishment even in Peru and Bolivia.
+Few scholars have devoted special attention to the primitive languages
+of the country, and those who have undertaken this task deserve great
+credit. The illustrious Bishop of La Paz, Dr. Nicolás Armentia,
+possesses probably a more extensive knowledge of the languages and
+dialects of the various Indian tribes in Bolivia than any of his fellow
+countrymen. He has travelled through the wilds of the interior, between
+the Beni and the Madre de Dios rivers, having made the navigation of
+the Beni to its source, “with his bundle of clothes, his food, and
+his sextant strapped on his shoulders, his breviary in one hand and
+compass in the other,” says his biographer, Carlos Bravo. The many
+years which he devoted to missionary work in the Acre region, and to
+establishing missions in the most remote districts, also afforded great
+opportunity for study. As the fruit of his journeys he has written
+several important books, of which _Lenguas Americanas_ is one of
+especial value to students of philology and ethnology. The Church has
+among her most illustrious dignitaries several writers and orators
+of extraordinary talent. The late Archbishop of La Plata, Dr. Miguel
+Taborga, was a classical scholar and a member of the Spanish Royal
+Academy; he was a noted polemist, and had no rival in the press or in
+public debate. As Archbishop of La Plata and senator for the department
+of Potosí, he was a power in ecclesiastical and political circles;
+and when his learned predecessor, Archbishop Puch, who, like himself,
+was a native of Sucre and one of the brilliant orators and writers of
+Bolivia, was called to Rome to attend the Council of the Vatican in
+1869, the then Canon Taborga accompanied him, receiving many honors in
+Italy, Spain, and France, where his intellectual talent had become
+known. He wrote articles for the chief Catholic reviews of Europe,
+in addition to editing _El Cruzado_, the principal organ of the
+Church in his own country.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD PAINTING IN THE MINT OF POTOSÍ, PRESENTED
+  BY CARLOS IV. OF SPAIN.]
+
+Potosí has the honor of giving to the nation several of her most gifted
+writers, orators, and politicians, among them Don Tomás Frias, the
+Jefferson of Bolivian democracy, whose memory is treasured with great
+affection by his countrymen. Twice he was called to the office of
+chief executive, though he never coveted the honor; he was noted for
+his integrity and industry, as well as for his intellectual genius.
+A contemporary of the grand-marshal of Ayacucho, having been born
+in 1804, he lived to battle for the best principles of republican
+government through a long lifetime, closing his distinguished career
+in exile, after the _coup d’état_ of General Daza, which, as
+previously stated, deprived Bolivia’s “Grand Old Man” of the supreme
+magistracy in 1876, his death following, in Florence, Italy, in 1884.
+As soldier, financier, diplomatist, minister of state, and president
+of the republic, his arduous duties afforded him little leisure. Yet
+he constantly wrote articles and pamphlets on political subjects, his
+style being clear and concise, as it was in speaking. He was an orator
+who convinced as much by the force of his logic as by the vigor of his
+diction.
+
+It is often said of the Latin-American that he is a born orator, to
+whom the demand for a speech is as easily complied with as a request
+for the time of day; given the inspiration of an attentive audience,
+whether on the floor of Congress, in the balcony overlooking the plaza,
+or at the much-favored _banquete_, his native gift of language
+leads him away into realms of oratorical imagery, far beyond the “ken”
+of the stuttering Saxon, through which admiring listeners follow until
+a particularly well-rounded period brings a picturesque or startling
+climax and the spell is broken by an enthusiastic _Viva!_ or a
+more dramatic demonstration. The middle of the last century produced
+in Bolivia some of the most brilliant diplomats and orators in the
+history of Spanish America. Casimiro Olañeta, who is regarded as having
+been among the best public speakers of his day, and Evaristo Valle,
+whose eloquence was the pride of his friends and the despair of his
+enemies, were but two of a brilliant galaxy of polemists who made the
+forum largely responsible for the kaleidoscopic changes which affected
+Bolivian politics during the first twenty-five or thirty years of the
+republic.
+
+Not less distinguished as an orator, and regarded by many of his
+countrymen as entitled to the highest place among the statesmen and
+diplomats of the republic, Don Rafael Bustillo belonged to the group
+of leaders in politics who contributed to the strength and stability
+of the government during the most trying period of its history. First
+appointed minister in the cabinet of President Belzu, he was afterward
+minister in the cabinets of Presidents Achá and Adolfo Ballivian, his
+place in Ballivian’s cabinet being filled after his death, in 1873,
+by Pantaleón Dalence, Bolivia’s most famous finance minister, who
+was later made president of the Supreme Court. Rafael Bustillo was
+not only an orator of remarkable talent, but a writer also, as were
+many of the public men of his time. Don Lucas Mendoza de La Tapia,
+also an orator, was, like Bustillo, a prominent participant in the
+events of the troublous period preceding the government of President
+Adolfo Ballivian; he was associated with the revolutionary movement
+which finally overthrew President Melgarejo, and later he advocated
+in Congress, with the eloquent oratory of which he was master, the
+system of federal government for Bolivia. He was opposed by Evaristo
+Valle, and the clash of these two brilliant wits made the sessions
+particularly interesting. It would be impossible to indicate, among
+many really gifted orators, those to whom the nation is most indebted
+for political reforms. Eloquence is confined to no party or clique,
+and in every administration there have been leaders, both in the
+government and in the opposition, who have held their audiences in
+thrall. Julio Mendez, Juan Crisostomo Carillo, Jorge Oblitas, Casimiro
+Corral, Mariano Reyes Cardona, Antonio Quijarro, and others, through
+the force of brilliant intellect and patriotic sentiment, have rendered
+invaluable services to their country. Julio Mendez, not only as an
+orator, but as a diplomat of superior talent and a skilful journalist,
+has contributed to bring about notable political reforms.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. JOSÉ MARIA SANTIVÁÑEZ.]
+
+Conspicuous among these fiery controversialists, but rather because of
+the contrast which marked his style in debate, Don Mariano Baptista
+has been compared to Castelar as an orator, brilliant, calm, and
+persuasive. Beginning his career in the early fifties, he has lived
+to see the development of a sound political system out of the warring
+elements, which at one time threatened the stability of the republic.
+A statesman and diplomat, he has served his country as a member of the
+Chamber of Deputies, as senator, minister plenipotentiary, member of
+the Cabinet, vice-president and president of the republic. A staunch
+conservative in politics, he became the leader of his party and has
+never wavered from the principles adopted at the outset of his career,
+when, as the political supporter and faithful friend of the dictator
+Linares, he accompanied his beloved chief into exile and closed his
+eyes in the last sleep. One of the most distinguished figures among the
+intellectual leaders of his country, he possesses rare gifts of mind
+and heart, and is noted for decision of character and loyalty to his
+principles. He has visited most of the countries of the Old and New
+World, where he had an opportunity of studying society and politics
+under all forms.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL DON ELIODORO CAMACHO.]
+
+Don Nataniel Aguirre was one of the leading statesmen and orators of
+his day, and quite the greatest historical novelist of Bolivia. He
+was born in Cochabamba in 1843, and, like his father, Miguel Maria
+de Aguirre, who was a famous political leader, he began his public
+career at an early age. While still in his teens he took his degree in
+the university and began the practice of law. Ten years later he was
+elected a deputy to the national Congress, where he became a central
+figure in the debates, his advanced ideas, enthusiasm, and eloquence
+distinguishing him as a man of mark. He belonged to the federalist
+party of which La Tapia was the chief, and which found its strongest
+supporters in Cochabamba and La Paz. When the War of the Pacific began
+he was called from the prefecture of Cochabamba to the ministry of war,
+and he directed the organization of the army sent to repel the Chilean
+invasion. He was president of the national convention of 1880, which
+proclaimed the national constitution as it now stands. After a career
+of extraordinary brilliancy, he died at the early age of forty-five,
+while on his way to Brazil to represent his government at the imperial
+court of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. As a writer, and particularly as a
+novelist, Nataniel Aguirre ranks among the best, not only in Bolivia,
+but throughout South America, and the celebrated Argentine statesman
+and critic, Bartolomé Mitre wrote of his novel _Juan de la Rosa_, a
+romance of the Independence, that it is “the most beautiful production
+of talent and good taste in romance that South America can claim.”
+It is remarkable that no copy of this novel can be found in the book
+stores of Bolivia, so pronounced is the preference here as in all South
+American countries for French literature before even the best Spanish
+productions. The “prophet without honor in his own country” seems a
+universal example of at least one shortcoming of humanity. Nataniel
+Aguirre is the author of other charming books, chiefly histories and
+historical novels, all of which are out of print, only a few copies
+remaining in the possession of friends and literary admirers. One
+feels tempted to make a severe criticism of this failure to popularize
+the works of native authors; but it must be remembered that the best
+North American writers received their first recognition in England, and
+one of the most popular of English novels, _Trilby_, won fame for the
+author in America before it was counted among the successes in London
+book shops. Another temptation to criticism is excited by the fact that
+although there are many able and entertaining writers on historical
+subjects, no adequate history of Bolivia has yet been written. In
+some cases the modesty of the author has forbidden him to claim even
+as much honor for his work as it deserves; and excellent histories
+of certain periods have been published as _Studies_, _Compendiums_,
+_Essays_, and merely _Notes_. Apparently, however, few have been
+able to write without strong prejudices. Nearly all the principal
+historical works give evidence of marked talent for description. J. M.
+Cortés, the author of an _Essay on the History of Bolivia_, and L. M.
+Guzmán, author of an _Elementary History of Bolivia_, are among the
+most important writers on general events. José Maria Camacho and José
+Macedonio Urquidi have written school histories of considerable value.
+The government is trying to stimulate ambition in this direction by
+offering an important premium for the best history of Bolivia. Several
+historical writers have devoted their attention to some particular
+period and have produced biographical and political essays of real
+merit.
+
+Dr. José Maria Santiváñez, in common with most of the noted writers
+of his country, was a politician and a diplomat, as well as a
+historian of distinction. Born in 1815, he belonged to the “turbulent
+period” of Bolivian politics. He was a deputy to Congress during the
+administration of General José Ballivian and, later, during that of
+President Córdova. President Linares appointed him Prefect of Sucre
+and, later, Prefect of La Paz. Recognizing his gifts as a diplomatist,
+President Linares soon afterward sent him as chargé d’affaires to
+Chile, where he remained only until the downfall of Linares and the
+election of General Achá to the presidency. He opposed the tyrannical
+government of Melgarejo, and, being defeated, left the country, and
+remained away two years. He was a candidate for the presidency at the
+close of Tomás Frias’s term, and would have been elected but for the
+revolution which gave its leader, General Daza, the opportunity to
+seize the executive power. In the celebrated convention of 1880 he
+was a leading participant, as the representative from Cochabamba. His
+biographies of General José Ballivian and Don Adolfo Ballivian are
+among the most important historical works of his time. He wrote also on
+boundary questions, public instruction, finance, and other subjects. He
+died in Cochabamba in 1898, aged eighty-three years.
+
+Belisario Salinas, a contemporary of Dr. Santiváñez, and a candidate
+at the same time for the presidency, is another brilliant statesman
+who has contributed to the national literature. Although defeated by
+Daza, he was vice-president, and acting president for a time, during
+General Campero’s administration. The government of General Daza
+allowed little freedom of opinion to writers, and two authors, Jenaro
+Sanjinés and Nicolás Acosta, were imprisoned for ardently defending
+municipal rights. Don Jenaro Sanjinés, a statesman of distinction,
+like José Maria Santiváñez, has also written important biographies.
+His most valuable works are _Notes on the History of Bolivia during
+the Administration of General Agustin Morales_ and _Notes on
+the History of Bolivia during the Administrations of Don Adolfo
+Ballivian and Don Tomás Frias_. The Sanjinés family, of which
+there are branches in Sucre, Cochabamba, and La Paz, is one of the
+most gifted in Bolivia. Ignacio de Sanjinés wrote the words of the
+national hymn during the administration of General Santa Cruz; General
+Ildefonso Sanjinés was minister of war under President Morales, and
+a leading politician; Saturnino Sanjinés, who died in Sucre in 1893,
+was president of the Supreme Court of the republic, and a learned
+writer on jurisprudence; Bernardo Sanjinés has written important
+works on industrial development; Victor Sanjinés, postmaster-general,
+and Abigail Sanjinés, eldest son of the historian, the Bolivian
+consul-general in New York since May, 1906, are among the leading
+politicians and journalists. The government of the dictator Linares
+is the subject of an interesting biography by Antonio Quijarro, a
+Potosino. Quijarro belonged to the period of the great Olañeta, with
+whom he was associated in the publication of _El Siglo_, in
+company with the poets Daniel Calvo and Ricardo Mujia, to whom Bolivia
+owes many inspired verses; Ricardo Mujia is held by some critics as the
+best Bolivian poet.
+
+  [Illustration: THE BEHEADING OF SAINT PAUL. AN OLD PAINTING
+  IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE.]
+
+The city of Potosí has been the centre of numerous important political
+events, from the time when the Vascongados and the Vicuñas fought their
+battles there until the present day. A history of the city has been
+written in charming style by J. L. Jaimes, who, as “Brocha Gorda,”
+contributes to the best literary periodicals of South America. His work
+on Potosí contains historical anecdotes, traditions, and legends of the
+Imperial City, and is a valuable acquisition to the bibliography of
+the country. Potosí furnishes a fertile field for romance and legend,
+and many important writings of this character have been collected and
+published by Modesto Omiste, of Potosí, himself a clever author.
+With the title of _Cronicas Potosinas_, he has put into four
+volumes the best stories of the Villa Imperial, written by South
+Americans. Ricardo Palma, the Peruvian writer, the most celebrated of
+Latin-Americans in this class of literature, contributes more than
+a dozen traditions. Vicente G. Quesada, Nataniel Aguirre, Benjamin
+and Fidel Rivas, Benjamin Blanco, Manuel J. Cortés, J. M. Camacho,
+Julio César Valdez, “Brocha Gorda,” Luis Manzano, José David Berrios,
+Pedro Calderón, Emilio Fernandez, Angel Diez de Medina, have written
+gems for the collection. José Manuel Aponte, in addition to writing
+several of the Potosí legends, has devoted his talent to historical
+description, and published recently an interesting account of the Acre
+revolution. Juan W. Chacon, a Potosino who knows his Cerro as the
+Londoner knows his Strand, adds greatly to the value of the _Cronicas
+Potosinas_, by numerous contributions, sentimental and satirical,
+among them a clever commentary on feminine vanity and its punishment in
+the tradition _Lo que puede una mujer_--“What a woman can do.” La
+Paz, as well as Potosí, has been the subject of historical and romantic
+essays and sketches, the best of these being the _Monografia de la
+Ciudad de La Paz_, by Luis Crespo, who gives an entertaining history
+of the chief events which have occurred in the city from the conquest
+to the present day. Nicolás Acosta’s _Guide to La Paz_ is a useful
+book of reference. Eufronio Viscarra is the author of an interesting
+history of Cochabamba.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON JUAN CARILLO.]
+
+The history of Sucre has been entertainingly and carefully written
+by Dr. Valentin Abecia, the second vice-president of the republic,
+with the title of _Historia de Chuquisaca_, under which it
+first appeared in the bulletin of the Geographical Society of Sucre,
+preparatory to publication in book form. It is a complete and authentic
+history of the capital of the Audiencia of Charcas, and as such is
+probably the most important historical work published on Bolivia in
+recent years. Dr. Abecia is a leader in the intellectual progress of
+his country, and has contributed to its advancement in science as well
+as in literature and politics. He is a medical authority of the first
+rank and has written important treatises on this subject; other noted
+writers on medical science are Drs. Julio La Faye, Andrés Muñoz, Isaac
+Aranibar, Cuellar, Quiroga, and Julio Rodriguez. The study of medical
+science has been greatly stimulated within recent years, though it
+shows less progress than might be expected. Dr. Rodriguez, who is now
+senator for the department of Cochabamba, has been conspicuous not only
+in medical but political circles for the past thirty years or more.
+He was recently named minister plenipotentiary to Argentina, but was
+obliged to return and resign his post on account of illness. He was
+educated in the Medical College of Sucre, and has been professor of
+pathology and a member of the University Council of Cochabamba for many
+years.
+
+A study of the biographies of Bolivia’s leading men in all branches
+of learning reveals the fact that they have at some period of their
+careers filled government positions. Politics may be regarded as the
+great highway of intellectual progress, into which have thronged
+poets, orators, journalists, historians, scientists, and lawyers, in
+search of fame and fortune. Patriotism has been the keynote of poetry,
+oratory, and journalism; the historian has written for his party
+rather than for posterity; science has made slow progress chiefly
+because it is not easily associated with party politics, except in an
+impersonal way; though it is true that some of the best literature
+of Bolivia is that which relates to the science of government. Law,
+philosophy, and political economy have been treated by the best
+scholars of Bolivia, and of these a few may be named who rank as high
+in their profession as the best of their South American colleagues.
+The late Don Samuel Oropeza, by whose recent death in Sucre the
+nation lost one of her greatest jurists and most devoted patriots,
+was the author of important works, of which _Studies of Modern
+Science_ and _Political Economy_ are the best known. He wrote
+also on _Bolivian Finances_ and a multitude of other subjects,
+and possessed that rare gift of versatility which always affords a
+wide range for the expression of intellectual genius. Federico Diez
+de Medina has written a work, _International Law_, which the
+best European critics commend; and Agustin Aspiazu is the author of
+_Dogmas of International Law_, a production of considerable
+importance, published in New York in 1872. José S. Quinteros, the
+present minister of war, is one of the best writers on jurisprudence,
+and his _Administrative Law_ is regarded as a work of great merit.
+José Manuel Gutierrez, author and journalist, wrote _Public Law_.
+Macario Pinilla, one of the foremost leaders of the government, and a
+lawyer of distinguished talents, who has the honor to be a member of
+the Royal Academy of Jurisprudence, of Madrid, is the author of several
+works on jurisprudence. Angel Moscoso is the author of a dictionary
+of jurisprudence; and Bautista Saavedra has published, among other
+scientific books, an interesting study of criminology. Melchor Urquidi
+writes on penal law, and Daniel Sanchez Bustamente, on _Principles
+of Law_. Antonio Loaiza, Rafael Canedo, Luis Arce, and others have
+contributed meritorious works on jurisprudence. Nearly all of the best
+works on scientific subjects have been written within the past twenty
+years, and the younger lawyers and politicians appear ambitious to
+raise the standard of national literature pertaining to law.
+
+The vital question of boundaries, which has been an insistent and
+sometimes absorbing one in the history of Bolivia, has been the means
+of calling out especial talent, not only among the country’s diplomatic
+representatives, but among the writers as well. The “literature of
+limits” is almost a complete library in itself, touching upon law,
+history, geography, science, and a multitude of kindred subjects. It
+serves as a valuable reference library for posterity. Some of the
+most noted explorers have been the leading statesmen of the republic.
+Ex-President General José Manuel Pando has written an extremely
+entertaining and instructive description of his voyage to the rubber
+region, and is the author of many works of interest on the geography
+of the Territorio de Colonias, of which he is the present chief
+authority. Manuel Vicente Ballivian, the minister of immigration and
+agriculture, has written extensive reports of his journey to the Acre
+region. Don Felix Avelino Aramayo, Bolivia’s most noted “captain of
+industry,” and one of the leading diplomats, is the author of several
+works on Bolivian industries. For six years Señor Aramayo represented
+his country at the Court of Saint James, from 1897 to 1903, rendering
+important services to his government during that period. Previously he
+had been identified with politics as deputy to Congress; and in the
+famous Congress of 1880, which was convened by President Campero to
+reconstitute the Bolivian government in the face of the war with Chile,
+he took an active part in framing the new constitution. While minister
+in London, Señor Aramayo had on his staff as secretaries and attachés
+the brilliant and promising young diplomats, Ignacio Gutierrez Ponce,
+Chevalier of the Legion of Honor; Adolfo Ballivian, the son of the late
+president; Pedro Suarez, a plucky explorer of the Amazon tributaries;
+and Ramon Pando, the son of ex-President Pando. There is probably no
+writer on industrial conditions in Bolivia who has contributed valuable
+and comprehensive information in a more readable style.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DON AVELINO ARAMAYO.]
+
+Federico Blanco has written a charming book, which gives the
+biographies of the various naturalists and other explorers who have
+visited the Amazon region. The Blanco family have been identified
+with Bolivian literature, geography, and history from the time of
+the Independence, contributing greatly to intellectual advancement.
+Federico, Pedro, Benjamin, and Cleómedes will be held in honored
+remembrance for their superior gifts. Among the native explorers who
+have written on boundary questions, Francisco Iraizós is a recognized
+authority, as well as Daniel Campos, who in 1883 led an expedition
+to the Gran Chaco and founded colonies on the banks of the Paraguay
+River. Ernesto O. Ruck, the author of a general guide to Bolivia, has
+accumulated and compiled valuable material for general reference. Pedro
+Kramer, a clever author and scientist who lost his life while exploring
+the Amazon region, left the first volume of a work on _Industry in
+Bolivia_, and the first volume of a history of Bolivia, which it
+is lamented that he did not live to complete. Octavio Moscoso is the
+author of a geography of Bolivia, and J. A. Palacios has given to
+posterity a most entertaining description of explorations made sixty
+years ago in the territory of the Beni, Mamoré, and Madeira Rivers.
+The latest edition of his works contains also those of his grandson,
+Abel Iturralde, with a scientific study of the waterways of northwest
+Bolivia. Santiago Vaca-Guzmán, the author of many books on a variety of
+subjects, writes also of the _Chaco Oriental_. Don José Aguirre
+Achá, who accompanied General Pando on his expedition to the Acre,
+is the author of a description of the journey in a book entitled
+_From the Andes to the Amazon_. He is not only a rising young
+politician, being _oficial mayor_ in the _ministerio_ of
+government and promotion, and a prose writer of distinguished talent,
+but is also a poet of great promise, inheriting the versatile genius
+of his father, the immortal Nataniel Aguirre. Nearly all Bolivian
+writers have contributed verse to the national literature, and have
+also been identified with political life. That politics and letters go
+nearly always hand in hand is not to be wondered at in a country of
+limited population, with only a small leisure class to encourage the
+development of purely intellectual talent. The pursuit of literature,
+even in the more remunerative highways, is a precarious career, unless
+supported by ample fortune or an assured income from some other source.
+This is true not only of Bolivia, but, more or less, of all countries.
+
+  [Illustration: PAINTING PRESENTED BY CARLOS IV. OF SPAIN TO
+  THE MINT OF POTOSÍ.]
+
+Journalism has been, and still is, a popular stepping-stone to young
+politicians, and the most brilliant statesmen and diplomats of Bolivia
+have, with few exceptions, been connected with newspaper work at some
+period of their career. The Bolivian newspaper is still a political
+organ rather than a purveyor of news, in this respect resembling the
+majority of South American journals. On the other hand, it is free
+from the abhorrent features of a press over zealous to give to the
+public the minute details of every occurrence in society, however
+loathsome they may be. On the whole, the Bolivian newspaper with its
+brief paragraphs of cable news, its more or less limited account of the
+day’s events at home, and its predominating political features, with,
+perhaps, a poem or two to give it literary flavor, is to be preferred
+by the normal mind to the sensational columns, glaring headlines,
+inartistic and altogether absurd illustrations, and bulky advertising
+pages of the extreme type of metropolitan dailies in North America.
+
+Although the printing press was prohibited in the colonies during
+Spanish rule, except for the use of the Church in promoting Christian
+propaganda, the patriots succeeded in establishing a periodical during
+the War of the Independence, _El Telégrafo_ being founded in 1822. The
+first daily paper published in the republic was _La Epoca_, of La Paz,
+which was founded soon after the war, and counted among its editors at
+one time the brilliant Argentine writer Bartolomé Mitre. During the
+administration of General José Ballivian it was edited by A. Quintela,
+Domingo Oro, and Mitre. Later, the famous journalist and diplomat Felix
+Reyes Ortiz took the editorial management. This gifted writer was the
+founder and editor of at least half a dozen newspapers, among others,
+_El Constitucional_, _La Voz de Bolivia_, _El Consejero del Pueblo_,
+and a humorous journal, _El Padre Cobo_. He edited _La Reforma_, of
+La Paz, and was president of the Circulo Literario, a society founded
+in La Paz for the promotion of literature. The leading writers of
+Sucre had also their literary society, called La Colmena, meaning “the
+beehive,” to which the poets and journalists of the day belonged. It
+was organized in the house of the poet Mariano Ramallo, and counted
+among its members the most prominent men of the capital. The literary
+organ of the society was named _La Colmena de Sucre_, in which the
+best prose and poetry was published and reviewed. Among the earliest
+periodicals of Bolivia was _La Estrella_, of Sucre, founded during the
+first years of the republic, and edited for a long time by Don Domingo
+Delgadillo, who began his public career during the administration
+of President Sucre, and was a member of President José Ballivian’s
+Cabinet, in company with Don Tomás Frias, Don Basilio Cuellar, General
+Perez de Urdininea, all prominent in the politics of that time. _El
+Siglo_ was the name of another periodical of Sucre, founded in the
+early fifties, and in 1863 _La Aurora Literaria_ was added to the
+list of Sucre’s literary journals. Don Jorge Delgadillo founded the
+last-named journal, and associated with him in its publication were
+Don Belisario Loza Santa Cruz, afterward editor of _La Estrella_,
+Don Mariano Ramallo, the poet, and Don Luis Pablo Rosquellas, one of
+the brilliant writers, who was also a statesman of distinction as
+minister of the Supreme Court of the republic. Jorge Delgadillo was
+the founder of _La Juventud_, _La Abeja_, and _La Floresta_. In 1857
+the _Boletin Republicano_ was founded by Don Daniel Calvo to support
+the government of the dictator Linares. Daniel Calvo has been called
+the Lamartine of his country. He was not only a poet and journalist,
+but a clever statesman, having been a minister in the Cabinet of
+President Adolfo Ballivian and his successor, Tomás Frias, a deputy to
+several Congresses, a leader in the national convention of 1880. He
+was the author of a beautiful legend in verse, _Ana Dorset_, and of
+many graceful sonnets. Another poet, Dr. Luis Zalles, president of the
+Superior Court of La Paz, was the founder of several periodicals, and
+is greatly esteemed as a writer of both prose and verse.
+
+_La Revista_ and _La Razon_, of Cochabamba, were among the best
+periodicals of the day, twenty years ago. Nataniel Aguirre and other
+leading writers contributed to their columns. General Camacho founded
+_El Cazador_ in the same city. _El Heraldo_, of Cochabamba, founded
+in 1877 by Don Juan Francisco Velarde, is still published by him, and
+has a general circulation in the department. The founder and editor
+is one of the best-known journalists of Bolivia. A native of Santa
+Cruz de la Sierra, he has occupied important posts in the service of
+his country at home and abroad. He was minister of foreign affairs in
+President Pacheco’s Cabinet, and minister to Brazil during President
+Arce’s government. He has been to the United States several times in a
+diplomatic capacity. _El Tiempo_, of Potosí, founded by Modesto Omiste
+some years ago, is still in existence, though most of the newspapers
+and periodicals named in the preceding list have given place to others.
+_El Cruzado_, the Church paper, which was founded many years ago by Dr.
+Miguel Taborga, and edited by him until his death, is among the few
+which have survived and increased in circulation and prestige.
+
+The history of Bolivian literature was written some years ago by
+Santiago Vaca-Guzmán, one of Bolivia’s best poets and novelists; but
+like so many other literary productions of Bolivian authors, the
+book is out of print, and not a copy is to be had, unless, by rare
+chance, some friend of the author may have preserved one. The greatest
+difficulty is experienced in Bolivia in securing copies of even the
+best books, as only very limited editions have been printed, and these
+seem to have vanished in an amazing manner; it is true that books are
+published at the author’s expense, and few authors care to assume the
+responsibility of disposing of a large stock.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. JULIO RODRIGUEZ.]
+
+New literary societies have succeeded La Colmena, and its journal
+no longer exists. Sucre now has a Centro Literario and an excellent
+literary review, _Vida Nueva_, printed in colors and handsomely
+illustrated, which is one of the most creditable productions of
+periodical literature in South America. It is edited by a group of
+young poets who have contributed gems of prose and verse to the
+national literature. Adolfo Guardia Berdecio, Armando D. Alvarez,
+Claudio Peñaranda, and José A. de Jáuregui are the editors, and among
+the contributors are writers of note from all parts of the republic.
+Chief of these is the poet Tomás O’Connor d’Arlach, senator from
+Tarija, who himself founded and edited at least two periodicals; one
+of them, _La Estrella de Tarija_, is still in existence, though
+the other, _El Independiente_, of Sucre, suspended publication
+some years ago. He has been a contributor to the literature of his
+country for thirty years or more, during which he has written history,
+biography, and poetry with prolific pen. His style is graceful, though
+his poetic composition is delicate rather than vigorous, and is
+suggestive, in its sadness, of “the throne where sorrow sits.”
+
+_Vida Nueva_ is distinctly a modern periodical, and the outlook
+is bright for its permanent success. Prominent among the collaborators
+is Mariano Enrique Calvo, regarded by many as the best prose writer of
+Bolivia. Julio Zamora, deputy from Chuquisaca to the national Congress,
+who is also one of the principal collaborators, has written articles
+for the best periodicals during the past ten years, and, though a
+young man, has made his influence felt in literary circles as well
+as in politics. _El Eco Moderno_, _La Revista de Bolivia_,
+_La Nacion_, and other journals have published essays and poems
+from his pen. Angel Diez de Medina, Andrés Torrico, Jorge Mendieta,
+Benjamin Guzmán, C. Guillermo Loaiza, Réné Calvo Arana, José Raña,
+Alfredo Jáuregui Rosquellas, Juan Manuel Sainz, and the editors of
+_Vida Nueva_, previously mentioned, are among the nation’s writers
+of prose and poetry. There are more than fifty writers of verse in
+Bolivia, of whose genius a Spanish critic says: “Generally, the
+Bolivian muse is incorrect; but she has inspiration and brilliancy, and
+is sincerely impassioned.” The most recent novel of note written by a
+Bolivian author is _Vida Criolla_, by Alcides Arguedas.
+
+The oldest newspaper now published in La Paz is _El Comercio_, though
+there are, in all, twenty-five periodicals issued regularly in that
+city, the principal dailies being _El Comercio_, _El Comercio de
+Bolivia_, _El Diario_, and _El Estado_. As La Paz is the centre of
+political interest, being the seat of government, journalism is even
+more flavored with politics here than elsewhere, and the leading
+journalists are frequently politicians. Dr. Luis Salinas Vega, a
+familiar figure in social and political circles, was the founder of _El
+Comercio de Bolivia_, and may be regarded as the Nestor of the Bolivian
+press. Don Alfredo Ascarrunz, editor of _El Comercio_, is a diplomatist
+and an orator of distinguished ability. Don Carlos Villegas, editor of
+_El Comercio de Bolivia_, and Don Abel Alarcon, editor of _El Diario_
+and director of the National Library, are prominent in public affairs.
+The Circulo Literario no longer exists, and _La Revista_, which ten
+years ago was the flourishing organ of the Centro de Estudios, under
+the editorial management of Don Hiram Loaiza and Don Juan Mas, has
+been suspended; but a clever little _bibelot_ is published, called
+_Tentativas_, which keeps alive literary sentiment in the City of
+Peace. Oruro has two daily papers, _El Tribuno_ and _La Tarde_;
+Cochabamba has several, _El Dia_, edited by Don Bráulio Pinto, being
+one of the most important; _La Capital_, _La Industria_ and _La Mañana_
+are the chief dailies of Sucre; _El Tiempo_ of Potosí, _La Ley_ of
+Santa Cruz, and _La Estrella_ of Tarija, complete the list.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. ANDRÉS MUÑOZ.]
+
+The literature of Bolivia has had among its exponents more than one
+authoress and poetess, the most famous writer of the _bello sexo_
+having been Doña Maria Josefa Mujía, the blind poetess, who, in
+addition to original poems, made excellent translations of Victor Hugo
+and Lamartine. Doña Mercedes Belzu de Dorado, daughter of President
+Belzu, Doña Modesta Sanjinés, and Señorita Adela Zamudio have also
+written gems in both prose and verse. Señorita Zamudio, whose pseudonym
+is “Soledad,” has not only produced exquisite poetry, but she has
+painted very beautiful pictures, and may be considered one of Bolivia’s
+best artists.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIANS OF POTOSÍ. A PAINTING BY THE BOLIVIAN
+  ARTIST, DON ANICETO VALDEZ.]
+
+The history of art in Bolivia is brief, but not without interest.
+During colonial times, when the capital of the Audiencia of Charcas was
+one of the principal centres of Spanish culture in the New World, it
+was not unusual for the wealthy residents of Chuquisaca and Potosí to
+possess paintings by the best masters of Europe. A few of these rare
+productions have been kept by families of the capital for generations,
+though the greater number have been disposed of. Some curious specimens
+of art of the Flemish school adorn the walls of several old public
+buildings; and in the mint of Potosí is a collection of paintings,
+presented to the Imperial City by the Emperor Charles IV. of Spain, and
+said to have been painted by Velasquez. In the cathedral of Sucre hangs
+_The Vision of San Cayetano_, an oil painting on copper, which was
+brought over from Spain by one of the bishops of Charcas and presented
+to the cathedral. It is well preserved, and one of the best art critics
+of New York has judged it to be a work of great value. _The Beheading
+of Saint Paul_ is the subject of another painting, also on copper,
+signed “Wolfaert,” which is wonderfully preserved. Five beautiful old
+paintings hang in the church of Santa Teresa, of Cochabamba.
+
+Sucre and Cochabamba have, perhaps, given to Bolivia her best artists.
+Don Avelino Nogales, who was born in Sucre in 1871, is one of the
+greatest painters of Bolivia. He studied art in Buenos Aires, and early
+showed signs of a remarkable gift in portrait painting, in which he
+excels. A full-length portrait of ex-President Baptista is among his
+most successful works. José García Mesa, of Cochabamba, is probably
+the best known of Bolivian artists, and by his death, a year ago,
+the nation lost one of its most gifted sons. His life was devoted to
+studying and teaching his beloved art. His initial attempts were
+exhibited in Sucre and Buenos Aires, and later he went to Europe.
+At Rome he succeeded in gaining an honorable place among the best
+artists, and two of his paintings, _La Ciociarra_ and _Los
+Pescadores en el Tiber_, were hung in the Salon. The last-named was
+awarded Honorable Mention, and the artist was elected to membership
+in the International Artistic Association of Rome. He had the honor,
+while at Rome, of painting a portrait of Queen Margharita; and one
+of his paintings, a Saint Louis, was hung in the church of Yassy,
+after receiving the blessing of Pope Leo XIII. In 1885 he went to
+Paris and devoted his talent to portrait painting, in which lay his
+forte. His portrait of President Schenk, of Switzerland, now hangs
+in the Legislative Hall of Berne. He painted portraits of several
+distinguished Europeans, achieving considerable success in his chosen
+field. Returning to Bolivia, he founded an academy of painting in
+the capital, under the protection of the government, but later he
+transferred it to Cochabamba, where it was established under favorable
+auspices, and was maintained until his death. He is the author of
+two historical paintings, _Murillo on the Gallows_ and _The
+Martyrdom of San Sebastian_.
+
+Among the artists who have recently achieved distinction are Aniceto
+Valdez, author of _Indians of Potosí_ and other paintings of
+note, Carlos Berdecio, Saturnino Salamanca, Porcel, Sainz, Teodomiro
+Beltrán, and David García. The pupils of José García Mesa have, with
+few exceptions, done excellent work, Señorita Zamudio being one of
+the most talented of his class. Doña Eliza Rocha de Ballivian, who
+studied in Santiago, Chile, has produced several paintings of merit;
+and Don José Alvarez, caricaturist, Don Zenón Iturralde, Felix Jordan,
+Diego Carpio, Cristóbal García, Pompilio Barberí, and Tomás Morales
+have shown artistic talent of a high order. Sucre is the home of a
+most extraordinary genius in the person of an Indian, who, with no
+instruction whatever, has proved himself an excellent amateur sculptor,
+and whose statues adorn many private gardens and some of the public
+parks of the capital.
+
+In music the Bolivian has shown the possession of much natural
+talent, though little instruction has been afforded, owing to the
+remote situation of the country and its limited relations with the
+great musical centres of the world. There are several musicians and
+composers of note, though the soul of the nation seems to find its
+best expression in oratory and poetry, influenced, as Mantegazza says,
+by “the grandeur of nature around, the sublime spectacle of which
+exercises immense power over heart and brain, stimulating the culture
+of philosophy and poetry.” Bolivia has produced talent of widely
+varying character, but the opportunity for development, especially
+in the study of art and music, has been restricted. The late Samuel
+Oropeza, when minister of public instruction, presented to Congress a
+plan for the establishment of an academy of music and the pensioning
+of Bolivian students of art and music to enable them to pursue their
+studies in the best schools of Europe; and the disposition is marked,
+on the part of the present government, to encourage talent in every
+field by the most judicious method. Of the composers who have dedicated
+their genius to music, Don Teofilo Vargas has achieved the greatest
+fame. His first successful composition was a brilliant waltz, in
+two parts, called the _Proceso Sejas_, which was written to
+commemorate a _cause célèbre_. It was published in Paris in
+1890. A funeral march, written for the occasion of the obsequies of
+Bishop Granado, of Cochabamba, and published in 1902, is regarded as
+one of the author’s best compositions. _Suspiros_, a mazurka
+published in Buenos Aires in 1902, and numerous other recent pieces,
+are very popular. He has composed religious music also, and is an
+expert violinist, interpreting the masters with great sympathy and
+intuition. Among other musicians of note are several who have also
+achieved success in politics and diplomacy, and who belong to the
+best-known families of the republic. Adolfo Ballivian is the author
+of _Rosy Dreams_. Graceful compositions have been written by
+Eloy Salmón, Eduardo and Daniel Nuñez del Prado, José Bravo, Manuel
+Luna, and Francisco Suárez, author of the waltzes _Forests of the
+Beni_, _Glories of the Acre_, and other veritable gems. In
+patriotic music, the _Viva Bolivia!_ written by Samuel Arce, and
+_Combat and Victory_, a military march by Francisco J. Molina,
+are among the best. Eduardo Berdecio is the author of the popular
+waltz _Potosí_, which is in great vogue, and he also wrote _Tus
+Ojos_,--“Thine Eyes,”--a very pretty waltz. José Lavadenz, Ercilia
+Fernandez, Juan J. Arana, Pedro Butrón, Dorado Belzu, Zenón Espinoza,
+G. Matienzo, and E. Ortega are young musicians with a promising future.
+
+The intellectual progress of Bolivia has made most rapid strides within
+a very few years. There is much intellectual talent in the nation, and
+its expression needs only the encouragement which an interchange of
+thought and closer association with the outside world can give. Bolivia
+may yet produce Shakespeares, Michael Angelos, and Mozarts.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑORITA ADELA ZAMUDIO, “SOLEDAD.”]
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF SUCRE FROM THE SUBURBS.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+                     SUCRE, THE CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA
+
+
+  [Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF CHARCAS, NOW SUCRE.]
+
+To the traveller who views it for the first time from the distant
+heights of Huata, on the road leading to the capital from the north,
+the beautiful white city of Sucre looks like a dove in its nest, as
+it lies enclosed within the surrounding hills, gleaming in the bright
+sunlight under the clearest of skies. It is an enchanting picture, and
+the traveller involuntarily pauses to enjoy its exquisite harmony.
+Repose and beauty are expressed in the whole panorama which spreads out
+before one at this magnificent vantage point. Nature is calm on the
+summits and in the valleys, the heavens are serene and smiling, and
+the fair city nestling there is a vision of delight. It impresses the
+imagination like the reading of a beautiful romance, the sound of sweet
+music, or a day-dream in June. A nearer approach gives animation to the
+picture, which is ever charming. Groups are seen to pass and repass
+on the busy thoroughfares; elegant equipages can be distinguished in
+the parks and along the avenues; and donkeys, resting in the shade, or
+trotting along with their loads, _cholas_ and Indians with bundles
+on their backs, and children playing about the doorways, indicate the
+poorer quarters where work and rest have no separate abode. Here and
+there a tall chimney, with the smoke curling up from it, marks the
+site of the factory or mill, and shows that the spirit of enterprise
+is not wanting. Numerous church towers rise above the tiled roofs.
+Upon entering the capital, the foreigner’s first impression is one
+of surprise that a city so remote from the centres of social and
+commercial progress in the Old and the New World should present such a
+modern appearance, with so many evidences of wealth and culture. The
+sight of paved streets, handsome public buildings, plazas, driveways,
+and private residences that are in some instances veritable palaces,
+shatters the preconceived ideas of this far away metropolis. Although
+situated in the heart of South America, from two to three days’ ride by
+diligence from the nearest railway, and longer by muleback,--according
+to the season and the consequent condition of the roads,--Sucre is as
+European as any city of old Spain, and much more advanced than most
+of them. The glorious climate makes mere existence a delight, and the
+pure air of this altitude, which is ten thousand feet above sea level,
+contributes to render it one of the most healthful and agreeable places
+of residence imaginable. The inhabitants show the influence of its
+inspiring atmosphere, and are, as a rule, happy, contented, and genial.
+Everyone who has visited Sucre, even for a short time, retains through
+life a pleasant remembrance of the beautiful city and its cultured and
+hospitable people. Everything pertaining to hard and bitter struggle
+and the turmoil of anxious effort seems to have been banished, or never
+to have existed in this “Happy Valley” of the Occident. Occasionally
+one hears a sigh and some reference to _la lucha de la vida_--“the
+struggle of life”--from a philosopher of pessimistic temperament, but
+there is seldom any deeper sentiment in the remark than that which
+may be inspired by too long an interval between fiestas. There is
+something restful in the quiet dignity with which the most urgent
+business affairs are despatched, and it is refreshing to observe the
+hopefulness with which each day is welcomed as the herald of important
+possibilities. A Frenchman, writing of the city, says: “It is like one
+of its own lovely ladies; it has the repose of the _grande dame_,
+the fresh beauty of the _débutante_, and the fascination of both,
+with its charming atmosphere, the sunny smile of its skies, and the
+persistence with which it lingers in one’s memory!” Needless to say the
+Frenchman left his heart in the Bolivian capital.
+
+  [Illustration: COLONEL DON JULIO LA FAYE, PREFECT OF
+  CHUQUISACA, SUCRE.]
+
+It is to be regretted that so few foreigners visiting Bolivia ever
+get beyond the Titicaca plateau, and that the only aspect under which
+they see this great country is presented by the vast stretches of
+the Altaplanicie, with the Andes marking its border. The average
+traveller’s idea of Bolivian life and customs is taken entirely from
+the cities of the Titicaca plateau, and especially from La Paz, which,
+though the commercial metropolis, progressive and enterprising,
+displaying in its social life those characteristics which are most
+admired and give the city one of its greatest charms, is essentially
+a “highland city,” and not typical of every town in Bolivia. Each
+department has its distinctive features, whether of mountain, valley,
+or plain, that give to the department capitals an individuality as
+marked as that which distinguishes London from Newcastle, New York
+from Denver, and Berlin from Leipsic. Sucre differs in some respects
+from La Paz and other Bolivian cities, which in turn differ from each
+other.
+
+  [Illustration: THE PRINCIPALITY OF GLORIETA, SUBURBS OF
+  SUCRE.]
+
+By a law passed July 1, 1826, Sucre was declared the provisional
+capital of the republic, and this title was confirmed by Congress,
+July 10, 1839. A decree issued June 18, 1843, gave to the city the
+additional title of “illustrious and heroic.” Nearly all the department
+capitals, however, have had the honor of being the seat of government
+at some period, and the sessions of Congress have, upon many occasions
+in the history of the republic, taken place at Oruro and Cochabamba
+and at the present seat of government, La Paz. Several amusing stories
+are related in this connection. It is said that a mystified Englishman
+once asked Don Casimiro Olañeta, the Bolivian orator: “But where is,
+really, the capital of Bolivia?” to which the witty reply was: _La
+capital de Bolivia es el lomo del caballo que monta el Presidente de
+la Republica_--“The capital of Bolivia is the back of the horse
+which the president of the republic rides.” The remote situation of
+the capital and the difficulty of reaching it at some seasons of the
+year are largely responsible for this itinerary system. Sucre is at
+present the seat of the Supreme Court and the archiepiscopal see, but,
+as before stated, the other executive authorities of the national
+government now have their headquarters at La Paz, where the sessions of
+Congress have been held since the overthrow of President Alonso in 1899
+and the establishment of the present political system.
+
+Of the history of the site upon which the city was built which has been
+successively known as Charcas, Chuquisaca, La Plata, and Sucre, little
+can be learned antedating the period of Inca rule, though it is known
+that the locality has been from time immemorial a centre of population.
+The name Charcas refers, of course, to the tribes to whom the original
+inhabitants, not only of this locality, but of all Collasuyo,
+belonged. Chuquisaca, an Indian name, signifies, according to various
+authorities, “the bridge of gold,” “mountain of gold,” “stone of gold”;
+but, by whatever interpretation, it shows that the presence of the
+precious metal in abundance suggested the title. La Plata was the name
+given by the Spaniards, who found silver in large quantities in this
+locality. The name Charcas is no longer used, except in an occasional
+reference to the University of San Francisco Xavier as the University
+of Charcas; Chuquisaca is the name of the department of which Sucre
+is the capital; La Plata designates the archbishopric; Sucre is now
+the only name by which the city is known. The Spaniards could not have
+chosen a more advantageous locality for the founding of their chief
+city in Bolivia, at a time when the principal interests of Spain were
+centred in the rich mines of her newly conquered territory. As soon
+as Potosi began to empty its treasure stores, the tide of immigration
+turned in that direction; and as the extreme altitude prevented many
+people from living at the famous Cerro, the colonial capital became
+a favorite place of residence for wealthy Potosinos, as the city has
+continued to be to the present day. It increased in importance with
+the increasing wealth of the colony, and early in the history of the
+Audiencia it became celebrated, not only for its elaborate court
+functions and the costly display of its rich inhabitants, but for the
+attention paid to learning, the University of San Francisco Xavier, as
+before mentioned, taking high rank among the best Spanish universities.
+This characteristic of the capital of the Audiencia has been inherited
+by the capital of the republic, and Sucre is noted for the great
+number of the nation’s most brilliant and gifted sons who claim it as
+their birthplace. The history of the city has been related in that of
+the whole country; it would be impossible to give a record of events
+concerning either the Audiencia of Charcas or the republic of Bolivia
+without presenting to constant view the capital city, which has been so
+often the chief theatre of action.
+
+  [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL TOWER, SUCRE.]
+
+  [Illustration: MUNICIPAL PALACE, SUCRE.]
+
+Every public square and every street has its story connected with
+some period of the city’s history, and all the older buildings have
+historic interest. The legislative palace, which was formerly a Jesuit
+convent, has been the scene of some of the most important events in the
+history of Bolivia. During colonial days, the general chapel, as it
+was called, was used as an assembly hall, where all the corporations
+and chief authorities had their reunions. In this hall one of the
+leaders of the Chuquisaca patriots, Don Ramón García de León Pizarro,
+was imprisoned for a share in the memorable revolution of August 25,
+1809, and it was here that the Act of Independence was signed on
+August 6, 1825. It is the _sala_ for the use of the Chamber of
+Deputies, and has witnessed many stirring scenes in the meetings of
+Congress held within its walls. It has two parliamentary tribunes,
+besides one for diplomatic representatives; a magnificently carved and
+gilded choir, which attracts attention because of its artistic design
+and exquisite workmanship, and which is only one of many legacies of
+architectural beauty bequeathed to posterity by the Jesuit wood and
+stone carvers, extends as a gallery along one end of the _sala_,
+and is known as the ladies’ gallery of the House. The Senate is a
+spacious hall occupying one side of the palace, and having as its most
+conspicuous adornment a bust of the celebrated Bolivian statesman who
+was one of the nation’s greatest presidents, Señor Don Tomás Frias. In
+the _sala_ of the Chamber of Deputies have been placed handsome
+commemorative busts of General Bolivar, General Sucre, and General
+Ballivian; and in the same hall the swords of the victors of Ayacucho
+and Ingavi are preserved among the nation’s priceless relics. The
+saddle cloth which was worn by General Sucre’s horse on the day of the
+mutiny, when the general was shot in the arm just before Colonel Lopez
+came to his rescue, and which still shows the stain of blood, is among
+the souvenirs of the illustrious hero of Ayacucho that remain in the
+city bearing his name. It is a valued possession of the prefect of
+Chuquisaca, Colonel Julio La Faye, whose grandfather, Colonel Lopez,
+received it as a parting gift from the “philosopher soldier” before the
+latter left Bolivia. It is magnificently embroidered in gold. Colonel
+La Faye may some day present it to the nation, to be exhibited among
+its most precious historical heirlooms. The Pacheco _finca_ marks
+the site of the house in which General Sucre recuperated from the
+effects of the wound in his arm, and where he dictated his abdication
+to one of the young captains of his army who acted as his secretary. It
+is a celebrated document, and is regarded as one of the most beautiful
+demonstrations of patriotic feeling, exalted integrity and rhetorical
+brilliancy in the history of Spanish-American politics. The young
+captain who wrote the abdication was José Ballivian, afterward one
+of Bolivia’s most illustrious generals, and the hero of her greatest
+battle, Ingavi. Romance has its share, too, in the stories that survive
+regarding General Sucre, and a picturesque country place is pointed
+out as having been the home of a beautiful daughter of the capital who
+won the heart of the hero, and whose white kerchief fluttering from a
+window that peeped out among the trees was a signal as powerful to lead
+the great soldier into love’s silken campaign as was his country’s flag
+to plunge him into the storm of patriotic combat. “The bravest are the
+tenderest” under all the flags of the world.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF ONE OF SUCRE’S BEAUTIFUL PLAZAS.]
+
+The new government palace is the handsomest public building in Sucre.
+It occupies half a square on the west side of the principal plaza
+and consists of three stories and a magnificent cupola which has a
+_mirador_, or balcony, affording an uninterrupted view of the
+city and surrounding country. Spacious _salas_ are provided for
+the use of the chief executive and for the offices of the ministers of
+state. Architecturally and in its modern style of construction, the
+new palace is a fine example of building enterprise. When finished it
+will be furnished in harmony with the most tasteful ideas of artistic
+decoration. Already much of the furniture has been purchased, great
+mirrors have been ordered for the _salones_ as well as rich
+curtains and carpets. The plan of the building is effective, the
+double marble staircases leading from the grand entrance, which turn
+to form a single staircase midway between the ground floor and that
+above, presenting a particularly imposing appearance between stately
+marble columns. The halls and corridors are spacious and conveniently
+arranged, not only for executive and administrative purposes, but as
+banquet halls, ballrooms, and reception parlors. The façade of the
+building shows in the centre the national coat of arms, and above it
+the legend _La Union es la Fuerza_--“Union is Strength.” Over the
+entrance is sculptured in high relief a shield bearing the coat of arms
+of each of the departments of Bolivia.
+
+Next in importance to the Executive Palace, the Palace of Justice
+claims special attention. In its halls are held the sessions of the
+Supreme Court, Superior Court, and lesser judicial authorities. It
+contains the offices of the national Tribunal de Cuentas, Prefectura,
+and Comandancia General of the department of Chuquisaca, the General
+Archives of the nation, the administration offices of the departmental
+treasury, and the Public Library, containing about ten thousand
+volumes. This imposing old edifice is one of the most interesting
+in the city. Its style is the earliest colonial period, when it was
+erected as a Dominican convent. The cloisters on the second floor are
+still apparently as solid as they were centuries ago, and surpass
+the most substantial corridors and galleries built to-day. In the
+_patio_ is an old quadrant or sun-dial of colonial days, which
+still is as serviceable as ever. The _salas_ of the Supreme Court
+are furnished appropriately and in good taste, and upon the walls are
+oil portraits of the most distinguished jurists of the republic. In
+the Superior Court several old paintings attract attention, though
+only one, a painting of the Crucifixion, appears to have particular
+merit. The president of the Supreme Court, Señor Don Fenelon Pereira,
+is one of the most distinguished jurists of Bolivia, and a statesman of
+unimpeachable integrity as well as superior talent.
+
+  [Illustration: GROUP IN THE ASYLUM FOR THE AGED, SUCRE.]
+
+Prominent among the historical institutions of the country is the
+University of San Francisco Xavier; which, however, pertains more
+appropriately to the subject of educational institutions, to be
+described in a later chapter, along with the Military College and
+School of Engineering, the School of Medicine, and other educational
+establishments. The Manicomio Pacheco, the Hospital de Santa Barbara,
+and similar charitable institutions, have previously been referred
+to in connection with the noble charities with which the ladies of
+Bolivia are largely identified. The Consistorial Palace, in which the
+Geographic Society of Sucre holds its sessions, one of the important
+public buildings, faces the principal plaza, which is called Plaza 25
+de Mayo in memory of the first strike for independence. Among public
+offices of note are: the Post Office, adjoining the Palace of Justice,
+the quartels and police headquarters, the Public Market, the Municipal
+Custom House, and the Tambo de la Independencia, as the penitentiary is
+called,--_tambo_ meaning “inn.”
+
+Sucre has eight churches, twelve chapels, two convents, three
+monasteries, and three cloistered nunneries. Being the seat of the
+archbishopric of La Plata, its importance as an ecclesiastical centre
+can readily be appreciated. The great Metropolitan Basilica, a solid
+edifice of the seventeenth century, to which a handsome tower was
+added late in the nineteenth century, faces the Plaza 25 de Mayo.
+It is the richest cathedral in Bolivia, having many gold and silver
+ornaments and precious jewels. The _custodia_, or casket, in which
+the consecrated Host is manifested to public veneration, is set with
+precious stones of rare value. In all the churches the image of the
+Blessed Virgin is covered with jewels. The Virgin of Guadalupe, an
+image of solid gold, is adorned with jewels which are said to be worth
+a million dollars. The archbishop’s palace, adjoining the Basilica, is
+an old colonial edifice, spacious and richly furnished, as befitting
+the residence of one of the highest dignitaries of the Church. San
+Felipe, the oratory of the Fathers of Saint Philip, shows wonderful
+specimens of colonial wood carving; and the spacious church of Santo
+Domingo, the monasteries of Santa Clara, and Santa Teresa, the convent
+of the Franciscans, and the numerous other buildings for religious
+worship, are noteworthy examples of the ecclesiastic architecture of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
+
+  [Illustration: GATEWAY OF THE ALAMEDA, SUCRE.]
+
+The city has nine plazas. The Plaza 25 de Mayo is situated in the very
+heart of the city, which is planned in the form of a diamond. Two small
+streams, one on each side of the plaza, carry through the city, in
+opposite directions, the headwaters of two of the greatest rivers in
+the world. One pours its sparkling tide into the Rio Grande, to join
+the Mamoré, thence through sloping plains and densely wooded forests,
+to reach the winding course and tumbling rapids of the greater Madeira,
+losing itself in the mightiest affluent of the Amazon; the other, the
+picturesque Cachimayo, blithely begins its long journey in the cañons
+and gorges of the _serranias_ of Yamparaez, growing more sluggish
+as it finds itself in the broad river bed of the Pilcomayo, sometimes
+no more than a lazy stream, and again spreading into a broad, though
+shallow, lake, overhung with verdure of tropical luxuriance, idling
+along, until it enters the Paraguay opposite the city of Asuncion, and
+passes down, between orange groves and fertile gardens, to the great
+estuary of La Plata. The one to the north, the other to the south,
+each carries its message across the continent of South America from
+the beautiful city of southern Bolivia; and whatever of marsh and
+miasma they may encounter on their way to the sea, whatever scenes of
+desolation they may pass on their long route, only the sweetest purity
+and limpid freshness mark them as they leave their mountain source, and
+the only reflections in their clear waters are of beauty and content.
+Thus too the mighty tide of patriotism that first bubbled out of the
+hearts of the noble heroes who made the 25 de Mayo memorable in the
+annals of the Independence, flowed pure and undefiled from its fountain
+head, whatever tortuous windings it may have suffered, and whatever
+evils it may have met in the long war that it carried to the colonies
+of all South America! And as the mighty Amazon and the broad La Plata
+owe a debt to the little mountain streams that feed them, so the
+South American republics owe their gratitude to the initiative of the
+Bolivian patriots, which was the source of a continent’s inspiration.
+
+  [Illustration: MARKET SCENE IN THE OUTSKIRTS OF SUCRE.]
+
+In addition to the Plaza 25 de Mayo, which is adorned with gardens,
+fountains, and a pretty kiosk, there is the beautiful Plaza
+Libertad, in the centre of which stands a marble column surmounted
+by the Phrygian cap of Liberty; the Plaza Sucre, with a bust of the
+grand marshal of Ayacucho adorning a handsome monument; the Plazas
+Monteagudo, Recoleto, and others. Out of the city good roads lead in
+several directions to the picturesque suburbs, and, beyond, to the
+highways which conduct the traveller to Potosi, Cochabamba, Challapata,
+and other distant cities. The excellent condition of the roads, as well
+as other notable signs of development in the department, are due to
+the direction of the prefect, Colonel Julio La Faye, whose devotion to
+the interests of his department is seen in many improved public works.
+The road and bridge of Azero, the complete building up of hitherto
+bad roads southward, and especially the establishment of the system
+of water works, to be brought from the Cerro of Cajamarca, prove not
+only the will to promote the best interests of progress in this part
+of the country, but the talent necessary to initiate and successfully
+carry out the most important reforms. Colonel La Faye has occupied his
+present post since 1900. Previous to that time he held other offices
+of importance in the government, and as orator, diplomat, soldier, and
+statesman, his career has been one of brilliancy and absolute integrity.
+
+  [Illustration: THE HACIENDA GUEREO, SUBURBS OF SUCRE.]
+
+The inauguration of a new system of water works in Sucre is a
+particularly important event. When the government resolved to bring the
+waters of the Cerro of Cajamarca, fifteen miles away, to the city of
+Sucre, it was decided to use the source in the springs formed by the
+headwaters of the Cajamarca, Uyuni, Pucaloma, and Kolpamayo rivers,
+which belong to the Amazon system. The quantity to be supplied will
+be six thousand cubic mètres per day, more than sufficient for the
+population of Sucre, which has about twenty-five thousand inhabitants.
+The work of laying the pipes and completing the system will take about
+three years, and will cost approximately one million bolivianos.
+Sufficient energy will be transmitted from the headquarters of the
+water works for the public and private lighting of the city and for
+the local industries. Abundant material is found in the Cerro for the
+purposes of construction. Portland cement cannot be used because of
+the high price at which it sells in Sucre, six hundred bolivianos per
+metric ton. The Cerro of Cajamarca is particularly well chosen as the
+source of Sucre’s water supply, as its rainy season is distinct from
+that of Sucre, though at so short a distance away, and its register
+of rainfall is double that of the city. The engineer and director of
+the enterprise, Señor Don Carlos Doynel, a Belgian, who has had great
+experience in such undertakings, is enthusiastic over the promising
+features of the work.
+
+By the establishment of an improved system of water works and the
+development of energy sufficient to provide motive power for the
+factories of the city, the manufacturing interests will profit
+considerably. While this branch of industry is still in its infancy, it
+can nevertheless show very encouraging signs and, in some instances,
+great progress. One of the most important enterprises is the chocolate
+factory of Aranjuez, owned by Rodriguez Brothers, which produces
+three hundred pounds daily of the most delicious chocolate. It is
+an interesting process to watch the grinding of the cacao berry into
+a powder, its mixture with sugar, always the purest white granulated
+quality, and the gradual conversion into the chocolate sticks of
+commerce. It is shipped to all parts of Bolivia and to Chile, neatly
+put up in a similar style to the Chocolat-Menier, so familiar in
+other countries. Sucre has also a flour mill, in which North American
+machinery is used. The flour, which is made by a firm also engaged in
+manufacturing cigars and cigarettes, is of a superior grade, and was
+given a premium in the Buffalo Exposition of 1901 for its fine quality.
+
+Fruit preserving is one of the flourishing industries, and at Ñuccho,
+a few miles out of the city, there are several large preserving
+establishments. Ñuccho is an ideal country place, and every visitor to
+Sucre enjoys a trip to this historic resort. It was in this picturesque
+spot, on the site where the Pacheco _finca_ now stands, that
+General Sucre recuperated from his wound after the mutiny of 1828, and
+here he dictated his famous abdication. It is situated on the banks
+of the Cachimayo, at its confluence with the Yotala, in the midst of
+magnificent scenery which combines the grandeur of lofty mountains with
+the pastoral beauty of green meadows and prosperous-looking farms. Many
+of the beautiful haciendas near Sucre have fruit farms and dairies,
+from which are shipped the finest products the market affords. The
+beautiful suburb of Cachimayo has many gardens and vineyards, and wine
+of an excellent quality is made. During the bathing season Cachimayo is
+a popular social resort, many Sucre families spending there the months
+of spring and autumn. The beautiful avenues leading out of Sucre pass
+many of these charming suburbs, the chief among them being, beyond
+doubt, the country home of the Prince and Princess of Glorieta. The
+prince, being Bolivian minister in Paris, seldom visits his home these
+days, but a staff of administrators and overseers attends to the care
+of the place. Guereo and Florida are also beautiful _fincas_,
+adorning the city’s outskirts with their stately trees, and an
+abundance of flowers enhances the beauty of the handsome houses and
+well-trimmed grounds.
+
+The climate of Sucre, as previously stated, is superb. Endemic fevers
+and similar ailments do not occur in the city, and the air is so dry
+that the psychrometer has been known to register 0°, which is seldom
+noted elsewhere. Typhoid fever and diphtheria appear at times, but
+statistics show a diminution in the death rate from these causes, owing
+to improved sanitation. During the rainy season, from October to March,
+there are sometimes terrific electric storms, magnificent to witness
+from a distance, but disquieting to the timid in their midst.
+
+Sucre counts few foreigners among her citizens, but those who live
+there are devoted to their adopted home. The English and North American
+residents--of whom Mr. Thomas Moore is the best known, having lived
+half a lifetime there, and married a charming Bolivian--could be
+counted upon the fingers of one hand, and there are almost as few of
+other foreign nationalities. But the hospitable and courteous people
+of this attractive city have a warm welcome and a kindly good-bye for
+all strangers who visit them, and life is made very agreeable. There
+are several good clubs, the Club de la Union being one of the richest
+and of the best _ton_ in Bolivia. Its entertainments are on a
+scale of great luxury; and when a ball or special function is given,
+no expense is spared to make the occasion worthy of the best society of
+the republic.
+
+Though everyone seems to recall with the greatest facility the
+impression made by a first glimpse of Sucre, few remember its aspect at
+parting; for they see it either through a mist of tears, or with the
+sight far away from what the eyes are looking upon. One recalls the
+affectionate good-byes, and the dear faces of sweet friends who have
+been won during a too brief stay in that enchanting spot never fade
+out of memory; but, on taking leave, one’s thoughts are devoted less
+to the place than to the people, who have won their way into the heart
+and memory so completely that their beautiful city remains only as a
+background against which to group “the cherished pictures that hang on
+memory’s wall.”
+
+  [Illustration: THE MISSES RODRIGUEZ, SUCRE.]
+
+  [Illustration: MILITARY COLLEGE, LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+           EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS--SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION
+
+
+  [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO DON BOSCO COLLEGE, LA PAZ.]
+
+Long after the successful War of Independence had given political
+freedom to South America, and republican rule had been established in
+every Spanish-speaking country from the Caribbean Sea to Cape Horn,
+the deleterious effects of the restricted system of education which
+Spain had imposed on her colonies through nearly three centuries
+were still to be noted in the habits of thought prevailing among the
+people as a whole. Inherited tendencies must be held responsible for
+the inadequate standard of national culture which governed the South
+American republics more or less until within a comparatively recent
+period. Considering the enormous obstacles which had to be overcome,
+evolution has been rapid under the stimulating influence of national
+liberty, and to-day there are few South American countries in which
+popular sentiment has not outgrown the purely theoretical tendency of
+the antiquated Spanish system of education, with its class distinctions
+and limited scope. From time immemorial the power of Spain had been
+represented by the Church and the army, and education was for centuries
+held in esteem only as it promoted the influence of the one and the
+prestige of the other. It is not surprising, therefore, that its
+compass was narrowly limited, and that it was of a character little
+adapted to popular needs. Religious and military training received
+careful attention, but the masses of the people were entirely neglected
+in the provision made for general education. The entire Spanish system
+had, besides, such a pronounced tendency to develop theoretical
+knowledge exclusive of its practical application, that the result was
+a superfluity of orators, poets, and philosophers, but comparatively
+few scientists, inventors, or geniuses in the art of construction.
+It is true that under the Spanish system the celebrated University
+of San Francisco Xavier flourished in the capital of the Audiencia
+of Charcas, now Sucre, and that to its students is to be attributed
+the first revolutionary movement in favor of South American liberty;
+but in contrast with the few brilliant examples of intellectual vigor
+and enterprise brought into prominence through the events of the War
+of the Independence there were thousands of sentimental dreamers
+in the various colleges of the viceroyalties, who, educated in the
+prevailing ideas of those days, absorbed knowledge as it was given to
+them, without evincing any evidence of mental initiative, and without
+contributing anything of value to the cause of human progress.
+
+The University of San Francisco Xavier is famous as having been one
+of the few notable exceptions to the inefficiency of educational
+institutions in the Spanish colonies; for, although its curriculum of
+studies followed the limited system of Spanish education in general,
+yet it developed superior intellectual quality, and its graduates
+adorned the highest circles of learning in America and Europe. The
+university was founded in the year 1623, in accordance with the same
+rules and enjoying the same privileges as the University of Salamanca
+of Spain, which is one of the oldest and was at one time the most
+celebrated of all European institutions of learning. The establishment
+of universities in America began within fifty years after the conquest,
+the first, that of Lima, being founded by a royal decree, granted in
+1551 to a friar of the Dominican order, who was afterward the first
+Bishop of Chuquisaca. The Universities of Lima and Mexico, the latter
+founded a few years after that of Lima, constituted the only advanced
+institutions of learning in America for many years, although, in order
+to attend to the necessities of the Church and to avoid annoyance and
+expense to students living at a great distance, concessions for the
+opening of others began early to be granted to the religious orders,
+and bishops were permitted to confer academic degrees on scholars who
+had studied a certain number of years in Dominican and Jesuit colleges.
+The Universities of Quito, Bogotá, Córdova, and Chuquisaca were founded
+in quick succession. According to chronicles of the times, the studies
+pursued in these universities were limited to a knowledge of Latin,
+the students devoting themselves especially to the study of poetry
+and philosophy, including logic, theology, ethics, metaphysics, and
+kindred subjects. The extraordinary power which the University of San
+Francisco Xavier wielded in South American politics at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century is attributed partly to the advantages of its
+location, and partly to the peculiar character it developed under the
+influence of rich _criollos_, many of whom were descendants of
+those belligerent Vicuñas who in an earlier period had so persistently
+demonstrated their patriotic antipathy to the avaricious Vascongado
+Spaniards, gradually gaining advantages over them, and compelling them
+to recognize native rights in the distribution of the enormous wealth
+of Potosí and Chuquisaca, much of which finally found its way into
+the pockets of the _criollos_. Remote from the domination of the
+viceroy, and gradually increasing in power as the combined possession
+of wealth and intellectual acumen became more effective to carry out
+its plans, this remarkable institution finally succeeded in making
+its influence felt in every act of the government, whether through
+the Audiencia, the Cabildo, or the Church. It achieved a distinction
+and a destiny which could only have been possible to a people of
+innate independence of character and great mental vigor, capable of
+appreciating and dominating the enormous influence of Church and
+state, which was at that time arrayed against patriotic principles.
+The national characteristics, which were so conspicuous in the acts
+of the revolutionary _criollos_, have been no less apparent in
+the events marking the progress of the republic, which, even in its
+stormiest period, has continued to reflect the activity of vigorous
+health, requiring only the wise direction of mature judgment to control
+abundant mental and moral force. And mature judgment is not so much a
+question of years as of education.
+
+  [Illustration: SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, LA PAZ.]
+
+Under the modern system of education which Bolivia has adopted,
+in common with the most advanced South American countries, many
+long-cherished ideals have been swept aside. The aim of the present
+government is to provide instruction suited to the demands of
+the day; and in doing so it has been necessary to reorganize the
+educational system, leaving out those features which belonged rather
+to a sentimental past than to the urgent present, and adopting others
+distinctly modern and progressive. The national edifice of learning had
+become overgrown with accumulated traditions, which had to be brushed
+away to give better opportunity for the remodelling of the structure
+as modern needs demanded, even though regret sometimes accompanied the
+banishment of those charming relics of historic association which cling
+about every ancient institution.
+
+By a supreme decree, issued in 1903, the promotion of national
+culture in Bolivia, general, scientific, literary, and artistic, is
+intrusted to the minister of public instruction. Under his direction
+the educational system has been centralized as far as possible, with
+excellent results, already showing a marked tendency to unity of method
+and general progress. The country is divided into seven university
+districts, corresponding to the seven departmental divisions. La Paz,
+Oruro, Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Potosí, Santa Cruz, and the Beni,
+each district being under the jurisdiction of a University Council,
+authorized to supervise its public instruction, under the direction
+of a rector, deans, and directors of secondary instruction, of whom
+the council is composed. In the interests of primary instruction, each
+council has a special inspector. Education is free and obligatory;
+and instruction is divided into two classes, general and special.
+General instruction is embraced in three grades, primary, secondary,
+and superior, or professional; while special instruction provides for
+training in the arts and sciences, and in commercial and industrial
+branches.
+
+The importance given to primary instruction under the present
+government augurs well for educational progress in general, as the
+attention paid to this branch in any country is an infallible index
+to the character and degree of culture attained by the nation as a
+whole. It is not in the university, but in the public school that the
+average amount of talent is to be found the world over; and that nation
+which can show the highest average is further advanced in progress
+than the one which can produce the most distinguished examples of
+university scholarship. Bolivia, in directing especial attention to her
+primary schools as a means of raising the average of mental culture
+in all classes throughout the republic, is demonstrating her serious
+determination to march in line with the most progressive countries,
+and to establish a new epoch in national development. With this object
+in view, commissions have been appointed by the government to study
+primary school methods in other countries, new school buildings have
+been erected and older buildings have been enlarged and improved to
+meet the growing needs, and purchases have been made, chiefly in the
+United States, of textbooks, desks, charts, and other requisites for
+primary teaching. Many of these purchases have been destined to the
+use of travelling teachers, who distribute them among the Indians, the
+government manifesting a firm desire, as the president stated in his
+last annual message, to have the Indians incorporated in the programme
+of national culture. Frankly and fearlessly, the government is laboring
+to extend the benefits of education throughout the length and breadth
+of the land, appealing to the people to lend their coöperation in the
+establishment of better educational laws, declaring, with its usual
+clear-sighted judgment, that education is the basis and foundation of
+national prosperity, and that, in Bolivia, “the great deficiencies
+which embarrass free and positive progress arise out of the inefficacy
+of the national education.” When the need of a reform is so boldly
+recognized, and the chief authorities of the nation deliberately set
+themselves to the task of improvement, the outlook is very hopeful,
+especially when, as in this country, public opinion is constantly
+growing in sympathy with the efforts of the executive power.
+
+Primary, or, as it is sometimes termed, popular, education is in charge
+of the municipal councils, with the exception of the _escuelas
+fiscales_, or fiscal schools, which are maintained by the state.
+It embraces three courses and is completed in three years, there
+being nearly eight hundred primary schools in the republic, with an
+average attendance of forty thousand pupils. The annual appropriation
+for primary education is about six hundred thousand bolivianos.
+According to recent statistics, the department of Cochabamba shows a
+higher average of primary school attendance than any other district,
+Chuquisaca ranking second and La Paz third, in proportion to
+population. The attendance at private schools and mission settlements
+is not included in the foregoing statement, of which the statistics
+are incomplete. Secondary education embraces the instruction given in
+colleges and other institutions which are under the direct control of
+the universities, and it is entirely maintained by the state. Seven
+years complete the instruction provided, the first year being entirely
+preparatory, while the remaining six are given to general high school
+work, the graduate receiving the degree of bachelor of arts, which
+entitles him to enter any of the professional courses given in the
+universities. The appropriation for secondary instruction is one
+hundred thousand bolivianos per annum, the attendance being about
+three thousand, distributed among eight colleges, five theological
+seminaries, and a number of private schools. Superior or professional
+instruction is given in three courses, of which law requires five
+years for completion, medicine seven years, and theology four years.
+Law is one of the courses given in all the universities; medicine and
+theology are included in the courses of study in the University of San
+Francisco Xavier and in the universities of La Paz and Cochabamba;
+a course in theology is also given in the University of Tarija,
+and Pichincha College of Potosí has a full curriculum of studies.
+The famous University of San Francisco Xavier is still a leading
+educational institution of the country, having in the law faculty
+five professors and about one hundred students, in the faculty of
+medicine six professors and fifty students, and in that of theology
+two professors and twenty-five students. The College of Junín, the
+Theological Seminary of Sucre, and the Córdova Lyceum prepare students
+for this university, the rector of which, Señor Dr. Ignacio Terán, is
+one of the leading educators of Bolivia, esteemed for his superior
+intellectual talent, not only in his own country, but abroad. Dr. Terán
+has contributed to the national literature several important treatises
+on education, besides which he has made a scientific study of various
+subjects relating to South American geography and history, as shown by
+his interesting works, _El Gran Cataclismo_, _Diluvio Universal
+y Tiahuanaco_, and others of a similar character. He has always
+stood in the foreground of the struggle in favor of modern educational
+methods, having been one of the first to recognize the importance
+of the present system of unity in school government, in the use of
+textbooks, etc., which he advocated years ago under the name of the
+_sistema gradual concentrico_. There have been comparatively few
+contributors of note to the educational literature of Bolivia, though
+important treatises have been written on various scientific subjects by
+leading professors of the universities and by scholars of note, among
+others Don Samuel Ugarte, author of a work on chemistry, Señor Davalos,
+whose treatise on the light and heat of the sun has been translated
+into several foreign languages, Don Rafael Peña, Don Demetrio
+Calvimonte, Don Emilio Molina, Don E. Villamil de Rada, author of _La
+Lengua de Adan_, who is considered the first philologist of South
+America, Don Facundo Quiroga, Señor Vila, Señor Andrade y Portugal,
+and others. General Camacho has written important works on military
+instruction. The _Revista Universitaria_, which is published
+monthly under the auspices of the University of San Francisco Xavier,
+is probably the most important educational periodical in Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. IGNACIO TERÁN, RECTOR OF THE
+  UNIVERSITY OF SAN FRANCISCO XAVIER, SUCRE.]
+
+By a supreme decree issued on February 19, 1906, preparatory
+engineering was added to the other courses given in the University
+of La Paz, marking the tendency toward a practical application of
+university training in its broadest sense. The present rector of
+the university, Dr. Manuel B. Mariaca, has accomplished a great
+deal through his indefatigable efforts to promote the interests of
+intellectual culture in Bolivia. He is one of the leading men of his
+country, and has contributed much to its educational progress. He is
+president of the Medical Society of La Paz. Prominent among national
+educators, Dr. Rodolfo Soria Galvarro, rector of the university of
+Oruro, possesses the versatile intellectuality which distinguishes
+many of the brilliant leaders of his country. He is a diplomat and
+an orator, as well as an educator, and writes with facility and in
+vigorous style on a variety of subjects. The University of Oruro has
+attained a higher degree of learning under his direction than ever
+before.
+
+In all the universities of Bolivia especial attention has been paid
+to the study of law, and graduates in this course are to be counted
+among the best jurists that South America has produced. It may even he
+said that this branch of university education has been promoted at the
+expense of others, though the tendency to give it undue importance is
+growing less as educators recognize more and more the necessity for
+directing the intellectual energies into various channels rather than
+concentrating all effort along any one line. The science of medicine
+attracts an increasing number of students each year, and the outlook
+is promising for a greatly improved standard in this profession in
+Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: BOOKBINDING DEPARTMENT OF DON BOSCO COLLEGE,
+  LA PAZ.]
+
+When the Jesuits founded the University of San Francisco Xavier,
+philosophy and theology were the only studies included in the
+curriculum. After the expulsion of the Jesuits from all the Spanish
+possessions, in 1767, when it became necessary to reorganize the
+university, the proctor at that time, Don Martin de Mendoza, asked of
+the Junta de Temporalidades: “that four professorships of theology be
+established, including prime, vespers, holy scripture, and dogmatic
+theology; that two each be devoted to philosophy, canons, law, art, and
+Latinity, and one each to medicine and mathematics; that the printing
+press used in Córdova del Tucuman be brought to Chuquisaca in order
+that the university may be advertised, and that the courses of study,
+sermons, allegations in law made by the Audiencia, and all kinds of
+matter written by the natives, whose extraordinary mental gifts remain
+unrecognized through lack of means to make them known, may be published
+and distributed abroad.” A royal decree of 1798 conceded the request,
+but the professorships in medicine and surgery were not established
+until after the inauguration of the republic, when, in 1826, Dr. Miguel
+Luna, the chief surgeon of the Liberating Army, and General Sucre’s
+personal friend and physician, opened the first class in medicine in
+this country, at Chuquisaca. An associate of Dr. Luna, Dr. Carlos
+Augusto Torrally, may be equally considered as the founder of Bolivian
+medicine. He was chief physician of the Hospital of Santa Barbara, of
+Sucre, for many years, and was noted for his advanced ideas. To his
+instruction Bolivia owes one of her greatest scholars in medicine,
+Dr. Manuel Cuellar, whose name is known throughout South America.
+The progress of education in medicine, as in all other studies, was
+retarded by unsettled political conditions, and medical colleges
+which were from time to time established in La Paz, Cochabamba, and
+other cities, during the first fifty years of the republic were of
+intermittent duration. Medical classes were held in the University
+of La Paz, in Junín College, Sucre, and in Cochabamba, but the work
+accomplished was of an uncertain character, notwithstanding the efforts
+of Dr. Cuellar, Dr. Ignacio Cordero, Dr. Pedro Ascarrunz, and others,
+who labored constantly to improve this branch of professional training.
+When, in 1866, the first classic models and skeletons were purchased
+by the government and placed in the medical schools of La Paz, Sucre,
+and Cochabamba, the acquisition was regarded as marking an epoch in the
+progress of medical instruction. Within the past ten years, however,
+phenomenal advances have been made. The Instituto Médico Sucre, of
+which Dr. Valentin Abecia is president, has achieved fame throughout
+South America by the excellent work it has accomplished, especially in
+the bacteriological department. When the terrible epidemic of smallpox
+swept over Valparaiso a year ago and vaccine was sent from various
+countries to supply the urgent demand, it was found that the quality
+of that which was furnished by the Medical Institute of Sucre gave
+the most uniform and satisfactory results, as a letter of thanks from
+the Chilean authorities gratefully acknowledged. The Instituto Medico
+Sucre has, in addition to its well-equipped bacteriological laboratory,
+a museum of anatomical specimens and models which is one of the most
+complete in South America. Meteorology also receives attention, an
+office having been established for observations of this character in
+the same building as that occupied by the Instituto Médico Sucre.
+
+  [Illustration: PATIO OF PICHINCHA COLLEGE, POTOSÍ.]
+
+The theology course, which is given in all the universities, is one
+that has occupied especial attention ever since the establishment of
+the first colleges in Spanish America. Its graduates have been counted
+among the most renowned scholars, as well as the most gifted orators,
+of the country. The seminaries and schools devoted to education
+in theology are among the important institutions of secondary and
+professional instruction. At the recent celebration in honor of the
+inauguration of the new edifice of the Seminario Conciliar de San
+Gerónimo in La Paz, the purpose of this class of schools was eloquently
+set forth in a brilliant address by the visiting papal legate,
+Monsignor Alexandro Bavona, who described the Seminario as the place
+“where those aspiring to the priesthood could educate themselves in
+meditation and study, make themselves docile by obedience, become
+transfigured by humility, and acquire that spiritual energy which
+will be an armor in the hard struggle of the ministry, to the end
+that, under the guardianship of virtue, they may penetrate that holy
+of holies, the conscience, and make fruitful the precious seeds of
+redemption.” The Seminario Conciliar, the oldest college in La Paz,
+was originally founded in 1674, under the name of San Gerónimo, by a
+bishop of the Franciscan order, though it was later submitted to the
+direction of the Jesuits for many years. By a decree of the supreme
+government, issued in 1859, the college was placed again under diocesan
+authority, and installed in its present locality. Bishop Calixto
+Clavijo reconstructed the college at his own cost, establishing six
+classes in secondary instruction and four in theology, and at the
+present time this is one of the best institutions of learning in the
+republic. The average attendance is about three hundred. The college
+has its own printing press, in which the textbooks and other important
+works are published, a valuable library, and a conservatory of
+religious music. It has also a handsome chapel, where divine services
+are held, a universal feature of the educational institutions of Roman
+Catholic countries. The name of Bishop Calixto Clavijo is perpetuated
+in one of the most successful colleges founded in Bolivia within the
+past twenty years. In 1881 Bishop Clavijo sent to Lima for the Jesuits
+to come to La Paz and establish a college of secondary instruction,
+which was inaugurated in 1883 under the direction of Padre Antonio
+Perez, and with the title of Colegio San Calixto. The house which had
+once been the residence of General Santa Cruz was purchased for the
+college, and since that time, little by little, neighboring properties
+have been acquired and new additions built to the original structure,
+until now the college is a handsome edifice of three stories, with
+modern installations, well ventilated, and provided with everything
+required for the educational purposes of the institution. Acetylene gas
+is manufactured in the college for lighting. The attendance for 1906
+was four hundred and fifty, including both boarding and day pupils. The
+instruction given embraces three years of preparatory work, six years
+of intermediate, and three commercial courses, if desired. The present
+director of the college is a distinguished scholar and linguist,
+speaking English and other languages with fluency. Not only in the
+establishment of the Colegio Seminario and the Colegio San Calixto is
+the energy of Bishop Clavijo in behalf of education to be noted: to
+his effort is also due the existence of the Colegio de los Sagrados
+Corazones, which he founded in 1883, bringing twenty nuns from Europe
+at his own cost to direct the school. In addition to the subjects
+usually taught in convent schools, such as embroidery, languages,
+music, and composition, the pupils are instructed in hygiene, natural
+history, physics, and kindred subjects, and are trained to become
+teachers. Many young girls of the best families come from the various
+cities of the republic to attend this college, which has also free
+classes for the education of girls of all grades of society.
+
+Under the head of special instruction the military schools of the
+republic are included, the Colegio Militar of La Paz, the Escuela de
+Clases, and the Academia de Guerra. In consequence of the recent
+military reorganization of the country, public interest has been
+stimulated regarding the national defence, and military instruction
+has received a marked impetus. One of the purposes of the government
+in paying especial attention to this branch of national education,
+aside from its military importance, is to promote athletic training
+and encourage the self-control and endurance which are developed under
+systematic discipline. In the Colegio Militar calisthenic drills are
+practised daily, the extensive grounds of the college being especially
+suited to such exercises. Target practice is provided for in a spacious
+polygon, the finest of its kind in Bolivia, which was constructed by
+the order of General Pando during his term of office as chief executive.
+
+  [Illustration: SEÑOR DR. RODOLFO SORIA GALVARRO, RECTOR OF
+  THE UNIVERSITY OF ORURO.]
+
+In a country which owes its chief wealth to the products of mining,
+it is natural that the system of education should include instruction
+in mining and metallurgy, and the present government has recently
+established colleges for this purpose in Oruro and Potosí, under the
+direction of expert mining engineers and metallurgists. In the historic
+building of the Mint the Potosí School of Mines has its classes, in
+rooms spacious and well lighted, under domes thirty-four feet high,
+and protected by walls of massive solidity. The Oruro School of Mines
+was inaugurated by the minister of public instruction on February 8,
+1906. The director of this school, Señor A. F. Umlauff, is optimistic
+regarding its future, believing that the government will be fully
+recompensed, in results which can be foreseen from the beginning, for
+the efforts that are being made to establish this school on a sound
+basis, even at great expense. As it is not yet a year since the college
+was opened, the course of studies has not been perfected, but it will
+include mathematics and natural science as preparatory to later studies
+of a more specific character.
+
+The principal industrial schools of Bolivia, called _escuelas
+de artes y oficios_, are under the management of the Salesian
+brotherhood of Don Bosco, who have colleges all over the world. In New
+York and Troy, in the United States, these schools have an extensive
+patronage, and in all South American capitals they are established on
+a successful basis. Buenos Aires has six of these schools; Brazil,
+Chile, and Peru have one or more in each of their larger cities; Sucre
+has one; and La Paz considers the Escuela Don Bosco as a most important
+factor in the instruction of the working classes, particularly as the
+system of teaching trades is effective and practical. The original
+founder of the schools, Don Bosco, lived in Turin, Italy, from 1815
+to 1888. The Don Bosco college of La Paz has about two hundred and
+fifty pupils, who are engaged in practising some industrial art or
+trade, such as printing, bookbinding, shoemaking, tailoring, iron work,
+mosaic work, etc. The mosaics in the floors of the principal public
+buildings of La Paz were made by the pupils of the Don Bosco school.
+They study music and have a band of forty pieces. Frequently, concerts
+are given by them in the city. The Colegio Don Bosco was established
+in 1896, and has continued to show an increase in attendance every
+year. The director of the La Paz school is Dr. José M. Reyneri, who
+takes great pride, and with reason, in the excellent work of his
+classes. In bookbinding the school can present the highest examples
+of the tooling art. The college occupies an area of twenty thousand
+square mètres in the heart of the city, bordering the picturesque
+avenues of the Alameda. Its schoolrooms are spacious and airy, and the
+playgrounds particularly well laid out. Schools of agriculture and
+commercial colleges flourish under the present government, which sees
+in these institutions the realization of plans for development in the
+departments of national progress which have formerly been neglected.
+
+The minister of instruction, in addition to the supervision which his
+department exercises over the institutions of education, is also in
+charge of the interests of national culture as it is represented in
+the public libraries, museums, archives, and scientific societies of
+the country. In 1838, General Santa Cruz ordered the installation of
+public libraries in all the departmental capitals, the principal ones
+being now in Sucre and La Paz. The _Archivo Nacional_ is preserved
+in Sucre, and is said to be the most complete historical record in
+possession of any South American country. The Colegio Nacional and
+the Convent of San Francisco in Tarija have libraries of historic
+value, numbering about ten thousand volumes. In La Paz, the convents
+of San Francisco and the Recoleta have together about nine thousand
+volumes. The Seminario, the University, and the Colegio de Abogados,
+or law college, have fairly good libraries. The library of the Oficina
+Nacional de Inmigracion y Estadística contains nearly ten thousand
+volumes, and the geographic societies of Sucre and La Paz have valuable
+collections of books and pamphlets.
+
+Bolivia is in the transition period of educational development, showing
+the influences both of past conditions and present aspirations, and
+it would not be fair to the present educational outlook to give, as
+indicative of existing conditions, the statistics that have been
+collected under a system of instruction entirely inadequate to the
+needs of a progressive people. The last statement of the Oficina
+Nacional de Inmigracion, Estadística y Propaganda Geografica, published
+six years ago, shows that only about three hundred thousand out of
+the entire population can read and write; but when it is considered
+that this number is equivalent to the population of unmixed European
+descent, it may be presumed that the illiteracy is confined chiefly
+to the Indians and _mestizos_. The sparsely settled country,
+the difficulties of intercommunication, inherited tendencies to look
+upon education as a right of privileged classes alone, have delayed
+progress in this direction, and the reforms which have recently been
+inaugurated in behalf of a broad national education require resolute
+determination to make them effective, especially in regions so remotely
+situated as are some of the interior school districts of Bolivia. But
+it is hoped that improved systems of communication will aid in bringing
+all sections within more accessible limits, and will contribute to
+facilitate the general efforts toward development. The vigor of a
+new intellectual force is apparent in the reorganization of public
+instruction; and a growing sense of the possibilities of national
+culture is bringing about a combined effort of the whole people toward
+a realization of higher intellectual ideals.
+
+  [Illustration: PATIO OF JUNÍN COLLEGE, SUCRE.]
+
+  [Illustration: PUENTE SUCRE, A BRIDGE OVER THE PILCOMAYO
+  RIVER, CONNECTING THE DEPARTMENT OF SUCRE WITH THAT OF
+  POTOSÍ.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+                A NEW ERA FOR BOLIVIA--IMPORTANT PUBLIC
+                   WORKS--RAILWAYS--TELEGRAPH LINES
+
+
+  [Illustration: PUENTE SUCRE, LOOKING FROM THE SUCRE END OF
+  THE BRIDGE TO THE POTOSÍ TERMINUS.]
+
+Covering an area of about seven hundred thousand square miles, and
+presenting a variety of geographic and geologic conditions unsurpassed
+by any other country of the globe, the problem of transportation, upon
+the satisfactory solution of which so much depends in the promotion of
+national progress in any country, has been one of paramount importance
+in Bolivian politics ever since the organization of the republic. Large
+sums have been paid by the government for the improvement of roads, the
+building of bridges, and the maintenance of communication between the
+principal cities, but the country’s finances have always been taxed
+to the limit by efforts which proved more or less inadequate to the
+task, with the result that although the budget continually shows large
+amounts spent in roadways and bridges, the problem of transportation
+in Bolivia is only now, for the first time, giving promise of a
+satisfactory solution. There are, nevertheless, evidences of excellent
+road building on all the principal highways, especially those
+connecting the departmental capitals, and in some instances, as along
+the route from Sucre to Potosí, and in the environs of Cochabamba,
+massive stone parapets and bridges are seen, which compare favorably
+with the best examples of work done by expert engineers in this branch
+of construction in any part of the world. But nearly all the highroads
+pass through the cañons of the Cordilleras in some part of their
+course, and during the rainy season, from November to March, a flood
+frequently rushes down these _quebradas_ with such destructive
+force that every vestige of road building is swept away in a day. For
+this reason, wagon roads are abandoned during the wet months and all
+travel in the interior is done on muleback, usually by a route more
+precipitous than the coach road, but safer because it passes chiefly
+along the higher ledges, with only an occasional descent into the bed
+of the cañon. As stated elsewhere, the only railways now in operation
+are the lines connecting La Paz with Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, and
+Oruro with the seaport of Antofagasta, though surveys have been made
+and the work of construction has commenced on a new railway system,
+which will completely change industrial and commercial conditions in
+Bolivia.
+
+The history of railroad building in Bolivia dates from the year 1887,
+when the government issued a decree calling for proposals for the
+construction of railways throughout the republic. The following year
+a proposal was received from the mining company Huanchaca de Bolivia
+to build a railroad from the Chilean frontier to the city of Oruro,
+passing by the mining establishment of Huanchaca. The national Congress
+approved the proposal, with slight modifications, in a decree issued on
+November 29, 1888. The rights acquired by the company were transferred
+the next year to the Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway Company, Limited,
+an English corporation, which now operates the line. This company has
+a guarantee from the government of six per cent per annum for twenty
+years on the capital invested in the construction of the line, which
+guarantee became effective on the delivery of the railway at Oruro on
+May 15, 1892, amounting to forty-five thousand pounds sterling, though
+this is only nominal so far as the Bolivian government is concerned,
+the revenues derived from the line more than covering the guarantee.
+The railway is five hundred and fifty-five miles long, from Antofagasta
+to Oruro, and ascends from about twenty feet above sea level at
+Antofagasta to more than twelve thousand feet, crossing the high
+plateau from Uyuni to Oruro with little variation from its greatest
+altitude. It is the longest single line track in the world of such a
+narrow gauge, only two feet six inches wide, throughout its entire
+length. The Huanchaca company owns and operates for its exclusive
+benefit a branch road from Uyuni to Pulacayo and Huanchaca, the centre
+of its mining industry, nine miles distant. The Bolivian section of
+the Antofagasta and Oruro railway is under the direction of Mr. Hugh
+Warren, a railroad manager of large experience and mature judgment.
+He has his headquarters at Oruro, the present Bolivian terminus of
+the road. The line will soon be extended to La Paz. Passenger trains
+leave Oruro every day for Challapata and Uyuni, and three times a week
+for Antofagasta. They run at an average speed of twenty-five miles an
+hour, the entire trip having frequently been made, on a special through
+train, in twenty-three hours. The roadbed is excellent, and the maximum
+gradient does not exceed two and ninety-eight one hundredths per cent.
+The locomotives are of American manufacture, from the Baldwin, the
+Rodgers, and the Stevenson locomotive works. The passenger cars are
+modern, well built and extremely comfortable. The scenery along this
+road is magnificent, and some of the bridges which cross the great
+ravines are counted among the highest in the world. The construction
+work of this road was done under the direction of an English engineer
+of eminent talent, Mr. Josiah Harding, who built one of the greatest
+incline railways of the world at Junín, Chile, and who is now engaged
+in studying the route of the proposed Arica and La Paz railway. From
+Uyuni to La Paz, the traveller seems to be always within close distance
+of the snow-covered summits of the Andes, which rise above the horizon
+of the high plain like great white temples overtopping the clouds. As
+seen from the car window, the mining towns of Poopo and Machacamarca,
+and others which lie along the route, present a very picturesque
+appearance. But the beautiful scenery of this road hardly surpasses
+that of the railway from La Paz to Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, which has
+in view the majestic Illimani and Sorata and a whole range of lesser
+peaks clothed in perpetual snow.
+
+  [Illustration: RAILWAY STATION OF PULACAYO, HUANCHACA MINES.]
+
+The Guaqui and La Paz railroad was the first constructed by the
+Bolivian government out of public funds. Its successful inauguration
+was due to the initiative of ex-President General José Manuel Pando,
+who, in 1900, authorized an expert Bolivian engineer, Señor Mariano
+Bustamente y Barreda, to make the necessary studies and plans. When
+these were finished, they were approved by Congress; and a law was
+passed in the same year, authorizing the construction of the road and
+appointing a board of directors to supervise its management. In order
+to meet the expenses of building, it was provided that all revenues
+from the alcohol monopoly and from rubber taxes in the department of
+La Paz should be set aside for three years for this purpose. The line
+was completed and opened to traffic on October 25, 1903. Its total
+length is fifty-nine miles, from the port of Guaqui to the Altos, or,
+more correctly, to El Alto de La Paz, the road ascending from twelve
+thousand five hundred feet at Guaqui to fourteen thousand feet at
+Viacha and descending not more than two hundred and fifty feet to
+El Alto station. The gauge is three and one-third feet wide, and
+throughout the entire distance the tracks cross what appears to be
+almost a level plateau, with Lake Titicaca behind and the wonderful
+white mountain peaks in front glistening in the sun. The total cost
+of the line, including interest during its construction, amounted to
+one hundred and seventy thousand nine hundred and eighty-one pounds
+sterling. On May 31, 1904, a contract was signed by the government
+with the Peruvian Corporation, Limited, which owns and operates the
+Southern Railway of Peru from the port of Mollendo to Lake Titicaca, as
+well as the lake steamers that cross from the Peruvian border to the
+Bolivian port of Guaqui, the terms of the treaty giving to the Peruvian
+Corporation control and administration of the railway under a seven
+years’ lease, thereby affording it a through system of transportation
+from Mollendo to La Paz. The corporation loaned the government fifty
+thousand pounds sterling at six per cent interest, for the purpose of
+constructing an electric car line to connect El Alto de La Paz with
+the city, and in addition to this sum the government recognizes a
+previous indebtedness of about twenty thousand pounds sterling, all
+of which will be charged against an amortization fund of forty per
+cent to be reserved from the revenues of the railway, the corporation
+retaining sixty per cent of the railway revenues for operating expenses
+during the term of its lease. If at the end of seven years the total
+obligation has not been covered by this amortization fund, the
+government agrees to extend the lease or pay the balance.
+
+The history of this railway during the three years that it has been in
+operation is one of continued and increasing prosperity. It has been
+a paying investment from the first, never having yielded less than
+seven per cent dividends since its inauguration. Statistics furnished
+by the acting director of public works of Bolivia, Mr. Pierce Hope,
+under whose management the road was finally completed, show that the
+receipts for the month of January, 1906, were sixty-four thousand two
+hundred and eighty bolivianos. The increase in the freight receipts
+of 1905 was fifty per cent over the year previous. The electric line
+from El Alto terminal down the incline, or La Bajada, to the city
+station of Challapampa was completed and opened to traffic on December
+1, 1905. It is five miles long, and has the same gauge as the main
+line from Guaqui, with a grade of six per cent. The locomotives used
+on the railway and the electric cars for the incline were purchased
+in the United States. The revenue from traffic over this part of
+the line for the month of January, 1906, was fourteen thousand four
+hundred and eighty bolivianos. The trip from Guaqui to the city takes
+about two hours, and will no doubt be a feature of one of the famous
+tourist routes of the world some day. Not only does it offer the
+grandest scenery on the picturesque road from Mollendo to La Paz, one
+of the most beautiful routes in the world, but it possesses especial
+interest in the wonderful ruins of Tiahuanaco, which are situated at
+about an hour’s ride from Lake Titicaca. It affords also the novel
+experience of travelling by rail and steamer above the clouds and of
+enjoying a trolley ride down La Bajada to one of the most interesting
+and foreign-looking cities in America, La Paz, standing radiant in the
+sunlight just below the highest peaks of the Andes.
+
+  [Illustration: CASCADE ON THE PROPOSED ROUTE OF THE ARICA AND
+  LA PAZ RAILWAY.]
+
+But though the railways from Antofagasta to Oruro and from Mollendo to
+La Paz take the tourist through wonderful and varied scenes, a more
+rapid route is being built in the new railway from Arica to La Paz,
+which will bring the metropolis of the Altaplanicie within fourteen
+hours of the coast, instead of three days, the time now required by
+the most rapid route. Chile has already begun the construction of the
+Arica and La Paz line in accordance with the recent treaty between the
+two countries. It will pass through the rich copper region of Corocoro,
+thus facilitating the shipment of the valuable ores of this district,
+and will connect with the Guaqui and La Paz road at Viacha. Either
+Corocoro or Viacha will be the junction of a line which is proposed to
+connect La Paz with Oruro, in conformity with the arrangements made
+by the government for the construction of a general railway system.
+A decree passed by the national Congress on November 13, 1905, shows
+that the government has determined to carry into immediate effect
+extensive plans for railway expansion, some of which have been under
+consideration from time to time during previous administrations, but
+have never until now been practically developed to the degree necessary
+for their successful consummation. The decree referred to declares:
+that the executive is authorized to contract for and execute with all
+possible simultaneity the construction of the following railways:
+from Viacha or Corocoro to Oruro, from Oruro to Cochabamba, from
+Uyuni to Potosí, from Potosí to Tupiza, and the first section of one
+hundred miles of the line from La Paz to Puerto Pando, at the head of
+navigation on the Beni branch of the Madeira River, employing for the
+purpose the funds derived from the indemnity paid by Brazil and the
+guarantees stipulated in the treaty of peace celebrated with Chile. The
+executive is equally authorized to carry out any financial operations
+that may be deemed indispensable, in the event that the funds above
+named are not sufficient for the construction of the railways
+indicated, but without compromising more than the said railways in
+the responsibility of such operations. As soon as the railways above
+determined are constructed, the following lines will be built: from
+Oruro to Potosí, from Cochabamba to Chimoré at the headwaters of the
+Mamoré branch of the Madeira, from Macha or from Potosí to Sucre, and
+the second section of the railway from La Paz to Puerto Pando. For
+the construction of the railway from La Paz to Puerto Pando the funds
+derived from the increased tax on coca will also be employed, as the
+object of this road is to serve the interests of the coca producing
+region.
+
+  [Illustration: CUT IN THE RAILWAY DECLINE BETWEEN GUAQUI AND
+  LA PAZ.]
+
+For the construction of the proposed new railways the Bolivian
+government has already completed negotiations with the well-known
+firm of New York capitalists, Messrs. Speyer and Company, whereby, in
+conformity with the decree of Congress, a general system of railways
+will be built, to connect the principal Bolivian cities with one
+another, with the chief river ports of the Amazon and the Paraguay, and
+with such railways of neighboring republics as have a direct seaport
+terminus. By this practical method the country will be opened up to
+industrial and commercial development, which could never be hoped
+for under existing circumstances, as the obstacles to communication
+presented by the mountainous character of western Bolivia and the
+unsettled conditions of eastern Bolivia are apparently insurmountable
+by any other means than the establishment of railway connection.
+The importance of this enterprise on the part of the government can
+hardly be estimated. It means practically the launching of Bolivia
+into the full tide of modern progress, with no turning back to the
+old ways of muleback travel and other seventeenth-century systems of
+transportation. When the interior becomes more accessible through a
+regularly established schedule of trains, which will bring the chief
+cities within a few hours of one another and within a reasonable
+distance from the seacoast, the rapid evolution of industrial activity
+will no doubt see the building up of many large fortunes in the rich
+mining districts, on the vast cattle plains, and in the farming
+communities, to say nothing of the inexhaustible possibilities of the
+rubber country. Foreigners are not slow to appreciate this fact. As
+soon as it became known that Bolivia intended to spend millions of
+pounds sterling in the construction of railways, not only railway,
+mining, and rubber syndicates began to seek larger investments than
+formerly, but new enterprises, involving the development of cattle
+raising and other neglected industries, turned in this direction, and
+the outlook is already growing brighter than it has ever been before in
+the history of the country.
+
+For more than a year active preliminary work has been in progress
+throughout the entire route of the proposed system, at first under
+the direction of an American engineer, Mr. W. L. Sisson, and then
+under his successor, Mr. W. L. Gibson, who is the present directing
+engineer of the enterprise. Señor Jorge E. Zalles, as secretary of
+the Commission of Studies, has made himself master of every detail
+connected with the work. Surveys have been completed between Viacha
+and Oruro, one hundred and thirty-eight miles; Oruro and Cochabamba,
+one hundred and thirty miles; Uyuni and Potosí, one hundred and twenty
+miles; Potosí and Tupiza, one hundred and fifty miles; Oruro and
+Potosí, one hundred and ninety-five miles. By an examination of the
+map it will be seen that, in the extensive system proposed, railway
+communication will be established, through Bolivian territory, between
+the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards, and, by means of the great Amazon
+and La Plata river systems, with the whole vast region of eastern
+South America. Argentina has been authorized to extend her Central
+Northern Railway as far as Tupiza; and as soon as Bolivia completes
+her lines from Tupiza to Potosí, from Potosí to Oruro, from Oruro to
+Viacha, and from Viacha to Arica, there will be established a trunk
+line across the continent which will bring the Pacific port of Arica
+within five days’ distance of Buenos Aires. By extending north to
+Santa Cruz the branch line now under construction from the Argentine
+Northern Central Railway to the Bolivian border at Yacuiba, and by
+building another line to Santa Cruz from the Paraguay River at Puerto
+Suarez, opposite the Brazilian port of Corumbá, over a route which
+has already been reconnoitred and approved, both lines to be joined
+and pushed on further to a river port of the Beni, an easy outlet
+will be gained for the whole of eastern Bolivia, and the flourishing
+capital of the department of Santa Cruz will quickly develop into the
+Chicago of what may some day be one of the richest agricultural and
+cattle-raising countries in the world. Eastern Bolivia presents no such
+difficult problems of railway construction as the western part of the
+republic, and the lines projected through this region can be completed
+at much less cost. When the various South American continental lines
+are joined to cross Bolivian territory, this country, which has been
+most difficult of access up to the present time, will become the great
+central highway for South American traffic, increasing in commercial
+importance as its own trade with other nations is developed with
+greater facility.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE ON THE GUAQUI AND LA PAZ RAILWAY.]
+
+The formal inauguration of the new railway system took place in Oruro
+on July 4, 1906, when the supreme government went in a body to Oruro
+to initiate the work of construction from that point. It was an
+occasion of general rejoicing, all patriotic Bolivians recognizing
+the important significance of the ceremony, which was brilliant and
+imposing. The programme of the day was worthy of so memorable an
+occasion, being distinguished by impressive solemnity. The ceremonies
+began with the celebration of the _Te Deum_ in the cathedral at
+nine o’clock. His Grace Archbishop Pifferi officiated, assisted by high
+dignitaries of the church. The president of the republic, accompanied
+by his ministers of state and the foreign diplomatic corps, attended
+the service, at which were present important government authorities
+from every city of Bolivia. The learned archbishop of La Plata, in
+pronouncing a benediction upon the great work, alluded in gracious
+terms to “the coöperation of the generous inhabitants of North America”
+in the new enterprise, and paid a high tribute to the progressive
+spirit manifested by President Montes and his ministers, to whom its
+successful inauguration was due, praying that the earthly blessings
+to be derived from its material benefits “may serve as a motive and
+stimulus to elevate the thoughts to the incomparable, unlimited, and
+eternal riches of the Kingdom of Heaven.” After the benediction,
+President Montes received at the hands of Señor Francisco Lopez
+Chavez, the Bolivian representative of the construction company, a
+handsome silver shovel, which was presented to his excellency with
+an appropriate address. In a firm voice, which thrilled the vast
+audience by its magnetic eloquence, President Montes made the address
+of inauguration, which was characterized throughout by sentiments of
+practical patriotism, expressed in such sentences as: “The greatness
+and strength of nations is not proved by declaiming ideals and
+aspirations which they have neither the knowledge nor the energy to
+realize, but by the degree of effective force which is exercised
+in a practical way in the civilization and exaltation of mankind.”
+In closing, his excellency applied to the present act the famous
+prophecy of Pedro Domingo Murillo, with a slight variation: “The
+initial step made to-day toward the resurrection of Bolivia shall
+never be detained.” The Act of Inauguration was signed with a gold
+pen, presented to the president by Dr. Isaac Aranibar, ex-prefect of
+Cochabamba, in the name of “La Patria.” The president turned the first
+shovelful of earth with the significant words: _Que el arma del
+caudillaje sea reemplazada con el arma del trabajo_--“May the arms
+of war be replaced by the arms of labor.” At the official banquet which
+closed the programme of the day, the American minister, Hon. Wm. B.
+Sorsby, in an eloquent response to a toast in honor of his country’s
+anniversary, referred to “the singularly appropriate coincidence
+that Bolivia should solemnize the inauguration of her industrial
+independence on the same day as that which commemorates the political
+and industrial independence of the first American republic.” It was,
+indeed, peculiarly fitting that a date which is celebrated the world
+over as the anniversary of the first Declaration of Independence in the
+New World should have been chosen to commemorate an event which sets
+the seal of commercial freedom upon a country that has struggled for
+nearly a century against the oppression of limited trade facilities.
+The Fourth of July will henceforth signify to the Bolivian patriot the
+inauguration of a new era in the life of his country, an era not less
+glorious in its history than that which was established in the land of
+his North American cousin on July 4, 1776. For political independence
+can do little toward bringing about national greatness without its
+practical counterpart, commercial independence; and national liberty
+finds its highest development in the friendly intercourse of countries
+bound together by ties of mutual interest. It commemorates the victory
+of a patriotic people determined to reap the full reward of national
+independence; and it marks the last struggle against conditions that
+belong to centuries gone by, and which have been forever overcome by
+the spirit of modern enterprise.
+
+  [Illustration: DAM AT ACHACHALLA.]
+
+  [Illustration: TRAIN ARRIVING IN GUAQUI FROM LA PAZ.]
+
+Until the new railway system is completed and put in operation, Bolivia
+will continue to depend upon the present means of transportation,
+which, with the exception of the two railways previously mentioned, is
+altogether by wagons, muleback, or river navigation. The Cordillera
+Real, or Royal range, of the Andes has always proved an effective
+barrier to easy communication between the Bolivian plateau and the
+great eastern plains, with their wealth of natural production awaiting
+development, and the few mountain passes through which wagon roads and
+bridle paths have been opened represent herculean efforts to overcome
+natural conditions with limited resources at command. Public highways
+are either national or municipal property, the former being built and
+maintained by the government from appropriations granted by Congress,
+while the latter are made and controlled by the municipalities. The
+national highroads connect the principal cities and mining centres of
+the republic. With the exception of the main roads, which unite the
+department capitals, and are used for passenger as well as freight
+service, these highways chiefly abound in the higher sections of
+the Andean range, where the valuable mining properties are located,
+and they are nearly all narrow, precipitous, winding paths, which
+have been built up by Indian labor and are maintained at great cost.
+Along these trails the most valuable freight is taken on the backs of
+mules, donkeys, and llamas, without danger even to the most costly and
+delicate ware, so careful are the Indians of their charge. Exquisite
+French mirrors, rare bric-à-brac, and the finest crystal and porcelains
+for the palatial administration houses, are carried across a country
+which is everywhere broken by ravines, and over a pathway often covered
+by an avalanche of rocks from the mountain sides after a heavy rain,
+yet a long month’s journey will be concluded without the record of a
+single breakage, so marvellous is the Indian’s skill in this humble
+task. The government provides _postas_, or sheltered places,
+at intervals of from eight to fifteen leagues, where travellers may
+rest and purchase forage for their animals. The _posta_ is in
+charge of a government employé, who is paid a reasonable salary to
+take care of the place, to keep forage on hand for sale, and animals
+for hire, as well as to provide bed and meals at a fair price, and a
+_postillón_ if required as guide. No charge is made for the use
+of this shelter. It is the custom of well-to-do travellers in this
+country to carry their own beds and provisions, except on the coach
+roads. Mules can be hired from _posta_ to _posta_ at twenty
+centavos, about nine cents in gold, for each mule per league, and ten
+centavos per league for the _postillón_ who accompanies them. The
+house in which shelter is provided is usually a low solid structure of
+adobe, built around a courtyard, or _patio_, and having from five
+to ten or more rooms, each with a door opening on the courtyard and
+banks of adobe built out from the wall, to serve as beds. It has no
+windows. Along the coach roads the houses of the _postas_ are more
+like hotels, and the traveller may journey without carrying either food
+or provisions, as both are furnished at the various stopping places.
+The coach roads are open to traffic only during the winter months, as
+in the rainy season it is impossible to keep them repaired without
+even greater expense than it costs to build a railroad, and with more
+uncertain results. The most important coach roads are: from La Paz
+to Oruro, one hundred and sixty-five miles; from La Paz to Corocoro,
+seventy miles; from La Paz north to Achacachi, sixty-six miles; from
+Oruro to Cochabamba, one hundred and forty miles; from Challapata, on
+the Antofagasta Railway, to Sucre, two hundred miles; from Sucre to
+Potosí, one hundred miles; and from Uyuni to Potosí, one hundred and
+ten miles. There are excellent bridle paths, or, as they are called,
+_caminos de herradura_, from Cochabamba to Sucre, three hundred
+miles; from Potosí to Tarija two hundred and forty miles, to Tupiza
+one hundred and eighty miles, and to Challapata one hundred and twenty
+miles; from Cochabamba to Santa Cruz, three hundred and eighty miles;
+and from La Paz to the various towns of the Yungas. As the statements
+vary regarding distances, according to the humor and endurance of
+the traveller, and the exact measurement has only been made in a few
+instances, it is impossible to do more than give an approximately
+correct idea of the locality of the more important cities as regards
+their distance from one another.
+
+  [Illustration: CARAVAN OF FREIGHT ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO
+  ORURO.]
+
+Travel in eastern and northeastern Bolivia is best undertaken at the
+season of the year when the waterways are navigable, as nearly all
+routes connecting with the towns of the Beni and Santa Cruz necessitate
+navigation through a great part of the distance. On the western plateau
+the traveller arranges his journey for the winter months, to avoid
+the rainy season, but in eastern Bolivia the summer months are most
+desirable for the trip because then the rivers are high, and navigation
+is an easy problem, whereas in winter the delays are sometimes very
+tedious on account of there being little or no water in the upper
+streams of the great river systems. All the branches of the Amazon
+River are navigable, some of them, as the Acre, Purús, Madre de Dios,
+Beni, Mamoré, and Guaporé, admitting steam launches and other vessels
+of from five to six feet draft. In the southeast, the Paraguay and the
+Pilcomayo Rivers are navigable for vessels of two hundred tons. Lake
+Titicaca and Lake Poopo, on the Altaplanicie, are both navigable. Lake
+Titicaca carries steamers of heavy tonnage, but Lake Poopo, and the
+Desaguadero River, which connects it with Lake Titicaca, are navigable
+only for lighter vessels. The Desaguadero River, which is one hundred
+and eighty miles long, is navigable for steamers of five hundred tons
+over part of its length, and carries good-sized vessels from Lake
+Titicaca to Lake Poopo. Communication is better established, both by
+land and water, in this part of Bolivia than in any other section.
+
+Closely connected with the various systems of transportation are the
+telegraph lines of the country, which constitute an important feature
+of intercommunication by serving as the means of determining the
+condition of roads in various sections, thus making it possible to keep
+them in repair and to promote the interests of traffic generally. The
+director-general of telegraphs, Señor Don Carlos Torrico, has made a
+careful study of the telegraph system, and several reforms have been
+inaugurated under his administration. Señor Torrico has served his
+government in many important capacities, having been Prefect of Potosí
+prior to accepting his present office. Under his able direction the
+telegraph system has not only been improved, but important new lines
+have been put in operation with perfect satisfaction. The system now
+covers an extent of three thousand miles, of which eight hundred miles
+are under private ownership, and the annual receipts have increased
+from eighty-three thousand bolivianos in 1904 to one hundred thousand
+bolivianos in 1905, with an equal average, about one hundred and fifty
+thousand each, of despatches sent and received from the various offices
+of the republic. These offices are established in all the chief cities
+and along the principal highways, a long-distance telephone system
+operating in connection with the telegraph; so that more remote towns
+have communication with the main line. An appropriation has been
+asked of Congress for the sum of one hundred and forty-four thousand
+bolivianos, with which to reorganize and repair the entire system and
+to place it on a more efficient basis. The international telegraph
+service has been recently improved by the extension of a line from
+Uyuni to Ollagüe, in Chile, and by the reconstruction of the existing
+line between Tupiza and La Quiaca, in Argentina. Communication with
+Peru is established by a telegraph line through Guaqui, controlled by
+the Peruvian Corporation. Connection with Europe is made by way of
+Argentina, and with the Pacific and North American ports through Guaqui
+or by Ollagüe and Antofagasta.
+
+A new era has dawned for Bolivia. It comes in answer to the abounding
+faith and unfailing confidence of Bolivians in the possibilities of
+their country and in their persistent determination and indefatigable
+efforts to overcome all obstacles in its development. To the world at
+large, ignorant of the real conditions which have combined to militate
+against progress and prosperity in this country of unlimited natural
+wealth, the retarded growth in industrial and commercial importance
+which statistics seem to prove can hardly be fairly considered. It is
+necessary to gain accurate knowledge by a visit to the country and
+a study from actual observation, as well as from information to be
+secured only in the country itself.
+
+Bolivia is not so far away, either from Europe or North America,
+as many people imagine. A very pleasant trip may be arranged to
+Bolivia, starting from European ports or from New York, on one of
+the commodious steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company or the
+Hamburg-American Line, and direct from New York by a steamer of the
+Panamá Railroad Steamship Company, all of which make the trip in six
+days to Colón. The rapid increase in the earnings of these lines to
+the Isthmus of Panamá shows the growth of interest in this part of
+the world, and a tendency of travel to turn elsewhere than to Europe
+and Japan, as formerly, especially in the case of tourist trade.
+According to the latest report which the board of directors of the
+Panamá Railroad Company made to the Isthmian Commission,--the United
+States government now being sole owner of the capital stock of the
+company,--this route is rapidly becoming an important ocean highway
+between North and South America, destined to increase the social as
+well as political relations between countries hitherto more widely
+separated than those of any other continents. The balmy climate of the
+southern waters makes a trip from New York to Panamá an additional
+pleasure, and every year marks an increase of travel over this popular
+route.
+
+  [Illustration: MOTORING IN THE SUBURBS OF LA PAZ.]
+
+After a six days’ trip, including many charming features, the traveller
+may spend a few days in Colón and Panamá, enjoying their tropical
+scenes and the atmosphere of industrial activity which has become so
+marked since the inauguration of the canal construction, or he may
+proceed at once southward on one of the steamers of the Pacific Steam
+Navigation Company, or of the South American Steamship Company, both
+of which lines have comfortable and well-appointed steamers, from
+Panamá to Guayaquil, Callao, Mollendo, Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta,
+Coquimbo, Valparaiso, and other South American ports. The Pacific Steam
+Navigation Company has its head offices in London, with its chief
+South American office in Valparaiso, under the direction of Mr. J. W.
+Pearson, who has made the company’s line to Panamá as commodious and
+desirable a means of travel as an ocean voyage can be under the most
+favorable conditions. Even nervous passengers find little to disturb
+the pleasure of a trip from Panamá to the South American ports as far
+as Valparaiso, for the sea is nearly always as smooth as glass and the
+weather superb. From four to five days are required to make the voyage
+from Panamá to Guayaquil, and the same time is taken from Guayaquil
+to Callao, the port of Lima, Peru, as many stops are made along the
+route, though direct, fast steamers could easily make the trip from
+Panamá to Callao in four or five days. From Callao to Mollendo requires
+from three to four days, according to the delays in intermediate
+ports. To the traveller making his first trip along this route it is
+particularly interesting to watch the loading and unloading of fruits
+and other products of this tropical region. Everything is brought out
+to the steamer in _lanchas_, or lighters, and sometimes the harbor
+swarms with purveyors of merchandise. Disembarking at Mollendo to go
+to Bolivia by what constitutes the shortest route, at least until
+the Arica and La Paz Railway is completed, the traveller is conveyed
+by train over the Peruvian Southern Railway to Arequipa, a charming
+old city situated at the base of the famous volcano Misti, where the
+University of Harvard has a meteorological observatory. Everyone spends
+a day or two in Arequipa before proceeding to Puno, the terminus
+of the road, on the Peruvian border of Lake Titicaca. The director
+of the company, Mr. George Clarke, has spared no effort to improve
+the railway facilities of this line and to provide every possible
+comfort for those who take the trip. People having cardiac troubles
+may suffer a disagreeable experience for a short time while crossing
+the greatest altitude, nearly fifteen thousand feet above sea level.
+But the recompense is great, the scenery being imposing in grandeur.
+From Puno a steamer transfers passengers to Guaqui on the Bolivian
+side of Lake Titicaca, and the trip, whether made at night or in the
+daytime is, under favorable circumstances, the most charming experience
+imaginable. The new steamers, appropriately named the _Inca_ and
+_Coya_ are of five hundred or more tons, the older ships, of which
+the _Yavary_ is one of the best, being much smaller. Sometimes
+the lake is rough, and no sea is more irritating to those who suffer
+from _mal de mer_ than this beautiful lake when the surface loses
+its mirror-like calm. The rough seas of the English Channel, the Bay
+of Biscay, and the Caribbean do not disturb one’s comfort half so much
+as the staccato movement of this mysterious body of water, which seems
+to be unsettled as often from subterranean as from atmospheric causes.
+If the steamer makes a day trip the passengers land at Guaqui at about
+nine o’clock in the evening, and if a night trip, a little later than
+that hour in the morning. The remainder of the journey, as elsewhere
+described, takes one to the city of La Paz, from which various
+interesting journeys may be made to the other cities.
+
+  [Illustration: ROAD LEADING TO MINES NEAR ORURO.]
+
+If preferred, the traveller wishing to visit Bolivia need not go
+ashore at Mollendo, but, continuing down the Pacific coast as far as
+Antofagasta, may take a train from that port to Oruro, finishing the
+journey to La Paz by diligence, or may choose one of the numerous
+routes by diligence or muleback leading from Oruro, Challapata, and
+Uyuni, the principal stations of the railway, to the interior cities
+of Cochabamba, Sucre, and Potosí. A delightful trip, which includes
+visits to all the South American countries, may be made by the
+Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s line from Liverpool, which has a
+fortnightly service between Liverpool and Valparaiso, with connecting
+steamers from Valparaiso up the west coast to Panamá. All these
+steamers are elegantly fitted up for the passenger service, and carry
+a band of musicians for the entertainment of those on board. They
+are large twin-screw steamers, four of the transatlantic line being
+of ten thousand five hundred tons, while those of the Pacific coast
+service are of six thousand tons. The steamers from Liverpool call at
+Brazilian, Uruguayan, and Argentine ports on their way to Valparaiso.
+At least a dozen different steamship lines connect Europe and North
+America with South American ports, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company
+and the Hamburg-American Line having handsomely appointed ships to
+Brazil and Argentina; while the Lamport and Holt steamers from New York
+to Brazil and Argentina are commodious, and the service provided on
+board is constantly improving in character. All these lines permit of
+the passengers making connections at Buenos Aires to continue the trip
+to Bolivia, either by railway over the Argentine Northern Central to
+Tupiza, and thence to Potosí on muleback, a novel treat in these days
+of universal rapid transit, or from Buenos Aires across the Andes,
+also by railway, to Valparaiso and thence to Antofagasta and Oruro; it
+is possible to take an all sea route, by the Pacific Steam Navigation
+Company’s line from Buenos Aires through the Straits of Magellan as
+far as Antofagasta, or Mollendo. By whatever itinerary, the journey
+is worth while, and aside from the novel features it presents, it is
+sure to prove more restful than the average summer outing to popular
+European resorts. As a means of escaping the vigorous northern winters
+it is as desirable as for a relief from the excessive heat of the
+summers, the South American winter corresponding to our summer, which
+makes the trip a particularly pleasant change, especially in Bolivia
+where the winters are comparatively mild. The best seasons in which to
+visit Bolivia are spring and autumn, when the weather is modified from
+the extremes of either winter cold or summer heat.
+
+  [Illustration: STONE BRIDGES ON COACH ROAD BETWEEN POTOSÍ AND
+  CHALLAPATA.]
+
+  [Illustration: LAKE OF SAN PEDRO, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+
+              A THOUSAND-MILE TRIP ON MULEBACK--INCIDENTS
+                         OF TRAVEL IN BOLIVIA
+
+
+  [Illustration: POSTILION OF THE ANDES.]
+
+The itinerary for the journey was arranged in the conference
+_sala_ of the office of the director-general of telegraphs in La
+Paz. By the courtesy of Señor Torrico, and through the thoughtfulness
+of Senator Jorge Galindo, of Cochabamba, a conference by wire was
+obtained with the Prefect of Cochabamba, Señor Dr. Isaac Aranibar,
+and at the end of a very charming conversation, during which the
+prefect expressed great pleasure in the anticipation of welcoming to
+Cochabamba the _distinguida Norte-americana y su secretaria_,
+everything remained settled, as to horses, mules, guides, and servants,
+for what proved to be one of the most interesting, delightful, and
+altogether memorable journeys in a record of many thousands of
+miles’ travel by land and sea. It may surprise many people that in
+remote La Paz such facilities were available for a long distance
+conference, and the travellers themselves were thoroughly astonished
+to learn that it was possible, from these comfortable headquarters,
+to hold uninterrupted communication with the Prefects of Cochabamba,
+Sucre, and Potosí, through the services of a telegraph operator, who
+conducted the conversation between cities several days’ journey apart,
+and inaccessible at that season, December, except by long trips on
+muleback. It was decided that the regular semi-weekly diligence should
+convey the travellers to Oruro, where they were to take horses and
+mules for the rest of the trip, the horses to be used on the less
+difficult roads. Through Dr. Aranibar’s courteous attention, horses
+and guides were engaged in Cochabamba and sent to Oruro to await the
+travellers, as the season of the year was not propitious for securing
+animals at short notice in Oruro, especially to serve on such a long
+trip as the one proposed. With the shortest possible delay the best
+animals for travelling over the precipitous trails of the Andes and
+across the rocky beds of the cañons were selected, and the expedition
+was placed in charge of an _arriero_ who had conducted families
+from one end of Bolivia to the other through a period of twenty years,
+a conscientious, shrewd, capable, and thoroughly excellent guide, named
+Indalécio Palácios, who deserves the highest praise for his faithful
+services on this occasion.
+
+Not heeding the predictions of disaster that were made by all
+who heard of the proposed journey, to be undertaken at the worst
+season of the year, when the rains were heaviest and the floods
+most destructive,--a journey generally pronounced _imposible! un
+suicidio!_ and otherwise of dire prospect,--the North Americans
+made their preparations with the same eagerness as if only hopeful
+prognostications had been offered, and at six o’clock in the morning
+of the day agreed upon to begin the trip, they were already seated on
+the _pescante_, as the coachman’s box of the diligence is called,
+saying good-bye to the numerous friends assembled at that early hour to
+_despedir_ them, including the American minister, Mr. Sorsby, who
+appeared a little doubtful as to the outcome of this expedition of his
+compatriots.
+
+The old diligence was similar to most of its kind in Europe and
+America, with seats along the side and a high box for the driver, to
+which two passengers could be admitted in case of a crowded list. In
+pleasant weather the _pescante_ is preferable to a seat inside the
+coach; and even though it was a raw, cold morning when the diligence,
+with its eight horses, pulled out of the _carretera_ station at
+Challapampa, with the “Americanas” wrapped in their furs and waving
+adieus from their elevated seats, the prospect was pleasanter to them
+than it would have been inside, with sleepy people blinking at one
+another and grumbling about their “places.”
+
+“Coaching” is a word which usually suggests high-stepping
+thoroughbreds, rubber tires, and all the accessories of a fashionable
+turnout; but a coaching trip may be a delight, as this one proved, in
+a rattling old vehicle drawn by eight mules unquestionably ordinary,
+evidently chosen for endurance rather than appearances. The old
+_diligencia_ climbed slowly enough until it arrived at El Alto;
+but once on the broad plateau, the well-trained mules tore over the
+level road at a surprising and exhilarating speed. The keen air
+at fourteen thousand feet above the sea was delightful; and when,
+after two hours’ riding, the coach stopped in front of a little
+_posada_, or inn, everyone was ready for a cup of coffee and a
+roll, which were taken without getting down. After riding on for three
+hours more, the station of Ayoayo was reached, at one o’clock; and
+while the driver changed mules for the second time that morning, the
+passengers had _almuerzo_, as the noon meal is called in all South
+American countries, meaning breakfast, the early morning coffee and
+rolls being _desayuno_. Ayoayo is pointed out to travellers not
+only as the birthplace of the celebrated Tupac-Catari, who held La Paz
+in a state of siege for more than three months during an insurrection
+against Spanish rule late in the eighteenth century, but as the scene
+of a massacre of Sucre soldiers by Indians only a few years ago under
+peculiarly sad circumstances, the young men representing the best
+families of Sucre society. It is a typical village of the plateau,
+adobe built, treeless, and dreary looking. A few leagues further on,
+the coach stopped at the thermal springs of Viscachani for a few
+minutes only, finishing the day’s journey at Sicasica at about nine
+o’clock at night. All day the snow-white peaks of the Andes had been
+in view, and, dotting the landscape in groups at short intervals, were
+seen curious-looking adobe mounds or towers of from five to ten feet
+in height, with a Gothic archway through the centre, giving a singular
+appearance to the structure. They are called _chullpas_, an Aymará
+word used to designate not only the buildings but their architects,
+though it was not applied to the latter until late in the seventeenth
+century. These _chullpas_ are generally regarded as the ruins of
+ancient Aymará burial places, though some authorities believe them to
+have been built for dwellings, and it is certain that they were used as
+such at the time of the Viceroy Toledo’s visit to Alto Peru, when he
+gave the order that the Indians should be forbidden to occupy them and
+should be compelled to form communities around a Christian church. That
+the _chullpas_ have been used extensively as burial places at some
+time is proved by the great number of skeletons found in them. Next
+to the colossal ruins of Tiahuanaco and the remains of Inca palaces
+on Lake Titicaca, these _chullpas_ are the most interesting
+pre-Columbian relics of the plateau.
+
+  [Illustration: ANCIENT SEPULCHRES, CALLED “CHULLPAS,” BETWEEN
+  LA PAZ AND ORURO.]
+
+A long day’s ride, from six o’clock in the morning until nine at night,
+is sufficiently fatiguing to make any kind of lodging desirable, and no
+one appeared to take much notice of the surroundings at Sicasica. At
+four o’clock the next morning the diligence was on its way again. The
+air was cold and clear, and from the _pescante_ a fine view was
+to be had of the whole country. The moon was just disappearing in all
+its silver splendor behind a bank of black clouds, still illumining
+with its weird light the towers of a distant church and shedding a
+white radiance over the broad expanse of plain. Within half an hour
+more the sun came out, at first rosy as a child from its bath, and then
+golden in all the splendor of the new day. Along a part of the road
+the coach was whirled over a carpet of snow, the result of a storm the
+night before. The route lay past the battlefield of Aroma, famous as
+the site of the Cochabambans’ victory over the Spaniards in the War of
+the Independence, then through the pueblos, or villages, of Panduro and
+Vilavila, with their plazas, their narrow streets, and little shops,
+over many of which hung gorgeously dressed dolls to indicate that
+_chicha_ was for sale within, passing Caracolla, the breakfast
+station, from which the direction lay due southward to Oruro, where the
+coach stopped at four o’clock of one of the windiest days in Bolivia’s
+windiest city.
+
+Oruro is surrounded by mountains, the sides of which have been
+burrowed in all directions for the precious metals they contain in
+abundance. It presented a particularly attractive appearance to the
+two North Americans the morning succeeding their arrival, when, after
+receiving visits from the prefect, Dr. Andrés Muñoz, and the rector
+of the university, Dr. Rodolfo Galvarro, who extended a cordial
+welcome to their city with the usual hospitality of these kind people,
+they started on a sightseeing tour, with the genial editor of _La
+Tarde_ as cicerone. The market place is always interesting to
+foreigners, and half a day was not too long to spend at its booths,
+where blankets, woven in all the colors of the rainbow, _chola_
+outfits, all kinds of home-made lace, pottery of primitive design and
+workmanship, and little images to be worn as amulets, are sold at
+whatever price it appears most probable the purchaser will pay. As it
+was necessary to secure provisions for the muleback trip which was
+to begin the next day, a little _chola_ servant in the employ
+of friends was sent to buy chickens and other necessaries in the
+market. In this country methods are the reverse of those employed
+where competition makes every vendor eager to secure purchasers. Here
+it is the buyer who pleads and urges that he must have such and such
+articles. The process of getting a pair of chickens was as complicated
+as if it had been a question of some delicate legal transaction. The
+price did not seem high enough to warrant such exclusive methods.
+
+The _arriero_ Palácios having arrived with the horses and mules
+from Cochabamba, everything was ready to begin the journey by eight
+o’clock on the morning of December 14, 1905. The cheerful optimism with
+which the two travellers regarded the possible experiences in store
+for them was explained in the statement: “Everybody is so kind to us
+everywhere!” and they wore a happy and confident mien as they rode
+out of the _patio_ through the low stone gateway of the hotel,
+and turned their horses’ heads toward the apparently boundless plain,
+across which they were to find their way to the Royal Range of the
+Andes, and, by following its steep ledges and winding cañons, to reach
+the beautiful valleys beyond, and visit the thriving cities of central
+Bolivia. It is not possible to take, on such a journey, the large
+trunks used in Europe and North America, where railroad facilities are
+such that the heaviest baggage can be easily handled. For muleback
+travel light trunks, made of raw hide and called _petacas_, are
+used, generally smaller than the average steamer trunk. Two of these
+may be strapped on each mule, and if the weight is well balanced the
+animal will carry very heavy loads. The provisions are also carried
+in these _petacas_. The saddlebags, or _alforjas_, are an
+important item of the rider’s outfit, as in this way are carried light
+lunches, fruits, etc., which may be eaten without dismounting, in case
+of emergency.
+
+  [Illustration: PILLARS OF SANDSTONE, NEAR PORCO.]
+
+The first day’s trip seemed longer than leagues recorded it, the sun
+beating down with intense heat on the high plateau and the white
+light dazzling by its sheen. The snow mountains were in view all day,
+refreshing to the sight. The road was almost entirely level, and there
+were few landmarks along the way by which to note progress. The old
+town of Paria, looming abruptly in the path after a sudden turn at the
+slope of a hillock, awakened interest chiefly as the first pueblo built
+by the conquerors in Bolivia. It was worth an hour’s delay, though it
+possesses little of architectural merit except an old church which is,
+and probably always has been, its chief adornment.
+
+Small huts, the homes of Indian shepherds, are scattered over the
+plain, apparently not large enough to admit more than one person,
+though whole families occupy them, or rather sleep in them, as a
+protection from the piercing cold of this region after sundown. During
+the day they are deserted, except on rare occasions. Looking into one
+of these curious little hovels, nothing was to be seen but a kettle,
+a box of matches, a bit of tallow candle, a blanket, a handful of
+parched corn, and the stones on which to grind it. There seems to be
+little fear of robbery, as none of these huts have doors. All along
+this part of the plateau, where it slopes toward the Royal Range, there
+are sheepfolds or corrals, enclosed by low walls of adobe or rocks.
+Before reaching the end of the second day’s journey, from Tolopalca
+to Ventilla, the plateau was left behind and the green slopes of the
+valleys appeared. Palácios felt it incumbent upon himself to point out
+objects of interest, and his information was of the most varied and
+weird description. The rocks and jagged peaks took on a new aspect
+under the charm of many legends; and strange faces looked out from
+uncanny depths, curious forms rose up in the crevices of the cañon, and
+above one of the summits the head of Melgarejo was pointed out, with
+a gesture of satisfaction which might or might not bear relation to
+the safe distance at which the celebrated _tyranno’s_ sculptured
+likeness appeared. A terrific thunderstorm caused half a day’s delay at
+Ventilla, but was worth the loss of time, as it gave an opportunity to
+observe a curious custom, when, as a heavy downfall of hail buried the
+ground out of sight, the proprietress of the inn brought out a brazier
+full of incense and set it in the middle of the _patio_, “to burn
+incense to the Virgin and have the hail stopped.” A few minutes later
+the hail ceased, and the devout little housewife came out triumphantly
+to take away the brazier and to explain its purpose to the astonished
+onlookers. Her little home had few evidences of worldly comfort, but
+in a corner of the family bedroom there was an altar to the Virgin, on
+which fresh flowers were placed daily. She was a happy, contented soul,
+and thought Ventilla the most desirable place of residence in the world.
+
+Five o’clock in the morning was the usual hour for beginning the
+day’s journey. From Ventilla to Chuimani the road was rugged and
+mountainous, and a threatening storm made it doubtful whether the
+usual number of miles could be made without danger of being swept
+down stream by a sudden flood. But fortune was favorable, and after
+an hour’s rest and breakfast at Chuimani the little party pushed on
+to Arque, arriving early in the afternoon. A deputation consisting of
+the chief authorities of the district met the travellers, whose coming
+had been announced in advance by telegram; and they were escorted to
+the municipal building, where, dismounting, they were received with
+formal speeches of welcome. As it was the _corregidor’s_ birthday,
+the town was in _fiesta_, and presented a gay appearance. But
+though the invitation to remain was cordial, it was necessary to take
+advantage of every fine day for the trip, at a season when storms
+meant possible delay of a week or more; and at four o’clock the next
+morning the party started out of Arque, following the bed of the river
+nearly all the way to Capinota. The scenery of the Quebrada de Arque,
+as this part of the route is called, is grand and imposing beyond
+description. Nothing more stupendous in rocky chasm and pinnacled
+height is to be seen in the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, in the Swiss
+Alps, or even in the Himalayas. It is impressive, awe inspiring, one
+of the noblest of Nature’s architectural wonders. The route from Arque
+to Capinota follows the river bed, and it was necessary to cross the
+stream more than fifty times during the five hours’ ride, frequently
+under rather uncertain circumstances, as a torrent had poured down
+through the _quebrada_ the night before, and fording was still
+difficult and dangerous, the animal’s slightest stumble on a loose
+stone serving to make him lose ground against the heavy current. But
+the _arriero_ never failed to attend closely to his charges,
+and his _Cuidado, niñas!_--“Be careful, young ladies!”--served
+to guard against any inattention at critical moments. The ride into
+Capinota was like passing along one of the shady bridle paths of a
+European city. For about two miles the road lay between a double row
+of wide-branching trees, through fertile farm lands; and when the
+cavalcade entered Capinota, to the astonishment of the quiet citizens
+who came to the doors to see the _estrangeras_, nothing could have
+been more grateful to the sight of the fatigued travellers than the
+clean streets and white houses of that attractive little provincial
+capital. The sub-prefect, Señor Maldonado, and his charming family
+extended the welcome characteristic of gentlefolk in every land, and
+their generous hospitality was one of the most pleasing experiences
+of the trip. It would have been pleasant to stay longer in Capinota,
+but a few hours were all that could be spared, and the afternoon saw
+the _jinetas_, as horsewomen are called, again on their way. The
+afternoon was that of a genuine midsummer day, and the sun blazed down
+with extraordinary fierceness on the high, unsheltered ledges of the
+mountain side along which the travellers made their way for hours. The
+scenery was magnificent; and when the winding of the road brought a
+breath of cool air or a stretch of shade, the leagues seemed to grow
+shorter, though it was late in the afternoon when the little town of
+Caraza was reached and the journey was ended for the day. It had been
+less than the usual day’s ride, only thirty miles, but the road had led
+first through the rocky bed of the river from Arque, and then along the
+sun-heated slopes beyond Capinota, which were particularly fatiguing
+during the hottest hours of a summer’s day, with the natural result
+that the following morning found the travellers particularly tired,
+making the continuation of the journey something of an effort. But at
+the usual hour they started, riding slowly for four hours, until a
+distant view of a camp of North American engineers near Quillacollo
+revived their drooping spirits, and cheerfulness increased with the
+anticipation of meeting fellow countrymen to whom they could talk in
+their own language, and of hearing news, perhaps, from their own dear
+land. The engineers, who were engaged in the survey of the new railway
+between Oruro and Cochabamba, had already received information of
+their approach, and appeared equally pleased to see friends from their
+country, showering every kind attention upon their delighted guests,
+who were made comfortable until the effects of fatigue disappeared and
+they were able to go on to Cochabamba, which they reached the next day.
+
+  [Illustration: RIVER ROCHA, NEAR COCHABAMBA, SHOWING TUNARI
+  IN THE DISTANCE.]
+
+  [Illustration: WEAVING THE PONCHO ON A PRIMITIVE LOOM.]
+
+From Oruro to Cochabamba, a distance of about one hundred and forty
+miles, a diligence carries passengers during the greater part of the
+year, and there are always accommodations for passengers at the inns of
+the various diligence stations. But on the long ride from Cochabamba to
+Sucre, these advantages do not exist, as there is now no coach system
+over this road, covering a distance of about three hundred miles. It
+was necessary before leaving Cochabamba to purchase beds and provisions
+for the trip. Army cots were bought, of the kind that can be rolled up
+in a neat bundle and strapped on the mule without requiring too much
+space. Then a shopping tour resulted in a nondescript collection of
+kitchen utensils, an alcohol stove, and a complete picnic assortment
+of canned eatables, nearly all from English, French, or German
+establishments, the United States being far behind in this market.
+After a pleasant week in this Garden City, enjoying the hospitality of
+the charming Cochabamba people, the small caravan was got ready for the
+trip to Sucre. The ladies started out under the brightest auspices,
+with a host of new friends to wish them a safe journey. It was quite a
+cavalcade, consisting of the two travellers and their _arriero_
+and servant, three saddle horses, two saddle mules, two pack mules,
+and a donkey for the small boy who went as helper to Palácios. The
+first day’s ride was through the fertile valley of Cochabamba to Arani,
+a town thirty miles away, which has a regular coach service to the
+city, uninterrupted the year round. All along this road are to be seen
+curious round-topped buildings, some used as dwellings, and others as
+barns. They resemble the saüba ant mounds of Brazil, on a larger scale,
+or the African bungalows, except that these Bolivian huts are of adobe,
+the well-known sun-dried brick generally used throughout Latin America.
+At Punata, near Arani, an old cemetery presents a remarkable appearance
+on account of the vaults being built in this form. The climate of
+Cochabamba and the vicinity is superb, and a day’s journey in this part
+of Bolivia is an unmixed delight. The second day’s ride from Arani to
+Ayapampa was a taste of what mountain climbing means, and the thirty
+miles between the two _postas_ presented almost every variety of
+climate and weather. Breakfast tasted just as good eaten while sitting
+on a pile of stones by the roadside as if it had been taken at a
+perfectly served table in one’s own house, for the altitude and the
+bracing air gave a wonderful appetite, and the ascent had been a sharp
+one from six o’clock in the morning until noon. A heavy storm of rain
+and hail made particularly serviceable the gorgeous _ponchos_,
+or blankets, which had been purchased at Oruro for the trip, as
+raincoats did not meet the double requirement of warmth and waterproof
+security. Ayapampa is a brown, rather gloomy-looking cluster of houses,
+high among the mountains, the centre of a pastoral community. It has
+a well-built church and a good school, and some of the homes give
+evidences of comfort. The _corregidor_ placed his house _á la
+disposicion de las Señoras_,--“at the disposal of the ladies,”--who
+made themselves comfortable for the night, and, with the assistance
+of Palácios and the servant, made experiments in amateur cooking, the
+initial steps toward acquiring a proficiency in culinary art which
+developed marvellously before the end of the journey. That evening’s
+effort was a dismal failure, and a large consignment of embryonic
+“flapjacks” went to feed the birds of the mountains, but _ce n’est
+que le premier pas qui côute_!
+
+  [Illustration: INDIANS IN FEAST COSTUMES.]
+
+The next day broke the record of endurance in travelling, and will
+never be forgotten as the most fatiguing day of the whole trip. From
+Ayapampa to Mizque is estimated at fifty miles, but it was as long a
+fifty miles as precipices and rocky slopes and innumerable windings
+can measure. Starting at five o’clock in the morning and riding
+steadily until nine o’clock at night, with only a half-hour’s rest for
+breakfast, this long day’s experience made the weary equestrians decide
+that the fifty miles must have been measured “as the crow flies.” The
+early morning was clear and cold, and from Ayapampa the route lay down
+the valley, the descent being through a bank of clouds, which, when
+seen from above, looked like great billows of seafoam, then as one
+passed through them, the atmosphere was so foggy that the outstretched
+hand could hardly be distinguished, and from below the fleecy coverlet
+gradually rose and was lost to sight in the blue of the sky. The first
+half of the day passed quickly, as the marvellous beauty of the scenery
+absorbed attention. The majesty of the Cordilleras, rising peak above
+peak as far as the eye could see, and the wonderful depths of the green
+valleys far below, were impressive beyond description. And when the
+descent to the bed of the Mizque River began, the varied beauty of
+its winding course, as it spread out like a panorama to the view, was
+enchanting. But what a long time it took to descend the mountain to a
+river bed which seemed to be no more than half a mile away! Palácios
+was appealed to with increasing frequency as the hours passed, to know
+how many leagues still remained, and his cheery _dos ó tres leguas
+no más, Señora_,--“two or three leagues, no more, lady,”--grew
+dreadfully monotonous as daylight faded and flashes of lightning were
+the only illuminating beacons to show the way. Fortunately, the river
+was reached before dark; but it was pitch dark when the cavalcade rode
+into Mizque, and hardly a light glimmered in the town as the travellers
+dismounted in the plaza and were received by the courteous sub-prefect,
+Señor Ladislao Vasquez, who hastened to provide everything for their
+comfort, expressing his regret that an accident to the telegraph wires,
+caused by the recent storm, had prevented his receiving word of their
+coming.
+
+  [Illustration: THE DEVIL’S BRIDGE ACROSS THE PILCOMAYO RIVER.]
+
+Mizque is a survival of one of the most important towns of the
+Audiencia of Charcas, once the seat of a bishopric. It is a quiet
+borough, picturesque and attractive in many ways. A day was given to
+visiting its churches and gardens, as the river was too swollen by
+floods to permit of riding across. The next day was the last of the
+old year, and it was spent chiefly on the road between Mizque and
+Aiquile, the latter a thriving provincial capital, the sub-prefect of
+which, Señor Nicanor Arze, is a descendant of the famous Cochabamban
+who led the victorious forces in the battle of Aroma. Señor Arze and
+his wife made the coming of the New Year as bright as possible to the
+two strangers in their city, and Señor Arze accompanied the party as
+far as Novillera, which is one of the finest fruit farms in Bolivia.
+With their saddlebags full of oranges and lemons, the ladies left,
+after breakfast, for Quiroga, where accommodations were scant, but
+hospitality was generous, Señor Manuel Rodriguez giving up his store
+as a lodging for the unexpected arrivals. The only available space was
+on the counter, and here Palácios and the servants arranged the cots
+for the first night’s rest of the New Year. It was a holiday to be
+remembered, as all the town was celebrating with music and procession,
+the Indians, who were in _fiesta_ after their own peculiar
+fashion, shouting and dancing. The commotion caused alarm to the
+travellers, which was quickly allayed by the reassuring announcement of
+the _arriero_, who kept guard, that all the noise meant nothing,
+or, as he expressed it, _No importa nada, Señora_.
+
+All along the central valley, which is the route from Cochabamba to
+Sucre, the scenery is very like some parts of Mexico, where the cactus
+grows in profusion and the climate is semi-tropical. But the cactus and
+the pepper tree reach their maximum growth in this region, the cactus
+towering up in a single huge stem to the height of a small poplar,
+while the pepper tree branches out with wonderful vigor. Few signs of
+animal life are seen, except of the domestic variety, though there
+are many beautiful birds, and whole flocks of parrots and paroquets
+fly screaming overhead at short intervals all day long. Not many
+insects were seen, but a great deal of warning was given by friends
+to be prepared for a fierce specimen called _vinchuca_, a kind
+of vampire beetle, which, however, did not appear. Many magnificent
+country estates are scattered along the sides of the rich agricultural
+valley; and over the Rio Grande, which was crossed scores of times
+during one day, the beautiful Puente Arce has been swung to facilitate
+travel in this section of the country. One night, after a ride of
+thirty-six miles over the stony bed of the river, a _choza_, or
+Indian hut made of straw, appeared to view, and it was decided that a
+night’s rest under its scanty roof would be better than a too strenuous
+effort to reach the next _posta_; so, as soon as permission
+was granted, the cots were prepared, and the weary _gringas_,
+soothed by the moonlight streaming in and the sound of some distant
+_postillón’s_ guitar, or _charango_, borne faintly on the
+night air, fell asleep, the _arriero_ keeping guard with a
+revolver which never found any more serious use than waking the echoes.
+For experience has proved, in thousands of cases, that travellers are
+as safe in the remote districts of Bolivia as on a city street in
+the most carefully policed centres of the world. The chief trouble
+encountered was that of procuring forage, the season being the worst
+of the year for pasturage. It was of no use to urge the _arriero_
+to stay at some _posta_ that seemed to offer special attractions
+in scenery or historical interest. _No hay forrage_--“There is
+no forage”--was the death knell to poetic dreams upon more than one
+occasion on that memorable ride.
+
+  [Illustration: PUENTE SAN BARTOLOMÉ BETWEEN POTOSÍ AND
+  YOCALLA.]
+
+The day of the arrival at Sucre broke clear and promising, and from
+the _posta_ of Cantumolino the cavalcade set out at five o’clock
+in the morning to climb the almost perpendicular height that marks
+the approach to the famous city. A terrific storm came on, at first
+in great, splashing drops, then in a steadier downpour, and finally,
+as the level heights, called _puna_, were reached, the climax
+came in hailstones as large as marbles. The rain quickly drenched the
+ladies to the skin, though it did not dampen their enthusiasm. It was
+a glorious sight up there on the heights, from which the trickling
+rivulets could be seen leaving the crevices of the summits and forming
+into larger streams, which were quickly swollen into floods as they
+swept into the gullies of the lower cañon and were carried in a mighty
+torrent down to the bed of the now raging river. In half an hour it
+was all over, and the sun came out over the peaks and shone down into
+the _quebradas_, almost visibly checking the rushing waters.
+Sucre looked whiter than ever after such a drenching, and it was a
+most welcome sight after nine days’ journey, though every day had been
+enjoyable.
+
+  [Illustration: A FREQUENT MORNING ENCOUNTER ON THE JOURNEY.]
+
+No one can ever get away from Sucre so soon as he has planned to do,
+no matter how urgent the case may be; and although it had been the
+intention to give only a few days to sightseeing in the capital, the
+time flew by so agreeably that at the end of two weeks it was with
+reluctance that good-byes were said. Hospitality was most cordial and
+genuine, even the problem of taking care of the animals, the eternal
+question of _forrage_, being solved by a distinguished Sucrense,
+Señor Urioste, brother of the Princess de Glorieta, who turned them
+out to graze on his own magnificent hacienda. Receptions, soirées,
+picnics, and a grand ball which was marked by as much _éclat_
+as if it had taken place in a European capital, were features of the
+entertainment provided for the visitors, who, on leaving, were escorted
+to the first _posta_ by the distinguished prefect, Dr. Julio La
+Faye, and a party of leading Sucrenses, who treated them to a sumptuous
+breakfast in _despedida_. It was late before the next _posta_
+was reached, at the Puente Sucre, which crosses the Pilcomayo River,
+but from this point to Potosí was only three days’ riding, and the
+roads, though steep and narrow, were in no place dangerous. From the
+Puente Sucre the ladies were accompanied for several leagues by the
+courteous official, Señor Rodriguez, and early in the afternoon the
+day’s ride ended at Retiro. One of the temporary attachés of the
+expedition, who has not been described before because he attracted
+little attention, was the _postillón_. This unique type serves
+from one _posta_ to another only, and it is chiefly in the
+mountains that his personality becomes a picturesque feature of the
+landscape. In the valleys he is an uninteresting creature who runs his
+fifty or sixty miles a day in a plodding, expressionless sort of way,
+but on the uplands the species is different. He is a poem in rags and
+patches, a symphony in prismatic _ensemble_, with an individuality
+as striking as quaintness can make it. He swings his silver-tipped horn
+over his shoulder and holds his beloved _charango_ close to his
+heart, even when he thrums on it the strange, monotonous _tristes_
+which constitute the musical masterpieces of his race. He is silent,
+yet eloquent in his silence, as the garrulous white man seldom is with
+all his words. His bushy, but straight, black hair makes a thick fringe
+under the knitted cap which he pulls down over his ears, and his black
+eyes are wide open, though not always in innocent questioning. He is
+sometimes a shrewd schemer. The _postillón_, who trotted on ahead
+to herald the travellers’ arrival at Conapaya, vigorously blowing his
+silver-tipped horn, caused a panic by selecting as their breakfast room
+at the _tambo_, or inn, an apartment in which the ladies found
+themselves face to face with a case of smallpox at the worst stage
+of the disease. The escape from the dangerous situation was sudden
+and somewhat dramatic; but as a physician who was encountered on the
+road to Potosí the next day explained, the great altitude practically
+prevents contagion, and the disease had never been known to exist
+except in sporadic cases, usually brought from a lower district. This
+did not entirely allay anxiety, however, and upon arriving at Potosí
+the doctor was called in to vaccinate the entire party. Palácios balked
+and refused to be bothered with it, and the _postillón_ could not
+be found, but the small helper was made an unwilling victim.
+
+  [Illustration: THE LLAMA, THE PROUDEST OF BURDEN BEARERS.]
+
+Naturally there was much to see in the wonderful old city of Potosí,
+and it was only after several days that the enthusiastic visitors
+to the Villa Imperial could make up their minds to go on. Here as
+elsewhere hospitality was liberally shown, and time was made to pass
+very pleasantly in the company of charming new friends. Señor Juan
+Ugarteche and his beautiful wife, whose father is Señor Bebin, one of
+the richest mine owners of Bolivia, were most attentive, as were many
+others.
+
+The route from Potosí to Challapata, the coach road terminus on the
+Antofagasta and Oruro Railway, is said to be better than that from
+Sucre to Challapata, and yet it seems hard to believe that any road
+could present more difficulties to the equestrian than the former. The
+first day’s riding offered few inconveniences except that a flood made
+the river impassable in the neighborhood of the Mendieta placer mines,
+and it was necessary to wait patiently till the river “passed.” An
+expression which sounds strange to the foreigner is that of the river’s
+“arriving” and “passing.” “I think we can get to the next _posta_
+before the river arrives,” the _arriero_ would say, and at first
+the idea of this transient passenger was a source of great amusement.
+But as the rivers depend for their existence on the rains that flood
+the mountain crevices, it can easily be understood that their “arrival”
+is entirely a passing event. A small stream sometimes remains to mark
+their turbulent course, but even this is not a certainty the year
+round. A great deal of work has been done to keep the roads passable.
+A few leagues out of Potosí the Puente del Diablo, between Yocalla
+and Tarapaya, was pointed out by Palácios as a wonderful piece of
+construction done by his Satanic majesty on a wager for the soul of a
+belated lover who was unable to cross the stream to save his sweetheart
+from marriage with another, and who bargained to give his soul if the
+devil would build the bridge before the cock crew in the morning. When
+the work was nearly done the young man repented of his wicked wager and
+prayed to the Virgin to save him from the awful sin he was committing.
+His prayer was heard, and the cock crew before the last stone was
+placed in the arch. He leaped across the nearly completed bridge, and
+while the devil cursed the bad luck that had befallen his enterprise,
+the young man received the blessing of the Church on his happy marriage
+with the fair lady of his choice.
+
+  [Illustration: COSTUMES WORN BY THE INDIANS ON THE PILGRIMAGE
+  TO THE SHRINE OF COPACABANA.]
+
+On every highway of the Cordillera great droves of llamas may be
+seen, carrying their small loads to and from the mines. One morning
+a thousand of these stately freight bearers were counted, in droves
+averaging a hundred each. Most of them were carrying blocks of tin
+to Challapata, or merchandise from that city to Potosí. The blocks
+weighed twenty-five pounds, and each llama carried two of them. An
+average-sized llama will carry from fifty to sixty pounds, and the
+larger animals eighty and in rare cases a hundred pounds. But the
+llama knows his loading capacity, and absolutely refuses to have one
+ounce extra put on his back. If such an insult is offered him, he sits
+down in the road until the offending load is removed. Beating and
+coaxing will not get him to his feet again, and sometimes, even after
+the load is taken off, he refuses to continue the journey. The other
+llamas will not go on without him, and it is a serious question with
+his Indian driver whether to carry the llama until he will agree to
+walk, or to kill him, so that the caravan can go on with its freight.
+The llama travels only from nine to ten miles a day, keeping a slow
+majestic pace, with his head held high in the air, turning it from one
+side to the other as objects of interest attract his attention. He is
+a superb-looking creature, sometimes of gorgeous coloring, when his
+coat has been dyed red, yellow, or green to match his master’s, and
+bright-hued ribbons have been tied through holes pierced in the tips of
+his long, erect ears. The Indians believe the llama has the soul of a
+departed Inca, which accounts for his pride. An Indian who owns a drove
+of llamas is independently rich. They find their own forage, their wool
+supplies him with clothing, their bones make his utensils, their meat
+is food for him in an emergency, his sandals are made of their hide,
+and llama dung furnishes the fuel with which he cooks his food. The
+llama chews the cud, and his weapon in anger or fear is spitting at
+the offender. His wool makes durable _ponchos_, which the Indians
+weave on very primitive looms.
+
+  [Illustration: A COUNTRY ROAD NEAR LA PAZ.]
+
+As the journey approached its close, the roads seemed to grow steeper
+and the _postas_ further apart. At times it appeared to be a question
+whether the mules were walking on their feet, or picking their way down
+the almost perpendicular slopes on their noses, and then, a sudden
+ascent would reverse appearances, and one could not help wondering how
+long the mules could preserve their equilibrium with the scant hold
+their hind feet had secured on the edge of the precipice, while the
+fore feet floundered around in what seemed an everlasting effort to get
+a solid base. Chasms opened on one side and rocky ledges crowded on
+the other, while nothing was to be seen but illimitable space ahead,
+and there was no way of going back. These were features of the trip
+which were not of unmixed enjoyment, but not a single accident occurred
+on the entire journey; and though part of it, between Leñas and
+Vilcapugio, was travelled at an altitude of over sixteen thousand feet,
+where the cold was intense at night, the road often being covered with
+snow in the morning, not a moment’s suffering was felt, and every day
+brought new diversion. One of the most entertaining experiences was
+the arrival at Tolapalca, near Vilcapugio, on an Indian feast day. The
+_patio_ of the _posta_ was filled with a gay crowd in bright green,
+yellow, red, and blue _ponchos_, all barefooted, even at that high
+altitude, nearly all the women carrying babies swung on their backs.
+They had musicians whose instruments were primitive flutes, called
+_quenas_, horns, _charangos_, and drums, and who at frequent intervals
+marched two by two around the _patio_ and into the barroom, where
+_chicha_ flowed like water. Men, women, and children, when drinking,
+first spilled some of the liquor on the ground, as an offering to
+Mother Earth, or, according to some authorities, to propitiate the
+invisible spirits supposed to be present upon all occasions; and
+after each libation they would perform the ceremony of walking across
+the _patio_, two by two, and kneeling upon the ground at every three
+steps to kiss the donor of all their blessings. As their _chicha_ is
+made from maize, their obeisance is a recognition of the beneficent
+source which provides them with it. Even in the religious _fiestas_ of
+Copacabana, the Indians observe many of their primitive ceremonies,
+while their costumes suggest a strange mixture of pagan with Christian
+training. The arrival of the travellers appeared to make not the
+slightest difference to them, and they hardly glanced at the newcomers.
+
+  [Illustration: CHALLAPATA. RAILROAD TOWN AND TERMINUS OF THE
+  MULEBACK TRIP FROM POTOSÍ.]
+
+An amusing process in all the smaller _postas_ of the remote
+country districts was the presentation of the official letter
+from the government to the _alcalde_ of the place, which was
+necessary in order to secure the best attentions. Many of these
+country authorities speak only the Aymará or Quichua languages;
+and as Palácios is acquainted with both, he had to interpret the
+contents of the mysterious document, which he usually did with florid
+emphasis. _Papel! Gobierno!_ were magic words with which to begin
+his oratorical effort; and it was a fascinating sight to see the
+_alcalde_ in his gorgeous _poncho_, with his silver-topped
+and tasselled _vara_, or staff of office, held tightly in one
+hand, peering earnestly into the pages of a document which apparently
+meant much or little to him according to the _arriero’s_
+eloquence. But these authorities are excellent judges of human
+nature, and are not easily deceived. They saw that the strangers were
+entitled to consideration, and every possible facility was granted at
+a reasonable price, every attention was shown, and the _alcalde_
+took leave of his visitors upon every occasion with a dignity and
+simplicity that were altogether charming. The _alcalde_ rules his
+little canton well, but he cannot always prevent abuses, the Indians of
+the plateau being shrewd and resourceful. A laughable incident occurred
+to prove that at least they are not so stupid as some foreigners
+believe. It was necessary to buy bread, and the _arriero_ had
+been sent to get it, in the form of _pancitos_, as the little
+loaves are called. After laying them on the table, he went to unload
+the mules; and in the meantime a poor, old Indian woman appeared,
+with several children clinging to her skirts, to beg bread. All the
+_pancitos_ were poured into her lap, and the _arriero_ was
+called to buy more. Seeing the beggar, his face relaxed in a broad
+grin, in appreciation of the joke, as he exclaimed: “But, Señora,
+that’s the woman who sold me the _pancitos_!” It was a transaction
+that would have done credit to the sharp methods of Seven Dials! As a
+type of his class, the _arriero_ himself was an interesting as
+well as an amusing study throughout the trip. He had a ready solution
+for every difficulty. The promptness with which he disposed of a tired
+or lazy mule and secured a fine specimen to replace it, the astonishing
+facility with which he obtained favors from the most obdurate officials
+in the little _postas_, and the real genius he displayed
+in getting the willing services of passing _arrieros_ and
+_postillóns_ in loading and unloading his cargo were proofs that
+under more favorable circumstances Palácios might have been a great
+politician or financial magnate. He was a born diplomat; and although
+it was sometimes annoying to find that, after having listened with
+polite attention to a suggestion, to which he invariably responded with
+_Si Señora_,--“Yes, madam,”--he continued to carry out his own
+plans in his own way, answering each insisting demand with a reassuring
+_No tenga cuidado, Señora_, which meant: “Don’t give yourself any
+uneasiness, madam,” experience proved that his judgment was always
+correct; so suggestions became fewer as the journey proceeded, and were
+finally given up altogether.
+
+When the travellers entered the railroad town of Challapata, at the
+end of their ride from Potosí, on February 1, 1906, much sunburned
+in spite of masks, veils, and umbrellas, but as happy and optimistic
+as when they started from Oruro nearly two months before, they
+were enthusiastic in praise of the great country, its wonderful
+climate and abundant resources, and expressed their opinion that it
+offers extraordinary attractions to the tourist as well as to the
+matter-of-fact investor. The trip was not ended until a visit had
+been paid to the mines of Huanchaca, after which the diligence was
+again taken for the final journey from Oruro to La Paz, though it
+required three days this time, on account of the bad roads and the poor
+condition of the animals. The heights above La Paz were a welcome sight
+as they appeared early in the afternoon of the third day from Oruro,
+and at four o’clock the ladies alighted at the _carretera_ station
+of Challapampa. At a few minutes after five they presented their
+cards at the _ministerio_ of justice and instruction to fulfil
+the first obligation upon their return, that of thanking President
+Montes, through Señor Saracho, for the many courtesies received from
+government officials throughout Bolivia. An interview was accorded them
+immediately, during which Señor Saracho expressed great satisfaction
+over the happy termination of this long journey.
+
+All the fatigue, and the few unpleasant experiences of the
+thousand-mile trip through Bolivia and the twenty-four days’ ride in
+the saddle, were quickly forgotten in the cordial reception which
+was given the two ladies on their return to La Paz. Mr. Sorsby was
+complimentary in his praises of the courage and determination of his
+countrywomen, and his excellency the president, on whom they called to
+pay their respects before leaving this interesting country, said to
+them at parting: “In Bolivia we hear much of the remarkable energy and
+courage of the North American woman, and you have shown us a wonderful
+example of it.”
+
+  [Illustration: QUICHUA INDIAN GIRL OF POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: PROCESSION OF THE VIRGIN AT COPACABANA.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+        LAKE TITICACA AND ITS LEGENDS--THE SHRINE OF COPACABANA
+
+
+  [Illustration: THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA.]
+
+Whatever may be the true origin of the Children of the Sun, the legends
+of their sacred lake are purely Oriental in character, and might
+have come direct from the sources of Hindoo lore, so closely do they
+resemble the traditions of the East. The story of the mysterious birth
+and divine antecedents of the first Inca, Manco-Ccapac, suggests that
+of Vaivasouta, the Son of the Sun among the Hindoos; Manco-Ccapac’s
+sister-wife, Mama Ocllo, has also a counterpart in Oriental mythology.
+Out of the foam of the sea have risen Mongolian, Hindoo, Egyptian, and
+Greek gods and goddesses from remote antiquity, in the same mysterious
+way as Viracocha, and their first appearance has usually been on a
+sacred island. The ancient inhabitants of the Lake Titicaca region
+evolved little new in legendary story to account either for their
+ancestry or their religion, unless theirs is the original version. The
+lake is particularly fitted to be the cradle of myths and traditions,
+its situation high above the clouds seeming to set it apart for some
+peculiar destiny, as sacred mountains, lakes, and rivers have in all
+ages possessed a unique feature to mark them as divinely chosen.
+Popular lore has been well guided in placing here the site of the
+American Garden of Eden. In the strange stillness that reigns around,
+in the clear atmosphere and cloudless skies through which the Alpine
+glow of the encircling summits spreads with unrivalled splendor, in
+the varied beauty of its islands, promontories, and bays, and its broad
+expanse, sparkling in the sunlight, contemplation is enthralled and
+the imagination transported, even in this prosaic age, with visions
+of the supernatural, as, under the full light of day, Nature appears
+to make strange transformations, and the islands, floating calmly at
+one moment, at the next take on curious shapes and present mysterious
+illusions, under inexplicable lights and shadows. What more natural
+than that such phenomena should be magnified to the wondering gaze of
+the primitive inhabitants of this region!
+
+  [Illustration: SHRINE OF THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA, LAKE
+  TITICACA.]
+
+Lake Titicaca occupies a position on the South American continent about
+midway between the Isthmus of Panamá and Cape Horn, and in the midst
+of the _nudo_, or knot, which the Andes Mountains form where the
+coast range is separated from the Cordillera Real, or Royal Range, by
+the Lake Titicaca plateau. By air line it is about three hundred miles
+from the Pacific and two thousand miles from the Atlantic coast. It
+crosses the boundary between Peru and Bolivia, the limits of which have
+not yet been definitely settled by these countries. The altitude of
+the lake, which is the highest navigable body of water on the globe,
+is twelve thousand five hundred and fifty feet above sea level, and
+its area is more than five thousand square miles, measuring at its
+greatest length one hundred and thirty-five miles, and in average width
+sixty-six miles. The waters of the lake are four per cent warmer than
+the atmosphere, and never freeze, though the thermometer sometimes
+registers as low as thirty degrees Fahrenheit in the winter months, the
+proximity of the snow range contributing to increase the severity of
+this season. The water of the lake is brackish and disagreeable to the
+taste. Its depth varies from two hundred and fifty to one thousand five
+hundred feet, and there are places where it is unfathomable. Around
+the island of Titicaca--the famous Inti-Karka of the Inca legend--the
+depth is very great, though generally it ranges elsewhere between seven
+hundred and eight hundred feet.
+
+In addition to the sacred islands of Titicaca and Coati, better
+known as the Island of the Sun and the Island of the Moon, there are
+twenty-three of smaller area, of which Cumaná, about nine miles long,
+is noted for its excellent marble. On the Island of the Sun are still
+to be seen the ruins of the wonderful palace which was occupied by the
+Incas when they visited Collasuyo, and there are remains also of the
+celebrated Temple of the Sun and of the Vestal Virgins. This island
+is the largest in the lake, and is situated about midway between the
+Peruvian port of Puno and the Bolivian port of Guaqui, in the line of
+steamers passing over this route. It is six miles long and four wide,
+and is surrounded by seven small islands, forming what is known as the
+Titicaca archipelago. Coati, the Island of the Moon, lies a little to
+the east of Titicaca Island, and close to the peninsula of Copacabana.
+Its chief interest is found in the famous ruins of the Temple of the
+Moon, which are still in a remarkable state of preservation.
+
+  [Illustration: LANDING PLACE AT COPACABANA, LAKE TITICACA.]
+
+  [Illustration: CROSSES CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK, LAKE
+  TITICACA.]
+
+The crowning glory of Lake Titicaca is the snow range of the Andes,
+the highest peaks of which, reflected in its mirror-like surface, are
+not more than twenty-five miles away. They form a noble chain, from
+bold Sorata to Huayna Potosí and Illimani, the massive white pillars
+rising to a height of from twenty thousand to twenty-two thousand feet.
+Like the lake itself, these mountains have their legends, the Indians
+peopling them with good and bad spirits, about which marvellous tales
+are related. From their heights several rivers find their way to Lake
+Titicaca, unimportant as a rule, and of little volume, but serving as
+means of communication with the lake for many towns and cities of the
+Altaplanicie. The largest ports on the Bolivian side of the lake are
+Chililaya and Guaqui, the former having been the terminus of a coach
+road over which passengers were taken to La Paz upon their arrival from
+Peru, before the Guaqui and La Paz Railway was built. It is still a
+station of importance on the line from La Paz to Achacachi and Sorata,
+through a part of Bolivia which is celebrated for its marvellous
+scenery. Sorata is a famous health resort, and was once a rival of
+Potosí in opulence, through the enormous yield of its rich placer
+mines. In 1781 the town was destroyed by the army of Tupac-Amaru, and
+the gold fields were abandoned; but it has been rebuilt in a more
+modern style, and is to-day a flourishing little city. At the great
+elevation of twelve thousand five hundred feet there is very scant
+vegetation even in the tropics, little being seen except coarse Puna
+grass and short, thin shrubs. In every sheltered nook, however, flowers
+grow in abundance and are of brilliant colors, giving a warm tone to
+the grays and browns of the bleak Altaplanicie. In the flower market of
+La Paz exquisite blossoms of the richest hues are offered for sale, not
+only those gathered in the valley of Obrajes, but from the sheltered
+places of the high plateau, the prices being the cheapest in the world.
+A few beautiful birds, as the gulls and divers which cross the lake,
+and the flamingoes on its shores, give a little life to the silent
+scene, and fish of an agreeable flavor are caught in its waters. There
+is an old tradition of a wildcat inhabiting the Island of the Sun, and
+some authorities derive the name of the lake from _titi_, which
+means a “lynx,” and _karka_, a “rock,” but no animals of this
+species are seen on Titicaca now. Many of the islands are inhabited,
+and the extent to which the Indians have cultivated them is truly
+wonderful, their sloping hillsides being furrowed from the margin
+of the water to the highest summits, while the land all around the
+border of the lake is carefully tilled, producing harvests of barley
+and potatoes. The potato is a staple food of the plateau and all
+mountainous regions of Bolivia, and is prepared by a peculiar process,
+which consists of first freezing it, then pressing out every trace of
+moisture and freezing it again, until it is proof against cold and
+humidity. In this condition it is cooked and eaten, under the name of
+_chuño_, familiar to all travellers in these regions.
+
+  [Illustration: PENINSULA AND CITY OF COPACABANA, LAKE
+  TITICACA.]
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF INCA TEMPLE ON THE ISLAND OF THE SUN,
+  LAKE TITICACA.]
+
+Though Lake Titicaca receives many rivers, it has apparently only one
+outlet, that of the Desaguadero--“drainage”--River. The tradition which
+accounts for the existence of this river is particularly interesting,
+as it introduces into the history of this part of South America a
+personage famous in religious records as Saint Thomas, one of Christ’s
+apostles. The first scene of the story is laid in the town of Carabuco,
+on the eastern border of the lake, near Sorata, close to which is
+located a fountain called the Saint’s. It is related that, centuries
+ago, in a cave by the side of this fountain lived a wonderful man,
+tall, fair, and bearded, who spoke a language different from anything
+the tribes of this region had ever heard before, and who proclaimed
+a new religion, teaching the worship of one God, and preaching the
+virtue of self-sacrifice. With the stranger came six disciples, who
+were all tortured to death by the ferocious Carabucos. Not content
+with this demonstration of cruelty, the savages seized and beat the
+holy teacher himself, and, after tying his hands and feet, threw him
+into a _balsa_,--a boat made of reeds such as is still navigated
+on this lake by the Indians,--and turned it adrift on the water, to be
+upset by the winds and storms. As the little craft with its saintly
+burden floated out from the shore, suddenly there appeared on the lake
+a woman of marvellous beauty, dressed in magnificent robes and wearing
+a starry crown, who, as the canoe drifted toward her, entered it, and
+turned its course to the southeast, leaving an open track behind which
+still exists among the reeds along the margin, and a long, luminous
+wake on the surface of the water, which remained for many years, clear
+and resplendent as the rays of the sun. When the opposite bank was
+reached the ground opened to make a pathway for the _balsa_,
+forming a river, broad, tranquil, and many leagues in length, which is
+to-day called the Desaguadero. Thus the apostle mocked the persecution
+of the savages, and was able to continue his civilizing mission, until
+he finally suffered martyrdom in Copacabana. On the island of Titicaca
+is shown the mark of his footprints, and in Carabuco is still preserved
+the crucifix which he carried throughout his pilgrimages. The same
+legend, with variations, is related in every part of South America,
+and in all these countries the natives have traditions handed down to
+them by their forefathers, regarding the arrival, many centuries ago,
+of a wonderful man who preached an unknown religion. In the history
+of the Jesuits, whose missionaries travelled throughout these regions
+teaching and preaching Christianity, one of the priests gives an
+interesting account of the Charrúa Indians of Uruguay. He says that
+he found them possessing clear ideas of the Christian religion, which
+they had absorbed from the teachings of a man they called Paz Tumé, but
+who was really Saint Thomas, everything appearing to prove that the
+apostle was an evangelist in these countries. Another Jesuit missionary
+relates that, upon being received with great kindness by the Indians of
+Paraguay, he asked the reason, to which they replied that when Paz Tumé
+passed through their country, centuries before, he had said to their
+ancestors: “The doctrine which I preach to you, you will forget in
+time, but when after many years other priests come, carrying crucifixes
+such as the one I wear, your descendants will hear and believe this
+doctrine. They and their children and their children’s children will
+never forget it, for it will bring to them the assurance of eternal
+happiness and salvation.” And it was this tradition, handed down for
+generations, which, they explained, had obliged them to give a friendly
+welcome to the wearer of the crucifix.
+
+Since the supernatural opening of the Desaguadero River to make a
+passage for Saint Thomas and his divine rescuer, who, tradition
+says further, was the patron protectress of Copacabana, Our Lady of
+Candelaria, it has been a highway for many a craft directed by less
+sacred hands and bent on the more worldly mission of conducting war or
+commerce. It has been the scene of many a fierce battle between armies
+encamped on its borders, and during the dreadful encounters between the
+patriots of the Independence and the armies of Spain, a tide of blood
+many times marked the course first opened by the little _balsa_
+containing the rescued Saint Thomas under the direction of the Holy
+Virgin. It is to-day one of the most important waterways in Bolivia,
+not only _balsas_, but steamers plying between its ports. The
+scientific facts regarding its origin are not established, beyond the
+indication that it was formed by an unknown process, at a very remote
+period. It is one hundred and eighty miles in length from its source
+in Lake Titicaca southeastward to Lake Poopo, into which it empties a
+volume of six thousand cubic mètres of water per minute, having a fall
+of four hundred and seventy-five feet throughout its entire length. It
+is navigable for ships of five hundred tons as far south as Nazacara,
+thirty miles down the river, within a few miles of the copper mines of
+Corocoro, and considerable freight passes over this route to and from
+the great mining centre. Lake Poopo, which receives the Desaguadero
+River, is the second in size of Bolivian lakes, being sixty miles
+long and thirty miles wide. It has subterranean outlets, but on the
+surface not more than sixty cubic mètres are discharged per minute of
+the six thousand cubic mètres which it receives within that time. The
+Desaguadero is the most notable river of the Altaplanicie.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF MOUNT SORATA FROM LAKE TITICACA.]
+
+The peninsula of Copacabana, which lies within the disputed territory
+between Bolivia and Peru, is celebrated as the site of a shrine
+erected in honor of Our Lady of Candelaria. It is popularly called
+the shrine of the Virgin of Copacabana, and was at one time the
+most famous as well as the richest sanctuary in South America. It
+is related that soon after the conquest an Indian of the family of
+the Incas, called Yupanqui, a native of Copacabana, who had been
+converted to Christianity, felt such great reverence for the Virgin
+of Candelaria that he decided to make a sacred image to be devoted to
+her worship, with the idea also of founding a brotherhood. It was at a
+time when pious Catholics of South America were particularly zealous
+in their devotion to the Virgin of Candelaria, and everything seemed
+propitious for his purpose; but he was ignorant and unskilled, and it
+was necessary for him to spend years of consecrated effort in Potosí
+and La Paz in order to make an image, even of medium value, worthy to
+be venerated by the public. At last, however, the work was finished
+as described by a friar of the convent: “The bust of the image is
+of maguey, so compactly made as to appear like wood. It is gilded,
+with the exception of the hands and the face, and over the gilding
+curiously flowered and striped designs have been applied in rich colors
+to give the desired effect of an elaborate robe, a graceful tunic, and
+the customary headdress, over which is worn a magnificent crown. The
+crown of gold, and the great jewelled crescent which embellishes the
+robe, are the conspicuous emblems of her sovereignty and virginity.
+One hand, covered with rings, clasps the image of the infant Jesus,
+who also wears a gold crown. A collar of priceless pearls, earrings
+of diamonds, brooches of rare and costly gems, and rings of great
+value, are a few of the more striking adornments, a large fortune being
+represented in these jewels. The entire robe is studded with precious
+stones, and from the wrist of the hand which holds the image of the
+infant Jesus hangs a gold staff, the present of the Conde de Lemos,
+one of the viceroys of Peru. The altar of the Virgin is embowered in
+lilies, and candles burn constantly in the sacred shrine.” Marvellous
+are the miracles attributed to the Virgin of Copacabana, and ancient
+chronicles abound with records of her beneficence. During the colonial
+period the shrine was in charge of the order of Saint Augustine, but
+after the Independence it passed into the hands of the parochial
+priests, and later was committed to the supervision of the Franciscan
+fathers, being at the present time under the administration of the
+parish of Copacabana. The church is built in accordance with the
+colonial style of Spanish architecture, its white cupolas giving it the
+appearance of an imposing cathedral, as seen at a distance. It occupies
+a conspicuous situation on the peninsula of the same name, and is
+visited at all times of the year by devout pilgrims. In front of the
+church are three crosses, cut out of solid rock, which attract special
+attention.
+
+Steamers make regular calls at Copacabana, and it is worth the journey
+to spend a day in the little town, which is as quiet as its famous
+church, except when the annual _fiestas_ transform it into a scene
+of the wildest gayety. The population is almost entirely Indian, of
+Aymará origin, and the chief occupation of the people is tilling “a
+churlish soil.” Their stoic calm is proof against ordinary diversions;
+but when the great feast day of the Virgin is celebrated, they seem to
+make up for reticence and silence during the rest of the year. Dances,
+songs, and weird spectacles succeed one another in a chaos of mirth.
+At the beginning of the _fiesta_ the ceremonies are impressive,
+and there is something quaint and picturesque in the scene, as these
+primitive natives of the soil appear in their gorgeously colored
+_traje de fiesta_, or holiday costumes, and join in the sacred
+procession, singing in the Aymará tongue the sacred songs, to which
+they give the _triste_ note so characteristic of their own music,
+and so eloquent of their unhappy destiny. In the clear atmosphere the
+sound is carried far out over the lake, and echoes are repeated for
+miles around when the joyous exclamations of the pilgrims rend the
+air. As the _fiesta_ continues, the Indians and _cholos_
+become more and more excited and noisy, and their dances and songs
+take on many grotesque features. In their curious carnival dress
+and the ludicrous character which the celebration takes before its
+close, the influence of primitive beliefs and customs becomes more and
+more visible, until the conglomeration of Indian rites and Christian
+ceremonies presents a unique though picturesque effect. During recent
+years the _fiesta_ of Copacabana has lost some of its more
+marked characteristics, but it is still an interesting spectacle to
+travellers, as it has some features not seen in similar celebrations
+elsewhere in South America.
+
+  [Illustration: ABOVE THE SNOW LINE, MOUNT ILLIMANI.]
+
+  [Illustration: INCA PALACE, ISLAND OF THE SUN, LAKE TITICACA.]
+
+All around the border of Lake Titicaca, both on the Bolivian and on the
+Peruvian side, are towns celebrated for their handsome old churches
+and convents, which the Jesuits built in this region when they began
+their missionary work in Alto Peru at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century. Books still exist in the libraries of La Paz which were
+printed by them on their own printing press in 1612, and their grammars
+and dictionaries of the Indian languages of Spanish America, North and
+South, published here, are the earliest, and in many cases the most
+valuable, in existence. In some cases these Christian temples stand
+side by side with the ruins of Inca architecture, which abound not
+only on the islands of the lake, but along its borders. The sanctuary
+of Copacabana is said to occupy the site on which, centuries ago,
+Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui founded a city for the accommodation of pilgrims
+who came every year from all parts of the Inca’s empire to visit the
+Temple of the Sun and to pay homage to their great chief. The city
+must have presented a brilliant appearance when the noble vassals of
+the empire, representing forty-two different tribes, who acknowledged
+their spiritual and temporal lord in the person of the Inca, assembled
+with their retinues on the shore of the sacred lake. From the time
+of its foundation, this famous resort became a sacred city, enjoying
+special prerogatives by the Inca’s order. Handsome hotels, called
+_carpahuasi_, were built here, and immense storehouses were
+provided, which were always kept well stocked with food, so that
+the pilgrims should have no cause for preoccupation regarding their
+material comfort and well-being, but should be free to give all their
+time to spiritual meditation and devotion. From the peninsula to the
+Islands of the Sun and the Moon it was but a short distance, and the
+temples and palaces which adorned these sacred resorts could be plainly
+seen from the mainland. The story of the consecration of the temples
+of Lake Titicaca is romantic and fascinating, and lends an especial
+charm to the ruins which remain. It is related that the Inca came in
+person from Cuzco, attended by his nobles and vassals, to perform the
+ceremony, fasting a whole year from the use of meat and _aji_,
+and holding secret conferences with a spirit from the other world,
+who had been sent to him by his father the Sun. Many priests and more
+than a hundred virgins were consecrated to the service of the temple,
+and immense sums were levied in tribute on the vassals of the empire.
+Animals were sacrificed on the sacred rock of the Sun, and precious
+stones, gold, silver, and the fruits of the earth were afterward
+showered on the spot in adoration of the great deity. Finally, on the
+altar of the Sun was laid a huge gold disk, the image of the Sun, and
+on the altar of the Moon was placed the circular emblem of that sphere
+in silver. With these and minor ceremonies the islands were dedicated,
+one to the Sun, the other to the Moon, both of which were worshipped as
+progenitors of the divinely descended Incas.
+
+Lake Titicaca possesses a remarkable variety of claims to general
+interest, its natural scenery being only one of many charming
+attractions. Scientists find the study of its formation and the
+investigation of its wonderful ruins a fascinating subject. Travellers
+of romantic temperament are enchanted by its legends and traditions,
+apart from any historical significance they may possess or any
+relation they may bear to scientific facts. The more practical and
+matter-of-fact visitors to this wonderful spot see in it the glorious
+possibilities of modern development, and are no less delighted at the
+unlimited prospect it presents as a great entrepôt for the distribution
+of traffic throughout a vast territory hitherto closed to outside
+communication. To everyone it presents an aspect different from any
+other lake in the world. Its situation is unique, the towns on its
+borders are not like lake villages elsewhere, its people are distinct
+in character and feature even from their neighbors a few leagues
+distant, and its native boats, the curious-looking _balsas_, are
+not quite like those of other waters. They are made of reeds or rushes,
+called _totora_, found growing near the banks, which are first
+woven into watertight rolls and then bound together with an extra roll
+at the top to serve as a protection. They have broad, flat sails, also
+of reeds, and are pushed through the water by means of a long pole.
+They formerly carried a great deal of freight between the lake ports,
+but since the inauguration of the present steamship line they are used
+only by the Indians. It is entertaining to look at them as they float
+idly on the water, with their miscellaneous cargoes of _chuños_,
+llamas, and Indians, or scud before a sharp breeze with astonishing
+rapidity. They are managed with great dexterity; and as the Indian is
+a good weather prophet, he is seldom wrecked, though the storms on the
+lake are at times very destructive. Professor A. F. Bandelier, of the
+Hispanic Society of America, New York, spent several months on the
+islands of Lake Titicaca studying their archæology, and he gives a very
+interesting description of the natural phenomena of the lake: “During
+winter the sky is mostly of an intense blue, the air chilling, while
+the sun’s rays scorch and burn the face and hands. Still, thunderstorms
+occur every month, and snowfalls are not uncommon. In summer a lowering
+sky often covers the mountain ranges, thunderstorms are of almost daily
+occurrence, thunderbolts very frequent, and waterspouts not rare. We
+saw two together, in the middle of the lake, and reliable informers
+state that as many as five have been observed at the same time. During
+tempestuous nights St. Elmo’s fire gleams on the steamers’ masts. And
+yet, rare is the evening when, for a few hours at least, the Bolivian
+cordillera does not shine out, even if thin vapor rises before it
+from the deep gorges at its foot, and seldom is the whole chain, from
+the Carabaya range in the north to Illimani in the south, completely
+shrouded. In August when winter is at its height and the skies are
+cloudless, the Bolivian Andes display an Alpine glow of unrivalled
+splendor.”
+
+Whatever secrets the islands and rivers of Lake Titicaca conceal in
+their mysterious past, science will no doubt bring them to light
+some day, when the spirit of modern progress directs the study of
+their origin and history with more interest than at present. It seems
+incredible that in this advanced age there should exist a region so
+rich in scientific problems and so generally unknown to scholars. The
+few who have visited its shores and studied on its islands have found
+material for wide speculation, and have expressed very conflicting
+theories concerning its antiquity. But all have agreed as to the many
+attractions offered by this picturesque lake to the traveller, whether
+tourist or scientist; and as the South American route grows more
+popular, Swiss lakes and Scottish highlands will be neglected for the
+more marvellous charms of Lake Titicaca.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIAN PADDLING HIS “BALSA” ON LAKE
+  TITICACA.]
+
+  [Illustration: EXCAVATION IN PROGRESS, SHOWING CARVINGS,
+  TIAHUANACO.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+
+         TIAHUANACO--COLOSSAL REMAINS OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
+
+    “When the Memnonium was in all its glory,
+    And time had not begun to overthrow
+    Those palaces and piles stupendous,
+    Of which the very ruins are tremendous!”
+
+
+The traveller’s famous soliloquy in the presence of the mummy of Thebes
+comes to mind as one contemplates the giant walls and huge monoliths of
+Tiahuanaco, which, so far as science has been able to discover, was in
+the height of its splendor when Baalbec and Luxor were new, and before
+King Solomon had built his wonderful temple.
+
+  [Illustration: A VASE FOUND AT TIAHUANACO, OF EXQUISITE
+  COLORS.]
+
+Who were the architects and builders of these palaces and temples?
+And whence came the colossal blocks of granite to construct them in
+the midst of what is now a level plateau? One looks helplessly at the
+hieroglyphics, to which no key has yet been found, and is informed
+only that scientists have discovered in these picture writings the
+popular worship of a great deity, Viracocha, who was the god of the
+ancient builders. As represented in the carvings on the temple doorway,
+Viracocha holds in each hand a sceptre,--or, is it a key, symbolic
+of his possessing the innermost treasures of the secret chambers of
+wisdom? Viracocha, according to the traditions that prevail among the
+Aymará inhabitants of this region, was not a war god, but a wise and
+beneficent deity who, rising out of waters of Lake Titicaca, created
+the sun, the moon, and the stars, plants, animals, and men, and who
+made his omnipotence felt throughout the world by performing deeds
+of great wisdom. The two sceptres differ in form and appearance. Some
+authorities believe that they symbolize the double sovereignty of
+Viracocha over the religious and political destinies of the people. The
+half-kneeling figures which surround him have the attitude of rulers
+rendering homage to their greater chief, not in abject obeisance, but
+with head erect, bending only one knee, and holding a sceptre. Perhaps
+they represent the kingdoms of the earth, or political sovereignty,
+inferior only to the Omnipotence that rules both heaven and earth. In
+the opinion of many students, the carving on the great doorway is to
+be interpreted as picturing the adoration of the god Viracocha by his
+angels, an idea that would give their sceptres a religious rather than
+a political significance. In any case, the hieroglyphics show nothing
+suggestive of war, so notable a feature of Egyptian carvings.
+
+It seems incredible that a people who were sufficiently advanced in
+culture to build such stupendous works of architecture as those of
+Tiahuanaco, and to whom the art of picture writing was known, should
+have left no trace of their existence in the historical records of
+antiquity. The legends of a “lost Atlantis” and a “lost Lemuria” may
+yet be accounted for by the complete change which has apparently been
+wrought on the American continent, at some period, through a cataclysm
+which left only a few vestiges of anterior civilization in this part
+of the world. Whether the destructive action originated in the Pacific
+Ocean, from the same centre of disturbance as that which at some time
+in geologic history upheaved the Andes in America and built the chain
+of volcanoes that extends all the way from New Zealand to Kamchatka in
+the Orient, or whether the change was wrought on the Atlantic side, the
+proofs seem equally well established that closer communication once
+existed between America and the Eastern Hemisphere. The liability of
+the earth to volcanic and seismic disturbances, at least within the
+records of modern times, has been more pronounced in the Pacific Ocean
+than in the Atlantic; and the ancient ruins in the scattered islands of
+the Pacific, their great monoliths and curious hieroglyphics, appear to
+afford more evidences of such a change than anything so far discovered
+in the Atlantic. According to the best scientific authorities, the
+origin of these monuments may be even more remote than those of Egypt,
+since nothing exists to prove their exact antiquity. Archæologists may
+yet find proofs that the earliest civilization on the globe had its
+chief centre in America, and that its people were the ancestors, not
+the descendants, of Asiatic races.
+
+The origin of the word Tiahuanaco is a disputed question, as is
+everything else which relates to this locality. Garcilaso de la Vega
+derives it from two Quichua words, _tiay, huanaco_, meaning “sit
+down, huanaco,” and says it originated in an exclamation of the Inca
+Maita-Ccapac to his fleet-footed messenger. It is more reasonable to
+suppose that the name is Aymará, from _tia_, meaning “border”
+or “bank,” and _huañaco_, meaning “dried,” equivalent to “dried
+bank.” Many other interpretations are given. Archbishop Taborga, in a
+scholarly study of the word, derives it neither from the Quichua nor
+the Aymará, but from the language of the Mayas of Yucatan, according
+to which it would mean “the country above the waters of the omnipotent
+God.” One authority says an analysis of the word proves the repetition
+ten times of the word “water.” According to Dr. Escobari, a learned
+philologist who has made a special study of the Aymará language, the
+word is composed of three words, _thia-wana-haka_, which mean “the
+man of the dry coast.” Another derivation is secured by the elision
+of the first syllable of _inti_, meaning “sun,” which results in
+_Ti-wuan-hake_, “the city of the Children of the Sun.” A Bolivian
+linguist, Dr. Emeterio Vilamil, believes the word comes from _Ti_,
+which is a variation of _Tien_ of China, _Teotl_ of Mexico,
+and _Theos_ of the Greeks, with the following syllables making
+_Ti-wan-aca_, “this is of God.” The best authorities say the name
+was suggested by some great deluge.
+
+In the many legends and traditions attributed to the people who built
+Tiahuanaco the predominating feature is the account of a great flood;
+and a German astronomer who visited these interesting ruins some years
+ago believes Viracocha to be a god of the deluge. He says of the
+hieroglyphics which adorn the façade of the temple: “In these figures
+it is necessary to distinguish two things, the allegory itself and the
+other drawings, which at first sight appear to be merely symmetrical
+adornments. The allegory represents the figure of a man or god, who
+holds in each hand a symbol that expresses the uniting of the attribute
+of lightning with the downpour of rain. From his eyes fall teardrops,
+but in combination with the sign of lightning. His head is encircled
+in rays, which are not rays of light, but signs of lightning and rain
+being discharged simultaneously. All the adornments of his clothing
+show the symbol of water; and even the head is not round, but has the
+shape of a letter or character which signifies ‘water.’ In the middle
+of the figure and on the head is clearly shown the drawing of a ship,
+which is again seen in the centre of the hieroglyphic under the feet.
+This figure does not merely speak, but cries out with a clear voice,
+comprehensible to all the world, that it is not an insignificant matter
+that is here treated, something of indifferent importance for history,
+but that it is an effort to narrate to posterity a great fact worthy
+of remembrance, a marvellous phenomenon of nature, the phenomenon of
+extraordinary rains with thunder and lightning, and of a catastrophe
+which occurred not only in this region but throughout the world.”
+
+It must be confessed that it requires a great stretch of the
+imagination to trace in the figure carved over the doorway of the
+ancient temple in Tiahuanaco the symbols of rain and lightning referred
+to, or even the drawings of ships; furthermore, the winged rulers
+kneeling before their greater sovereign do not seem to bear out the
+diluvial idea. But the study of this enigma affords wide latitude
+for original speculation, and the last word has not yet been said.
+Archæologists who have made even a few excavations find that the ground
+within a radius of more than three square miles shows evidences of a
+buried population; and to a depth of from five to fifteen feet buried
+walls, adorned by images in relief, have been unearthed, while the
+soil seems to be full of bones, human and animal, as far down as the
+excavations have been made.
+
+If it was merely a local deluge that inspired the traditions of the
+ancient inhabitants, such as the flooding of the basin which lies
+between the two ranges of the Andes, now known as the Altaplanicie,
+the older civilization must have existed prior to that event, and the
+later one after the waters had begun to recede, or else Tiahuanaco may
+have been on a peninsula of the lake submerged for a time. According to
+some authorities this is the explanation of the two or three distinct
+periods of culture found in its ruins. Little has been done so far
+toward finding out the secrets of this wonderful place. The Bolivian
+government has prohibited promiscuous excavations, preferring that the
+work shall be done systematically on a practical basis by experienced
+archæologists. Formerly Tiahuanaco was everybody’s property, and
+mammoth rocks, once hewn to build a temple to the ancient deity, were
+applied to the unromantic needs of a country courthouse. It was no
+unusual sight to observe a shepherd herding his flock in a corral made
+of the stones of the ancient palace, and on the road to La Paz there
+still stands a colossal idol, of frightful mien, which serves to mark
+the distance in leagues from that spot to the city. This figure was to
+have been taken to the museum, but for some reason the transportation
+was interrupted. It will no doubt be placed there soon, as that
+institution is being fitted up with a most valuable historical and
+scientific collection.
+
+  [Illustration: MONOLITH SHOWING HIEROGLYPHICS, TIAHUANACO.]
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF THE DOORWAY OF THE TEMPLE,
+  TIAHUANACO.]
+
+The traveller in Bolivia finds a visit to Tiahuanaco both instructive
+and entertaining. The trains which run daily between La Paz and
+Guaqui stop so close to the famous ruins that one of the ancient
+rocks stands directly in the way as the passenger alights from the
+car. It is a great square slab, apparently intended to be used in the
+construction of one of the unfinished temples or palaces, or as a
+sacrificial stone, but was left in this spot, as similar huge rocks
+were, either abandoned because of some great calamity, or forgotten
+during the sudden onslaught of an enemy who drove the workmen from the
+scene, never to return. Indeed, much of the architecture of Tiahuanaco
+represents unfinished temples and palaces. The most conspicuous rock
+is that of the Puerta del Sol, as the great doorway of the temple is
+called, meaning “door of the sun,” its hieroglyphics being especially
+interesting. It measures ten feet in height, thirteen feet in width,
+and nearly two feet in thickness, and its weight is about ten tons.
+The carving of the design on its face is only partly finished, showing
+a space where the artist had made merely the outlines of the design,
+and at which he was evidently working when the place was suddenly
+abandoned. Colossal blocks of stone lie scattered about, some of which
+are estimated as weighing not less than a thousand tons. The rock used
+for the foundations of the palace Tunca Punco, for the obelisks, and
+for the largest of the columns of this great structure, is porphyry of
+fine grain, of red-brown color, with small white spots, and of parallel
+structure. Quartz porphyry is by no means rare in this neighborhood. It
+is the opinion of the best authorities that these rocks were brought
+from a hill five miles away by the same system of inclined planes as
+that used by the Egyptians in transporting heavy stones for their
+pyramids and temples. The process of dividing these huge masses of rock
+is supposed to have been by the expansive action of water on wooden
+wedges. Señor Don Arturo Posnansky, of the Geographic Society of La
+Paz, who has made the Tiahuanaco stones a special study for several
+years, and whose splendid photographs of this interesting place are
+reproduced in this chapter, finds that many of the monoliths of Puma
+Punco, the locality in which stands the carved doorway of the temple,
+are made of volcanic lava. He gives an entertaining explanation of
+their origin and the process of formation: “The material was probably
+brought from the Cerro de Japia, an extinct volcano situated on
+the Isthmus of Yunguyo, where the peninsula of Copacabana joins the
+mainland, about fifty miles distant from Tiahuanaco. The founders of
+the ancient city made use of the liquid lava of this volcano, which
+was at that time in eruption, bringing it, by means of canals, to the
+foot of the mountain, where it flowed into earthen moulds, a primitive
+method employed to-day in the moulding of liquid iron. In Tiahuanaco
+are found moulds which indicate that they were used for casting the
+idols, their outlines having the same appearance as those which are now
+used in casting iron.”
+
+There is something intensely interesting in the aspect of these
+colossal ruins, from whatever standpoint they are viewed. Speculation
+as to the probable uses for which this or that block was intended has
+resulted in the popular naming of each of these huge pieces. “The
+Inca’s writing desk” is the name given to a cyclopean cube, which is
+carved as if for the purpose of holding writing materials, and other
+accessories of the writing table. There is also “the Inca’s bath,” the
+table of the officiating authority in the Palace of Justice, the grand
+stairway to the throne room of the great palace, and a number of other
+furnishings, any of which would be worthy of adorning the colossal
+ancient palaces of Egypt, from their size and the finished style of
+their architecture. So wonderful is the perfection of these stones, the
+apparently carefully chiselled outlines, the exquisite carvings, the
+well polished surfaces, that the best sculptor of our day, making use
+of the finest steel chisels and other instruments, could not improve
+upon the work. It is, of course, only by popular use that the name of
+the Inca has been associated with these remains, as it is known that
+the Incas who first visited Collasuyo found these monumental ruins in
+the same condition as they are at present.
+
+  [Illustration: ARCHED GATEWAYS OF TIAHUANACO.]
+
+The general view of Tiahuanaco shows that one of its most conspicuous
+features is an artificial hill, which is built on a base made of huge
+rocks cut and squared, and which rises to a height of fifty feet,
+being about six hundred and twenty feet in length and four hundred
+and fifty feet in width. It is built in three terraces, superposed
+concentrically. This hill, or _cerro_, stands between the colossal
+sculptures of Tunca Punco on one side and the massive, carved doorway,
+and neighboring idols of Puma Punco. The purpose of the _cerro_
+is not known, though it is believed by some authorities to have been
+built as an inclined plane to be used in hoisting the huge rocks into
+place on the walls of the palace, having lost its original form in
+consequence of the many changes that succeeding ages have wrought.
+Others think it may be a burial place of the ancient kings.
+
+  [Illustration: PORTAL OF A CHURCH, TIAHUANACO.]
+
+  [Illustration: CYCLOPEAN STONES OF TUNCA PUNCO, TIAHUANACO.]
+
+Over the entire area are to be seen the beginnings of various
+structures, and at the base of the great carved doorway of the temple
+recent excavations have been made which add another element of mystery
+to this archæological problem of the West. The huge idols, of which
+there are several, made in human form and measuring from ten to fifteen
+feet in height in standing posture, occupy a prominent place in the
+ruins. They are curious-looking figures, more primitively fashioned
+than the ancient Egyptian idols, and bearing some resemblance to the
+monuments of Easter Island, in the South Pacific, the shape of the
+head and character of the features suggesting those crude relics of
+antiquity. But the Tiahuanaco figures are better carved than the
+Easter Island idols, and show many hieroglyphics on the arms and on
+the cincture around the body. Curiosity makes the study of these
+enigmatical signs a fascinating pastime, and any day a group may be
+seen making an effort at the interpretation of this wonderful language.
+It does not seem reasonable to suppose that they mean nothing more
+than adornment, since primitive people of all races have attached the
+greatest importance to the written sign, and rarely carved anything on
+the rocks which was not intended to serve the purpose of chronology.
+The preservation of records is such a marked tendency among all
+human beings that the least cultured savage can tell something about
+the achievements of his ancestors. What more natural than that the
+hieroglyphics on these idols should have been carved there to relate
+deeds of valor or of wisdom performed by the great personages in
+whose honor they were set up? In front of the doorway of the church
+in the plaza of Tiahuanaco two idols in sitting posture at once
+attract attention, seeming to symbolize the harmony between the old
+religion and the new, and testifying, with silent eloquence, to the
+universal character of the Christian faith, in which all beliefs are
+spiritualized and given a more lofty significance. No doubt, these
+chiselled figures were originally designed to adorn the altar of the
+ancient pagan temple, and perhaps they were to have had a place near
+the throne of the great Viracocha. The idols standing in the square
+beyond the temple doorway were probably also intended to occupy
+important niches in the palace or the temple.
+
+  [Illustration: ANCIENT DOORWAY, CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK,
+  TIAHUANACO.]
+
+The builders of Tiahuanaco have left the usual signs of their culture
+in pottery, woven cloths, metal implements, and similar articles.
+The visitor to Tiahuanaco to-day is pressed by a little barefooted
+Indian of the Aymarás to buy a _huaca_ as a souvenir; and in the
+midst of the most sentimental reverie, during which the imagination
+may be travelling into realms of the past with a free rein, stimulated
+by the inspiration of these colossal relics, it is not unusual to be
+interrupted with: _Señora, cincuenta centavos no más para una huaca
+rica y fina!_--“Only fifty cents, madam, for a _huaca_!” As
+very few of these Indians speak Spanish, the bargaining is usually
+done through an interpreter. But it is far more interesting to find
+one’s own _huacas_. All relics, whether of pottery, metal, or
+whatever character, are called _huacas_, and it is a term so
+generally used that it is applied to mummies and burial mounds, as
+well as to the articles manufactured by these ancient people. Some of
+the _huacas_ are very curiously wrought, and indicate advanced
+culture in the race by whom they were made. Exquisite vases of a very
+durable pottery have been found in these ruins, showing that the art of
+coloring was possessed to a remarkable extent, the process of which has
+been lost. The use of copper was known, and many of the implements were
+made of this metal.
+
+  [Illustration: STONE HEADS EXCAVATED AMONG THE RUINS OF
+  TIAHUANACO.]
+
+But the predominating question, in the presence of the monuments,
+idols, and other emblems of ancient culture at Tiahuanaco, is: Why
+did these builders choose such a site for their colossal edifices?
+As a fortress it could have served little purpose against invaders,
+from its singularly isolated situation, unless the conditions were
+then totally different from what they are now. Apparently, the
+palace was not being built in the centre of any great population,
+and the temple could hardly be filled with worshippers in a region
+so unfavorable, on account of soil and climate, to the development
+of a rich and prosperous empire. There is something indicative of
+Oriental worshippers in this choice of a spot removed from the
+centres of political activity for the erection of palaces and temples
+for religious purposes. Was it a holy city, like Mecca or Benares?
+Speculation fails to explain satisfactorily the existence of these
+remarkable ruins, and it is devoutly to be hoped that science will
+seriously investigate the problem. A North American lady, Mrs. Phœbe
+Hearst, has earned the gratitude of all students of archæology by
+devoting a share of her large fortune to this purpose, and three
+expeditions have been equipped and sent out to South America through
+her generosity. They were placed under the direction of Professor
+Max Uhle, a noted archæologist, who is still engaged in the work
+of studying and classifying the antiquities of Bolivia and Peru.
+A fine collection, secured during the first expedition, adorns
+the archæological department of the Museum of Art and Science in
+Philadelphia. From the second expedition a valuable collection has
+been made for the museum of the University of California. The third
+expedition has not yet completed the work undertaken, but there is
+every reason to believe that the results will prove of the greatest
+importance to science. The most important museums of the world possess
+collections from the ruins of Lake Titicaca and Tiahuanaco, but it
+is doubtful whether any other monument of antiquity presents to the
+modern world a more difficult enigma than Tiahuanaco, the Sphinx of the
+Occident.
+
+  [Illustration: IDOL OF UNKNOWN ANTIQUITY, TIAHUANACO.]
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF AN UNFINISHED STAIRWAY, TIAHUANACO.]
+
+  [Illustration: HARVESTING COCA IN THE YUNGAS.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+                   THE FERTILE REGION OF THE YUNGAS
+
+
+  [Illustration: STREET SCENE IN THE YUNGAS.]
+
+The famous Yungas of La Paz is the paradise of northern Bolivia.
+Nowhere does Nature smile with more bewitching candor than in these
+valleys of magnificent verdure, through which rippling streams, and
+sometimes raging torrents, carry a crystal tide down from the snow
+mountains of the Royal Range to the tropical forests and plains of
+the Amazon, bathing a region rich in the choicest gifts of a lavish
+Providence. Nature’s most patrician whims find delicate expression in
+the whiff of perfume which is carried on the breeze from a thousand
+dainty blossoms, and in the music trilled by a host of pretty song
+birds from the recesses of her wooded dells. The name _yungas_ is
+given to the deep valleys which lie at the foot of the snow-covered
+range, in the tropical region where the temperature never falls below
+sixty degrees and often rises above one hundred degrees Fahrenheit.
+The Yungas provinces of La Paz cover a territory extending northward
+from the city of La Paz to Puerto Pando, at the head of navigation on
+the Beni tributary of the Madeira, which is the chief affluent of the
+Amazon. They are rich in production, as well as enchanting in scenery,
+and the visitor to Bolivia who fails to see the famous Yungas, misses
+one of the most enjoyable features of a trip to this wonderful country.
+The naturalist D’Orbigny was enthusiastic in his praises of its
+marvellous attractions, and, in a glowing description of its charms, he
+says: “If tradition has lost the records of the place where paradise
+was situated, the traveller who visits these regions of Bolivia feels
+at once the impulse to exclaim: ‘Here is the lost Eden!’”
+
+  [Illustration: COROICO, CAPITAL OF NORTH YUNGAS.]
+
+The eastern slope of the great range presents a totally different
+aspect from that of the Pacific side. As seen from the west, the
+landscape is grand and imposing, where the summits tower above the
+surrounding heights, but the lower levels show no such magnificence
+of foliage and varied beauty as the rich valleys of the Yungas on the
+eastern slopes. One of the greatest surprises which the natural scenery
+of Bolivia presents is experienced, when, after riding over the bare
+plateau until the range is reached, the prospect suddenly reveals a
+scene of tropical splendor, and out of the snows one enters immediately
+a valley of perpetual summer. The rapid scenic transformation is
+dazzling for a moment, as the sight dwells on the new panorama. In four
+or five hours’ riding it is possible to pass from the glaciers and
+the condor’s nest to sunny canefields and humming birds’ haunts, and
+almost before the sensation of the stinging blast and the cold snows
+has passed, one feels the midsummer heat and perfumed zephyrs of the
+tropics. From icicles to orange groves in an afternoon’s _paseo_!
+The province of South Yungas lies between the rivers La Paz and
+Tamampaya, which join to form the Bopi River, a tributary of the Beni;
+North Yungas province lies between the Bopi and Coroico Rivers, which
+have their confluence at Puerto Pando. Both provinces are situated in a
+rich productive belt, where coffee, cacao, coca, rice, sugar, quinine,
+and all tropical fruits and hardwoods in abundance are obtained. The
+celebrated coffee of the Yungas is considered by many connoisseurs
+superior in quality to Mocha, and at one time this important product
+was in such great demand in the European market that it sold for fifty
+bolivianos per hundred pounds. The cultivation of coffee has been
+somewhat neglected in recent years, the difficulties of transportation
+having made it impossible for Bolivian producers to meet increasing
+competition among other coffee-raising countries. But the plantations
+of Chulumani, the capital of South Yungas, and of Coroico, the chief
+city of North Yungas, are still in a flourishing condition.
+
+Chulumani, a town of five thousand inhabitants, occupies a singularly
+picturesque site on a tributary of the La Paz River, at an altitude of
+about six thousand feet above sea level. Not only is it the centre of a
+rich coffee district, but on the surrounding plantations are cultivated
+cacao and sugar cane, the neighboring districts produce quinine, coca,
+and vanilla, and rich cabinet woods are found here in abundance. Gold
+is taken from the river in considerable quantities, by the method of
+placer mining which is generally followed in all Bolivian gold fields.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF COROICO, NORTH YUNGAS.]
+
+No product is more highly prized by the Indian than the coca. He chews
+the leaves as people of other countries chew tobacco, and there is
+seldom a moment when he does not have a roll of the precious stimulant
+in his mouth. He will go days without food and perform marvellous
+feats of endurance, often running fifty miles or more during a day,
+provided he has his little pouch of coca leaves, which he sometimes
+hangs at his belt, and at other times carries in the crown of his cap.
+His staple food is parched Indian corn, and with his corn and his coca
+the Indian is contented. As coca is the plant from which cocaine is
+manufactured, it is needless to explain that the Indian uses the leaves
+as a stimulant. So constantly does he resort to its use, that without
+this artificial aid, he is not able to work nearly so well, but grows
+apathetic and dull over his tasks. When the coca habit is indulged
+to excess the effect is very injurious. It is an evil which stands
+greatly in the way of the Indian’s mental and moral development, but
+so fixed is the practice that there is little prospect of its being
+abandoned. The coca plant grows abundantly in the tropical regions
+of Bolivia and Peru, attaining a height of from two to eight feet,
+according to the locality. Its leaves resemble bay leaves. It grows
+best at an altitude of from two thousand to five thousand feet above
+sea level and produces three crops annually. Three-fourths of the coca
+grown in Bolivia is cultivated in the Yungas of La Paz, the remainder
+coming from neighboring provinces and from the Yungas, popularly
+called the Yuracarés, of Cochabamba. The total production of all the
+_cocales_, or coca plantations, in Bolivia is about eight million
+pounds annually, amounting in value to three and one-half million
+bolivianos. For the privilege of gathering the coca the Bolivian
+government collects a tax of two hundred and fifty thousand bolivianos
+annually. A duty of two bolivianos per hundred pounds is paid in La Paz
+on exportation. Indians are employed to gather the coca and to carry it
+to the nearest station for shipment, and it is not unusual to see these
+human freight carriers, loaded so heavily that only their legs are
+visible under the huge bundles of coca, slowly making their way through
+the forests. The _cocales_ of Chulumani, Irupana, Chupe, Chirca,
+and other towns of South Yungas will be within convenient shipping
+distance from the proposed railway now under construction from La Paz
+to Puerto Pando. Two routes for this railway have been surveyed, one
+of which goes through Obrajes and past the flourishing town of Palca,
+entering the Yungas where the La Paz River flows through an opening in
+the Andes range, and following the margin of that river and the Bopi
+to its northern terminus. The other route crosses the range and enters
+North Yungas at Unduavi, passing through Coroico, Unduavi, Coripata,
+and other North Yungas towns.
+
+  [Illustration: CHULUMANI, CAPITAL OF SOUTH YUNGAS.]
+
+Coroico, the capital of North Yungas, is a prosperous little city of
+five thousand inhabitants. It is beautifully located on the river
+of the same name, at an altitude of seven thousand feet, and is the
+centre of a rich agricultural region. Flourishing fields of corn,
+rice, and sugar cane are numerous in the vicinity, the corn growing
+on the uplands, while the sugar cane and rice are cultivated close
+to the river bank. Quinine, or _cascarilla_, is exported in
+large quantities from North Yungas, where the cinchona tree grows
+in abundance. The bark from which the quinine is extracted is thick
+and reddish in appearance, and is shipped in small pieces just as it
+comes from the tree. It is found in several departments of Bolivia,
+on the eastern slopes of the Andes, where vast regions contain
+_bosques_, or woods, of cinchona trees which remain untouched for
+lack of facilities to transport the precious product to the shipping
+centres. The quinine of Challana, a town in the neighboring province
+of Larecaja, is the best in quality, a hundred pounds of bark yielding
+forty-eight ounces of sulphate. The great rubber-producing region of
+Bolivia extends as far south as North Yungas and Larecaja, in the
+department of La Paz, a considerable amount of rubber being shipped
+from Coroico, Songo, Challana, Mapiri, and Huanay through Puerto Perez
+on Lake Titicaca to Puno and thence to Mollendo.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIAN COCA GATHERERS IN THE YUNGAS.]
+
+There are few products of any zone which are not to be found in the
+Yungas of La Paz. It is the rich storehouse from which La Paz is
+supplied daily with the necessities and luxuries of the table, and
+there are no better cereals, vegetables, and fruits than those grown
+in these fertile valleys. Yet the vast resources of this region are
+still comparatively unknown, and many of its valuable products are
+neglected, which, if cultivated, would prove an important source of
+revenue. An effort is being made by those particularly interested in
+this part of Bolivia to promote the cultivation of its natural products
+on a larger scale than formerly, and a thorough study is being made of
+its flora with this end in view.
+
+  [Illustration: A CALLAPO, OR RAFT, ON THE RIVER LOAYZA,
+  REGION OF THE YUNGAS.]
+
+The attention of agriculturists has recently been called to a very
+nutritious plant, which is supposed to be indigenous to the Yungas, and
+which the Indians call _jamacch’ppeke_, an Aymará word meaning
+“bird’s head,” which was given because the bulbous roots resemble the
+head and beak of a bird. The natives eat it as a delicacy, and it is
+used as an article of food on many of the plantations of the Yungas,
+its starchy properties making it a substitute for milk when boiled
+with sugar and water. It is said to be extremely efficacious as a food
+for invalids, and in the orphan hospitals of the Yungas it is used in
+feeding even the youngest babies. This product is prepared by first
+crushing the bulbs on flat stones, then washing and drying them in
+the sun, a process by which all the water is drawn out and the starch
+remains. It is said that eighty per cent of this remarkable tubercle is
+starch. A Bolivian writer on the subject says: “The starchy quality of
+this bulb is unknown to botanists, and up to the present time it has
+not been well described or classified. Not the slightest information
+regarding it is to be found in any book on South American flora, or in
+the works of the great botanists of the world. The _jamacch’ppeke_
+is a herbaceous plant which seldom grows beyond four feet in height. It
+lives in the shade of trees and bushes, and on the plantations where
+it is cultivated in the Yungas it is usually grown between rows of
+trees in the _cocales_ and _cafetales_. It has a beautiful
+flower of bright yellow color, and of the form peculiar to orchidic
+plants. Its fruit is a membranous capsule, the tiny seeds of which are
+preserved and planted to produce a new crop of _jamacch’ppeke_.
+Nothing more clearly proves the neglect which this wonderful plant has
+suffered at the hands of the Yungas agriculturists than the fact that
+they have not renamed it.” The Bolivian writer referred to suggests
+“Orchis,” as it appears to bear a close resemblance to the _Orchis
+Morio_ of Linnæus.
+
+  [Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER LOAYZA, IN THE YUNGAS.]
+
+  [Illustration: PALCA, ON THE ROUTE TO THE YUNGAS.]
+
+The medicinal plants of the Yungas and other provinces of the
+department of La Paz have been classified and their uses specified.
+From the list published by Señor Don Belisario Diaz Romero, of the
+Geographic Society of La Paz, it is seen that out of one hundred
+and twenty-two medicinal plants the majority may be found in the
+provinces of North and South Yungas. The classification was originally
+made by Dr. Nicanor Iturralde, and includes the pharmacopœia of the
+_callaguayas_, or Aymará Indian doctors of these regions. The
+greatest difficulty was experienced in securing the list, as the Indian
+doctors carefully guard the secrets of their cures, and their people
+will never reveal anything which might come to their knowledge by
+accident regarding the mysterious plants used by their medicine chiefs.
+The Aymará doctors have learned the curative properties of many more
+plants than those in the classified list; and though their system of
+cures is not always to be recommended, every traveller who has been in
+the interior knows that they have many excellent remedies.
+
+  [Illustration: CUTTING SUGAR CANE IN THE YUNGAS.]
+
+Vegetation of every description grows in riotous abundance in the
+fertile valleys of the Yungas, where the upper tributaries of the great
+Amazon River are fed from a thousand streams that find their way down
+the innumerable crevices of the Andean range. They form a network of
+waterways for the _callapos_, or rafts, used to transport cargo
+in this region, and they serve to fertilize the entire country so
+completely that every foot of ground may be utilized for agriculture.
+Here the Beni River receives its chief tributary, the Bopi, which rises
+in the Cordillera Real, fifteen miles north of the city of La Paz,
+flows southward through the city, and waters the valleys of Sopocachi
+and Obrajes, under the name of the La Paz or Chuquiapu River. A few
+leagues southeast of La Paz the river receives an affluent which enters
+it from the north near the town of Palca, and at the point where it
+crosses the Royal Range through a deep cut south of Mount Illimani,
+an important stream, the Caracato, joins it, in the province of
+Loayza. From this point the river turns northward and is reinforced
+by several tributaries, among others the Tamampaya, Miguilla, and
+others with their many small affluents, such as the Loayza and similar
+picturesque waterways. Though South Yungas is watered chiefly by the
+Bopi, the valleys of North Yungas depend for their fertility and for
+the transportation of their products chiefly on the Coroico branch of
+the Beni and its innumerable small tributaries. Not only the Yungas
+provinces, but those of Inquisivi, Larecaja, and Muñecas, which adjoin
+them and are sometimes included in the general term of “the Yungas,”
+are abundantly supplied with water by the Beni system. The Coroico
+River, which flows northward from its source in the Royal Range, has
+many tributaries navigable for small boats and _callapos_. In
+North Yungas the Songo River, on the banks of which are important
+rubber forests, is one of the largest branches of the Coroico. The
+Mapiri flows through the province of Muñecas, and the Tipuani and
+Challana through Larecaja to join the Coroico River a few leagues south
+of Puerto Pando. Along the course of all these rivers rubber is found
+in abundance, and in some of them placer gold mining is carried on with
+most satisfactory results. The Tipuani River has long been celebrated
+for its rich gold washings. Rising in the Andes, on the eastern slope
+of the celebrated snow mountain Sorata, it flows northeastward and
+joins the Mapiri at Huanay, near the junction of the Mapiri and the
+Challana with the Coroico. This is one of the most celebrated gold
+bearing regions of Bolivia, and has been under exploitation since the
+time of the Incas, who received from their subjects in this part of the
+empire tribute paid in gold dust. According to historians, the Incas’
+emissaries collected sixty pounds of gold dust every four months from
+the section now known as Larecaja. As early as 1560 some Portuguese
+miners got large quantities of gold here, and a few years later the
+Spaniards established the industry on a permanent basis. Marvellous
+stories are related of the riches of this region, where gold was so
+abundant that sacks of precious gold dust were piled up around the
+walls of the miners’ huts to serve as beds and chairs. Hundreds of
+negro workmen were brought from Brazil by the Portuguese, and the whole
+district was a busy hive of industry. It was at this time that Sorata
+became famous as a city of wealth and luxury. In 1780, one of the mine
+owners obtained six thousand pounds of gold washings from this river.
+The variety of mineral and vegetable products everywhere found in the
+valleys of these rivers makes this a favorite field for speculation,
+and few instances of failure in any enterprise undertaken in this
+region have yet been recorded.
+
+  [Illustration: TOWN OF IRUPANA, IN THE YUNGAS.]
+
+So varied are the attractions of the Yungas that the scientist goes
+there to study botany, the speculator to make a fortune, and the
+tourist to see the sights, and each one returns enchanted with the
+success of his mission, and usually broadened in mind by having
+enjoyed the trip from the standpoint of the other travellers. The
+botanist grows enthusiastic over the commercial possibilities of his
+newly discovered “specimen,” the fortune seeker has looked around him
+while on his way to the gold fields, the rubber forests, or the fruit
+farms, and cannot help feeling a glow of interest in the wonderful
+secrets of the forests and the mountain sides; and the tourist, who
+goes merely to enjoy the scenery and to learn something of the customs
+of the country, finds that there is more to see than magnificent
+mountains and picturesque valleys, and that the quaint types that
+pass him on the road tell more than the contour of the face or the
+curious style of the dress reveals; and he often returns with all the
+enthusiasm of the student and the speculating spirit of the gold hunter
+combined.
+
+The proximity of the Yungas to the highways of travel gives this region
+an advantage over others of great promise, which, though abundant in
+natural resources, are more difficult of access. With the conclusion
+of the La Paz and Puerto Pando Railway, this territory will be brought
+into close connection with La Paz, and will, at the same time, have
+convenient access to the great Amazon waterway. Some day it will be one
+of the richest and most popular resorts of Bolivia, where fashionable
+society will make its annual visit. The Yungas hillsides will be dotted
+with the handsome country homes of wealthy Paceños, and merry outing
+parties will throng its valleys. The foreign tourist will find his way
+more frequently to this part of the world, for there is an irresistible
+attraction in the prospect of a comfortable trip in a railway train
+which carries one in an hour or so from the Alpine splendors of the
+snow range to the blossoming hedges and balmy groves of the fertile
+region of the Yungas!
+
+  [Illustration: TYPICAL INDIAN OF THE YUNGAS.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE PLAZA, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+
+                      COCHABAMBA, THE GARDEN CITY
+
+
+In a beautiful valley of one of the eastern _serranias_ of the
+Royal Range, sheltered alike from the severe cold of the higher
+altitudes and the excessive heat of the lower plains, the city of
+Cochabamba lies smiling under a benign sun, surrounded by picturesque
+hills and fertile levels, with the snow-crowned summit of Tunari in
+view to the north, and the tortuous cañons of the Rio Grande stretching
+southward. Not in the Vale of Kashmir is the zephyr balmier or Nature’s
+varied expression more lovely. Its gardens blossom with the fairest
+flowers, and in its orchards grow the most delicious fruits. It is the
+metropolis of a region rich in production, the granary of the republic.
+As one of the oldest and most important cities of Bolivia, it possesses
+historical and social interest, as well as the attraction that scenery
+and climate afford, and claims attention not only for its own charm,
+but because it is the cradle of many of Bolivia’s greatest men.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+At the time that the noble Don Francisco de Oropesa, Count of Toledo,
+the greatest of the viceroys, gave the order for the foundation of
+Cochabamba in 1570, he was visiting La Paz for the purpose of making a
+careful study of the conditions and needs of the Spanish colony in Alto
+Peru. The fact was called to his attention that several families among
+the loyal subjects of His Majesty King Philip II. were living in a
+valley which the Indians called Cochapampa, where they were completely
+isolated and suffering many hardships through lack of communal
+advantages. With characteristic promptness he immediately despatched
+a representative whom he provided with the necessary authority to
+establish a city, on the site of a pueblo called Canata, though there
+was delay in the execution of this plan, which was not definitely
+carried into effect until January 1, 1574, when, as before stated, the
+city was named Villa de Oropesa. The name was changed to Cochabamba in
+1786, when King Charles III. bestowed upon it the title of “loyal and
+valorous,” in recognition of the distinguished services rendered by its
+citizens in quelling the rebellion of Tupac-Catari. The word Cochabamba
+is derived from the Quichua words _cocha_, meaning a “pool,” and
+_pampa_, a “field,” the valley being level and well watered,
+especially at its eastern extremity, where the city is located, at an
+altitude of nine thousand feet above the sea. The mountains of the
+_serrania_ of San Pedro mark the eastern boundary of the city, and
+the _colina_, or hill, of San Sebastian overlooks it on the south.
+The river Rocha, a branch of the Tayapaya, which, in confluence with
+the Mizque, joins the Rio Grande, the principal affluent of the Mamoré,
+has its rise in the _serrania_ near Cochabamba and flows along the
+northern and western boundary of the city, fertilizing the neighboring
+_campiña_, and making it perennially green and beautiful.
+
+  [Illustration: LA PUERTA DE COCHABAMBA, ON THE COACH ROAD
+  FROM ORURO TO COCHABAMBA.]
+
+  [Illustration: THERMAL SPRINGS NEAR COCHABAMBA.]
+
+The city of Cochabamba has a population of about twenty-four thousand
+inhabitants, or of forty thousand including the suburban population,
+of which only three hundred are of foreign birth, chiefly Peruvians
+and Germans. It is divided into four sections, their location being
+determined by the four angles of the principal public square, the Plaza
+14 de Setiembre. The central plaza of Spanish-American cities is often
+named in honor of some important historical event. The Plaza 14 de
+Setiembre in Cochabamba commemorates the date on which the patriots
+of Cochabamba rose in arms to fight for the cause of independence
+in 1809, two months after the installation of the famous revolution
+led by Pedro Domingo Murillo, and four months from the date of the
+uprising against the royal authority in Chuquisaca. A handsome stone
+column in the centre of the plaza bears the names of the patriots who
+led the movement, of whom Don Estevan Arze, Don Francisco del Rivero,
+and Don Melchór Guzmán performed marvels of valor in the terrible
+struggle that followed. The story of Cochabamba’s share in the noble
+fight for freedom is thrilling in interest, and has some romantic
+features which show the temperament of the _hijas de Tunari_.
+The women of Cochabamba are of the type of the ancient Roman matron
+in many characteristics, and more than one patriotic daughter of the
+Garden City has earned the admiration of posterity by her courageous
+efforts in behalf of the cause of liberty. The lives of Arze and
+Rivero were saved through the ready wit and quick action of Doña Lucia
+Ascui, the wife of an employé of the government, who learned of an
+intrigue by which the governor planned to get rid of these troublesome
+revolutionists. Promptly the noble lady sought means to warn them
+of their danger, though at great risk to her own life, and through
+her brave efforts they were able to make their escape to a place of
+safety. On September 14, 1809, these two leaders, at the head of an
+army of a thousand men, took the quartel of Cochabamba, the militia
+refusing to resist the attack, with which it was in full sympathy.
+The governor fled to Peru; and from all the country round, crowds of
+patriots came, armed with whips and sticks, the only weapons they
+possessed, eager to join in the revolution. Don Francisco del Rivero
+was elected military and political chief. On September 19, 1810, in
+open Cabildo, he was named governor, the dean of the cathedral church
+of La Plata and the high ecclesiastics of Cochabamba officiating. A
+patriotic curate, named Juan Bautista Oquendo, was the orator of the
+cause, and, under the magic influence of his revolutionary speeches,
+thousands flocked to the standard. Don Estevan Arze was appointed
+general-in-chief of the revolutionary forces, and the campaign began by
+a march on Oruro, resulting in the famous victory of Aroma, of which
+the immortal Bartolomé Mitre said: “Heroic Cochabambans, that alone,
+without arms, without generals, guided only by noble instinct and
+generous enthusiasm, valorously displayed the flag of insurrection,
+and seven days after the battle of Suipacha, armed only with clubs
+and tin cannons made by themselves, and with a few firearms, set out
+to meet the enemy, and in open field, man to man, defeated with blows
+the disciplined and well-armed troops of the viceroy on the glorious
+field of Aroma!” All through the war, the record made by Cochabamba
+patriots was one of heroism and self-sacrifice; and in the subsequent
+history of the republic the efforts of the people of this city toward
+the establishment of political order and progress are written in many
+successful reforms, entitling them to an important place in the annals
+of national achievement.
+
+  [Illustration: CALLE COMERCIO, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+Some of the country’s greatest presidents, most learned scholars, and
+eminent divines have had their home in this charming city. Its society
+shows the influence of inherited refinement and culture; and if there
+are few evidences of great wealth, there are none of the deteriorating
+effects of over-indulged luxury which so often contribute to make
+society a mere fashionable show. When Cochabamba appears in promenade
+on the plazas or the Alameda, the effect is much the same as on the
+popular boulevards of London or Paris, but one hears nothing of the
+“social whirl.” In a dignified and leisurely way, life’s blessings
+are enjoyed, without extravagance or ostentation. It is true that
+the automobile has invaded Cochabamba, and may be seen any afternoon
+taking parties to the Alameda, to Cala-Cala, or to the colina of San
+Sebastian; but there is no exciting effort to break the record in
+speed, and motor-mania is as yet an unknown malady.
+
+  [Illustration: FEAST DAY OF SAN SEBASTIAN, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+Cochabamba has six plazas, ornamented with trees and flowers and
+arranged for the convenience of promenaders, the 14 de Setiembre,
+Colón, San Sebastian, San Antonio, Gonzalez Velez, Santa Teresa,
+Gerónimo de Osorio, and Matadero. The Plaza Colón, situated at the
+head of the Alameda, is one of the prettiest parks in the city. The
+Alameda, popularly called the Prado, extends from the Plaza Colón to
+the river, and is the favorite driveway to Cala-cala on the opposite
+bank. At almost any season of the year the Prado presents an animated
+scene in the late afternoon and evening, when it is thronged with
+people, especially on days of _fiesta_. It was inaugurated with
+interesting ceremonies by General José Ballivian in 1848, and since
+that time has been the scene of many important episodes in national
+history. The Alameda is divided into five beautiful streets, which are
+separated from one another by rows of willow trees, rosebushes, and
+pretty shrubs. The central avenue is being beautified by fountains,
+monuments, and flower beds. The streets on each side are for the use
+of pedestrians, and the outside streets for driving and riding. On the
+opposite side of the city the plaza of San Sebastian is situated, at
+the foot of San Sebastian hill, but, unlike the Prado, it is almost
+deserted except on January 20th and August 6th, when the races are held
+there. San Sebastian, or, as it is called, Colina de San Sebastian, is
+a sloping hillside, where the air is so fresh and pure, and the scenery
+so beautiful, that everyone finds it a delightful resort. It has
+historical interest also as the site on which the famous insurrection
+of Calatayud broke out, in colonial days, when the news spread that
+Spain intended to tax the _mestizos_ as well as the Indians in the
+collecting of tribute. The Plaza Gonzalez Velez, generally known as the
+Plaza de Toros, situated on the lower slope of the hill, is conspicuous
+for the imposing edifice which is its central adornment, and which is
+used as an arena for the bull fights. As this sport is not popular
+in Cochabamba, the plaza is seldom frequented, though from the upper
+windows of the building a magnificent view of the city and its suburbs
+spreads out before one in a charming panorama.
+
+  [Illustration: PAVILION IN THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+The most important public buildings of Cochabamba are on or near
+the Plaza 14 de Setiembre, which marks the centre of the city.
+The Government Palace, Palace of Justice, Municipal Building, and
+Prefectura, overlook this plaza, and are substantial structures,
+well built and sufficiently commodious. The Cathedral also faces the
+Plaza 14 de Setiembre, and is one of the handsomest edifices in the
+city. It is chiefly interesting to strangers because of the works of
+art to be seen among its treasures. The repentance of Saint Peter is
+represented in a figure of natural size carved in wood, and there
+is also a San Sebastian carved in wood, the Virgin of Lourdes, and
+the Crucified Christ. The city is divided into four parishes, Santo
+Domingo, La Compañia, San José, and San Antonio, each parish being in
+charge of a curate and his assistants. The history of the Church in
+colonial days was chiefly recorded in the benevolent and educational
+work done through the various religious orders, and Cochabamba was once
+an important centre, where the orders of San Agustin, San Francisco,
+the Jesuits, and others had their headquarters. Only three of the
+nine convents once existing in the city still remain, those of San
+Francisco, Santa Clara, and Santa Teresa. The former convent of San
+Agustin is now occupied by the theatre Achá, the temple and convent of
+La Merced have been appropriated as a market place, and other convent
+buildings are occupied as schools and hospitals. After the inauguration
+of the republic all the convents for men were abolished and their
+revenues applied to purposes of public instruction and charities. The
+nunneries which still remain are nearly all educational institutions
+as well as convents, and it is in these schools that the young ladies
+of the city are educated. Cochabamba is especially noted for its many
+churches and schools. In addition to the Cathedral, there are at
+least nine churches and convents, and the city has twenty-six primary
+schools, besides the university, two state schools, and the Colegio
+Conciliar, for the training of advanced pupils in high school work. The
+city has a public library of six thousand volumes of which two thousand
+are old books, which formerly belonged to the monasteries, some of them
+very valuable.
+
+The public works of the city of Cochabamba have been improved during
+the present administration, and not only in municipal, but departmental
+affairs noted progress has been effected. The first observation which
+a traveller makes upon approaching the city is that the highroads are
+in splendid condition, showing that the prefect of the department has
+given special attention to this branch of his administration. The
+ex-prefect, Señor Dr. Isaac Aranibar, who was succeeded in office only
+a few months ago by the distinguished soldier and statesman General
+Zenón Cossío, accomplished many important reforms in the department,
+and was indefatigable in his efforts to advance its progress. He
+is now a deputy to the national Congress from that department, and
+labors faithfully in behalf of its people. Dr. Aranibar is a prominent
+statesman and politician, who, though one of the younger leaders, has
+made his influence count in national affairs with great credit to his
+judgment and patriotism.
+
+As capital of the department, Cochabamba is the metropolis of a
+territory covering two thousand square leagues, and having a population
+of four hundred thousand. The department comprises ten provinces,
+each of which has its capital city and is the centre of a flourishing
+agricultural district. The provinces are Cercado, which includes the
+suburbs of the department capital; Tapacarí, of which Quillacollo is
+the capital, only a few miles distant from the city of Cochabamba
+over a road which leads through a magnificent avenue of shade trees
+along the entire route; Arque, with its pretty little capital,
+Capinota; Campero, of which Aiquile is the flourishing centre; Ayopaya,
+celebrated for the gold mines of Choquecamata; and the provinces of
+Mizque, Tarata, Totora, Punata, and Chaparé. Every climate may be
+experienced in a trip through the provinces of this department, from
+the cold which is never modified on the snowclad summit of Tunari, and
+the perennial springtime of more sheltered slopes and ravines, to the
+equatorial heat of the lower valleys and wooded plains that mark the
+more tropical waterways of the Amazon system. The influence of climate
+is seen in the vegetation, which is of the most varied character. On
+the high _puna_, at an altitude above twelve thousand feet as
+encountered along the road from Cochabamba to Mizque, vegetation is
+scant, though even here the farmer grows corn, barley, potatoes, and
+a comparatively new product called _quinua_, more nutritious
+and cheaper than wheat, for which it serves as a substitute. It is
+cultivated on all the high plateaus, and is increasing in favor as a
+staple food. On the slopes of the Cordilleras, Nature has made abundant
+provision for human needs, and every kind of agricultural product is
+harvested in plenty. Wheat, corn, beans, and a great variety of fruits
+are cultivated in the milder zones, and in the more tropical sections
+of the provinces of Chaparé and Totora coffee, cacao, quinine, sugar
+cane, rice, _camote_,--a yellow potato of delicious flavor, which
+has the appearance of the sweet potato,--as well as all tropical
+fruits grow in abundance. The _chirimoya_, in English called
+custard-apple, arrives at its highest perfection in this region, and
+the _palta_, elsewhere known as the alligator pear, and which
+in Mexico is called _aguacate_, is of delicious flavor. The
+_granadilla_, a peculiar fruit which looks something like a small
+orange with a hard, smooth skin, and is composed of a mass of seeds in
+a juicy, glutinous white pulp, is very refreshing, either as eaten,
+seeds and all, or made into a refreshing beverage. The province of
+Mizque is noted for its wine, though only the most primitive methods
+are used in viticulture, and the industry has never reached the degree
+of development which is possible under more favorable conditions. The
+Yuracarés, as the Yungas of Cochabamba are called, produce coca, cacao,
+tobacco, rice, and quinine, the chief shipping centre for all these
+products being the capital city of Cochabamba, from which they are
+distributed to their final destination.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SAN PEDRO, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+The city of Cochabamba presents a busy appearance when the cargoes of
+produce arrive from the farms and forests of the interior, and it is
+not unusual for a street to be blockaded by one of these caravans.
+Large importing and exporting houses usually receive the products and
+direct their shipment. Not only do the surrounding provinces supply
+the market with some of the most important food stuffs and medicinal
+products, but from the hills are taken the marble, stone, clay, lime,
+sand, and other building materials used in the construction of the
+city’s most modern edifices. _Berenguela_, a native marble of
+great value and beauty, having something of the appearance of old
+ivory, is used a great deal for ornamental purposes. The attention
+of foreign travellers has been especially attracted to the excellent
+properties of _berenguela_ and to the superior quality of all
+the building materials found in this department. The facilities for
+construction which the proximity of these materials affords is no
+doubt responsible to some degree for the handsome buildings that have
+been erected within recent years, among others, several for purposes of
+manufacture. Cochabamba is adding annually to the number and importance
+of its manufacturing establishments. Excellent saddles and harnesses
+are made here, leather is tanned, boots and shoes are manufactured,
+the weaving of _ponchos_ of delicate silk and woollen fabrics is
+a special art, and in the country districts butter making is among
+the industries. A number of factories produce on a limited scale the
+more necessary articles of daily use, such as soap, candles, glass,
+etc. The breweries of the city turn out a million bottles of beer
+annually, and there are hat factories, wool and cotton factories,
+and a silkworm establishment. The silk is of a superior quality, the
+cocoons being white or yellow in color. The larvæ show the most robust
+health and strength, mulberry trees seeming to grow particularly well
+in this climate, and to afford the greatest possible nutrition to the
+silkworms. Cochabamba is quite celebrated for its lace making, and
+visitors to the city usually spend some time in examining the beautiful
+designs of the pieces offered for sale in the market. Many of the
+lace-trimmed articles are of the coarsest cotton material, but the
+workmanship is marvellous, and it is not unusual to see the poorest
+vendor wearing a petticoat bordered with lace a half a yard deep,
+made by herself. On feast days the _cholas_ wear dozens of these
+petticoats, starched so stiffly that they make the skirt stand out like
+a balloon, and in Cochabamba, though less conspicuously than in La Paz,
+the _cholas’_ petticoats represent their chief wealth. Beautiful
+lace scarfs, lace edgings of the finest design, and lace curtains are
+made by the natives. Among the very poor some such industry is usually
+adopted to provide a source of revenue for the family aside from the
+wages earned by the husband, and in the humblest little hut there is
+generally a frame for weaving _ponchos_ or a cushion for lace
+making, as most of the lace is made on cushions by means of bobbins and
+pins, though crocheted laces are also seen. As a rule, these humble
+homes are the abode of content, and they are wonderful examples of how
+little is needed to make the poor happy, where they do not have to
+face daily the terrible struggle which is waged by the less fortunate
+in large European and North American cities. There is a haven of
+promise for the emigrant in the glorious climate and fertile valleys of
+Cochabamba, and he will find a welcome here if he is industrious and
+honest, no matter what his nationality.
+
+Cochabamba is growing, in spite of occasional dull seasons, which
+usually affect the progress of an agricultural community. The
+authorities of the municipality are doing all in their power to improve
+this beautiful city, and to provide modern conveniences wherever
+possible. A street car system is to be built which will connect the
+city with Quillacollo and other suburban towns, and improvements are
+to be made in lighting and otherwise providing for the comfort of the
+citizens. The driveway which leads to Cala-cala is being beautified
+and made more attractive, and the public baths are to be enlarged and
+improved.
+
+Cala-cala is the most beautiful suburb of Cochabamba, and is the
+popular residence quarter for many of the leading families, and for
+nearly all the foreigners of the city. The European population is
+small, but it represents many countries, English, German, French, and
+other nationalities being counted among its leading citizens. One of
+the most attractive _chacras_ in Cala-cala is owned by a North
+American, Mr. Oscar Ehrhorn, of San Francisco, California, who has
+lived in Cochabamba many years and is enthusiastic over the climate
+and the future business prospects of this section, which he regards
+as the garden spot of Bolivia. Others express the same opinion and
+predict a very prosperous future for this city, which some day will
+be one of the richest industrial centres of South America. Foreigners
+are treated with the greatest consideration and have equal privileges
+with the natives of the country. The completion of the new railway
+between Cochabamba and Oruro means a great deal to the people of this
+department, as it will serve to bring them at least three days nearer
+to the coast, and will place their rich products in many more markets
+than formerly. Whether in intellectual attainment or in material
+progress, Cochabamba has always been able to keep a leading place among
+the cities of Bolivia, and it is certain that her people will continue
+to maintain the title so often bestowed upon her as the “Athens of
+Bolivia” and the “Garden City.”
+
+  [Illustration: LOVERS’ TREE IN CALA-CALA, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+  [Illustration: CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+
+            BOLIVIA A FIELD FOR LARGE ENTERPRISES--NATURAL
+                   CONDITIONS--IMMIGRATION--CLIMATE
+
+
+  [Illustration: PICTURESQUE SCENE IN THE RUBBER REGION.]
+
+With a larger territory than that covered by France, Germany, and Spain
+together, and a smaller population than the French capital claims,
+Bolivia certainly seems to offer plenty of scope for the development
+of large enterprises. Colonization presents an inviting opportunity,
+and immigration may be fostered with golden results to the individual
+as well as to the state. To the natural advantages of a productive
+soil and healthful climate are added those which arise from a great
+variety of resources. Bolivia is comprised in three well-defined
+regions: the Altaplanicie, about five hundred miles long and eighty
+miles wide, which extends from Lake Titicaca to the southern boundary
+of the republic; the great system of the Royal Range, which includes
+the _serranias_ that are its offshoots, and their fertile valleys;
+and the vast plains, grassy or forest-grown, which stretch away from
+the Andes to the eastern and northern boundaries, and are noted for the
+valuable rubber trees that make this section one of the most important
+centres of Bolivian industry. In each of these regions there is a great
+deal of territory unoccupied, and very rich in the products peculiar
+to its locality. Of the Altaplanicie, the northern part is famous as
+the centre of the copper-mining district of Corocoro in the department
+of La Paz; in its central province of Carangas are located some of the
+most valuable silver and tin deposits of the department of Oruro; and
+the southern district, included in the department of Potosí, is rich
+in borax and other saline products. Deposits of borax are found not
+only in the southern part, where the Lago de Sal, or “Salt Lake,” is
+situated, but also in the central and northern sections, especially
+in the province of Carangas, where the salt marsh of Coipasa covers a
+territory of fifty square kilomètres. A subterranean river connects
+Coipasa with Lake Poopo, or Pampa-Aullagas, as it is also called.
+The Altaplanicie is not entirely level, an occasional mountain peak,
+usually of conical form, giving a pleasing variety to its landscape.
+Some of the mountains are snow-capped, and others appear like irregular
+brown rocks set up on the plains. A curious freak of nature is seen
+in the sinking ground of the Cerro Milluni, near Huayna Potosí, where
+great rugged monoliths are brought into picturesque relief by the
+sinking sand.
+
+The Altaplanicie is not only productive in minerals, as the wealth of
+Corocoro and Carangas proves, but it yields good harvests of barley,
+maize, and potatoes in the more sheltered regions, and provides
+pasturage for large flocks of sheep and goats. The inhabitants regard
+the _chalona_, or salted mutton, of the plateau as an excellent
+food, and the cheese known as _queso de Paria_ is esteemed
+a delicacy throughout western Bolivia. Alpacas are found on the
+Titicaca plateau in large numbers near the eastern slope of the Royal
+range, and a few are to be seen in every province, from Pacajes and
+Sicasica in the department of La Paz to Porco, Chichas, and Lipez in
+the department of Potosí. This valuable wool-bearing animal seeks
+the coldest and loneliest regions, where snow falls instead of rain,
+on the slopes of the high _serranias_ and in the clefts of the
+Cordilleras. The raising and shearing of the alpaca is in the hands
+of the Indians, who by their patient methods succeed better than any
+other class of shepherds in getting good results from the care of these
+animals. Alpacas are black, white, brown, or yellow in color, and
+yield wool of very fine quality. They are sheared every other year,
+the fibre being sometimes a foot in length, and a shearing amounts to
+as much as fifteen pounds. As the demand for this wool increases in
+the European markets, greater attention is paid to the industry, but
+it has never occupied the place it deserves, and the output might be
+made many times what it is to-day,--about two million pounds. In form
+and size the alpaca resembles a large sheep, though its neck is long
+like that of the llama, to which it is similar in general appearance,
+but having shorter legs and a less graceful form. The alpaca is
+never used as a beast of burden, but is reared only for its wool.
+The vicuña,--_camelus vicogna_,--a smaller and more delicately
+proportioned animal than either the llama or the alpaca, though it
+bears some resemblance to both, is highly prized for its valuable
+coat, vicuña furs being very much appreciated by connoisseurs, because
+of their fineness of texture, their extremely light weight, and the
+exquisite tones of mauve and tan that distinguish their color. They are
+particularly suitable for rugs, carriage robes, and automobile coats.
+In all South American countries the _ponchos_ woven of vicuña wool
+are greatly valued and bring a high price. The vicuña is about the
+size of a young fawn and quite as timid. Its favorite haunts are above
+the region of perpetual snow, and it is seldom seen on the highways of
+travel. It is more frequently met with than the alpaca, on the Bolivian
+highlands, especially in the departments of La Paz and Oruro. On the
+higher Andes, in the departments of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosí, the
+precious little chinchilla is also found, on the high slopes. It is
+very difficult to catch and is becoming rarer every year. It feeds on
+small grasses and herbs with the dew on them, but it drinks no water
+from other sources. The chinchilla is about the size of a mouse, which
+it resembles, though its color is a light blue-gray.
+
+  [Illustration: VINEYARDS OF PARANÍ, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ.]
+
+None of the resources of the Altaplanicie have been fully developed,
+and there are still possibilities for the acquirement of wealth in its
+mines and borax fields, as well as in its pasture lands. The climate is
+severe, but healthy, and for immigrants who come from cold countries
+it has advantages over the more enervating climates of a warmer zone.
+The average altitude of the Altaplanicie is twelve thousand feet
+above sea level. In the south, a _serrania_ of the Occidental,
+or Coast Range, crosses the plateau and unites with the Royal Range
+in what is known as the Cordillera de los Frailes, one of the most
+majestic snow ranges of the whole chain of the Andes. It divides the
+departments of Potosí and Oruro south of Lake Poopo, and is an imposing
+sight as viewed either from the city of Potosí, from which it appears
+in the distance like a bank of fleecy clouds against the purple of
+lower peaks, or as seen from the Oruro side of the range, where the
+view, though of different aspect, is one of enchanting beauty. The
+name, which means the “Friars’ Range,” is said to have been given to
+commemorate the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, when many of their
+number died from exhaustion and exposure while trying to find their way
+across its frozen passes.
+
+The most thickly settled and generally developed region of Bolivia
+is that which belongs to the division of the country made by the
+Cordillera Real and its fertile valleys. From the Yungas of La Paz and
+Cochabamba on the north to the _serranias_ of Tarija on the south,
+the vast riches of this wonderful region have been exploited, to some
+extent, in its mines, agricultural industries, and other productions;
+yet there are mineral districts which have never been explored, and
+fertile tracts of farm land that remain untouched by the plow. Almost
+every kind of mineral may be found in the mountains of the Royal Range.
+Besides the more important gold, silver, tin, copper, and bismuth
+mines, there are indications which point to extensive deposits of coal
+in the departments of La Paz, Chuquisaca, and Santa Cruz. Anthracite
+coal has been discovered in large quantities near the Argentine
+boundary, which, it is claimed, is of a quality to compete with the
+best in the market. Iron is found in the departments of Santa Cruz,
+Oruro, La Paz, and the Beni, but the deposits have never been worked
+to any extent. Antimony is exported from Oruro, Potosí, and La Paz.
+An excellent quality of marble comes from the neighborhood of La Paz,
+as well as from several districts between La Paz and Cochabamba. Of
+precious stones, the amethyst, emerald, opal, topaz, and turquoise are
+found in the departments of La Paz, Potosí, and Santa Cruz.
+
+  [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE.]
+
+Nearly all writers on the subject of Bolivia’s natural resources and
+the opportunities they present to the foreign capitalist emphasize
+the riches of Bolivian mines, but very few call attention to the
+enormous wealth which may be gained by investing in large agricultural
+projects. It is true that enterprises which involve the occupation and
+development of vast tracts of land can only be successfully promoted
+where the advantages of railway transportation are assured; and this
+fact no doubt accounts, in a measure, for the indifference shown to
+colonization in Bolivia in the past. But now that a complete railway
+system is under construction, the greatest obstacle to investment
+in farm lands is being removed. Already there is a tendency among
+Bolivians to give greater attention than ever before to the agriculture
+of the country, and to investigate the possibilities of this industry,
+which has hitherto been practically ignored except in the most favored
+sections along the highways of travel. One hears a great deal of the
+fertile lands of the Yungas, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba, and the Beni,
+and their productions are shipped to all parts of the country. But
+though tobacco, rice, sugar, wheat, corn, and other products have been
+harvested in increasing quantities from year to year, not one of them
+is cultivated to the extent possible in the fertile region where it
+grows.
+
+  [Illustration: FERTILE VALLEY ON THE ROUTE OF THE ARICA AND
+  LA PAZ RAILWAY.]
+
+Viticulture promises to be an important source of revenue, when it
+is given the attention it merits; and from the beautiful vineyards
+of Parani and elsewhere, in the departments of La Paz, Cochabamba,
+and Chuquisaca, wine may some day be manufactured in sufficient
+abundance and of a quality to compete with the best vintage of other
+countries. There are fertile valleys in every part of the republic
+which require only small investment to make them yield abundantly.
+Even the suburbs of La Paz, though on the border of the Altaplanicie,
+are dotted with pretty gardens, especially along the coach road to
+Obrajes, and the valley of Sopocachi is a typical agricultural scene as
+it lies blooming in the beauty of green fields and orchards. The new
+railroads pass through valleys not only picturesque but fertile, many
+prosperous-looking farms lying along the line of the La Paz and Arica
+Railway, in the lower slopes. Between Cochabamba and Sucre there is
+apparently no limit to the possibilities for industrial development.
+The flourishing haciendas in the neighborhood of Sucre are a proof of
+what may be done toward making this region one of the richest farming
+districts in the world. Everything that is planted on the Cachimayo
+hacienda grows in abundance, and is of superior quality, and there is
+not a more prosperous-looking country place to be seen anywhere. Not
+only its farm products, but also its fruits and wines are of excellent
+quality. Cattle raising is a profitable industry, and fine specimens
+are seen at the annual _ferias_ in the chief cities. The large
+haciendas of Chuquisaca are divided into cattle ranges, farm lands,
+and fruit orchards, the estates in some cases covering many square
+leagues. Further in the interior eastward, in the province called
+La Cordillera, large tracts of land are given up to cattle raising
+exclusively, especially along the valley of the Parapiti River, a
+branch of the Otuquis, which is one of the chief affluents of the
+Paraguay. This section of the country is only partly settled, much of
+it is still unexplored, and, where cattle roam its wilds no boundaries
+are established to limit the range. It is very like what western Texas,
+in the United States, was before the railroads crossed it, though it
+nowhere presents the arid wastes which are to be found in some parts of
+the Lone Star State. There is, however, a marked resemblance between
+these two cattle-raising countries. Not less extensive than the ranges
+of Chuquisaca are those of Tarija, Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz, the
+lower slopes of the _serranias_ supplying fine pasturage. But
+very little attention has been paid to this important industry, which
+is still in its infancy. When once these ranges are well stocked and
+properly irrigated, the results will be astonishing, as the grass lands
+are as good here as in some of the best grazing districts of Argentina.
+
+  [Illustration: CATTLE FAIR IN SUCRE.]
+
+At present, the cultivation of cereals and fruits receives more
+attention than cattle raising, and the markets of all the principal
+cities of the central valley are usually thronged with vendors of
+oranges, lemons, bananas, pineapples, and other varieties of fruits.
+The Cochabamba marketwoman is a particularly contented-looking creature
+as she seats herself behind her pile of fruit with her baby by her
+side. Except for the difference in the appearance of the vendors, the
+Cochabamba market looks much the same as that of La Paz, but every
+department shows something distinct from all others in the dress of
+the Indians and _cholas_, giving an individuality to the type in
+each locality. The La Paz _cholas_ are noted for their coquetry in
+dress, and even when trudging along the country roads from Obrajes and
+other points to the city, they have a jaunty air and carry their load
+with an indifference to its weight that attracts attention.
+
+  [Illustration: COACH ROAD TO OBRAJES, NEAR LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: VALLEY OF SOPOCACHI, NEAR LA PAZ.]
+
+The region which extends from the Royal Range eastward and northward to
+the boundary of the republic is destined to be the centre of industrial
+activity in Bolivia when the means of communication are established
+between this rich country and the outside world. Its western border is
+marked by the eastern limits of the department of La Paz, Cochabamba,
+and part of Tarija, its northern boundary by the Peruvian frontier and
+its southern limits by the Argentine republic. It is not all level
+land, but generally rolling plain, broken at intervals by scattered
+ranges and groups of hills, which in some places reach an altitude of
+four thousand feet above sea level, though the whole territory slopes
+gently from an altitude of two thousand feet at the eastern foothills
+of the Royal range to about four hundred feet above the sea on the
+Brazilian and Paraguayan borders. As the drainage of the great Andean
+chain is chiefly toward the Atlantic Ocean, eastern Bolivia is watered
+by important tributaries of the Amazon and La Plata River systems.
+The Paraguay River forms the eastern, and the Guaporé, or Iténez,
+River the northeastern boundary, the northwestern limit being still
+unsettled between Bolivia and Peru, though Bolivia claims as this
+limit the Acre River from its headwaters to Riosino and a line thence
+eastward to the Madeira River, near the confluence of the Beni and the
+Mamoré. The river Beni, with its great tributary the Madre de Dios;
+the Mamoré, with its affluents the Guaporé and the Rio Grande; and the
+Paraguay, into which flow the Pilcomayo and the Otuquis, or Rio Negro,
+with their tributaries, supply irrigation for the whole vast region of
+eastern and northern Bolivia. Of these rivers the Rio Grande, with the
+Mamoré, has the longest and most circuitous route, having its source in
+the _serranias_ between Oruro and Cochabamba and watering, with
+its numerous tributaries, the departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca,
+Santa Cruz, and the Beni. At its source the Rio Grande is a turbulent
+stream, and in the rainy season swells to a fierce torrent, destroying
+everything in its way as it rushes down through the _quebradas_,
+widening and deepening its channel, until it reaches a breadth of
+nearly a mile a few leagues to the east of the city of Santa Cruz de
+la Sierra, where it sweeps northward to pour its surging tide into the
+Mamoré. During the dry season, it is confined in a narrower channel,
+and is a placid, gently flowing stream. This changing character of the
+Rio Grande is common to all the rivers that water the same region.
+The Pilcomayo, which rises in the Cordillera near Sucre, receives
+many foaming mountain streams on its way to the plains of the Chaco,
+and in rainy weather it is a formidable flood, but it diminishes in
+volume during its progress through the Chaco, where it widens in some
+places to more than a mile. After a course of two hundred leagues, it
+enters the Paraguay a sluggish and shallow river, navigable only for
+small steamers of two hundred tons, and lighter vessels. Navigation in
+steam launches is the general method of transportation on the Madre
+de Dios, Beni, Mamoré, and Guaporé Rivers in the summer months, from
+December to May, and even in June and July these launches can still
+be used, but with greater difficulties and delays; during the rest of
+the year small craft have to take their place. The trip up the river
+is much slower and more tedious than the descent, though the latter
+is sometimes dreaded because of the swift currents. It is impossible
+to have a schedule for river steamers, as everything depends on the
+condition of the river, and in the dry season boulders and other
+obstacles may entirely block the channel for an indefinite period, so
+that even small boats cannot pass. With the increase of industrial
+development in this part of Bolivia, greater attention is being paid to
+the condition of the rivers and streams, with a view to utilizing their
+overflow and providing against blockade. The summer and autumn months,
+particularly the latter, are usually chosen by travellers in eastern
+and northern Bolivia, because, although the land journey may be less
+agreeable on account of bad roads or swollen streams, the rivers are
+in better condition for navigation. A vast extent of fine forest and
+rich soil stretches out for many leagues along the course of the rivers
+of eastern Bolivia, probably fifty per cent of the whole country being
+forest. The scenery in some parts is very beautiful. Mr. John Minchin,
+president of the municipality of Oruro, who has lived in Bolivia for
+many years and has travelled from one end of its vast territory to the
+other, gives a charming description of a journey from Cochabamba to
+Santa Cruz, when, he says, “after nine days’ travelling on muleback
+from Cochabamba, and on reaching the summit of the last range, the eye
+rests with delight on the dark green forest-clad eastern plains, some
+thousands of feet below, forming an horizon like that of the ocean,
+and stretching out, almost without interruption, to the banks of the
+distant Paraguay. From this point, in the early morning, the wide
+channel of the Rio Grande, some fifty miles away, winds like a white
+ribbon through the forest, the river itself, like a silver thread,
+flashing back the rays of the rising sun.”
+
+  [Illustration: SINKING GROUND, CERRO DE MILLUNI.]
+
+It is in the vast region of virgin forest and grassy plain that the
+Bolivian government most desires to establish foreign colonies, and
+it is for the purpose of developing its enormous resources that
+immigration to this part of the country is being encouraged by every
+possible means. At present the population is extremely sparse, probably
+not exceeding four hundred thousand inhabitants altogether, in a
+territory covering about one million square kilomètres. The prospect
+is brighter now than it has ever been for the realization of ambitious
+plans in this direction, as the tide of civilization has for some years
+been moving northward over the plains of Argentina, and, with the
+increased facilities which the new railroad system guarantees, it can
+be only a question of a few years when these vast and fertile solitudes
+will be peopled, not only from neighboring states, but from foreign
+lands. The teeming millions of overcrowded Europe, who look toward
+America as their haven of content and prosperity, are already beginning
+to turn their eyes from the popular goal so long sought in the United
+States and to shape their course toward a shore where the restrictions
+upon foreign immigration are less rigorous than those that now govern
+the laws of the great North American republic. Also, the opportunities
+offered to immigrants by the United States are lessening with the
+increasing population; and this fact cannot fail to have its effect in
+turning the tide to South America, where competition is not so great,
+and independence is equally assured by the very liberal laws made for
+the benefit of the foreign citizens. Especially is it true of Bolivia,
+as foreigners who live in this country invariably testify, that foreign
+residents are treated with the greatest consideration and enjoy the
+full benefits of the liberal constitution which governs the Bolivian
+nation.
+
+In August, 1903, the department of colonization issued a statement
+of the regulations governing the acquirement of lands for colonizing
+purposes, which shows the generous opportunity offered to immigrants.
+Allotments are made free under special circumstances, such as
+previous occupation for ten years, or the conditions of applicants
+who are natives of the place, and of settlers who contribute to and
+increase agricultural and other industries. Lands may be assigned,
+on application, to enterprises having in view their cultivation and
+settlement, subject to regulations previously stated as governing
+their purchase. For immigrants who wish to go to the country as
+workmen or as colonists, the acquisition of lands is facilitated,
+payments are made easy by a system of instalments, and possession is
+guaranteed. The government frankly states that only colonists who are
+accustomed to work are desired, especially those who will advance
+agriculture and aid in developing the rubber industry, and no effort
+is made to force immigration except where it means assured industrial
+progress. Immigrants who possess no capital may acquire lands for
+permanent settlement, if industrious and enterprising; and to those
+who have families, or are in charge of a group of settlers employed
+in the cultivation and exploitation of lands, especial facilities and
+advantages are afforded, both for the acquisition and payment of lands.
+
+  [Illustration: SHEEP RANCH ON THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE MARKET PLACE, COCHABAMBA.]
+
+One of the first questions asked by foreigners when inquiring about
+the countries of South America is: “What is the climate?” and there
+seems to be a general impression that the climate of the whole South
+American continent is tropical and more or less unhealthy. Yet,
+with the exception of some localities in the equatorial region, the
+conditions are as healthful as those prevailing in North America.
+Bolivia lies within the torrid zone, but its climate depends upon the
+altitude rather than upon the latitude of the various localities.
+The temperature lowers in proportion as the altitudes become higher,
+and varies with the latitude; for each six hundred feet of height,
+a degree less--centigrade--is observed in the temperature. The
+modifications which are due to altitude are no doubt responsible for
+the notable and sudden changes between the temperature in the daytime
+and at night, varying in colder and warmer zones. In the course of
+a few hours the thermometer daily runs a scale of from thirteen to
+seventeen degrees centigrade in the valleys and from eight to fifteen
+degrees in places close to the Cordilleras. The Oficina Nacional de
+Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica describes the climatic
+conditions of Bolivia in accordance with six divisions of altitude:
+the region of perpetual snow, at seventeen thousand feet and upward,
+has an annual average temperature of one degree centigrade; on the
+highest _puna_, or tableland, with an altitude of sixteen thousand
+feet, the annual average is six degrees; the Altaplanicie, fourteen
+thousand feet high, shows an average temperature of twelve degrees;
+in the upper valleys, where the altitude is about ten thousand feet,
+the average temperature registers fifteen degrees; the more fertile
+valleys in the lower _serranias_, eight thousand feet above sea
+level, are subject to a medium temperature of eighteen degrees; and
+in the Yungas, where the altitude is not more than six thousand feet,
+the thermometer marks about twenty-one degrees on an annual average.
+In the region of perpetual snow, the temperature ranges annually from
+twenty-seven degrees to zero, with an average, as previously stated,
+of one degree centigrade. Referring to the seasons, the same authority
+says: “The thermic periods do not coincide with the astronomical
+seasons, the meteorological changes being totally different from those
+occurring outside of the tropics, not only because the country lies
+within the torrid zone, but from other causes. The spring months are
+August, September, and October; those of summer are November, December,
+and January; autumn extends through February, March, and April;
+and winter, through May, June, and July. Summer is divided into two
+periods, the first being hot and dry, and the second rainy. The heat is
+excessive, even in high altitudes, where, during the first two months,
+the atmosphere is heavily charged with electricity, the rains beginning
+during the third month. Autumn weather is really experienced only
+during the months of March and April, the summer rains usually lasting
+through February; and even during the autumn, the humid atmosphere
+makes the season only a modified summer. In the Yungas and in the level
+regions of eastern and northeastern Bolivia winter is not known, the
+only change of climate being marked by a wet and a dry season, but in
+the higher altitudes frosts are continuous, and snow falls.”
+
+The climate of Bolivia is, in general, extremely favorable, and there
+are no regions totally unhealthful. On the high tablelands, illness
+from causes of climate are practically unknown, except in a few
+instances where heart trouble is developed by too vigorous exercise at
+this altitude. In the valleys of the Cordillera Real the only illness
+is from occasional intermittent fevers in the summer season, though
+these are no more frequent than in the semi-tropical regions of Europe
+and North America. Only in the wet season are the _tercianas_, or
+intermittent fevers of the Beni, developed, and, taken altogether, the
+great sloping plains between the Andes and the eastern and northern
+borders of Bolivia are desirable places to live in, the inhabitants,
+both native and foreign, declaring that, with a few exceptions along
+the lower levels that border the Madeira and the Mamoré, this region
+has one of the most delightful climates in the world.
+
+A very important field for the promotion of various industries is now
+opening up in Bolivia, and not only the people themselves, but their
+neighbors and the outside world in general, are taking a greater
+interest than ever before in investigating its natural resources.
+
+  [Illustration: FRUIT VENDOR OF COCHABAMBA.]
+
+  [Illustration: PATIO OF THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+
+             THE OLD MINT OF POTOSÍ--BOLIVIAN COINAGE AND
+                        BANKING LAWS--COMMERCE
+
+
+Historic association and romantic interest combine to lend a peculiar
+charm to the old Spanish edifices of colonial times that are still to
+be seen in the various cities of South America. Though many of them are
+in ruins, and others have been completely modernized to serve as new
+public buildings or residences, there are still a few that preserve
+the appearance they had when erected centuries ago “by order of His
+Excellency the Viceroy.” Of these generally unclassified architectural
+monuments, none possesses a greater claim to interest than the famous
+mint of Potosí, the Casa Real de Moneda. Its history dates from the
+most flourishing period of Spanish possession in the New World, and
+is intimately connected with the accounts of fabulous wealth and the
+records of terrible cruelty written in the annals of the seamed and
+weather beaten Cerro de Potosí.
+
+  [Illustration: WOODEN MACHINERY FORMERLY USED IN THE OLD MINT
+  OF POTOSÍ.]
+
+The first money coined in the Spanish-American colonies was made in
+Mexico in the sixteenth century, when the first viceroy, Don Antonio
+de Mendoza, who was afterward second Viceroy of Peru, issued the
+decree to establish a mint. The coins were cut with scissors out of
+hammered silver and were marked with a cross, which was the only seal
+they bore. Some years later, the illustrious Viceroy Toledo, during a
+visit to Potosí in 1572, ordered the construction of the Royal Mint of
+Potosí. It occupied the site of the present palace of justice, the old
+chimney of the foundry still remaining to mark the spot where, more
+than three hundred years ago, silver from the famous Cerro was coined
+into reales, of about the value of a dime. By a law passed soon after
+the establishment of the mint, miners were obliged to leave here a
+fourth part of their bullion, which had been assayed and smelted in
+the royal foundries after the payment of the “fifth” and other fiscal
+taxes, and this was reduced to reales and returned to the owner in that
+form. In the seventeenth century the annual coinage reached the sum
+of one million pesos, of eight reales, and counterfeiting began to be
+practised on such a large scale that it was brought to the attention of
+King Philip IV., who ordered a rigorous investigation and decreed the
+death penalty against offenders. Several Spanish nobles were executed,
+including the chief assayer of the mint, and a command was given that
+all money held by private individuals as well as public officials
+should be presented for examination. Within five days the amount
+exhibited was thirty-six million pesos! Shortly after this episode a
+royal decree was issued for the coinage of money bearing the stamp of
+two columns, instead of a cross, but it was not until 1728 that a royal
+ordinance established the circular form of the money, its standard, and
+other important conditions necessary to a satisfactory basis of coinage.
+
+  [Illustration: FOUNDRY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ.]
+
+The present Casa de Moneda was founded in 1753, and required twenty
+years for building, the cost amounting to nearly two million pesos. As
+materials were cheap and laborers were paid practically nothing under
+the _mita_ system, this cost seemed incredible to the Spanish
+king, Charles III., who, when informed of the expense, exclaimed: “The
+building must be made of silver!” But the beams of _tipa_ wood
+and crossbeams of cedar, which are as solid to-day as when put in
+place one hundred and fifty years ago, had to be brought from a great
+distance and with enormous difficulty. According to the chronicles of
+the period, there were single pieces of wood which cost two thousand
+pesos each for transportation. Roads were opened and levelled through
+the wild regions of eastern Charcas expressly for the purpose of
+providing a route to Potosí from the hardwood forests of Tomina and
+Orán, the latter being situated more than two hundred leagues distant,
+in the present territory of Argentina. Thousands of Indians were
+employed in the colossal task of constructing this large edifice,
+which is a marvel of solidity and endurance. It occupies a central
+locality in the city of Potosí, on the Plaza del Gato, and covers two
+squares. Built of solid stone and brick masonry, its dome and floors
+supported by beams of imperishable hardwood, it is as strong as a
+fortress, for which purpose it has been used many times in the history
+of the republic. The fiery orator Casimiro Olañeta called it, upon
+one occasion, “the Bastille of Bolivia,” a title which has clung to
+it with the persistence that is usually noted in the popular adoption
+of comparisons suggestive of classical associations. The first money
+coined in the new mint bore the bust of King Charles III. and the royal
+arms of Castile. The machinery used in this coinage is still to be seen
+in the museum of the mint, and is a curious collection of old wooden
+wheels, spikes, and beams. The machinery for pressing the sheets of
+silver to the required thinness before cutting out the coins is located
+on the second floor, and was formerly connected, on the floor below,
+with a treadmill which used to be worked by mules and Indians. The
+whole apparatus is of the clumsiest and most primitive description.
+
+  [Illustration: LA PAZ CUSTOM HOUSE.]
+
+The mint of Potosí, as it is operated under the present government, is
+provided with modern machinery, the first purchase having been made
+during the administration of President Melgarejo in 1868, at a cost,
+it is stated, of three hundred thousand bolivianos. New machinery was
+bought in 1900, and an order was given still more recently for the
+purchase of apparatus necessary for the elaboration of the sulphides
+of silver and of the ashes and sand that result from the treatment of
+silver metal. All the machinery now in use in the mint was bought in
+the United States. Since 1857 no gold has been coined, and by a law
+passed in 1905 the English pound sterling is recognized as a standard
+of exchange for the value of twelve bolivianos and fifty centavos;
+but with the modern machinery, recently purchased, the government
+is prepared to renew the coinage of gold whenever it may be deemed
+advisable. Silver coins of fifty centavos and twenty centavos are the
+only moneys issued by the mint at present, though this is a temporary
+arrangement. During the year 1904 the coinage was eight hundred and
+sixteen thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven bolivianos. The total
+coinage of the mint, from its foundation to the present time, is one
+billion eight hundred million pesos, silver, and about five million
+pesos, gold.
+
+  [Illustration: TUPIZA CUSTOM HOUSE ON THE ARGENTINE BORDER.]
+
+Outside of the section where the foundry is at work and where the
+machinery is whirring in the busy process of turning silver bars
+into half-dollars, or _medio bolivianos_, the Casa de Moneda
+suggests the events of a century ago rather than of modern activity
+and enterprise. The handsomely carved doorway is the work of artists
+of the eighteenth century, and the _patios_, of which there are
+several, are reminders of incidents that happened more than a hundred
+years ago. In the inner _patio_, an old sun-dial marks the site of
+the execution of Alonso Ibañez, one of the first patriots to die for
+the cause of liberty in the New World. Passages lead from this court
+to hidden recesses in the old building, some of them in a subterranean
+labyrinth of turns and windings that are hopelessly puzzling to the
+uninitiated. One cannot help speculating as to the possible uses
+to which these dungeon-like alleys may have been put in the urgent
+emergencies of revolutionary times, and a covered cistern built in the
+thick wall between two suspicious-looking cells suggests all kinds
+of weird and tragic scenes. The watchman of the mint says that the
+old building is known to very few, and that he himself finds passages
+which are new to him every time he makes a careful exploration. In the
+first _patio_ a modern ornament, the work of an artist of fifty
+years ago, occupies a conspicuous position over the central arch. It
+is a huge, grotesque head, painted in vivid colors, and is said to
+have been placed there as a caricature in disrespect for one of the
+most radical of Bolivia’s presidents. It is the first object that is
+seen upon entering the main _patio_ from the street, and is a
+conspicuously striking adornment. In the unused part of the mint, on
+the second floor, where the old machinery is preserved as a curiosity
+and a valued relic, the rooms remain much the same as they were when
+the noble officers of the Spanish king held sway as directors of the
+institution. There is something fascinating in the glimpses which
+the now deserted rooms afford of the character of those times, when
+this great establishment, which was maintained at the price of untold
+abuses and infinite intrigue, bore on every door some devout eulogy or
+prayer. _O dulce Virgo Maria!_ is the pious sentiment still to be
+read over the entrance to the old stamping room, and _O clemens, ó
+pia!_ marks the doorway through which the unfortunate Indians passed
+to work out their _mita_ on the treadmill or at the furnace. Not
+less interesting is the library, in which are preserved specimens
+of the coins and medals that have been issued by the Casa de Moneda
+since its foundation. Around the walls hang old paintings which were
+presented to the mint by King Charles IV., said to be the work of
+famous painters of the Spanish court. Old parchments contain historical
+records of value, and there are a few relics of the earliest days of
+the first mint, though it is to be regretted that greater care has not
+been taken to preserve these priceless treasures.
+
+  [Illustration: ARGANDOÑA BANK, SUCRE.]
+
+According to law, the boliviano is the standard of the national
+coinage. It weighs twenty-five grammes, contains three hundred and
+forty-seven and one-half grains of pure silver, and is worth one
+hundred centavos. But at present the silver money in circulation is
+represented only in pieces of fifty, twenty, ten, and five centavos,
+of a standard and weight in proportion to that of the boliviano.
+When at par, the boliviano is worth five francs. It is now worth
+about two francs. Exportation of silver money is free, but its
+importation is prohibited. No money is recognized as legal except
+that which is legitimately emitted by the state, in conformity with
+the existing laws. Banknotes, popularly called _billetes_,
+represent the equivalent of one, five, ten, twenty, fifty, and one
+hundred bolivianos. It is not unusual in La Paz and elsewhere to see a
+_billete_ divided into halves to make change, though the halves
+are not accepted by the banks, and serve only as a convenience in
+the use of small change. The amount of banknotes in circulation is
+estimated at a little over ten million bolivianos.
+
+  [Illustration: GERMAN-CHILEAN BANK, ORURO.]
+
+In order to increase confidence abroad and to promote economic
+advancement at home, the government of Bolivia is giving special
+attention to perfecting the monetary laws of the country. One of
+the most eminent authorities on Bolivian finance, Señor P. Beer,
+director of the German-Chilean bank, in La Paz and Oruro, who very
+kindly furnished the information which is here given on this subject,
+speaks in the highest terms of the favorable financial outlook for
+Bolivia. The recognition of the English pound sterling as a standard
+of exchange, equivalent to twelve bolivianos and fifty centavos is
+an important step, as formerly the variations in the price of silver
+caused considerable fluctuation in the value of the boliviano. It
+is obligatory to pay half of all duties in gold, or, if paid in
+silver, an increase of five per cent is charged to cover the cost
+of the importation of gold. Fluctuations in exchange have greatly
+diminished under the new law, having been reduced from three pence to
+one penny and a quarter within the year. Under the present rule, the
+minimum value of the boliviano is nineteen pence, the maximum twenty
+and one-fourth pence. This is regarded as the first step toward the
+introduction of the gold standard. The government is also considering
+various projects for improving the banking laws. The emission of the
+banks will be reduced and unified. When the Acre campaign exacted
+extraordinary expenditure on the part of the government, the necessary
+funds were secured by loans on the banks of the country. The National
+Bank of Bolivia, the Argandoña Bank, and the Industrial Bank of La Paz
+had the right to issue notes, or _billetes_, for the sum of their
+paid-up capital, on the condition that thirty per cent of the notes in
+circulation were covered by coin stored in their vaults. By a special
+law, these banks were authorized to increase their emission to one
+hundred and fifty per cent of their paid-up capital, and by this means
+they were able to provide the government with the funds necessary for
+the Acre campaign. In this way an internal debt was incurred, which at
+present amounts to a little more than one hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds sterling, covered by state bonds that are guaranteed by the
+income from the customs duties of La Paz, about eighty thousand pounds
+sterling annually. These bonds are amortised at six per cent, and the
+annual interest on them is ten per cent, this arrangement being carried
+out regularly twice a year, so that the debt may be considered as
+practically cancelled. Another internal debt, consequent upon the Acre
+campaign, consists of the pension roll, military salaries, indemnities,
+etc., and is met by bonds of the Compensacion Militar, of which
+twenty thousand pounds sterling are in circulation. Ten per cent is
+amortised and the bonds earn ten per cent interest annually. The part
+amortised is replaced by new bonds. Congress is at present occupied
+with an old internal debt, amounting to about three hundred thousand
+pounds sterling, which has not been entirely recognized, but which
+will be paid as far as justifiable, with the approbation of Congress.
+The municipal debts are confined entirely to private loans. La Paz is
+contracting a loan of forty thousand pounds sterling, with which to
+build new hospitals and to perfect the canalization of the city.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIONAL BANK OF BOLIVIA, SUCRE.]
+
+Not only has Bolivia adopted methods for the improvement of the
+national finances, but by treaties with the neighboring republics,
+the government has recovered sovereignty over the import duties on
+products and manufactures from the republics of Chile and Peru. Both
+these republics formerly had the right to introduce their products and
+manufactures free of duties, by virtue of temporary treaties. Under
+the new treaties, Chile and Peru enjoy only the rights of favored
+nations in bringing in their merchandise. It is estimated that the
+increase in import duties arising from this arrangement will yield
+Bolivia at least eighty thousand pounds sterling annually. Under such
+auspicious circumstances the government is inaugurating a new era in
+commercial development. There are several reasons why the statistics
+of international trade give Bolivia a comparatively unimportant place
+among commercial nations. When the foreign trade of Bolivia passed
+through the ports of Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil, without a
+clearly defined law regarding the port privileges, the Bolivian exports
+were largely credited to these countries, a condition of affairs which
+can be corrected under the present system of customs regulations.
+Limited facilities for transportation have been responsible, in a
+great degree, for the lack of commercial enterprise which has hitherto
+retarded the progress of the country, but this drawback has also been
+overcome. Bolivia is no longer isolated from the rest of the world
+because of the great wall of the Andes which looms up on one side and
+the thousands of miles that stretch between it and the seacoast on the
+other, since the problem of rapid transportation has been solved by
+the inauguration of a complete system of railways. The importance of
+railway facilities in promoting commerce is shown by the history of
+the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway and the Guaqui and La Paz Railway.
+As previously stated, since the construction of the former line the
+shipments through the port of Antofagasta have increased seventy per
+cent, and after the line from La Paz had been in operation a year
+the statements of shipping showed an increase of fifty per cent over
+previous years.
+
+  [Illustration: IMPORTING HOUSE OF MORALES AND BERTRAM, SUCRE.]
+
+Liberal conditions govern the international relations of Bolivia, the
+protective policy being moderate in the commercial system of this
+country. Foreign merchandise, whether from Europe, North America, or
+elsewhere, finds easy access to the markets here, and, in compensation
+for the difficulties of transportation, advantageous terms are made
+in the regulation of customs duties on goods of foreign manufacture.
+Bolivia imports, chiefly, all kinds of machinery, hardware, furniture,
+cotton and woollen goods, clothing, wines, spirits, canned goods,
+and provisions. Every article imported must pass through one of
+the Aduanas, or custom houses, of the republic, to be examined and
+subjected to the customs charges, unless exempt by special laws,
+such as govern the privileges of diplomatic representatives, who pay
+no customs duties. The scale of duties on goods imported is fixed
+every eighteen months, and rules from the date named by the national
+Congress. The annual imports amount to one million five hundred
+thousand pounds sterling in value, and the exports to two million five
+hundred thousand pounds sterling, according to the latest statistics.
+Peru takes first place in supplying the Bolivian market, with nearly
+one-fifth of all imported goods. Germany follows with eighteen per
+cent, England with seventeen per cent, and the United States with
+sixteen per cent. The chief exports are silver, tin, copper, bismuth,
+rubber, quinine, coca, and hardwoods. The mining industry provides
+about eighty-five per cent of Bolivian exports, and rubber constitutes
+the remainder, except about three per cent, which is represented in
+quinine, coca, and miscellaneous products.
+
+  [Illustration: IMPORTING HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, CHALLAPATA.]
+
+The principal shipping headquarters, in which are located the Aduanas,
+or custom houses of the republic, are: La Paz, Oruro, Uyuni, Tupiza,
+Tarija, Puerto Suarez, Villa Bella, Abuná, and the new Aduanilla, or
+minor custom house, of Iténez, at the confluence of the Rio Verde
+and the Guaporé, on the southeastern border of the Beni. The custom
+house of Guaqui, the chief Bolivian port on Lake Titicaca, has been
+removed to La Paz. The commerce through the custom house of La Paz
+last year amounted to nearly a million pounds sterling, and import
+and export taxes were collected in the sum of one hundred thousand
+pounds sterling, representing the most important share of the trade
+of the republic. The customhouse agencies of Port Pérez, Huaicho,
+Pelechuco, Desaguadero, and Copacabana are dependencies of the La Paz
+custom house. The Oruro Aduana is for the inspection of the commercial
+movement that passes through the Agencia Aduanera of Antofagasta.
+Last year’s report of the minister of finance shows the revenue from
+import and export taxes at Oruro to be about thirty thousand pounds
+sterling. Under the new treaty with Chile it is made possible to secure
+more accurate figures regarding the exports through Antofagasta, which
+are despatched from the Aduanas of Oruro, Uyuni, and Tupiza, as well
+as from the tax-collecting offices of Potosí and Chayanta. Oruro is
+the great exporting centre for silver and tin, which are produced in
+large quantities in this region. In addition to the Agencia Aduanera,
+or custom house agency, in Antofagasta, Bolivia has similar offices
+in the ports of Mollendo and Arica. The custom house of Uyuni, which,
+like that of Oruro, is one of revision, collects a storage tax that
+constitutes one of its important sources of revenue. Its record of
+commerce last year showed a notable increase over that of the year
+previous, amounting to eighteen thousand pounds sterling. The Aduana of
+Tupiza, near the Argentine border, secures its revenue chiefly through
+the exportation of national products and by tolls, the import duties
+amounting to about one thousand pounds sterling annually. Connected
+with this Aduana are the small stations, or _resguardos_, of
+Sococha, Talina, Estarca, San Pablo, Chaguana, Esmoraca, and Mojo, for
+the protection of trade on the Argentine frontier. A great deal of
+the commerce with Argentina, and, through its port of Rosario, with
+other foreign countries, passes through the custom house of Tarija and
+those of its dependencies, Salitre, Pulario, Padcaya, and Camacho, its
+total commerce for 1905 amounting to about thirty-five thousand pounds
+sterling.
+
+  [Illustration: STREET OF THE BANKS, SUCRE.]
+
+The commerce of northern Bolivia which passes through Brazil is
+conducted chiefly by means of Aduanas and Aduanillas in the river
+ports of the upper Amazon. The chief of these is Villa Bella, at
+the confluence of the Beni and the Mamoré on the great Madeira
+River. It was established in 1880 as an Aduanilla and raised to the
+more important rank in 1886. The distance from this port to Pará,
+at the mouth of the Amazon River, is two thousand three hundred
+and seventy-three miles. Most of the commerce of the Beni and the
+Territorio de Colonias passes through Villa Bella, though since the
+recent boundary settlement with Brazil, the frontier port of Abuná, at
+the junction of the Abuná and Madeira Rivers further north, has been
+increasing in importance as a shipping port for this region.
+
+Eastern Bolivia has, in Puerto Suarez, a shipping place for merchandise
+destined for the Paraguay River ports and La Plata. It is a thriving
+town, situated on the western bank of the Paraguay, in the department
+of Santa Cruz, opposite the Brazilian port of Corumbá. The dependencies
+of the custom house of Puerto Suarez are La Gaiba, Marco, and San
+Ignacio, also on the Paraguay River. Ocean steamers ascend the river
+Paraguay as far as Puerto Suarez, and a regular line, that of the
+Lloyd-Brazileiro of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, has a weekly service to
+Corumbá, which is one of the principal Brazilian ports on the Paraguay
+River. With the completion of the new system of Bolivian railways,
+Puerto Suarez will become one of the most important commercial centres
+of the republic, as it is to be connected by rail with Santa Cruz and
+the Beni, a region rich in natural products. There is now a well-beaten
+road from Puerto Suarez to Santa Cruz, and surveys have been made for
+the proposed railway. The commerce which passes through Puerto Suarez
+is chiefly that of Santa Cruz and the Beni, and amounts to one hundred
+and twenty-five thousand pounds sterling annually, of which two-thirds
+is represented by the export of rubber.
+
+  [Illustration: GUAQUI, ON LAKE TITICACA, ONE OF THE CHIEF
+  SHIPPING PORTS.]
+
+The commerce of Bolivia is conducted chiefly through large importing
+and exporting houses in the various cities, and the financial
+operations connected with it are carried on by means of banking
+institutions in these cities. In the smaller and more remote commercial
+centres the business houses are also banking agencies. The financial
+standing of these important establishments furnishes the chief index
+to the commercial prosperity of any section of the country. The oldest
+bank of the republic now in existence under its original charter is
+the Credito Hipotecario de Bolivia, which was established in La Paz
+in 1870. Its authorized capital is ten million bolivianos, subscribed
+capital two million bolivianos, and paid-up capital six hundred
+thousand bolivianos. The president, Señor Don Fermin Cusicanqui is also
+president of the Banco Industrial of La Paz, and is greatly esteemed
+as one of the leading financiers of Bolivia. The vice-president, Señor
+Don José Gutiérrez Guerra, to whose courtesy is due the acquirement
+of valuable data for this chapter, is prominent in financial circles,
+not only through his relations with this institution, but as one of
+the directors of the well-known bank of Crespo and Gutiérrez Guerra,
+of La Paz. The Credito Hipotecario de Bolivia has a branch office in
+Cochabamba. In consequence of a fraud perpetrated in the Cochabamba
+office a few years ago, which resulted in the loss of half a million
+bolivianos, this bank suspended the payment of dividends for a time,
+but the stockholders received eight per cent dividend for the last
+half-year of 1905, showing that the institution has recovered from the
+effects of its loss. The Banco Nacional de Bolivia, established in
+1871, succeeded the Banco Boliviano, the first in Bolivia. It is one of
+the most important in the republic, and has a paid-up capital of three
+million bolivianos, with a reserve fund of nearly two hundred thousand
+bolivianos. In 1906 a mortgage section was established, for which the
+bank has a capital of one hundred thousand bolivianos. The dividends
+paid to stockholders in 1905 amounted to ten per cent. This bank
+has its headquarters in Sucre, with agencies in La Paz, Cochabamba,
+Oruro, Potosí, Tarija, and Tupiza. The Banco Francisco Argandoña, of
+Sucre, belongs to the Prince de Glorieta, the Bolivian minister in
+Paris, and, although it is constituted an anonymous society, all the
+shares are held by the Argandoña family, one of the richest in South
+America. The paid-up capital of this bank is two million five hundred
+thousand bolivianos. The principal agencies of the bank are located in
+Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, and Potosí. The head offices, both of the
+National Bank and the Argandoña Bank, are handsome edifices, situated
+in the Calle de los Bancos, or Street of the Banks, in Sucre. An
+important banking institution of Sucre is called the Banco Hipotecario
+Garantizador de Valores. It was established in 1887, and has a
+subscribed capital of one million bolivianos, with a paid-up capital
+of one hundred thousand bolivianos. In 1905 a dividend of twenty-nine
+per cent was declared on the paid-up capital. The emission of mortgage
+notes in circulation on December 31, 1905, amounted to five hundred
+and fifteen thousand three hundred bolivianos. These certificates bear
+an annual interest of ten per cent, and are quoted in the market at
+a premium of eight per cent. The Banco Industrial of La Paz does a
+very large business, especially in western and northern Bolivia. The
+authorized capital of this bank is four million bolivianos, its paid-up
+capital is one million five hundred thousand bolivianos, and the
+dividend paid in 1905 was fourteen per cent. It has branches in Oruro
+and Cochabamba.
+
+  [Illustration: PUERTO SUAREZ, ONE OF THE PORTS ON THE
+  PARAGUAY RIVER.]
+
+Cochabamba, as the centre of a rich agricultural district, having
+extensive commercial relations, has several important banking
+institutions. The Banco Hipotecario Nacional, founded in La Paz in
+1890, has its headquarters in this city, where it was established in
+1903. The subscribed capital of this bank is one million bolivianos; it
+has a paid-up capital of one hundred thousand and guarantee and reserve
+funds of thirty-three thousand bolivianos. A dividend of twenty per
+cent was paid last year. One of the most recently established banks is
+the Banco Agricola, of La Paz, created by law in 1902, and opened on
+November 17, 1903. The authorized capital of this bank is two million
+bolivianos, the paid-up capital six hundred thousand bolivianos,
+the contingent and reserve funds eight thousand bolivianos, and the
+undivided surplus four thousand and forty-four bolivianos. Twelve per
+cent dividends were paid in 1905. The foreign banks of Bolivia are
+represented by the German-Chilean Bank, which has its Bolivian head
+office in La Paz and a branch in Oruro, and the Bank of Tarapacá, an
+English institution. The chief headquarters of the German-Chilean Bank
+is in Hamburg, the Bolivian agency having charge of all operations in
+this country, such as the arrangement of loans, the issue of drafts,
+letters of exchange, and similar business. There are several foreign
+life insurance companies that have agencies in Bolivia, chiefly
+Peruvian and Argentine enterprises.
+
+Commercial progress in Bolivia owes a great deal to the efforts of
+the commercial societies, which are generally composed of bankers
+and importers or leaders in industrial development. La Paz, Sucre,
+Oruro, and Tarija, each has a Camara de Comercio for the purpose
+of stimulating trade; Cochabamba’s Circulo Comercial has the same
+object in view; and the Junta Comercial é Industrial of La Paz seeks
+the advancement of both trade and industry. These societies work
+by methods similar to those of the various chambers of commerce in
+England and North America, and among their members are managers of
+foreign as well as native business houses. In all the larger cities
+the Germans have established themselves in business, either on their
+own account or as representatives of German houses. English, French,
+Italian, Spanish, and North American merchants are among the European
+residents of La Paz, Oruro, Cochabamba, Sucre, and Potosí, though the
+Germans are in the majority. The importing house of Bebin Brothers, in
+Challapata, supplies a large territory with European and North American
+goods. The Bolivian house of Morales and Bertram is one of the most
+important business establishments of Sucre, and the German importers
+of Cochabamba have a flourishing trade. There is a growing demand
+for North American goods, and it is now no unusual occurrence to see
+an advertisement of _articulos Norte-americanos_ as an especial
+attraction. The firms of De Notta and of Harris and Company, in La
+Paz, deal extensively in North American novelties. But it is possible
+even here to make a hopeless search without finding some familiar
+articles, no especial effort having been made by North Americans to
+introduce their merchandise. They are, as a rule, less informed than
+the merchants of Europe regarding this country, and are far behind
+the Europeans in learning the commercial needs of the nation. The
+diplomatic and consular representatives of the United States accredited
+to South America have had very arduous duties to perform in their
+efforts to educate their own people regarding these republics in
+general. The American minister, now in La Paz, Hon. William B. Sorsby,
+has won the admiration and esteem of the Bolivians by his constant and
+unfailing devotion to the task of making better known to the political
+and commercial world of the United States the actual conditions that
+govern Bolivia. The fact that sentiment is growing in favor of a
+better understanding between the countries of North and South America,
+and that trade between the two continents has increased twenty-five
+per cent in the past ten years, is largely due to the persistent,
+determined, and conscientious labor of the officials representing their
+governments in these countries. They have succeeded in overcoming, to
+some extent, the bad effects of sensational travellers’ tales founded
+on events of fifty years ago, and they are using their powerful
+influence to modify the prevailing ideas of the press, which still
+seems influenced by a tendency to draw imaginary pictures of thrilling
+social adventure and political pyrotechnics that are entertaining,
+perhaps, but not quite up to date. However, journalistic pride will
+not permit an antiquated idea to dominate beyond the period of its
+usefulness. Within a short time the world will see the newspapers of
+Europe and North America vying with one another to secure the account
+of the latest advance made in the political or intellectual progress of
+South America, instead of devoting sensational headlines to some stupid
+riot on a feast day, an event of no more importance than the average
+schoolboy’s row. Bolivia deserves that friendly judgment should be
+passed on the efforts her people are making toward national progress.
+Since the election of the present government nearly three years ago,
+its officers have worked in accord and with energy to promote the
+national welfare. Not a single change has been made in its Cabinet,
+though “ministerial crises” have been a conspicuous feature of several
+other South American governments. It is apparent to all who seriously
+study the tendency of affairs in this country that the prospect is
+bright for political and commercial progress, and that Bolivia is
+destined to occupy, one of these days, an important place among the
+great trading nations of the world.
+
+  [Illustration: THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ. BUILT UNDER THE
+  VICEROYALTY.]
+
+  [Illustration: WOMEN EXPERTS SORTING ORES, HUANCHACA SILVER
+  MINES.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+
+               CELEBRATED MINES OF BOLIVIA--THE CERRO DE
+                    POTOSÍ--HUANCHACA SILVER MINES
+
+
+  [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO PULACAYO MINE, HUANCHACA.]
+
+Few events in the history of modern times have been so universally
+recorded as the discovery of the mines of Potosí. In the middle of
+the sixteenth century, when the ships of Spain arrived with the first
+treasure from the silver mountain, all Europe became interested,
+and excitement grew as the abundance of the marvellous Cerro proved
+apparently unlimited and inexhaustible. It became the theme of courtier
+and poet, and eclipsed every other event for a time. The victories of
+the Holy League, the proclamation of His Catholic Majesty’s coronation,
+and even more important occurrences of the latter part of the sixteenth
+century, were hardly welcomed with greater _éclat_ than the
+announcement of a new cargo of treasure received from the American
+mines; and the fame of the wonderful land beyond the sea continued to
+increase, as each arrival of silver-laden ships brought fresh stories
+of the marvellous mountain called Potosí, out of which the precious
+white metal poured in never-ceasing streams. Fabulous tales and
+fanciful legends were related everywhere regarding this famous mine.
+All the world talked of its riches, poets wrote stanzas inspired by
+visions of its opulence, and lovers dreamed of bestowing its abundance
+on their dear ones. It was an extravagant serenader who offered his
+lady love the wealth of Potosí for a kiss:
+
+    “Te diera, si me dieras
+    De tu linda boca un sí,
+    Las aromas de la Arabia,
+    El Cerro de Potosí.”
+
+    [I would give, if you would give me
+    From your pretty lips a “yes,”
+    All the perfumes of Arabia,
+    The Cerro de Potosí.]
+
+At the time when Spain found her new treasure in America, chivalry
+had not yet lost its romantic influence and charm, and many a knight
+made his way across the sea and over the snow-covered passes of the
+Andes in search of adventure by which to prove his devotion, or,
+perhaps, to find riches that would mend a broken fortune and entitle
+him to sue for the hand of some noble lady of his choice. For, in the
+unwritten law of chivalry, poverty was counted, as it is to-day under
+a more modern code, if not a crime, at least a bar sinister on the
+escutcheon of sentiment. In the written romances of those days, the
+popular hero returned unexpectedly from Potosí with untold treasures,
+which he laid at the feet of the queen of his heart after destroying
+his rival and achieving renown by many brilliant deeds of valor. The
+author of _Don Quixote_ naturally refers to Potosí as a synonym
+for fabulous wealth, and there was hardly a writer of the time who did
+not find occasion to use the name of the silver mountain to illustrate
+the idea of lavish abundance. The news that the city of Potosí, which
+received the name of Villa Imperial by order of King Charles V.,
+spent ten million dollars in the festivities of the coronation of
+his successor, Philip II., created no surprise, since millions were
+supposed to roll like pebbles into the lap of that famous city. A
+chronicler of the sixteenth century estimates at six million dollars
+the amount of the “royal fifth” paid in taxes annually, and, knowing
+the facilities that existed for evading the tax, he adds: _Y que
+seria lo que se dejó de quintar!_--“And what must that have been on
+which the ‘fifth’ tax was not paid!” Improbable as some of the stories
+related of the Cerro appear, there is more truth than fiction in the
+accounts of extravagance and luxury that have been handed down to us
+in the _Annals of the Imperial City_. It is recorded that the
+amount of silver which was taken out of Potosí from the date of the
+discovery in 1545 until the beginning of the nineteenth century was
+three billion three hundred and ninety-four million dollars, and a
+liberal estimate gives nearly four billion dollars as the total output
+of silver from the Cerro de Potosí up to the present day. Curious old
+documents relating to the history of this great silver mountain have
+been collected and published by Señor Don Vicente Ballivian y Rojas
+in a volume of fascinating interest. In one paragraph we are told
+that “in 1566 a Spanish noble, who was entering the Cotamito mine
+with his Indian laborers, stumbled against an object which proved to
+be a magnificent crucifix of pure silver, the arms and legs being of
+_rosicler_, evidently formed by nature under divine direction.”
+It became the subject of much speculation, and was held to be a sign
+that the powerful hand of God would work for the future prosperity of
+this particular mine. The crucifix was sent to Spain and placed in
+the church of San Agustin, of Barcelona. Another chronicle relates
+that one of the rich owners of the Cotamito mine, Don Antonio Lopez
+de Quiroga, paid in fifths to the King of Spain not less than fifteen
+million dollars. According to this authority, the great millionaire was
+once paying a visit to the viceroy at Lima, when an officer of the
+household remarked that the expenses of the viceregal establishment
+amounted to the exorbitant sum of four hundred dollars a week, which in
+those days was considered a great extravagance. “Well, I spend the same
+sum for candles in my mines of Potosí,” responded the visitor!
+
+For centuries Bolivia occupied third place among the silver-producing
+countries of the world, the annual production at one time amounting to
+ten million ounces of silver. Even with such an enormous yield, the
+mines were only superficially worked by very primitive methods; and of
+the ten thousand abandoned silver mines which are to be found scattered
+throughout the country to-day, not one was exhausted, the obstacle to
+continued production being in every case a lack of means to protect the
+mine from inundation, or insufficient capital to buy new machinery,
+etc., as was the case after the War of Independence.
+
+  [Illustration: PORCO, SITE OF THE OLDEST SILVER MINES IN
+  BOLIVIA.]
+
+While the exploitation of the mines was at its height in the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries, the most absurd and fantastic extravagance
+prevailed; and no provision was made for a possible period of
+depression, which came later in the form of plagues, inundations, a
+lowering of the price of silver, increased cost of transportation, and
+similar contrarieties. Although the famous Cerro de Potosí no longer
+produces the enormous quantities of metal which history records of
+former days, it is not by any means exhausted, the value of the silver
+taken from its mines from 1895 to 1902 being nearly four million
+dollars in gold. It is claimed that about seven thousand mines have
+been opened in the Cerro since the discovery of its wealth, and the
+records show that up to the middle of the nineteenth century five
+thousand mines were registered as being in operation at some time on
+the famous mountain. About seven hundred are worked at present for
+both silver and tin, and five thousand laborers are employed. The
+Cerro presents a unique spectacle as seen from a distance, towering
+behind the city in the shape of a carefully chiselled cone, of the
+dark red-brown color that suggests metallic composition, and marked at
+intervals all over its surface by gray and yellow patches that show
+where a _boca-mina_, or opening to a mine, is located. In the
+early hours of the morning when the Indians are on their way to work,
+the Cerro is alive with moving colors, the bright yellow, red, or
+green skirts and _ponchos_ giving a kaleidoscopic effect to the
+scene. Both men and women work at the mines, the women being engaged
+in pounding and sorting the ore which is deposited in sheds for the
+purpose. Although most of the mines are located at an altitude of
+seventeen thousand feet or more, the people seem to be so accustomed
+to the rarefied atmosphere that they do not notice it, and it is a
+remarkable fact that at the altitude of twelve thousand five hundred
+feet at Lake Titicaca one suffers far more difficulty in breathing
+than at the much greater height of Potosí. There is something quite
+picturesque in the appearance of the Potosí miner, whose garb is a
+mixture of European and Indian dress, and even the little tallow dip
+which he wears in his cap attracts attention, not only by its shape,
+which is like a tiny tin jug with the wick lying over the spout, but
+because it is invariably ornamented by a small cross which stands up
+from the rim as a conspicuous adornment.
+
+  [Illustration: SILVER AND TIN MINES, REAL SOCAVÓN, POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: ESTABLISHMENT OF SOUX AND HERNANDEZ FOR
+  VARIOUS TREATMENTS OF TIN ORES, POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: ASSORTED TIN ORES FOR TREATMENT AT HUAYRA,
+  POTOSÍ.]
+
+A traveller riding up the winding heights of the Cerro de Potosí is at
+once struck by the prevalence of great masses of petrified lava that
+are seen everywhere around the base of the mountain, and at each turn
+the impression grows stronger that the huge pyramid, constituting a
+solid mass of metal, is an upheaval from the very centre of volcanic
+energy. Though the Spaniards mined only for silver, the Cerro contains
+also quantities of copper, iron, and lead, and it is to-day one of
+the chief centres of the tin-mining industry, which, by the enormous
+abundance of this important metal, promises to make Bolivia as
+famous commercially in the twentieth century as Alto Peru was in the
+sixteenth. Although only a few mines have been opened, Bolivia already
+ranks high among the tin producing countries, and new discoveries of
+the deposit are constantly being made. Many mine owners of Potosí are
+devoting special attention to the tin ores and are treating the silver
+production as of lesser importance for the time being until conditions
+become more favorable to resume this mining as the principal industry.
+There is an abundance of tin in the Cerro, where it is found in layers
+between the veins of silver, as, for instance, silver is found near the
+summit, then, lower down, there are tin mines, and below them again are
+veins of silver. The mines of the Real Socavón, or Royal Silver Mines,
+are located near the base of the mountain and yield both silver and
+tin. There are only two important mines near the foot of the Cerro,
+the Real Socavón, which is the property of an English company, and
+the Socavón Porvenir which belongs to Señor Don Juan M. Saracho, the
+Bolivian minister of public instruction. These two mines perforate
+the mountain from east to west, having the great advantage that they
+cut through all the veins, which run from north to south. Though the
+work has been delayed through lack of sufficient capital and because
+of the more rapid returns which the mining of tin brings at present,
+they offer great promise with the investment of larger funds. The
+Royal Silver Mining Company owns, in addition to the Real Socavón,
+the old mines of Cotamitos, Forzados, and Candelaria, higher up the
+Cerro. In fact, nearly all the mines now in operation in Bolivia are
+the same properties as those worked under the Spanish viceroyalty,
+except that the present system is more modern and the mining is
+not so superficially conducted. The Real Socavón has all necessary
+conveniences for the work, such as a railway through the various
+galleries, and air tubes for ventilation. It is possible to ride on
+horseback through the principal corridors, so high is the tunnel. The
+rich vein in this mine produces daily three _cajones_, equivalent
+to five thousand pounds each, of silver metal of a standard of fifty to
+sixty _marcos_, a _marco_ being equal to seven and one-half
+ounces troy, and about twenty per cent tin, and the output will be
+increased, with the completion of certain improvements, to eight to
+ten _cajones_ of a standard of fourteen to fifteen _marcos_
+and eight to ten per cent of tin. The same process of treatment for
+extracting the silver and tin is in vogue in all the more important
+_ingenios_, or mining establishments, with variations according
+to the predominating quality of ores. When the ore is taken from the
+mine it is transferred to the furnaces or kilns, where the excess of
+sulphur is extracted, and the process of crushing facilitated. After
+being calcined in the furnace, the metal passes to the crusher, from
+which it is taken to another furnace to be chloridized. For very high
+grade ores, which show a large percentage of precious metal, smelting
+is the preferred process, but where the grade is lower the system of
+lixiviation or concentration is used, as in the _ingenios_ of
+Velarde and Huayllahuasi, where both silver and tin ores are treated.
+These establishments, which are owned by Messrs. Soux and Hernandez,
+are worked in connection with the company’s mines, which are counted
+among the richest of the Cerro. In the _ingenios_ of Bebin
+Brothers, known as Santa Rosa and Huayra, the smelting process is
+used in the former, and concentration in the latter establishment.
+The minerals from the mines of Señor Matias de Mendieta are treated
+by concentration, as are also those of the Ingenio San Marcos, owned
+by Mr. Robert Scott. In the establishment Quintanilla, the property
+of Señor Juan Rubarth, both smelting and concentration are used in
+the treatment of the ores. These firms are all engaged chiefly in
+the exploitation of tin mines, but they regard the silver production
+as an assured source of wealth, only held in reserve for the time
+being, while tin is so much more in demand and brings better prices.
+Señor Don Juan Ugarteche, managing director of Bebin Brothers, mines,
+estimates the entire production of the Cerro de Potosí, at present, as
+four million bolivianos annually, and he places the gross average grade
+of the metals as twenty per cent pure, though he says a great deal of
+it is sixty per cent pure, and is exported to Europe without previous
+treatment of any kind.
+
+  [Illustration: BARS OF TIN PREPARED FOR SHIPMENT, MINES OF
+  BEBIN BROTHERS, POTOSÍ.]
+
+It is interesting to visit an _ingenio_ and to follow the various
+methods by which the ore is treated before it comes out of the last
+ordeal a shining block of silver or tin, ready to be loaded on the
+backs of the mules, llamas, and donkeys, to be carried to the railway
+station or to the seaport of Antofagasta for shipment. The large sacks
+which contain ore to be shipped in crude condition, just as the mineral
+is taken from the mines, are sometimes loaded on muleback, but the
+square blocks, weighing about twenty-five pounds each, are generally
+carried by llamas. The courtyard of an _ingenio_ presents a
+busy sight on shipping day. It is particularly entertaining to see
+the _arrieros_ being photographed at the Huayra and Santa Rosa
+establishments before they set out with their cargoes. One after
+another, they face the camera, with their numbers held in plain view
+so that there may be no mistake. The purpose of this is to enable the
+company to identify an _arriero_ in case of his absconding or
+deserting his cargo. There is no danger of his stealing the silver or
+tin blocks, but there is always the possibility that he may grow tired
+of his task before he gets to his destination, and leave cargo, mules,
+and llamas in the road while he seeks more congenial employment. By
+means of the photograph, such a delinquent may be easily traced; at any
+rate, it has proved to the employers an excellent system for keeping
+informed regarding the whereabouts and conduct of these Indians. The
+delinquents furnish a sort of “rogues’ gallery” as a safeguard to
+mining establishments. But usually the _arrieros_ are faithful and
+dependable, arriving sooner or later at their destination, whether it
+is ten leagues or five hundred, no matter what may be the condition of
+the weather or the roads. They do not make record-breaking journeys, as
+the llama and the Indian have a common aversion to speed, the llama’s
+nine or ten miles a day being quite in accord with his driver’s ideas
+of pedestrianism. When noon comes the load is taken from the animal’s
+back, and he strolls away to find forage on the mountain sides, while
+his master stretches himself on the ground for a nibble at his handful
+of parched corn, after which he takes a siesta. It may be one hour or
+three before the caravan moves on, but nobody is disturbed about so
+trifling a difference in the schedule, and a few days more or less on
+the road are not to be considered. Naturally, the mining companies are
+glad to know that a system of railways will soon give them an improved
+freight service, but there will no doubt always be enough business to
+keep the llama and his driver as much occupied as these leisure-loving
+companions care to be.
+
+  [Illustration: CARTS OF SILVER ORE EN ROUTE FROM HUANCHACA
+  MINES.]
+
+The history of the discovery of the Potosí mines is associated with the
+records of the still older mines of Porco, which, tradition says, were
+discovered by the Inca Maita-Ccapac, when that great Peruvian emperor
+conquered the Charcas tribes, centuries before the Spaniards came to
+the New World. The annals of the Imperial City record that in 1462
+Huayna-Ccapac, while on his way to the mines of Porco, spent one night
+within view of the now famous Cerro de Potosí, and was so impressed
+by the belief that the great mountain contained riches in silver that
+he ordered his servants to go there and dig for the precious metal.
+In obedience to the royal command, they approached the Cerro and were
+about to begin their task, when a terrific peal of thunder held them
+spellbound, and a voice from the silence that followed called to them:
+“Touch not the silver of this Cerro, because it is for other owners!”
+Terror-stricken, the servants of the Inca fled, and, seeking their
+royal master, told him of the extraordinary occurrence, repeating
+the word _potojsi!_ which is Quichua, meaning “it made a loud
+noise!” This story is another instance of Garcilaso de la Vega’s
+picturesque philology, and its naïve transparency is like many other
+interpretations from his fanciful pen.
+
+The thunder that rolls over the Cerro de Potosí is sufficient to
+suggest the still, small voice forbidding approach even to-day, and
+there are few places on the globe where an electrical storm is more
+magnificent and startling. A less imaginative authority derives Potosí
+from a Quichua word, _potojchi_, meaning “fountain of silver.” It
+is further related that Atahuallpa, the last of the ruling Incas, who
+came to Porco to collect an army for the conquest of Chile, also passed
+the Cerro de Potosí, but did not approach it because of the command
+the mysterious voice had given to his royal ancestor. Yet it was an
+Indian, after all, who first discovered the precious silver of Potosí.
+A shepherd named Guallca, after searching in vain for hours to find
+one of his flock, caught the truant animal on the Cerro just as night
+came on. He tethered the sheep and prepared to spend the night on the
+mountain, lighting a fire to protect him from the bitter cold. The next
+morning he was surprised to see that a stream of silver had flowed from
+the place where the fire was built, and formed a white stripe on the
+dark red of the Cerro. The Indian reported the matter to the Spanish
+captain, Don Juan de Villarroel, who, in company with Don Diego Centeno
+and Don Alonso Santandia, founded the first mine in Potosí in 1545, the
+famous “Descubridora,” out of which fifty million dollars’ worth of
+silver was taken in an incredibly short time, and which continued for
+two centuries to be one of the richest mines in the world.
+
+  [Illustration: LOADING TIN ON CARTS, MULES, AND LLAMAS, SOUX
+  AND HERNANDEZ SMELTING FOUNDRY, POTOSÍ.]
+
+If the Cerro de Potosí is noted as the site of the most famous silver
+mines of Alto Peru, Huanchaca can claim the honor of being the centre
+of the richest silver mines of Bolivia; for what the wealth of Potosí
+was to the viceroyalty, the enormous treasure of Huanchaca has been to
+the republic,--one of the most important sources of its revenue. And
+the Huanchaca mining company has been a potent agency in developing
+the industrial and commercial interests of the country, by taking the
+initiative in the construction of its railways, telegraph lines, and
+other public improvements.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF HUANCHACA, CENTRE OF RICH SILVER MINES.]
+
+The usual element of romance, which is associated with the discovery of
+mines everywhere, is not wanting in the history of Huanchaca, and the
+reward of long and patient search is as beautifully illustrated in the
+case of its discoverer as in the experience of other famous treasure
+seekers, to whom Fortune has come with her hands full of riches just
+as Fate was about to throw over them the pall of despair. Don Mariano
+Ramirez had been looking for gold and silver for twenty years before
+chance led him to the treasure which has made his name famous, and
+his discovery great, as one of the most important industrial events
+of the nineteenth century. Everyone who lived fifty years ago in the
+district of the now famous Huanchaca knew Don Mariano. He worked for
+years in the mines of Ubina, twenty leagues from Pulacayo, with little
+success, but with constant hope that some day would see the realization
+of his dream of discovering a rich vein. He won the devotion of the
+Indians of that region by his kindness to them, and there was not a
+native for miles around who would not run to do him a service. While
+his white companions made him the butt of their jokes and ridicule,
+the Indians held him in the greatest respect and affection. Finally,
+one day, an old Indian woman, whom he had cured of a wound, sought him
+in his little hut at Ubina and told him that if he would follow her
+she would take him to a place where plenty of precious metal could be
+found, without the hard work that was killing her _patron_ at
+Ubina. Don Mariano permitted himself to be conducted by her across the
+country, though secretly blaming himself for such absurd credulity,
+and frequently stopping to ask his guide where she was leading him
+and what reason she had for believing there was treasure there. At
+last, as they reached the heights of Pulacayo, she turned to him, and,
+pointing ahead, said: “Now, _patron_, you have only to go over
+there and begin to dig; you will find silver enough to build a city.”
+This occurred in 1837, and from that day Ramirez began to realize his
+fondest hopes, for all that the Indian had told him proved true. He
+died, however, without reaping the full reward which this great silver
+mine promised, and it was not until many years later, when the present
+Compañía Huanchaca de Bolivia was formed in 1875, that the mines began
+to yield the enormous riches which have made Pulacayo famous as the
+second silver-producing district in the world, Broken Hill, Australia,
+being entitled to preëminence.
+
+  [Illustration: AQUEDUCT OF YURA, CARRYING WATER TO THE
+  HUANCHACA MINES.]
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF PULACAYO MINES, HUANCHACA.]
+
+Within the past quarter of a century these mines have given to the
+world nearly five thousand tons of silver, worth twenty-five million
+pounds sterling. The mountain from which this enormous wealth has been
+extracted is one of the scattered _cerros_ apparently belonging
+to the Cordillera de los Frailes, near the southwestern border of the
+republic. The mining towns of Pulacayo and Huanchaca are situated on
+the opposite sides of the Cerro, at an altitude of fifteen thousand
+feet above sea level, and about nine miles in a direct line from Uyuni,
+where the Huanchaca railway forms a junction with the Antofagasta
+and Oruro line. A ride on the Huanchaca railroad is an experience to
+be remembered, as the train follows a succession of rapid curves,
+travelling fifteen miles on its circuitous route. The ascent is sharp
+in places, as Pulacayo lies fifteen hundred feet higher than Uyuni.
+The road leads up the side of the mountain, through several cuts
+between great rocks twenty or thirty feet high, and at an elevated
+point it passes through one of the longest tunnels in the world, eleven
+thousand feet in extent, which required five years for building and
+cost over half a million bolivianos. The scenery is magnificent all
+along the route, a distant view southward showing the white summit of
+Chorolque against a blue sky, while a nearer prospect gives glimpses
+of the snow range of the Frailes and the brown slopes of lesser peaks.
+As soon as the present company was organized, the work of building a
+cart road from Huanchaca, where the _ingenios_ for the treatment
+of ores from the mine of Pulacayo were then located, to Cobija on the
+Pacific coast, at that time a Bolivian port, was undertaken and carried
+to successful conclusion in a remarkably short time. The product of
+the mines was shipped to Europe from the port of Cobija until the War
+of the Pacific closed this outlet, and it became necessary to seek
+an Argentine port. With this object in view, the company constructed
+a telegraph line, the first in Bolivia, to connect Huanchaca with
+the official headquarters which were then in Sucre, extending it to
+Potosí and Tupiza, to facilitate communication with that section of
+the country and through Tupiza with Argentina. The company still owns
+this line, as well as an additional service to Ollagüe on the border of
+Chile, an extension, in all, of about five hundred miles. As soon as
+Bolivian traffic was reëstablished through Pacific ports, the Huanchaca
+company, realizing the necessity for railway transportation to the
+coast, began the construction of the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway,
+which, as previously stated, was sold later to an English company, with
+the exception of the branch from Uyuni to Huanchaca.
+
+About three years ago a decline in the price of silver obliged the
+Compañía Huanchaca to seek means of reducing the expense of exploiting
+and treating the minerals of Pulacayo, especially in the matter of
+fuel, as coal cost five pounds sterling per ton, and necessitated
+enormous expenditure for this item alone. At the same time that the
+decline of silver came to embarrass the operations of the enterprise,
+another calamity befell the company in the inundation of the principal
+galleries of the mine, and at one time the outlook was almost hopeless,
+the water invading depths of one thousand five hundred feet in some
+places. Apparently the only way to save the situation was by adopting
+electricity as a motor power; and this was done, the force being
+generated by means of water obtained from the Yura River, twenty
+leagues distant, and conducted through an aqueduct having a fall of
+thirty-five feet. Electricity equivalent to three thousand horse power
+was thus transmitted on three wires of one thousand horse power each,
+representing twenty-five thousand volts, and the problem of draining
+the mine and establishing it once more on a paying basis was finally
+solved. This electric installation ranks fifth in importance in the
+world, and is a credit to the enterprise of the company, which is shown
+also in many other modern improvements. A huge Corliss engine of one
+thousand horse power has recently been installed in the mine, with
+capacity to generate a sufficient current for the electric engines
+of the establishment; and when the Yura plant is not working, this
+machinery supplies all the force required. Another Corliss engine, of
+three hundred and fifty horse power, is used for compressing air with
+which to ventilate the mines, and for hoisting purposes. Decauville
+electrical engines are used in some departments, and the machinery for
+illuminating the offices and mines by electricity is of the latest
+model and perfection. The machine shops and foundry are the largest in
+Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: LAKE AND DAM IN THE CORDILLERA, SUPPLYING
+  WATER TO HUANCHACA MINES.]
+
+The automobile has invaded the Huanchaca mines; and although not of
+a boulevard model, it is quite as rapid a motor machine as the more
+ornamental specimens. Two North American ladies who visited the mines
+recently were taken into the interior in an auto, over more than
+two miles of tracks, the route leading through passages brilliantly
+lighted by electricity and built of solid stone masonry, constituting
+a succession of well-arched and well-ventilated tunnels. During this
+subterranean trip the party passed a little chapel in one of the
+galleries, in which is a silver image of Christ. It was touching to
+see the stolid miners remove their caps as they passed, none of them
+failing to show this mark of veneration for the sacred image. There are
+twelve miles of galleries in the mine, and nearly ten miles of rails.
+Seven shafts are used, of which some are a quarter of a mile in depth.
+
+About three thousand workmen are employed by the Compañía Huanchaca
+de Bolivia, and at least a thousand women are engaged in sorting the
+ores and arranging them according to quality and properties. It is
+marvellous how expert these women become in their tasks, and with what
+apparent indifference they toss the pieces of metal on one pile or
+another, chattering and gossiping with one another, and seeming not to
+take the slightest notice of the kind of ore they are handling. Yet
+they never make a mistake, and the administrator of the mine says they
+are quicker than an experienced chemist in detecting different classes
+of minerals. They seem to enjoy their work, to which they have become
+so accustomed that they will sit for hours in the same position, on the
+ground, with their feet curled under them, scarcely moving except to
+reach for a piece of ore that has rolled away from the pile in front of
+them.
+
+Every system known in the modern treatment of minerals is used in the
+various _ingenios_ of Huanchaca; and the electro-magnetic method
+of separation, which has recently been adopted, is probably the first
+of its class in the world installed on such a large scale as it is
+here practised. Formerly, the establishments of Huanchaca, Pulacayo,
+and Ubina smelted all the metal from the Pulacayo mines, but a few
+years ago a large _ingenio_ for the smelting and amalgamation of
+the Pulacayo ores was opened at Playa Blanca, near Antofagasta, where
+machinery was set up on a magnificent scale, costing nearly half a
+million pounds sterling. The entire plant of the company represents an
+outlay of four million pounds sterling. The president, Señor Seneschal
+de la Grange, who lives in Paris, paid a visit to the mines last year,
+investigated the various institutions of the city of Pulacayo, as well
+as the mining establishments, and made a note of necessary improvements
+to be effected in the educational and charitable advantages offered the
+inhabitants.
+
+Ten thousand people live in Pulacayo, and are supported by the mine and
+the different industries connected with its exploitation. Everything
+in the city belongs to the Huanchaca company, and no one can live
+in the community without permission from this authority. All the
+officials of the municipality are appointed by the company, and every
+institution is under its direct supervision and government. There are
+several churches, schools, and hospitals, and the town has a good
+theatre. It is a typical mining town among the mountains, built like an
+amphitheatre on the slope of the Cerro, and the steep, narrow streets
+present a puzzling problem to the foreigner who makes a first attempt
+to scale their uncertain heights.
+
+  [Illustration: ARRIEROS PHOTOGRAPHED FOR IDENTIFICATION,
+  POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF POTOSÍ DURING A FEAST DAY
+  PROCESSION.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+
+             POTOSÍ, THE FAMOUS VILLA IMPERIAL OF COLONIAL
+                     SPAIN--ONE OF BOLIVIA’S MOST
+                          PICTURESQUE CITIES
+
+
+A brilliant past still casts its glamour over the historic city of
+Potosí. Romance lingers about its wonderful old palaces, fascinating
+in their antiquated style, with their exquisitely carved doorways and
+curiously wrought _miradores_. Unwritten history is suggested in
+every varying design, and in a thousand indefinable touches of the
+elaborate art that constructed them in centuries gone by. Imagination
+revelling in the presence of these charming old edifices, pictures
+with vivid pleasure the scenes and events of their past, long since
+forgotten by the people, except as preserved in many enchanting
+traditions. As the traveller rides up the steep, narrow streets,
+they appear silent and deserted, except in the main thoroughfare,
+where busy vendors exhibit their wares in gayly decorated booths
+in front of their little shops, and exchange the gossip of the day
+across the pebble-paved _calle_. The scarlet, yellow, and green
+_ponchos_, blankets of a gorgeous mixture in hue, and bright
+articles of every description, which hang outside the shops, give a
+welcome dash of color and warmth to the otherwise rather _triste_,
+though wonderfully picturesque, little city at the base of the great
+silver mountain. There is an attractiveness about it all which few
+cities of the New World possess. A heritage of fanciful legends and
+traditions, supported by artistic relics of architectural grandeur and
+historic records of daring patriotism, makes the quaint old town rich
+in treasure more valuable than the precious metal of its famous Cerro.
+There is hardly a house without its tradition, or some story of a great
+event which occurred on the spot where it is built.
+
+  [Illustration: MONUMENT OF LIBERTY, POTOSÍ.]
+
+In the quaint fashion of the chronicles of the period, it is recorded
+in September, 1545, that Captain Villarroel, Don Diego Centeno, and
+other Spanish nobles founded the city of Potosí, and that “the building
+continued so rapidly the two following years that houses were put up
+without digging proper foundations or levelling the streets,” which
+is not surprising when one reads that the population increased by
+twelve thousand inhabitants during that short time. One of the first
+large edifices completed was the cathedral in 1547, the churches of
+San Francisco, San Lorenzo, and Santa Barbara being constructed the
+following year. The interesting chronicle gives a chapter to the story
+of the miraculous arrival at the church of San Francisco, the same
+year, of the image of the Holy Christ of the True Cross. To use the
+enthusiastic description of the chronicler: “That wonder of sculpture,
+that prodigy of marvels, that amazing power of miracles, that true
+father of mercies, from which Potosí experiences singular and daily
+favors, I say, and I do declare it once for all, the Holy Christ of
+the True Cross, appeared in the door of San Francisco, without anyone
+knowing whence it came, who sent it, or who brought it hither; it was
+found in a box in the form of a cross, and, as I say, without its being
+known whence it came or who was the artificer, though it appears not
+to have been made by human hands, for it is all a miracle. In this way
+was it found, though it is said by some that it was first discovered
+in one of the ports of the Indies, with an address on the box which
+read ‘for San Francisco de Potosí.’” As stated elsewhere, the literary
+chronicles of those days were chiefly the work of the clergy, which no
+doubt accounts for the importance given to this event, only one of many
+of like character.
+
+  [Illustration: THE IMPERIAL CITY OF POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: CITY HALL, POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: PICHINCHA PLAZA, POTOSÍ.]
+
+Within five or six years after the city of Potosí was founded, the
+fame of the Cerro began to bring fortune seekers and all classes
+of adventurers from Europe, while the importance of his Catholic
+majesty’s possessions here required that the highest representatives of
+the government should be sent to supervise the collection of the royal
+funds. Spanish nobles were charged with the management of the royal
+treasury and the mint in the new country, and their residence in Potosí
+made that city the centre of great display and luxury. Magnificent
+palaces were built, special architects being brought from Spain to
+superintend the construction, and, in recognition of the importance
+of the new city, the Emperor Charles V. bestowed upon it the title of
+Villa Imperial de Potosí. In 1565 Philip II. presented the city with a
+coat of arms, representing the royal arms of Spain on a silver field,
+an imperial eagle; in the middle of this were two castles and two lions
+counterpoised; and marking the centre of the royal arms was the great
+Cerro de Potosí; the _ne plus ultra_ column appears on each side;
+the imperial crown is the crest, and the columns are ornamented by the
+Collar of the Golden Fleece. The wealth of the city grew so rapidly
+that the extravagance of its citizens became renowned throughout the
+world. The most ordinary utensils for household use were made of silver
+wrought in exquisite designs. A lady’s gown cost five thousand dollars,
+which, three centuries ago, was not the dressmaker’s bagatelle that
+it is to-day, but represented a very fine fortune; Queen Isabella was
+thought recklessly munificent when she spent twenty thousand dollars
+on the fleet that brought Columbus to America. There were some Lucullan
+feasts in the city of the Cerro in those days, if the chronicles are
+to be relied upon which tell us that gay companies of revellers drank
+whole casks of wine at a supper and paid for their patrician taste at
+the rate of thirty dollars a bottle. When in 1559 the news arrived that
+the Emperor Charles V. was dead, the city became as extravagant in its
+grief as it had been in revelry, and the royal obsequies which were
+celebrated in the church of San Francisco cost one hundred and fifty
+thousand dollars, which the record says “is not surprising, as wax
+candles cost twelve dollars a pound.” There appeared to be something
+intoxicating in the atmosphere of so much wealth, and the people lived
+in an excitement of spendthrift follies that verged on mania.
+
+  [Illustration: ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL STREETS OF POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: STREET SCENE SHOWING CERRO DE POTOSÍ IN THE
+  DISTANCE.]
+
+Potosí had its astrologers, the same as the European courts in those
+days, and when the mines failed to yield their usual amount, or plagues
+afflicted the people, as was the case in the sixteenth century, these
+wise men were called upon to “read the stars.” The _Anales de la
+Villa Imperial de Potosí_ gives an entertaining paragraph from
+one of the chief astrologers: “In 1555 the influence of the planets
+Jupiter and Mercury dominate Potosí, the latter inclining the people
+to prudence and intelligence in their manners and business affairs,
+while Jupiter makes them magnanimous and liberal in spirit. The signs
+Venus and Libra incline those born in Potosí to be affectionate and
+fond of music and feasting, as well as devoted to the acquisition of
+wealth and the affairs of gallantry.” Evidently the astrologer knew his
+Potosí! Less lenient are the judgments passed upon the pleasure-loving
+Spanish nobles of Potosí by some authorities, who condemn their
+cruelty to the unfortunate Indians, and their reckless contempt for
+all social laws. The mediæval practices of jealous knights, which
+were beginning to fall into disrepute at that time in Europe, reigned
+in all their intensity in the city of the Cerro, and the priest was
+constantly being dragged from his convent, blindfolded and tied,
+and taken to the Palacio Encantado of the Knights of Santiago, or
+to some other remote and lonely palace to shrive the unhappy victim
+of a tragic crime. But those were the darker features of life in
+the imperial city, and they gradually faded out as the laws became
+better established. The great Viceroy Toledo, who visited Potosí in
+1573 did much to advance the well-being of the city and to correct
+the abuses of his too powerful countrymen. He ordered the streets
+widened and the city divided into separate quarters for the Spaniards
+and the Indians. As may be imagined, the viceroy’s visit was the
+occasion of splendid _fiestas_, pageants and banquets succeeding
+one another for fifteen days without intermission. It was soon after
+his departure that the feud between Vascongado and Vicuña began to
+threaten the peace of the community, and it developed rapidly into a
+terrible war. The Criollos of Potosí joined the Vicuñas, and the last
+few years of the century saw many sanguinary battles between the two
+forces. Their hatred of each other became a motive of rivalry even
+in the _fiestas_. A description of one of these entertainments,
+as given in the chronicles of the period, reads like a tale of the
+Middle Ages: “The sports began with six days of comedies, eight of bull
+fights, three of soirées, two of tournaments and other _fiestas_;
+six nights were given up to the masquers, the Potosinos appearing in
+magnificent style, their persons and horses covered with jewels and
+precious stones. The master of ceremonies for the award of premiums
+was Don Francisco Nicolás de Arsans, a Knight of Calatrava, and
+grandson of the Duke of Alba, a young man whose income represented
+more than five million dollars. On the day of the contest of skill,
+Don Francisco, accompanied by forty young nobles, rode into the plaza,
+where the spectators were assembled, mounted on a magnificently
+caparisoned horse, wearing over his armor a cape embroidered in blue
+damask and sprinkled with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds; his plumed
+helmet glittered with jewels. In his right hand he carried a lance,
+and in the left a shield on which was painted his coat of arms, also
+richly jewelled, with the device _Desde el Alba vine aqui_. His
+saddle was of finely wrought gold, as were his stirrups, and the bridle
+was made of ropes of pearls. His followers, all young scions of the
+highest nobility of Spain, among whom were Don Severino Columbus,
+great-grandson of the discoverer of America, and Don Nicolás Saúlo
+Ponce de Leon, of the ducal house of Arcos, were richly dressed
+and rode splendid chargers, which were caparisoned in the same
+costly style as that of their leader.” The grandest spectacle of the
+_fiestas_ was the parade on the final day. All around the main
+plaza, now called Pichincha Plaza, were arranged tiers of seats for
+the spectators, who represented the wealth and fashion of what was at
+that time one of the richest cities in the world. An enormous fortune
+was displayed in the prizes alone, which were borne to the plaza in
+a gilded coach drawn by two milk-white ponies, “glittering with the
+costly jewels and precious stones that were to be awarded as premiums.”
+The procession eclipsed anything of its kind seen nowadays in elaborate
+style and costliness. First came twelve arquebusiers in scarlet, then
+twelve mousquetaires in Holland cloth bordered with white points, after
+which the triumphal car of gilded silver appeared, drawn by eight
+black horses, in the midst of which was a dais of silver, surmounted
+by a throne of ivory. On the throne was seated the young master of
+ceremonies, wearing over his armor a rich Roman toga, bordered in gold,
+silver, and precious stones; on his head was a wreath of emeralds,
+signifying the laurels of victory; the Cross of the Order of Calatrava,
+which he wore on his breast, was of priceless rubies. Following the
+triumphal car came twelve cavaliers dressed in dark green, riding
+horses of different colors, but all gorgeously caparisoned in gold
+and silver. After these horsemen followed the other participants in
+the parade, each bearing some symbol or emblem of his profession in
+gold, silver, or jewels. Don Severino Columbus appeared with a globe
+of silver; young Ponce de Leon, a Knight of Santiago, bore a silver
+image of the Cerro de Potosí; and another young nobleman’s exhibit
+was a unique representation of the Cerro in an electrical storm, with
+the sound of thunder and the play of lightning and hail ingeniously
+described. Millions of dollars were spent in these _fiestas_,
+the chief object of which was to give the Criollos an opportunity to
+break lances with the Vascongados. One of the bitterest fights ever
+waged between the rival parties arose out of a tourney between Don
+Nicolás Saúlo Ponce de Leon, a Criollo born in Potosí, and Don Sancho
+de Mondragon, a Vascongado, for the hand of a beautiful girl, Margarita
+de Ulloa, who loved Don Nicolás, but had been betrothed to Don Sancho
+against her will. In the tilt, Don Nicolás defeated not only the fiancé
+of his beloved Margarita, but also one hundred of his opponent’s
+followers successively; after which he seized his beautiful sweetheart,
+lifted her to his saddle, and fled with her to Chuquisaca. The story
+of the fleeing lovers, the pursuit by the defeated Don Sancho, the
+sanguinary duels that followed, and the final successful appeal of the
+lovers to the Viceroy of Lima, is one of the most thrilling romances
+of colonial Spain. And it is of peculiar historical interest, since
+the union of a Criollo with the daughter of a Vascongado resulted in a
+later reconciliation between the two parties, at least for a time, and
+the Criollo’s triumph had its influence in shaping political affairs in
+favor of the party which afterward won the independence of the American
+colonies from Spain. As it is seen, a woman had no small share in
+bringing about that portentous event.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD COLONIAL DOORWAY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ.]
+
+With the War of the Independence, and even preceding that time, the
+riches of Potosí began to decline and the city gradually lost its
+magnificence. From a population of more than one hundred and fifty
+thousand inhabitants, the life of the silver capital dwindled until
+its population became less than it is at present, about twenty-two
+thousand inhabitants. But the spirit of the patriotic Criollo never
+died out; and in the long War of the Independence some of the bravest
+fighters were the Potosinos, who spared nothing to achieve the freedom
+of their beloved country. A beautiful story is told by “Brocha Gorda”
+of a Potosí heroine who saved the life of the great Bolivar from
+a premeditated attack of the royalists on the night of his famous
+ascent to the Cerro to plant on its highest peak, nineteen thousand
+feet above the sea level, the sacred standard of liberty. Thanks to
+her watchfulness and warning, the liberator was enabled to outwit his
+enemies and to leave the city without being harmed.
+
+  [Illustration: CERRO DE POTOSÍ, OVERLOOKING THE CITY.]
+
+In the early days of the republic the people of the city of the Cerro
+played an important rôle in political affairs, and Potosí was the scene
+of some of the most notable struggles in the history of the nation.
+Near this city the celebrated Argentine general, Don Bartolomé Mitre,
+who had charge of the Military College of La Paz under General José
+Ballivian’s administration, defeated the revolutionary forces arrayed
+against the government, in recognition of which he received a handsome
+shield and the title of “Well-deserving of the country in heroic and
+eminent degree.” The same distinguished soldier and scholar was later
+imprisoned and banished by Belzu, during a period of rapid changes in
+government, when Potosí was the chief theatre of revolt. While prefect
+of the department, General Campero was seized by the revolutionists
+and was only at the last moment rescued from the scaffold, where he
+was about to be put to death because at the command of the invading
+forces he refused to give up his authority and the protection of the
+National Mint. Many of the most celebrated statesmen of the republic
+have been natives of Potosí, which gave to Bolivia the famous dictator
+Dr. José Maria Linares, the ideal patriot Don Tomás Frias, and other
+great leaders. Among its prefects who have contributed not only to the
+progress of their own departments, but to the lustre of the national
+fame, are such distinguished men as Don Casimiro Olañeta, Don Aniceto
+Arce, Don Manuel José Cortés, Don Juan Crisóstomo Carrillo, Don Modesto
+Omiste, General José Manuel Rendón, Don Demetrio Calbimonte, and Don
+Carlos Torrico, all of whom are known in diplomacy and letters, as
+well as for their executive ability. The present _intendente_
+of Potosí, Señor Don Luis Subieta S., is a clever writer and an
+acknowledged authority on the history of Potosí, to which he has
+devoted years of careful study and research.
+
+  [Illustration: THERMAL SPRINGS OF TARAPAYA, NEAR POTOSÍ.]
+
+Although the city of Potosí does not display the splendor of the former
+Villa Imperial, it has many attractive features, and is, altogether,
+extremely picturesque. The ruins of colonial temples and palaces are
+marvels of preservation, considering the centuries that have passed
+since their construction, one of the most famous being the tower of
+the old Jesuit church, known popularly as the Torre de la Compañía. It
+was built in 1590, remodelled in 1700 by a wealthy miner, Don José de
+Quiroz, who spent a fabulous fortune in works of pious devotion. At his
+own exclusive expense, the altar of the Church of Mercy was gilded. He
+rebuilt the principal chapel of the convent of San Agustin, constructed
+two subterranean vaults and a magnificent altar, and for the rebuilding
+of the Jesuit tower he paid more than forty thousand dollars. The tower
+is built of stone and is divided into three sections, of which the two
+upper ones have seventeen niches for bells and a clock. The tower is
+about sixty feet in height, and is adorned on both sides with handsome
+columns. The capitals, architraves, and cornices are exquisitely
+carved. In the frieze of the entablature is carved in high relief the
+inscription “Praised be the most holy Sacrament of the Altar.” In
+addition to the Jesuit tower and the marvellously carved doorways of
+San Lorenzo and other old temples, the palace of Don José de Quiroz
+is hardly less an object of interest, though it has been divided up
+into many small houses; and the great stone doorway, above which the
+coat of arms of Quiroz, chiselled in marble, may still be seen, now
+marks the entrance to a humble bakeshop. The penitentiary in which the
+unfortunate Indians were punished, is now a mass of forbidding ruins,
+but it serves to recall the stories one has heard of the cruelties of
+the _mita_ system.
+
+  [Illustration: ARTIFICIAL LAKE OF SAN SEBASTIAN, NEAR POTOSÍ.]
+
+The modern attractions of Potosí consist in its spacious and
+picturesque plazas and its public buildings. Plaza Pichincha, which
+is a favorite resort at all times, presents a particularly brilliant
+scene on feast days. On occasions of religious celebrations the
+entire community flocks to the plaza, from which the processions may
+be witnessed to the best advantage, as they leave the cathedral.
+The centre of the plaza is adorned by a handsome monument erected
+to commemorate the Independence. Facing this square are several of
+the most important public buildings, such as the City Hall and the
+celebrated Pichincha College, which was founded in 1826 by General
+Sucre and restored later by General Belzu. It is one of the most
+notable edifices of the city. The public library and museum are of
+especial interest for the splendid old volumes and several notable
+pictures to be seen there. An oil painting of Don Antonio Lopez de
+Quiroga, the first millionaire of the Cerro, and founder of the
+Franciscan Convent of Potosí, occupies a conspicuous place, though the
+position of honor is given to a painting of the Spanish King Charles
+III., which was ordered to be executed for the occasion of that
+monarch’s acclamation in 1760. Potosí has a social club, entertainments
+being given from time to time under its auspices.
+
+  [Illustration: COMMERCIAL HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: BREAD VENDOR, POTOSÍ.]
+
+On a fine day, when the air is clear and the sky wears a deep,
+beautiful blue, such as is seen only at great altitudes where the
+variety of the atmosphere gives it a peculiar brilliancy, the most
+delightful pastime is a ride on the heights around the city, first, of
+course, to the famous Cerro and then to other points of interest in the
+neighborhood. Hours may be spent enjoyably in visiting the artificial
+lakes, which were built by the Spaniards for the purpose of securing a
+constant and permanent water supply for the _ingenios_, and which
+are still in use. The enormous scale on which these establishments
+were conducted may be judged from the statement that they extended
+in a continuous line from the upper part of the city to a distance
+of more than a league below it. From the artificial lakes above came
+surging down the mountain side the great stream of water, equivalent to
+a river in volume, which, after flowing through these _ingenios_
+to operate the machinery and wash the metal, was so deeply colored in
+transit that it carried a rich red tide all the way to the Pilcomayo,
+leagues below, into which it was discharged. The work of building the
+lakes was begun in 1574 and completed in 1621 at a cost of two million
+five hundred thousand dollars. The first to be finished were those
+of the Cerro of Cari-cari, called San Ildefonso and San Pablo, after
+which followed San Sebastian, Illimani, and the rest, thirty-two in
+all, though only twenty-two remain. The largest of these is Chalviri,
+three miles in circumference, and about thirty feet in average depth,
+which is filled with water six months of the year and supplies the
+city fountains as well as the mining establishments. The lakes are
+all located at great altitudes, those of Illimani and San Sebastian
+being sixteen thousand feet above sea level, and they are surrounded
+by a series of walls, the first of which is of stone, to receive the
+shock of the suddenly checked torrent which pours into the lake from
+the neighboring summits. The second wall is of clay, the third of
+limestone, and the fourth and fifth are of limestone and clay, the
+thickness of the five walls being from thirty to forty feet. A system
+of ditches connects the lakes with one another, and the water is
+brought down to the city through a conduit more than fifteen miles in
+length. By the system in use at the present time, each of the lakes has
+a sluice which controls the amount of water discharged from it. San
+Sebastian is the receiving medium for the water from all the lakes, and
+from it the current is carried down to the city, as required.
+
+  [Illustration: ARTIFICIAL LAKE ILLIMANI, SIXTEEN THOUSAND
+  FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL, NEAR POTOSÍ.]
+
+Before the artificial lakes of Potosí were constructed, the problem of
+supplying water for mining establishments was brought to the attention
+of the Viceroy Toledo, as up to that time it had been necessary to
+use the most inadequate machinery, worked by Indians and mules,
+in pulverizing the metals. The viceroy, in company with leading
+miners, reconnoitred the neighboring country, and decided that the
+_quebrada_ of Tarapaya offered the only solution of the question,
+as here was abundance of water. Accordingly, the first _ingenios_
+were established in this cañon, twelve miles west of the city. The
+fame of Tarapaya antedates that of the Cerro de Potosí, its marvellous
+thermal springs having been a favorite resort long before the Spaniards
+came to America. The principal spring is a deep, round pool, which has
+been called the “swallower of men,” because of the many drowned in its
+deceptive depths. Maita-Ccapac, when on a visit to the mines of Porco,
+stopped at Tarapaya, and first made the spring famous by giving it the
+royal favor. He beautified the place, making the spring a perfectly
+circular lake, as it remains to this day. The thermal waters in the
+vicinity of Potosí are of a very healthful quality, and wonderful cures
+have been effected at Miraflores and Don Diego, and other springs.
+
+Potosí is on the direct transportation highway northward and
+southward, and by the system of railways under construction it will be
+connected with all the chief cities and brought several days nearer
+the coast. Then every tourist to South America can visit the famous
+Cerro and enjoy one of the grandest sights in the whole realm of
+Nature, as unfolded to view from its heights. At one’s feet lies the
+quaint old city, with its Spanish _calles_ and its picturesque
+_miradores_, its colonial ruins and the more modern edifices,
+and beyond, the view appears to stretch to infinity; far away is the
+scintillating Cordillera de los Frailes, reflecting the sun’s rays as
+if every separate peak were a huge diamond flashing under the strong
+white light; nearer are the peaks of the many _serranias_ that
+cling like fringe to the great Royal Range. Wherever the gaze is
+turned, the vision is a succession of mountain summits, purples, dark
+reds, lighter grays, and snow white. There is still another potent
+attraction--the kind and hospitable people of Potosí have a pleasant
+welcome for all who visit their city.
+
+  [Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF POTOSÍ.]
+
+  [Illustration: COROCORO, CENTRE OF THE GREATEST COPPER MINES
+  IN SOUTH AMERICA.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+
+             RICH SILVER, TIN, AND COPPER MINES OF WESTERN
+                         BOLIVIA--MINING LAWS
+
+
+  [Illustration: IN THE HEART OF THE COROCORO COPPER REGION.]
+
+Though the fame of Bolivia as a mining country has been gained chiefly
+by the enormous production of the Potosí and Huanchaca silver mines,
+these colossal treasures do not by any means represent all the mineral
+wealth stored in its mountains and carried down its streams. Almost
+every known metal exists in some section of the country, and silver,
+tin, and copper are found in several districts that have become
+celebrated, and rank among the richest in the world. Colquechaca
+silver, Oruro tin, and Corocoro copper are known in all the great
+markets and represent the best quality of these valuable metals to
+be found. The geologic formation of a country so noted for valuable
+ores is interesting for the relation it bears to these deposits. Of
+the mountain systems, which are its chief feature, says an eminent
+authority, the Coast Range is essentially volcanic, tertiary formations
+are met with on the high plateau between the Coast Range and the
+Cordillera Real, and the latter, on the eastern side, presents a
+vast extent of Silurian slates and shales, usually tilted at high
+angles and frequently bent and distorted. Fossils are scarce, though
+the ancient ripple and rain marks are extremely clear and abundant.
+Trilobites are met with in the valleys to the southeast of La Paz.
+The carboniferous system appears to exist along the extreme east of
+the Andes and indications of petroleum are met with at various points
+in the foothills. Along the southern part of the plateau there is an
+extensive formation of trachytic porphyry which appears to have been
+ejected and to have spread over the older rocks. The ravine in which
+the city of La Paz is situated cuts through and exposes a horizontal
+layer, some twenty feet thick, of volcanic ashes with fragments of
+pumice stone, evidently deposited under water although it is now
+buried some six hundred feet below the surface of the plains; further
+south this layer crops out at various points and is visible for some
+seventy miles. Probably it was ejected from the Sajama and neighboring
+volcanoes at the time when the great lake, of which Titicaca and Poopo
+are the surviving features, occupied the entire plateau. Eruptions of
+porphyritic and other igneous rocks are seen at many points along the
+eastern side of the tableland, breaking through and distorting the
+older shales and slates and forming a distinctive feature of all the
+silver and tin mining centres.
+
+The _serrania_ in which the silver mines of Colquechaca are
+located is in the heart of one of the richest mineral regions of
+the globe. Colquechaca is the provincial capital of Chayanta in the
+department of Potosí, and is situated midway between the railroad town
+of Challapata and the city of Sucre. It has been a mining centre for
+hundreds of years, though under Spanish rule the mines were worked only
+in a superficial and primitive way; and when the War of Independence
+put a stop to all mining industry, they were abandoned, as were nearly
+all the great mines of the country. About twenty-five years ago the
+exploitation of the Colquechaca minerals was established on a practical
+and permanent basis, and since that time the mines have yielded nearly
+a hundred million bolivianos. The Colquechaca silver ores yield in some
+instances two thousand seven hundred ounces to the ton, these mines
+being renowned throughout the world for the high-grade _rosicler_,
+which is found in abundance. The Compañía Colquechaca Aullagas
+de Bolivia is the principal owner of the mines of this district,
+controlling six _socavones_, in which several miles of railway
+are operated, equipped with freight cars for hauling the metal out of
+the mine. A traction engine and a Cornish pump have been established,
+and the company has four steam engines and two foundries in connection
+with the mines. The ores are treated in the _ingenios_ of Rosario
+and Palca. Since the closure of the Indian mints to the free coinage
+of silver in 1893, and the consequent heavy fall in the price of the
+metal, Colquechaca has been worked for other metals as well as silver,
+the production of this mineral being necessarily reduced. The same
+circumstances have prevailed in nearly all the silver-mining districts,
+though the metal is still produced in considerable quantities in Cinti,
+Porco, Portugalete, Andacaba, and other well-known silver mines. It is
+probable that with the completion of the railway system, the improved
+facilities for transportation will revive this industry throughout the
+whole country with wonderful results.
+
+At present, Bolivia is gaining worldwide fame by the enormous quantity
+and excellent quality of tin which the country produces. This metal
+has not as yet been found anywhere in the Coast Range of the Andes,
+but it abounds in the Royal Range. Mr. John Minchin, an authority on
+everything connected with Bolivian mines, says that ores running as
+high as forty or fifty per cent of fine tin are not uncommon, and under
+favorable circumstances as low as three per cent may be worked to a
+small profit, but the average contents in fine tin of ores worked by
+the larger enterprises may be estimated at from eight to ten per cent.
+Ores worked more especially for silver also frequently contain from two
+to five per cent of tin oxide, which in such cases is cheaply extracted
+from the tailings resulting from amalgamation or lixiviation. Water
+power is scarce on the plateau, and, in consequence, steam power is
+employed in the mining establishments, native fuels being chiefly used,
+as coal costs eight pounds sterling per ton at the railway stations.
+Of late years several anthracite producer gas engines from the Deutz
+works, in Germany, have been introduced, with very satisfactory results
+as regards economy, the working cost being about twopence per horse
+power, as compared with threepence for native fuel and fourpence to
+fivepence for steam coal. “In spite of all the care at present possible
+in the concentration of tin ores,” says Mr. Minchin, “there is commonly
+a loss of from twenty to twenty-five per cent, though it is hoped that
+this may be reduced later on with improved methods of treatment.”
+
+  [Illustration: COLQUECHACA, CELEBRATED FOR ITS MINES.]
+
+The total tin production of Bolivia for the year 1905, reduced to
+bar tin, was eighteen thousand tons. The development of this branch
+of mining industry is still in its infancy in this country, new
+tin deposits being found constantly, while the few mines that were
+discovered by the Spaniards and the natives long ago are practically
+new in exploitation, never having been worked to any extent formerly,
+as this metal, unlike gold and silver, was not regarded as valuable
+in the earlier days. The history of tin mining is of comparatively
+recent origin, the first tin mines exploited in Europe having been
+those of England and Germany, discovered in the thirteenth century.
+An interesting monograph published by the Oficina Nacional de
+Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geográfica of La Paz gives
+information to prove that the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the province
+of Larecaja, and of other tin-bearing regions of Bolivia, discovered
+tin and worked it, but without being aware of its full value as a
+metal. Archæological investigations show that tin, amalgamated with
+copper, was used by the Aymará and Quichua Indians for making war
+weapons and other objects, though the bronzes of this composition
+indicate only a slight knowledge of its metallurgical possibilities.
+These bronze _huacas_ are found with much more frequency in
+ruins of Quichua construction than in those known to be of Aymará
+origin. This is the more remarkable because the greatest abundance
+of tin is found in the territory occupied by the Aymarás. Tin mines
+were exploited during the Spanish colonial period, but only on a very
+limited scale. In an old document published in 1640, the author, a
+curate of Potosí, calls attention to rich mines of tin in the provinces
+of Chayanta, Larecaja, Oruro, and elsewhere, which he says “were worked
+by the Indians in the time of the Incas, and which have since been
+exploited by the Spaniards.”
+
+  [Illustration: MINING TOWN OF INQUISIVI.]
+
+The tin mining region of Bolivia is divided into four districts: La
+Paz in the north, Oruro in the centre, Chorolque in the south, and
+Potosí in the east. In the department of La Paz, the beautiful snow
+range which extends from Illimani to Sorata, and which is known to
+all travellers who cross Titicaca, because of the enchanting prospect
+it offers as seen from the lake, marks a region rich in minerals,
+especially in tin, silver, iron, and bismuth. Huayna Potosí, with its
+twin peaks, Kaka-aca and Locka, is one of the richest _cerros_
+of this district, and it has been exploited at various periods for
+silver, bismuth, and tin, which are found here in abundance. With the
+investment of large capital, this mountain might prove an enormous
+producer of tin, as it is rich in good ore. A few miles distant from
+Huayna Potosí the peak of Milluni may easily be distinguished among
+the towering summits. It is the site of valuable tin mines and yields
+rich iron ore. The width of the silver veins in this mine varies from
+two to thirteen feet, and enormous quantities of almost pure metal
+are taken out of them, with very little expense. The greater part of
+the work has been done on the surface, in the outcroppings, by means
+of open cuts, so that the interior of the Cerro is hardly known. One
+socavón only has been opened within the mine to a depth of about two
+hundred and fifty feet, with two broad and well built galleries. The
+mines of Huayna Potosí and Milluni are exploited by a French company,
+having headquarters in Paris, and an office in La Paz. Milluni being so
+close to La Paz, and the roads in good condition, cargoes can be taken
+in carts direct from that city or from the port of Chililaya on Lake
+Titicaca, and the rate of shipment from Milluni to Mollendo is less
+than that charged for ores going from Oruro to Antofagasta. In both
+mines lumber for construction purposes is cheaper than in La Paz, as
+it comes chiefly from Songo in the Yungas, only a few miles distant,
+though for Oregon pine the same price is paid as in La Paz, about
+fifteen cents, gold, a square foot. Both Huayna Potosí and Milluni
+are worked for tin at an altitude of sixteen thousand feet above the
+sea. Chacaltaya, a peak which belongs to the same group, is also under
+exploitation, and with more favorable conditions may develop very rich
+lodes, as it has not yet been thoroughly worked.
+
+  [Illustration: CARRYING FREIGHT TO THE MINES OF QUIMSACRUZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: FAMOUS ROSICLER SILVER MINES, COLQUECHACA.]
+
+Probably the richest tin mines of the La Paz district are those of
+Inquisivi, and especially Quimsacruz. Recently these mines have been
+producing enormous quantities of the valuable metal, and, according to
+the noted French geologist Dereims, the lofty range of Tres Cruces,
+otherwise known as Quimsacruz, which rises to an altitude of about
+twenty thousand feet above sea level, contains the richest minerals in
+all Bolivia. This section of the Cordillera Real begins south of the
+peak Illimani, on the opposite side of the natural cut in the great
+range through which the La Paz River flows on its course northward;
+and it extends entirely across the southern part of the province of
+Inquisivi, where it borders the department of Oruro. In this noble
+range tin mines are being worked with magnificent results, and
+mineralogists of eminent authority pronounce this to be the richest
+tin-mining district to be found anywhere, equal to Malacca, which is
+generally supposed to have the finest tin mines in the world. Not
+only tin, but silver and other metals abound here. The Colquiri mine
+was worked by the Spaniards for chloride of silver, the deepest veins
+having been exploited one hundred and seventy-five feet below the
+surface, and at water level. One vein is recognizable for three miles
+on the surface by débris scattered along the course. A tunnel of one
+thousand feet in length still exists, cutting this lode above the level
+of the water, and another vein as long as the one already mentioned.
+Evidently tin as well as silver was extracted in those days, though
+only in small quantities, owing to the indifference universally shown
+by the Spaniards for tin mining. The mineral wealth of Inquisivi
+has recently attracted new enterprises, and several important mines
+have been discovered within the past year or two. The mines of Monte
+Blanco are enormously productive, as are also those of Avicaya, owned
+by Abelli and Company, and the Totoral and Chuncho mines, in the
+Cerro of Challa Grande. These mines are situated near the base of
+the Cerro, Chuncho being at the greatest altitude, near the centre,
+Totoral further down the slope, and Avicaya four hundred feet below
+Totoral. On the opposite side of the Cerro are rich veins of silver,
+and it is noteworthy that all the tin mines of Quimsacruz are on the
+south side of the range, the mineral veins on the eastern slopes being
+silver, while on the north is found auriferous quartz. Tin mining in
+the mountains of Tres Cruces offers a particularly promising prospect,
+as is proved by the new discoveries of this valuable metal which are
+constantly being made in this region.
+
+  [Illustration: IRON MOUNTAIN ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO THE
+  MINES.]
+
+  [Illustration: MOUNT KAKA-ACA.]
+
+In the tin-mining district of Potosí are included the rich
+_cerros_ of the province of Chayanta, in which are found the mines
+of Uncía and Llallagua, both in the Cerro de Uncía. This mountain was
+formerly noted for the rich quality of silver taken from its mines, but
+at present it is worked chiefly for tin. The Compañía Minera Uncía,
+which is under the direction of Mr. John B. Minchin, owns several
+of the principal mines of the Cerro, which are exploited according
+to the most modern methods and are producing a superior quality of
+tin. The output of this company’s mines for the year 1905 amounted
+to four hundred and eighty-five tons of two thousand two hundred and
+forty pounds. Modern machinery is used in the treatment of the ores
+by lixiviation and other processes. The Salvadora mines, of Uncía,
+owned by Don S. Patiño, are also yielding a large quantity of rich
+tin under the modern system of treatment which the ores receive in
+the well-equipped establishments. Llallagua is the centre of some
+of the most valuable tin mines in Bolivia. The name of one of the
+leading statesmen of the country, General Sainz, is associated with the
+exploitation of the chief of these mines, which owe their development
+to the Empresa Llallagua, of which he was the organizer and chief
+owner. Last year General Sainz negotiated with a Chilean-Bolivian
+syndicate, which agreed to purchase this valuable property. The capital
+stock of the new company is one hundred thousand pounds sterling,
+divided into one hundred shares of one thousand pounds sterling each,
+and the directors are leading financiers of Chile and Bolivia. The
+mineral wealth of Llallagua is comprised in three mines now under
+exploitation. La Blanca, San José, and Quinsachata, which cover a
+territory of about one thousand acres. The mines are situated about
+forty miles east of Challapata, and three miles from Uncía. A cart
+road connects the mines of both Llallagua and Uncía with the railway,
+the construction of this highway having been completed at the expense
+of the mine owners, General Sainz and Mr. Minchin. The new railroad
+now being built from Oruro to Potosí will pass through these mining
+properties. The production of the Llallagua mines is estimated at five
+tons daily of _barrilla de estaño_, or concentrate tin, of seventy
+per cent tin, of the best quality. The establishments in which the ores
+of these mines are treated are equipped with modern machinery, and a
+trolley connects the mines with the _ingenio_ for concentration.
+The minerals from this part of Bolivia are shipped by way of
+Antofagasta, while those of Huayna Potosí, Milluni, and other mineral
+districts in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, are carried across the
+lake to Puno and thence to Mollendo.
+
+  [Illustration: TRANSPORTATION OF COPPER FROM THE COROCORO
+  MINES.]
+
+On the Titicaca plateau, about fifty miles southwest of La Paz, are
+located the extensive copper mines of Corocoro, the richest in South
+America. Like other famous mines of Bolivia the wealth of Corocoro was
+discovered long ago by Indians, but it is only within recent years that
+its treasures have been exploited with important results. The copper
+lodes of Corocoro exist in a sandstone formation, the metal being
+met with in solid fragments and in fine grains disseminated through
+the matrix and requiring only grinding and concentration to obtain a
+product containing some eighty-five per cent of copper _barrilla_,
+in which form it is exported. A few of the huge pieces of metal found
+at Corocoro have been placed on exhibition in the museum of La Paz, and
+are considered among the largest ever found in this form, measuring
+many feet in circumference. These masses are called _charquis_.
+The abundance and rich quality of Corocoro copper entitles it to rank
+second only to the famous mines of Lake Superior in the United States.
+There are numerous companies engaged in exploiting the riches of the
+Corocoro region, though probably the largest mining interests here
+are held by a French company under the direction of Señores Berthin,
+who control several mines. The output of the Corocoro mines amounts
+in value to about two million bolivianos annually. In addition to
+Corocoro, which represents the principal wealth of copper-producing
+Bolivia, there are promising deposits in various sections of the
+departments of Potosí, Chuquisaca, and Cochabamba. The Compañía
+Cobrizos de Bolivia has important mines of both copper and silver
+situated about six miles from Rio Grande near the Antofagasta and
+Oruro Railway, southwest of Uyuni, and in the province of Frias, near
+the city of Potosí, metals which some experts claim to be superior in
+quality and equal in quantity to those of Corocoro have been found,
+though the mines are not worked, because of the lack of capital for
+their development. In the province of Porco, in the canton of Yura,
+midway between Huanchaca and Potosí valuable mines of copper, as well
+as of gold, have recently been discovered, and it is only a question of
+a short time when large capital will be invested for their development.
+The railway which is to join Uyuni with Potosí will pass through one
+of the richest mineral regions of the globe, and within twenty-five
+miles of the mines just referred to. A great opportunity is offered in
+Yura for the exploitation of the mines, as there is abundance of water,
+a prime necessity for the economical treatment of the ores. Several
+of the older mines, worked originally for silver, contain in their
+ores from ten per cent to twenty-five per cent of copper, but want of
+capital and high freights have prevented their being worked in modern
+times for copper. Copper pyrites and other copper ores also exist at
+many points, but for similar reasons little attention has as yet been
+given to them. In fact, ores containing anything less than twenty-five
+per cent of copper would not pay to work and export under present
+conditions, and, owing to the scarcity and cost of suitable fuel,
+neither could such ores be advantageously reduced to bar copper in the
+country. The construction of more railways is a vital necessity in
+Bolivia, the Antofagasta line being taxed to the utmost to handle the
+abundant traffic, with the result that freights are necessarily high,
+rendering the importation of machinery, fuel, and general merchandise
+extremely costly, as well as making the export of produce enormously
+expensive.
+
+Mine owners say that the native labor, although at times somewhat
+limited, is not so unsatisfactory as might be supposed, the Indians
+and _cholos_ working steadily and peaceably as a rule, though
+they spend a great deal of time in their numerous _fiestas_, when
+they always require an extra holiday for getting sober and ready for
+work again. A great many mine owners are urging the modification and
+improvement of the mining laws, which, though good in principle, are
+frequently distorted in their application, owing to the interpretation
+put upon them by badly informed petty authorities. The present
+government is devoting careful attention to this as well as to other
+problems which affect the development of the national industries.
+
+The mining laws of Bolivia are liberal and offer few restrictions.
+All metalliferous substances belong to the state. Anyone who enjoys
+civil rights may obtain thirty _pertenencias_ of new mining
+property, and as much as he wants of mining lands already worked.
+The preferred right is given to the first who presents his petition
+for the concession. A _pertenencia_ is a hectare, about two and
+one-half acres, of undefined depth, which is measured in the direction
+requested. The method of exploitation is optional. Concessions are
+perpetual, providing that a _patente_ of four bolivianos per lode
+per annum, and two bolivianos per annum for each _pertenencia_ in
+placer mines is paid semi-annually. The failure to pay for a year is
+sufficient cause for considering the concession abandoned. Machinery
+destined for the exploitation of mines pays no fiscal duties. Inorganic
+substances, with the exception of those of an earthy nature, are
+acquired in conformity with the mining law, concessions being given
+for sixty-four _pertenencias_ in new deposits, and more than that
+territory in old fields. Ten bolivianos is the sum charged for the writ
+of adjudication. The preliminary procedure relative to acquiring mines
+is made in the presence of a special notary resident in the capital
+of the district in which the desired property is found. The prefect
+of the department is the authority through whom the concession of
+_pertenencias_ is transmitted. All matters relative to priority of
+petition, transgression of limits, and similar causes for complaint,
+are brought before the ordinary justices. The owner who desires to
+leave off working his mine must notify the authorities, in order not
+to be held responsible for the payment of _patentes_. In case of
+failure to pay these charges for a year, the mine is auctioned to the
+highest bidder; and failing a purchaser, it remains in possession of
+the state, to be given as a concession to the first petitioner.
+
+  [Illustration: THREE PRINCIPAL MINING ESTABLISHMENTS OF
+  COROCORO: CHILD, CARERAS, AND MALACATE.]
+
+The mining laws which govern the Cerro de Potosí have frequently
+required revision. They are, in some respects, distinct from those
+governing the acquisition of new mines. A great deal of difficulty has
+been encountered in the past because of the impossibility of marking
+absolute limits to the mining properties of Potosí. Formerly, the owner
+who could employ the largest body of workmen and extend his mines most
+rapidly could swallow up the lesser properties. For instance, if while
+working a vein the owner strikes through the wall which separates his
+claim from a neighboring mine he becomes the possessor of the latter.
+This law has necessitated the keeping of a guard at all points where
+such an invasion might be feared, and it has frequently proved a
+source of dissatisfaction. The government has considered various plans
+for the solution of the problem, and the law has been amended in
+notable features, but as the Cerro seems to be a great mass of metal it
+presents unique features for legislation. In some respects the mining
+laws of Bolivia necessarily differ from those of other countries, the
+conditions being distinct, but the law-makers are thoroughly conversant
+with the requirements of the mining districts and the question is
+studied carefully from every standpoint. From long experience in
+dealing with the problems that are peculiar to a mining country, the
+Bolivian people have become informed on all that relates to mining laws
+and their interpretation, and improvements are constantly being made to
+advance the progress of this important industry.
+
+  [Illustration: MINING DISTRICT OF QUIMSACRUZ, NEAR ORURO.]
+
+  [Illustration: CITY OF ORURO.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIII
+
+                    ORURO AND ITS PROSPEROUS MINES
+
+
+During the colonial period Oruro was the second great mining centre
+of Alto Peru, ranking next to Potosí in the wealth of its mines and
+the luxury and extravagance of its inhabitants. The _fiestas_,
+pageants, and tourneys of the Real Villa de San Felipe de Austria
+frequently rivalled in splendor those of the Villa Imperial itself,
+and the population increased so rapidly in consequence of a continuous
+development of mineral wealth that, from a hundred inhabitants at the
+time of its foundation in 1604, the city grew to number seventy-six
+thousand residents in 1678.
+
+  [Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF ORURO.]
+
+The earliest history regarding Oruro is found in pre-Columbian records
+which state that several Incas visited this locality, and that it was
+an important centre of population in the province of Collasuyo. The
+great Pachacutec, who is generally considered the most noted of the
+Peruvian emperors after Manco-Ccapac, made Oruro his place of residence
+for some months while conducting expeditions to various sections of the
+Aymará province. The Spaniards passed very close to this settlement
+when they first invaded Collasuyo and founded the city of Paria, three
+or four leagues distant, but it was not until 1595 that its existence
+was discovered by the conquerors, when a curate named Don Francisco de
+Medrano, who had been told by the Indians of the mineral wealth of this
+neighborhood, found his way to the little pueblo of Oruro, or Uru-uru,
+meaning “whence comes the light,” and established here his authority
+as its first _alcalde_. As previously stated, the city was not
+officially founded until some years later, when, according to the
+interesting old document which is still preserved in the archives of
+the city, the ceremony was performed under the authority of Don Manuel
+Castro y Padilla, who represented His Catholic Majesty King Philip III.
+The occasion was one of great importance to the new colony, and the
+official services were marked by extreme formality, beginning with the
+celebration of mass and the unfurling of the royal standard, while a
+choir of priests sang the hymn of _Veni Sancte Spiritus_, and the
+site of the new municipality was blessed with solemn consecration.
+The standard was thrice raised during the naming of the city: “The
+very noble and loyal city of San Felipe de Austria, for the King Don
+Philip our sovereign and for his successors in the Crown of Castile and
+Leon and Peru, whom may God keep for many years.” As was the custom
+upon such occasions, a gallows was immediately set up in token of the
+royal possession. Oruro sustained well the dignity of a royal city,
+christened with imposing rites, and in the social and political events
+of the colonial period took a conspicuous part, the citizens being
+especially renowned for their hospitality, which was lavishly shown
+upon the noted occasions when high political and church authorities
+from Spain visited this prominent centre of colonial wealth.
+
+Not only did Oruro count among the richest and most important
+cities of the viceroyalty of Peru, but it early became noted for
+the independent character of its citizens, who were among the first
+to raise the standard of revolution against the tyranny of Spanish
+rule, and to whose valiant and loyal efforts some of the most noted
+victories of the Independence were due. Since the inauguration of
+the republic the city has twice been honored by a supreme decree of
+eulogy, the first qualifying it as “heroic and intrepid, deserving the
+national admiration,” and the second, as “first city savior of the
+institutions.” Congress has held sessions here upon several occasions,
+and, in recent years especially, the city has been constantly advancing
+in commercial as well as in political importance.
+
+Although Oruro has a severe climate, due to its situation on the
+high plateau, at an altitude of about twelve thousand five hundred
+feet above sea level, exposed to strong southwest winds, which in
+July, August, and September are sometimes veritable hurricanes;
+it is healthful, and those who live there, foreigners as well as
+natives, find it agreeable, except during the worst season. There
+are many foreign residents in Oruro, English, German, French, and
+North American, who have established very comfortable homes and have
+organized several clubs. The chief activity of the town centres in the
+principal plaza and in the streets branching from it in all directions.
+Owing to the great altitude and the exposure of the city to cold winds,
+vegetation has not shown any great development in this district, and
+the city itself presents a rather dull aspect without the adornment
+of trees and shrubs. But the plaza is well paved and makes a pleasant
+promenade, and during the favorable season band concerts are frequently
+held here. Some of the more important buildings face the plaza, such
+as the University, the Government House, and others, though there are
+large and well-built edifices on all the principal streets. The Spanish
+style of architecture prevails, and houses are generally of one or two
+story construction. To the North American the aspect of long rows of
+buildings of one or more stories in height is particularly foreign,
+and at first sight disappointing, as it seems to indicate lack of
+enterprise or of prosperity. But a visit to one of these modest-looking
+houses is often a surprising revelation, as they make up in surface
+space what they lack in height, and sometimes cover a remarkably large
+area, with their _patios_ and corridors. The churches, hospitals,
+and schools are commodious buildings, and the city has a theatre, a
+mineralogical museum, and a public library.
+
+The rapid increase of production in the mines of the department of
+Oruro has contributed to make its capital an important industrial
+centre; and as the new system of railways provides for several branches
+from this point to the eastern and southern cities of the republic,
+its growing fame as a rich entrepôt for the valuable mineral products
+of neighboring departments will make it still better known as one of
+the great mining centres of the world. The present population of the
+city is about eighteen thousand inhabitants, though it is increasing
+annually since the exploitation of tin has attracted many people to
+this department and to its chief city.
+
+  [Illustration: MAIN PLAZA, ORURO.]
+
+The department of Oruro covers fifty thousand square kilomètres, and is
+divided into four provinces, Cercado, Carangas, Poopo, and Abaroa, each
+of them rich in minerals and renowned for their splendid contributions
+to the royal treasury during colonial times. At one time five thousand
+mines were in operation in this department alone, and it is recorded
+that during the three years preceding the Independence its mining taxes
+to the Crown amounted to forty million dollars. The Socavón de la
+Virgen, San José, Huanuni, Negro Pabellón, Morococala, and Antequera,
+which now chiefly represent rich mines of tin, were, centuries ago,
+the sites of important silver mines, the tin being held of such little
+value that it was rarely extracted. The Socavón de la Virgen is
+situated close to the city of Oruro, at the foot of the neighboring
+_cerro_, and it is still rich in silver as well as in tin. It has
+the distinction of being one of the oldest mines in Bolivia, having
+been the first exploited by the curate Don Francisco de Medrano,
+when he discovered and settled in the Aymará pueblo of the Serrania
+Uru-Uru, at the foot of the Cerro Pie de Gallo, or cock’s foot. The
+Compañía Minera de Oruro now owns this mine, which is provided with
+modern machinery, the establishment for the treatment of its ores being
+situated at Machacamarca, where both silver and tin are extracted by
+the amalgamation and lixiviation processes.
+
+The San José mine is situated two miles from the city of Oruro, in a
+sheltered slope of the _serrania_, where a very busy little town
+has grown up to mark the site occupied four hundred years ago by an
+Indian settlement. The town of San José is a typical mining pueblo,
+containing about two thousand inhabitants, and on feast days it is a
+scene of great revelry. Like all towns of the plateau, it has scanty
+vegetation, and the people supply all the brightness there is in the
+landscape. Photography is inadequate to give a correct picture of these
+gorgeous spectacles, which depend so much on the “color scheme” for
+their effectiveness. The town of San José is lighted by electricity
+and has several modern improvements. This mine has always produced
+silver, and is still worked on a small scale for that metal, though the
+mining of tin is usurping the silver industry here as elsewhere. Modern
+machinery is used in the mine, which has twin vertical shafts of nine
+hundred and seventy feet in depth, that are worked from the surface
+by a steam engine of two cylinders. The principal square is situated
+in the centre of the working region of the mine, and is one thousand
+feet deep. It is served by a Robey engine of forty horse power. The
+_socavón_, or entering passage, which is three hundred feet long,
+with walls and roof of hewn stone, is without a rival of its kind in
+South America. The equipment for this mine is said to have cost one
+hundred and fifty thousand bolivianos. Machinery for the treatment of
+tin ores has been set up in the _ingenios_, and in 1902 the new
+Wetherill machine was adopted for the electro-magnetic treatment of
+ores. The mine yields about fifty-five thousand dollars monthly in
+silver and tin, the ores being shipped over the private railway of
+the owners to the _ingenio_, where the silver ore is treated by
+lixiviation, and the tin ore by concentration and smelting. About one
+thousand workmen are employed in the San José mine, those above ground
+working the customary ten hours a day, and those inside the mine eight
+hours a day. The mine is provided with water brought in pipes from a
+stream twelve miles away. The water taken out of the mine is deposited
+in tanks to be used in the concentration of the tin ores.
+
+The mines of Antequera, as well as that of San José, are still worked
+for silver, though the principal attention is given to tin mining.
+Antequera was famous during the colonial period for rich lodes of
+silver, and they have yielded millions of dollars of this precious
+metal under the republic, though now they are exploited chiefly for
+tin. Several large companies are engaged in developing the mines, most
+of which are fitted up with modern improvements, the _ingenios_
+being equipped with the best machinery for the elaboration of the
+ores. All the Antequera mines are located in the vicinity of Poopo,
+on the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway, where there are several large
+_ingenios_. Poopo is a thriving little town of three thousand
+inhabitants, with considerable commercial movement, being the nearest
+railroad centre for a large territory. The extent and importance of the
+mining industry in this section is illustrated by the fact that one
+company is under contract to deliver two thousand quintals, about two
+hundred thousand pounds, of metal daily to the railroad, to be carried
+to the _ingenio_ of Bella Vista, in consideration of which the
+railway has extended its line to this establishment, passing through
+Antequera.
+
+  [Illustration: SAN JOSÉ, ORURO.]
+
+Huanuni is said to contain the richest tin mines in the department of
+Oruro. It is situated fifteen miles from the station of Machacamarca,
+on the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway, and can be reached by diligence,
+as there is a good coach road. The beautiful Cerro of Pozocani, in
+which the mines of Huanuni are located, is conical in form, not unlike
+the noble Potosí, and rises to a height of ten thousand feet above
+the neighboring _quebrada_. It is crossed by innumerable lodes
+and veins, which have been worked on a large scale and are still
+yielding enormous riches. The Cataricagua vein, now under exploitation,
+produced one thousand one hundred and ninety-two tons of bar tin, of
+two thousand two hundred and forty pounds per ton, in 1905, the value
+of bar tin being about one hundred pounds sterling per ton, though
+the market price varies, sometimes reaching one hundred and fifty
+pounds sterling per ton. The Cataricagua vein varies in width from
+two to eight feet, and the quality of tin is uniformly good, selected
+ore containing fifty per cent oxide, while the poorest quality yields
+twenty per cent. The washings which remain after the ores have been
+treated are put through a second process, and are found to contain
+about five per cent oxides. In some instances, selected ore yields
+as much as sixty-five per cent tin, without concentration, and the
+washings yield fifteen per cent. The company which is operating this
+mine has ten crushers and several automatic strainers and rotatory
+tables for the concentration of the ores by the Cornish system.
+
+  [Illustration: MINERS’ HOLIDAY AT SAN JOSÉ, ORURO.]
+
+The treatment of nearly all tin ores in Bolivia is limited to
+grinding and concentration, the product being exported in the form
+of sand _barrilla_, containing an average of sixty-four per
+cent of metallic tin, or, as in the case of some of the Potosí
+mines previously mentioned, in the form of bars. The mines of Negro
+Pabellón, Morococala, and Vilacollo form a group about ten miles north
+of Huanuni, in the vicinity of Paria. Negro Pabellón is especially
+noted for the superior quality of its tin and for the facility with
+which the ores are treated. The principal lode is about three feet
+in width, and is crossed by several smaller veins, rich pockets of
+the valuable metal being found at the various points of intersection.
+The _barrillas_ obtained from the concentration of these ores
+contain more than seventy per cent tin. In the Morococala mine, the
+ores yield a good grade of tin, the principal lode measuring in some
+places from twelve to fifteen feet in width, and containing very rich
+oxides. Vilacollo is situated a short distance from Morococala, in a
+_cerro_ of the same name. It was formerly a rich silver mine, and
+has produced great quantities of both silver and tin. Though the lodes
+contain continuous veins of hard tin ore of different widths up to two
+feet, and, owing to the extreme hardness, difficulties are encountered
+in extracting this metal, yet, on the other hand, veins are met with
+which contain kidneys and grains interposed, and these are worked with
+profit, while the tin pyrites are treated for the extraction of the
+metal by first being calcined and then crushed and put through the
+concentration process. About ten miles south of Huanuni, the tin mines
+of Challa-Apacheta are notable for the great width of the principal
+lode, which measures from twenty-five to thirty feet in places, though
+the ore is not so rich as in thinner veins, owing to the mixture of
+gravel and clay.
+
+  [Illustration: MINE OF SAN JOSÉ, ORURO.]
+
+Berenguela, which is situated about fifty miles east of Oruro on
+the heights to the south of the Quebrada de Arque, is said by some
+authorities to possess a quality of tin not excelled by any other
+mines in Bolivia. Although it belongs to the province of Cochabamba,
+all the metal is exported through Oruro, the mines being located about
+midway between the two departmental capitals. The Spaniards worked
+the mines for silver, but it is only within a few years that its rich
+tin mines have been exploited to any extent, the silver veins of
+this Cerro being distinct from those which contain tin in abundance.
+The hydraulic machinery used in operating the mines is established
+about three-quarters of a mile away where an abundant water supply is
+obtained. There is a town called Berenguela in the province of Pacajes,
+in the department of La Paz, near the border of Oruro, where alabaster
+is found, and these places are frequently confounded with each other.
+
+Every province of the department of Oruro is rich in mineral products.
+The Cercado, of which the city of Oruro is the capital, is particularly
+famous as the district in which the rich tin mines of Huanuni are
+located, though the adjoining province of Poopo also claims distinction
+for the wealth it represents in the Antequera and other mines. Not only
+silver and tin, but many other valuable minerals are found in large
+quantities in this department. Iron, lead, manganese, bismuth, and
+antimony have been discovered in the provinces of Cercado and Poopo,
+awaiting only the necessary capital for their exploitation on a large
+scale. Antimony is exported in ores containing from fifty per cent to
+sixty-four per cent of the metal. The province of Abaroa, named in
+honor of one of Bolivia’s heroes in the War of the Pacific, covers
+a territory rich in minerals, of which Challapata is the thriving
+capital. There are two towns called Challapata, within a mile of
+each other, the old city being the more picturesque, though of less
+importance commercially. It is noted for its beautiful old church,
+which was erected during the colonial period, and which is frequently
+visited by travellers because of the rich ornaments in silver that it
+contains. The modern town of Challapata is of recent existence, having
+been founded only in 1893, as a station on the line of the recently
+constructed Antofagasta and Oruro Railway. It is a town of about two
+thousand five hundred inhabitants, many of them foreigners, who are
+engaged in mining enterprises. The second city in the department in
+size, it is important as a railroad town and the terminus of the coach
+roads from Potosí and Sucre. Among other towns of this department, the
+historic Salinas de Garcí-Mendoza is deserving of special mention,
+as it was once the centre of rich silver mines, which yielded great
+fortunes during the colonial period. It is a small town of less than
+two thousand inhabitants, but preserves many social features of its
+more prosperous past, and its people are noted for their hospitality.
+
+The province of Carangas is rich in minerals, and has other industries
+which have been developed on a small scale. The _serrania_ of
+Carangas was once the centre of the silver-mining industry in this part
+of the plateau, but owing to the inundation of the mines, and lack of
+proper machinery with which to put them again in working order, they
+remained abandoned until purchased by a company recently established,
+which, it is said, possesses sufficient capital to develop their full
+productiveness. Under the viceroyalty the town of Carangas was rich and
+prosperous and had its grand _fiestas_ as did the other “silver
+cities” of Alto Peru; in its deserted streets are still to be seen
+vestiges of the opulence of former days, arches, carved doorways, and
+churches. The province has a small population now, less than twenty
+thousand people altogether, the greater number being Indians, who are
+engaged in tending flocks of sheep, goats, and alpacas, or in hunting
+the vicuña and the chinchilla. Vegetation is scanty, though the Indian
+raises potatoes, quinoa, and barley sufficient for his own use.
+
+In the southwestern district of the department of Oruro, in the
+province of Carangas, are found large deposits of borax, those of
+Chilcaya covering an area of about thirty thousand acres. The borax
+of Chilcaya is considered equal to the best produced anywhere in the
+world. It is exported through the port of Arica, a little more than a
+hundred miles distant. The saline deposits found in the department of
+Oruro, especially in the region of Chilcaya and Coipasa, are said to
+mark the southern limit of the great lake which scientists claim once
+covered the plateau for an area of over forty thousand square miles,
+and constituted the chief reservoir of the Amazon. The lake Chilcaya
+is entirely within the limits of this department, Coipasa marking the
+boundary between Oruro and Potosí. The boracic _capa_, or layer,
+which is found on this lake is a foot thick, more or less, of a very
+high grade, and the production per acre is estimated at one thousand
+five hundred tons. Though Chilcaya is surrounded by _cerros_,
+the climate is cold and windy, and the aspect is bleak and dreary in
+the extreme, as the very nature of the soil in this region makes it
+impossible for anything, even _puna_ grass, to flourish.
+
+  [Illustration: SILVER AND TIN SMELTING WORKS, POOPO.]
+
+No city in Bolivia looks out upon a more favorable prospect than
+Oruro, which is entering on a new era of prosperity, signalized by the
+inauguration of the railway system, which is to branch out from this
+point in all directions, and by the not less interesting ceremonies
+which a few months ago marked the establishment of new educational
+institutions of the greatest importance.
+
+The citizens of Oruro, foreign as well as Bolivian, are enthusiastic
+in their efforts to promote the interests of the municipality, and
+the favorable attitude of the Bolivians toward foreign residents is
+exemplified by the fact that a foreigner, Mr. John B. Minchin, is
+president of the Municipal Council. Mr. Minchin has lived many years
+in Oruro, and is firmly convinced of the bright promise of the future
+already illuminating his adopted country. He has made a careful study
+of the country under various aspects, and his authority on many
+subjects, particularly mining, is accepted as the best known. Under
+his administration, the city of Oruro is undergoing many important
+improvements. Another foreigner, who has lived in Oruro so many years
+that he is known throughout the department as “Don Andrés,” is Mr.
+Andrew Penny, who has contributed a great deal toward the development
+of the mining industry in this department. He is identified with the
+success of the San José, Huanuni, and other mines, and is highly
+esteemed by all who know him for his sterling character and kindness of
+heart.
+
+The chief authority in the department is the prefect, to whose
+initiative is due the progress of the department in general. Dr. Victor
+Sanjinés, the present prefect, who succeeded Señor Dr. Andrés Muñoz
+a few months ago, is a distinguished leader in the politics of his
+country, and has given proofs of exceptional administrative ability
+in various official posts. Under his direction, the roads and other
+public works are receiving special attention, and the city, as well as
+the department, is benefiting by many improvements in the condition of
+the highways. With the conclusion of the new railway to La Paz, Oruro
+will be within a few hours’ distance of that city, and when the line to
+Arica is put in operation it will be possible to leave Oruro at night
+and arrive at the seaport next morning. Oruro will no longer be only
+the terminus of a railway, but the centre from which trains will run in
+many directions.
+
+  [Illustration: BERENGUELA TIN MINES.]
+
+  [Illustration: GOLD WASHING AT CHUQUIAGUILLO, NEAR LA PAZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIV
+
+         GOLD MINING IN BOLIVIA--TUPIZA AND ITS MINES--BISMUTH
+
+
+Gold mining in Bolivia has not attracted so much attention in recent
+years as its importance merits, though there was a time when the fame
+of this country as a gold producer nearly eclipsed the universal
+renown of its vast wealth of silver. In the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, which marked only the beginning of their development, the
+mines of Alto Peru yielded in gold, according to the authority of
+Humboldt, about two billion dollars, and in the eighteenth century
+the mine of Chuquiaguillo alone produced more than one hundred and
+twenty-five million dollars in gold. It is a remarkable fact that this
+mine has not once failed to yield large quantities of gold annually,
+ever since its discovery.
+
+  [Illustration: DISTANT GLIMPSE OF TUPIZA, THROUGH A TUNNEL.]
+
+The history of the Chuquiaguillo mine is as old as that of the Incas,
+who received tribute from their Collasuyo subjects in the gold nuggets
+of this wonderful stream. Like the Chuquiapu, of which it is a small
+tributary, the Chuquiaguillo received its name from the Indians, in
+whose language the word means “heir of gold.” The mine is situated in
+the beautiful valley of Poto-Poto, about a league distant from La Paz,
+where the Spaniards found the Indians engaged in washing gold at the
+time of the invasion. Many thousands of Indians worked at the task of
+gathering gold for the Inca, and the settlement in which they lived was
+the Chuquiapu on the site of which the Spaniards founded the present
+city of La Paz.
+
+The conqueror himself, Don Francisco Pizarro, was the first
+_dueño_, or owner, of the mine of Chuquiaguillo after the fall
+of the Inca empire. History does not record the amount taken out
+of the mine while under the exploitation of Pizarro’s agents; but
+during the colonial period huge nuggets were frequently found, one
+of these treasures, which was sent to the Museum of Madrid in 1718,
+weighing forty-seven pounds and eight ounces. The extraordinary
+feature of this mine is that it appears inexhaustible, great nuggets,
+or _pepitas_, being continually found. After the Spaniards were
+expelled from the country, Chuquiaguillo passed into the hands of
+various _dueños_, all of whom were made rich by its gold. One of
+these proprietors found a nugget of twenty-two pounds in weight.
+
+  [Illustration: RICH GOLD MINING REGION OF CHUQUIAGUILLO, NEAR
+  LA PAZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: ADMINISTRATION HOUSE, CHUQUIAGUILLO MINES,
+  NEAR LA PAZ.]
+
+In 1901 the Chuquiaguillo valley, with its rich gold mine, became the
+property of a German company; and under the able administration of
+the present director, Mr. Joseph Antonio Sedelmayr, the production
+has been increased greatly beyond what it was a few years ago. The
+latest improvements in machinery and other working apparatus have
+been made, the modern installations used in California placer mines
+being adopted, with some monitors which give the very best results.
+The earth is very rich in metal, a cubic mètre yielding thirty-five
+cents gold. The quantity of gravel appears inexhaustible, as the
+_cerros_ are immense. Water is brought from the neighboring snow
+mountains, and there is sufficient incline to the valley to carry off
+the tailings. With other machinery which it is the purpose of the
+company to add to that already in use, the output of Chuquiaguillo may
+be enormously increased. So recently as March 22, 1905, a gold and
+quartz nugget weighing fifty-two ounces, of which forty-five ounces
+were pure gold, was taken from the mine, this handsome specimen being
+now in the possession of Messrs. Speyer and Company, of New York. The
+annual production of the mine since 1900 has been about an average of
+sixty kilogrammes, though the increase has been notable since 1902.
+The value of the gold taken out amounts to nearly one hundred thousand
+bolivianos annually. The _cerros_ are so rich in metal, that the
+gravel which is washed down from their sides yields thirty-five cents
+worth of gold per cubic mètre, and nuggets as large as almonds are
+not rare. The process of bringing the gold-bearing gravel down to the
+river is by means of a hose which ejects a powerful stream that when
+turned on the _cerro_ dislodges the earth, bringing the rich
+pebbles down to the base. In a beautiful locality, overlooking the
+valley, the administration house of the company is situated, and here
+the director receives his guests, entertaining them with the most
+charming hospitality. No _paseo_ is more popular than a day’s
+outing at Chuquiaguillo, which is reached after a short horseback ride
+from La Paz through one of the prettiest of valleys, presenting many
+picturesque scenes along the route, and ending at the administration
+mansion. Every foreigner who visits La Paz and enjoys the honor of
+being a guest of the courtly _dueño_ of Chuquiaguillo remembers it
+as a distinguished occasion.
+
+There are other rich placer gold mines besides Chuquiaguillo in the
+department of La Paz which have yielded enormous treasure. As stated
+elsewhere, one of the most celebrated gold-bearing regions of Bolivia
+is in the province of Larecaja, in the neighborhood of Sorata, where
+the river Tipuani, which flows down from the snow-covered peak,
+contains large quantities of the precious metal. The gravel deposits
+in this river are so great that at a depth of one hundred feet no rock
+bottom is found, the production of gold increasing with the depth
+of the gravel. Tipuani gold is from twenty-two to twenty-three and
+one-half carats fine, and so abundant that the owners of the richest
+mine of this region, Señores Villamil, obtained during the fifty years
+from 1818 to 1868 one hundred and fifty-one thousand ounces of gold.
+Much of this gold comes in flat grains of the size of a melon seed,
+and it is always of high standard. Not only from the heights of the
+mountain Sorata, or Illampu, but from the other _cerros_ of the
+chain which joins it to Illimani further south, innumerable streams
+flow into the valleys of the Yungas of La Paz which carry gold in the
+gravel that is found in their currents. Cajones, in the Yungas, is one
+of the richest gold streams. It is a singular fact that while quartz
+lodes have been discovered in different places about the headwaters of
+the ravines through which the gold-bearing rivers flow, they do not
+appear to correspond at all in richness to the deposits lower down.
+The rich placer mines of Yani and Tacacoma are in the same province as
+those of Tipuani.
+
+In the province of Caupolican, the river Suches is noted for the
+abundance and quality of gold found in its sand and gravel, and
+this district presents the advantage of being within convenient
+distance of the shipping ports, as the town of Suches, the chief
+centre of the mining in this river, is situated only forty miles
+from the port of Lake Titicaca, and two hundred miles from La Paz.
+A great many rich placer mines have remained unexploited because of
+their inaccessibility. All around La Paz gold is continually being
+discovered, nearly every river having some gold-bearing gravel in
+its course. The Cerro Illimani contains gold in abundance, and it is
+related that in the year 1681, a lightning stroke detached a huge rock
+from the side of the mountain which was found to be enormously rich in
+the precious metal. All the streams that flow from Illimani contain
+gold, such as the Palca, Calacoto, Chungamayo, and others. The gold
+mines of Vila-haque, near La Paz, were famous in the times of the
+Incas, and are worked to-day.
+
+Gold has been taken from the streams of Loayza province ever since
+colonial times, and the gold district of Araca, which lies at the
+foot of the Tres Cruces Range, is said by mining engineers to be one
+of the richest in Bolivia, lack of capital having prevented its full
+development in recent years. Under Spanish rule the celebrated gold
+mine of San Francisco, which belonged to a fabulously rich Spaniard,
+named Don Diego de Baena, brought an income of two million dollars
+gold, which the chronicle says the worthy miner spent to build the
+magnificent church of San Francisco in La Paz and the Cathedral in
+Oruro. He suspended the working of the San Francisco mine because of
+inundations. A mining expert, reporting on this district, says: “Many
+millions of dollars have been taken out of the gold mines of Araca,
+and much more could be obtained if capital were forthcoming for their
+exploitation.” The quartz vein of the Araca mines is very wide, the
+standard varying between five and twelve grains per ton of two thousand
+two hundred and forty pounds when treated by amalgamation, which, by
+the way, is an unsatisfactory method, as about thirty per cent of the
+gold is lost owing to the extreme fineness of the gold particles. A
+difficulty encountered in the exploitation of many of these mines is
+that of securing modern machinery for the treatment of the gold so that
+every unnecessary waste may be avoided. The Araca district has not been
+fully surveyed, though mining authorities say that what is known as the
+Rosario belt contains a million cubic mètres of gold quartz, and it is
+estimated that more than half a million tons could be worked with rich
+results. In Inquisivi, also, there are gold mines of great promise.
+
+  [Illustration: MOUNTAIN OF CHOROLQUE, SITE OF THE HIGHEST TIN
+  AND BISMUTH MINES IN THE WORLD.]
+
+The department of Cochabamba, which is rich in products of every
+description, can boast of some of the most valuable gold mines of
+Bolivia. Choquecamata, situated about seventy-five miles from the
+capital city of the department in the _serrania_ of Tetillas,
+is the centre of an extensive mining region. The central part of the
+_serrania_ consists of granite and quartz, the Choquecamata River
+containing gold-bearing gravel from the point of its junction with the
+Potrero, at Encañada, over a distance of six miles down its course.
+It is an excellent mining region, the conditions being favorable for
+its development on a large scale by the hydraulic system. At their
+confluence the two rivers have made a new channel which cuts across
+the former channel of the Choquecamata, leaving a wide dry space, rich
+in gold-bearing gravel. It was here the mines were first discovered
+and worked by the Spaniards in 1740, and from this marvellously rich
+deposit, covering little more than half a league, which was called
+the Angostura, meaning “narrows,” gold was taken out to the value of
+more than forty million dollars. It is located at an altitude of about
+twelve thousand feet above sea level in one of the many picturesque
+_quebradas_ of the province of Ayopaya, and was apparently known
+to the primitive inhabitants as a gold-bearing district, the name
+Choquecamata being Aymará and signifying “breeding place of gold.”
+
+  [Illustration: QUECHISLA, MINING ESTABLISHMENT OF ARAMAYO,
+  FRANCKE AND COMPANY, NEAR TUPIZA.]
+
+Near the site of the old missions which the Jesuits founded during the
+colonial period in the province of Chiquitos, now forming part of the
+department of Santa Cruz, rich gold mines were discovered centuries
+ago. The _serrania_ of San Simon yielded handsome returns for the
+labor of the Indians under the direction of their Spanish masters.
+Within recent years other valuable mines have been found in this
+province, which is only partially settled and contains vast stretches
+of territory, the natural resources of which are practically unknown.
+The gold mines of Santa Rosa, which lie along the route of the new
+railway to be built from Santa Cruz to the Beni, were famous during
+the past century for their abundance, having yielded two thousand five
+hundred pounds’ weight of gold between the years 1847 and 1877. The
+few travellers who have journeyed through this region pronounce it one
+of the richest in the whole of Bolivia, and it possesses the special
+advantage of having as fine a climate as any country in the world, the
+four seasons being distinctly marked, though in a moderate degree.
+Gold is found in the Beni and in the Territorio de Colonias, but it
+will hardly be developed to any great extent until the transportation
+facilities in this part of Bolivia are improved. There is plenty of
+gold in the upper streams of the Acre, Madre de Dios, Orton, and the
+Beni, as well as in those of the Mamoré and other tributaries of the
+Guaporé or Iténez.
+
+  [Illustration: DREDGE IN CONSTRUCTION AT SAN JUAN DE ORO
+  MINES, TUPIZA.]
+
+From central Bolivia southward a gold-producing region extends in a
+wide strip from Cochabamba to the border of Argentina. Chuquisaca is
+said to have been at one time a great mining centre, and, according to
+the historian Calancha, the name itself signifies “rock of gold.” The
+Inca’s subjects knew of the existence of gold in all these provinces,
+and the Spaniards merely followed their guidance in searching for the
+precious metal. Whenever it was possible, the Indian deceived his new
+masters and kept secret his knowledge of the locality of these mines.
+But though many rich _cerros_ and gold-bearing streams exist which
+were never known to the Spaniards, they took possession of hundreds of
+mines in all parts of the country and worked them with great profit.
+
+In the department of Potosí, the _cerro_ of Poconota contains
+one of the oldest gold mines in the country. It is situated in the
+province of North Chichas, on the route from Potosí to Tupiza, and will
+be on the line of the railroad which is being built from Potosí to the
+Argentine border. The _cerro_ shows evidence of having been worked
+by the Spaniards on a very large scale and with great success, as there
+are still vestiges of elaborate and expensive apparatus, which could
+only have been afforded by enormous returns from the exploitation of
+the mines. The gold of Poconota shows a standard of ten grammes per
+hundred pounds. The lode extends for a distance of two thousand seven
+hundred feet, and is forty inches in width and nearly three hundred
+feet in depth. It represents about half a million tons of ore, which
+will produce, at a conservative estimate, several tons of fine gold.
+In the provinces of Linares, Chayanta, and Lipez gold is found in
+abundance, the Indians having exploited mines in all the principal
+_serranias_ and streams of these districts. They still wash gold
+from the streams of Caiza, Yura, and San Juan. In the province of
+Lipez gold quartz is found in the _cerros_ of Colcha, one of the
+_socavones_ being so rich that the Indians call it _abitans_,
+which means “storehouse of gold.” The Yura River, which flows through
+the province of Porco to join the Rio Blanco, San Juan, and other
+tributaries of the Pilcomayo, contains large quantities of auriferous
+gravel; and in the _cerros_ of Yura, a canton of Porco, immense
+gold veins have been discovered which still await exploitation. In
+Suipacha, on the border of Argentina, a few miles south of Tupiza, gold
+is found in a vein forty miles long and seven feet wide, the precious
+metal being plainly visible in the quartz. Portugalete, midway between
+Tupiza and the famous Cerro Chorolque, is the centre of a region of
+gold mines which extend in all directions. All the _quebradas_
+of this district contain gold, which has always been worked in a
+primitive way by the Indians, and still provides their chief means of
+subsistence. The gold-mining district of Santa Catalina extends along
+the course of the river San Juan from its source in the Cordillera
+Real as far as the Suipacha mines, which are an extension of the Santa
+Catalina veins. It includes the quartz and placer mines of Esmoraca,
+Estarca, Chilco, and other rich valleys, which, like Portugalete, have
+for centuries been worked by Indians. Foreign enterprise is now being
+attracted to these rich deposits.
+
+Tupiza is one of the most important mineral centres of Bolivia, all the
+gold-producing districts of the province of South Chichas, of which
+Tupiza is the capital, being tributary to it, while it is further
+famous as the centre of the finest bismuth mines in the world. The
+various companies engaged in exploiting mines of gold, silver, tin,
+wolfram, antimony, lead, zinc, and bismuth, which are found in this
+locality, have their headquarters in the city of Tupiza. Minerals
+and precious stones, especially emeralds, are brought here for sale
+by the Indians, who find them in the various mines of the province.
+Portugalete, San Vicente, Lipez, Santo Domingo, Chocoma, Esmoraca, San
+Juan de Oro, Tatasi, and the magnificent Chorolque are among the most
+important mining centres.
+
+The mine of San Juan de Oro is one of the very few in the province
+of South Chichas which are being exploited on a large scale and with
+the use of modern machinery. In 1905 a company was formed in Buenos
+Aires for the purpose of developing the San Juan de Oro mine to its
+full capacity; a capital of about half a million dollars in gold was
+invested in the enterprise, and a powerful dredge was put in the river
+as one of the initial steps of the work. Several dredges are now in
+operation, and the returns are most satisfactory, showing an average of
+fifty cents’ worth of gold per cubic mètre. The opinion is generally
+expressed by experts in mining industries that there is a great future
+in store for Bolivian gold mines, not only in this province, but
+throughout the entire country. The universal prediction is that the
+advent of the railroads will bring new enterprise to the development of
+abandoned mines and lead to the discovery of hitherto unknown mineral
+wealth.
+
+  [Illustration: PICTURESQUE VIEW OF TUPIZA.]
+
+The mining industry of Tupiza owes a great deal to the enterprise of
+one of Bolivia’s leading statesmen, Señor Don Felix Avelino Aramayo,
+whose name is identified not only with the progress of the city,
+but of the entire province. Many of the most valuable mines are his
+property, and it is owing to his great energy and enterprise that they
+have been made to yield an enormous fortune. Bolivia leads the world
+in bismuth, and it is chiefly out of Señor Aramayo’s mines that the
+precious mineral is taken. The firm of Aramayo, Francke and Company
+bought the silver, tin, and bismuth mines of Chorolque in 1889, and
+in addition to this famous mountain they also control the output of
+the mines of Tasna, a mountain thirty leagues from the city of Tupiza,
+which produces bismuth, tin, wolfram, and other minerals, and they
+have a large establishment for the refinement of ores at Quechisla,
+twenty-five leagues from Tupiza.
+
+The magnificent _cerro_ of Chorolque, which towers above the
+clouds and is visible hundreds of miles distant, where it looks like
+a huge white pyramid looming above the horizon, is the centre of the
+highest tin and bismuth mines in the world. The mines are worked at an
+altitude of eighteen thousand feet. The different lodes of tin are of
+great thickness, and their lower strata contain bismuth in chlorides
+or sulphides. Bismuth is sometimes met with also in its native state,
+as in Coribiri, where it is found in nuggets weighing six or seven
+grammes. The deposits of bismuth in the Chorolque lode are found only
+on the _cerro_ and its slopes. Rich bismuth mines were recently
+discovered in the province of Inquisivi, and this mineral is found
+in some quantity wherever there are large deposits of tin. The total
+production of bismuth in Bolivia averages from four thousand to five
+thousand metric quintals annually, and its value fluctuates between
+fourteen and sixteen pounds sterling per metric quintal.
+
+The picturesque little city of Tupiza has a population of about
+three thousand inhabitants. It is situated about sixty miles north
+of the Argentine boundary line, in the heart of a beautiful country,
+diversified by mountain, valley, and stream, and blessed by a climate
+which in summer is balmy and delightful, and even in winter is
+not too cold. Along its valleys are many prosperous haciendas and
+picturesque _fincas_, or country places, where various kinds of
+fruits and vegetables are grown. Cattle roam over the lower mountain
+slopes, and every condition is favorable for the future development
+of this locality as one of the richest in pastoral and agricultural
+possibilities as well as mineral wealth. Nowhere are valleys more
+picturesque, the skies bluer, or the fragrance of flowers and shade of
+trees more attractive to the sight than in this charming little border
+city.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAZA OF TUPIZA.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE INDIAN MISSION OF SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXV
+
+        SANTA CRUZ, THE CENTRE OF A RICH AGRICULTURAL DISTRICT
+
+
+  [Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+Santa Cruz de la Sierra is the only Bolivian city of importance which
+is tropical in climate as well as locality. Although it is situated
+at about the same distance from the equator as La Paz and Oruro, it
+bears little resemblance to these cities in natural scenery, because
+of the great difference in altitude. Too distant from the Cordillera
+Real to be influenced by its temperature, and lying in the midst of a
+valley not more than one thousand five hundred feet above sea level,
+Santa Cruz is essentially a tropical city, though the heat is never
+insupportable, as pleasant breezes are constantly blowing from the
+_serranias_ of Valle Grande on the west and those of Chiquitos on
+the east. It is a typical Spanish city, with spacious plazas, shaded
+by wide-branching trees and beautified by luxuriant gardens. Its long
+_calles_ are, like those of Spanish cities everywhere, walled
+on each side by solid-looking houses, and they present very artistic
+features in their picturesque _miradores_ and quaint, barred
+windows, where a pretty _señorita_ may sometimes be seen looking
+out, as a handsome _caballero_ lingers near to pay homage to the
+charm of her “adorable eyes.” For the Cruceña, as a lady of Santa Cruz
+is called, is generally beautiful, graceful, and of a frank, happy
+disposition, altogether charming. The city is not more Spanish-looking
+than its people, who represent the pure Castilian type, and preserve,
+with few changes, the customs and characteristics of their Iberian
+ancestors, proud of their descent from the noblest families of Spain.
+Foreigners who have visited the city of Santa Cruz and its neighboring
+_estancias_, as the large cattle ranches are called, invariably
+remark upon the Spanish type of the people, and the very slight
+evidence of an admixture of races to be seen here. The population
+of the city is about nineteen thousand, of which two hundred are of
+foreign origin, belonging to German, Italian, and other nationalities.
+
+The city of Santa Cruz was founded, as elsewhere stated, by Ñuflo
+de Chavez, soon after the Spanish conquest, and was later removed
+to its present site and given the name of Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
+Everyone who is familiar with Bolivian history knows with what
+courage and success the Cruceños sustained their part in the struggle
+for independence, and that the famous victory of La Florida, one
+of the most brilliant of the war, was due to their bravery. The
+history of the republic bears record to the patriotism and genius
+of many distinguished Cruceños who have achieved national fame as
+statesmen, diplomats, jurists, littérateurs, and orators. Don Santiago
+Vaca-Guzmán, a Cruceño, has written gems of prose and verse, and
+represented his country abroad as minister plenipotentiary with honor
+and distinction. Don Manuel Ignacio Salvatierra, one of the most
+illustrious statesmen Bolivia ever had, was a native of Santa Cruz, and
+loved the pretty city of La Sierra better than any other, though he was
+received at all the courts of Europe and welcomed in the intellectual
+circles of its chief cities; he was a member of the Cabinet in his own
+country as minister of finance, and was _fiscal general_ of the
+republic. Don Rafael Peña, also a Cruceño, has filled many offices of
+distinction, and has rendered invaluable services to the government as
+prefect of Santa Cruz, minister of the Supreme Court of the nation,
+and _fiscal general_, and he has written books of great merit,
+especially _La Flora Cruceña_, which is regarded as one of the
+most important contributions to Bolivian literature. Don Juan Francisco
+Velarde, Bolivian minister to Washington a few years ago, and several
+times member of the Cabinet, is a noted journalist and writer. Don
+Gabriel Réné Moreno, one of the most brilliant writers of South
+America, and Don Ignacio Terán, the learned director of the University
+of San Francisco Xavier, are proud to claim Santa Cruz as their native
+city. These are only a few names selected to show how active the
+Cruceño is in contributing his share to the national progress.
+
+Santa Cruz de la Sierra is situated in the central part of the
+department of Santa Cruz, and in a well-watered region, marking the
+divide which from this point eastward separates the tributaries of
+the Madeira from those of the Paraguay. Although distant about three
+hundred and fifty miles from Cochabamba, the nearest large city, Santa
+Cruz is reached on horseback without difficulty, though sometimes, in
+the wet season, with delays occasioned by bad roads. The citizens are
+naturally desirous of seeing the early completion of the new railroad
+system, which will put them in closer connection not only with other
+cities, but also with the chief shipping port of the department,
+Puerto Suarez. But though so remote from the popular highways of
+travel, the city has many modern conveniences, fine public buildings,
+and commodious residences. As the seat of a bishopric, it has a
+cathedral of imposing structure; and the government palace, national
+college, agricultural school, public library, and hospital occupy
+well-constructed edifices. Manufacturing establishments are numerous,
+including saw mills, silk and cotton factories, tanneries, and various
+small enterprises devoted to the manufacture of _dulces_, or
+preserved fruits, chocolate, and other confections. Panamá hats, which
+are woven of _jipijapa_ fibre, are also made in this city. All
+the commerce between Santa Cruz and foreign countries passes through
+the ports of Villa Bella, Puerto Suarez, and Antofagasta. The city is
+connected with the other department capitals by telegraph, and several
+long-distance telephone lines connect it with neighboring towns and
+with the provincial capitals of the department. Roads lead out of the
+capital to all the principal cities of the department. In the vicinity
+of the city are celebrated mineral springs and thermal baths of the
+highest medicinal value.
+
+  [Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: CALLE FLORIDA, SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+The department of Santa Cruz comprises one of the most productive
+regions of South America. It is so favored by climate and an abundance
+of natural resources that travellers unite in pronouncing it a
+wonderful land of promise, awaiting only the necessary industrial
+enterprise and commercial facilities to convert it into the most
+flourishing and prosperous of agricultural countries. Nature seems
+to have bestowed unlimited wealth on this territory, in which gold
+and precious stones are known to abound, forests of rubber trees
+yield great wealth, all kinds of fruits and cereals grow with little
+cultivation, and cattle raising is always a profitable enterprise. The
+department covers about twenty thousand square leagues. Its western
+boundary is marked by the headwaters of the Mamoré, which divide it
+from the department of Cochabamba; on the east it extends to the
+Paraguay River and to the Rio Verde branch of the Guaporé, by both
+of which it is separated from Brazil; the department of the Beni
+extends across its northern boundary, and to the south it adjoins
+the department of Chuquisaca. The western section is close to the
+foothills of the Cordillera Real, the provinces of Valle Grande,
+Cercado, and Sara, which border the department of Cochabamba, being
+traversed by _serranias_ that are rich in minerals and afford
+unlimited pasturage for cattle on their fertile slopes. In the south
+are grown peaches, oranges, lemons, figs, bananas, and pineapples,
+while in the central and northern districts the more tropical dates,
+_chirimoyas_, and _granadillas_ are cultivated. Medicinal
+trees and plants of great value are found here, the best known
+being the cinchona, from which quinine is extracted, the coca, the
+sarsaparilla,--_smilax medica_,--and the jalap. Almost every
+agricultural product known is cultivated in some section of the
+department. Wheat, corn, and alfalfa grow in abundance in the hills of
+the western districts, and in the rolling plains and more level tracts
+of the central provinces of Velasco and Chiquitos are large plantations
+of sugar cane, cotton, cacao, cocoa, mandioca, vanilla, tobacco,
+rice, and coffee. The low lands which border the upper streams of the
+Paraguay and the Guaporé are rich in rubber trees, an important source
+of revenue to the department. The growth of all products is luxuriant,
+corn being harvested three months after planting, sugar cane within
+eight months, and rice every five or six months. Chiquitos produces
+rice without cultivation. An example of the enormous undeveloped wealth
+of eastern Bolivia is shown in the rice crop alone, which is hardly
+sufficient to supply the market of a single province of the department.
+Though rice can be planted at any season of the year, is cultivated
+with the greatest facility, grows so abundantly that for every bushel
+sown the harvest is forty bushels, and is of the very best quality,
+yet millions of pounds of rice are imported every year. A planter
+has been known to sow a _fanega_, about one and a half bushels,
+at the beginning of the year, harvest forty fanegas in five months,
+plant the forty fanegas immediately and gather at the end of the
+year a harvest of one thousand six hundred fanegas, the year’s labor
+having recompensed him by an increase of one thousand five hundred and
+fifty-nine fanegas. There are two kinds of Bolivian rice, the white and
+the pink variety. The soil and climate of Santa Cruz are peculiarly
+suited to its cultivation, and it will no doubt be one of the principal
+products of the department in the near future, as the attention of
+progressive agriculturists has already been attracted to the great
+possibilities of this industry.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD QUARTER OF SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+Another product which grows in prolific abundance and of superior
+quality in Santa Cruz is the sugar cane. This department should be one
+of the greatest sugar-producing regions in the world, so favorable
+are the conditions for its cultivation. At present only the most
+primitive methods are used in the development of this industry, while
+the expense of transportation is too great to make it as profitable
+as it should be. When modern machinery is imported to take the place
+of the antiquated apparatus which has been generally used, the sugar
+industry will become one of Bolivia’s greatest sources of wealth. The
+influence of the progressive conditions that have been governing the
+country during the past few years is having a beneficial effect on
+agricultural as well as other enterprises. The report for 1905 shows
+a notable increase over the five preceding years in the quantity of
+sugar exported, which amounts to more than a million pounds annually.
+Little or none of the Santa Cruz sugar leaves Bolivia, most of it being
+consumed in this and other departments, excepting in Chuquisaca and
+Potosí, which grow their own sugar. The manufacture of alcohol and rum
+increases every year, the quantity produced by Santa Cruz alone being
+estimated at three hundred thousand gallons annually. The process
+of setting out a sugar plantation is described by those who have
+seen it as the simplest imaginable. First a space is cleared in the
+_bosque_ by cutting down the trees and underbrush; and a few days
+afterward, when the wood is quite dry, it is set on fire and burned, to
+leave the land perfectly clean for cultivation. Then the planter, with
+a wooden stick, digs holes in the ground, about three feet apart, and
+in each of these he plants a piece of cane, pushing it down into the
+soil with his hand. This is done in November, and in May the harvesting
+begins. Such a plantation will continue to yield for four years, each
+successive harvest producing a sweeter quality of sugar. The cane grows
+to a height of from fifteen to twenty feet the first year.
+
+  [Illustration: PICTURESQUE PLAZA OF SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+Cotton grows with so little cultivation that it receives hardly any
+attention, though it will no doubt provide an important industry when
+improved transportation facilities lead to the general development of
+agriculture on a larger scale.
+
+Although the cinchona tree grows in great abundance in the department,
+this industry is, like nearly every other of eastern Bolivia, still in
+the infancy of development. There are vast forests of these trees which
+have not even been thoroughly explored, and the few _quinales_,
+as the quinine-producing plantations are called, which are exploited
+by large companies, chiefly belong to foreign syndicates. These
+_quinales_ are usually situated on the slopes of the mountains,
+at an altitude of from three thousand to seven thousand feet above sea
+level, and have been raised from seed gathered in the springtime and
+sprouted in hothouses. The trees grow within five years to a height
+of eighteen feet, straight and slender in form, the trunk measuring
+about twenty inches in circumference. After five years’ growth it is
+sufficiently developed to yield bark for the market, a few strips about
+two inches wide and five feet long being cut from the trunk and laid
+out to dry before shipment. This is done twice or three times a year,
+the bark growing anew within a couple of years, when the tree may be
+stripped again, in other places. Older trees yield bark from their
+largest branches, as well as from the trunk, and a mature tree will
+produce on an average about five pounds of bark.
+
+  [Illustration: CALLE DEL COMERCIO, SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+Petroleum is found in abundance in the department of Santa Cruz,
+within ten leagues of its capital city, and yet this valuable product
+remains unexploited, while four bolivianos per gallon are paid for
+the imported article. In the provinces of Valle Grande and Sara iron
+and mercury exist in large quantities, gold abounds in the mountains
+and streams of Chiquitos province, and salt is a product of several
+lakes of the department. Besides the celebrated mine of Santa Rosa,
+which is situated in the province of Velasco about two hundred miles
+north of the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, on the border of the San
+Miguel River, and which, as stated elsewhere, has long been a famous
+gold-mining centre, there are other rich and promising placer mines in
+this province and in Chiquitos. Sorotocó, Quebrada Ancha, Clemente,
+Limas, Pehichi, Brígida, and Naranjos are names well known to Bolivian
+miners as belonging to districts that have yielded many thousands of
+pounds of gold within the past half-century. Every explorer who visits
+Chiquitos returns with wonderful stories of its mineral wealth and the
+precious stones to be found there. San José, which lies on theroute
+of the new railway to be built from Santa Cruz to Puerto Suarez, has
+been worked only in the most primitive fashion, yet has produced large
+quantities of gold, and the whole province of Chiquitos gives promise
+of proving a rich storehouse full of the precious metal when once its
+mountains and streams are thoroughly explored. Most of the rivers in
+the department contain gold, and the river system is very extensive,
+including affluents both of the Amazon and the La Plata waterways.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF SANTA CRUZ, SHOWING LAKE IN THE
+  VICINITY.]
+
+The western part of Santa Cruz department is watered chiefly by the
+Rio Grande or Guapay, which after traversing the provinces of Valle
+Grande and Sara, turns northward to join the Mamoré. This large river
+is navigable throughout nearly its whole length, and its tributaries,
+the Piray and the Yapacaní, which flow through the province of
+Sara, are also navigable for _callapos_ and _balsas_. The
+province of Velasco is watered by the river San Miguel, which rises in
+Lake Concepcion on the border of Chiquitos province and crosses the
+department in a northwesterly direction, joining the Guaporé, after
+traversing the eastern section of the department of the Beni. It is an
+important river and receives many tributaries throughout its course,
+chief among them the Rio Negro. Dense forests of rubber are found along
+the route of these rivers, as well as in the neighborhood of the Rio
+Blanco, the Serre or Paragua, and the Rio Verde, all of which rise in
+Velasco province and, after crossing the Beni, join the Guaporé. The
+Rio Verde is especially rich in rubber trees, and has the additional
+importance of marking the source of navigation on this branch of the
+Madeira system of waterways. The recently established port of Iténez
+at the junction of the Rio Verde with the Guaporé, on the northeastern
+boundary of Santa Cruz department, is an important acquisition to the
+transportation facilities of this region.
+
+  [Illustration: CACIQUE AND HIS FAMILY, SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+Of the river system which fertilizes the southern provinces of
+Chiquitos and La Cordillera, the principal affluent is the Otuquis, or
+Rio Negro, a tributary of the Paraguay, formed by the confluence of
+the Tucabaca and the San Rafael Rivers. The Tucabaca is a small stream
+which receives its waters from the periodical torrents that sweep down
+from the _serranias_ of Santiago and Sunsa, and it flows through
+an almost uninterrupted stretch of virgin forest, and between level
+banks free from undergrowth, though the river is impeded at intervals
+by the débris which usually collects in the channels of forest streams.
+The San Rafael is formed by the uniting of many small affluents from
+the _serranias_ of Santiago, and in its course to the Otuquis
+it receives the thermal waters of Florida and Topera, entering the
+main river under the name of Agua Caliente, “hot water,” at a point
+called Santo Corazón. The Otuquis is navigable for thirty-six miles
+from its mouth, and may be made a serviceable waterway for a distance
+of two hundred and fifty miles when the work of clearing its channel
+from tree trunks and other obstacles is completed. The Pirapiti, which
+rises in the _serrania_ of Pomabamba, department of Chuquisaca,
+is variously given as a tributary of the Otuquis, which it is said
+to join near the headwaters of the latter, as an independent river
+emptying into Lake Concepcion, and as a tributary of the San Miguel,
+which is generally described as having its source in Lake Concepcion,
+in the province of Chiquitos. This lake is one of the most important in
+the department, having a circumference of about twenty leagues, though
+there are several lagoons, called _curiches_ and _bañados_,
+along the courses of the various rivers which water the department.
+The Salinas de Santiago and Salinas de San José, in the province of La
+Cordillera, are similar in appearance to those of Poopo and Coipasa on
+the Titicaca plateau, and are noted for their saline properties.
+
+The river system of the eastern part of Bolivia is somewhat
+complicated, there being some sections of the great _divortia
+aquarum_, or water divide, between the Amazon and La Plata system,
+which are so slightly marked that a heavy flood is sufficient to alter
+the direction of the currents. The Rio Aguaclara, which flows into the
+Alegre and is known a few miles below as the Guaporé, rises in the
+same _cerro_ as the Pezca which is a branch of the Jaurú, as the
+Paraguay River is called for the first few miles of its course. The
+Guaporé and the Paraguay are only five miles apart, and it has been
+suggested that the two waterways could be profitably joined for the
+purposes of commerce. At Bahia Negra, which is the name given to that
+region of the Upper Paraguay which marks the junction of the Paraguay
+with the Otuquis, the main river is bordered by very low banks hardly
+more than five or six feet above the water at high tide and subject to
+inundation during the rainy season. Puerto Pacheco, which is situated
+south of Bahia Negra, in the region popularly known as the Chaco
+Boreal, and at a distance of one thousand five hundred miles from
+Buenos Aires, is the chief river port of this part of Bolivia. To the
+north of Puerto Pacheco, the Paraguay River has sufficient depth for
+the navigation of small steamers as far as Lakes Gaiba and Uberaba,
+where the Jaurú enters a broader channel and becomes known as the
+Paraguay. The Gaiba is deep enough to admit boats drawing from six
+to eight feet of water. This is one of the richest zones of eastern
+Bolivia; and once it is opened to industrial development, pasture
+lands of the first order will be established here, an increasing
+demand will be made for the forest lands on which valuable timber
+grows in abundance, and the advantages of this region for the purposes
+of agriculture, such as coffee growing and rice culture, will be
+recognized. When one considers how desperate is the competition in
+industry and commerce in the overcrowded countries of Europe, and what
+a constant struggle the masses have to endure in order to get their
+daily bread, it is not surprising that enthusiasm should be awakened at
+the spectacle of the abundance which is to be had by little effort in
+these vast forests and fertile plains, and the prediction is naturally
+forced upon one that the day is not far distant when the steamers that
+ply up and down the Paraguay will bring multitudes of immigrants to its
+shores, and that the thousands of square leagues which now lie idle
+will provide for the comfort and well-being of many happy colonists.
+
+As in all tropical countries, the climate of the department of Santa
+Cruz is marked by only two seasons, the winter being known as the dry
+and the summer as the wet season. Winter usually begins in April and
+lasts until September or October, and is characterized by alternating
+north and south winds, the north wind being very pleasant, but the
+south wind bringing such an abrupt lowering of the temperature that the
+inhabitants are obliged to wear heavy clothing during the two or three
+days that it lasts. The warm season becomes more marked each month
+from September until February or March; and the rains, which begin in
+December or January, continue until April, diminishing gradually. In
+the southern part the seasons are modified, and in Chiquitos, where the
+_serranias_ mark an altitude of four or five thousand feet above
+sea level, the four seasons are very clearly defined.
+
+  [Illustration: LAS BARRERAS, A HACIENDA NEAR SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+Hunting is one of the pastimes afforded by the abundance of wild
+animals in the forests of Santa Cruz, the game being of the species
+usually found in tropical countries. Handsome tiger skins are
+frequently brought into the city for sale, as well as huge cobra skins,
+the largest to be found anywhere, some of them measuring thirty feet
+in length. Foxes, rabbits, tapirs, wildcats, and monkeys abound. The
+sloth is a native of these _bosques_, and is seen everywhere in
+the great tropical forests of Velasco. It is very interesting to watch
+this animal, the symbol of laziness, slowly making its two or three
+feet of progress a day. It has protection from attack in long talons,
+which it fixes so securely in the flesh of the enemy that they can be
+removed only by being cut out. So deliberate are its movements that a
+hare can run miles while it is turning its head. The sloth is about the
+size of a cat, though it bears no resemblance whatever to the feline
+species. Its coat is of coarse gray hair. Fishermen find good sport in
+the streams, though there are not many varieties of fish, but turtles
+are found of every kind. The forests abound in every variety of the
+feathered species from the magnificent macaw with its glorious plumage
+flashing in the sunlight, where golden rays pierce the deep shadows
+of tropical woodland, to the tiny humming bird that sparkles like a
+brilliant gem as it sips the sweetest blossoms of groves that are
+laden with perfumed flowers. Hunters seldom disturb these beautiful
+birds, and they enjoy unlimited freedom.
+
+The charm of the tropics is acknowledged by all who have lived under
+its spell for a time. There is a beauty in the great, towering monarchs
+of the forest, in the luxuriant verdure, in the rich greens of the
+valleys, and in the gorgeous hues of a thousand blossoms. The birds are
+so happy in perpetual summer land, and even those which do not sing are
+enchanting in their gay plumage and graceful flight. Murmuring streams
+and flashing cascades have a beauty that is irresistible, and there is
+no voice so alluring as the whisper of the tropical breeze borne upon
+the still air of Nature’s ideal dreamland.
+
+  [Illustration: THE CACTUS OF SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: OPENING THE ROAD FROM PUERTO PACHECO, ON THE
+  PARAGUAY RIVER.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXVI
+
+                   TARIJA--EXPLORATIONS IN THE CHACO
+
+
+The city of San Bernardo de Tarija, founded in 1574 as a Spanish
+settlement for the headquarters of the missionaries who were
+working among the Indians of the Chaco, still preserves some of
+the characteristics of the old Spanish convent city, the handsome
+cathedral and the temple and convent of San Francisco being among its
+most conspicuous buildings. The city has an interesting history, the
+chronicles of colonial times, which are preserved in the national
+archives, recording such deeds of heroism on the part of its early
+inhabitants as are seldom surpassed in the annals of a people. When
+the Viceroy Toledo visited Potosí in 1573 he was informed of the great
+difficulties encountered by the Christian fathers in their efforts to
+civilize the Chiriguanos of the Chaco, and of the dangers in which they
+constantly risked their lives, and he at once decided to establish
+garrisoned Spanish towns along the frontiers of the Chichas territory,
+which adjoined that of the Chiriguanos. The Chichas were peaceable
+tribes, inhabiting the district now comprised in the department
+of Tarija, and they had suffered from the hostile and predatory
+Chiriguanos long before the conquest, the Incas having been obliged
+to construct fortifications for the protection of the vassals of the
+empire against these savages of the Chaco, who could never be brought
+under Inca dominion.
+
+  [Illustration: GIANT TREE IN TARIJA.]
+
+On January 22, 1574, the viceroy despatched a commission under the
+direction of a Spanish noble named Don Luis de Fuentes, with authority
+to found, in the valley of Tarija, a city with the name of San Bernardo
+de la Frontera. The founder received the title of captain and chief
+justice of the new city and of all its jurisdiction, extending for
+fifty leagues, twenty in the territory of the Chichas, and thirty in
+the Chiriguanos’ lands. He was also given full power to remunerate
+those who took part in the conquest and population of the new country,
+distributing among them the lands they were to occupy. As founder, he
+was rewarded with one-fourth of these lands. It is related that Don
+Luis Fuentes found it very difficult to secure colonists, because,
+though the viceroy promised much for the future, there was little to
+live upon in the meantime, and the atrocities constantly committed by
+the Chiriguanos struck terror to the hearts of the boldest. Finally
+about forty-five Spaniards from Potosí and Chuquisaca were induced to
+settle in the new town, an equal number of Indians were employed to
+begin the work of laying out the town and constructing the houses, and
+the vicar of a Dominican convent of Chuquisaca was engaged as chaplain
+to the people. With such an insignificant defense did the brave
+missionaries establish their headquarters on a frontier where more than
+six thousand Indians were prepared for war, offensive and defensive,
+opposing with poisoned arrows any attempt of the Spaniards to interfere
+with their raids on the Chichas’ camps. While the millionaires of
+Potosí were enjoying the luxury of their wealth from the mines of
+the Cerro, and the Spanish monarch was employing his newly acquired
+revenues to equip the famous Armada with which he hoped to bring new
+glory to Spanish arms and humiliation to Queen Elizabeth of England,
+a few devoted soldiers of the Cross were establishing themselves,
+without aid and without ostentation, on the remote frontiers of a new
+country, in the midst of a savage people, surrounded by danger, and
+menaced by starvation, to work for the civilization and conversion of
+colonial Spain. They renounced comfort, peace, and security, and went
+into voluntary and lifelong exile among the Indians to accomplish their
+purpose.
+
+The tradition relating to the supposed missionary journeys of Saint
+Thomas in South America is associated in a singular way with the
+sacred relics long preserved in the church of Tarija. Soon after the
+foundation of the city, a large wooden cross, apparently very old and
+having done much service, was found by an Indian in one of the caves
+of the hills several leagues distant from the city, in a part of the
+country which, it was supposed, had not hitherto been visited by the
+Spaniards. The cross, which was about fifteen feet in height, was
+much worn, and the bottom was decayed as if from having been buried
+in the ground. The only explanation of its origin was supplied by the
+Indians of the Chaco, who, like the natives of the Titicaca region,
+had a popular legend of a tall man of pale complexion, with long hair
+and beard, and dressed in flowing garments almost to his feet. Their
+ancestors had handed down the story that the pale stranger was a great
+teacher who went about among the tribes, telling them that God had come
+into the world and died on a cross, like one which he brought with him
+and set up in their midst. The sacred relic was placed in the church of
+Tarija, which became celebrated as a shrine where many miracles were
+wrought. Whatever may be the true story of this particular cross, it is
+believed by many students of the history of the South American Indians
+that a cross was used as a religious symbol by some of the tribes long
+before the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.
+
+  [Illustration: THE NARROWS, NEAR TARIJA.]
+
+The city founded under such adverse circumstances grew slowly at
+first, the population being reduced soon after its foundation to about
+twenty-five inhabitants; but the resolute spirit of the colonists
+triumphed over disaster and sickness, and gradually the town increased
+in numbers, importance, and wealth. In 1690 the little settlement had
+three hundred citizens, five convents, a hospital, and a college.
+During the viceroyalty Tarija was under the administration of the
+Intendencia of Potosí, but after the inauguration of the republic the
+department of Tarija was formed, with San Bernardo de Tarija as its
+capital city. The name Tarija was given in honor of the discoverer
+of the site on which the city was founded. It lies in a picturesque
+valley at an elevation of seven thousand feet above sea level, and
+is noted for its delightful climate and beautiful scenery. The
+present population is eight thousand, of whom about two hundred are
+foreigners. As capital of the department, Tarija is the residence of
+the prefect, and the seat of a court of justice, university council,
+committee of public safety, and other departmental organizations.
+The city has an excellent public library, twelve schools for primary
+and secondary instruction, a university, two banks, a hospital, and
+public buildings of minor importance. Many of the private residences
+are handsome modern structures, of European style, with pretty gardens
+and shade trees to beautify them. Two newspapers are published, one
+of which, _La Estrella de Tarija_, was founded many years ago.
+The social life of Tarija is particularly charming, the people being
+cultured and gracious in manner and extremely hospitable. The city
+has not hitherto been especially noted as a commercial centre, though
+always an important highway for traffic entering Bolivia through
+Argentina. It has been chiefly regarded as a city more distinguished
+for political than commercial influence, as its most prominent men
+have always been identified with the affairs of government. The
+present minister of instruction, Señor Don Juan Saracho, was born
+in Tarija, which was also the birthplace of ex-President Arce and
+of the illustrious soldier and statesman General Campero. Senator
+Tomás O’Connor d’Arlach, one of Bolivia’s best poets, is a Tarijeño,
+belonging to a family who have, for generations past, been among its
+most distinguished citizens. The fame of its Christian teachers and
+missionaries is still preserved by such self-sacrificing and kindly
+souls as Father Giannechini, who is esteemed not only by his own
+people, but by many foreign travellers who have enjoyed his assistance
+and hospitality. Dr. Crevaux, the noted French explorer of the Chaco,
+not only reported to the Bolivian government how deeply he was indebted
+to the good father for aid and information, but paid an enthusiastic
+tribute to the noble priest in his letters to the French government
+as well. He has accompanied several hazardous expeditions through
+the wilds of the Chaco, and was chaplain to the Bolivian commission
+which in 1883 made a survey of the national territory bordering on the
+Paraguay River. The explorer Thouar and his party expressed in letters
+their eternal gratitude for the kind services shown them by Father
+Giannechini, whose name is known to all travellers who have occasion to
+journey in this part of Bolivia.
+
+Not only have explorers visited Tarija in the interests of botany and
+ethnology, which present special features in the region of the Chaco,
+but palæontologists have found in the vicinity of the city itself some
+of the most valuable fossils ever discovered. In all the great museums
+of the world specimens from the valley of Tarija are on exhibition,
+and especially in the Museum of Natural History of Paris, to which
+the noted naturalist H. A. Weddell contributed many fine fossils as a
+result of his visit to this region. He describes the valley as having
+the aspect of an immense channel, which he thinks it evidently was
+at some period. The hills scattered over its surface give apparent
+proof that it was traversed by much more tumultuous currents than
+those that now water its course. The diluvial nature of the soil is
+particularly evident in the immediate vicinity of the city, where the
+ground is cut in all directions by deep fissures crossing each other in
+a labyrinth, and leaving isolated hillocks at intervals, some of them
+distinguished by the most bizarre shapes. The walls of these gullies
+show plainly that the soil of the valley, down to a great depth, is
+formed of an immense bed of mud, due to the former action of a strong
+current of water. The fossils found here, according to Mr. Weddell, are
+of various kinds. His collection included not only the _Mastodonte
+Humboldtii_, but the remains of about fifteen other animals of the
+mammiferous species. He unearthed bones and teeth of the Megatherium,
+a variety which was larger than the rhinoceros, and found fragments
+of prehistoric shellfish, rodents, ruminants, species of the horse,
+the deer, and other animals, all herbivorous, with the exception of
+a single specimen which is supposed to belong to the bear family.
+Mr. Weddell’s theory is that a powerful current of water brought the
+fossils from another locality, and as its force was abated in passing
+through the valley, they were deposited in this place.
+
+  [Illustration: BOLIVIAN COMMISSION OF LIMITS, ENCAMPED IN THE
+  CHACO.]
+
+Tarija is chiefly interesting as the centre of a territory which is
+rich in industrial possibilities and practically an unexploited field
+for enterprises of this character. The department covers an area of one
+hundred and eighty-four thousand square kilomètres and is divided into
+six provinces: Cercado, Mendez, Aviléz, Arce, Salinas, and Gran Chaco.
+All the provinces, with the exception of the Gran Chaco are traversed
+by _serranias_ of considerable altitude, though diminishing toward
+the east, where great rolling plains and gently sloping hills provide
+abundant pasturage for cattle. On the higher levels, wheat, corn, and
+barley are grown of a superior quality and in plenty, while the more
+tropical districts of the Chaco yield bountiful harvests of rice,
+tobacco, and the usual tropical products. In the mountain districts
+minerals and precious stones are found, but little capital has been
+invested for the development of mining properties. The climate is
+superb in the western part of the department, the Gran Chaco being more
+tropical, though healthful and agreeable. All the rivers of this region
+are tributaries of the Paraguay: the Pilcomayo and the Bermejo are the
+principal waterways.
+
+  [Illustration: PALM TREES IN THE GRAN CHACO.]
+
+In a recent report to the supreme government, the Prefect of Tarija,
+Colonel Don Leocadio Trigo, gives a complete description of the
+climate, natural resources, and the inhabitants of the Gran Chaco,
+which affords a glimpse of the condition and people of this little
+known but very important province. Colonel Trigo led an expedition
+which explored the left bank of the Pilcomayo for fifty leagues down
+its course, starting from Caiza, a few miles north of Yacuiba on the
+Argentine boundary. From Caiza to the Crevaux colony, one of the
+recently established posts on the river, at about twenty-two degrees
+south latitude, the distance is twenty-five leagues, fourteen of which
+extends through fertile territory, offering little difficulty to
+development. Crevaux colony lies on a beautiful peninsula, on the right
+bank of the Pilcomayo, and is the centre of extensive pasture lands.
+A small garrison is established here. From Crevaux colony to the next
+settlement on the river. Fort Murillo, the distance is six leagues,
+the river being crossed at this point in small canoes, which the
+Indians call _chalanas_. At Fort Murillo sugar cane is cultivated,
+though cattle raising is the chief industry. From Fort Murillo to Fort
+Campero, about thirty leagues further down the river, the exploring
+party passed through the territory of the Tobas and the Chorotis,
+Indians of the Chaco, semi-civilized tribes. Many _estancias_
+belonging to Bolivian ranchmen were visited on the way, one of the
+largest being the property of Señor Gomez, a typical “cattle king”
+of the Chaco. Everywhere pasturage was abundant, and sufficient
+fish and game were caught for the needs of the expedition. At the
+_estancia_ of Señor Gomez the prefect was visited by several
+chiefs of the Tobas, to whom the friendly mission of the government
+was explained satisfactorily, the Indians promising not to oppose the
+progress of civilization in their territory. From Fort Murillo onward
+the _bosques_, which were frequent higher up the river, became
+more scattered and of lesser growth, disappearing finally in open
+fields of pasturage. The river Pilcomayo at various points overflowed
+its low banks, spreading out in marshes, or _bañados_, changing
+its channel, and occasionally forming peninsulas, on which rice, sugar
+cane, cotton, and corn are grown almost without cultivation. As the
+river approaches the Paraguay its channel becomes deeper and narrower,
+and its banks higher and better defined, making navigation easier. The
+zone inhabited by the Chiriguanos is marked by a great forest of palm
+trees which stretches along the river bank for a considerable distance.
+In an interview with the Indian chief it was learned that these tribes
+were better disposed than formerly to come under the influences of
+civilization, and their leader asked for supplies and the necessary
+guarantees, which were given, the chief being presented by the prefect
+with a Remington rifle to insure his protection against invading hordes.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE ON THE PILCOMAYO RIVER.]
+
+At Fort Campero, on the river Pilcomayo, the territory of the Tobas
+joins that of the Chorotis, the tribes of which are three times
+more numerous and are in possession of a much greater extent of
+land than the Tobas. Still further down the river the Tapietes are
+dominant, living in the depths of the forests and remaining completely
+uncivilized. The other two tribes are more advanced, and frequently
+seek employment in the haciendas and pueblos of Gran Chaco. In all
+their settlements, Indians are met with who speak a little Spanish.
+Colonel Trigo, in his report of the expedition, says that while their
+arrival appeared to cause little surprise to the Tobas, who received
+them all along the route with friendliness, the Chorotis tried by every
+possible means to discourage their progress by depicting all kinds
+of dangers. As the party proceeded in spite of the evil predictions
+of the Indians, the country presented a more beautiful aspect than
+anything seen before. The pasture was rich and covered a vast extent
+of territory, and distant _bosques_ lent a picturesque variety
+to the scenery. Beyond this magnificent stretch of plain, which the
+enthusiastic explorers called a perfect paradise, they came upon
+a Choroti settlement, which marked the boundary line between the
+territory of the Chorotis and the Tapietes. Here they rested for the
+night, the Indians refusing to trade with them, or even to converse,
+until they had assembled in parliament. When it was made known to them
+that the government sought their protection and well-being, and the
+advancement of civilization in their midst, they appeared well pleased
+with the idea. The conference ended with the distribution of the usual
+presents of tobacco and other articles, the oldest woman of the tribe
+chanting a weird, monotonous song in token of the friendly acceptance
+of the strangers’ visit.
+
+  [Illustration: CAMP OF CHOROTIS ON THE PLAINS OF THE BOLIVIAN
+  CHACO.]
+
+The story of the journey made by the Prefect of Tarija and his
+commission for fifty leagues through unexplored territory and in the
+midst of uncivilized Indians has many interesting features besides
+the simple relation of meetings with friendly tribes and the usual
+experiences of an exploring party. There were days when the heat was
+intense, when the path led through dense forest, over sandy stretches,
+and through thorny undergrowth where it was necessary to cut a route
+with hatchets. The guides were not always faithful, and seldom
+truthful, especially those of the Chorotis, who did not at first relish
+the idea of the white man’s invasion, though they became good friends
+of the expedition as its motive was made known. The Tapietes offered
+no welcome to the advancing party, but, on the contrary, burned their
+camps at the newcomers’ approach. When face to face with the prefect
+and his followers, however, the Tapietes did not show themselves
+so valiant. The firearms and other accoutrements of the white man
+filled them with especial admiration for his prowess. After the usual
+formalities, they were informed of the purpose of the expedition, and
+gave the promise of their friendliness.
+
+The exploration made by the Prefect of Tarija along the course of the
+Pilcomayo proves that it waters a region rich in pasturage and offering
+great advantages for colonization. Much of the territory through which
+the journey was made is as abundant in pasturage as the best lands of
+Argentina, and there is practically no limit to the possibilities of
+development. On the few _estancias_ scattered throughout the country
+fine cattle and horses are reared, and chickens, ducks, and other
+barnyard fowl thrive here. The journey gave proof of the facilities
+existing for the opening up of traffic in this part of Bolivia by way
+of the Pilcomayo and Paraguay Rivers, as navigation for small craft
+is easy and boats and barges of sufficient capacity for carrying
+considerable cargo can be used on this waterway. Dr. Santiago Vaca
+Guzmán has written an interesting book entitled _El Pilcomayo_, in
+which he gives a great deal of valuable information about this great
+river: The Pilcomayo, in its course of six hundred miles, waters three
+distinct regions; that of the Bolivian _serranias_, where it rises,
+called the _puna_ by some geographers; that of the plains, where it
+spreads out over a wide area in the rainy season; and that of its
+_embouchure_, comprised in the delta by which it enters the Paraguay.
+In its long course it receives several affluents, the Tarapaya being
+particularly notable as the stream which supplies many _ingenios_ of
+Potosí with water, and which, during the early period of the silver
+mining industry, carried millions of dollars’ worth of the precious
+metal down to the Pilcomayo. It is the opinion of those who have
+explored the Pilcomayo that it may be made navigable from the point
+where its main tributaries enter the river at the base of the Royal
+Range to the Paraguay, and that in order to accomplish this benefit it
+is necessary only to use a dredge in some parts and to clear the débris
+in others, so that the river course may be better regulated.
+
+The name of Chaco is generally applied to the great region which
+extends from the province of Chiquitos in the department of Santa Cruz
+to the Rio Salado on the northern border of the Argentine pampas. It
+is divided into the Chaco Boreal, or northern Chaco, of which Puerto
+Pacheco is the chief river port; Chaco Central, of which Villa Hayes
+is the river port at the mouth of the Pilcomayo, and Chaco Austral, in
+the Argentine republic. By a recent treaty of limits with Argentina,
+Bolivia ceded its claim to that part of the Chaco comprised between the
+Pilcomayo and Bermejo Rivers.
+
+The new railway which is to connect Yacuiba with Santa Cruz will assist
+in developing trade and encouraging immigration in this promising
+province, and within a few years the Gran Chaco, which has always
+been regarded as the least important province of the department,
+because of its isolation from the highways of travel and its almost
+total occupation by the indigenes, will be one of the most prosperous
+districts of eastern Bolivia. The Indians are, as a rule, peaceable
+and friendly, except in a limited district where few white men have
+penetrated except on scientific expeditions. The stories of attacks by
+the Indians are very often exaggerated, and the traveller is frequently
+to blame for the antagonism of the tribes. The unsettled territory is
+becoming more and more reduced as the opportunities for industrial
+enterprise are being recognized, and few regions exist where the
+conditions are more favorable for colonization than on the plains of
+the Chaco. Tarija will always be the chief metropolis of this part
+of Bolivia; and while its riches increase as the centre of valuable
+agricultural provinces, its importance will be still greater as the
+chief market for the cattle of the vast pasture lands of Gran Chaco.
+
+  [Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF TARIJA.]
+
+  [Illustration: STEAMBOAT ON THE MAMORÉ RIVER, EL BENI.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXVII
+
+                    EL BENI, THE BOLIVIAN EL DORADO
+
+
+Every year exploring expeditions go to the Beni, penetrate its forests,
+find new tributaries to its rivers, examine its _sierras_,
+and bring back wonderful stories of gold mines and precious stones
+in abundance, of rich pasture lands and agricultural valleys, of
+great forests of hardwood, medicinal plants, and tropical fruits,
+and crowning all, of unlimited treasures in rubber, one of the most
+important articles in the world of commerce.
+
+  [Illustration: THE RUBBER GATHERER AT WORK, EL BENI.]
+
+From the southwestern border of the department of El Beni, where it
+is separated from La Paz and Cochabamba by the foothills of the Royal
+Range, to the eastern and northern limits, where it is divided from
+Brazil by the Guaporé River and from the Territorio de Colonias by the
+Beni, the climate and products of this fertile zone vary greatly. This
+fact accounts for the conflicting stories which are heard regarding
+the country. Explorers and prospectors who travel in the western and
+southern part of the department, in the region of Rurrenabaque, Santa
+Ana, and Trinidad are generally enthusiastic about the climate and
+great fertility of the soil for the purposes of agriculture, while
+those who make the rubber forests their chief destination frequently
+complain that the climate is unhealthy and the country an undesirable
+place to live in. In reality, the Beni, as it is popularly called,
+includes all kinds of climate and every description of natural
+conditions. It covers an area of two hundred and sixty-five thousand
+square kilomètres, and is divided into four provinces: Cercado, of
+which the department capital, Trinidad, is the chief city; Yacuma, with
+its capital, Santa Ana, near the junction of the Yacuma River with the
+Mamoré; Iténez, of which the capital is Magdalena, on the San Miguel,
+or Itonamas, River, a few leagues south of its junction with the
+Guaporé; and Vaca Diez, with its capital, Riberalta, at the confluence
+of the Madre de Dios and Beni Rivers, near the extreme northern limit
+of the department. Each of these provinces has its distinguishing
+features.
+
+  [Illustration: MISSION OF COVENDO ON THE BENI RIVER.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE ACRE DELEGATION LEAVING TRINIDAD, EL BENI.]
+
+In every department of Bolivia the province in which the capital is
+situated is called Cercado, equivalent to “environs,” and, as a rule,
+it is the most populous of the provincial divisions. The Cercado of
+the Beni is sometimes called the province of Mojos, the name by which
+the whole department was known when it constituted a dependency of
+the Audiencia of Charcas. When Gonzalo Pizarro and his followers made
+explorations in this region soon after the conquest, they found it
+inhabited by Indians of the Mojos tribes, and the founder of Trinidad,
+Don Pedro de Zúñiga y Velasco, brother of the Count of Nieva, chose the
+site for the town on the spot where prehistoric ruins marked the former
+existence of a palace, which, the Indians explained, had once been
+the residence of “the Great Mojo.” As the town was founded on Trinity
+Sunday, in the year 1562, it was given the name of Santisima Trinidad,
+though, when El Beni was created a department in 1842, its capital
+was named simply Trinidad. The principal means of transportation in
+this, as in all the other provinces of the Beni, is by river boats,
+and travellers who wish to go to Trinidad find the best route by way
+of Cochabamba. A very interesting book, written to describe a journey
+made to the Acre territory in 1900 by a military commission under the
+command of the present president of the republic, General Montes, then
+colonel of the army and minister of war, gives an excellent idea of
+this region of the Beni. The author, Don José Aguirre Achá, was one of
+the officers of the commission, and his vivid picture of the territory
+and its people has the double merit of being accurate and entertaining.
+After leaving the city of Cochabamba, the usual route lies through the
+Yungas, or Yuracarés, to the north as far as the river San Antonio, a
+branch of the Chaparé, which is navigable for small canoes only; larger
+craft do not ascend the Chaparé beyond the river port of Santa Rosa,
+on the boundary between the departments of Cochabamba and El Beni. The
+small canoes which are used on the San Antonio and other streams of
+this vicinity are generally the property of the Yuracaré Indians, who
+carry passengers down the river or across to the opposite bank. They
+are summoned by the discharge of a gun, which brings the Indian quickly
+to the spot. The Yuracaré boatman wears a single short garment which
+is called a _tipoy_, though, unlike the Paraguayan dress of that
+name, it is not white in color, and is very heavy, being made of a kind
+of fibrous bark. It covers the body and shoulders only, leaving the
+arms and legs bare. From the port of Santa Rosa, the canoes which the
+Yuracarés use in descending the river Chaparé to the Mamoré are longer
+and heavier than those of other small rivers in the Beni, and measure
+from forty to fifty feet in length and five feet in width. They are
+made of the trunks of trees, which are hollowed by burning them out.
+Five Indians are usually employed in rowing one of these boats, while a
+pilot stands at the stern to direct its course. Señor Aguirre Achá says
+that one of these primitive canoes will carry more than five thousand
+pounds of cargo. Larger boats, called _batelones_, are sometimes
+used for heavy cargo, and are very common on the rivers of eastern
+Beni. They carry four times as much as the canoes just mentioned, and
+measure about twenty-five feet long by eight feet wide and about three
+feet in average depth. They are of more complicated construction also,
+and have a space protected by an awning. The scenery of this region is
+intensely tropical, the rivers being bordered to the water’s edge by
+palm trees and ferns. At the junction of the Chaparé with the Chimoré,
+a navigable river at the headwaters of which is situated a port that
+will soon be connected by railway with the city of Cochabamba, the
+river takes the name of Mamorécillo, or little Mamoré, and from this
+point the traffic steadily increases, canoes, _batelones_, and
+other craft passing one another in rapid succession. The _balsa_
+is frequently seen, as well as the _callapo_, which is made by
+joining two or three _balsas_ together. Alligators abound in these
+waters, and parrots of brilliant plumage are seen everywhere. Fish of
+great variety and infinite abundance are found here, and many species
+of small game afford entertainment for sportsmen. The Rio Grande enters
+the Mamoré, or rather the Mamorécillo, a few leagues below Trinidad,
+deepening and widening the latter for a considerable distance.
+
+  [Illustration: CALLAPOS CARRYING PASSENGERS AND CARGO ON THE
+  BENI RIVER.]
+
+  [Illustration: INDIAN CARRIERS CUTTING A PATH THROUGH THE
+  FOREST, EL BENI.]
+
+  [Illustration: A CAMP IN THE RUBBER FOREST, EL BENI.]
+
+The city of Trinidad, the capital of the Beni, is situated a few miles
+distant from the main current of the Mamoré, near a small tributary,
+the Ibary. The city has about five thousand inhabitants, though its
+population varies at different seasons of the year, depending chiefly
+on transient passengers to and from the rubber regions. It is the
+great highway for all traffic from Cochabamba and Santa Cruz to the
+Madeira River ports. The many small steamboats which ply up and down
+the Mamoré call at Trapiche, which is an _aduanilla_ and the port
+of Trinidad, the town itself being situated two leagues from the river.
+As the chief interest of its citizens, as well as transient visitors,
+is centred in the rubber country, little attention has hitherto been
+paid to public improvements or to the beautifying of the town, though
+a spirit of enterprise has recently developed in its people which
+promises well for future progress.
+
+The province of Yacuma has the magnificent climate of the Yungas in its
+southern extremity, the heat gradually becoming more excessive toward
+the north where its rich rubber lands adjoin those of the neighboring
+province of Vaca Diez. Through the port of Rurrenabaque, in Yacuma, on
+the Beni River, large shipments of cacao, cocoa, tobacco, and other
+products are made annually, the Beni being one of the most favored
+regions in the world for the cultivation of cacao. The chocolate made
+from the cacao of the Beni requires no foreign flavor, such as vanilla
+and cinnamon, which are frequently used in its manufacture from cacao
+of an inferior quality. It is equal to the best in the world. Cacao
+trees in the Beni require little cultivation, they bear within four
+years after planting and are most prolific when ten or twelve years
+old. They yield two crops annually, the best districts producing from
+thirty to forty pounds of cacao per tree. With greater attention
+this industry would provide a very important source of revenue to
+Bolivia, which is exporting the article in increasing quantities
+every year. Another industry of promising future is tobacco growing,
+which is extremely profitable in this department. Several varieties
+are cultivated, such as “Havana,” “black Havana,” “Criollo,” “lettuce
+leaf,” and “ox tongue,” but the production is insignificant compared
+with the possibilities for development. The annual yield of all tobacco
+plantations of Bolivia is estimated at three million five hundred
+thousand pounds, the Beni supplying only a small share of the output,
+but the exportation does not exceed fifty thousand pounds.
+
+  [Illustration: CARRYING PROVISIONS TO THE RUBBER CAMP, EL
+  BENI.]
+
+The greatest industry of the Beni is rubber gathering, which is carried
+on in every province, chiefly along the courses of the Beni River
+and its tributaries. All through the upper Beni the trees are found,
+and new companies are constantly being organized for the purpose of
+further exploring this region and getting possession of valuable
+rubber-producing districts. A special law governs the acquirement of
+rubber lands in Bolivia, rubber trees being the property of the state.
+Everybody, foreign and native alike, has the right to exploit the
+uncultivated _bosques_ in which these valuable trees are found,
+the discoverer of trees having the preferred right to ownership,
+providing that he presents his petition for the concession before
+the competent authority within one hundred and eighty days after the
+discovery. The Delegado Nacional of the Territorio de Colonias and the
+prefects of the departments have authority to adjudicate as much as
+five hundred _estradas_, or paths, to each individual,--the rubber
+properties being divided into paths to which the trees on each side
+for a certain distance belong,--and one thousand _estradas_ to a
+legally organized company. Petitions for a larger concession can only
+be granted by Congress. Every concessionary must pay the sum of fifteen
+bolivianos for each _estrada_, at the rate of one boliviano
+annually for fifteen years, in order to establish his claim to the
+property, under penalty of losing all rights, though the total payment
+may be made before the expiration of the fifteen years if preferred.
+The _estrada_ is comprised in a group of from one hundred to one
+hundred and fifty rubber trees. The roads which lead to the rubber
+properties are free to the public, as well as navigation on the rivers
+and the use of the _bosques_ on the river banks. The work-man in
+the rubber forests is not merely a laborer for hire, but exercises the
+privileges of an explorer and contractor, who, when he finds new trees,
+marks them as his own and contracts for the sale of them or for their
+exploitation. In addition to the high price he gets for his daily labor
+and for his discoveries, usually receiving all amounts in gold, his
+employer provides him with food and other necessaries at a reasonable
+price. The improvidence of rubber gatherers is proverbial, however, and
+many of them spend their money before it is earned.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW NEAR SUAPI CENTRAL, UPPER BENI.]
+
+  [Illustration: NAVIGATION ON THE UPPER BENI.]
+
+The rubber trees of the Upper Beni average eight feet in height and
+two feet in diameter, though trees are occasionally met with which
+tower up to a hundred feet high and are more than three feet thick.
+A distinctive feature of these rubber trees is that they have no
+branches except at the top, and the bright green of their leaves,
+with the reddish color which the new leaves show, makes the trees
+easily distinguishable at a distance, especially when they appear in
+groups. The moisture by which the tree is sustained and which is so
+necessary for the production of its _latex_, as the rubber sap
+is called, is received in part from the soil, but chiefly from the
+atmosphere, the tree drinking in through its trunk and branches the
+humidity which is permanently conserved in the air by the deep shade
+of the _bosque_. Señor E. Gonzales, of one of the large rubber
+companies of Bolivia, has made many interesting observations regarding
+this fact in the rubber forests of his company, which extend over a
+territory of about four million acres at Suapi Central, in the Upper
+Beni. According to his statement the rubber trees, whatever their size
+and the locality in which they are found, when tapped for the first
+time give only a few drops of _latex_, the flow increasing little
+by little with repeated incisions, and being at first so very dense
+that it is coagulated by contact with the air, even when the trees are
+tapped at the height of the rainy season. If the production of the new
+trees growing in distinct regions is compared, as, for instance, in the
+dry part of Suapi Central and in the more humid section of San Miguel,
+it is found that a greater quantity of _latex_ is taken from
+the trees in the moist atmosphere than in the dry. However great the
+amount of rainfall may be, little moisture is retained in the ground
+because of the impenetrable character of the soil, which is of chalky
+composition. Furthermore, on the steep slopes of the _quebradas_
+in the Upper Beni the water from rainfalls does not remain long enough
+to sink into the ground, but is immediately carried down innumerable
+streams, every crevice being converted into a river course during the
+rainy season. In the Lower Beni, on the other hand, the trees remain
+submerged in water for months at a time, the land, which is composed
+of mud to a depth of several mètres, retaining an enormous amount of
+moisture. The quantity of _latex_ produced bears no relation to
+the period of rainfall, but only to the density of moisture of the
+atmosphere. The average amount of _latex_ collected by tapping is
+the same on the plains along a river course as on the _cumbres_,
+or summits, of the hills. After a rubber tree is cut down, its leaves
+remain fresh for about fifteen days, little by little losing their
+color from that time until they finally die and drop off. The life of
+the trunk of the tree seems concentrated in the upper part, to such an
+extent that if tapped in the middle it yields no _latex_, only
+the extreme branches containing a thick sap. Even when the tree has
+apparently succumbed, and the insects are already destroying it, two
+days’ rain will work a wonderful change, the renewed moisture of the
+atmosphere causing the _latex_ to issue in a cream color from all
+the incisions and from the holes bored by the insects. An examination
+of rubber trees which are completely exposed to the sun, not surrounded
+by other trees or entwined by ivy, shows that, in spite of heavy
+rains and repeated tappings at different heights, only a few drops of
+yellowish _latex_ is secured, and this of such thick consistency
+that it coagulates immediately.
+
+  [Illustration: RUBBER TREES, EL BENI.]
+
+The first tapping is done in the months of October, November, December,
+January, and February. The trees then rest during March, the second
+tapping season including the months of April, May, June, and July,
+after which the trees rest again during August and September. The
+process of treating the _latex_ by smoking it, twirling it around
+a stick until it solidifies in the form of a ball about fifteen inches
+in diameter, which is called a _bolacha_, is very well known.
+In the Lower Beni the seasons for collecting rubber are shorter than
+in regions higher up the river courses, because of heavier rains and
+floods.
+
+There are vast tracts of rubber lands in the Beni which have never
+been explored, and the present annual output of Bolivian rubber, which
+amounts to nearly three thousand tons, will be greatly increased as
+new rubber districts are developed. The value of the rubber exported
+annually averages about half a million pounds sterling. But, although
+this industry absorbs the chief attention of all who live in the Beni,
+and attracts new investments constantly, yet it has not entirely
+prevented the development of other forest industries. Considerable
+capital is employed in the exploitation of hardwoods, medicinal plants,
+and spices. From all the provinces, through the ports of Trinidad,
+Santa Ana, Magdalena, and Riberalta, large quantities of mahogany,
+rosewood, ebony, cedar, logwood, gum, cork, and other products of the
+tropical forests are shipped down the Madeira River and via the Amazon
+to foreign markets. There are few countries in the world possessing a
+greater variety of commercial products.
+
+  [Illustration: GRAN CRUZ HACIENDA AT THE CONFLUENCE OF THE
+  MAMORÉ AND BENI RIVERS.]
+
+  [Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF EL BENI.]
+
+  [Illustration: RIVER BOAT, OR CALLAPO, ON THE MADRE DE DIOS,
+  TERRITORIO DE COLONIAS.]
+
+
+
+
+                            CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+          THE TERRITORIO DE COLONIAS--THE BOUNDARY LINE WITH
+                        BRAZIL--CHIEF WATERWAYS
+
+
+  [Illustration: A CHOZA, THE HUT OF THE RUBBER GATHERERS.]
+
+By Bolivia’s recent treaty with Brazil an exchange of territory was
+made between the two countries in accordance with which the Bolivian
+boundary was extended in one direction and cut off in another; and, as
+the areas exchanged were not equivalent, an indemnity of two million
+pounds sterling was, as previously stated, paid by Brazil in settlement
+of the negotiation. In conformity with this treaty, which was signed
+at Petropolis, Brazil, November 17, 1903, by Señores Don Fernando E.
+Guachalla and Don Claudio Pinilla on the part of Bolivia, and by Baron
+de Rio Branco and Don José Francisco de Assis-Brazil on the part of
+Brazil, the boundary line between the Territorio de Colonias, on the
+northern frontier of Bolivia, and Brazil is definitely established:
+on the eastern boundary, the Territorio is separated from Brazil
+by the Madeira River, from the confluence of the Beni and Guaporé
+Rivers northward to the confluence of the Madeira and Abuná Rivers.
+The northern boundary line of the Territorio extends from the mouth
+of the Abuná upward along its course to latitude ten degrees twenty
+minutes, this latitude marking the limit as it extends westward until
+the Rapirrán, or Ina, River is reached, when the dividing line ascends
+the course of that river to its main tributary, then turns due westward
+to the Iquiry, which it ascends to the source, again turning westward
+till it meets the Acre, or Aquiry River, which it ascends to latitude
+eleven degrees, continuing along this line of latitude to the frontier
+of Peru. On its western boundary, the Territorio de Colonias joins
+Peru, and its southern limit is marked by the course of the Madre de
+Dios River, which separates it from the neighboring department of La
+Paz.
+
+  [Illustration: THE KNAUDT EXPEDITION TO PUERTO PANDO IN CAMP.]
+
+The Madeira River, with its tributaries, famous for valuable rubber
+forests, is the longest and the most important of the Amazon branches.
+Historically and commercially it is of particular interest. For
+centuries it has been an object of investigation by scientific
+explorers, and a landmark in the progress of civilization, its
+course directing the itinerary of geographers, naturalists, and
+missionaries, who have furthered the cause of knowledge and truth
+by their labors in this remote field. Almost every book of travel,
+history, or botany which treats of tropical America contains some
+reference to the scenery, resources, flora, and fauna, as well as to
+the native inhabitants, of the Madeira region, and especially of that
+part which is watered by its great tributary the Beni, and by the
+abundant affluents of that mighty stream. The Madeira is formed by the
+confluence of the Beni with the Mamoré at the port of Villa Bella,
+where these two rivers together pour out a volume of thirty thousand
+cubic feet of water per minute, the Beni being about half a mile broad
+and the Mamoré a little less, at the point of entering the Madeira.
+
+  [Illustration: A BATELÓN ON THE MADRE DE DIOS.]
+
+Villa Bella is a picturesque little city of a thousand inhabitants,
+situated on the triangular _playa_, or bank, formed by the
+junction of the Beni and Mamoré Rivers. It stands at an altitude of
+five hundred feet above sea level, and its climate is agreeable and
+healthful, modified by cooling breezes. The streets are broad and
+straight, and cut one another at right angles, those which run east
+and west extending right across the _playa_ from one river bank
+to the other. All the houses are of one story, and the walls are built
+of reeds, called _chuchíos_, which are set up in rows and bound
+together at intervals with interlacing cords or fibres, the roofs
+being made of palm leaves. The richer people have their dwellings
+finished with a thin coating of plaster inside, which admits of being
+papered over or covered with muslin as an adornment and a guarantee
+of greater privacy. A Bolivian writer very amusingly describes what
+he calls the transparency of social life in Villa Bella, in contrast
+to the rigorous custom of other cities, where the thickest walls and
+most carefully barred windows conceal both the virtues and the defects
+of social modesty. The spectacle of this interesting town is unique,
+especially at the height of the rubber-gathering season, when the
+_batelones_, which carry rubber from the Beni and Guaporé regions
+down to San Antonio on the Madeira, in Brazil, are ranged along the
+sandy _playa_, awaiting inspection. These boats are employed to
+descend the nineteen _cachuelas_, or rapids, including Theotonio,
+Riberón, and others, which altogether constitute a fall of two hundred
+feet in a distance of a little more than a hundred miles, between Villa
+Bella and San Antonio. From San Antonio steamers and sailing ships
+transport the rubber to foreign countries. By the terms of the recent
+treaty with Bolivia, the government of Brazil agrees to build, on
+Brazilian territory, a railway which will extend from San Antonio to
+Guayaramerím, a few leagues south of Villa Bella, on the Mamoré River,
+above the _cachuela_, or falls, of the same name, the railway to
+have a branch line to Villa Bella.
+
+  [Illustration: RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO, ON THE MADEIRA RIVER.]
+
+Although Villa Bella is the largest port of the Territorio de Colonias,
+it is no longer the last Bolivian port on the northern border of the
+republic, the new boundary settlement making the town of Abuná, at
+the junction of the Abuná and the Madeira Rivers, the frontier port.
+The river Abuná, which now forms part of the northern boundary of the
+republic, is a picturesque and abundant stream, overhung by the foliage
+of tropical trees and vines, and presenting an interesting aspect as
+the canoes and cargo boats ply up and down its winding course. Several
+rapids occur at intervals to impede navigation, and the river is not
+a favorite with travellers, who tell thrilling stories of adventure
+in its _cachuelas_, and of narrow escapes from death as a result of
+wounds from its dangerously armed fishes, or shocks from its electric
+eels. It is not unusual for an incautious swimmer to be paralyzed by
+the electricity which the eel discharges, especially when aroused
+by fear or anger. Señor Don José Manuel Aponte, who accompanied the
+government delegation to the Acre in 1901, describes the many dangers
+encountered from the _rayas_, _caimanes_, _palometas_, and other
+habitants of this river. The forests of the Abuná are particularly
+rich in rubber trees, and along its banks paths may be seen to cross
+one another in all directions, indicating the many _estradas_ that are
+under exploitation. The principal tributaries of the Abuná are the
+Rapirrán, the Caramanu, and the Rio Negro, all of which are, like the
+main river, rich in rubber trees. The Iquiry River, a branch of the
+Purús, rises in the Territorio de Colonias, and flows through that part
+of it which is generally known as the Acre district, the Acre River
+running in a parallel line with the Iquiry for a considerable distance.
+All this region is prodigiously rich in rubber of superior quality, the
+name “Acre rubber” being considered a guarantee of the best article. A
+number of small towns are scattered along the courses of the rivers,
+usually marking the site of a valuable property belonging either to
+some private individual or to a company, often some foreign syndicate.
+On all these rivers navigation is more or less impeded by frequent
+_cachuelas_, that of Riosiño interrupting the traffic on the Acre near
+the Bolivian border at some seasons. The town of Riosiño lies just
+north of the recently established limits, Capatará being the nearest
+town to the frontier on the Bolivian side. The Acre River is navigable
+throughout its course during six months of the year, from December
+to May, and steam launches from Pará make two trips each way at this
+season. For the remaining six months, navigation is limited to small
+_batelones_ and _monterías_, especially in September and October when
+the waterways are practically useless. In addition to the Abuná, the
+Iquiry, and the Acre, with their tributaries, the Orton River also
+waters the central and southern districts of the Territorio. The
+Orton, named in honor of the celebrated naturalist, is formed by the
+confluence of the Tahuamanu and the Manuripi, and is navigable for
+steam launches during the summer months only. It flows into the Beni a
+few leagues below the junction of that river with the Madre de Dios.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF THE MADEIRA RIVER, ISLANDS IN THE
+  DISTANCE.]
+
+  [Illustration: FORDING THE RIVER PIQUENDO.]
+
+The name Madre de Dios, meaning “Mother of God,” was given to this
+river by the Spaniards, the Indian name being Amarumayo, or “River of
+the Serpent.” The Madre de Dios rises in the Cordillera de Vilcanota,
+in Peru, near the source of the Ucayali, another great tributary of
+the Amazon, and in its long course to the Beni it waters a territory
+covering seven thousand square leagues. It is navigable for small boats
+almost throughout its entire length, and, in the rainy season, steam
+launches ascend from Riberalta to the mouth of the Pando, Chandless,
+Inambary, and Heath, its principal tributaries. Few rivers of the
+Amazon system have been more thoroughly explored within recent years
+than the Madre de Dios. In 1883 the Bolivian government voted a sum of
+money for its exploration and for the establishment of missions in that
+region, and in 1884 Father Armentia, now Bishop of La Paz, in company
+with the government delegate, Señor Don Antenor Vásquez, explored the
+river, ascending it in a small boat as far as latitude thirteen degrees
+and longitude seventy-one degrees forty-one minutes, where the reverend
+father planted a cross to mark the limit reached. Without including its
+navigable tributaries, the Madre de Dios is a continuous waterway for
+more than two hundred and fifty miles. It is not so deep as the Beni
+or the Mamoré. Within its immense curves, wide, sandy _playas_
+are formed, the favorite haunts of the turtle, whose eggs, found
+in vast numbers, constitute one of the delicacies of this region.
+Travellers in the Madre de Dios country must have waterproof clothing
+and waterproof coverings for their baggage, as the heavy rains play
+havoc with everything exposed to their penetrating force. The present
+governor, the _delegado nacional_ of the Territorio de Colonias,
+ex-President José Manuel Pando, explored the Madre de Dios River in
+1893, and discovered the tributaries Heath, Pando, and Inambary. In
+1897 he continued his explorations, ascending these tributaries to the
+Peruvian boundary line.
+
+  [Illustration: CONFLUENCE OF THE BENI AND MAMORÉ RIVERS,
+  VILLA BELLA.]
+
+  [Illustration: RIVER PORT OF GUARAYOS.]
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE ON THE MAMORÉ RIVER, NEAR VILLA BELLA.]
+
+Riberalta is the headquarters for most of the expeditions up the
+Beni and Madre de Dios Rivers. Like Villa Bella, it overlooks the
+confluence of two rivers,--the Beni and the Madre de Dios,--and the
+name, Riberalta, “high bank,” indicates the position it occupies on
+the elevated cliff bordering the river Beni. A long avenue crosses
+the town, flanking which a row of houses is ranged in uniform style
+overlooking the confluence, the view of the Madre de Dios being
+rendered additionally picturesque by a beautiful island embowered
+in verdure. Steam propellers and side-wheel launches are used in
+these rivers, the mail steamer _Tahuamanu_ being fitted up with
+convenient accommodations. From La Paz to Riberalta, the present
+route _via_ Puerto Pando offers many difficulties, but it is being
+constantly improved, and the trip may be made entirely by steamer from
+Puerto Pando, where the Bopi River enters the Beni, small _balsas_,
+_callapos_, _monterías_, _gariteas_, and _batelones_ being used on the
+upper streams. Numerous expeditions have recently made the journey,
+and a new bridle road of about one hundred and fifty miles in extent
+now connects La Paz with Puerto Pando, greatly facilitating this part
+of the trip. From Puerto Pando northward the Beni River has several
+short rapids and falls which impede navigation, especially at the
+points known as Chepite, Bala, and Atamarani, after which the route
+is clear as far as Rurrenabaque, the most important port of the Upper
+Beni. Situated on the opposite bank of the river is San Buenaventura,
+also a thriving shipping port. Continuing down the river, the next
+port is Salinas, a short distance below the rapids of Atamarani. From
+Rurrenabaque to Puerto Salinas the voyage is made in _callapos_, the
+steamer again receiving passengers at the latter port for Guarayos,
+Carmen, and other points until Riberalta is reached. From Guarayos
+down the river many rubber establishments are passed, both banks being
+marked at short intervals by signs of the rubber industry.
+
+  [Illustration: CAMP OF RUBBER GATHERERS, TERRITORIO DE
+  COLONIAS.]
+
+As before stated, Riberalta is the distributing point for the great
+rubber region of the Territorio de Colonias. From this port to the
+mouth of the Orton River is twenty miles, and eighty miles below are
+encountered the rapids of Esperanza, after passing which the river
+extends twenty miles further, when the port of Villa Bella is reached,
+and the Beni loses its course in the great Madeira. From La Paz to
+Villa Bella the distance is about nine hundred miles. Eight days are
+required for the trip from Villa Bella to Puerto Pando; and as soon
+as the railway is finished from Puerto Pando to La Paz, the entire
+journey can be made in nine days. A road has been opened from Puerto
+Pando to Rurrenabaque along the right bank of the river Beni, and
+from Rurrenabaque to Atamarani a road is also being built. It is the
+intention of the Bolivian government to contribute by every possible
+means to the development of all this part of the country, and to
+facilitate colonization, especially in the Territorio de Colonias. A
+new hospital is under construction, and means of improving sanitary
+conditions are eagerly considered. The climate, though tropical, is,
+with the exception of a few localities, generally healthful.
+
+  [Illustration: TRANSHIPPING CARGO AT THE RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO,
+  ON THE MADEIRA RIVER.]
+
+In the rubber country the work of the day is done in the early morning.
+During the _epoca de fabrico_, as the season for gathering is
+called, the workmen are already on their way to the _estradas_
+by four o’clock. As they pass each rubber tree on their route, they
+stop to make a slanting cut in its trunk, into which the edge of
+one of their little tin _tichelas_ is easily fastened, so the
+cup remains there and receives the _latex_ that slowly pours
+into it, while they continue their way until every tree of the
+_estrada_ has been tapped and its _tichela_ put in place.
+Some large trees have two or three, and even four, _tichelas_
+attached. By about nine o’clock in the morning this work is finished,
+and the _seringuero_, as the rubber gatherer is called, returns
+over the same route, carrying a large pail, into which he pours the
+contents of the _tichelas_. When he reaches his hut, he proceeds
+at once to smoke the _latex_ until it takes the solid form of
+a _bolacha_, as elsewhere described. Sometimes the gatherings
+of several days are required to make a _bolacha_ of a hundred
+pounds, more or less, and when it is completed the _patron_, or
+employer, sends to get it. The day’s work is ended at noon, and the
+_seringuero_ is free to spend the remaining hours as he pleases.
+The industrious ones cultivate their little gardens, where they grow
+corn, plantains, yucca, and other food products. It is said that the
+women of this region are better rubber gatherers than the men, as they
+are more careful, do not cut too deeply into the tree when tapping it,
+are less wasteful of the _latex_, and never abscond, as the men
+sometimes do, when they are in debt to the _patron_. The life
+of the rubber gatherers is not so _triste_ as it is sometimes
+painted. The people have many holidays here, as elsewhere, and when
+the daily working hours are over they frequently spend the rest of
+their time in little canoes on the river or stretched comfortably in a
+hammock under the trees.
+
+Nearly two-thirds of the rubber exported annually from Bolivia is
+produced in the Territorio de Colonias, one of the richest rubber
+countries of the world. And the quantity which is taken out of its
+vast forests represents only a small proportion of the existing
+wealth. The industry is restricted by the scarcity of laborers, the
+population being only ten thousand, in a territory that covers an area
+of nearly two hundred thousand square kilomètres. The few explorers who
+have travelled in this region find it rich in a variety of tropical
+products, though little cultivated, and very sparsely settled, the
+population being centred in the towns and villages where the rubber
+gatherers live, or where there are establishments of large rubber
+companies, many of which have their shipping headquarters here.
+
+Immigration and colonization are the most important factors to be
+sought in the development and prosperity of the Territorio, and the
+government of Bolivia is giving this matter especial consideration.
+Not only are the resources of the country being carefully studied and
+classified, but the means of transportation, the political security
+of the colonists, and the protection of health are receiving the most
+careful attention.
+
+  [Illustration: GLIMPSE OF FOREST AND STREAM, THE RUBBER
+  REGION.]
+
+  [Illustration: DANCING THE KENA-KENA. FIESTA OF DECEMBER
+  EIGHTH.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIX
+
+          THE PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS OF BOLIVIA--THEIR CUSTOMS
+              AND RELIGION--THE CHOLO--PICTURESQUE TYPES
+
+
+  [Illustration: INDIAN WATER CARRIER OF LA PAZ.]
+
+The population of Bolivia is composed of three separate social
+classes, the Bolivians of European ancestry, the Indians, and the
+_mestizos_, or _cholos_, of mixed European and Indian origin.
+The white race, chiefly of Spanish blood, inherits many qualities
+of the parent nation, though modified by centuries of isolation
+from Spain. When the fabulous wealth of Potosí attracted thousands
+of Spaniards to Alto Peru during the first century of colonial
+rule, many of the noblest families of Europe were represented in
+the rapidly increasing populations of Potosí, Oruro, and other rich
+mining centres; and so important were the interests of his Catholic
+majesty in this part of the royal domain that the most distinguished
+grandees of the realm were sent to take charge of colonial affairs,
+to supervise the coinage in the colonial mint, and to guard against
+any evasion of the royal prerogatives. The quarrel which began early
+between the Vicuñas and the Vascongados, and which developed into a
+struggle between Criollos and Spaniards, was sustained, on the part of
+the patriotic Criollos, by men in whose veins flowed the best blood
+of Spain. Their love for their native land was stronger than their
+allegiance to a government which was unjust and oppressive, and they
+fought for and obtained their independence. Their descendants are the
+people who control the politics and society of Bolivia to-day. They
+are in the minority so far as population is concerned, a condition
+which exists in all Spanish-American countries. A similar state of
+affairs governed the population of the United States before the great
+tide of immigration brought millions of Europeans to its shores, and
+the native Indians were thus reduced to the minority. But, unlike
+the North American Indians who were driven westward by the advancing
+multitude, until crowded almost out of sight in a small corner of their
+former vast territory, the Indians of Bolivia still remain undisturbed
+in the haunts of their ancestors, whether of the Andean plateau, the
+plains of Mojos, or the river banks of Guarany. They have always been
+too useful to the white man of these regions to be allowed to vanish
+out of sight, and too submissive to constitute the powerful menace to
+civilization which the Iroquois and the Apache proved to the earlier
+inhabitants of North America. With the exception of a few scattered
+tribes, the Indians of Bolivia are more or less civilized, and they
+form an important factor of the communities, not only as servants,
+but as contributors to the development of the native industries, in
+a primitive way, but usefully and creditably. A foreign traveller
+in Bolivia cannot fail to be impressed by the fact that the white
+man here thoroughly understands his primitive protégé, and that the
+Indians, as a whole, receive at the hands of the governing race as
+much consideration as the ignorant poor of any land receive from those
+who, by inherited or acquired power, hold over their less competent
+fellowmen the rights of authority. The laws of Bolivia provide for
+the welfare of the Indians in a liberal manner, and the best means of
+promoting their mental and moral development is at present occupying
+the attention of the leading legislators of the country. The question
+as to what should be the political responsibility of a primitive
+people, untrained in independent thought and action, is not easily
+disposed of, and the blunders which have been committed by the most
+enlightened of nations in this respect prove how important is the
+problem presented. In Bolivia the Indian has evolved slowly but surely
+under the influence of civilization, and he shows an awakened spirit
+of independence as compared with his ancestors, who merely reflected
+the will of their chief. Under Spanish rule, the Indian, though
+nominally recognized as possessing certain individual rights, was in
+reality seldom free to exercise them; but since the inauguration of the
+republic the law governing his rights has not been so completely a dead
+letter in effect. He is still a child in mental and moral growth, but
+he is progressing under the benign influence of peace and security.
+
+  [Illustration: PICTURESQUE TYPE OF THE COCHABAMBA INDIAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: TEMBETAS, INDIANS OF SANTA CRUZ.]
+
+  [Illustration: INDIANS OF POTOSÍ. HEADGEAR OF PIZARRO’S TIME.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE STIRRUP-CUP.]
+
+The Indians of Bolivia are usually classified according to their
+geographical distribution. The Andean tribes are divided into the
+Peruvian branch--which includes Aymará and Quichua--and the North
+Andean, composed of many nations, among others the Yuracarés,
+Mosetenes, Tacanas, Araonas, Cavineños, Chunchos, Guayaros, Lecos,
+and Apolistas, that inhabit the eastern _serranias_ of the
+northern Andes and the plains of the Territorio de Colonias, the
+department of La Paz, and El Beni. The Pampean tribes are divided
+into the Mojeña and the Chiquitana branches, and inhabit the great
+plains of eastern Bolivia in the provinces of Mojos and Chiquitos,
+which extend from the foothills of the Andes to the Brazilian border.
+The third division is called the Guaranic, and is sub-divided into
+the Guaraya and Chiriguana branches apparently closely related to the
+Guarany tribes of Paraguay; they occupy the territory included in
+the northern, central, and southern Chaco. The above divisions are
+made in accordance with the scientific studies and investigations of
+D’Orbigny who devoted many years to the subject. The Aymará Indians,
+as is generally known, occupy the territory surrounding Lake Titicaca,
+including the southern part of the department of La Paz and all the
+department of Oruro; the provinces are named after the various tribes,
+Omasuyos, Pacajes, Sicasicas, Larecajas, Carangas, and Yungas. To the
+north and northwest their territory adjoins that of the Quichuas of
+Cuzco, their southern and southeastern neighbors are the Quichuas,
+or Charcas, of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, and Potosí; to the east and
+northeast are the Tacanas, Apolistas, and Mosetenes, all popularly
+called Chunchos; while to the southwest the Aymará territory borders
+that of the Chinchas of Tarapacá. The Aymará Indian of the present day
+is a strong, muscular native of the highlands, of medium height, of
+bronze complexion, varying from the color of the North American redskin
+to the darker brown of more tropical types, possessing well-defined
+features which remind one of the Japanese race by the slant of the
+eyes and the high cheekbones. They are a reticent people and are
+generally industrious and sober, excepting on the occasion of a grand
+_fiesta_, when they display characteristics hardly recognizable
+in the Indian of everyday conditions. They are extremely religious,
+and devoted to the services of the Church; at any hour of the day an
+Indian may be found kneeling before the altar of the virgin or of one
+of the saints in the churches of the various towns. It is the beautiful
+custom of the country to keep the doors of the churches always open,
+and many an Indian leaves his little drove of llamas as he enters a
+town and goes to say his prayers and to feast his eyes on the images
+and pictures of the sacred place. Indian women with their babies swung
+on their backs, kneel on the floor of the church and forget all their
+troubles in contemplation of the holy symbols. Children they seem in
+all but physical growth, after centuries of contact with civilization.
+Limited opportunity may be responsible to some extent, but natural
+conditions govern all primitive people, and they are neither benefited
+nor made happy by being crowded into a path of progress opened for them
+by the too eager white man, who demands that they assimilate at once
+the civilization which his own race has achieved only after thousands
+of years of progressive culture. Indian colleges and Indian missions
+may aid in a limited way to develop a primitive race, but important
+results are not achieved within a few short generations. Experiments
+in the Indian school established by the United States government at
+Carlisle, Pennsylvania, prove this to be true of the North American
+Indian, as it is of his primitive brother in South America. Whether the
+Aymará race has passed its zenith in culture and is now at a period
+corresponding to “second childhood,” or whether it is still in the dawn
+of development, the actual condition is that of a dependent people, as
+regards intellectual and moral responsibility.
+
+  [Illustration: QUICHUA INDIAN OF THE VALLEY BETWEEN
+  COCHABAMBA AND SUCRE.]
+
+  [Illustration: A GENIAL BEGGAR OF COCHABAMBA.]
+
+The foreigner, upon arriving in Bolivia, is immediately interested
+in the picturesque spectacle presented by the Indian of the Titicaca
+plateau. His _poncho_ and cap are woven of the most gorgeous
+colors, and the brighter their reds, greens, and yellows, the better
+the wearer is pleased. The Aymarás make their own dyes, which are
+entirely of vegetable composition, and it is remarkable to what an
+extent they have developed their knowledge of the many herbs which are
+useful for this purpose. The art of weaving all kinds of blankets and
+_ponchos_ is known to both the Aymará and Quichua tribes, who
+blend the colors in a great many combinations, and yet use no other
+loom than that which they make by driving four stakes in the ground,
+or by means of an apparatus of clumsy and primitive manufacture, which
+was introduced by the Spaniards at the time of the conquest. They spin
+the wool of the llama, the alpaca, and the vicuña, and some of the
+_ponchos_ which they make are of exquisite workmanship, woven of
+vicuña and silk. In the province of Pacajes especially the Indians make
+excellent cloth, and here they weave the _bayeta_, a black and
+white mixture of which they make their own clothes, the men wearing
+over this sombre color the picturesque _poncho_, while the women
+appear in darker wraps, adorned with brightly woven borders.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIANS IN FIESTA AT TRINIDAD, THE BENI.]
+
+The Quichua Indians of Bolivia, sometimes called the Charcas, are
+easily distinguished from the Aymarás in general appearance and
+character. Their features are less rugged and they are gentler in
+disposition. They are more submissive than the Aymarás, and have a
+sunnier temperament, the reflection of milder skies. In Potosí they
+dress to-day as they did in the days of Pizarro, and the men still wear
+the casques introduced by the conquerors in the sixteenth century. The
+women wear high-heeled wooden shoes, or sandals, which they fasten by
+straps drawn between the toes and buckled with large silver buckles
+made in the design of the coat of arms of Charles V. Their ornaments,
+called _topos_, are of silver, some of them in the design of
+the double-headed eagle, while others are great disks, hammered and
+cut out in many curious figures. The spoon is a favorite form for a
+_topo_, which serves the double purpose of ornament and shawl pin,
+and may also be used in taking food. It is customary to have the bowl
+of the spoon carved in some design.
+
+The _fiestas_ of the Aymarás and the Quichuas vary little, to
+all appearance, both being marked by religious observances of more or
+less recognizable solemnity, and both invariably terminate in a grand
+revel. There are special feasts in different localities which are not
+held in any other, such as the anniversary of the _alacitas_,
+when miniature figures of every description are sold at the place of
+celebration. It is remarkable to what perfection the art of making
+these objects has been developed, some of the tiny dishes, furniture,
+and other articles being of infinitesimal size, yet without a flaw.
+A tray, containing bottle, tumbler, and wineglass, all of wood, made
+entirely by hand, may be passed through a finger ring, and an entire
+set of furniture may be put into a liqueur glass. The Indians of Sucre
+and Potosí are very expert in miniature work. The tiny dolls, which
+are much appreciated by travellers who visit Sucre, are no larger than
+a mosquito, yet when examined under a magnifying glass they are seen
+to be perfectly made and dressed in the latest fashion. The miniature
+souvenirs most sought after by visitors to Potosí are the tiny silver
+tea and coffee sets, which are marvels of workmanship.
+
+  [Illustration: CHOLA OF POTOSÍ, IN COSTUME OF FIESTA.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHOROTIS, INDIANS OF THE CHACO.]
+
+The primitive races of Bolivia show a particular aptitude for certain
+industries. Not only are the Aymarás and the Quichuas skilled in
+weaving and in making pottery, but the Mojos and the Chiquitos have
+shown themselves competent workmen in various primitive manufactures.
+They weave cotton cloth, sheets, towels, hammocks, and other articles,
+which are so durable that they last an incredible length of time. While
+these simple children of Nature have not been stimulated to remarkable
+progress, they have established in the country many native industries
+of importance and value.
+
+  [Illustration: CHOLA OF THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE MODE OF CARRYING THE BABY.]
+
+Of the total Indian population of Bolivia, which is estimated at nine
+hundred thousand, about eight hundred and fifty thousand are subject
+to the laws of the country, the remaining fifty thousand, who inhabit
+the remote forests of the extreme north and a part of the Chaco, being
+uncivilized. According to statistics collected by the Oficina Nacional
+de Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica, the gradual
+disappearance of the primitive races has been noted for a considerable
+length of time. Since 1878 the Indians have died at an increasing rate
+from plague and alcoholism, the number of births by no means covering
+the mortality. At present they are about the same in number as they
+were half a century ago, while the white race and the _mestizos_
+have notably increased. It appears to be universally the case that a
+primitive people gradually vanishes when surrounded by conditions of
+advanced civilization. The Indian is not adaptive, and seems to be ill
+fitted for rapid progress. In Bolivia, as in other countries, all
+attempts to induce him to throw aside the antiquated implements of toil
+used by his ancestors have proved futile, and it would be ludicrous, if
+it were not pathetic, to see the laborious methods of tilling the soil
+which the Indian follows. Neither by threats nor by promises can he be
+led to make his task easier by using modern tools.
+
+  [Illustration: A CHOLA BELLE OF POTOSÍ, IN VELVET, LACE, AND
+  JEWELS.]
+
+  [Illustration: THE AYMARÁ INDIANS OF THE TITICACA PLATEAU.]
+
+On the northern frontier and in the southern Chaco the uncivilized
+tribes have been visited from time to time by the Catholic
+missionaries, and in all the frontier provinces missions have been
+established for the civilization and Christian teaching of these
+tribes. Many faithful teachers have spent the greater part of their
+lives in these remote forests, and have accomplished a great deal in
+the work of civilizing the Indians. The missionary work of Bishop
+Armentia was devoted chiefly to the civilization of the North Andean
+tribes of the Madre de Dios region, the territory of the Indians
+popularly called Chunchos, though known under the names of Tacanas,
+Guarayos, Araonas, Cavinas, Mosetenes, and others. The mission of
+Covendo, in the country of the Mosetenes, has been the centre of
+widespread efforts in behalf of the natives, and other settlements
+of similar character have been established in various localities.
+Dr. Armentia says the chief of the Araona tribes are not elected,
+but chosen according to the number of their sons and relatives, the
+Indian without family being made the slave of his chief. It seems
+base ingratitude that the Indian who has been forced to deny himself
+a wife because of the polygamous proclivities of his chief should
+have insult added to injury by being made the humblest servant of
+his lucky rival on that very account. It is the irony of fate. The
+Araonas are excellent hunters, and their method of catching the tapir
+especially is unique. This animal suffers greatly from the attacks of
+_garrapatas_, or ticks, and its mode of getting rid of the pest is
+by attracting the _chuvi_, a bird of the eagle species, which is
+very fond of the _garrapata_ as a food. The tapir makes a hissing
+sound very like the whistling note of the _chuvi_, and when the
+latter whistles, the tapir responds and runs in the direction from
+which the sound proceeds, eager to have the _chuvi_ rid it of the
+_garrapatas_; the Indian has learned to imitate the _chuvi_
+and thus he secures his game.
+
+  [Illustration: GUARAYO INDIANS.]
+
+The Indians of the Chaco, the Chiriguanos, Tobas, Chorotis, Tapietes,
+and others, differ greatly in character and customs from the North
+Andean tribes. The Chiriguanos, who have lived for centuries in the
+vicinity of civilized communities, cannot be counted as entirely
+uncivilized Indians. The Tobas, though uncivilized, are more or less
+influenced in their customs by contact with civilized people, as they
+are frequently employed on the estates of Tarija and in Argentina. The
+Chorotis and Tapietes are savages. Colonel Trigo, in his recent report
+on the subject, says all the savage tribes of the Chaco have similar
+customs and modes of life, with very slight differences. Good relations
+between tribes are maintained with astute diplomacy. Any offence
+against the rights of the tribe is punished by war. The law of force is
+supreme. Terror maintains mutual respect. Vengeance is a sacred dogma.
+The government is paternal. These Indians are fond of adornment, and
+paint and tattoo themselves with vegetable dyes. The Chorotis insert
+round blocks of wood in the lobes of the ears, increasing the size
+gradually until these ornaments are several inches in diameter. The
+Tapietes perforate the lower lip and adorn it by inserting a large
+round block. Marriages are made by the savages without other formality
+than proof of mutual love, which is shown by digging the fingernails
+into each others’ faces, a ceremony highly esteemed. Wives mourn for
+their husbands by cutting off their hair and by weeping at a certain
+hour every day until it grows out again. A widow will not marry again
+until her hair has grown long.
+
+In addition to the white race and the Indians, Bolivia has a third
+element in its population, the _mestizo_, or _cholo_, a mixed
+race derived from the union of Spaniard and Indian. The _cholos_
+constitute a people quite distinct from the other two, though related
+to both. The origin of this mixed race is explained by the conditions
+which governed the Spanish-American, in common with the North American,
+colonies in the early history of their settlement. In North America,
+women from the mother country were sent out to the colonies to become
+the wives of the settlers, but the Spanish government did not take this
+means of peopling its American possessions; and many of the colonists
+married native Indian women, in frequent instances forming happy
+alliances, especially with the Aymarás and Quichuas, who were advanced
+in primitive culture.
+
+  [Illustration: A BRIDAL COUPLE OF THE COUNTRY DISTRICT, NEAR
+  POTOSÍ.]
+
+The _cholos_ of the better class are good citizens, excellent
+soldiers, and possess the quick intellect of the Spaniard, in
+combination with the mechanical ability of the Indian. They are
+capable of receiving the highest industrial training, and their
+handiwork compares favorably with the best European productions,
+whenever they have an opportunity to develop their skill. They are
+light-hearted and careless, very fond of gayety, and never so happy
+as when celebrating one of their numerous _fiestas_. The women,
+called _cholas_, are extremely vain and greatly devoted to the
+charms of dress, their costumes being at times the _ne plus ultra_
+of adornment. A _chola_ belle of La Paz wears at least a dozen
+starched white petticoats, embroidered halfway to the waist, and
+over these a red, green, blue, or yellow velvet skirt which reaches
+to the calf of the leg, the petticoats showing their beruffled edges
+beneath. Two bright-colored shawls are worn, coquettishly pinned, one
+on the right shoulder and the other on the left; a Panamá hat rather
+mars the effectiveness of the costume; but a particularly attractive
+feature is the dressing of the feet, which are encased in pink,
+blue, or yellow stockings and high shoes, with French heels, the tops
+of which are perforated in exquisite patterns to show the pretty
+stockings underneath. The _chola_ of each city has distinguishing
+characteristics and dress, though all costumes are a modified copy of
+the one just described. A _chola_ is sometimes a very fascinating
+bit of femininity, and many of them are both pretty and quick-witted.
+The men are successful tradesmen, and, altogether, the _cholo_
+race constitutes an important part of the business community. They have
+not the Spaniard’s traditional aversion to trade, and, in consequence,
+they supply what would otherwise be a serious deficiency in industrial
+and manufacturing enterprise.
+
+The people of Bolivia are kind and hospitable to foreigners, and have
+a pleasant welcome for all who visit their country. It is necessary
+to spend some time in their midst, in order to become acquainted with
+their manners and customs and to know their many admirable qualities.
+
+  [Illustration: ALL SOULS’ DAY IN THE CEMETERY.]
+
+  [Illustration: MAPA GENERAL
+
+  DE LA REPUBLICA DE
+
+  BOLIVIA
+
+  _FORMADO PARA EXPLORADORES_
+
+  _VIAJEROS, ESTUDIANTES etc._
+
+  _por_
+
+  Luis Garcia Mesa
+
+  _Ing. Geog. del Muasterro de Colonias y Agricultura_
+
+  ESCALA 1: 5,000,000
+
+  1907]
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
+corrected silently.
+
+2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
+original.
+
+3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
+been retained as in the original.
+
+4. Where appropriate, the original spelling has been retained.
+
+5. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77232 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77232 ***</div>
+
+
+<p id="half-title" class="p6">BOLIVIA</p>
+
+<p class="center p2">THE CENTRAL HIGHWAY OF SOUTH AMERICA, A LAND OF<br>
+RICH RESOURCES AND VARIED INTEREST</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_004" style="max-width: 423px">
+     <p class="p2 xs center"><i>Copyright 1907, by G. Barrie &amp; Sons</i></p>
+     <img
+    class="p0"   
+    src="images/i_004.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">HIS EXCELLENCY<br>
+<br>
+SEÑOR DON ISMAEL MONTES<br>
+<br>
+PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center p4"><u>MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT</u></p>
+
+<h1 class="p2" style="color: #FF0000">BOLIVIA</h1>
+
+<p class="center">THE CENTRAL HIGHWAY OF SOUTH AMERICA, A LAND OF<br>
+RICH RESOURCES AND VARIED INTEREST</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_title">
+  <img
+    class="p2" 
+    src="images/i_title.jpg"
+    alt="">
+  </div>
+
+<p class="center p2 xs">PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY</p>
+
+<p class="center sm">GEORGE BARRIE &amp; SONS</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">LONDON: C. D. CAZENOVE &amp; SON, <span class="smcap">26 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W. C.</span><br>
+PARIS: <span class="smcap">19 Rue Scribe</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center p2 xs">COPYRIGHT, 1907, BY GEORGE BARRIE &amp; SONS</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center p2 xs">TO HIS EXCELLENCY</p></div>
+
+<p class="center"><b>Señor Don Ismael Montes</b></p>
+
+<p class="center sm">PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">WHOSE NOBILITY OF CHARACTER HAS MADE HIM BELOVED BY HIS PEOPLE AND ESTEEMED<br>
+AND HONORED BY ALL</p>
+
+<p class="center sm"><b>This Book is Respectfully Dedicated</b></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 40em">
+  <tr>
+    <th></th>
+    <th class="pag">PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">DEDICATION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">INTRODUCTION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">PRE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD—SPANISH INVASION AND CONQUEST</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">ALTO PERU UNDER THE VICEROYALTY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">HISTORY OF THE INDEPENDENCE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">PROGRESS UNDER THE REPUBLIC</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE PRESIDENT’S CABINET—DEPENDENCIES OF THE
+STATE DEPARTMENT</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE LADIES OF THE CABINET—SOCIAL LIFE—CHARITIES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">LA PAZ—THE PRESENT SEAT OF GOVERNMENT</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS—LITERATURE, ORATORY, ART, AND MUSIC</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">SUCRE, THE CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS—SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">A NEW ERA FOR BOLIVIA—IMPORTANT PUBLIC
+WORKS—RAILWAYS—TELEGRAPH LINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">A THOUSAND-MILE TRIP ON MULEBACK—INCIDENTS
+OF TRAVEL IN BOLIVIA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">LAKE TITICACA AND ITS LEGENDS—THE SHRINE OF COPACABANA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">TIAHUANACO—COLOSSAL REMAINS OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE FERTILE REGION OF THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">COCHABAMBA, THE GARDEN CITY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">BOLIVIA A FIELD FOR LARGE ENTERPRISES—NATURAL
+CONDITIONS—IMMIGRATION—CLIMATE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE OLD MINT OF POTOSI—BOLIVIAN COINAGE AND
+BANKING LAWS—COMMERCE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">CELEBRATED MINES OF BOLIVIA—THE CERRO DE
+POTOSI—HUANCHACA SILVER MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">POTOSI, THE FAMOUS VILLA IMPERIAL OF COLONIAL
+SPAIN—ONE OF BOLIVIA’S MOST PICTURESQUE CITIES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">RICH SILVER, TIN, AND COPPER MINES OF WESTERN
+BOLIVIA—MINING LAWS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">ORURO AND ITS PROSPEROUS MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIV</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">GOLD MINING IN BOLIVIA—TUPIZA AND ITS MINES—BISMUTH</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXV</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">SANTA CRUZ, THE CENTRE OF A RICH AGRICULTURAL DISTRICT</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVI</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">TARIJA—EXPLORATIONS IN THE CHACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">EL BENI, THE BOLIVIAN EL DORADO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVIII</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE TERRITORIO DE COLONIAS—THE BOUNDARY
+LINE WITH BRAZIL—CHIEF WATERWAYS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_427">427</a></td>
+  </tr>
+   
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIX</th>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS OF BOLIVIA—THEIR
+CUSTOMS AND RELIGION—THE CHOLO—PICTURESQUE TYPES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 40em">
+  <tr>
+    <th></th>
+    <th class="pag">PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">HIS EXCELLENCY SENOR DON ISMAEL MONTES,
+PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_004"><i>Fronts.</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ARMS OF BOLIVIA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_title"><i>Title page</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL SIMON BOLIVAR</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_021">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GOVERNMENT PALACE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_023">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE NEW GOVERNMENT PALACE, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_025">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE ALAMEDA, THE FAVORITE PROMENADE OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_028">25</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FOUNTAIN IN MURILLO PLAZA, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_030">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PRESIDENT’S COACH</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_031">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MONUMENT TO GENERAL BALLIVIAN, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_032">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_033">29</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ALAMEDA GATEWAY, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_034">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ILLIMANI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_036">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DOORWAY AND PATIO, COLONIAL PERIOD, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_038">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DOORWAY OF SAN LORENZO CHURCH, POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_039">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FACADE OF SAN FRANCISCO CHURCH, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_041">37</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">JESUIT CONVENT TOWER IN POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_042">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COLONIAL SUN-DIAL, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_043">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_045">41</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TYPICAL DOORWAY, COLONIAL PERIOD, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_047">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CONVENT OF SANTA TERESA, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_048">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PORTAL OF HOUSE IN POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_049">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PANTHEON OF SAN BERNARDO, POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_051">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ENTRANCE TO CATHEDRAL, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_052">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE BATTALION CAMPERO ON PARADE IN SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_054">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DON ANTONIO SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_055">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CROWDS ON THE WAY TO A PATRIOTIC CELEBRATION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_057">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL PEDRO DOMINGO MURILLO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_059">55</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">REVIEWING TROOPS IN THE AVENUE ARCE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_062">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MONUMENT TO GENERAL SUCRE IN LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_065">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FACSIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL TREATY OF AYACUCHO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_067">63</a>,
+<a href="#i_068">64</a>,
+<a href="#i_069">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GROUP OF CAVALRY ON THE ALTOS OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_072">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CAVALRY ON PARADE IN SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_074">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL JOSE MANUEL PANDO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_075">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL ANDRES SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_077">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL JOSE BALLIVIAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_078">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL MANUEL ISIDORO BELZU</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_079">75</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DR JOSE MARIA LINARES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_080">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COLONEL ADOLFO BALLIVIAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_081">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON TOMAS FRIAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_082">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL NARCISO CAMPERO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_083">79</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON GREGORIO PACHECO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_085">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON ANICETO ARCE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_087">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON MARIANO BAPTISTA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_088">84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL CLODOMIRO MONTES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_092">88</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF 1905</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_094">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON ELIODORO VILLAZON</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_095">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">HIS GRACE ARCHBISHOP PIFFERI OF LA PLATA, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_096">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LEGISLATIVE PALACE, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_098">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR VALENTIN ABECIA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_100">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CALLE DE RECREO, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_101">97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR MIGUEL DE LOS SANTOS TABORGA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_102">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STREET SCENE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_104">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE FOREIGN MINISTER AND DIPLOMATIC CORPS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_106">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON CLAUDIO PINILLA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_107">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RECEPTION ROOM OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_109">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON ANIBAL CAPRILES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_110">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON JUAN M SARACHO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_111">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">OFFICES OF JUSTICE AND INSTRUCTION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_113">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON DANIEL DEL CASTILLO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_114">110</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE QUARTEL, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_115">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR JOSE QUINTEROS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_116">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_118">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PLAZA MURILLO, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_120">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MUNICIPAL THEATRE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_122">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A BEAUTIFUL BOLIVIAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_123">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORA DONA BETHSABE DE MONTES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_125">121</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORA DONA HORTENSIA DE PINILLA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_126">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CARNIVAL DAYS IN COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_127">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORA DONA ISABEL DE CAPRILES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_128">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORA DONA V. DEL CASTILLO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_129a">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">AUTOMOBILE PARTY IN COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_129b">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORA DE MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_130">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PREPARING FOR A TOURNAMENT, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_131">127</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORA DE JOSE MANUEL PANDO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_132">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A CHALET IN THE ALAMEDA, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_133">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORA DE AGUIRRE ACHA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_134">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RESIDENCE OF SENOR ALEXANDER, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_135">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A BOLIVIAN DEBUTANTE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_136">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A GENERAL VIEW OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_138">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COAT OF ARMS OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_139">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">POST OFFICE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_140">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STREET SCENE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_141">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">HOSPITAL AND MUSEUM, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_142">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PRINCIPAL ALTAR IN THE JESUIT TEMPLE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_143">139</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">AVENIDA ARCE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_144">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CONVENT OF THE CONCEPTION, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_145">141</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PLAZA AND GRAN HOTEL GUIBERT, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_146">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CALLE AMERICA, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_147">143</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PUBLIC LIBRARY, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_148">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A BUSINESS STREET IN LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_149">145</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHURCH OF LA MERCED, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_150">146</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CALLE DEL COMERCIO, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_151">147</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SUBURBS OF LA PAZ, ILLIMANI IN THE DISTANCE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_152">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INSTITUTE OF HYGIENE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_154">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_156">152</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON JOSE ROSENDO GUTIERREZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_157">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR. NICOLAS ARMENTIA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_158">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">OLD PAINTING ON COPPER, CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_159">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON EVARISTO VALLE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_160">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON NATANIEL AGUIRRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_161">157</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">OLD PAINTING IN THE MINT OF POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_162">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR. JOSE MARIA SANTIVANEZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_163">159</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL DON ELIODORO CAMACHO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_164">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">AN OLD PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_166">162</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON JUAN CARILLO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_167">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DON AVELINO ARAMAYO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_169">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PAINTING IN THE MINT OF POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_170">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR. JULIO RODRIGUEZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_172">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR. ANDRES MUNOZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_173">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INDIANS OF POTOSI. A PAINTING BY VALDEZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_174">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENORITA ADELA ZAMUDIO, “SOLEDAD”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_176">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VIEW OF SUCRE FROM THE SUBURBS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_178">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COAT OF ARMS OF CHARCAS, NOW SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_179">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COLONEL DON JULIO LA FAYE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_180">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE PRINCIPALITY OF GLORIETA, SUBURBS OF SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_181">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE CATHEDRAL TOWER, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_182">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MUNICIPAL PALACE, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_183">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VIEW OF ONE OF SUCRE’S BEAUTIFUL PLAZAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_184">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GROUP IN THE ASYLUM FOR THE AGED, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_185">181</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GATEWAY OF THE ALAMEDA, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_186">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MARKET SCENE IN THE OUTSKIRTS OF SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_187">183</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE HACIENDA GUEREO, SUBURBS OF SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_188">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE MISSES RODRIGUEZ, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_190">186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MILITARY COLLEGE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_192">188</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ENTRANCE TO DON BOSCO COLLEGE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_193">189</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_194">191</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR IGNACIO TERAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_202">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">BOOKBINDING IN DON BOSCO COLLEGE, LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_203">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PATIO OF PICHINCHA COLLEGE, POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_204">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SENOR DR RODOLFO SORIA GALVARRO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_206">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PATIO OF JUNIN COLLEGE, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_208">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PUENTE SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_212">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PUENTE SUCRE, LOOKING TO THE POTOSI TERMINUS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_213">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RAILWAY STATION OF PULACAYO, HUANCHACA MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_215">205</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CASCADE ON THE PROPOSED ROUTE OF THE ARICA
+AND LA PAZ RAILWAY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_217">207</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RAILWAY CUT BETWEEN GUAQUI AND LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_218">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SCENE ON THE GUAQUI AND LA PAZ RAILWAY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_219">209</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DAM AT ACHACHALLA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_221">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TRAIN ARRIVING IN GUAQUI FROM LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_222">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CARAVAN ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_223">213</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MOTORING IN THE SUBURBS OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_225">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ROAD LEADING TO MINES NEAR ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_227">217</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STONE BRIDGES BETWEEN POTOSI AND CHALLAPATA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_228">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LAKE OF SAN PEDRO, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_230">220</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">POSTILION OF THE ANDES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_231">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ANCIENT SEPULCHRES BETWEEN LA PAZ AND ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_233">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PILLARS OF SANDSTONE, NEAR PORCO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_235">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RIVER ROCHA, NEAR COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_237">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">WEAVING THE PONCHO ON A PRIMITIVE LOOM</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_238">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INDIANS IN FEAST COSTUMES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_239">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE DEVIL’S BRIDGE ACROSS THE PILCOMAYO RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_240">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PUENTE SAN BARTOLOME BETWEEN POTOSI AND YOCALLA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_241">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A FREQUENT MORNING ENCOUNTER ON THE JOURNEY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_242">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE LLAMA, THE PROUDEST OF BURDEN BEARERS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_243">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COSTUMES WORN BY THE INDIANS ON THE PILGRIMAGE
+TO THE SHRINE OF COPACABANA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_244">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A COUNTRY ROAD NEAR LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_245">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHALLAPATA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_246">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">QUICHUA INDIAN GIRL OF POTOSI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_248">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PROCESSION OF THE VIRGIN AT COPACABANA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_250">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_251">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SHRINE OF THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_252">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LANDING PLACE AT COPACABANA, LAKE TITICACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_253">243</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CROSSES CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_254">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PENINSULA AND CITY OF COPACABANA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_255">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RUINS OF INCA TEMPLE ON THE ISLAND OF THE SUN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_256">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VIEW OF MOUNT SORATA FROM LAKE TITICACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_258">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ABOVE THE SNOW LINE, MOUNT ILLIMANI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_259">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INCA PALACE, ISLAND OF THE SUN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_260">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INDIAN PADDLING HIS “BALSA” ON LAKE TITICACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_262">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">EXCAVATION, SHOWING CARVINGS, TIAHUANACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_264">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A VASE FOUND AT TIAHUANACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_265">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MONOLITH SHOWING HIEROGLYPHICS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_268">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RUINS OF THE DOORWAY OF THE TEMPLE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_269">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ARCHED GATEWAYS OF TIAHUANACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_270">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PORTAL OF A CHURCH, TIAHUANACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_271a">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CYCLOPEAN STONES OF TUNCA PUNCO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_271b">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ANCIENT DOORWAY, CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_272">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STONE HEADS EXCAVATED AMONG THE RUINS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_273">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">IDOL OF UNKNOWN ANTIQUITY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_274a">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RUINS OF AN UNFINISHED STAIRWAY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_274b">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">HARVESTING COCA IN THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_276">266</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STREET SCENE IN THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_277">267</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COROICO, CAPITAL OF NORTH YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_278">268</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF COROICO, NORTH YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_279">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHULUMANI, CAPITAL OF SOUTH YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_280">270</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INDIAN COCA GATHERERS IN THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_281">271</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A CALLAPO, OR RAFT, ON THE RIVER LOAYZA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_282">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER LOAYZA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_283a">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PALCA, ON THE ROUTE TO THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_283b">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CUTTING SUGAR CANE IN THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_284">274</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TOWN OF IRUPANA, IN THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_285">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TYPICAL INDIAN OF THE YUNGAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_286">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE PLAZA, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_288">278</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_289">279</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LA PUERTA DE COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_290">280</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THERMAL SPRINGS NEAR COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_291">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CALLE COMERCIO, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_292">282</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FEAST DAY OF SAN SEBASTIAN, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_293">283</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PAVILION IN THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_294">284</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHURCH OF SAN PEDRO, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_296">286</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LOVERS’ TREE IN CALA-CALA, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_298">288</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_300">290</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PICTURESQUE SCENE IN THE RUBBER REGION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_301">291</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VINEYARDS OF PARANI, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_303">293</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ENTRANCE TO CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_304">294</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FERTILE VALLEY ON THE ROUTE OF THE ARICA AND
+LA PAZ RAILWAY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_305">295</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CATTLE FAIR IN SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_306">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COACH ROAD TO OBRAJES, NEAR LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_307">297</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VALLEY OF SOPOCACHI, NEAR LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_308">298</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SINKING GROUND, CERRO DE MILLUNI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_309">299</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SHEEP RANCH ON THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_310">300</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE MARKET PLACE, COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_311">301</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FRUIT VENDOR OF COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_213">302</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PATIO OF THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_314">304</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">WOODEN MACHINERY IN THE OLD MINT OF POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_315">305</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FOUNDRY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_316">306</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LA PAZ CUSTOM HOUSE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_317">307</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TUPIZA CUSTOM HOUSE ON THE ARGENTINE BORDER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_318">308</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ARGANDONA BANK, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_319">309</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GERMAN-CHILEAN BANK, ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_320">310</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">NATIONAL BANK OF BOLIVIA, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_321">311</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">IMPORTING HOUSE OF MORALES AND BERTRAM, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_322">312</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">IMPORTING HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, CHALLAPATA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_323">313</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STREET OF THE BANKS, SUCRE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_324">314</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GUAQUI, ON LAKE TITICACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_325">315</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PUERTO SUAREZ, A PORT ON THE PARAGUAY RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_326">316</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_328">318</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">WOMEN EXPERTS SORTING ORES, HUANCHACA SILVER MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_330">320</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ENTRANCE TO PULACAYO MINE, HUANCHACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_331">321</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PORCO, SITE OF THE OLDEST SILVER MINES IN BOLIVIA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_333">323</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SILVER AND TIN MINES, REAL SOCAVON, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_334">324</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ESTABLISHMENT OF SOUX AND HERNANDEZ, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_335">325</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ASSORTED TIN ORES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_336">326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">BARS OF TIN, MINES OF BEBIN BROTHERS, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_337">327</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CARTS OF SILVER ORE FROM HUANCHACA MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_338">328</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LOADING TIN ON CARTS, MULES, AND LLAMAS, SOUX
+AND HERNANDEZ SMELTING FOUNDRY, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_339">329</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VIEW OF HUANCHACA, CENTRE OF RICH SILVER MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_340">330</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">AQUEDUCT OF YURA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_341a">331</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GENERAL VIEW OF PULACAYO MINES, HUANCHACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_341b">331</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LAKE AND DAM IN THE CORDILLERA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_343">333</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ARRIEROS PHOTOGRAPHED FOR IDENTIFICATION, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_344">334</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF POTOSÍ DURING A PROCESSION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_346">336</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MONUMENT OF LIBERTY, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_347">337</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE IMPERIAL CITY OF POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_348">338</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CITY HALL, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_349a">339</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PICHINCHA PLAZA, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_349b">339</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL STREETS OF POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_350">340</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STREET SCENE SHOWING CERRO DE POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_351">341</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">OLD COLONIAL DOORWAY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_352">342</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CERRO DE POTOSÍ, OVERLOOKING THE CITY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_353">343</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THERMAL SPRINGS OF TARAPAYA, NEAR POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_354">344</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ARTIFICIAL LAKE OF SAN SEBASTIAN, NEAR POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_355">345</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COMMERCIAL HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_356a">346</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">BREAD VENDOR, POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_356b">346</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ARTIFICIAL LAKE ILLIMANI, NEAR POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_357">347</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COAT OF ARMS OF POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_358">348</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COROCORO, CENTRE OF THE GREATEST COPPER
+MINES IN SOUTH AMERICA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_360">350</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">IN THE HEART OF THE COROCORO COPPER REGION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_361">351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COLQUECHACA, CELEBRATED FOR ITS MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_363">353</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MINING TOWN OF INQUISIVI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_364">354</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CARRYING FREIGHT TO THE MINES OF QUIMSACRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_365">355</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FAMOUS ROSICLER SILVER MINES, COLQUECHACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_366">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">IRON MOUNTAIN ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO THE MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_367">357</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MOUNT KAKA-ACA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_368">358</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TRANSPORTATION OF COPPER FROM THE COROCORO MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_369">359</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THREE PRINCIPAL MINING ESTABLISHMENTS OF COROCORO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_371">361</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MINING DISTRICT OF QUIMSACRUZ, NEAR ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_372">362</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CITY OF ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_374">364</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COAT OF ARMS OF ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_375">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MAIN PLAZA, ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_377">367</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SAN JOSE, ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_379">369</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MINERS’ HOLIDAY AT SAN JOSE, ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_380">370</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MINE OF SAN JOSE, ORURO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_381">371</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SILVER AND TIN SMELTING WORKS, POOPO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_383">373</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">BERENGUELA TIN MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_384">374</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GOLD WASHING AT CHUQUIAGUILLO, NEAR LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_386">376</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DISTANT GLIMPSE OF TUPIZA, THROUGH A TUNNEL</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_387">377</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RICH GOLD MINING REGION OF CHUQUIAGUILLO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_388">378</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ADMINISTRATION HOUSE, CHUQUIAGUILLO MINES</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_389">379</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MOUNTAIN OF CHOROLQUE, SITE OF THE HIGHEST
+TIN AND BISMUTH MINES IN THE WORLD</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_391">381</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">QUECHISLA, MINING ESTABLISHMENT</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_392">382</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DREDGE IN CONSTRUCTION AT SAN JUAN DE ORO
+MINES, TUPIZA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_393">383</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PICTURESQUE VIEW OF TUPIZA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_395">385</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PLAZA OF TUPIZA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_396">386</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE INDIAN MISSION OF SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_398">388</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COAT OF ARMS OF SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_399">389</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GOVERNMENT PALACE, SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_401">391</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CALLE FLORIDA, SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_402">392</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">OLD QUARTER OF SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_403">393</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PICTURESQUE PLAZA OF SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_404">394</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CALLE DEL COMERCIO, SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_405">395</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SANTA CRUZ, SHOWING LAKE IN THE VICINITY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_406">396</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CACIQUE AND HIS FAMILY, SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_407">397</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">LAS BARRERAS, A HACIENDA NEAR SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_409">399</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE CACTUS OF SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_410">400</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">OPENING THE ROAD FROM PUERTO PACHECO, ON
+THE PARAGUAY RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_412">402</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GIANT TREE IN TARIJA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_413">403</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE NARROWS, NEAR TARIJA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_415">405</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">BOLIVIAN COMMISSION OF LIMITS, IN THE CHACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_417">407</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PALM TREES IN THE GRAN CHACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_418">408</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SCENE ON THE PILCOMAYO RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_419">409</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CAMP OF CHOROTIS IN THE BOLIVIAN CHACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_420">410</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COAT OF ARMS OF TARIJA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_422">412</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">STEAMBOAT ON THE MAMORE RIVER, EL BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_424">414</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE RUBBER GATHERER AT WORK, EL BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_425">415</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MISSION OF COVENDO ON THE BENI RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_426">416</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE ACRE DELEGATION LEAVING TRINIDAD</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_427">417</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CALLAPOS ON THE BENI RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_428a">418</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CUTTING A PATH THROUGH THE FOREST</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_428b">418</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A CAMP IN THE RUBBER FOREST, EL BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_429">419</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CARRYING PROVISIONS TO THE RUBBER CAMP</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_430">420</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VIEW NEAR SUAPI CENTRAL, UPPER BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_431">421</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">NAVIGATION ON THE UPPER BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_432">422</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RUBBER TREES, EL BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_433">423</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GRAN CRUZ HACIENDA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_434a">424</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">COAT OF ARMS OF EL BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_434b">424</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RIVER BOAT ON THE MADRE DE DIOS, TERRITORIO
+DE COLONIAS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_436">426</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A CHOZA, HUT OF RUBBER GATHERERS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_437">427</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE KNAUDT EXPEDITION IN CAMP</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_438">428</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A BATELON ON THE MADRE DE DIOS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_439">429</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO, MADEIRA RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_440">430</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">VIEW OF THE MADEIRA RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_441a">431</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">FORDING THE RIVER PIQUENDO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_441b">431</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CONFLUENCE OF THE BENI AND MAMORE RIVERS, VILLA BELLA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_442">432</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">RIVER PORT OF GUARAYOS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_443a">433</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">SCENE ON THE MAMORE RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_443b">433</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CAMP OF RUBBER GATHERERS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_444">434</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TRANSHIPPING CARGO AT THE RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO,
+ON THE MADEIRA RIVER</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_445">435</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GLIMPSE OF FOREST AND STREAM IN THE RUBBER REGION</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_446">436</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">DANCING THE KENA-KENA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_448">438</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INDIAN WATER CARRIER OF LA PAZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_449">439</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">PICTURESQUE TYPE OF THE COCHABAMBA INDIAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_450a">440</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">TEMBETAS, INDIANS OF SANTA CRUZ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_450b">440</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INDIANS OF POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_451">441</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE STIRRUP-CUP</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_452">442</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">QUICHUA INDIAN</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_453a">443</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A GENIAL BEGGAR OF COCHABAMBA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_453b">443</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">INDIANS IN FIESTA AT TRINIDAD, THE BENI</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_454">444</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHOLA OF POTOSÍ, IN COSTUME OF FIESTA</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_455a">445</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHOROTIS, INDIANS OF THE CHACO</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_455b">445</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">CHOLA OF THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_456a">446</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">THE MODE OF CARRYING THE BABY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_456b">446</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A CHOLA BELLE OF POTOSÍ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_457a">447</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">AYMARA INDIANS OF TITICACA PLATEAU</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_457b">447</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">GUARAYO INDIANS</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_458">448</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A BRIDAL COUPLE</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_459">449</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">ALL SOULS’ DAY IN THE CEMETERY</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_460">450</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">MAP OF BOLIVIA&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>Facing</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_461">450</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span></p>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_017.jpg" width="100" alt="">
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="p-left">Writers on South America generally dismiss Bolivia with a brief
+description which affords no adequate idea of its real place among
+the republics of the New World or of its unique interest from many
+points of view. The present volume, the fourth of my series on the
+Latin-American republics, is devoted to this important country
+with the object of making it better known, not only as the home
+of a liberty-loving nation, but as a land of unlimited commercial
+possibilities, destined to command universal attention.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Bolivia is particularly fascinating for the glimpses its
+monuments give of the unsolved mysteries of antiquity, and because its
+people supply the keynote to the interpretation of Spanish-American
+character. The colonists of Alto Peru became Americanized earlier than
+did the people of any of the other Spanish possessions in the New
+World. The Criollo’s sympathies were, from the first, more American
+than Spanish; and while he preserved many inherited characteristics, he
+acquired others which in time developed within him that unconquerable
+spirit of freedom—the influence of the West working its spell upon
+heart and life—which led inevitably to national independence.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from its historical and scientific interest, Bolivia is a subject
+worthy of study for more practical reasons. By its position as the
+central highway of South America, it is the natural distributing point
+for traffic across the continent, lying midway between the Atlantic
+and Pacific coast countries, its borders touching Brazil, Paraguay,
+Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Its industrial possibilities are awakening
+general interest and enterprise, and there is every prospect of a
+speedy revival of the prestige which this country enjoyed three
+centuries ago, as one of the richest and most prosperous lands in the
+world, when the name of its famous city of Potosí gave to the language
+of all countries a synonym for fabulous wealth.</p>
+
+<p>No one can make a just and impartial study of the South American
+countries and their people without regretting the widespread ignorance
+that prevails regarding them; and as my work progresses, each year
+finds me more enthusiastic on the subject of their present conditions
+and the prospects which they enjoy. It has been said that my fault
+lies in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> seeing the best rather than the worst side of life in South
+America, and the critics have blamed me, in some instances, for failing
+to describe more fully the less admirable features of these countries.
+But it is quite as possible to err through a disposition to magnify the
+shortcomings of a nation as from too lenient judgment. Books written
+on any country by visiting foreigners show how unfair and exaggerated
+the criticisms of a pessimistic alien can be in the opinion of those
+best informed. The story of Bolivia is that of strong, sturdy, and
+determined people, who have abounding faith in their country’s future
+and persistent courage to direct its destiny.</p>
+
+<p>During my stay in Bolivia, and especially while making my journey of
+a thousand miles on muleback in the interior, visiting the capital
+and other cities, I found this beautiful country most attractive
+and interesting. The magnificent scenery, the glorious climate, the
+absolute security with which one may travel unmolested from one end
+of the country to the other, and, above all, the gracious and kindly
+welcome received everywhere are among the recollections of my visit
+which remain a constant delight, and inspire me with the desire to make
+better known both the land and its charming people.</p>
+
+<p>The unfailing attentions shown me will always be remembered with
+appreciation. With sincere gratitude I thank His Excellency President
+Ismael Montes and the ministers of his Cabinet for many courtesies. I
+am honored to have received from the illustrious representative of the
+Bolivian nation constant evidences of gracious and kindly interest in
+my work and I feel deeply indebted to his distinguished ministers for
+their generous coöperation, by facilitating my journeys through the
+country and providing me with important information.</p>
+
+<p class="r2"><span class="smcap">Marie Robinson Wright.</span></p>
+
+<p class="p-left"><i>Philadelphia, October 25, 1906.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center p2 xl">BOLIVIA</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="p2">CHAPTER I<br>
+<span class="subhed">PRE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD—SPANISH INVASION AND CONQUEST</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_021">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_021.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL SIMON BOLIVAR</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Few countries offer a more interesting field of study than Bolivia,
+a land of varied attraction, with mystery and romance enveloping the
+story of its antiquity and lending a magic charm to its many legends
+and traditions; with records of daring and devotion illuminating the
+often triste pages of its existence under Spanish domination, and
+marking a worthy preface to the annals of sturdy patriotism revealed in
+the long struggle for freedom which began two centuries before South
+American independence was an accomplished fact; with the history of the
+republic,—with all that makes this land worth knowing as the dear home
+of a brave nation.</p>
+
+<p>To the popular imagination Bolivia presents only the picture of a
+country somewhere in South America, above the clouds, consisting of
+inaccessible peaks and unfathomable gorges, with an occasional plateau
+to give diversity to what a clever writer has called “the roof of the
+western world,” where llamas are believed to pose eternally on rocky
+cliffs, and gaily plumed Indians to form picturesque groups forever
+against a background of Inca architecture. This is an archaic idea,
+but it is held tenaciously in the minds of a majority of people.
+Bolivia is a land so rarely visited by the foreigner that it is not
+remarkable that the most extraordinary notions prevail regarding it.
+A few have read of the fabulous riches of Potosí, but it is not many
+years ago that a distinguished European asked where “the country called
+Potosí” was situated; and the vast wealth of Bolivia, apparently so
+unlimited that a traveller was impressed to describe the country as
+“a table of silver supported by legs of gold,” is yet a treasure
+whose value has never been fairly calculated. It is a closed book
+to the tourist, though it presents aspects of grandeur undreamed of
+except by the few who have witnessed its beauty, who have felt the
+compelling majesty of snow-capped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> Illimani and wonderful Sorata, and
+to whom the legends of Titicaca have been told in the white moonlight
+as they glided across its mirror-like surface, seemingly enveloped in
+the glory of a higher sphere,—so clear is the moonlight on this lake
+above the clouds,—their souls thrilling in unison with the wondrous
+harmony of the perfect picture. To the lover of varied scenery there
+is a fascination about this almost untravelled country, with its bleak
+Andean plateaus and densely wooded plains, its towering mountains,
+rugged cañons, and fertile valleys, bounded as it is on one side by a
+desert so barren that not a blade of grass could find nourishment, and
+on the other by the greatest river system of the globe, which receives
+and pours out continually enough water to fertilize a whole continent.
+Although third in territory and one of the richest in natural resources
+among the South American republics, Bolivia occupies the most remote
+position and is the least influenced by foreign association, placed as
+it is in the heart of the continent, with no outlet to the sea except
+through neighboring countries, and consequently having had, up to
+the present, scant opportunity to establish extensive international
+relations. As the country is now entering upon a new era of progress,
+increasing its productiveness, building railroads in every direction to
+connect the various centres of industry with Atlantic and Pacific ports
+and the great Amazon waterways, and making improvements in all branches
+of national administration, its Arcadian character is becoming modified
+to conform to twentieth century conditions in the New World, and the
+advance of modern thought is making its influence felt on the Titicaca
+plateau and in the Amazon valley as surely as in any other region of
+South America.</p>
+
+<p>It is often said that nothing is a greater obstacle to modern progress
+than the inheritance of ancient monuments, and his majesty of Greece
+is credited with the statement that he would be glad to have every
+vestige of ancient Athenian architecture disappear, so that his country
+might be given a little consideration for what twentieth century Greeks
+are doing. Bolivia’s heritage of some of the most remarkable ruins of
+antiquity has been so great an attraction to foreign writers that it
+has diverted their interest almost entirely from modern Bolivia; though
+it is true that the subject of these ruins is one which deserves the
+attention of the world, one worthy of all the scientific research given
+to it, pointing as it does to a solution of the important problem of
+the priority of races in the New World.</p>
+
+<p>Many theories have been advanced regarding the monumental ruins
+that exist in the region of Lake Titicaca—particularly those of
+Tiahuanaco—as to their origin, the people who built them, the period
+to which they belong and the degree of civilization which they
+indicate, but very little is really known about them, and imagination
+has free rein to picture the conditions that may have existed before
+the Spanish conquest brought Bolivian history into the realm of certain
+knowledge. There is nothing to indicate that the primitive inhabitants
+of what is now Bolivian territory reached an important degree of
+advancement in any other part of the country than that known to
+ethnologists generally as Aymaráland, which is supposed to be—though
+this, too, is questioned—the cradle of the Aymará race, whose origin
+is very obscure, but whose people are considered by many writers as the
+authors of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> the most colossal examples of ancient architecture existing
+on the South American continent. This region is comprised in the
+southern part of what is now the department of La Paz, chiefly in that
+section which borders Lake Titicaca. Unfortunately, everything relating
+to it prior to the period of the Spanish conquest is so shrouded in
+mystery as to yield few satisfactory results to the most careful
+investigation beyond the apparently certain evidence that it was not
+a contemporaneous civilization that wrought such marvels of progress,
+but the peoples of successive and often remotely separated periods not
+necessarily of identical origin. According to some authorities, the
+Tiahuanaco whose ruins are now to be seen, and which was already a
+shattered record of past greatness when the Incas set up their dynasty,
+is but the remains of a second Tiahuanaco, the first having been
+swallowed up at a previous period, forgotten ages ago, when a great
+seismic upheaval changed the face of the Bolivian plateau and buried
+out of sight evidences of culture advanced far beyond anything the same
+race attained subsequently. Archæologists generally agree in claiming
+that at least three distinct periods of culture are recorded in the
+form and character of prehistoric remains now being excavated in this
+locality. Naturally it is this part of Bolivia which is the centre of
+interest in the study of the pre-Columbian epoch.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_023">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_023.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GOVERNMENT PALACE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p>
+
+<p>The theory accepted by many ethnologists, that the Indians of America
+are of Asiatic origin, is met, on the other hand, by the assertion of
+some more recent investigators—notably those composing the expedition
+organized by Mr. Morris K. Jessup, president of the American Museum
+of Natural History, and sent out by him ten years ago to study this
+question—that man did not emigrate from Asia to America, as many
+racial similarities seemed to prove, but that the emigration was from
+America to Asia, the evidences of human life on the American continent
+proving greater antiquity of origin here than in Asia. The latter
+possibility gives unique value to the study of a country within whose
+territory have been found indications of human habitation in ages
+remote beyond any determined period. May it not be that Bolivia has an
+especial claim to universal attention as the true birthplace of the
+human race, and the chief centre of its progress at a time antedating
+the chronicles of Old World empires?</p>
+
+<p>Aymará mythology is very similar to that of the Orient. According to
+the oldest traditions, at the beginning of the world, the god Khunu,
+the creator of all things, became so angry because of the vices of
+mankind that he visited a great drought upon the earth, converting
+fertile regions into deserts: he deprived humanity of the means of
+living, and they became lower than the beasts. Then Pachacamac, the
+supreme spirit of the universe, restored that which had been destroyed
+by Khunu and gave new life to mankind. A second time Khunu showed
+his wrath and sent a great flood and darkness upon the earth. The
+few people who were saved from destruction in this calamity sent up
+prayers to heaven, and in answer the sun appeared behind the rock
+Inti-Karka, on the sacred lake of the same name, since corrupted into
+Titicaca. Soon after this appeared also the great god Viracocha, the
+name signifying “foam of the sea,” so called because he rose out of
+the waters of the lake. Viracocha created the sun, moon and stars,
+plants and animals, as well as men. Tiahuanaco is full of carvings
+representing this deity, and it is the opinion of noted archæologists,
+among others Professor Max Uhle, who has made a special study of the
+field, that Tiahuanaco was built as a temple of this deity, and that it
+was not, at least in later periods, a centre of population, as has been
+generally believed.</p>
+
+<p>As far back as any records exist that serve to trace the history
+of the Aymarás, there appears to be confusion regarding their
+identity with the Collas, Umasuyas, Yungas, and other tribes that
+are generally considered as offshoots of the parent Aymará stock.
+All these tribes were natives of the country now called Bolivia, and
+were governed by <i>mallcus</i>, or chiefs, chosen in some cases for
+their military valor and in others for their venerable character. The
+Collas, or Charcas, were the most powerful and numerous, and gave
+their name to the whole country, which was called Collasuyo by the
+Incas to distinguish it as a southern province of the great empire
+of Tahuantinsuyo, “the kingdom of four regions,” the remaining three
+having been called Antisuyo, “to the east,” Cuntisuyo, “to the west”
+and Chinchasuyo, “to the north.”</p>
+
+<p>At the period generally credited to the advent of the Incas, the
+inhabitants of Collasuyo had already reached decadence and were given
+up to decimating wars and struggles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> among themselves. That the
+Collas, or Charcas, tribes belonged to the same stock as the Aymarás
+is disputed by some of the best authorities, who believe the latter an
+entirely distinct race, of Mongolian origin, who came to Bolivia by way
+of Arica on the Pacific coast, many centuries ago, and settled on the
+Lake Titicaca plateau because it was the centre of a region belonging
+to a people of peaceable habits, living, not on the barren heights, but
+in the valleys and on the slopes around. These authorities give the
+Aymarás no share in the construction of the great monuments, which they
+claim were built there only as sanctuaries, apart from the habitations
+of the people, explaining that because of their great solidity of
+construction they have survived the changes which brought about the
+decadence and oblivion of the race that built them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_025">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_025.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE NEW GOVERNMENT PALACE, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Bolivian historian Señor Don José Maria Camacho apparently favors
+the theory which gives the Aymarás credit for the culture that
+found expression in these colossal structures. In an entertaining
+chapter on this subject he writes: “It is presumable that in order
+to have attained the degree of prosperity which their monuments
+reveal, as well as to have arrived at the state of decadence in
+which the Quichuas found them, the Aymarás must have experienced,
+through a long succession of centuries, great social changes and
+the devastating inroads of other tribes.” The same author gives an
+interesting description of these people, with particular reference
+to their government, religion, and mode of life. In addition to the
+<i>mallcu</i>, or supreme chief, there were the <i>jilakatas</i>, or
+secondary authorities,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> and, in some parts, there were also sacerdotal
+chiefs, whose word was the law of the community. “The Aymarás,” says
+Señor Camacho, “believed in the existence of God, whom they called
+Pachacamac, which means ‘eternal.’ They supposed that he revealed
+himself to the eyes of mankind in every object of Nature; from which
+their religion degenerated into complete fetichism, losing its
+spiritual significance entirely. They believed in the existence of the
+soul and in its immortality; in the evil spirit; in the resurrection of
+the body; and in eternal reward and punishment. They were acquainted
+with the meaning of prayer, knew of confession and penance, and were
+accustomed to offer sacrifices. Their most celebrated sanctuary was
+Inti-Karka, signifying ‘the rock of the sun,’ a name that has extended
+to the island on which it was located and to Lake Titicaca itself.
+Each tribe of the Aymarás was distinguished from the others in dress
+and more particularly by the cap, a knitted kind of headgear, and this
+distinction still prevails. The tribes had ideas of military art, were
+skilled in constructing fortresses, which they called <i>pucaras</i>,
+some of which remain to the present day; they used the lance, the
+sling, and the arrow. Their chief industry was agriculture; they had
+many herds of llamas, and paid careful attention to the cultivation of
+their fields. Commerce was reduced to a limited exchange of products.
+They had an idea of hieroglyphic writing. Their language is reputed by
+eminent philologists to be one of the mother tongues—the most ancient,
+richest, and most complete in existence.”</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief difficulties in the way of acquiring adequate
+information regarding the religious beliefs of the races that were
+conquered by the Spaniards is the tendency of the Indians to engraft
+Christian teachings on their Aymará and Quichua traditions to such a
+degree that it is not possible to know exactly where the influence of
+the Church enters into their records. There is much confusion also
+between Aymará and Quichua deities. Pachacamac and Viracocha are
+apparently only different names of the same deity, commonly used both
+in Quichua and Aymará traditions, and in many cases the influence of
+Aymará traditions upon the religion of the Incas is marked as clearly
+as are the traditions of the Children of the Sun to-day upon the modern
+religious beliefs of these Indians, gained through four centuries of
+Christian teaching. No foreigner who has visited the land of the Incas
+can fail to observe the strange interpretation which they put upon
+Bible truths.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_028">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_028.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE ALAMEDA, THE FAVORITE PROMENADE OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>According to various existing traditions the Aymarás and the Quichuas
+had been rival races from time immemorial, alternately superseding
+each other until the final change gave the Quichuas uninterrupted
+ascendancy, under the dominion of the Inca dynasty, and they achieved
+a degree of advancement and culture beyond that of any other primitive
+race of South America within the period of existing records. It is
+a singular fact, awaiting explanation by the ethnologists, that the
+Aymarás appear to have been always confined almost exclusively to the
+Titicaca plateau, while the Quichuas are found not only in the region
+extending from the lake northward to Cuzco, but in the departments
+of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Potosí, and Oruro. There is a theory,
+accepted by some ethnologists, that the Aymarás and the Quichuas were
+of the same origin, the Aymarás having evolved in the course of many
+generations, and under the harsh necessities of the rigorous soil
+and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>climate of the plateau, into a hardy race of highlanders,
+differing in character and even in appearance, from their Quichua
+brothers who had been subjected to less severe natural conditions in
+their development on the fertile mountain slopes and in the valleys
+of the regions they occupied. It seems incredible that offspring of
+the same race should develop a higher degree of culture on the arid
+plateau than in the fertile valley; yet the evidences of advancement
+among the ancient inhabitants of the Titicaca region indicate that they
+were leaders of progress among their contemporaries, who have left no
+monuments equal to those of the Titicaca plateau. It has been claimed
+that the great empire of Tahuantinsuyo was built upon a foundation
+purely Aymará, and that the first Inca obtained from Collasuyo his
+ideas regarding government, religion, and even architecture, which
+were afterward developed according to the genius of his successors.
+The most reasonable theory seems to be that the Quichua culture had
+been in process of development long ages before the establishment of
+Inca empire, and that it may be traced to a source identical with the
+origin of the Collas, whether this race be related to or distinct from
+the Aymarás. The question affords a prolific subject of controversy,
+and remains unsettled in the minds of impartial students of ethnology
+and archæology. Whether the Aymarás are too primitive a people to
+have had any connection with the history of the wonderful monuments
+of the Titicaca plateau; whether the Quichuas in long periods of
+culture, possibly interrupted, and dating from great antiquity,
+constructed these colossal monoliths; whether these Quichuas were of
+Peruvian origin, and the Aymarás also first came from the region of
+the Apurímac in that country; or whether the Quichuas were first the
+inhabitants of Collasuyo and had their ancestral domain in the land of
+the Charcas,—who, according to some ethnologists, belong to the same
+parent stock as the Quichuas,—all are theories for the scientists to
+settle when more extensive investigation shall afford better ground for
+establishing proofs.</p>
+
+<p>The poetical story of the first Inca’s appearance is worthy of the race
+that invented it. The Inca historian, Garcilaso de la Vega, one of the
+most picturesque figures in the landscape of ancient Peru, even as he
+himself paints it for us, and the only contemporary authority of note
+on the history of the Peruvian empire, relates in inimitable style the
+story of the first Inca’s appearance. In his <i>Comentarios Reales</i>
+he tells us that the Sun, the life-giving and fructifying deity of the
+universe, was moved to pity by the contemplation of degraded humanity,
+and in order to redeem it he sent down from heaven his two children,
+Manco-Ccapac and Mama Ocllo, causing them to appear on the island of
+Inti-Karka, where, after the great food, brought upon the earth by
+the god Khunu (meaning snow, and supposed to have reference to the
+glacial period), the Sun had beneficently extended his first rays.
+This mysterious pair, who were at the same time brother and sister and
+husband and wife, crossed the plains north of the Lake Inti-Karka,
+carrying with them a sceptre in the form of a bar of gold, which was to
+determine the place of their permanent abode by the facility with which
+it buried itself in the earth. They proclaimed themselves children of
+the Sun, and announced as their mission the civilization of all savage
+tribes and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> establishment of an empire which would be under their
+own benevolent government, as divine rulers who inherited their rights
+from their father the Sun.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_030">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_030.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FOUNTAIN IN MURILLO PLAZA, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The historian adds, with the naïve gravity of a true descendant of the
+Incas, that as the sacred bar buried itself most easily in the soil of
+Cuzco, that locality was made the site of the Inca capital. The first
+Inca was called Manco-Ccapac, and his wife Mama Oclla. Pedro Kramer, in
+his <i>Historia de Bolivia</i>, says the name <i>Manco</i> is evidently
+a corruption of <i>mallcu</i>, and that Manco-Ccapac was an Aymara
+chief or <i>sacerdóte</i>, of great talent and superior knowledge,
+who probably left his home on account of the wars of extermination
+which the Aymarás were carrying on at that time, and, with his sister,
+embarked in one of the little <i>balsas</i>, or canoes, made of rushes
+which are used at the present day on Lake Titicaca, the two making
+their way to one of the islands in the lake, where they remained hidden
+until it was safe for them to continue their voyage to the opposite
+or western border. There they landed and became acquainted with the
+neighboring Quichua tribes, continuing further north on their journey,
+until they arrived in Cuzco. They found themselves in the midst of
+a people of hospitable disposition and submissive character, who,
+seeing that the pilgrims were superior in wisdom and beauty, began
+by respecting them and ended by rendering them mystic reverence. The
+royal pair founded a city which they called Cuzco, “the navel of the
+universe,” and began the organization of the great Inca empire of
+Tahuantinsuyo, with which the history of Bolivia is also associated.
+The Bolivia of to-day is represented in Collasuyo, the inhabitants of
+which were tributary to the Cuzco monarchs, required to send<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> their
+share of gold to the royal coffers, to labor in the royal mines, and
+to serve in the royal household. But the subjection of Collasuyo to
+Inca authority did not take place until the reign of the fourth Inca.
+Even then the warlike Bolivian highlander was not entirely subdued, and
+he remained a troublesome vassal of the empire throughout the entire
+period of Inca rule.</p>
+
+<p>When the fourth Inca, Maita-Ccapac, marched into Collasuyo at the head
+of an army of twelve thousand men, he was met by the natives with
+sturdy and determined resistance, but he conquered by superior force
+of arms, returning well satisfied with the result of the invasion. It
+was upon the occasion of this visit that he became so impressed with
+the grandeur of the Tiahuanaco ruins that he thought of making this
+place the seat of his empire. His successor, the Inca Ccapac-Yupanqui,
+extended the empire eastward and southward, marching over a great
+deal of territory and subduing numerous tribes. There was continued
+opposition to the invaders on the part of both the Aymarás and the
+Charcas, and repeated revolts kept the country in a ferment of warfare.
+Pachacutec, one of the wisest of the Incas, visited Collasuyo, spending
+several years in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, and making an
+expedition to Oruro, one of the most important pueblos.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_031">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_031.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PRESIDENT’S COACH IN THE ANNUAL INDEPENDENCE DAY
+PROCESSION, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Incas were by no means insensible to the advanced culture
+everywhere shown in the monuments and temples of Collasuyo. They copied
+much from the works of the vanquished race, and some authorities go so
+far as to say that they got all their ideas of civilization from this
+source, modifying little and adding less; others assert, as proof to
+the contrary, that there is nothing to establish this claim beyond the
+similarity naturally existing in the ideas of races allied in thought
+through long periods of mutual interchange.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span></p>
+
+<p>But, leaving aside all puzzling problems, there is a witchery of
+romance in the story of the great Incas descending upon Collasuyo in
+all the glory and pomp of royal power, and setting up their court on
+a scale of truly Oriental magnificence upon the sacred island of the
+Sun, in the sacred Lake Titicaca, over twelve thousand feet above the
+sea, in the heart of a continent at that time unknown to Pizarro’s
+hosts, a continent of savages beyond the limits of the vast Peruvian
+empire, which according to some authorities extended over the greater
+part of South America and counted among its vassals twenty millions of
+people. No wonder that the great Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui spent many years
+in this enchanting spot, and erected in the vicinity of the lake and
+on its various islands his wonderful palaces! One is only at a loss to
+imagine why the sacred golden rod of Manco-Ccapac did not sink itself
+with greater facility into the Rock of the Sun in the beginning of Inca
+history. It is related that Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui erected not only a
+sumptuous palace, but a temple dedicated to the sun, the richest of the
+whole empire: temples were also dedicated to thunder and lightning, a
+monastery was built for the sons of nobles, a sanctuary for the vestal
+virgins, houses were erected for the Inca’s followers; the Rock of the
+Sun was paved with silver and gold, the neighboring island of Coati
+(from Coya, the Moon, wife of the Sun) was consecrated to the moon, and
+temples were erected there, the ruins of which still remain, as well
+as those of the sun temple on the island of Titicaca. The Inca fasted
+for a whole year, it is stated in the records, abstaining from meat
+and <i>aji</i>—a pepper seed indispensable in the Quichua and Aymará
+cuisine—in order to prove his devotion and the serious purpose of his
+pilgrimage.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_032">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_032.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MONUMENT TO GENERAL BALLIVIAN IN THE ALAMEDA, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>It was in Collasuyo that Huayna-Ccapac, the father of the ill-fated
+Atahuallpa, spent his earlier years, having been left in charge of
+the palaces and temples erected on Lake Titicaca by his father,
+Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui. He became learned in the culture of the ancient
+inhabitants of the lake region, and while under the spell of its charm,
+or through an inspiration of spiritual understanding, he taught the
+existence of a deity superior to the sun, invisible to mortal eyes, the
+source of all power. Huayna-Ccapac was one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span> of the most illustrious
+of his race and added much to the prestige of the empire by his
+conquests and discoveries. He explored the rich mines of Porco, south
+of Potosí, visited the thriving pueblo of Chuquiapu,—on the site of
+the present city of La Paz,—and celebrated there with great splendor
+the religious festival of “Raymi.” One of his sons, Manco, famed later
+for the determined campaign he led against the Spaniards, and who was
+put to death by order of Almagro, Pizarro’s general, was a native of
+Collasuyo, having been born at Tiahuanaco.</p>
+
+<p>At the very height of power and in the full brilliancy of Collasuyo’s
+glory, when Huayna-Ccapac was visiting his wonderful palaces and
+temples on the sacred lake, and all was apparently peace and security
+in the vast realm, which had so steadily extended its boundaries since
+the first Inca placed his sceptre in the soil of Cuzco that there
+remained little to conquer worth the effort; when no cloud seemed
+visible in the sky,—suddenly an awful presage of coming evil gripped
+the heart of the great Inca in a spasm of foreboding. Strange signs
+appeared in the heavens, lightning struck down one of the Inca’s
+palaces, earthquakes threatened, and, to complete the catalogue of
+bad omens, the news was spread that white and bearded men, sailing in
+houses of wood,—whose coming had been predicted by the Inca Ripac more
+than a century before,—had been seen in the Pacific.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_033">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_033.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>To relieve the sadness of his heart under such terrible conditions, the
+Inca left his beloved Collasuyo and repaired to Quito to seek refuge
+from care in the sweet companionship of his favorite, Pacha, the mother
+of his best beloved son, Atahuallpa. The story of his death and of the
+succession of his two sons, Atahuallpa and Huascar, the former to the
+throne of Quito and the latter to that of Peru,—their quarrels and
+the consequent weakening of the Empire’s defence at the very moment
+when greatest strength was needed,—the events connected with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>
+imprisonment and death of Atahuallpa, and the occupation of his throne
+by Francisco Pizarro,—belong rather to Peruvian than to Bolivian
+history.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_034">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_034.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ALAMEDA GATEWAY, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The first invasion of Bolivia by the Spaniards was made under the
+orders of Pizarro’s companion in the conquest, Diego de Almagro,
+who chose the route through Collasuyo on his march to Chile. The
+vanguard of this expedition was placed in charge of Juan de Saavedra,
+who founded the first Spanish town on Bolivian soil at Paria, a few
+miles from Oruro. Continuing southward, Almagro’s party made a halt
+at Tupiza, and then pursued their ill-fated course southward, leaving
+the rich mines of Charcas unexplored and plunging into the horrors of
+a trans-Andean journey altogether the most terrible in suffering and
+deprivation that is recorded in the annals of the Spanish conquest.
+Afterward, the unhappy adventurer expressed the keenest regret that he
+had not remained in Charcas and colonized it instead of continuing the
+profitless march which proved his ruin.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long before Spanish cupidity turned its attention to the
+valuable mines known to exist in this part of the Inca’s former
+dominions. Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, brothers of the conqueror,
+undertook the invasion of the country, but after a short time Hernando
+returned to Cuzco, and Gonzalo became chiefly identified with the
+history of Spanish conquest in Bolivia. His first victory of note
+was in the valley of Cochabamba, followed by a more signal triumph
+over the Charcas Indians in Chuquisaca, which gave<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> him practically
+undisputed sway. By order of Francisco Pizarro, Pedro Anzures founded,
+on the site of an Indian village, the city of Chuquisaca, also called
+Charcas, the seat of the royal Audiencia, and, later, La Plata, the
+archiepiscopal see. It is now known as Sucre, in honor of the hero
+of the Independence. Unwearying in the pursuit of adventure, Gonzalo
+Pizarro set out on an expedition into the forests of the Amazon, which
+yielded little in results. Upon his return, he devoted his attention
+to the development of rich mines of which he had taken possession in
+Porco, until altered conditions in political affairs led him to head a
+rebellion against the newly appointed viceroy, Blasco Nuñez de Vela,
+in a struggle to gain the supremacy as Governor of Peru. The viceroy
+had been sent out from Spain with orders from the Emperor Charles V.
+to reform the abuses of the system of <i>encomienda</i>, by which the
+conquerors claimed ownership not only of the land, but of the Indians
+who occupied it, under the pretext of converting them to Christianity,
+and treated them with unparalleled cruelty. The opposition of Gonzalo
+Pizarro and others to this action on the part of Spain led to open
+warfare; and Gonzalo marched to Lima, the new Spanish capital,
+defeated the viceroy’s army, and executed the viceroy. Then, finding
+that a reactionary sentiment had been stirred up in Chuquisaca by his
+rival, Centeno, and that there was a strong party arrayed against
+his authority there, he commissioned the redoubtable old warrior
+Carvajal, one of the most uncompromising fighters of the conquest, to
+restore tranquillity. The chase which Carvajal gave Centeno, and the
+territory the two armies covered without engaging in battle,—Centeno
+being finally obliged to disperse his troops,—were subjects of keen
+ridicule, and the battle was nicknamed the “fight of claws.” Gonzalo
+Pizarro himself soon afterward met and vanquished Centeno at the battle
+of Huarina, on the borders of Lake Titicaca. But the good fortune of
+Pizarro was short-lived. About this time the Emperor Charles V. sent
+out Pedro de la Gasca, with instructions to establish order in the new
+colony. La Gasca attacked Pizarro’s forces at Sacsahuana, near Cuzco,
+gaining a complete victory, and destroying forever the power of the
+Pizarro party, which had been already weakened by the disaffection of
+his followers, owing to his own pusillanimity and Carvajal’s cruelty.
+Both Gonzalo Pizarro and Carvajal were put to death.</p>
+
+<p>As a memorial of the peace which had been achieved by his victory
+over Pizarro, La Gasca gave orders to Captain Alonso de Mendoza to
+found a city in the valley of Chuquiapu, which he desired should be
+established, in the phrase of Tacitus, “with a greater number of good
+customs than laws.” The foundation of the city was begun on the first
+anniversary of the battle of Sacsahuana, October 20, 1545, and it was
+named Nuestra Señora de La Paz. The Villa Imperial de Potosí had been
+founded a few months before by Diego Centeno and Alonso Santandia, upon
+the discovery of the rich mines that were later to make it one of the
+famous cities of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In the founding of La Paz, the Titicaca plateau became again the
+honored spot chosen to mark the birth of a new régime in South
+America. It was peculiarly fitting that this locality, which bears
+witness to succeeding periods of primitive culture, and to the rise
+and development of the greatest of native dynasties, should have been
+selected to commemorate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span> the successful establishment of a greater
+power on the continent and the beginning of a new national existence.
+Centuries later, when this power proved insupportable through greed
+and injustice, the same site was once more chosen to mark a fresh
+beginning, when the march of civilization was signalized by the first
+proclamation of the patriots of Independence. And the last honor was
+the most glorious of all; for in choosing the City of Peace on the
+Titicaca plateau as the sacred spot whereon to set the seal of victory
+upon one of the noblest efforts of mankind—the effort to establish
+the rights of human liberty. Destiny has bestowed a noble distinction
+upon the Bolivian nation, and one which should inspire its posterity to
+deeds of highest worth.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_036">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_036.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ILLIMANI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_038">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_038.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">DOORWAY AND PATIO OF A PRIVATE RESIDENCE, COLONIAL
+PERIOD, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II<br>
+<span class="subhed">ALTO PERU UNDER THE VICEROYALTY</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_039">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_039.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CARVED STONE DOORWAY OF SAN LORENZO CHURCH, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The great empire of the Incas fell to pieces like a house of cards.
+The splendor of their palaces, the riches of their sacred temples, the
+very pride of the people seemed to crumble into ruins in a day. It
+is remarkable that a culture representing centuries of progress and
+revealing such a high order of intelligence as that of the Incas could
+apparently fade away within an incredibly short time. Of the twenty
+million souls, more or less, composing the Peruvian empire, only the
+Inca and a few nobles had been imprisoned or killed. The Spaniards
+were a mere handful against those that remained. It has been said that
+if the imprisoned Inca could have summoned his faithful subjects they
+would quickly have slain every Spaniard on the continent. But he was
+not permitted to speak to his people, and they had never been taught to
+act independently of his will. The Inca had held as a royal prerogative
+the divine power of initiative, and it was forbidden to the masses to
+think or act upon their own responsibility. When the final calamity
+came, and there was no longer anyone in authority to tell them what
+to do, they could do nothing;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> and in this fact lies the secret of
+the Spaniards easy conquest of the Inca’s subjects when once the Inca
+himself had been disposed of. They were like sheep without a shepherd,
+and their conquerors behaved like wolves. Bolivia suffered the same
+fate as the rest of the fallen empire—its inhabitants were enslaved
+and held under the rigorous system of Spanish rule as firmly as those
+of other provinces. This system was established at the point of the
+sword.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards had come to the New World in quest of gold, and the
+history of Spanish rule in America is a record of plunder in the
+beginning and unjust extortion to the end. There was no religious
+sentiment connected with the voluntary exile of the conquerors from
+their native land, as in the case of the Pilgrim Fathers of New
+England, nor did the idea of colonization appeal to them except as it
+was necessary to the realization of their golden dreams of avarice.
+The filibustering adventurers led on by Pizarro would have scorned the
+routine of toil which the Puritans were willing to face daily for the
+sake of the principles that had brought them across the sea, and in
+the hope of establishing a home in their new country. Yet, in their
+religious zeal and fury against witchcraft and unbelief, the Puritans
+were often as cruel as their Spanish contemporaries in Peru, showing
+that the spirit of those times was a malignant one, whether aroused to
+pious frenzy or inflamed by grosser passions.</p>
+
+<p>When the chief leaders among the conquerors fell in the struggle for
+power that succeeded the invasion, their places were quickly filled
+by men better qualified than those belligerent nomads to establish a
+settled order of things in the conquered territory, and to proceed
+systematically toward the accomplishment of the chief purpose of their
+authority,—to fill up the royal coffers with gold. Within fifty
+years after Pizarro landed with his followers on the shores of Peru
+in 1533, not only was the Spanish conquest an accomplished fact, but
+the various disturbances naturally arising out of jealousy among the
+conquerors had been quelled, the unsatisfactory <i>encomienda</i> had
+been abolished, and the colonial system had been perfected and put in
+operation. The Collasuyo of the Inca empire became the Charcas of the
+conquerors, and this name was again changed by the colonial authorities
+to Alto Peru. The great Council of the Indies, the supreme tribunal
+instituted in Cádiz, Spain, primarily to protect the Indians and
+finally to take charge of all colonial affairs, formulated the laws
+that ruled the Spanish colonies in the New World. One of its first
+acts was to abolish the two governments of New Castile and New Toledo,
+into which the conquerors had divided Spanish South America,—the
+limits of which had been the cause of all the fatal strife between
+Pizarro and Almagro,—and to create the viceroyalty of Peru in 1542,
+with authority over all these possessions. The viceroy represented the
+highest colonial power, and presided over the two Audiencias Reales,
+or royal audiences, into which the viceroyalty was divided. These
+were the Audiencia of Lima, which comprised the territory hitherto
+known as New Castile, and the Audiencia of Charcas, which covered the
+former New Toledo. The Audiencias were supreme courts, annexed to the
+viceroyalties, but directly responsible to the crown. They exercised
+both judicial and administrative functions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span></p>
+
+<p>One of the most important offices in the history of Spanish government
+in America was held by the Audiencia of Charcas, created in 1559,
+when the Marquis of Cañete was Viceroy of Peru. Its jurisdiction
+extended over the whole southern and eastern part of Spanish
+America, its chief seat being Chuquisaca, or Charcas, the capital
+of Alto Peru. Established in the very heart of the Spanish South
+American possessions, in a locality almost inaccessibly remote from
+the viceroy’s capital at Lima, the Audiencia of Charcas wielded an
+authority as independent and powerful within its jurisdiction as that
+of the viceroy himself; while its capital became the centre of what was
+equivalent to a second viceregal court. Chuquisaca gained additional
+prestige from its importance as the episcopal see of the diocese of
+Charcas and as the seat of the University of San Francisco Xavier,
+which became renowned throughout Spanish America for its learning,
+ranking with the University of Salamanca, in Spain. To this Audiencia’s
+jurisdiction were subject the governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and
+Buenos Aires, and the missions of Chiquitos and Mojos.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_041" style="max-width: 609px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_041.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FAÇADE OF SAN FRANCISCO CHURCH, LA PAZ. STONE CARVING OF
+THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Referring to the exalted privileges of the Audiencia, Gabriel Réné
+Moreno, a Bolivian writer of note, says: “The Audiencia was at the same
+time a royal chancery, which used the royal seal and headed its decrees
+with the name of the reigning sovereign, as if he were present.” Among
+its multiple duties, as recorded in the archives of the Council of the
+Indies, were: “To be vigilant in behalf of the Indians, to see that
+they are given Christian instruction and good treatment, for which
+purpose a protector shall be named; to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> informed in reference to the
+king’s tax, and in all that relates to the preservation of the royal
+prerogatives; to collect the legacies of ecclesiastical benefices; to
+approve the lists of fees of curates, notaries, and inspectors, without
+which requisite they have no legal force.” Furthermore, in addition to
+the central government, which in matters of administration, policy, and
+finance was exercised by the Audiencia, the <i>oidores</i>, or judges,
+discharged innumerable special functions. The Audiencia of Charcas
+was composed of five <i>oidores</i> and two fiscal assessors. The
+<i>oidores</i> were required to visit the territories of their separate
+jurisdictions every three years. In civil cases only was it permitted
+to appeal to the Council of the Indies from the Audiencia’s decision.
+But in spite of the number and variety of the Audiencia’s duties, the
+records of colonial history show that the greater part of the time was
+spent in the discussion of formalities, in grand ceremonies and an
+extravagant display of pompous authority, though this tendency does not
+seem to have brought any adverse criticism from the higher authority
+of Lima. In the <i>Memoria de Los Vireyes</i>, or viceroys’ report,
+the Audiencia is cordially recommended for its efficiency, the Duke
+of Palata writing of it: “The Audiencia of Charcas ranks next to that
+of Lima, and is above all the others; and for the reason that it is
+usually composed of ministers who have risen through other tribunals,
+it has the most distinguished ability in government, and in eight years
+has given me nothing to execute or to amend.” A more intimate view of
+the character of the <i>oidores</i> is given in an entertaining picture
+of these times, very effectively described:</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_042">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_042.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">JESUIT CONVENT TOWER IN POTOSÍ. CERRO DE POTOSÍ IN THE
+DISTANCE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>“The Audiencia planted its royal trident in the sea of political and
+social agitation. The implacable levies of the <i>mita</i>, the great
+traffic of the mines at the height of their production, the daily
+demands of civil society, the procedures of public administration,
+the sanctity of domestic life, the property, existence, and honor of
+individuals, everything passed over the Audiencia’s palm, sliding from
+it like falling seed that nothing can stop or hinder. Nothing was
+so inalterable in the midst of alterations as the Audiencia. In the
+disturbances that made a sanguinary path for the first footsteps of the
+colony; in the disputes of Basques and Castilians—equally illiterate
+and opulent—over the arms of the city of Potosí; in those incessant
+quarrels among <i>chapetones</i>, <i>mestizos</i>, and <i>criollos</i>
+who peopled the cities and towns<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> of the province with factions, the
+Audiencia discharged the office of a severe proconsul, whose cohorts
+always subjugated, never pacified. In the pursuit of its judgments, the
+furore of noisy discords from all directions arrived at the peaceful
+city that served as its court like the violent winds that blow over
+mountains and plains to whirl into the basin of Lake Titicaca and
+disturb its quiet waters. But in the immunity of the royal canopy of
+his stone palace the monarch never broke down the inviolable law of his
+tribunal, and neither from the vehement shock of caste nor from that
+of interest did his tall judicial <i>vara</i>, or sceptre, come out
+shortened. It is certain that in the chief city of the viceroys the
+Audiencia did not enjoy the predominance, veneration, or impunity of
+the <i>oidores</i> in La Plata. Here the counsellor’s robe possessed
+doubtless some of the virtues of a sacrament; at least, it imprinted
+on the soul of him who wore it an ineffaceable sign, and that sign was
+arrogance. <i>Oidor</i> and haughty <i>grand seigneur</i> were, in
+Alto Peru, one and the same. Woe to the lawyer, litigant, or voter who
+incurred the anger of an <i>oidor</i>! Because if he wished to escape
+from abusive reproofs, suspension from office, correctional banishment
+and vexations, it would be best for him to go far away. When these
+magnates did not ride to the tribunal in chaises, it is notorious that
+they were preceded by two lictors, so as to flaunt the toga before the
+people with Roman majesty. The passer-by must halt in their presence,
+and if on horseback dismount while they passed, and everybody must
+escort the satrap to his destination at a respectful distance.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_043">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_043.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COLONIAL SUN DIAL IN PATIO OF PALACE OF JUSTICE. SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>What autocrats they were, these <i>oidores</i> of the Audiencia of
+Charcas! And with what splendor they moved among the people, in whose
+eyes the distant figure of the viceroy diminished and his Catholic
+majesty faded to the vanishing point, as the magnificent “toga” passed,
+its folds sweeping over the streets that belonged as much to its wearer
+as Spain belonged to the king, or Lima to the viceroy! The extreme
+homage paid to these mediterranean despots is illustrated in a clever
+little anecdote which relates how a rich and aged lady of Chuquisaca,
+wishing at her death to manifest her devotion, left in her testament a
+legacy of four thousand pesos with the stipulation that it should be
+used to buy an <i>oidor’s</i> toga for the Holy Sacrament; because,
+she explained, when clothed with this honor, the people would find
+themselves obliged to accompany<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> the viaticum, whereas without it very
+few would do so. Then came the puzzling question: “But if the Holy
+Sacrament, decorated with the <i>oidor’s</i> toga, should meet another
+<i>oidor</i> on the road, to which should the retinue make its reverend
+obeisance?” It was decided that as the case was one of equal rank,
+obeisance should be made to the Holy Sacrament, having the preference
+accorded to age! Bolivian wit is never so keen as when pointing a
+satire with an amusing illustration, and this little story is worthy of
+its author, whoever he may be!</p>
+
+<p>The Audiencia of Charcas found its most arduous duties connected
+with the demands from the mother country for the largest possible
+contributions to the royal treasury, and her equally imperious demands
+for protection for the Indian subjects of the crown. To fulfil both
+requirements taxed the genius of the wisest of his Catholic majesty’s
+representatives. In justice to the Council of the Indies, it must be
+said that constant efforts were made to ameliorate the condition of the
+unfortunate Indians, but they were effectively nullified through the
+greed for gold which could only be satisfied by increasing the tasks of
+these unhappy slaves, who died by thousands under the rigorous system
+of the <i>mita</i>. The <i>mita</i> was established by the greatest
+of the viceroys of Peru, Don Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa,
+who governed from 1569 to 1581. His purpose was to promote the most
+rapid and satisfactory development of the mines, especially those of
+Potosí, and, undoubtedly, also to improve the condition both of the
+colonists and the Indians. The <i>mita</i> was a system of forced labor
+by which all Indians between eighteen and fifty years of age were
+obliged to work in the mines by turns during a certain period, covering
+in all about five or six years of <i>mita</i>, or turn. This system
+ameliorated the previous condition of the Indians by establishing a
+species of organized discipline. It was an institution of Inca origin,
+as the Quichua word <i>mita</i> indicates. The Spaniards only modified
+it, giving it a more restricted meaning, as under the rule of the
+Incas there were no property rights for the individual, while the
+Spanish code gave such rights and exempted from the <i>mita</i> all
+Indians who were landowners. Indeed, much of the legislation adopted
+by the learned Council of the Indies was an adaptation rather than
+a change of Inca statutes. But in their reckless application of the
+<i>mita</i> the Spaniards made it a terrible hardship for the Indians,
+and the cruelties practised upon them caused a rapid diminution in
+their number, though it is extremely doubtful whether the mortality
+reached the enormous figures named by some writers. The Bolivian
+historian José Maria Camacho estimates the loss of life “from overwork
+and intemperance” under the <i>mita</i> system as “nearly eight
+millions.” After the establishment of the <i>mita</i>, the viceroy
+Toledo abolished the system of <i>encomiendas</i>, and the Indians
+were required to live in districts, or communities, in which each of
+them received a lot, or <i>sayaña</i>, to cultivate; he was obliged to
+pay tribute, at first in specie, and afterward in money. Later, this
+tribute was made a per capita tax. By right of conquest, the Spanish
+crown had declared its ownership of all the lands and peoples of the
+conquered territory, but by purchase the colonists and the natives
+could secure deeds to lands cultivated by them outside of the limits of
+concessions. The Indians were not excluded from this privilege, though
+the opportunities of availing themselves of it were rare.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span></p>
+
+<p>The task of exploring and civilizing the vast regions to the north
+and east of the Andes range—the valleys of the Amazon and its
+tributaries—was a slow and perilous undertaking, owing to the nature
+of the climate and the difficulties of transportation. The roads
+built by the Incas continued to be the only highways long after the
+conquest; and in the territories of Mojos, Chiquitos, and the Chaco,
+many exploring expeditions were destroyed by the savages. Mojos was
+the favorite objective point of the explorations, on account of the
+many legends about its mysterious “El Dorado,” supposed to be a hill
+in the centre of a lake, where all the treasures of the earth were to
+be found. The owner of this wonderful place was called the Gran Señor
+de Mojos. Its inhabitants, the Chunchos, were the most savage of the
+aborigines, and have remained uncivilized to the present day. In the
+heart of the Chiquitos territory, the town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra
+was founded by Ñuflo de Chávez in 1560. Later, it was removed to its
+present site, in 1592.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_045">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_045.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>With the exception of the floating population that followed the
+exploiting of the mines, the colonists lived in cities, which were
+founded in rapid succession. In 1570 the viceroy gave orders for
+the foundation of a town in the fertile valley of Cochapampa, and
+four years later the present city of Cochabamba was built under
+the direction of Don Sebastian Barba de Padilla, with the name of
+Villa de Oropesa, in honor of the greatest viceroy of the colonial
+epoch. The same year Tarija was founded by Don Luis de Fuentes, with
+the name of San Bernardo de la Frontera. It was the purpose of the
+viceroy to provide a centre of civilization from which to carry on the
+work of subduing and evangelizing the savage tribes of the Chichas,
+Chiriguanos, Tobas, Guaycurús, and other hordes of the Chaco frontier.
+Oruro, named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> from the neighboring hills of Uru-Uru, was founded in
+1604, with the more distinguished title of San Felipe de Austria; but
+this high-sounding cognomen was ignored completely, except in official
+documents, the town remaining always Oruro, as it is to-day. It became
+famous for its silver mines, and has always been an important mining
+town.</p>
+
+<p>For two centuries after the conquest all interest in the Spanish
+colonies was centred in the mines. The Cerro de Potosí—as the mountain
+is called which poured out a constant stream of silver so abundant that
+the “king’s fifth” in one year amounted to more than three million
+ducats—became a synonym for opulence, and “rich as Potosí” meant, in
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, all that “rich as Crœsus”
+signified to the ancients. In the general rush to the mines every other
+resource of the country was neglected, although soon after the conquest
+sheep and cattle were imported and agriculture was developed on a small
+scale, to meet the needs of the colonists. The Indians had fared little
+better on the farms than in the mines, under the atrocious system of
+<i>encomiendas</i>; and even after this was abolished, the landed
+proprietors evaded the law and exacted tribute from them, on their
+estates, the government also “farming out” the Indians to landowners
+under the provision which required one-seventh of the male population
+to work for the state.</p>
+
+<p>As was the case in all the Spanish colonies immediately after the
+conquest, the tillage of the soil became more particularly the
+occupation of the religious brotherhoods who settled in the new
+countries and constituted themselves the protectors and teachers of
+the Indians. In all the communities, or <i>parcialidades</i>, into
+which the Indian population was divided, the Church of Rome was
+represented by missionaries of the various orders, in addition to
+the ecclesiastical authorities of the government; and the missions
+established by the Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans, and other orders
+were the only civilizing agencies that reached the savages of the
+remote interior.</p>
+
+<p>Historians of the South American countries have never yet done justice
+to the noble work accomplished by the early missionaries of the Roman
+Catholic Church in behalf of the Indians. It is easy to look back upon
+their labor from the standpoint of twentieth century development,
+and point out where it was at fault and how the results failed to
+realize the highest purpose, but no one can deny the proofs of earnest
+zeal and devotion for the cause of Christianity that led these noble
+“pathfinders” of the Faith to bury themselves in the wilds of an
+unknown land, among savages who put little value on human life, and
+under the dangerous conditions of a tropical climate as unhealthy as
+pest and fever could make it. There could be no material compensation
+for the hardships and cares endured, and only the exalted spirit of
+the true missionary of the Cross could have been proof against the
+discouragements and disappointments, the loneliness and self-effacement
+which such a life inevitably signified. Later, when improved conditions
+lightened somewhat the burden, and a life of greater comfort was
+possible, the missionary spirit seemed to lose its original zeal, and
+many evils crept into the various systems. But, on the whole, the Roman
+Catholic missionary may claim the greatest honor for his important
+share in the Christianizing of the South American Indian.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_047">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_047.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TYPICAL DOORWAY, COLONIAL PERIOD, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Jesuits were among the first to establish their missions in
+the new colony, and chose as the initial field of their labors the
+shores of Lake Titicaca. With the marvellous organizing ability that
+characterized the order they quickly extended the sphere of their
+activity. They made a systematic study of the language of the Indians
+and prepared dictionaries for use in their propaganda. As early as
+1580, while the art of printing was still in its infancy and the
+printing press a most expensive luxury, this enterprising order was
+provided with a thorough equipment of types and machinery, and issued
+its own printed books and documents. The Franciscan brotherhood began
+its labors chiefly among the Chunchos of the Beni, and the Chiriguanos
+of the Chaco, and the record of the missions of Apolobamba and Tarija
+show that the missionaries’ zeal did more than the Spanish arms to
+effect the conquest of these provinces. Literature relating to the
+history of these missions is limited, though Bishop Armentia, of
+La Paz, is the author of several interesting works on the missions
+of Apolobamba in the departments of La Paz and the Beni, to which
+are added the records of the Franciscan College of Tarija, by the
+missionaries of that college, giving further information regarding
+the labors of Franciscan and other orders in this field. From these
+sources are obtained glimpses of the life of the pioneers of truth in
+the wilds of the New World that show wonderful examples of faith and
+patience. Sometimes a whole mission, after having been established at
+the cost of many lives, would be swept by fever or plague and almost
+totally destroyed, just at the moment when it seemed most flourishing.
+At other times a sudden uprising of savages would change a quiet pueblo
+into a scene of carnage and death. It was indeed taking their lives in
+their hands in those days for the missionaries to undertake the spread
+of the Gospel. Yet the various orders, Jesuit, Franciscan, Dominican,
+and Capuchin, worked zealously and persistently, until there is to-day
+hardly an Indian <i>choza</i>, or wigwam, that has not its crucifix
+and the image of the <i>Santissima Virgen</i>. So thoroughly have the
+missionaries done this work that they have interfered greatly with the
+progress of ethnologists in their efforts to trace the beliefs and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>
+traditions of the Indians back to a period earlier than that of Spanish
+occupation. These scientists complain that there is hardly a trace of
+Indian lore that is not marked with the influence of the missionaries’
+teaching, from the Caribbean Sea to Cape Horn, and from the Atlantic
+to the Pacific Ocean. Nearly all the grammars and dictionaries in
+existence, giving instruction in the languages of South American
+Indians, have been written by the missionaries of those regions, or by
+learned prelates who have at some time been engaged in work among them.
+Probably no student of his day has done more in this respect than the
+scholarly bishop already mentioned, who has contributed articles and
+books on every subject relating to the mission field in South America.
+His grammars and dictionaries of the Quichua, Aymará, and other tongues
+are standard works.</p>
+
+<p>While missionaries were following the arms of Spain into the forests
+or converting the Indians of the <i>parcialidades</i> under the
+<i>mita</i> régime, the welfare of the Spanish colonists in the cities
+was not neglected. The magnificent churches, convents, and schools,
+many of which still remain as wonders of colonial architecture, testify
+to the religious spirit that prevailed everywhere. Toward the close
+of the sixteenth and in the beginning of the seventeenth century the
+records of the Church shine with brilliant lustre. Three saints were
+added to the calendar: the devout pilgrim Francisco Solano, who, when
+passing through Chuquisaca in 1585, erected the four crosses that
+still mark the roads leading out of the city; the venerable Archbishop
+Toribio of Lima, whose good deeds are recounted to this day with
+reverence in the City of the Kings; and Saint Rose of Lima, the only
+saint of American birth and origin. La Paz was made a cathedral city in
+1605, also Misque in the same year; and Chuquisaca became the seat of
+the archbishopric of La Plata in 1609.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_048">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_048.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CONVENT OF SANTA TERESA, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The great wealth displayed in the colonial churches, their massive
+construction, exquisitely carved doors, and richly furnished altars,
+impress all who visit them. It is not unusual to find in these old
+churches masterpieces of art, wood carving of the most elaborate and
+finished character, and whole altars, as well as their candlesticks,
+of solid silver. The Virgin of Guadalupe in Sucre, an image of solid
+gold, is covered with precious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> jewels worth a king’s ransom. The old
+doorway of the convent of San Francisco in La Paz, and of that of San
+Lorenzo in Potosí, are like patterns of lacework in delicacy of detail.
+The evidences of greatest wealth are seen in the old churches of Sucre
+and Potosí, as it was in these cities that colonial fortunes were most
+easily made. Sucre, as the capital of Charcas and the archiepiscopal
+see, was the social and political metropólis, while Potosí was the
+centre of commercial interest as the locality of the great silver mines.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_049" style="max-width: 424px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_049.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PORTAL OF HOUSE BUILT BY MARQUIS DE OTAVI IN POTOSÍ,
+SHOWING COAT OF ARMS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>All through the earlier years of the seventeenth century Potosí was the
+scene of sanguinary struggles between the Vicuñas and the Vascongados,
+who were engaged in fighting out a feud that had begun with the
+conquerors, when two opposing factions arrayed themselves against each
+other to compete for political power. The Vascongados, or Basques, had
+succeeded in securing nearly all the public offices; and the Vicuñas—a
+name given to the Basques’ opponents, the Castilians, Andalusians,
+and Creoles, who wore caps made of vicuña wool to distinguish their
+party—revolted against the unequal division of honors and declared war
+to the knife against their rivals. As the ranks of the Vicuñas were
+continually reinforced by Creole natives, this war gradually assumed
+the character of a struggle between Spaniards and native Americans,
+which continued for a hundred years and may be regarded as one of the
+influences tending toward the weakening of Spain’s prestige in this
+part of her colonial possessions. The resentment of the Vicuñas was
+inflamed by the evident disposition of the high Spanish authorities to
+protect the Vascongados in their increasing power. The leader of the
+Vicuñas, Alonzo Ibañez, was found guilty of a conspiracy to overthrow
+the royal authority, and was executed, together with his followers. His
+memory is held in reverence by the Bolivians as the first martyr to
+the cause of independence in America. An old-fashioned sun-dial in the
+<i>patio</i> of the Mint in Potosí marks the spot on which Ibañez was
+sacrificed for his patriotism. This occurred two hundred years before
+Bolivia gained her freedom as a nation, but it marked only the first of
+a series of efforts of equal boldness, and, alas! of equally disastrous
+results, that succeeded one another all through the period of colonial
+rule. Some of these rebellions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> were started by the <i>cholos</i>, of
+mixed Spanish and Indian blood, and others by the Indians, under the
+leadership of the descendants of the Incas. In every case the origin of
+the uprising was an attempt on the part of the authorities to oppress
+still further the lower classes. About the middle of the seventeenth
+century the <i>cholos</i> of La Paz revolted under Antonio Gallardo,
+killed the <i>corregidor</i> and other officials, and, with the
+watchword “America for the Americans!”—which he sounded a hundred and
+fifty years before Monroe caught the inspiration,—led a “liberating
+army” to the attack of Puno, on the western shore of Lake Titicaca. He
+was killed in the battle of Puno, and his followers were hanged.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century was as prolific of revolts as the seventeenth
+had been, and they were less easily quelled. Not all the power of the
+viceroy, supplemented by the Audiencia of Charcas, could repress the
+indignation of the people when they were goaded beyond endurance by
+injustices put upon them; and when an order came to Cochabamba that
+the <i>mestizos</i>, or <i>cholos</i>, were to be included with the
+Indians in the payment of tribute,—although it was afterward proved
+to be a false report,—the Cochabambans united in rebellion under the
+leadership of Alejo Calatayud and swore to “exterminate the Spaniards.”
+The municipality called a meeting, and proposed a settlement of the
+difficulty; and, as a result, it was agreed that the Creoles, the
+natives of the country, should be given preference in public offices
+and that no Spaniard should be permitted to act as <i>corregidor</i>.
+Calatayud was afterward treacherously taken prisoner at a banquet
+given in his honor, and put to a cruel death. These events coming to
+the ears of the viceroy, he immediately took steps to avoid future
+insurrections, wisely foreseeing the danger to Spanish power in such
+determined and persistent outbreaks.</p>
+
+<p>But the spirit of independence had illumined the minds and hearts of
+the oppressed, and it was not an easy matter for the authorities to
+extinguish it. A few years after the death of Calatayud a conspiracy
+was discovered in Oruro, headed by Juan Vela de Cordova, who had issued
+a <i>manifiesto</i>, or circular, to all the neighboring provinces,
+urging them to “throw off the Spanish yoke.” The conspirators were
+condemned to death; but their execution served only to increase
+sympathy with their cause, and the tide of insurrection swept into a
+deeper and wider channel. The names of Ibañez, Gallardo, Calatayud, and
+Vela de Cordova are revered in Bolivia as precursors of the American
+Independence. The last of them was executed more than a quarter of a
+century before the episode of the Boston Tea Party, which initiated the
+War of Independence in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The impossibility of centralizing at Lima all the administration
+of the South American colonies became so evident to the Spanish
+government before the middle of the eighteenth century that steps
+were taken to divide these possessions into groups; and in 1740 the
+viceroyalty of Bogotá was created, followed in 1776 by the creation
+of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. The Audiencia of Charcas was
+separated from Lima and attached to Buenos Aires; so that, from this
+time until the establishment of the republic, Bolivian history was
+identified with that of Argentina, which hitherto had had no great
+political significance and was practically unknown to commerce except
+through its small seaport, Buenos Aires.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> In 1782 the territory of
+the Audiencia of Charcas was divided into four provinces, Chuquisaca,
+La Paz, Potosí, and Santa Cruz. Chuquisaca covered the jurisdiction
+of the archbishopric of La Plata; La Paz included, in addition to the
+territory of the bishopric, the provinces of Lampa, Carabaya, and
+Azangaro, which were afterward annexed to the Audiencia of Cuzco and
+now belong to Peru; Potosí was formed by the present department of that
+name, together with those of Atacama—which now belongs to Chile—and
+Tarija; and Santa Cruz comprised the present departments of Cochabamba
+and the Beni, in addition to what is now its own. Mojos and Chiquitos
+remained under the direct jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Charcas.
+The four provinces were ruled by <i>intendentes</i> named by the king,
+and their sub-divided <i>partidos</i> were governed by sub-delegates,
+appointed by the viceroy on the nomination of the <i>intendentes</i>,
+for a term of five years. The municipalities, or <i>cabildos</i>,
+composed of aldermen and presided over by the governor, or <i>jefe
+politico</i>, exercised the same functions as the municipal councils of
+the present day.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_051" style="max-width: 642px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_051.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PANTHEON OF SAN BERNARDO, POTOSÍ, OLD COLONIAL CEMETERY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The viceroyalty of Buenos Aires had jurisdiction over the territory of
+the present republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. The
+first viceroy was Don Pedro de Zeballos y Cortez, followed two years
+later by the Viceroy Don Juan José de Vertiz, under whose rule occurred
+the last and most powerful revolts in the history of the colonial
+government. In 1780 the Catari brothers, three Indians of Alto Peru who
+had suffered injustice at the hands of the governor of their community,
+rose in revolt, and, securing a large following in Charcas, Oruro,
+Cochabamba, and La Paz, attacked the government. A fierce struggle took
+place between the forces sent out by the Audiencia and the desperate
+Indians. The Audiencia finally offered a premium of two thousand pesos
+for the head of each of the Cataris, and they were delivered up through
+the treachery of their own companions.</p>
+
+<p>But this was not the end. About this time an Indian outbreak occurred
+in Cuzco, under the leadership of Tupac-Amaru, a descendant of the
+Incas, who sent messages to the Cataris to join him. The messages
+fell into the hands of an Indian of Ayoayo, near La Paz, who took up
+the cause under the name of Tupac-Catari, and secured a following
+of eighty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> thousand men, with whom he marched on La Paz, besieging
+the city and holding it at his mercy during more than three months,
+until a force from the Audiencia came to its relief and the besiegers
+were obliged to retire. Meantime, a brother of Tupac-Amaru, with an
+army of fourteen thousand men, laid siege to Sorata, and destroyed
+it, with twenty thousand inhabitants, by breaking a dike that he had
+built to dam the streams descending from the summit of Mount Sorata,
+thus flooding the town. This was the last effort of the Inca’s
+unhappy people to secure their freedom; it cost the lives of about
+fifty thousand of their oppressors and more than that number among
+themselves. The same year a <i>cholo</i>, Sebastian Pagador, led a
+popular uprising in Oruro, but after a few promising successes he was
+met by defeat and suffered the extreme penalty with torture. The close
+of the eighteenth century witnessed events rapidly approaching the
+inevitable climax.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the entire history of colonial rule in Alto Peru runs
+the record of struggles for freedom. It was an unequal fight, often
+amounting to little more than a determined protest against the
+injustice of a powerful master. But resistance and revolt under
+oppression are unmistakable signs of latent force, and are far more
+hopeful than the dull submission that marks the truly enslaved.
+Whatever may have been the condition of the people under the stern
+system of Spanish government, an inherent dignity was manifested even
+among those of humblest origin in their persistent efforts to secure
+their inalienable rights. Every lover of human liberty must feel a glow
+of pride in the splendid courage that could face such fearful odds as
+arrogant Spain presented to her downtrodden subjects in Alto Peru; and
+the pen must be tipped with divine fire to do justice to the records of
+heroism that culminated in the sacrifice of the immortal “promartyrs of
+the Independence.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_052">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_052.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ENTRANCE TO CATHEDRAL, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_054">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_054.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE BATTALION CAMPERO ON PARADE IN SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III<br>
+<span class="subhed">HISTORY OF THE INDEPENDENCE</span></h2></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">In Alto Peru alone, of all the South American colonies, the battle
+cry of freedom was, from first to last, an unequivocal and fearless
+declaration of independence. It is significant of the character and
+sentiment of the whole people that such an audacious stand was possible
+from the beginning. In all the other South American countries, loyalty
+to King Ferdinand of Spain, who had been deposed by the Bonapartes,
+was the pretext for resisting the authority of the viceroys. Even when
+the leaders of the revolution themselves favored complete emancipation
+they were obliged to disguise their ultimate purpose, as the masses
+were still too apathetic or too fearful to look upon the power of
+Spain as other than inevitable and eternal. They could not be brought
+so suddenly to strike for absolute freedom. It was the despair of the
+Venezuelan patriot Miranda that his beloved countrymen would not catch
+the inspiration of his noble purpose, and in Buenos Aires, Chile,
+Quito, it was first the declaration of loyalty to the Spanish crown and
+not a demand for independence that brought about the overthrow of the
+viceroys and the establishment of the patriot Juntas de Gobierno.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_055">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_055.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">DON ANTONIO SUCRE, “GRAN MARISCAL DE AYACUCHO.”</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Alto Peru probably suffered more than any other colony of Spain from
+injustice and oppression. Although its mines had yielded fabulous
+wealth to the royal treasury, it was the least favored of the Spanish
+provinces, the most neglected, and its people were the most barbarously
+treated. The cruel system of the <i>mita</i> had so depopulated the
+Indian race that the few who remained were obliged to do more than
+human strength could endure in order to make up for the scarcity of
+laborers. In common with the rest of the colonies, it was prohibited to
+Alto Peru to cultivate anything that was grown in the mother country;
+commerce with foreign countries was forbidden; only Spaniards or
+their children could hold public office; merchandise was sold to the
+Indians by the <i>corregidores</i>, to whom they were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> always in debt;
+instruction was little more than a name, as no books were allowed in
+the country except books of devotion. A Bolivian writer on the history
+of his country says: “The natives of the country were excluded from
+all posts of honor and profit except when they were able to purchase
+them at the cost of large sums of money; so that out of one hundred and
+seventy viceroys, only four were born in the country; of six hundred
+and two captains-general, or presidents, fourteen were American; of
+five hundred and fifty bishops, five hundred were Europeans; political
+liberty was excluded from our soil.” In fact, the last thought,
+apparently, which the Spanish authorities gave to this province was
+that which concerned its well being, at least, until later years of
+colonial rule, when the warning given to Spain by the example of the
+British colonies in North America suggested the necessity for reforms,
+and a new commercial regulation was put in force, thirty-three ports
+were opened to foreign trade, and greater privileges were granted the
+natives of the country than formerly. But the reform came too late.
+Even the concession granted by the Council of Regency in 1810 to permit
+the colonies to send representatives to the Cortes could no longer stay
+the current of public opinion.</p>
+
+<p>Everyone is familiar with the story of Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and
+the capture and imprisonment of King Ferdinand in 1808, when Napoleon’s
+brother, Joseph Bonaparte, was placed on the Spanish throne, and a
+Council of Regency at Cadiz governed the affairs of the colonies. The
+effort of King Ferdinand’s sister, the Princess Carlota de Braganza,
+to usurp his dominions in America is only of interest in the history
+of the revolution of Alto Peru because it furnished a pretext for the
+decisive steps finally taken by the patriots to carry out a plan of
+campaign which they had been preparing in secret for a long time. An
+ambitious agent of the princess, Don José Manuel Goyeneche, who had
+been sent on a mission to interview the South American authorities in
+her favor, visited Chuquisaca in 1809, and succeeded in winning the
+president of the Audiencia and the bishop of the diocese as allies
+of the princess. The right of the <i>oidores</i> to a voice in this
+matter was ignored, and those who declared their opposition were
+promptly ordered to prison. Though the order was fulfilled in the case
+of only one of them, and the president was dismissed from office and
+imprisoned for his share in the affair, the patriots saw in this event
+an opportunity to spread the gospel of freedom more openly, and a few
+devoted apostles set out to make a propaganda of liberty throughout the
+country. Among them were the intrepid leaders of the revolution which
+was installed the following year in Buenos Aires, Cornelio Saavedra,
+who became president of the junta there, Bernardo Monteagudo, and
+Manuel Moreno.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution inaugurated on the plateau of Alto Peru on the memorable
+16th of July, 1809,—the echoes of which will not cease to vibrate
+in the heart of the Bolivian nation as long as a patriot lives to
+love his native land,—was not the result of a sudden impulse, but
+the natural outcome of deliberate and persistent determination. For
+years the leaven had been working, until there was not a pueblo whose
+inhabitants were ignorant of the approaching crisis or unwilling to
+fight for the cause. In their various uprisings throughout<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span> the whole
+period of colonial rule, the people had been unconsciously preparing
+to initiate one of the greatest patriotic movements in the history of
+modern times. With the first years of the nineteenth century, definite
+indications of the tendency of affairs began to appear; and from
+memoirs written during that period it has been proved that as early
+as 1798 the inhabitants of La Paz “meditated the independence of the
+whole continent, and communicated this project to various cities of the
+kingdom, in every one of which it found patriots ready to undertake the
+enterprise.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_057" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_057.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CROWDS THRONGING COUNTRY ROADS ON THEIR WAY TO JOIN A
+PATRIOTIC CELEBRATION IN LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>La Paz was singularly fitted to be the theatre of the opening scene in
+this drama of liberty. Remote from the chief seat of Spanish authority,
+out of close range of the Audiencia’s power, the spirit of independence
+had been fostered by the tolerance, if not actual complicity, of its
+governor, in whose house members of the revolutionary clubs from
+various parts of the country were frequently entertained. These clubs
+were the organizing headquarters of the patriots in Chuquisaca, La Paz,
+Potosí, Cochabamba, and other cities, and it was their combined effort
+which installed the revolution in La Paz, by the issuing, in the name
+of the Junta Tuitiva, of a proclamation which clearly shows the object
+and scope of the patriots’ programme.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the revolution of La Paz displays constant evidence of
+the energy, ability, and patriotic ardor of its chief, the president
+of the Junta Tuitiva, Don Pedro Domingo Murillo, the first of the
+“promartyrs of the Independence.” The events of this revolution,
+which was so important in the annals of the Bolivian nation, as the
+spark that ignited the continent in a flame of patriotic war, have
+been recorded by one of Bolivia’s foremost writers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> Don José Rosendo
+Gutierrez, from whose gifted pen the story appears, with all the charm
+that a graceful literary style lends to the relation of glorious
+episodes.</p>
+
+<p>The important crisis, so long awaited, came at seven o’clock in
+the evening of July 16, 1809. The conspirators, at whose head were
+Murillo, Indaburu, and Graneros, took possession of the quartel and
+imprisoned the governor. Assembled in open Cabildo, Drs. Gregorio
+Garcia Lanza, Juan Bautista Sagárnaga, and Basilio Catacora were named
+representatives of the people and admitted and recognized as such. The
+first act was the Declaration of Independence, which ran: “In the noble
+and valorous city of Our Lady of La Paz, at eight o’clock at night,
+on the 16th of July, 1809, assembled in the Salon of the Cabildo, the
+undersigned, in the name of the people, declare and swear to defend
+with their blood and fortune the independence of the country.” The
+signers constituted themselves a Junta Tuitiva, of which Pedro Domingo
+Murillo was elected president. It was organized as a separate body from
+the Cabildo, in this way avoiding the confusion from which the Buenos
+Aires junta suffered later through its ill-defined relation to that
+corporation.</p>
+
+<p>The Junta Tuitiva of La Paz made the first effort in South America
+toward democratic government in accordance with republican ideas. Its
+laws were inspired by motives of democracy and brotherhood; and one of
+its first acts was to give to the race which had been disinherited by
+the conqueror a voice in the new government, by appointing an Indian to
+the junta from each district. Perpetual alliance was sworn to between
+the European Spaniards and the Americans. Its proclamation is a proof
+of the courage and sincerity of its authors:</p>
+
+<p>“Until now we have tolerated a kind of exile in the very bosom of
+our own country; we have seen with indifference for more than three
+centuries our primitive liberty submitted to the despotism and tyranny
+of an unjust usurper, who, degrading us below human kind, has reputed
+us to be savages and looked upon us as slaves; we have kept a silence
+very like the stupidity which was attributed to us, suffering with
+tranquillity that the merit of the Americans should be always a sure
+presage of their humiliation and their ruin. It is high time, then,
+to shake off a yoke so fatal to our happiness. It is high time to
+organize a new system of government, founded on the interest of this
+our country, which has been so depressed by the spurious politics of
+Madrid. It is high time, in short, to raise the standard of liberty
+in these unfortunate colonies, acquired without the least title and
+conserved with the greatest injustice and tyranny.”</p>
+
+<p>Commenting on the proclamation of the junta, Señor Gutierrez says:
+“This was not all of the programme of July. If there had been nothing
+more than the document mentioned, the aspiration toward independence
+would have been reduced to a mere insurrection. But the programme
+of emancipation came united with the social reorganization of the
+continent. It insinuated the ideas of democracy and the civil
+constitution. The programme of July was not only the <i>despedida</i>
+of the day previous: the placing of the cornerstone in the edifice of
+the day following.”</p>
+
+<p>The sad history of the unequal fight between the few heroic patriots
+and the trained army sent to meet them by the Viceroy of Peru; the
+unfortunate quarrels between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> revolutionary leaders at a moment
+when united strength was indispensable; the antagonism of the Bishop
+of La Paz, whose anathemas frightened the superstitious Indians and
+half-breeds out of the patriots’ ranks; all the events that conspired
+to bring about the disastrous defeat, capture, and final execution of
+Murillo and his followers, only serve to show what a bitter struggle
+was to be expected before final victory could be hoped for. But the
+promartyrs “blazed the trail” and opened a pathway toward liberty which
+would later direct the eager footsteps of millions. When the patriot
+Murillo, humble of origin, but of great intelligence and a noble heart,
+said his farewell from the scaffold on January 29, 1810, exclaiming,
+in the words of another martyr: “The torch which I have lighted shall
+never be extinguished,” he made a prophecy which time has amply
+justified and verified.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_059" style="max-width: 240px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_059.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL PEDRO DOMINGO MURILLO, THE FATHER OF BOLIVIAN
+INDEPENDENCE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span></p>
+
+<p>Four months after the death of Murillo, the patriots, Saavedra,
+Monteagudo, Moreno, and others, who had gone from Chuquisaca,
+Cochabamba, and Potosí to stir up the revolution in Buenos Aires and
+secure aid for their countrymen, had an army already equipped and on
+the march to Alto Peru. With General Cornelio Saavedra as president,
+the Buenos Aires junta had been organized, the viceroy deposed, and
+a strong revolutionary party, in which General Belgrano and other
+Argentine leaders were prominent, had pledged itself to lend assistance
+to continue the fight so heroically begun on the heights of La Paz.
+Undaunted by the brutal message sent to his Bolivian general by the
+Viceroy of Peru, “that the Americans had been born to be slaves and
+to vegetate in obscurity and depression,” the auxiliary army from
+Buenos Aires, under the command of Balcarce, Diaz Velez, and Castelli,
+advanced six thousand strong to meet the viceroy’s troops under Nieto,
+Córdova, and Basagoitia on the field of Suipacha. After an hour of
+hard fighting the patriots won the day, and the royalist leaders
+were shot, to avenge the cruelty shown the year before to the La Paz
+patriots, when eighty-six of their number were put to death or exiled
+to celebrate the victory over Murillo. Meantime, a revolution in
+Cochabamba had resulted in a triumph for the patriots; and the leaders,
+Manuel Esteban Arze and Melchor Guzman Quiton marched on Oruro with a
+force of one thousand five hundred men, meeting the royalists at Aroma
+and completely defeating them. This was the first patriot victory on
+the Bolivian Plateau, and it was after this battle that the Buenos
+Aires <i>Gazette</i> wrote: “Alto Peru will be free because Cochabamba
+wills it so.” The royalist forces sent by the Viceroy of Peru to combat
+the revolutionists in Alto Peru and Argentina were under the command
+of the same Goyeneche who had treacherously sought to overthrow the
+existing authority in favor of the Princess of Braganza. It was by his
+orders that the wholesale slaughter of the vanquished had taken place
+in La Paz in 1809, and it was his ignoble part to bring defeat and
+disaster to the auxiliary army by violating an armistice of forty days
+and suddenly invading the camp at Guaqui on June 20, 1811. The patriots
+were forced to retreat, the Cochabamba cavalry, under Francisco
+del Rivero, coming to the rescue too late to save the situation.
+The auxiliary army was broken up, Castelli and Balcarce retired to
+Chuquisaca, and Diaz Velez joined Rivero later in Cochabamba. Goyeneche
+pursued his advantage as far as Cochabamba, where, by great superiority
+in number and military training, his troops were able to defeat the
+inexperienced and poorly armed inhabitants. His victory was celebrated
+with crime and rapine for the space of three days, after which a
+military tribunal was held to punish the revolutionists, many of whom
+were condemned to death. Meantime, a second auxiliary army from Buenos
+Aires, under the command of General Belgrano, met the royalists at
+Tucuman, September 24, 1812, and again at Salta, February 20, 1813,
+completely defeating them in both engagements, and obliging their
+leader, Pio Tristan, to swear “never again to take up arms against
+the patriots.” Goyeneche having satiated his taste for cruelty in
+Cochabamba set out for Potosí, but on learning of the approach of
+Belgrano’s army, he turned his four thousand troops hastily toward
+Oruro, and asked his retirement. The viceroy sent General Joaquin
+Pezuela to take Goyeneche’s place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span></p>
+
+<p>The auxiliary army, stimulated by victory, advanced toward Oruro to
+engage Pezuela’s forces and secure a stronghold for the patriots on
+the plateau, but, taken at a disadvantage, it was defeated after
+stubborn fighting at Vilcapugio and Ayuma. Pursued by Pezuela, Belgrano
+was forced to retreat beyond the Argentine border and once more the
+royalists held complete sway in Alto Peru. The “reign of terror” which
+followed was so ruthless that thousands of patriots fled to Argentina
+to escape the royalist vengeance. Yet the spirit of revolution was not
+subdued, and in the midst of defeat, persecution, and death, an ardent
+patriot of the south, Don Juan Antonio Alvarez de Arenales, assembling
+the remnant of the defeated army of Ayuma, marched on to Cochabamba
+and Santa Cruz, and retiring to Vallegrande, succeeded in organizing
+an army of four thousand strong. Pezuela sent Don Joaquin Blanco to
+meet Arenales and an engagement took place on the field of La Florida,
+resulting in an overwhelming victory for the patriots, May 12, 1814.
+Blanco died on the battlefield. But, although the news of the victory
+at La Florida was encouraging, it was not sufficient to make up for the
+disastrous defeats of Belgrano’s army.</p>
+
+<p>To a people less tenacious of purpose, the apparent hopelessness of the
+situation, after the battle of Ayuma, would have brought despondency;
+but the valiant heroes who held freedom worth undying effort, were not
+to be turned aside from their purpose by defeat. When they could no
+longer march with an army into the field, they formed themselves into
+patriot bands all over the country and carried on a system of guerrilla
+warfare that harassed the enemy on all sides. Indomitable warriors,
+they set up the standard of their “Republiquetas,” as Bartolomé Mitre
+calls them, in the cañons of Ayopaya and Omasuyos to the north; in
+Chayanta, which dominated the routes between Oruro, Cochabamba, and
+Chuquisaca; in Mizque, surrounding Cochabamba and communicating with
+Santa Cruz and Vallegrande; in Cinti and Porco, extending to Tarija and
+the Chaco. In each of these guerrilla centres there were innumerable
+small bands led by various chiefs, all more or less under the guidance
+of a few principals, whose names are honored by posterity for the
+splendid records of bravery they perpetuate. In the north were Don José
+Miguel Lanza and the indomitable Muñecas; in the central districts,
+Arenales and Arze; in the east, Warnes and Mercado; and in the south
+the valorous Padilla, the brave Camargo, Zarate, and Betanzos. After
+reading the story of their skilful art of war, their unwavering
+courage and unflinching patriotism, one cannot help deploring the
+circumstances which prevented their combining in the open field to
+overthrow the enemy whom they so continually harassed and outwitted.
+Even their defeats shed glory on the national spirit, undaunted in
+the face of death, unconquered on the scaffold. Mitre extols the
+<i>guerrilleros</i> in unmeasured terms, and the Chilean historian,
+Sotomayor Valdez, says: “Out of the one hundred and two leaders, more
+or less obscure, only nine survived the fifteen years’ struggle which
+followed the defeat at Viloma of the third auxiliary army, commanded
+by General Rondeau, on November 29, 1815. The remaining ninety-three
+perished in the battlefield or on the gallows, and there was not a
+single capitulation.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span></p>
+
+<p>One of the most renowned of the guerrilla chiefs was Don Manuel
+Ascension Padilla, whose military genius and devoted patriotism were
+unsurpassed. He was highly esteemed by General Belgrano for his
+services to the auxiliary army, and by Don Esteban Arze, who conferred
+on him the title of <i>commandante</i>. Dr. Valentin Abecia, in an
+interesting biography of this guerrilla chief, compares him to Morelos
+of Mexico, and regards him as one of the greatest figures among the
+heroes of the Independence, “a hero with the soul of a child and the
+heart of a lion.” And no one thinks of the warrior without at once
+calling to mind the noble woman who fought by his side, Doña Juana de
+Padilla, his devoted and beautiful wife. “The Padillas” are enshrined
+among the dearest memories of the long fight for freedom in Alto Peru;
+and if “Don Manuel” was admired for his military skill, “Doña Juana”
+was beloved for her tenderness to the sick and wounded. The Indians
+adored her “like the image of the Virgin.” In the field, as well as in
+the camp, she was her husband’s ally and helper, and after his death
+she continued to fight in the sacred cause until independence was won.
+According to the <i>Revista Nacional</i>, of Buenos Aires, she took
+part in seventeen combats, commanded a battalion at Viloma, and was
+wounded at Villar, where her husband was killed; she was given the
+title of acting lieutenant-colonel by the Argentine government.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_062">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_062.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">REVIEWING TROOPS IN THE AVENUE ARCE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Padilla was among the first of the patriots to insist upon a separate
+constitution for his country, feeling that the revolutionists of Buenos
+Aires were disposed to show scant consideration for the interests of
+Alto Peru in their treatment of this part of the junta’s territory. He
+expressed this sentiment in a letter to General Rondeau in 1815, to the
+great disgust of that officer. After repeated and futile efforts on
+the part of the royalists to capture Padilla, while he eluded them on
+every side, besieged Chuquisaca for a whole month, and brought despair
+to the viceroy’s troops, a battle took place at Villar on September 14,
+1816. Both sides fought with fury, a thousand victims falling without
+any sign of yielding on either side, when suddenly Padilla fell dead,
+pierced by a sabre; and his faithful followers lost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> heart for the
+fray, suffering their first and only defeat. They were taken prisoners
+and barbarously put to death.</p>
+
+<p>The guerrilla chief Lanza, one of the most audacious and cunning of
+them all, led the royalists a “wild goose chase” among the mountains of
+Ayopaya, without giving them a single advantage. Camargo was no less
+successful in guerrilla tactics, until through treachery he was killed,
+with eight hundred of his followers, and his head sent on a pike to
+Pezuela in token of a famous capture. Warnes, the daring “border chief”
+of Santa Cruz, fell in a battle with the enemy, after his men had
+killed two thousand eight hundred royalists out of an army of three
+thousand. The victorious general ordered the execution of nine hundred
+patriots, of all ages and both sexes, to soothe his vengeance. Muñecas,
+the curate whose patriotism was no less active than his piety, was
+captured after brave resistance, and assassinated while on his way to
+trial. History teems with examples of the tenacity and boldness with
+which the <i>guerrilleros</i> fought to the end.</p>
+
+<p>On July 9, 1816, the Congress of Tucuman declared the independence of
+the Argentine provinces. Several notable patriots of Alto Peru were in
+the assembly, among others Pedro Carrasco, president of the congress,
+and Pedro Ignacio Rivero, Cochabambans; and José Mariano Serrano,
+secretary of the congress, who edited the Act of Independence of
+Argentina, and Mariano Sanchez Loria, Chuquisacans. The important rôle
+played by the patriots of Alto Peru in the organization and development
+of the revolutionary party of Buenos Aires, and the framing of the
+Argentine constitution, was due, in great part, to the educational
+advantages which Alto Peru offered at that time in the celebrated
+universities of Chuquisaca and Carolina, which were among the first in
+Spanish America.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first acts of the Argentine government after the assembly
+of the Congress of Tucuman was to send a fourth auxiliary army into
+Alto Peru. General Pezuela had been appointed Viceroy of Peru, and had
+sent General Ramirez to take his place in the command of the royalist
+army. After six months, Ramirez was replaced by General La Serna, who
+came from Spain with officers and soldiers of very different calibre
+from those who had sacked and plundered the country under Goyeneche and
+Pezuela. But General La Serna remained only long enough to realize the
+horrible condition in which his predecessors had left the people, and
+then resigned his command in favor of General Ramirez, who returned to
+the field in time to meet the fourth Argentine army of patriots, under
+La Madrid. The royalists, led by one of Ramirez’s officers, Captain
+Andrés Santa Cruz, who became president of the republic of Bolivia
+later, fought the auxiliary army in two engagements, resulting in a
+final victory for the royalists, June 24, 1817. Thus, the fourth effort
+of the Argentine revolutionists to help the cause in Alto Peru proved
+as disastrous a failure as the three preceding, and the fight was again
+left to the <i>guerrilleros</i>, to whom was chiefly due whatever
+the patriot cause gained during the long fifteen years’ struggle. So
+exasperating were their tactics, and so effective their methods, that
+one of the royalist generals was forced to exclaim, with more fervor
+than hope: <i>Esta guerra es eterna!</i>—“This war is eternal!”
+Olañeta, sent by the viceroy to conquer Lanza, wrote to his chief:
+“Lanza sustained the fight with infernal obstinacy!”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p>
+
+<p>The four years of guerrilla warfare that followed the defeat of the
+last auxiliary army from Buenos Aires made a continuous record of
+alternating successes and defeats. Olañeta, named general of division
+of the royalists, fought a wearisome series of engagements with the
+various guerrilla leaders, gaining little or nothing in spite of
+the superior number and experience of his troops. General Valdez,
+who had charge of the garrisons of Oruro and La Paz, was thoroughly
+disheartened. The outlook seemed to justify the exclamation: “This war
+is eternal.”</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1821, the news came from Lima which gave promise of the rapid
+approach of a crisis in the affairs of Alto Peru. The great liberating
+army of Chile and Argentina, under the command of General San Martin,
+had disembarked in Pisco; his squadron had captured the best Spanish
+ships in the harbor of Callao; the patriots were now in possession of
+Lima, the viceroy having fled from the capital, and the independence of
+Peru was assured in a proclamation bearing the date of July 28, 1821.
+Meantime, La Serna had been appointed viceroy to replace Pezuela.</p>
+
+<p>The general rejoicing with which the devoted patriots of Alto Peru
+received the glad tidings of the arrival of San Martin’s conquering
+hosts may well be imagined. In all the chief cities there were meetings
+of the revolutionists, and new courage animated the hearts of the whole
+people. Early in August of 1823, an army of six thousand men, commanded
+by General Andrés Santa Cruz, who had joined the patriot cause, was
+sent by the junta of Lima to establish the independence of Alto Peru.
+General Santa Cruz was accompanied by Augustin Gamarra, who commanded
+one-half of the division.</p>
+
+<p>With the arrival of the liberating troops, the famous
+<i>guerrilleros</i> joined the ranks and fought with new zeal in the
+cause to which they had given all their energy for fifteen long years.
+One cannot help smiling with satisfaction upon reading that Olañeta,
+who had received special instructions from the viceroy a few years
+before “to conquer the guerrilla chief Lanza at all hazards,” fled
+precipitately in January, 1825, at the notice of the approaching troops
+of the independent army “commanded by General José Miguel Lanza!”</p>
+
+<p>On the fifteenth anniversary of the martyrdom which the first patriots
+of the Independence suffered in the plaza of La Paz, at the same
+hour which had witnessed their execution, the last of the Spanish
+authorities evacuated the city, January 29, 1825. The same day, the
+Independent Army of Alto Peru, commanded by General José Miguel Lanza,
+brother of the martyred patriot, made its solemn entry into the city;
+and on the following day General Lanza read the proclamation of Alto
+Peru’s independence, and, in the name and with the authority of General
+Bolivar and General Sucre, he assumed command of the province of La
+Paz, with the title of “president,” which was equivalent to that of
+“prefect.” What more fitting than that the noble veteran of the cause,
+who had sustained it through good fortune and evil, in the army ranks
+and on the guerrilla hunts, the famous warrior who had won and lost
+with equal equanimity and had never grown disheartened, should be the
+chosen patriot to issue the proclamation of national independence!</p>
+
+<p>The war of independence was ended. The record of final victory had
+been sealed on the battlefield of Ayacucho, on December 9, 1824, when
+General Antonio José de Sucre,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> who commanded the liberating army in
+the absence of his chief, General Simon Bolivar, swept away the last
+shred of hope harbored by the royalists, and realized forever the
+liberty of America from European domination. The meeting in Lima of
+the two great liberators of South America, San Martin of the Chile
+and Argentine army and Bolivar of the Colombian, had resulted in the
+withdrawal of San Martin from the field, leaving Bolivar in possession,
+as dictator, a title bestowed upon him by the Congress of Lima. The
+first victory of Bolivar’s troops over those of the Viceroy La Serna
+was on the field of Junin, near Cerro de Pasco, where the royalist
+general Canterac was completely defeated and put to flight. Bolivar
+then returned to Lima, leaving General Sucre in command of the army,
+which met the viceroy in the decisive battle of Ayacucho. The Spanish
+troops were overthrown and the viceroy was taken prisoner. General
+Sucre, with the magnanimity that characterized him, conceded an
+honorable capitulation to the vanquished, authorizing facilities for
+their embarking to return to Spain.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_065">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_065.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MONUMENT TO GENERAL SUCRE IN THE ALAMEDA, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The capitulation of Ayacucho is thus described by the Bolivian
+historian, Luis M. Guzman: “The victory of Ayacucho had broken the
+Spanish yoke. Great were the losses of that memorable day. The viceroy
+La Serna had fallen wounded and a prisoner at the beginning of the
+combat. The lieutenant-general Canterac, as the remaining chief of
+the royalist army, hastened to formulate on the very field of battle
+the eighteen articles in which is comprehended the capitulation of
+Ayacucho. In them the Spanish general proposes to save the honor of
+his arms; to secure the persons and properties of Spanish subjects;
+to guarantee the civil and military posts of those who may wish
+to serve in the independent army; to facilitate the departure of
+troops returning voluntarily to Spain, and to provide for their
+transportation; to give full amnesty for their political opinions. The
+vanquished royalists were permitted to dictate the conditions of peace,
+which were admitted with few modifications by the victorious patriots.
+Thus General Sucre triumphed twice over his enemies. His valor
+overthrew them on the field of battle; his heroic generosity disarmed
+them with gratitude. A more exigent conqueror would have turned against
+himself the arm of despair, which might still have proved fatal for the
+independent army, because of the numerous royalist troops and garrisons
+that yet remained at various points of upper and lower Peru.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p>
+
+<p>General Sucre signed two copies of the capitulation, one of which
+is preserved in the archives of Madrid. The other, from which the
+photograph was made to illustrate this chapter, is a valued possession
+of Señora Hortensia Gutierrez de Pinilla, the wife of Bolivia’s foreign
+minister, and daughter of one of its foremost scholars. It is treasured
+with patriotic pride, and occupies the place of honor in the library of
+her beautiful home in La Paz, where it hangs beside a portrait of the
+“Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho.”</p>
+
+<p>The victorious army of the Independence, with General Sucre at its
+head, marched from the battlefield of Ayacucho to Cuzco and thence, by
+way of Lake Titicaca and the Desaguadero River, to La Paz. When the
+news of its approach to La Paz was heralded abroad, the city went wild
+with joy. For miles around the scene was one of animated expectancy.
+A committee of distinguished citizens, headed by General Lanza and
+Casimiro Olañeta,—the latter a nephew of the royalist leader,—met
+the conquering hero a few leagues out of the city and welcomed him
+on behalf of the nation. On February 7, 1825, he made his triumphal
+entrance, amid the jubilant acclamations of the people, under arches
+of victory garlanded with roses, and through streets gaily decorated
+with flags and banners bearing mottoes of eulogy. At the plaza the
+hero paused, to pay a tribute to the memory of Murillo and the other
+martyred patriots of 1809; and as tears came to his eyes in the
+contemplation of the scene, now gay with the joyous manifestations
+of a free people, once sad in the shadow of the gallows on which the
+nation’s brave sons were sacrificed, the impressive moment created a
+sudden stillness, broken again immediately by a burst of cheers and
+shouts from the enthusiastic multitude. Feasting, music, and dancing
+reigned throughout the city; and the visitors were entertained with
+balls, soirées, and banquets for a month. Two days after his arrival,
+General Sucre issued a decree convoking a national assembly in Oruro
+to determine the future government of the country. In March he set out
+to visit the interior, leaving a division of his army in La Paz under
+command of General José Maria Córdova. In every city his arrival was
+the signal for general rejoicing.</p>
+
+<p>The first national assembly met in Chuquisaca in June, 1825. To General
+Sucre belongs the honor of having been the prime organizer of the
+republic, and the best beloved of its leaders. In the hall where the
+first national assembly met hangs the portrait of the grand-marshal
+of Ayacucho, and the words of his testament: “Still another reward I
+ask of the entire nation and of its administrators: not to destroy the
+work of my creation; to preserve, amid all dangers, the independence
+of Bolivia.” And the last words of their liberator have been made the
+watchword of the nation.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_067">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_067.jpg"
+     alt="">
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_068">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_068.jpg"
+     alt="">
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_069" style="max-width: 357px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_069.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FACSIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL TREATY OF AYACUCHO, WHICH
+SEALED THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE FROM SPAIN.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>During the deliberations of the first congress two despatches were
+received of portentous significance. One came from the International
+Congress of La Plata, leaving to the provinces of Alto Peru perfect
+freedom to constitute themselves an independent republic, although
+they had been a part of the viceroyalty of La Plata under the colonial
+régime. The other was a high-handed message from General Bolivar,
+declaring Alto Peru subject to the authority of the Congress of Lima,
+and ordering the Congress of Chuquisaca to suspend its sessions.
+Indignation blazed up fiercely at the unwarrantable attitude of the
+great liberator<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> in thus summarily disposing of the destiny of a
+free and independent people who had given the best blood of the country
+to secure its sovereign freedom. The fiery and eloquent Olañeta, the
+<i>guerrillero</i> Lanza, and others, protested in vigorous terms
+against any such despotism, and, overriding Bolivar’s proclamation, a
+unanimous vote declared that Alto Peru, “which, on the South American
+continent, had been the altar on which was spilled the first blood of
+the free and the tomb in which lay buried the last of the tyrants,”
+constituted a sovereign state, “independent of all nations, both of
+the Old and the New World, to be governed by its own people and ruled
+by the constitution, laws, and authorities which they should believe
+most conducive to the future happiness of the nation.” The president
+of the assembly, Don José Mariano Serrano,—the illustrious patriot
+who, as secretary of the Congress of Tucuman nine years before, had,
+as we have seen, edited the first constitution of the Argentine
+republic,—wrote the Act of Independence of Bolivia, which bears the
+date of August 6, 1825. The new state took the name Bolivar, afterward
+changed to Bolivia, in honor of the great liberator, and for its
+government adopted the republican unitarian system. Chuquisaca was
+made the provisional capital, under the name of Sucre, to commemorate
+the part taken in the national organization of the new republic by the
+great Bolivar’s most distinguished general. Also, with that discretion
+which is the better part of valor, in order to avoid a conflict with
+Bolivar, a deputation was sent by the congress to convey to that
+general assurances of gratitude and esteem in recognition of his great
+service to the cause of independence, and to offer his excellency the
+presidency of the new republic which had been named in his honor. It
+was a diplomatic stroke that won the heart of the liberator—a man not
+without vanity.</p>
+
+<p>General Sucre returned to La Paz to meet General Bolivar, who arrived
+on the 18th of August, 1825, amid such demonstrations of enthusiasm
+as had never before been witnessed in that city. It was the first
+meeting between Bolivar and Sucre since they had parted after the
+battle of Junin, and the scene was an affecting one, as was also
+Bolivar’s inspired eulogy of the noble troops who had won the day at
+Ayacucho. The victorious regiment, dressed in full parade uniform in
+honor of the arrival of the commander-in-chief, was the first to greet
+General Bolivar upon his arrival at the <i>Altos</i>, the heights
+above the city. Under the gallant escort of his beloved troops the
+liberator descended, surrounded by an admiring multitude, who pressed
+so eagerly on the advancing hero that the procession could only make
+slow progress, enthusiastic <i>vivas</i> continually ringing out from
+the midst of the jubilant crowds. At the entrance to the city, where a
+grand triumphal gateway had been erected, a golden key was presented
+to the liberator by two citizens, who thanked him in the name of the
+people for the eminent services he had rendered the cause of liberty.
+Opening the gates with impressive ceremony he passed into the city,
+and was received by the municipal authorities with the honor due to
+such a distinguished guest. In the principal plaza, now the Plaza
+Murillo, General Bolivar addressed his army with the affection and
+pride that a great leader feels when he stands in the presence of
+faithful followers who have successfully carried out his plans, upon
+which depended not only the welfare of the nation, but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> glory of
+his own name in the records of posterity. Napoleon felt the sentiment
+when he eulogized his magnificent army. Bolivar felt it when he stood
+in the midst of the serried troops that filled the plaza Murillo, and,
+in a voice that thrilled by its magnetic quality and fascinated by its
+eloquence, expressed in a few words his appreciation and admiration
+of their loyal services to the cause of patriotism. From his heart he
+spoke: “Soldiers! At last the moment that I have longed for has come,
+to salute and embrace you with the affection which I feel and which
+you deserve, after your glorious and marvellous deeds on the field
+of Ayacucho, whose victory, bestowing upon you imperishable fame and
+renown, has crowned your generous efforts in favor of the liberty of
+America. The strength, valor, constancy, and loyalty with which you
+have fulfilled your vow to save America from its tyrants and oppressors
+are sufficient merits upon which to enter the temple of immortality and
+glory, and to rest there from the fatigues of the illustrious campaign
+which you have just ended, defeating and annihilating the hosts of
+tyrants who for three centuries dared to stain the soil of America
+with their accursed footprints! Soldiers! Finished the memorable task
+that has finally brought us to the feet of yonder colossus [Illimani],
+which at this moment looks down upon you as if in proud contemplation,
+we shall constitute these provinces free, and we shall leave them in
+possession of their political and social rights. May their happiness
+be as genuine and their liberty as true as the aspirations of the
+Liberating Army and of your general!”</p>
+
+<p>The Colombian troops were deeply moved while listening to the voice
+of their beloved general; and as soon as the last words were spoken,
+they broke into enthusiastic cheers, and shouts of <i>Viva el General
+Bolivar!</i> were repeated on all sides. General Sucre responded in
+behalf of the army, and then, in the name of the city of La Paz,
+presented a gold chain to the liberator, attempting to put it over
+his head as a token of admiration and esteem, “woven by the hands
+of Liberty and Victory for their best-beloved son, the genius of
+Colombia, the hero of South America.” Bolivar resisted, and placed
+the chain around Sucre’s neck, saying: “He it was who gave liberty to
+Peru on the field of Ayacucho;” to which the modest victor replied:
+“Your name alone made me conquer at Ayacucho!” It must have been a
+pretty exhibition of the politeness so characteristic of the race,
+and altogether appropriate between two such distinguished heroes. The
+author of this description, Don Luis Crespo, says the chain was finally
+given by General Sucre to his chief of division, José Maria Córdova.</p>
+
+<p>General Bolivar received with great ceremony the deputation from the
+national assembly; and after accepting at their hands the supreme
+gift of the nation, which he eulogized as his <i>hija predilecta</i>,
+“best-beloved daughter,” he left La Paz on September 20, 1825, in
+company with General Sucre and a part of his army, and proceeded to the
+capital, where his welcome was one worthy of the city which had been
+for nearly three centuries the metropolis of social and intellectual
+culture in Alto Peru.</p>
+
+<p>With the arrival of Bolivar in Sucre, and his inauguration as first
+president of the republic of Bolivia, closes the “storm and stress”
+period that had lasted throughout the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> long war of independence. After
+having been the first to start the patriotic movement in South America,
+and the first to promulgate its doctrines in the sister province of
+La Plata,—which owed the organization of its revolutionary junta and
+the preparation of its first republican constitution to the genius
+of patriots of Alto Peru,—this long-suffering nation finally reaped
+the reward of its labors, though it was the last to benefit by the
+blessings of a free and independent government. But when the dawn of
+a new life broke over its hills and lighted its valleys with the joy
+of hope, the sun shone out all the clearer to brighten the day of
+its birth as an independent nation, because of the shadows that had
+enveloped the night before.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_072">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_072.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GROUP OF CAVALRY ON THE ALTOS OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_074">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_074.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">REGIMENT OF CAVALRY ON PARADE IN SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV<br>
+<span class="subhed">PROGRESS UNDER THE REPUBLIC</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Amid the joyous acclaims of a grateful people, who heralded him
+as the “Father of the Republic” and its “Protector,” Bolivar was
+inaugurated first President of Bolivia in the month of November, 1825,
+the young republic thus enjoying the prestige of having at the head
+of its government the hero whom all the world delighted to honor, the
+victorious chief of the army that had crushed the last remnant of
+Spanish power in South America, the invincible “Liberator,” the “George
+Washington of South American independence.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_075">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_075.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL JOSÉ MANUEL PANDO, PRESIDENT, 1900–1904.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>With characteristic energy and execution, President Bolivar essayed
+to guide the first steps of his <i>hija predilecta</i> in the path of
+national progress and development. But military genius is not always
+associated with the qualities most desirable in the executive chief of
+a nation, and Bolivar was the brilliant soldier rather than the keen
+statesman. His administration was marked by an effort to accomplish
+more than could possibly be done with deliberation. Although he
+remained only a few months in the country to which he had been called
+as president for life, relinquishing the high office in January, 1826,
+to return to Lima, Peru, he instituted innumerable political and
+administrative reforms in that short time, as the national historian
+remarks, “with marked precipitation.” From Lima he sent a draft of the
+constitution, which was adopted by Congress. The limits of the new<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>
+republic, as fixed by Bolivar, left much to be desired, and seemed
+a scant recognition of the noble part played by this brave people
+in the great war which had begun and ended on its patriotic soil;
+and although the country owes a debt of gratitude to the heroic but
+capricious soldier and legislator whose name it bears, it also owes
+him a great and apparently irreparable misfortune, which from the
+beginning has hindered its progress and which has been the cause of
+a series of disasters requiring the most devoted patriotism and the
+best statesmanship to avert dire consequences. The inadequate and
+seemingly unjust allotment of seaboard to the new republic may be held
+responsible for many of the evils which assailed it in the beginning,
+and of which the effects are only now being permanently overcome.
+Northward, Bolivian territory reaches twelve degrees south latitude,
+where it touches the eastern frontier of Peru at seventy-one degrees
+west longitude, according to Bolivian claims; the line following that
+boundary only reached the coast at twenty-two degrees south latitude,
+and at twenty-five degrees the Chilean boundary began. Later, as is
+well known, Bolivia lost even this small strip of seaboard. The history
+of this demarcation is an interesting one. In accepting the offer
+of the Bolivian Congress, Bolivar had promised not only to preside
+over the future destinies of the republic, but to use his influence
+with Peru to obtain the concession of the seaboard from the port of
+Arica, latitude eighteen degrees, southward to the limit of twenty-two
+degrees. This concession would have given Bolivia the two good ports
+of Arica and Iquique, and it would have endowed the country with the
+immense riches, then undiscovered, of the nitrate regions. The two
+ports left to Bolivia by Bolivar’s settlement of the limits, Cobija
+and Antofagasta, were very inferior, had no water or vegetation, and
+communication with the interior through them was difficult and costly.
+General Santa Cruz, who at that time was provisional President of
+Peru, opposed the concession to Bolivia of the limits asked for, and
+converted Bolivar to his opinion, though Santa Cruz was a Bolivian
+and later the president of his country. It has been suggested by some
+authorities on the history of these early days of the republic, that
+Bolivar, who had imbibed the pseudo-classical ideas of the French
+revolutionists, wished to make Bolivia an ideal country, a new Arcadia
+in the Western world. Whatever may have been the purpose of the great
+liberator, there can be no doubt that the industrial and commercial
+development of Bolivia was retarded and international relations were
+practically prevented by her lack of a good seaboard with excellent
+ports. But Bolivar does not appear to have given much thought to the
+future of his “best-beloved daughter.” The boundaries of the republic
+of Bolivia followed in general the limits that had been fixed for Alto
+Peru under the régime of the Audiencia of Charcas.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving, Bolivar recommended for the presidency of Bolivia
+his great general, José Antonio de Sucre, to whose efforts had been
+due the first organization of the government after the withdrawal
+of the Spanish authorities. Although a Venezuelan by birth, General
+Sucre had already proved himself a friend of the new republic, and
+his election was a unanimous expression of the will of the people.
+The second Congress, which met in Sucre on May 25, 1826, and remained
+in session until January 11, 1827, was chiefly occupied in undoing
+much of what President Bolivar had so hastily done, and in making
+efforts to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span> establish the government upon a firm basis. The French
+system of political division into departments, provinces, cantons, and
+vice-cantons was adopted; and the constitution was modified in some
+of its more objectionable features, which included “life tenure” and
+“irresponsibility” of the president. Education was encouraged by the
+institution of primary and secondary schools and universities, the
+University of the capital, henceforth called Sucre, obtaining some
+distinction. Hospitals were founded, jails built, freedom of the press
+was guaranteed, the financial system was perfected, and the national
+debt recognized. The payment of a million dollars was guaranteed
+to the Colombian and Peruvian soldiers who had fought at Junin and
+Ayacucho. The Indians have always been regarded rather as protégés of
+the government than as independent citizens, and they were not allowed
+a vote for Congress; they remained subject to the poll tax, and, up to
+the present day, they have shown little inclination to take part in
+political affairs, outside of municipal government.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_077" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_077.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL ANDRÉS SANTA CRUZ, PRESIDENT, 1829–1839.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In spite of the best efforts of Sucre to establish law and order in the
+new republic, and to govern in accordance with the high ideals which
+ruled all his actions, winning for him the title of the “philosopher
+soldier,” difficulties arose which finally resulted in his resignation
+from the presidency and his withdrawal from the country. It was not
+entirely the fault of the Bolivians that Sucre was so ruthlessly
+sacrificed. The neighboring republics plotted to accomplish his
+overthrow on the pretext that the Colombian troops who remained in
+the country were a menace to its freedom, and that the president had
+retained them because of his monarchical aspirations, which threatened
+the liberty not only of Bolivia, but of the neighboring republics.
+Notwithstanding the fact that the Colombian troops, which had become
+insubordinate, were banished at the point of the sword, Sucre was
+accused, with Bolivar, of having designs to establish a monarchy, and
+a secret party was formed to depose him. In 1828 the garrison of the
+capital mutinied, killing the officer on guard; Sucre, who hurried
+to the scene, was attacked and had his right arm broken. Colonel
+Lopez arrived from Potosí at the head of a small battalion in time
+to witness the cruel onslaught upon the president, and to crush the
+mutiny, but not in time to save the life of the brave General José
+Miguel Lanza, the illustrious <i>guerrillero</i>, who was killed while
+defending his beloved chief. Had Sucre really held the ideas attributed
+to him by his enemies, he might have made himself a dictator, which
+would, perhaps, have been a blessing for the country in that period
+of political confusion. But he quietly resigned his office and left
+Bolivia, delegating his authority to a cabinet council, and leaving in
+supreme command General José Maria Pérez de Urdininea, the president
+of the council. The story of Sucre’s life is brief and glorious. Born
+in Cumaná, Venezuela, on February 3, 1795, he was “a child of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>
+revolution” from his tender youth. Consecrated to the cause of American
+liberty, and excelling in genius, he rapidly scaled the heights of fame
+until at the age of thirty he was one of the most eminent personalities
+of the independence, as the hero of Ayacucho. After his withdrawal
+from Bolivia in 1828 he returned to his native land, where two years
+later he was assassinated, at the age of thirty-five. His memory is
+everywhere revered in Bolivia, and many handsome monuments have been
+erected in his honor.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_078" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_078.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL JOSÉ BALLIVIAN, THE HERO OF INGAVI, PRESIDENT,
+1843–1847.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Meantime, Bolivar had tried to impose his <i>Constitucion Boliviano</i>
+on the Peruvians, who promptly rebelled, refusing to accept what they
+considered an effort to establish absolute authority. The constitution
+not only declared the presidency to be an office for life, but gave
+the president almost unlimited power. A strong party overthrew the
+constitution and the authority of Bolivar, and proclaiming its
+intention to save Bolivia also from the foreign power of Colombia, or
+as the party leader expressed it “to place itself between the victim
+and the assassins,” sent an army under the command of General Gamarra
+to take possession of the country. The mutiny at Sucre afforded the
+necessary pretext for an invasion and Gamarra marched on La Paz,
+Cochabamba, and Potosí, receiving everywhere a welcome from the
+disaffected politicians who looked upon the opponent of Bolivar’s party
+as an ally rather than an invader. After the departure of General
+Sucre, Congress elected as his successor General Andrés Santa Cruz,
+president. As General Santa Cruz was in Chile, Vice-president General
+José Miguel de Velasco governed in his absence. Disturbances were
+general during the period that followed General Sucre’s withdrawal.
+Anarchy threatened the young republic when suddenly deprived of the
+guidance of that master spirit, the statesman above reproach, who, in
+refusing to govern except according to the constitution, had found
+himself unable to govern at all. General Pedro Blanco declared his
+sympathy with the cause of Gamarra, and Colonel Ramon Loaiza, at
+Gamarra’s instigation, stirred up a revolt in the department of La Paz,
+which declared for autonomy under the name of Alto Peru; the uprising
+was quelled, as was also an invasion in eastern Bolivia led by the
+royalist Aguilera. General Blanco secured a following and succeeded in
+being elected president, with Colonel Loaiza as vice-president, but his
+term of office lasted only a week, when he was seized, imprisoned, and
+assassinated.</p>
+
+<p>General Santa Cruz arrived in La Paz in May, 1829, where he inaugurated
+his administration, taking the oath of office at the hands of General
+José Ballivian, Prefect of La Paz, on the 24th of the same month. He
+set out almost immediately for Sucre, arriving there on the 29th of
+May. The administration of General Santa Cruz was one of the most
+important in the history of the republic. He was an able ruler, and
+possessed the combined qualities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> of soldier and statesman in a
+remarkable degree. His army was the best organized and equipped in
+South America. By the promulgation of the Santa Cruz Code, he gave to
+Bolivia the first legislative system perfected in a South American
+republic. His rule was despotic, but effective, the very character
+necessary for the establishment of order out of the chaos in which
+the government had been involved after Sucre’s withdrawal. His first
+act was to grant a general amnesty, but he retained the death penalty
+for sedition and executed it upon several occasions. In 1831 he
+convoked the fifth Congress in La Paz, it being the first time that
+the national legislature had met in that city since the proclamation
+of the republic. A second national constitution was promulgated, which
+remains in effect to the present day with few modifications, and a
+treaty of peace was signed with Peru. The national revenues, which had
+fallen from two million dollars under the viceroyalty to practically
+nothing, were regulated, and the new finance minister, Don José M.
+Lara, was able to show a revenue of one million five hundred thousand
+dollars, the chief sources of which were the customs duties, the sale
+of Jesuit landed property, the export taxes on ores,—then fixed at
+eight and one-half per cent ad valorem,—the production of the mint
+of Potosí, and the Indian poll tax. Reforms were made in education,
+and the universities of La Paz and Cochabamba were established, as
+well as a school of arts in the latter city. The province of Tarija
+was made a department, and a census of the republic was taken, showing
+a population of one million one hundred thousand inhabitants. The
+issuing of a debased coinage was one of the errors of Santa Cruz’s
+administration, resulting, as it did, in the discredit of the country
+financially, a condition of affairs which lasted for nearly thirty
+years, until, under the administration of President Achá, the present
+coinage system was introduced. Another mistake of the great statesman,
+or what is regarded as such by many Bolivians, was his refusal to
+consider a proposal from the government of Peru, through Gamarra,—who,
+although not president, was the ruling power in its politics,—that
+Bolivia should give up to Peru all Lake Titicaca, half of which came
+within Bolivian limits, and the peninsula of Copacabaña upon which is
+located a sacred shrine of the Virgin, in return for the cession by
+Peru of the department of Tarapacá with its excellent coast line and
+harbors. It is generally believed that, in the rejection of this offer,
+Santa Cruz had a motive that looked toward the carrying out of a much
+more ambitious plan of “expansion.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_079" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_079.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL MANUEL ISIDORO BELZU, PRESIDENT, 1849–1855.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The controlling desire of Santa Cruz’s life was to accomplish the union
+of Bolivia and Peru in a confederation, of which he was to be the
+executive and administrative chief. Taking advantage of the quarrels
+which at this time were going on in Peru between President Orbegoso
+on the one hand and Gamarra and Salaverry on the other, and under the
+pretext of lending aid to Orbegoso, General Santa Cruz marched into
+Peru in 1835<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> with his splendid army, leaving the government affairs of
+Bolivia in the hands of Vice-President Velasco. Gamarra and Salaverry
+were defeated, Salaverry was killed, and Santa Cruz assumed the
+Protectorate. Congresses met at Sicuani and at Huaura and decreed the
+division of Peru into two states, North Peru and South Peru, to which
+Bolivia was united by the decree of an extraordinary Congress held in
+Tapacarí, Bolivia, in 1836, which approved all that had been done and
+authorized the establishment of the Peru-Bolivian confederation. Santa
+Cruz appointed General Orbegoso president of North Peru, General Pio
+Tristan president of South Peru, and General Velasco president of the
+Bolivian state. Representatives from the three states met in Tacna, May
+1, 1837, and signed the pact of the confederation.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_080" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_080.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">DR. JOSÉ MARIA LINARES, THE PRESIDENT, 1857–1861.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>It did not require extraordinary foresight on the part of the more
+patriotic Bolivians to judge of the probable outcome of such an
+arrangement; and the secondary position which Santa Cruz appeared
+disposed to give his own country raised a storm of protest in the
+capital, where Mariano Calvo had taken Velasco’s place at the head
+of the government. Congress met at Sucre, and the pact was rejected
+with the firm declaration that “it would never be considered!” In the
+meantime, the Peru-Bolivian confederation was regarded by the remaining
+republics of South America as a menace to the balance of power, and
+Chile and Argentina offered their aid to Gamarra to overthrow it.
+Chile sent two armed expeditions, the first of which was defeated,
+the second achieving complete victory under the brilliant command of
+General Manuel Bulnes, who overthrew the army of the Confederation
+at Yungay, January 20, 1839. Defeated at Yungay and receiving news
+at the same moment that a popular revolution, under the leadership
+of General José Ballivian and General Velasco of the “Restoration
+Party,” had been organized against his authority in Bolivia, General
+Santa Cruz resigned the Protectorate and embarked for Guayaquil. Here
+he made several ineffectual efforts to regain prestige in Bolivia,
+but, finding his position hopeless, he finally left South America for
+France. His subsequent career was uneventful, though he became a friend
+and counsellor of Louis Napoleon; and, in 1849, was appointed Bolivian
+minister in Paris. He died in 1865.</p>
+
+<p>General Santa Cruz was one of the greatest presidents Bolivia ever
+had. He worked for immigration, recognizing the necessity for a larger
+population to develop the vast natural resources of the country,
+without which all efforts toward progress and prosperity must be slow
+and comparatively fruitless. He gave attention to its agricultural,
+commercial, and social interests; and, during the few years of peace
+that followed his inauguration, he rendered invaluable services to the
+republic. Had he been a devoted patriot like General Porfirio Diaz,
+of Mexico, his dictatorship might have permanently advanced Bolivia
+politically<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span> and socially beyond any other South American republic.
+But his thirst for conquest led him into expensive wars that cost
+the country more than was gained, and left it a heritage of military
+despotism which made it a prey to all kinds of political abuses. The
+destiny of the republic, through frequent subsequent administrations,
+rested in the hands of a military autocrat who imposed his absolute
+will upon the nation for good or evil, until some rival leader was
+able to wrest the supreme power from him. The progress of the country
+depended upon the character of its executive, and, although many of
+the presidents who succeeded Santa Cruz were patriotic and capable
+leaders, there were a few, as is the case in every republic, whose
+administrations are records of caprice and folly. In nearly all of the
+South American republics the success of the struggle for independence
+had brought in its train the evils that often accompany military
+prestige. The soldiers who had won glory on the battlefield could not
+be contented with the humdrum life of organized politics. This was
+particularly true in Bolivia, in consequence of the continued successes
+of its armies under Santa Cruz, when defeat had come so seldom that the
+idea of laying down their arms was thoroughly repugnant. When there was
+no longer a common enemy against whom to turn their practised weapons,
+they found cause for rebellion among themselves, the haughty spirit of
+the soldier,—Spain’s particular legacy to her offspring,—being with
+difficulty subdued; so that few of the presidents who came immediately
+after Santa Cruz completed their term of office, and many died in exile.</p>
+
+<p>After the defeat and departure of Santa Cruz, General Velasco
+became provisional president, and, in 1839, Congress elected him
+constitutional president. This Congress adopted a fourth constitution,
+more liberal than any that had preceded it. Opposing the government of
+Velasco, who had committed some political indiscretions and had given
+offence by congratulating Chile on the victory of Yungay, in which
+so many Bolivians were killed, General José Ballivian led a campaign
+against the president, and, though it was unsuccessful, Velasco’s term
+of office was cut short a year later when friends of Ballivian, who in
+the meantime had been exiled to Peru, secured his recall and election
+to the presidency in 1841. Velasco, who, after his deposition had fled
+to Argentina, returned with an army to fight Ballivian, but the news
+that Gamarra was again invading the country with the determination to
+conquer and annex it to Peru so fired his patriotism that he gave up
+his troops to Ballivian to fight in the common cause. It was a noble
+act, which reconquered for him the hearts of the whole people.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_081" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_081.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COLONEL ADOLFO BALLIVIAN, PRESIDENT, 1873. DIED, 1874.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The history of the celebrated battle of Ingavi, which was one of the
+most glorious in the annals of the republic, reflects great honor on
+the arms of Bolivia, as it was won against heavy odds, the Peruvians
+having six thousand troops in the field while the Bolivians had only
+four thousand. But General Ballivian was a genius in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> command, and
+he prepared his troops for a precipitate attack on the enemy, the
+trained <i>guerrilleros</i> making their “rush” in such an impetuous
+onslaught that the Peruvian ranks were broken; victory was assured,
+General Gamarra fell dead, pierced by two bullets; and General
+Castilla, one of the leaders, afterward President of Peru, was taken
+prisoner. At Puno, whither Ballivian pursued the retreating army, a
+treaty of peace was signed which stipulated that everything should be
+reciprocally condoned, without demands of any character on the part
+of either. With the victory of Ingavi, Bolivia closed the last scene
+in the struggle for independence, remaining henceforth secure in the
+right to govern the territory allotted by the liberator, unmolested
+by invaders. Ballivian was the hero of the hour, and his memory is
+enshrined in the patriotic hearts of his countrymen, who have forgiven
+the follies that grew out of his ambitious and despotic nature, and
+remember only that he was a true and loyal patriot, and the chief
+instrument of his country’s salvation in a great crisis. But though
+it is easy to forgive the faults of Ballivian after a lapse of half
+a century or more, his people found it impossible to support them at
+the time when they were in full activity. One of the first acts of
+Ballivian’s Congress was to repeal the liberal constitution of 1839
+and to proclaim the constitution of 1843, which gave the greatest
+power in the government to the chief executive. This constitution was
+nicknamed the “Military Ordinance,” which its opponents said, “should
+be read only in the glitter of the sword of Ingavi.” It revealed the
+military spirit of the president in every line, and was one of the
+strongest influences in creating opposition to his power. On the other
+hand, the same dominating character that dictated a system of rigid
+discipline was strong to overcome the difficulties in the way of the
+country’s development, and new roads were built, exploring expeditions
+were sent to the Beni and to the Chaco, and the department of the Beni
+was created. An office of statistics was established, and a new census
+was taken, which gave Bolivia a population of more than two million.
+The military code was promulgated, and a military school instituted;
+the bishopric of Cochabamba was created. A new educational system was
+established, due to the efforts of Ballivian’s minister Don Tomás
+Frias, who was afterward one of Bolivia’s most distinguished presidents.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_082" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_082.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON TOMÁS FRIAS, PRESIDENT, 1874–1877.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Ballivian was a man of letters and a friend of philosophers and poets.
+During his administration Bolivia enjoyed great prestige among other
+nations, and France, England, the United States, as well as the South
+American powers, sent diplomatic representatives to Sucre. At this
+time Bolivia was the only South American republic whose independence
+had not been recognized by Spain, and the government took advantage of
+the residence in Europe of Dr. José Maria Linares, one of Bolivia’s
+cleverest statesmen and a descendant of a noble family of Spain, to
+accredit him to the court of Madrid as its diplomatic representative,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>
+with power to negotiate the recognition of the young republic by the
+mother country, and to effect a treaty of peace and friendship. Dr.
+Linares secured the desired recognition and treaty in 1848, though
+the final ratification did not take place until some years later.
+The rigorous military discipline of Ballivian brought about his
+downfall. The final stroke occurred when one of his chief officers,
+Colonel, afterward General, Manuel Isidoro Belzu, was punished for
+insubordination by being reduced to the rank of a common soldier to
+serve in the little garrison of Obrajes. In strong resentment of this
+indignity Belzu roused the soldiers to revolt. Though the mutiny was
+quelled, the spirit of revolution had been spreading for some time
+among the partisans of Velasco, and they took advantage of the moment
+to break out in open insurrection; the populace rose in La Paz, and in
+the face of a general rebellion, north and south, Ballivian preferred
+resigning the presidency and leaving the country to plunging the nation
+in the horrors of a civil war. One of the revolutionary leaders,
+Eusebio Guilarte, was proclaimed president, but after ten days’ stormy
+experience in that uncertain post of honor, the mutiny of his soldiers
+forced him to flee, and he, too, left the country. Belzu was the
+idol of the soldiers and of the common people, and they demanded his
+election to the supreme office. But he deferred to Velasco, who, for
+the fourth time, became president of Bolivia, assuming the dictatorship
+until Congress should meet to confirm the choice of the people, which
+took place on August 6, 1848. Belzu was appointed war minister, and
+Don Casimiro Olañeta, “the silver-tongued orator” of the Independence,
+was also a member of the Cabinet. A continued conflict between these
+two leaders demoralized the politics of the government and opened the
+way for another revolution, which resulted in Belzu’s elevation to
+the supreme power. When Velasco found it necessary to take up arms in
+defence of his government he left, in his place, the president of the
+Congress, Dr. José Maria Linares, who, however, was forced to flee from
+the country soon after, in consequence of the victory of Belzu’s troops
+over those of Velasco in the battle of Yamparaez. After this defeat,
+Velasco retired to private life. Linares joined Ballivian in Chile, and
+they planned an attempt to defeat the “Belcistas,” as Belzu’s followers
+were called. An invasion was made from the south, but all efforts were
+futile to overcome the enormous popularity of Belzu, who represented
+the democratic spirit, as opposed to the aristocratic, for which
+Ballivian and Linares stood. Finding their position hopeless, Ballivian
+again left the country and went to Brazil, where he died of yellow
+fever two years afterward. Linares prepared his forces for the campaign
+which later gained for him the dictatorship of Bolivia, when he became
+one of the few admirable autocrats of South American history.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_083" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_083.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL NARCISO CAMPERO, PRESIDENT, 1880–1884.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The government of Belzu, seized by force of arms, had to be maintained
+by continuous warfare. The various party chiefs kept up a series of
+revolts, and on one occasion Belzu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> was shot in the Alameda of Sucre.
+After his recovery, he convoked a Congress which confirmed him in the
+presidency. In the brief period of peace with which his term of office
+was blessed, he erected many handsome public buildings, revised the
+statutes, and promoted some important reforms. A clever orator, Don
+Evaristo Valle, achieved distinction during Belzu’s administration
+through his fiery philippics, in which he scored the “democratic
+despot” with brilliant emphasis and effect. But if the president’s
+enemies were bitter and unrelenting, his followers were devoted to him
+to the end, and the Belcistas, as his party was called, have always
+had representation in subsequent politics. In 1855, General Belzu,
+declaring himself tired of the struggle, resigned office in favor of
+his son-in-law, General Jorge Córdova. He retired at once to Europe.
+The presidency of Córdova was brief and stormy, and two years after his
+inauguration, a revolution, carefully planned by Linares, drove him
+from power and from Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>The dictator Linares, as he is known to posterity, in distinction
+from many presidents of his country whose government was more
+despotic, though less frankly declared, assumed the reins of power
+constitutionally in 1857, and as dictator next year, with the avowed
+intention of making a “clean sweep” of existing evils and reforming the
+whole political system. His keen intellect and sincerity of purpose
+made him respected, even by his enemies, and his patriotic principles
+were above question. Perhaps he was over-zealous. It is difficult to
+set the proper pace when a desire to effect numerous reforms impels
+the eager disciplinarian onward in the path of power. Linares began
+by creating a Council of State, with whom he conferred upon all
+matters relating to the administration. He decreed a reduction of the
+president’s salary and those of his advisers; he reformed the army; he
+changed the electoral divisions of the country, which he distributed
+in thirty-two <i>jefaturas</i>, or political districts, whose chiefs
+were directly responsible to the central government; he created or
+restored the municipalities, making them as independent as possible of
+the central power; he systematized the public accounts, introducing
+economies which improved the national credit; he reorganized the
+judicial system and established a new criminal code; and he ordered the
+founding in every diocese of seminaries for educational purposes, and
+the reform of the clergy.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, so many reforms raised up a host of enemies; even some
+of the dictator’s friends protested against the severity of his
+discipline, and the signs grew more ominous with each new evidence
+of despotism. He was unrelenting in the punishment of conspirators
+and insubordinate officials, and throttled the press with an iron
+censorship. The murmurs grew louder as the pressure became heavier;
+and when a <i>coup d’état</i>, under the leadership of his ministers
+José Maria de Achá and Ruperto Fernandez, aided by the commander Manuel
+Antonio Sanchez, suddenly divested the dictator of his power on January
+14, 1861, and these persons constituted themselves a Junta de Gobierno,
+the popular voice was as ready to sanction his exile as it had been to
+welcome his accession to power. With a broken spirit. Dr. Linares left
+his country, and a few months later he died in poverty in Valparaiso.</p>
+
+<p>The scent of the battlefield was still too sweet in the nostrils of the
+<i>guerrilleros</i> and their descendants to make a civil government
+permanent, under whatever form it might be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> established; and though
+the Congress, which was called together by the Junta de Gobierno
+a few weeks after the <i>coup d’état</i>, proclaimed as president
+General José Maria de Achá, who governed constitutionally and with a
+leniency quite the reverse of Linares’s strict discipline, he had to
+contend with mutiny and insurrection all through the period of his
+administration. President Achá was as earnest in the laborious task
+of governing his people as his predecessor had been, and, until the
+last unfortunate step of his official career, he seems to have shown
+greater tact. He introduced for the first time the use of postage
+stamps, created the engineers’ corps to superintend the opening of
+roads and building of bridges, established the first coach road
+between Cochabamba and the cities along the neighboring valleys, sent
+explorations to the Chaco, and perfected the monetary system. The
+mistake which closed his administration and drove him into exile was an
+effort to have General Agreda elected his successor. This was regarded
+by sensitive supporters of the constitution as a breach of prerogative,
+and, as one historian says, “it was resolved to break down by force the
+impositions of power.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_085" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_085.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON GREGORIO PACHECO, PRESIDENT, 1884–1888.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Whatever may be said in criticism of the Bolivian character as
+displayed in the events of the first fifty years of the republic, it
+must be admitted that there was plenty of vigor in the young nation;
+the great difficulty in directing it seemed to be to strike the
+medium between easy-going authority, which the military spirit of
+the times quickly nullified, and uncompromising despotism, which was
+never found strong enough to hold permanent sway over an independent
+and liberty-loving people. General Achá, one of the best of the
+presidents, came nearer to achieving the correct medium than many
+of his colleagues. He was succeeded by the <i>ne plus ultra</i> of
+despots, General Mariano Melgarejo, a reckless soldier who had risen
+from the ranks through sheer audacity, and who seemed to possess
+in an extraordinary degree that gift of tyranny which has been a
+picturesque attribute of autocrats in all ages. His absolute contempt
+for the rights of his fellow men and his resolute fearlessness were
+predominating traits. Once, during the six years of his rule, he was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>
+driven out of the capital by Belzu, who had returned from Europe;
+but, routed as he was, he returned to his palace, killed Belzu, and,
+presenting himself to the multitude, exclaimed: “Belzu is dead!—Who
+lives now?” The answering shout of the populace, <i>Viva Melgarejo!</i>
+proved how much better than Linares the new despot understood the
+rabble. In all parts of the republic, the news that Melgarejo had
+seized the reins of power, abrogating the constitution of 1861, and
+that he wished to impose upon the people the system of despotic
+government which had been the cause of so much bloodshed and misery
+in the past, roused up a spirit of revolt which threatened all the
+horrors of civil war. Melgarejo had none of the scruples which had
+led Ballivian to avoid plunging the nation into war by abdicating his
+position. When they rebelled, he sacrificed them ruthlessly. One of
+his decrees subjected to the death penalty not only those who took up
+arms against him, but those who refused to give him their services. He
+instituted a reign of terror, and his follies were as demoralizing to
+the national politics as the episodes of his private life were to the
+social well-being. Chile took advantage of the situation to secure,
+through flattery of the despot’s vanity, a revision of the boundaries
+and the final extension of her limits to twenty-four degrees south
+latitude in a strip running back from the ocean to the Andes. Brazil
+sent a clever representative, who bestowed on Melgarejo decorations
+from the emperor in exchange for leagues of Bolivian land on both banks
+of the Guaporé River, the principal tributary of the Madeira, thus
+losing Bolivia the right of navigation on one of the chief branches
+of the Amazon. The evils of Melgarejo’s government brought a train of
+terrible consequences to the country, from which it required a long
+time to recuperate. Not only was progress crippled at home, but the
+national credit was compromised and a heavy foreign debt incurred
+for the first time in the history of the republic. The coinage was
+debased beyond precedent, the Indian lands were illegally seized and
+sold, and there seemed no limit to the crimes perpetrated against the
+constitution. By sheer audacity, Melgarejo maintained his position for
+six years, until a revolution, headed by General Agustin Morales, of La
+Paz, brought about his downfall and banishment in January, 1872. His
+successor, General Morales, whose administration was an improvement on
+that of Melgarejo, and who showed a disposition to amend the evils of
+his predecessor, returning their lands to the Indians, and nullifying
+many of Melgarejo’s decrees, was not the man needed to guide the
+country through the stormy transition period of statehood. A far better
+fortune awaited the people in the election of the successor to General
+Morales, who was taken off by a pistol-shot during a quarrel between
+the president and one of his officers.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the darkness of the crisis in which Bolivia had been plunged
+by the dictator Melgarejo, the light of a better day began to appear.
+Morales was succeeded by a man of scrupulous integrity and patriotism.
+Dr. Tomás Frias, as provisional president, which office he held only
+until the president elected by Congress in extraordinary session in
+1873, Colonel Adolfo Ballivian, could arrive from London, where he was
+residing as financial agent of the Bolivian government. The election
+of President Adolfo Ballivian was carried out without bribery, undue
+influence, or martial pressure. It was the will of the whole people.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>
+Colonel Ballivian, a son of the hero of Ingavi, was highly educated,
+had travelled extensively, had a reputation for unsullied honor, and,
+having made a special study of political and social science in Europe,
+might be expected to bring political order out of his country’s chaos
+and lead it into the paths of peace and prosperity. Colonel Ballivian
+organized his ministry with some of the best statesmen of the republic,
+the names of Baptista, Bustillo, Calvo, M. Ballivian, and, later, the
+noted financier Dalence, being a guarantee of good government. But the
+broken health of the president made it impossible for him to attend to
+the affairs of state; and nine months after his inauguration, he died
+in Sucre on February 18, 1874. The entire nation mourned the loss of
+this beloved and distinguished son, whose death came as a blow to the
+most sanguine hopes. Vice-president Frias succeeded Ballivian; but his
+government was constantly disturbed by insurrections, until finally
+his trusted war minister, General Daza, organized a <i>coup d’état</i>
+and assumed the dictatorship, first imprisoning the president with his
+ministers and then banishing him. Don Tomás Frias was a statesman of
+unimpeachable honor and great simplicity of character. One biographer
+says: “He was the only man, of those we have known, who reached the
+greatest heights, the most important posts, without seeking them
+and perhaps even against his desire. His brain was never turned by
+exaltation, he was never intoxicated by adulation, and he never became
+arrogant with power.” Like so many of Bolivia’s best men, he died in
+exile, in Florence, Italy, in 1884. President Daza assumed the supreme
+power in 1876. His wise choice of ministers gave to his administration
+an importance which his own limited knowledge of statecraft would
+never have gained. Notable reforms were made in civil and criminal
+legislation and in the coinage; and a new constitution was framed,
+containing the most advanced republican principles.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_087" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_087.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON ANICETO ARCE, PRESIDENT, 1888–1892.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_088" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_088.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON MARIANO BAPTISTA, PRESIDENT, 1892–1896.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The question of boundaries between Bolivia and Chile, which had been
+a threatening evil for many years, reached the acute stage during
+Daza’s administration. In 1876, Chile put pressure on Bolivia to make
+her sign a treaty, giving the latter half shares in guano and minerals
+to be discovered in the Bolivian maritime department.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> In consequence
+of this, a dispute arose between a Bolivian tax collector and an
+Anglo-Chilean nitrate company in Antofagasta about a small export
+duty of ten centavos per quintal—about three cents gold—decreed
+on nitrate, which the company declared Bolivia had no right to levy
+under the terms of the treaty, and which it refused to pay. The
+Bolivian government sent armed police to collect the money, the
+company telegraphed the news to Santiago; and Chile, without awaiting
+explanations or listening to proposals for arbitration, sent troops
+to occupy the port of Antofagasta. Bolivia presented a particularly
+favorable opportunity for Chilean “expansion” just at that time, as it
+was visited by a terrible plague, which decimated the country, while
+famine added to the horrors of the situation. In three weeks, over two
+hundred deaths from starvation were reported in the very heart of the
+agricultural region, and in other places the mortality was higher.
+Notwithstanding such tragic circumstances, Bolivia was obliged to
+declare war. A few years previous a secret treaty of defensive alliance
+had been made between Bolivia and Peru, during the administration of
+Adolfo Ballivian, for the purpose of checking the aggressive spirit
+of Chile, whose determination to get possession of the seaboard
+provinces to the north of her limits had become more and more apparent,
+especially since the discovery of the guano beds and the rich silver
+mines of that region. Remembering this treaty, Peru hastened to offer
+support to Bolivia; and Chile declared war on Peru and Bolivia on April
+5, 1879. As soon as the Bolivian army could be organized, the order
+was given to march to Peru, and General Daza, with eight thousand men,
+arrived in Tacna early in May, having left the affairs of government
+in the hands of a council of ministers. Chile had been increasing and
+strengthening her navy for years, and her armies were well disciplined
+and in splendid condition. General Daza showed himself in a bad light
+from the beginning of the war, and the Bolivian soldiers, who performed
+miracles of heroism, were justly indignant and embittered over the
+apparent pusillanimity of their chief. He was replaced in the command
+of the army by Colonel Eliodoro Camacho, a valiant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> soldier, and in the
+government of his country by General Narciso Campero, a statesman of
+ability and patriotism. But the allies were not prepared for combat.
+The outcome of the war was a crushing defeat of their armies and the
+seizure by Chile of the whole seaboard of Bolivia and part of the
+Peruvian coast. In 1880 the government of the United States had offered
+to mediate between the belligerents, and a conference was held on
+board the United States gunboat <i>Lackawanna</i>, Señores Baptista
+and Carrillo representing Bolivia. But Chile rejected all proposals
+of mediation; and the war was renewed, with the well-known results.
+According to one of Chile’s most prominent statesmen, the acquisition
+of these northern provinces has been a curse rather than a blessing,
+paralyzing the other industries of the country by concentrating all
+labor in the development of its nitrate fields.</p>
+
+<p>President Narciso Campero, assisted by his able finance minister, Dr.
+Eliodoro Villazon, now vice-president of the republic, distinguished
+himself by the honorable and efficient character of his administration.
+He chose his ministers wisely, and associated with him in the
+government were such statesmen as Don Nataniel Aguirre, who, as
+president of the National Congress of 1880, framed the constitution
+which now rules the republic; Don Antonio Quijarro, who had served
+his country at home and abroad with credit; Don Fidel Aranibar, and
+others of like distinction. Notwithstanding the depleted treasury,
+President Campero built new roads, established telegraph lines, and
+sent exploring expeditions to the Chaco. He reorganized the army, and
+established army hospitals, and homes for the widows of soldiers who
+had died in battle. He created a Supreme Council of Instruction, and
+brought about many reforms.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of the times was toward a complete change from the
+unsettled conditions which had so long played havoc with Bolivian
+politics. After the war two political parties came to the front, the
+Constitutional and the Liberal. Don Gregorio Pacheco, Don Aniceto Arce,
+and Don Mariano Baptista were the leaders of the Constitutional party,
+and Don Eliodoro Camacho was the chief representative of the Liberals.
+When Pacheco was elected to succeed Campero in 1884, it is related that
+one of the ardent followers of General Camacho, the defeated candidate,
+exclaimed, in the frenzy of the moment: <i>A la revolucion!</i> to
+which Camacho sternly replied: <i>Mueran las revoluciones!</i>—“Let
+revolutions die!” And from this period dates the installation of a new
+order of things, in which the predominating effort of all parties has
+been, as far as possible, to avoid revolutions. President Pacheco’s
+administration was marked by profound peace; and the financial
+condition improved, owing to the great wealth that poured out of the
+Huanchaca, Colquechaca, and other silver mines.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Aniceto Arce was elected president to succeed Señor Pacheco in
+1888. A clever statesman and politician, he did much for the country’s
+progress. During his presidency the first railroad in Bolivia was
+built, from Antofagasta to Uyuni, soon afterward continued to Oruro,
+its present terminus. He ordered the improvement of coach roads and the
+construction of bridges, the Puente Arce being one of the handsomest
+monuments to his administrative enterprise. Telegraph lines were
+extended, and other facilities granted.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> General Pando explored the
+Territorio de Colonias. At the expiration of Arce’s government, Dr.
+Mariano Baptista was elected, in 1892. Conditions were not so favorable
+for progress under his administration, owing to the depreciation
+of silver and the unsatisfactory state of the mining industry, the
+chief source of the country’s revenue. But important expeditions
+were sent out to explore the regions of the Beni and the Territorio
+de Colonias. In July, 1893, the National Delegation of the Northwest
+of the Republic was sent to the Beni, under the direction of Señores
+Lisimaco Gutierrez, Manuel Vicente Ballivian, Román Paz, Colonel
+Juan L. Muñoz, Lieutenant Rosendo Rojas, and Pastor Valdivieso. The
+town called Villa de Riberalta was founded at the confluence of the
+Madre de Dios and the Beni, and political and judicial authority was
+established in these remote regions, where the rich rubber forests of
+the Acre, or Aquiry, as it is more correctly written, are located. The
+following year General Pando, the intrepid explorer of these regions,
+to whose indefatigable energy the state owes most of the important
+knowledge it has obtained regarding their wealth and territory, was
+commissioned to mark the limits with Brazil, a work he carried out with
+perfect satisfaction to his government. In 1897, during the succeeding
+administration of President Fernandez Alonso, General Pando headed
+another expedition to the rubber regions, making complete studies of
+the Peruvian boundary question, and laying the foundation for vast
+commercial development in that part of Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>President Alonso, who was elected in 1896, devoted especial attention
+to public works and the completion of many handsome public buildings
+was due to his energy. He is not regarded as a brilliant statesman,
+but rather as a clever lawyer and an orator of distinction. His
+administration was brought to an abrupt end through a dispute that
+arose over the question of the permanent residence of the executive.
+A bill was brought up demanding that Sucre be the permanent residence
+of the president and his Cabinet. It was approved by both houses. A
+request was then made for further discussion of the subject in an
+extra Congress, to be held in the neutral city of Cochabamba; and
+when this was denied, La Paz representatives protested and retired.
+A movement for separation was initiated in La Paz by Señor Fernando
+Guachalla, one of the most illustrious statesmen of the country, and
+after unsatisfactory efforts to conciliate the government, the people
+of La Paz declared for the Federation. A Junta de Gobierno was formed,
+composed of Señores Guachalla, Serapio Reyes Ortiz, José Manuel Pando,
+and Macario Pinilla; and as President Alonso advanced from Sucre at the
+head of his troops, General Pando took command of the revolutionary
+forces of La Paz, and the two armies met in several engagements, the
+last of which, fought near Oruro, April 10, 1899, terminated the
+revolution in a complete victory for General Pando’s army. The Junta de
+Gobierno convoked the national assembly to meet in Oruro on October 20,
+1899, when General Pando was elected president, with Don Lucio Velasco
+and Don Anibal Capriles vice-presidents. The constitution of 1880 was
+adopted.</p>
+
+<p>President Pando represented the enterprising spirit of the day, and
+in maintaining the claims of La Paz as a more suitable centre for
+the political government, he probably did so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> from a conviction that
+it is more accessible than Sucre, which has at present no railway
+communication. General Pando planned for the extension of the railway
+systems to all parts of the republic and, soon after his election,
+the line was commenced from La Paz to Lake Titicaca, through which
+transportation by rail and steamship was secured to the seaport of
+Mollendo. He reorganized the army and the finances, initiated the
+settlement of all boundary disputes by arbitration, and headed an
+expedition to the Acre to stop the Brazilian advances into that
+territory. A treaty was afterward negotiated at Rio de Janeiro, by
+which Brazil paid Bolivia two million pounds sterling in consideration
+of the cession of part of Bolivia’s territory.</p>
+
+<p>The election of General Ismael Montes to the presidency in May,
+1904, was one of the most popular in the history of the republic,
+and signalizes the firm establishment of peace and progress in this
+interesting country. President Montes is a son of General Clodomiro
+Montes, who is the head of the army, and a soldier and tactician of
+distinguished ability. One of the first acts of his government was the
+settlement of the dispute with Chile regarding the seacoast privileges,
+which had been going on ever since the close of the War of the Pacific.
+While Chile concedes no port to Bolivia, freedom of import is granted,
+an indemnity of three hundred thousand pounds sterling is paid, and
+Chile agrees to spend two million pounds sterling in building railways
+from her ports to the Bolivian interior.</p>
+
+<p>Never in the history of the republic have conditions been more
+favorable, politically and financially, for national development and
+prosperity. Bolivia has no foreign debt. The only one which could
+have been considered such was a balance of claims to the amount of
+six million five hundred thousand dollars in gold, held principally
+by Chileans as indemnities on account of the War of the Pacific, and
+this was assumed by the government of Chile in agreement with the
+terms of the treaty recently signed between the two countries. On
+the other hand, Bolivia has at her disposal large credits in foreign
+banks. Of the two million pounds sterling which Brazil paid within
+the past two years as indemnity for the cession of a part of the Acre
+territory, one million pounds sterling has been placed on deposit
+with Rothschild and Sons in London, and one million pounds sterling
+with the Comptoir National d’Escompte of Paris. Both of these sums
+are reserved exclusively for the construction of projected railways,
+which, it is calculated, will cost from four to five million pounds
+sterling. In addition to these sums, Bolivia also has, in the Comptoir
+National d’Escompte of Paris, one hundred and fifty thousand pounds
+sterling, paid by Chile according to the terms of the treaty previously
+mentioned. It is further agreed that Chile is to pay the same sum next
+year, and also to guarantee the interest, at the rate of five per cent
+per annum for thirty years, on capital invested in the construction
+of the following Bolivian railways: Uyuni to Potosí; Oruro to La
+Paz; Oruro to Cochabamba and Cochabamba to Santa Cruz; La Paz to the
+region of the Beni; Potosí to Sucre, Lagunillas, and Santa Cruz; this
+guarantee rests on the condition that the annual expenses of this
+obligation do not surpass the sum of one hundred thousand pounds
+sterling. Chile is also obliged by the treaty to build a railway from
+the port of Arica on the Pacific coast to the Altos of La Paz.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> The
+maximum of the obligations exacted by the payment of the above interest
+and of the part of the railway to pass through Bolivian territory has
+been estimated at one million seven hundred thousand pounds sterling.
+The Bolivian section of the railway from Arica to La Paz will be ceded
+to Bolivia after fifteen years from the date of its completion. From
+this it will be seen that Bolivia, instead of being in debt to foreign
+countries, as are other South American republics, has important credits
+which have already attracted foreign capital, and must, in the future,
+continue to invite increased investments from foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of President Montes places Bolivia in line with
+the countries which, at the beginning of the twentieth century, are
+combining their forces to make this the Golden Age of the New World.
+All eyes are turned now toward the Western Hemisphere, and although at
+the present moment universal interest is more absorbed in the northern
+than in the southern continent, the popular gaze is sure to be directed
+soon, with the same attraction, to the great land south of the Isthmus,
+and it may be expected to rest with especial concentration on the
+twentieth century Bolivia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_092" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_092.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL CLODOMIRO MONTES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_094">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_094.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CLOSING SESSIONS OF THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF 1905, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The Bolivian constitution is one of the most liberal in South America.
+Out of the <i>Constitución Boliviano</i>, given by the great liberator
+in the first days of the republic, has been evolved the code of the
+government as it stands to-day, a credit to the democratic principles
+of the nation and a monument to the good judgment of its leaders,
+establishing the sovereign rule of the majority in the common interest
+of the whole people. It is a reflection of the patriotic sentiments
+and the clear judgment of those who framed it, and in adhering to
+its principles the Bolivian nation need take no second place in the
+political progress of the twentieth century.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_095" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_095.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON ELIODORO VILLAZÓN, FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT OF
+BOLIVIA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The present constitution was adopted October 28, 1880, under the
+presidency of General Campero, and few amendments have been made since
+its inauguration. By its terms the republic of Bolivia is constituted
+a sovereign and independent nation, under a Unitarian, democratic
+representative government. The exercise of its sovereign powers is
+vested in the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches of the
+government, each of which is independent of the others.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative power is in the hands of a national Congress,
+consisting of two chambers, the Camara de Diputados, or House of
+Representatives, and the Camara de Senadores, or the Senate. The Camara
+de Diputados is composed of seventy-two members, elected by direct vote
+of the people for a term of four years, the <i>camara</i> being renewed
+by halves, every two years. To qualify for a deputy the citizen must
+be twenty-five years of age and have an annual income of two hundred
+bolivianos. The Camara de Senadores consists of sixteen members, two
+for each department. The senators are also elected by a direct vote<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>
+of the people, the senatorial term being for six years, with a renewal
+by thirds every two years. A senator must be thirty-five years of
+age and have an annual income of four hundred bolivianos. Senators
+and deputies may be reëlected indefinitely. Congress meets annually,
+usually opening on the 6th of August, in the capital of the republic,
+unless for sufficient reason it is convoked to meet elsewhere. The
+regular session lasts sixty days, though it may be extended to ninety
+days. Extraordinary sessions may be assembled by a concurrent vote
+of the majority of both <i>camaras</i>, or by proclamation of the
+executive, giving the place, time, and object of such session. The
+first vice-president of the republic is also president of the Senate
+and of Congress. The legislative power provides for the necessities of
+the state, dictating its laws in accordance with the precepts of the
+constitution.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_096" style="max-width: 274px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_096.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">HIS GRACE ARCHBISHOP PIFFERI OF LA PLATA, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The executive power is vested in the president and two vice-presidents
+of the republic, whose authority is exercised through the secretaries
+or members of the Cabinet. The president and vice-presidents are
+elected every four years by direct vote of the people, and are
+ineligible for the next succeeding term. In case that no candidate
+obtains an absolute plurality of votes, Congress then chooses the three
+who hold the highest majority, and by its vote decides the successful
+candidate. The president directs the foreign policy, manages the public
+interest, is commander-in-chief of the army, and patron of the official
+Church. The vice-presidents are appointed to take charge of the
+presidential duties successively in case of the resignation, absence,
+or death of the president, the qualifications for first or second
+vice-presidents being the same as for a senator, except that they must
+necessarily be native born Bolivians. By appointment of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> the president,
+six secretaries form a Cabinet of State to assist the chief executive
+in the various departments of the administration; these ministers are
+jointly responsible with the president for all administrative acts in
+their respective offices, and the ministers are jointly responsible
+for all acts performed in their Cabinet meetings. Decrees and orders
+issued by the president must also bear the signature of the minister
+or secretary of the respective departments, to be enforced. Cabinet
+ministers may take part in the debates of either chamber of Congress,
+but must leave the place before a vote is cast. Each minister is
+required to send to Congress, at its opening session annually, a
+complete report of the work done in his department during the year.</p>
+
+<p>The judiciary power of the government is represented by a National
+Supreme Court, Superior District Courts, Lower District Courts,
+courts for the preparation of criminal cases, and parochial courts.
+The Supreme Court resides in Sucre, the capital of the republic, and
+consists of seven ministers of justice, appointed by the Chamber of
+Deputies from a ternary list, submitted by the Senate. To be eligible
+to the supreme bench, it is necessary to be a Bolivian by birth or
+naturalization, to be not less than forty-five years of age, to have
+resided permanently in the country for five years, to have been a
+judge in a superior court of justice or district attorney for five
+years, and to have been a practising lawyer in good standing for
+ten years. According to the constitution, the duties of the Supreme
+Court, in addition to those devolving upon it by virtue of the laws
+of the nation, are, in general terms: To hear and determine on
+appeals for the reversing of a sentence passed by the lower courts,
+and to establish the chief points at issue; to hear and determine on
+all questions of a purely legal nature, upon the decision of which
+depends the constitutionality of a law, decree, or other resolution;
+to hear and determine all cases concerning the responsibility of
+diplomatic and consular agents, judges of the superior courts, district
+attorneys, and other public officers for offences committed in the
+discharge of their respective duties; to hear and determine on cases
+arising from contracts, negotiations, and concessions granted by the
+executive power, and on suits brought against the executive, arising
+from executive action; to hear and determine on matters relating to
+the national patronage exercised by the supreme government, and to
+settle controversies between municipal councils, between these and the
+political authorities, and between either of them and the provincial
+municipal boards. Publicity of judicial proceedings is the essential
+condition of the administration of justice, except in cases which might
+offend against public morals.</p>
+
+<p>The Ministerio Publico, or Fiscal, a judicial organization, is
+established to protect the constitutional guarantees and to see to the
+fulfilment of the laws. Its ministers, or <i>fiscales</i>, are agents
+of the executive power, and in the tribunals represent the interests
+of society. The administration of justice is gratuitous. The highest
+authority of the <i>ministerio</i>, called a <i>fiscal general</i>,
+is an official elected by the executive for a period of ten years
+from a ternary proposed by the Camara de Diputados. He coöperates
+with the Supreme Court in decisions relating to justice, and with
+the executive in matters of administration. He is assisted in the
+discharge of his duties by district <i>fiscales</i>, who have charge
+of the duties of the Ministerio<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> Publico in each department; their
+relation with the Superior District Court is the same as that existing
+between the <i>fiscal general</i> and the Supreme Court. They supervise
+the administration of the public treasury and form part of the Board
+of Public Auction. The <i>fiscales de partido</i> and <i>agentes
+fiscales</i> rank in inferior importance, exercising supervision in
+matters under the jurisdiction of the lower district courts, the
+prefectures, and the municipalities. There is also a <i>fiscal de
+gobierno</i>, who advises in matters of public administration.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_098">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_098.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LEGISLATIVE PALACE, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Under the constitution, the government of each of the eight departments
+into which the state is divided is placed in the hands of a prefect,
+who, by virtue of his office, is also a colonel in the army, and
+directly responsible to the executive power. He is appointed by
+the president of the republic, and is the immediate representative
+or agent of the executive power, having under his jurisdiction all
+public functionaries of whatever class and denomination within the
+limit of his department; he is elected for a term of four years. The
+president also appoints the sub-prefects, who govern the provinces;
+the <i>corregidores</i>, or district authorities, and the <i>alcaldes
+territoriales</i>, or petty justices of the smaller subdivisions,
+are appointed by the prefect. The <i>alcaldes territoriales</i> are
+quite distinct in their official capacity from the chief municipal
+authority, the mayor, who is also called <i>alcalde</i>. In addition
+to the political administration of the departments, there is in
+each department capital a Municipal Council, and in each provincial
+capital and river port a Municipal Board, or junta. Municipal agents
+are appointed annually by the respective juntas of the provinces,
+with authority in the smaller subdivisions known as cantons. In the
+more important departments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> the municipal councils consist of twelve
+members, while in others there are nine. These corporations have
+authority to make mutual agreements or contracts for the construction
+and maintenance of roads and highways between two or more of their
+respective departments, whenever such agreements affect the revenue or
+moneys of the municipal treasuries of the departments interested.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the divisions of the republic into departments, provinces,
+and cantons, there are ecclesiastical divisions in conformity with
+the terms of the national constitution, by which the chief executive
+is the patron of the ecclesiastical government of the country. The
+established church of Bolivia is, according to law, the Roman Catholic,
+one of the clauses of the constitution reading: “The State recognizes
+and supports the Roman Apostolic Catholic religion, the public exercise
+of any other worship being prohibited, except in the Colonies, where
+it is tolerated.” It is necessary to add that in the legislature of
+1905 a bill was introduced declaring the necessity for changing the
+last part of this clause to read: “the public exercise of all other
+worships being permitted.” The passage of this bill places Bolivia in
+the vanguard among the Spanish-American countries, so far as religious
+freedom is concerned. The ecclesiastical divisions consist of one
+archbishopric and three bishoprics. The archbishopric of La Plata
+embraces the departments of Chuquisaca, Potosí, Oruro, and Tarija,
+having the cathedral church at Sucre, and covering a territory of
+nearly five hundred thousand square kilomètres, with a population
+of about eight hundred thousand. It has authority over one hundred
+and forty-six parishes, five monasteries, and three colleges for the
+propagation of the Faith. The cathedral church was erected into an
+episcopal see in 1552 and raised to an archbishopric in 1609. Five
+bishops and twenty-eight archbishops have successively ruled the
+diocese up to the present time. The archbishop is appointed by the
+executive from a ternary list submitted by the Senate. The bishops
+are appointed in the same way. The bishopric of La Paz, created in
+1605 by Pope Paul V., contains one hundred and two parishes, three
+convents, two monasteries, and a missionary college. The bishopric of
+Cochabamba, erected by Pope Pius IX. in 1847, has sixty-nine parishes,
+three monasteries, a convent, and a missionary college. The bishopric
+of Santa Cruz, which includes the department of the Beni as well as
+that of Santa Cruz, was also established in 1605, and has at present
+seventy-three parishes and a missionary home. The missionary work of
+the Church among the Indians of the remote districts, where Christian
+teaching can only be done in this way, is in charge of missionary
+colleges established for the <i>Propaganda Fide</i>, there being at
+present about eighteen missions in the heart of the rubber forests
+and in the remote wilds of the Chaco. Missionaries have gone to
+Bolivia from time to time, representing Protestant church societies
+of North America and England, but their chief work has been teaching
+and proselyting. They have not relieved the Catholic Church of any
+of its arduous labors among the indigenes. Just why missionaries
+should be sent to the Spanish-Americans any more than to the Spaniards
+is a little difficult to understand, though they have undoubtedly
+rendered valuable services as school teachers, in spite of their being
+handicapped with the ill-chosen title of “missionaries.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></p>
+
+<p>The constitution confirms the adoption of the national emblems, and
+the national anniversaries for the celebration of great events in the
+history of the country. The Bolivian coat of arms very beautifully and
+artistically symbolizes the resources of this rich country, and is
+emblematic of the national aspirations. It is of elliptical form, the
+band which marks the oval having on its lower half nine stars, and on
+the upper half the word “Bolivia.” Within the oval is the figure of
+the noble Cerro de Potosí, in coloring a faithful reproduction of that
+wonderful mountain of metal, red, brown, purple, and grey in spots
+where eager miners have burrowed into its sides; to the right of the
+<i>cerro</i> stands an alpaca, the denizen of its plateaux, and to the
+left a sheaf of wheat and a breadfruit tree, to typify the wealth of
+its valleys and forests. The rising sun, bright in the glory of its
+beaming rays, is seen behind the <i>cerro</i>. On each side of the
+oval are three national flags draped in graceful folds, a cannon, two
+rifles; an Inca hatchet to the left and a liberty cap to the right
+leave just space enough between, at the top of the shield, for the
+great condor of the Andes, posing ready for flight, in the midst of
+two wreaths of laurel and olive, the outside field being pearl blue.
+The Cerro de Potosí symbolizes the mineral, the sheaf of wheat the
+vegetable, and the alpaca the animal kingdom; the rising sun represents
+the hopeful future of the country, the nine stars stand for the nine
+departments into which the republic was divided, before the territorial
+change made in 1905, the flags are emblematic of the national
+patriotism, the rifles and cannon represent the arms of defence, the
+laurel is for victory, and the olive for peace, the condor, to which
+tradition attributes the faculty of seeing through infinite space
+and from remote distances, is chosen because it bears a significant
+relation to the dearest interests of the beloved country. The national
+flag is tricolored, formed of three horizontal bands of red, gold, and
+green, of equal width, placed with the red across the top, the gold
+in the middle, and the green below. In the centre of the flag is the
+national coat of arms, between two branches of laurel and olive. The
+red of the flag symbolizes the animal kingdom; the gold the mineral;
+and the green the vegetable. The national holidays are February 3d,
+which is the birthday anniversary of General Sucre; July 24th, General
+Bolivar’s birthday; August 6th, Independence Day; and December 9th,
+the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho, or the general independence
+day of all Spanish South America. Upon these occasions the patriotism
+of the people bursts forth in a flood of oratory, and the churches are
+filled with the devout, who offer prayers for the prosperity of the
+beloved <i>patria</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_100" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_100.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. VALENTIN ABECIA, SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT OF BOLIVIA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>While the constitution represents a perfect system of legislative,
+executive, and judicial government, its most remarkable feature is
+shown in the equitable and liberal character of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span> those clauses which
+relate to the guarantee of individual rights and liberty. In conformity
+with the best principles of freedom, slavery is abolished, all slaves
+becoming free upon their arrival in Bolivian territory. Suffrage is
+granted to all single male citizens who have reached twenty-one years
+of age and to married men when they have attained the age of eighteen,
+provided they are able to read and write, possess an income of two
+hundred bolivianos, and that their names are inscribed in the civil
+register. Personal security is protected, and torture or other corporal
+punishment is absolutely forbidden under any and all circumstances.
+The death penalty is abolished, except as a punishment for murder,
+parricide, and treason. Arrest or imprisonment must be made in strict
+accordance with the law, but in cases of <i>flagrante delicto</i>,
+can be made without a warrant and by any person. Civil and criminal
+law apply equally to all. Political offences cannot be punished by
+confiscation of property. Political and civil rights are freely
+granted, the freedom of the press and the right of peaceable assembly
+are recognized, any lawful trade or profession may be pursued, and
+it is permitted to teach under government supervision. The sanctity
+of the home is inviolable, all property, private correspondence,
+trademarks, and copyrights are protected, and private correspondence,
+if violated, cannot be used as legal evidence. The public debt, and all
+contracts and agreements entered into by the state, according to law,
+are guaranteed. The right of transit throughout the republic is free,
+except as restricted by international law.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_101">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_101.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CALLE DE RECREO, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p>
+
+<p>As the constitution provides that “all men enjoy in Bolivia the same
+civil rights, the exercise of which is regulated by civil law,”
+the foreigner receives due consideration. If he wishes to become a
+citizen, he may declare this intention before the municipal authorities
+wherever his place of residence is located, after having been a
+resident of the republic for one year, or he may obtain his certificate
+of naturalization as a concession from the Chamber of Deputies. In
+any case he enjoys the immunities granted by the law to sons of the
+country; he may freely manifest his political and religious ideas
+without molestation; he pays the same taxes as the native Bolivian, and
+is not obliged to serve in the army. As a citizen he may be appointed
+a deputy, senator, minister of state, minister of justice, prefect,
+general or captain in the army. The foreigner may make his home in any
+part of the republic that offers an inducement to enterprise, feeling
+that there is no danger of molestation, unless he choose to seek
+adventure in the trackless forests of the Chaco or to hunt big game in
+the remote regions of the Beni. A traveller may journey through the
+country peacefully, and, indeed, the rural districts of Bolivia are as
+safe as the streets of a quiet town of New England. Never has Bolivia
+faced a more promising outlook than at the present time, when peace
+reigns in its foreign and domestic relations; when industrial progress
+is showing greater signs of activity than ever before; when public
+instruction is broadening out, and seeking higher levels; and when,
+as the president’s message of 1905 expresses it, there is “a strongly
+accentuated tendency toward the improvement of the national finances.”
+This very satisfactory condition of affairs is largely due to the
+superior executive and administrative ability of the president, his
+excellency, General Ismael Montes, who, since his election in 1904, has
+consecrated every effort to promote the progress and well-being of his
+country.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_102" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_102.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. MIGUEL DE LOS SANTOS TABORGA, THE LATE
+ARCHBISHOP OF LA PLATA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>One of the youngest presidents in the world, being still in the early
+forties, the chief executive of Bolivia exemplifies in his life and
+character the highest aspirations of patriotism and public-spirited
+enterprise. President Montes is by birth a Paceño, as natives of La
+Paz are called, and his public career began at a very early age, his
+sterling moral qualities and the vigor and energy of his mind combining
+to make him a conspicuous figure among the students of the university
+long before he became noted as a lawyer of ability and a journalist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>
+famous for the austerity of his principles and his uncompromising
+fidelity to the laws of justice and equity. In the midst of the most
+turbulent crises of politics, his voice and his pen have always been
+guided by serene and unwavering judgment. It was soon recognized that
+the young politician possessed the rare qualities of a leader, and that
+he was destined to achieve the highest positions of the state. When
+the Liberal revolution was installed in La Paz, he rose rapidly in the
+esteem of the Federal party, and was made colonel and chief of staff
+of the army which under General Pando defeated and overthrew President
+Alonso. Later, as minister of war in President Pando’s Cabinet, his
+genius as an organizer and as an executive chief became noted through
+many reforms, and the fortitude of his character was evinced in an
+especial manner. At the head of a division, he took part in the Acre
+campaign against Brazil, marching with his troops across the mountains
+and through the forests of northern Bolivia to the remote frontier. In
+a second expedition to Acre, which he made in company with President
+Pando, his animated and audacious spirit, the correctness of his manner
+of living, and the strict system of discipline maintained in his army,
+as well as the serenity of his disposition and his indefatigable zeal,
+so completely won the admiration of his countrymen, that he began to be
+looked upon as their choice for a political chief, and to be named as
+the prospective president of the country. The proof of the political
+prestige which he had gained without apparent effort is seen in the
+triumph of his election, with its enormous majority. The administration
+of President Montes is marked by progress in every department, of
+a character to reveal constantly the calm, strong, and independent
+judgment of a statesman who looks always forward, like a good helmsman
+guiding the ship of state without fear and without favor across the
+uncertain sea of national politics.</p>
+
+<p>The president’s first representative, Señor Dr. Don Eliodoro Villazón,
+vice-president of the republic and president of the national Congress,
+is among the greatest of Bolivia’s statesmen. His career has been one
+of marked distinction, not only during the present administration,
+but through a long period of devoted service to his country. It is a
+pronounced trait of his character that “his word is as good as his
+bond,” and that in all his acts are shown a lofty sense of duty and a
+firm and unwavering purpose. As diplomatist, orator, financier, and
+politician, Dr. Villazón ranks with the best that South America has
+produced, and, as Mr. Elihu Root observed in a recent address on the
+subject, “there are many remarkably good statesmen in South America.”</p>
+
+<p>The second vice-president, Señor Dr. Don Valentin Abecia, represents
+the best ideals of the nation in his sterling character and superior
+intellectual gifts. Dr. Abecia is not only a statesman, but a scholar
+as well, and he has done a great deal to stimulate a love of learning
+in his country. As president of the Geographic Society of Sucre,
+and as director of the Medical School, his name is associated with
+modern progress in Bolivia along the lines of research and scientific
+experiment. In politics, Dr. Abecia is esteemed for his correct
+principles and scrupulous honor.</p>
+
+<p>In the ecclesiastical government of Bolivia the executive is
+represented by the Archbishop of La Plata, one of the highest
+dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church, reverenced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> for his great
+piety and esteemed for rare mental gifts. Archbishop Pifferi was
+appointed to succeed the much beloved Archbishop Taborga, by whose
+death in December, 1905, the whole Bolivian nation was plunged into
+grief, so greatly had the noble prelate, during a long and useful
+lifetime, endeared himself to the hearts of the people. The present
+archbishop is of Italian birth, and is fifty-eight years of age. He
+came to Bolivia first as a missionary of the Franciscan order in 1872,
+and from the Franciscan college at Tarija he directed his labors to
+the savage districts of the northern Chaco, where he became very
+popular with the Indians, learning their language and constituting
+himself their protector. From this “footstool of humility,” the young
+missionary rose to be prefect of missions, then to be guardian of
+the order in Tarija, and later commissary-general of the Franciscan
+order in Bolivia, during which time he visited every mission in the
+country, travelling two thousand five hundred miles on muleback. After
+twenty-seven years in Bolivia he returned to Rome, remaining only for
+a short time, when he was appointed by Pope Leo XIII. Apostolic Vicar
+of the Beni. Soon afterward, Archbishop Taborga, with the approval of
+President Montes, called him to the charge of archbishop’s coadjutor,
+with the right of succession, and he was consecrated in Rome in
+October, 1905. Archbishop Taborga died before the arrival of his
+assistant; and as soon as Archbishop Pifferi reached La Paz, he was
+notified of his succession to the archiepiscopal see by the foreign
+minister, Señor Don Claudio Pinilla, who is also the minister of
+worship. The illustrious Bishop of La Paz, Dr. Armentia, is one of the
+most learned churchmen of South America, and the Bishops of Cochabamba
+and Santa Cruz are devoted propagandists of the national religion.</p>
+
+<p>Never in the history of the republic have the ruling powers in both
+Church and state worked with greater zeal for the interests of national
+progress and prosperity than under the existing government, and the
+outlook is promising for the advancement of the country in all that
+pertains to its development.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_104">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_104.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STREET SCENE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_106" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_106.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF BOLIVIA IN CONFERENCE
+WITH THE FOREIGN DIPLOMATIC CORPS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE PRESIDENT’S CABINET—DEPENDENCIES OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">With a liberal constitution and a president ambitious for his country’s
+progress and prosperity, Bolivia has the additional guarantee of good
+government assured in a judiciously chosen Cabinet of state. By good
+judgment in the appointment of his ministers, as well as in other acts
+of executive authority, President Montes has contributed to make the
+present administration an epoch in the history of national progress.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_107" style="max-width: 312px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_107.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON CLAUDIO PINILLA, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The work of the state department is in charge of six
+<i>ministerios</i>: foreign affairs and worship, government and
+promotion, justice and instruction, finance and industry, war,
+colonization and agriculture. Through the department of foreign affairs
+the international relations of the government are maintained, foreign
+treaties are made, the representatives of the government abroad
+are appointed, and all details of the administration as it affects
+Bolivia’s attitude toward other nations are consummated. Under the
+present government the Foreign Office has been particularly occupied
+with the settlement of boundary questions, and, as the minister’s
+annual report for last year shows, with very satisfactory results. A
+problem of first importance to Bolivia, especially since the loss of
+its seaboard, has been that of establishing the frontiers and securing
+necessary privileges of transportation over the railroads, and of
+shipment through the seaports of neighboring republics. Referring
+to this purpose, the president said in his last annual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span> message to
+Congress: “The executive has not believed that even the legitimate
+and patriotic aim to preserve the territorial integrity should be
+sufficient, without counting upon other elements, to stand in the
+way of diplomatic arrangements counselled by reason and imposed by
+circumstances.” And, he adds, with correct judgment: “Bolivia can live
+and develop with more or less kilometres of territory, but it cannot
+do so, however immeasurable its extent, without industries, without
+credit, without economic vitality.” It is this tone of practical
+statesmanship which animates the entire Cabinet as well as the
+president. The minister of foreign affairs, Señor Don Claudio Pinilla,
+is particularly well equipped for the duties of his office at this time
+when boundary questions are of paramount importance, having rendered
+his country valuable services in settling international disputes not
+only under the present government, but in the capacity of special
+envoy to Brazil during General Pando’s presidency, when he succeeded
+in arranging the difficult Acre dispute to the eminent credit of his
+diplomatic perspicacity. A Paceño by birth, Señor Pinilla began his
+public career in his twenty-fifth year, while still a student of law,
+being chosen as a member of the commission sent in 1883 to Caraccas
+to carry to the land of the great liberator a message from Bolivia on
+the centenary of the hero’s birth. In 1884 Señor Pinilla received his
+degree as a lawyer, and a year later he entered the diplomatic service,
+being appointed secretary of the Bolivian legation in Paraguay. The
+chief work of the legation was the concluding of a treaty of limits
+between the two countries, and the young secretary, who, in the
+meantime, had attracted much attention by his clear and well-defined
+discussion of international questions in the press, remained in
+Paraguay as <i>chargé d’affaires</i>, upon the return of the minister
+after the treaty settlement. In his new capacity he displayed the
+energy of a great character by his close study and complete mastery
+of every detail that concerned his country’s relation with Paraguay.
+He initiated plans for its improvement through the opening up of
+new roads between the two countries, in recognition of which he was
+presented with a gold medal by the national Senate of Bolivia in
+1888. From Paraguay Señor Pinilla was called to be secretary to the
+president, and from that post he was sent to Chile as secretary of the
+Bolivian legation. During all this time the young diplomat devoted
+his attention especially to the study of international limits, and
+when in 1896 he was appointed minister to Peru, it was understood that
+he had been chosen because of his complete knowledge of the boundary
+question, the chief purpose of his mission to Lima being to represent
+his government’s interests in the solution of this difficult problem.
+It was during his residence at Lima that the Federal party of La
+Paz, of which his brother Señor Don Macario Pinilla was one of the
+leaders, declared against Alonso’s government; and as he was heartily
+in sympathy with his brother’s cause, he resigned the post of minister
+to Peru in order to join the ranks of the revolutionists. After the
+overthrow of President Alonso and the election of President Pando he
+was sent as minister to Chile. Later, when the solution of the Acre
+territory dispute between Bolivia and Brazil called for great diplomacy
+and a thorough knowledge of boundary questions, the government found in
+Señor Pinilla a representative worthy of its utmost confidence, and he
+was sent to Rio de Janeiro, accomplishing the purpose of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> mission
+with signal success. As a statesman his knowledge of human nature, his
+keen observation and unfailing discretion, and the enthusiasm of his
+energy in promoting the interests of his country have won for him the
+general respect of the people.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_109">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_109.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RECEPTION ROOM OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Through the Foreign Office the relations of the government with its
+diplomatic and consular representatives are sustained, many of whom are
+among the country’s best statesmen and scholars, and in charge of its
+legations in London, Paris, Washington, and other foreign capitals.
+The Bolivian minister at the Court of Saint James, Dr. Fernando E.
+Guachalla, is one of the most gifted of South American diplomats. His
+experience has been gained in several very difficult missions, in which
+he acquitted himself with distinction. After the treaty of Ancón,
+by which Peru withdrew from alliance with Bolivia, Señor Guachalla
+was sent to Lima as secretary of the Bolivian legation, remaining as
+<i>chargé d’affaires</i> when the minister returned. In this post,
+of special importance at such a time, he proved himself possessed of
+superior diplomatic ability, and here he laid the foundation of a
+career remarkable in fruitful results and increasing in importance,
+as the extraordinary talents of the man became better known and
+recognized. When the revolution of 1891, which was first federalist and
+then liberal and reactionary, was installed, Dr. Guachalla was made
+secretary-general of its governing board; and after the establishment
+of General Pando’s government, he was appointed minister of foreign
+affairs. At the head of a special mission he visited Mexico, and was
+one of the leading figures in the Pan-American Congress there; soon
+afterward he received the appointment of minister to Washington. It
+was during his stay at the capital of the United States that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> the
+complications of the Acre difficulty began to approach an international
+crisis, and from Washington his government sent him to Rio de Janeiro
+to confer with Minister Pinilla in the negotiations for the settlement
+of that thorny question with Brazil. Like Señor Pinilla, Dr. Guachalla
+has given especial attention to the boundary question. After the
+conclusion of the Acre affair he was appointed minister to Buenos
+Aires, where he was called upon to discuss problems connected with the
+Argentine arbitration of the Peru-Bolivian boundary dispute, which
+required skilful judgment and an accurate knowledge of the subject.
+In 1906 Dr. Guachalla was appointed to his present post as Bolivian
+minister at the court of Great Britain.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_110" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_110.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON ANIBAL CAPRILES, MINISTER OF GOVERNMENT AND
+PROMOTION.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>At Paris and Berlin the legation of Bolivia is in charge of Señor Don
+Francisco Argandoña, Prince de Glorieta, whose magnificent property is
+one of the show places of Sucre, though the prince and princess live
+chiefly in Paris, where they are well known and much beloved. As a
+prince of the papal court, the minister has great influence in church
+circles, and as Bolivia’s richest banker his word is important in the
+financial world. He is a clever diplomatist, and has been successful
+in settling important international questions. The government is
+represented at Washington by one of the most experienced diplomats
+in the foreign service, Señor Don Ignacio Calderón, who has lived at
+the North American capital for many years. His influence has been
+valuable in promoting the friendly relations that exist between the two
+countries, politically and commercially. His distinguished wife is a
+native of the United States, and his children were born in that country.</p>
+
+<p>In the recent negotiations between Bolivia and Peru regarding their
+commercial relations, which had been unfavorably affected by Bolivia’s
+treaty with Chile, the Bolivian minister at Lima, Señor Don Benedicto
+Goitia, whose ability as a politician and a parliamentarian places him
+among the leaders of his country, was called upon to act on behalf of
+Bolivian interests, and the success of his mission won the applause of
+his countrymen. The Bolivian highlands have given to the world more
+than one diplomat of extraordinary talent, entitled to be named among
+the most distinguished representatives of the great world powers. Force
+of will and fearlessness seem to be the predominating characteristics
+of the people of the region. Perhaps the free air of the altitude
+“above the heights to which fear may climb” favors a dispassionate
+study of one’s fellowman, his strength and his weakness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> and the will
+is more able to assert itself because sure of its power. Considering
+the limited scope allowed for the exercise of his talent, the Bolivian
+diplomat has frequently shown wonderful qualities; and as in the
+twentieth century diplomacy bids fair to be a more important national
+equipment in any country than a strong army and navy, it is essential
+that this branch of the government should receive especial attention.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_111" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_111.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON JUAN M. SARACHO, MINISTER OF JUSTICE AND
+INSTRUCTION.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The department of government and public works, or, as it is called,
+Ministerio de Gobierno y Fomento, directs the affairs of the
+interior as distinct from foreign affairs. Everything relating to
+departmental, provincial, and municipal government, and the promotion
+of public works is under the supervision of this <i>ministerio</i>,
+and it is one of the most important branches of the administration,
+particularly at present, when the government is devoting constant and
+profound attention to the improvement of its political system and the
+development of public works. In the annual report of this department
+recently presented to Congress, it is seen that many reforms have
+been made in matters affecting the well-being of society, such as
+sanitation, police surveillance, the protection of the Indian from
+abuses of the petty authorities, and the better regulation of the
+government’s mail service. Bolivia is a member of the Universal
+Postal Union; newspapers and printed matter are mailed free to any
+point within the republic; the law punishes severely any tampering
+with the mail or fraudulent use of its privileges. The system of
+post-office money orders has been established between Bolivia and the
+principal foreign countries, and a parcel post service was recently
+adopted between Bolivia and the United States. The annual report of
+the director-general of post offices, Señor Dr. Victor Sanjinés,
+shows that seven hundred and seventy-nine thousand seven hundred and
+ninety letters, packages, etc., were received from foreign sources,
+and two hundred and fifty-five thousand eight hundred and seventeen
+sent to foreign addresses last year. The internal mail service shows
+the receipts and despatching of mail to have been about equal, nearly
+two million letters. The foreign correspondence is despatched through
+the ports of Peru, Chile, and Argentina, according to agreement with
+those countries. In the interior of the republic there is a weekly
+service to all parts of the country, and the more accessible districts
+have semi-weekly delivery of mails. Germany ranks first on the list
+of foreign correspondence other than South American, France and
+the United States coming next about evenly. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> minister’s report
+shows a marked improvement in the revenues from the mail service,
+both foreign and domestic; last year’s returns noting an increase
+of fifteen thousand bolivianos over those of the previous year. In
+public works, which are under the supervision of this department,
+in the branch of <i>fomento</i>, or promotion, progress has been
+stimulated as never before in the history of the country, the uppermost
+question at the present moment in the councils of state being the
+construction of a great system of railroads in accordance with a plan
+which aims to unite the most thickly populated centres, and proposes
+to bring railway facilities to the mining districts and to promote
+commercial interchange on the Amazon, the Paraguay, the La Plata, and
+the Pacific. The minister of this department, Dr. Anibal Capriles,
+voices the national sentiment in his report to Congress this year,
+when he says: “We aspire to gradual, homogeneous development by our
+own efforts, and this is the policy which the present administration
+seeks to carry out, with the support of the best popular element and
+upon the ample basis of justice and right. As should be the case, the
+administration recognizes neither political parties nor territorial
+circumscriptions; eminently national, it has acted with equal zeal in
+all sections of the republic, studying the most urgent necessities
+and seeking to make the improvements respond to legitimate interests.
+The plan of the government has been, in brief, to work steadily and
+surely under the shelter of order and liberty.” Dr. Capriles is himself
+an indefatigable worker, with extraordinary executive ability, and
+under his systematic direction of affairs, the various branches of his
+department despatch daily an enormous amount and variety of work. A
+native of Cochabamba, Dr. Capriles received his earliest lessons in
+patriotism and political science in that city. While a student at the
+university he became associated with the brightest minds of the country
+in the publication of periodicals devoted to the liberal principles
+which are represented in the present government. He was the leader of
+the opposition during Alonso’s administration, and became the head of
+the revolutionary party in Cochabamba, which seconded the movement in
+La Paz, in 1898, contributing to bring about the change that resulted
+in the establishment of the present governing power. Elected second
+vice-president by the conventional assembly and appointed minister of
+government two years later, Dr. Capriles has held high offices in the
+administrations of President Pando and President Montes, having been
+acting president during the six months that General Pando was with his
+army in the Acre territory. Dr. Capriles is a writer of distinguished
+ability, and his biography of General Sucre is one of the valued
+contributions to South American literature.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_113">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_113.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">OFFICES OF THE MINISTER OF JUSTICE AND INSTRUCTION.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Impressed with the necessity for giving increased attention to
+the administration of justice and public instruction, the present
+government has initiated important reforms in this department in
+accordance with the suggestions of the minister, Señor Don Juan M.
+Saracho, who has made a careful study of existing conditions and the
+possibilities of improvement. A characteristic feature of the present
+Cabinet is the absolute fearlessness of its attitude, collectively
+and individually, in treating of any evils of the body politic which
+require amendment. The period of soothing and flattering messages to
+Congress has passed with the gold-laced <i>poseur</i> whom tradition
+loves to picture in Spanish-American politics;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> and the annual report
+of a Cabinet minister to-day may be expected to present a true idea
+of the actual state of affairs in his department. Señor Saracho gives
+the result of his year’s administration in clear-cut phrases, urging
+reform where needed, and expressing satisfaction where progress has
+been encouraging. In every branch there is the manifest determination
+to strengthen the efficiency of the public service, to cut off
+whatever is useless and cumbersome and to build up a perfect system.
+The question of public instruction occupies a very prominent place
+in Señor Saracho’s department, and public opinion has not been slow
+to grasp the importance of establishing schools in every part of the
+republic upon a more advanced basis than that formerly existing, when
+the primary school was unknown and the university was within reach of
+only a favored few. The present minister of instruction proposes fewer
+universities and a greater number of primary schools, which is the only
+practical basis of popular education. In accordance with the liberal
+views which he has held throughout his public career, Señor Saracho
+believes in the right of every citizen to share the privileges of
+public instruction, and he regards this as one of the great principles
+of national progress. He has devoted much attention to questions of
+education, and long before his appointment to the Cabinet, when as a
+rising lawyer he made his home in Potosí after being graduated from
+the university in Sucre, he was recognized as an enthusiastic advocate
+of popular education. Although a native of Tarija, Señor Saracho’s
+home has been for many years in Potosí. Upon the fall of President
+Alonso’s government he was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> elected representative from that city to
+the national convention at Oruro, in October, 1899, where he became
+president of the committee on the constitution, and vice-president of
+the assembly. After the close of its sessions he was appointed rector
+of the University of Potosí, and he remained in this post until elected
+senator from the department of Tarija in 1902, being chosen secretary
+of the Senate in 1903. At the close of 1903 President Pando called
+him to the ministry of justice and public instruction, and upon his
+resignation at the end of President Pando’s term of office, he was
+again appointed by President Montes. Señor Saracho possesses a thorough
+knowledge of existing conditions in his country and has absolute
+confidence in its future greatness. His optimism is wholesome, genial,
+and of a character to inspire a like sentiment in all who come within
+the influence of his singularly magnetic voice.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_114" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_114.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON DANIEL DEL CASTILLO, MINISTER OF FINANCE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>As the treasury is the barometer by which a nation judges its “weather
+prospect”; and as the prosperity or depression of industrial activity
+is a sure indication of general conditions, the department of finance
+and industry has especial interest from an economic standpoint.
+Under its direction all the financial operations of the government
+are consummated. The general income of the republic is divided into
+national, departmental, and municipal revenues. The national revenue
+arises from customs taxes; duties on the exportation of silver,
+tin, copper, bismuth, gold, and rubber; imports paid by anonymous
+societies and mining enterprises; bridge tolls; imported alcohols and
+<i>aguardientes</i>; consular bills, mortgages, trademarks, mining
+patents, stamped paper, and stamps; the mint, the state telegraph,
+land taxes, pensions, and university degrees. The national resources
+have been increased recently by the Brazilian and Chilean indemnities.
+These sums will be spent in the construction of railroads. The national
+revenues are administered by the director of the national treasury
+in accordance with the budgets of the various <i>ministerios</i>
+endorsed by the minister of finance. The departmental revenues arise
+chiefly from the territorial contribution of Indians, taxes on landed
+property, duties on the importation and exportation of cattle, on
+legacies, tithes, taxes on hides and skins, and from other sources
+peculiar to each department. The departmental funds are administered
+by the director of the public treasury in each department. Congress
+discusses and votes the general budget, national and departmental,
+annually, designating the revenues and determining the expenses; the
+minister of finance and the prefects of the departments supervise the
+disposal of the budget in accordance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span> with the decision of Congress.
+The annual budget balances at about ten million bolivianos. As has been
+said, Bolivia has no external debt; the internal debt is stated at four
+million bolivianos. A national office of public credit is charged to
+certify the internal debt. A national tribunal of accounts exists for
+the purpose of settling accounts in all branches of the administration,
+national, departmental, and municipal. It is composed of five
+magistrates elected by the president from a ternary list provided by
+the Senate; the principal accountants are named by the president from a
+ternary list of the tribunal, and the remaining employés are appointed
+by the tribunal. The magistrates of the tribunal can be removed only
+under sentence of the supreme court of justice.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_115">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_115.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE QUARTEL, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The promising financial outlook of the country is indicated by the
+spontaneous offers of loans that have come recently from English and
+Belgian capitalists, amounting in the first case to a million, and in
+the second to two million pounds sterling. The minister of finance
+and industry, Señor Don Daniel del Castillo, comments on these offers
+in his report for 1905, regarding them as a proof of the favorable
+condition of Bolivian credit in European markets, and as a guarantee
+of the facility with which funds could be obtained if necessary to
+develop the national industries. Señor Castillo is very hopeful for the
+future of industrial enterprise in his country, when the new railways
+are completed, to facilitate transportation, and when regulations
+are once established to protect infant industries. An ardent patriot
+and for years one of the staunch leaders of the liberal party now in
+power, Señor Castillo represents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> the spirit of the new Bolivia, which
+has outgrown the ebullitions of juvenile temper, and has settled down
+to the task of full grown government. A statesman of high ideals and
+practical methods, he devotes all his talents to the public service,
+and in the councils of state is distinguished for his correct decisions
+and far-seeing judgment.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_116" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_116.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. JOSÉ QUINTEROS, MINISTER OF WAR.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The war department is now chiefly occupied with the reorganization of
+the army, in fulfilment of a decree of the president, issued March 3,
+1905, calling for a new military registration of all Bolivians from
+eighteen years of age upward, without distinction of social class.
+It is the intention of the government to give no opportunity for the
+evasion of the law which makes military service obligatory, and the
+minister of war, Señor Dr. José S. Quinteros, says: “When it is a
+question of the militarization of the country and of the national
+defence, there are no privileged social classes, no exclusions for
+professional reasons; every Bolivian, of whatever social condition and
+whatever profession, is obliged to fulfil the sacred duty of preparing
+himself and educating himself in a military sense. And the best school
+of military education and apprenticeship is the quartel; it is there
+that practical lessons in military science are given, and that one
+learns the love of country, consecrating to it the sacrifice of one’s
+life if necessary.” By following the proposed system of giving military
+education and instruction to all Bolivians within the quartels, calling
+them into the service at determined periods, it is believed that
+within a few years Bolivia will be able to count on a large number of
+citizens prepared for war. By the laws of the country, every citizen is
+a soldier except the clergy, the only sons of aged parents, fathers of
+more than two children, and those whose brothers have died in national
+war. Those who enjoy immunity from conscription are required to pay a
+small semi-annual tax during the years in which they would otherwise
+serve. The Bolivian army is divided into two principal categories,
+the troops of the line and the reserves; the latter are again divided
+into the pledged troops of the line, composed of young men between
+twenty and twenty-five years of age, who form an integral part of the
+army of the line and may be sent to the quartel at a moment’s notice
+if necessary; the ordinary reserve, of men from twenty-five to thirty
+years of age; the extraordinary reserve, from thirty to forty years
+of age; and the territorial guard, from forty to fifty years of age.
+The total strength of the army, counting it in these divisions, is one
+hundred and two thousand five hundred and sixty men.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span></p>
+
+<p>The military departments correspond to the political departments, the
+prefect being also <i>commandante general</i>. In each department
+capital there is a chief of staff, who is a subaltern of the
+<i>commandante general</i>, and has charge of the transmission of
+military judgments in civil as well as criminal cases. The republic is
+also divided into five military zones: the north, which includes the
+department of La Paz; the centre, including Oruro and Cochabamba; the
+south, Chuquisaca, Potosí, and Tarija; the east, Santa Cruz; and the
+northwest, including the Beni and the Territorio Nacional de Colonias.
+The military park is in La Paz, where it occupies the edifice of the
+Intendencia de la Guerra; its dependencies are in Oruro and Potosí.
+The Escuela de Guerra, which has for its object the preparation of
+technical experts for the service of the general staff and instructors
+for the army, is under the direction of the war department, as is also
+the Colegio Militar, designed to give practical military training in
+all its branches. The general inspection of the army is in charge of
+General of Division Clodomiro Montes, who has recently made a journey
+through the republic, completing a thorough investigation of the
+various branches of military service. The result of his observations
+has been to confirm the necessity for a new military census and a
+reorganization of the army. General Montes is a distinguished figure
+in military circles, not only of his own country, but abroad, with a
+brave and honorable war record, and in his effort to raise the military
+standard of Bolivia he is adding an additional service to the many
+he has rendered in behalf of the nation. The minister of war, Dr.
+Quinteros, a native of the “Villa Imperial,” Potosí, is one of the
+youngest members of the Cabinet, though his name is well known not
+only in political, but in literary circles of South America, where
+his works on constitutional law have been widely read. He was several
+times elected deputy before entering the present Cabinet as minister,
+and in 1903 was president of the Chamber of Deputies. A lawyer of
+distinguished talents, he has contributed in an important degree to
+the advancement of knowledge in legal matters, especially through his
+lectures to the students of the law classes in the University of San
+Francisco Xavier, Sucre, where he occupied the chair of jurisprudence
+for several years.</p>
+
+<p>In order to give adequate attention to the important questions of
+immigration, colonization, and agriculture, the government organized
+in October, 1904, the Ministerio de Colonias y Agricultura, appointing
+as minister Señor Manuel Vicente Ballivian, whose thorough knowledge
+of all subjects relating to Bolivia, whether historical, political,
+or commercial, makes him a veritable encyclopædia of information. So
+universally is he recognized as an authority in this respect, that
+he is quoted in nearly all books of reference on Bolivia in whatever
+country or language. Señor Ballivian is an accomplished linguist and a
+writer of great talent, as well as a statesman, inheriting many of the
+distinguished gifts of his illustrious family, of whom General José
+Ballivian, Dr. Adolfo Ballivian, and the minister’s father, Don Vicente
+Ballivian y Rojas, are particularly noted for their fine intellects.
+Señor Ballivian has translated into Spanish all the more important
+works written on his country by foreigners, and he has contributed to
+its bibliography scores of interesting books and pamphlets written
+by himself. In all his works the chief purpose is the dissemination
+of knowledge regarding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span> the immense resources of Bolivia, and the
+opportunity it offers as a field for great industrial enterprises. When
+called to the ministry of colonization and agriculture, Señor Ballivian
+had already made his services most valuable to the government through
+the Geographic Society of La Paz, of which he is president, and the
+National Bureau of Immigration, Statistics, and Geographic Propaganda,
+which is under his direction. In his first annual report to Congress,
+Señor Ballivian gives his plan for promoting immigration, which is
+to secure only those colonists who come voluntarily to the country,
+attracted by its great resources, good climate, and favorable laws,
+thus avoiding the disastrous consequences of promiscuous immigration,
+such as has afflicted neighboring republics, where the too liberal
+importation of immigrants has frequently resulted in the necessity
+for shipping the newcomers back to Europe at great expense. It is
+the opinion of Señor Ballivian, endorsed by the government, that
+more satisfactory colonization will be accomplished if immigrants
+are brought out at their own risk, after being supplied with full
+information about the country through the consulates and immigration
+agencies, which will be provided with literature in various languages
+for distribution as propaganda.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_118" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_118.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN, MINISTER OF
+COLONIZATION AND AGRICULTURE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Bearing on the subject of colonization, an important law governing
+the acquisition of unfilled lands was passed by Congress in October,
+1905. According to its provisions, state lands can be acquired only
+by purchase, except under special dispositions and laws. The unit of
+measurement is the hectare, equivalent to a trifle less than two and
+one-half acres. The ownership of land does not carry unrestricted
+rights as to minerals, which are regulated by mining laws. Everyone,
+native or foreigner, capable of conforming to the civil law is
+permitted to purchase from the state as much as twenty thousand
+hectares, paying cash therefor at the rate of ten centavos, equivalent
+to four and one-half cents gold, per hectare, for land suitable to
+agriculture and cattle raising; for lands which contain productive
+rubber trees the price is one boliviano per hectare. Purchasers are
+obliged to establish on their lands at least one family for each
+thousand hectares. Concessions for more than twenty thousand hectares
+are subject to the approval of Congress. After the land has been
+granted, it is measured and the limits are marked by two experts,
+one of whom is appointed by the government and the other by the
+purchaser, the expenses of both being paid by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> purchaser; on the
+termination of this work, the respective authorities are notified and
+the concession is recorded in the prescribed registers. For purposes of
+immigration the government reserves such lands as it deems necessary,
+holding certain tracts also for distribution among the Indians, for
+establishing government institutions, founding villages, building
+roads, and promoting foreign investment and enterprise. Neither those
+acquiring lands nor their successors are permitted to oppose the
+opening of roads and streets through their property or the building
+of railroads across their lands, when an increase of population
+requires it, nor will they have the right of indemnity, except for the
+construction work done on the land which the roads cover. All matters
+relating to these land laws are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
+minister of colonies. The executive and the <i>delegados nacionales</i>
+of the Territorio de Colonias and the Gran Chaco have the power to sell
+the government lands within their respective territorial limits, in
+conformity with the provisions of the present law and the regulations
+authorized by the executive for its execution. Not only has the
+government made every possible effort to facilitate the opening up of
+hitherto uncultivated regions, but it has promulgated particularly
+favorable laws to govern the adjudication of lands and the guarantees
+and protection which are offered to the foreigner. Furthermore, the
+districts, or <i>zonas</i>, which are to be appropriated to purposes
+of colonization, have been specified by law and arranged in groups
+according to the nature of products and climate.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the Territorio de Colonias, which offers special
+inducements for colonization, there are vast lands in the Departments
+of the Beni, Santa Cruz, and Chuquisaca, along the eastern boundary
+of the republic. Probably the most promising field for immigration,
+considering the favorable climate as well as the great resources and
+proximity to the Argentine railway system and the waterways of La
+Plata, is the province of the Gran Chaco, belonging to the department
+of Tarija. This province is now being settled under the direction of
+the intrepid prefect of the department, Señor Don Leocadio Trigo,
+who has travelled through the savage wilds that still exist in this
+region, beyond the most remote districts explored by his predecessors
+in office. He has succeeded in subduing hitherto intransigent tribes,
+and has established government authority in districts never before
+subjected to the laws of civilization. Roads have been opened and
+<i>postas</i> built to facilitate communication between the Chaco
+and the rest of the republic. In his recent message, the minister of
+colonization warmly commends the zeal and patriotism which accomplished
+a work so important to the interests of national progress.</p>
+
+<p>While active efforts toward colonization are thus in progress, the work
+of stimulating agricultural development is occupying the minister’s
+attention in an equal degree. Juntas de Fomento Agricola y Ganadero,
+which are boards for the promotion of agriculture and stock raising,
+have been established throughout the republic, and model farms are
+being instituted for the technical training of agriculturists. A school
+of agriculture has just been founded in the port of Rurrenabaque,
+in the Territorio Nacional de Colonias, and another in Tarija. The
+government proposes also to give elementary lessons in agriculture
+in the primary schools, followed by agricultural studies of a more
+advanced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> character in the secondary schools. The National Bureau
+of Immigration, Statistics, and Geographic Propaganda is annexed
+to the Department of Colonization and Agriculture, and, under the
+indefatigable efforts of Señor Ballivian, the national statistics are
+being compiled in a satisfactory way. In the section of geographic
+propaganda, the minister’s predilection for scientific study and
+research is seen in the institution of a National Museum of Natural
+History; and among the works of geographic propaganda issued by the
+bureau, the material coming from Señor Ballivian’s pen indicates the
+wide range of knowledge he possesses on this subject. The museum
+contains specimens of the production of the soil, objects of interest
+in historical research, as prehistoric fossils and archæological
+specimens; collections of minerals and of plants and animals; of
+weapons and ornaments of the aborigines; to which is added a rare
+collection of coins. As the museum is of recent existence, it is still
+in process of classification, but promises to be one of the most
+interesting and attractive of the national institutions.</p>
+
+<p>The president confers with each of the ministers of his Cabinet upon
+an appointed day of each week, and with the entire Cabinet in council
+once a week. By this method the chief executive is in constant touch
+with all the departments of the government, and the administration
+is directed by the supreme power in perfect accord with the various
+<i>ministerios</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_120">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_120.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PLAZA MURILLO IN FRONT OF THE GOVERNMENT PALACE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_122">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_122.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MUNICIPAL THEATRE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE LADIES OF THE CABINET—SOCIAL LIFE—CHARITIES</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_123">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_123.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A BEAUTIFUL BOLIVIAN.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Under the viceroyalty, when the Audiencia of Charcas represented the
+authority of Spain throughout the greater part of South America, and
+occupied a position hardly second in power to that of the viceroy, the
+capital of Alto Peru, then called Chuquisaca, now Sucre, was the centre
+of culture and fashion for the whole territory comprised in the present
+republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. Imagination can easily
+picture the little court of the Audiencia, and mentally place in its
+charming circle the ladies who gave prestige to its social functions.
+From the stately old palaces with their carved doorways, they look out
+to-day; for the same type of beauty may be seen in the capital now as
+then, a few of the same wonderful palaces remain, and the owner is as
+queenly, as beautiful, and as charming as she could possibly have been
+a century ago. It is always the ladies of the court, the Cabinet, the
+diplomatic corps, who stretch the silken cord of harmony across the gap
+between political and social life and give to the state its ornamental
+feature, without which it would present a cold and unattractive
+spectacle. The Court of Saint James, the White House, the Escurial,
+are names which call to mind, with more pleasure and fascination than
+their chief purpose inspires in most of us, a vision of gay throngs
+in silks and laces and jewels, with Cupid in the midst and proud
+Jupiter benignly looking on. A gallant young minister of state remarked
+recently to the wife of a colleague: “Ah, madam, the Cabinet is only
+a necessary evil; the ladies of the Cabinet are its indispensable
+blessing!” Life at the capitals would often be a dreary routine were
+it not for the gracious hostesses of the administration, who inspire
+by their sympathy, and give a charming note of gayety to leisure hours
+with their brilliant balls, receptions, and other entertainments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span></p>
+
+<p>In Bolivia the president and his ministers are nearly all young men;
+and although the president’s wife enjoys the matronly prestige which a
+house full of beautiful children gives, she still looks but little over
+twenty. Possessing a gentle dignity of manner and the rare charm of an
+exquisitely modulated voice, it is a pleasure to be in her company and
+to listen to her genial conversation. The executive mansion is thronged
+on her day of reception, as everyone loves and esteems the <i>Señora
+Presidenta</i>. The poor and unfortunate adore her for her numerous
+benefactions and for her kindly interest in their troubles and needs.
+The home of the president was recently plunged into mourning by the
+death of his eldest daughter, a singularly beautiful and attractive
+young lady, universally admired for her winsome disposition and the
+extraordinary loveliness of her character. The entire nation manifested
+its grief with demonstrations of profound sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>Señora de Pando, the wife of the ex-president, and Señora de Villazón,
+the first vice-president’s wife, while representing distinctly
+different types of Bolivian beauty, are both remarkably handsome
+women. Señora de Pando, who is now in Europe, is a stately figure,
+the <i>grande dame</i> whom painters love to put on canvas; like
+her illustrious husband, she is greatly esteemed and beloved by the
+Bolivian people. Señora de Villazón is of the pure Spanish-American
+type, combining Old World ideals of beauty and grace with a blithe
+spirit which is altogether American and shows nothing of the melancholy
+temperament so often characteristic of the Spaniards. Señora de
+Abecia, the wife of the second vice-president, who, as well as Señora
+de Villazón, is a resident of Sucre, is one of the most charming
+social leaders at the capital. Sucre is among the most European of
+South American cities in its social life and customs, several of its
+representative families having lived a long time abroad, while a great
+many of the younger generation finished their education in French or
+English schools. This influence of the Old World is noticeable in the
+best circles of society, and especially among its more conservative
+leaders. Señora de Abecia is distinguished for her gentle refinement
+and culture; and when she receives in company with her daughter, they
+might easily be mistaken for sisters.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not the climate and the philosophical contentment which
+pervades Bolivian life be responsible, the years seem to pass with
+no more than a graceful bow to the favored ladies of this country.
+The wife of the foreign minister, Señora de Pinilla, impresses one
+as being remarkably young when she presents her grown son, several
+inches taller than herself, who, by the way, has just distinguished
+himself and brought honor to his country as the only American who has
+ever carried away the highest honors, ahead of European students, at
+one of the first schools of Belgium. A daughter, now of the “sweet
+girl graduate” period, and several younger children make life merry
+in this most attractive household. Señora de Pinilla has genius as a
+social leader, and she entertains with liberal hospitality, possessing
+many of the gifts of mind and heart which were characteristic of her
+illustrious father, Señor Don José Rosendo Gutierrez, and which made
+him so generally beloved. Señora de Capriles, the wife of the minister
+of government, spends much of her time at the easel, and the results
+of her study of art are seen in several beautiful pictures which adorn
+her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> handsome home. The opportunity for studying art is limited in
+Bolivia; and though the country has produced many good artists, the
+circumstances have never been quite favorable to a development of
+this talent, so few teachers being available. Señora de Capriles has
+evidently received instruction abroad, as her work shows the influence
+of European schools.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_125" style="max-width: 438px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_125.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center"> SEÑORA DOÑA BETHSABÉ DE MONTES, WIFE OF THE PRESIDENT OF
+BOLIVIA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Señoras de Montes, de Pinilla, and de Capriles live in La Paz,
+which is at present the seat of government. Señora de Saracho, the wife
+of the minister of justice and instruction, has her home in the city of
+Potosí, far from the centre of official life, under the shadow of the
+famous mountain which poured so much silver into the lap of Spain in
+colonial days, and which is still supplying rich metals to the markets
+of the world. In a picturesque old <i>palacio</i>,—everything old in
+Potosí is picturesque,—on one of the sloping hills of the “Imperial
+Town,” Señora de Saracho lives the ideal home life, welcoming with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>
+true courtesy and kindliness the visitor to that interesting city,
+and charming everyone who meets her by her sweet graciousness and
+unaffected goodness. Whenever it is possible for the minister to get
+away from the arduous duties of his office, he leaves at once for
+Potosí, where he takes his holiday with his beloved family and among
+his precious books. Señora del Castillo, whose husband is finance
+minister, lives in La Paz. She belongs to a very old and aristocratic
+family and is one of the most popular of the Cabinet ladies. In company
+with her clever husband, she holds charming receptions, and entertains
+a host of friends with delightful hospitality.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_126">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_126.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑORA DOÑA HORTENSIA DE PINILLA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>There has never been a time in the history of the republic when
+the name of Ballivian has not been prominent in social as well as
+political affairs, and the present head of the family inherits the
+best characteristics of his noble race. His home is the centre of
+intellectual and social life in La Paz, and Señora de Ballivian, with
+clever sons and lovely daughters to assist her, entertains sumptuously.
+The salon of this gracious hostess is a feature of the social season.
+Her <i>tertulias</i> are more than evening receptions; they are marked
+by a reunion of the best talent, and there is often music, singing,
+the discussion of interesting topics of varied character,—indeed,
+everything that gives a salon its charm. As Señor Ballivian speaks
+many languages fluently, and as Señora Ballivian and her children are
+similarly gifted, foreign visitors to La Paz are especially happy to be
+invited to these “at homes,” which are always enjoyable.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_127">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_127.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CARNIVAL DAYS IN COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The customs of good society are more or less the same in all lands,
+and the popular methods of entertainment vary little in any country
+from those of all others. Climate and circumstances may influence the
+social routine in a moderate degree, but even these are less taken into
+account than may be generally supposed. When a foreigner arrives in La
+Paz for the first time, and the altitude of over twelve thousand feet
+makes breathing difficult to him, to say nothing of the effort required
+to climb the streets of the city which are nearly all at a considerable
+angle toward the perpendicular, his first impression is likely to be:
+“It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> impossible to go about and enjoy life when the mere effort of
+breathing tires one!” but a short residence serves to cure most people
+of the <i>soroche</i>, as this mountain sickness is called, and in the
+social functions which mark the summer season, none of the guests are
+more constantly in evidence than the foreigner, who promenades, dances,
+and banquets with the greatest apparent enjoyment. Long horseback
+rides into the country around La Paz constitute a favorite form of
+amusement, and coaching parties, automobile outings, or picnics by
+train to Tiahuanaco and Lake Titicaca are frequently arranged. Life may
+be passed very agreeably in the City of Peace, and as the government
+officials, with few exceptions, and the entire diplomatic corps, reside
+there, society is represented in its most attractive features. While
+La Paz has the prestige which the residence of the executive and the
+diplomatic corps gives it, Sucre is the centre of the social world as
+represented in some of the wealthiest and most aristocratic families
+of the republic. Cochabamba, the garden city, is the home of many of
+Bolivia’s intellectual leaders, artists, poets, and other great men,
+and it is the centre around which are grouped the great estates of
+several of the most prominent landowners. Potosí rests a good deal on
+the laurels won in colonial days, when it was a city of fabulous wealth
+and fanciful legends, though its society is charming and cultured;
+Oruro is called the “Gringo city,” so many foreigners having made
+it their home, contributing to give it something of a cosmopolitan
+character. Social life in Santa Cruz is simple, but frank and cordial,
+and the generous hospitality of its people is proverbial. The bustle
+and whirl of a strenuous existence do not disturb the serenity of
+any Bolivian city. La Paz leisurely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> takes its coffee between nine
+and ten in the morning, and by five o’clock in the evening the day’s
+work is done, as it should be. What more barbarous than the mad rush
+and scrimmage that characterize the life of the average modern city
+from daybreak until dark! Humanity seems to be caught on a wheel of
+progress, which, the faster it turns in its onward course, the more
+recklessly it grinds the unfortunate victim. It is to be hoped that
+future generations will evolve a more comfortable system, and, if
+it must be rapid, let it be a less tragic process. The proprietress
+of a silkworm industry in Cochabamba complained recently that it
+was impossible to get help to tend the cocoons at night as no one
+would work all night, no matter how well paid. Perhaps this state of
+affairs indicates an indifference to opportunities for bettering one’s
+condition in life and a too easy contentment, but there is, after all,
+something refreshing in the contemplation of an entire community able
+to take its rest undisturbed in the night hours. Isn’t it a glimpse
+of the “simple life” so much lauded by the latter-day philosophers?
+The happiness and well-being of Bolivian society do not depend upon
+the regularity of a suburban train service, upon the attractions of
+the theatrical season, or upon any of the well-known public amusements
+which have become essential to the enjoyment of leisure in the big
+centres of the Old and the New World. At the same time, the chief
+cities have their theatres, one of the best being the Teatro Municipal
+of La Paz, which was built under the administration of General José
+Ballivian and opened to the public in 1845. It has a seating capacity
+for about a thousand spectators, divided into parquet, first and second
+balconies, and a third gallery, which is called the <i>gallinero</i>,
+or hencoop, occupied by the miscellaneous crowd familiarly called
+gallery gods in English and American theatres.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_128" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_128.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑORA DOÑA ISABEL DE CAPRILES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Outdoor sports and pastimes are popular, and there are several
+clubs under whose management races and horse shows are held. The
+<i>cancha</i>, or race track, of La Paz, situated in the suburb
+Sopocachi, is used not only for the races, but for various other
+<i>fiestas</i>, and upon many occasions entertainments are held there
+in the interests of charity. A feature of social life found in all
+Spanish-American countries is the promenade in the plaza, which is
+as attractive in the Bolivian cities as elsewhere. La Paz, Sucre,
+Cochabamba, Potosí, Oruro, and Santa Cruz have their large public
+squares, ornamented with trees and flowers, and having paved walks all
+around for the promenade. A band of music plays in the evening two or
+three times a week, and society puts on its gala dress and spends an
+hour or two in the plaza, the young ladies walking in one direction
+and the young men in the opposite, so that there is a constant
+meeting of “dark eyes” that “look love to eyes which speak again.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>
+Under the marvellously clear light of the moon as it shines over La
+Paz, the effect of the brilliant throng is particularly pleasing and
+picturesque. Bolivians like to enjoy the beauties of nature, and
+live a great deal out of doors. Many take their annual outing in
+a trip by coach to the wonderful health resorts of the Yungas, to
+far-famed Sorata, or to the thermal springs in the neighborhood of
+La Paz, Cochabamba, Sucre, and Potosí. It is quite a popular custom
+for society to go to the seashore during a part of the year, and the
+ports of Mollendo, Arica, and Antofagasta are favorite resorts. With
+the completion of the new railway from La Paz to Arica, the trip can
+be made in a few hours by fast train, so that the popularity of that
+beautiful little coast city may be expected to grow rapidly, not only
+as a commercial port, but as a fashionable bathing resort. Many rich
+families of the principal cities have homes in the country also, where
+they spend a few months every year. The valleys around La Paz, Sucre,
+and Cochabamba are dotted with prosperous-looking haciendas, and there
+are several really magnificent estates. A favorite outing for La Paz
+people is a drive or horseback ride along the road to Obrajes; and
+delightful picnic parties are held in the picturesque little park of
+the town of Obrajes, which overlooks some of the most beautiful scenery
+imaginable. La Paz itself being at too great an altitude to permit of
+luxurious vegetation, it is a treat to find, within a few hours’ ride,
+all the charm of green fields and shady groves. The suburban homes of
+La Paz are many of them very attractive, and pretty chalets look out
+from the hillsides all around.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_129a" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_129a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑORA DOÑA V. DEL CASTILLO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_129b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_129b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">AN AUTOMOBILE PARTY IN COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In the city itself some of the handsomest houses are old palaces of
+the time of the viceroyalty, which, in spite of the necessity for
+modernizing their interiors to provide for twentieth-century comfort,
+still possess that charm of solidity and individuality of design
+which makes them easily recognizable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> from the dwellings of recent
+construction. Their spacious drawing rooms are particularly adapted
+to the entertainment of large parties, and one can imagine that an
+additional touch of romance is given to the gayeties of a ballroom
+about which cling traditions of brilliant social events celebrated a
+century ago. If walls could speak, what tales of chivalry and beauty
+we might hear regarding those days when splendid festivities were
+held to honor the arrival of a noble representative of the court of
+Spain, or to welcome some illustrious envoy of Rome! Society entertains
+with less pomp and pageantry in these republican days; but romance
+knows no epoch, and the old walls, if they could speak, could still
+repeat pretty compliments exchanged “when hearts are young and faces
+fair.” Bridge parties and five o’clock teas are among the more modern
+entertainments of La Paz society. Several of the foreign legations are
+presided over by bachelors, conspicuously those of the United States
+and Germany, though the Hon. W. B. Sorsby, the American minister, and
+Baron von Brück, the German minister, are both excellent hosts, and
+their legations are frequently the scene of charming reunions of La
+Paz society. From reasons of climate, the annual exodus to the country
+is less marked in La Paz than in other cities. Many families remain in
+their town houses all the year round, as there is but little difference
+in the temperature, except that in the winter months of May, June, and
+July it is less agreeable than during the rest of the year, because
+of heavy rains. When the La Paz people seek a change, it is usually
+a change of altitude that is needed, as a few find that the rarefied
+atmosphere produces a tension of the nerves.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_130" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_130.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑORA DE MANUEL VICENTE BALLIVIAN.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The same is true of Potosí, those who require a change frequently
+making a trip to Sucre, which is between three and four thousand feet
+lower than Potosí. The marvellous thermal springs around Potosí, at
+Miraflores, Yocalla, and Don Diego, attract large numbers of invalids.
+The air of La Paz and Potosí is, naturally, pure and healthful, and
+is especially recommended for those who suffer from asthma, many
+remarkable cures having been effected at Potosí, where the conditions
+are particularly favorable. It is sometimes said that the great
+fortunes made in Potosí are spent in Sucre, the more agreeable climate
+of the latter city making it a very desirable place of residence.
+Numbers of wealthy people live in Sucre, some of whom divide their time
+between Paris and that city, while others find life most enjoyable in
+the country, on their haciendas.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_131">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_131.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PREPARING FOR A TOURNAMENT ON THE AVENUE ARCE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Ex-President Don Aniceto Arce, who lived several years in Paris in
+great luxury, with a large household, entertaining almost constantly
+with lavish hospitality, is enjoying the later<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> years of his busy life
+in Sucre, and principally at his beautiful country estate, which covers
+many leagues in the same province. The Alvarez place, near Yotála,
+a few miles out of Sucre, is an ideal country home, with gardens,
+fountains, and a great marble bathing pool; and in the suburbs of the
+city the principality of Glorieta, the Guereo estate, Florida, and
+other handsome properties, testify to the delightful character of
+social life amid surroundings which apparently leave nothing to be
+desired. Under the auspices of the principal clubs in each city, balls
+and banquets are given from time to time, which are celebrated with the
+<i>éclat</i> usual to such functions the world over. At a ball recently
+given by the Union Club of Sucre, at least three-fourths of the ladies
+wore gowns imported from Paris. The dancing differed little from
+the conventional standard in all countries, except that the opening
+quadrille was the stately <i>quadrilla imperial</i>, inherited from
+colonial days, when the Audiencia of Charcas gave to its entertainments
+the grandeur and formality of court functions. In preserving this
+tradition of the past, the society of Sucre retains a very picturesque
+and beautiful custom. There is no capital in South America of which
+the society is more aristocratic, refined, and cultured than that of
+Sucre. In the homes of its rich people are to be found rare <i>objets
+d’art</i>, of which the great marvel is that they were transported to
+their destination across leagues of country in ox-carts or on muleback
+without damage. Great French mirrors, reaching from floor to ceiling,
+adorn the drawing rooms; crystal candelabra, hardly to be duplicated in
+any market to-day, hang from the ceilings; rare old tapestries and fine
+paintings deck the walls; and in cabinets of exquisite design are to
+be seen collections<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> of miniatures, snuffboxes, and other heirlooms of
+great value. In some cases these treasures have been in the possession
+of the family for several generations. Señor Don Arturo Urriolagoitia,
+a connoisseur and collector of rare antiquities, has wonderfully carved
+pieces of old furniture of colonial times, fine tapestries, silver and
+gold ornaments of Inca manufacture, and a collection of very old coins,
+among them the celebrated Roman coin bearing on its face the head of
+Christ, about which so much discussion arose a short time ago, though
+Señor Urriolagoitia had his coin long before the famous “discovery.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_132">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_132.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑORA DE JOSÉ MANUEL PANDO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Sucre and Cochabamba are located at equal distances from the railroad
+line between Oruro and Antofagasta, and upon the completion of the
+proposed railway system they will both be directly connected with it.
+At present it requires from two to five days by coach or muleback to
+reach the railway from either point; so that social life in Cochabamba,
+as well as in Sucre, is undisturbed by continued changes. Cochabamba
+families who trace their origin as far back as the conquest represent
+the stability of social forms and ceremonies; and although the
+old-time “pomp and circumstance” of colonial days has given place to
+a republican simplicity, there is still the same pride of race and
+dignity of character that distinguished the upper classes of this city
+in its earliest history. The climate is ideal, and the city occupies a
+magnificent location under the shelter of the white-crowned mountain
+of Tunari. The ladies of Cochabamba are often spoken of as <i>hijas de
+Tunari</i>, “daughters of Tunari,” and they are proud of the pretty
+title. The automobile has invaded Cochabamba, as it has other Bolivian
+cities, and auto-parties are popular forms of amusement. Garden parties
+are frequent, and the morning horseback ride is among the features of
+the social routine. At Cala-Cala, a picturesque suburb, visitors are
+shown the “Lovers’ Tree”; and, from the well-worn path that leads to
+it, the shade of its ample branches, and the romantic seclusion of the
+spot, one judges that the dear old friend of youth and beauty has not
+lived in vain nor has the title been a misnomer.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_133">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_133.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A CHALET IN THE ALAMEDA, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Much of the Bolivian lady’s time is devoted to charity. Like all her
+South American sisters, she is attentive to the duties of her church
+and the various benevolent institutions which it sustains. According to
+the national constitution, the municipalities are charged with the care
+of charitable institutions, the government making provision for their
+maintenance; but in addition to the establishments provided for by the
+state, many others have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> organized by humanitarian and benevolent
+societies in every department, whose members devote themselves with
+charity and patriotism to the duty of relieving the sufferings of the
+poor and the invalid. In nearly all cases, the management of these
+hospitals and asylums is in charge of the Sisters of Charity, under the
+supervision of a board of directors chosen to represent the society.
+In times of famine or epidemic, which have occurred in consequence
+of failures of the crops in the interior districts, the benevolent
+societies take it upon themselves to assist the government in
+ministering to the relief of the stricken communities. Poverty, in the
+extreme condition in which it is encountered in the overcrowded cities
+of Europe and North America, is practically unknown in Bolivia. As it
+exists, it is generally the result of indolence or improvidence, and
+often arises from absolute indifference to comfort or the most ordinary
+requirements of well-being. The Indian is, in this respect, the most
+serious charge of the state, as his habits are those of the simple
+child of Nature who gives no thought for to-morrow, and is satisfied so
+long as his handful of parched corn and his drink of <i>chicha</i> are
+forthcoming for the day. When these fail by reason of sickness or old
+age, which forbid his earning them, he becomes an object of charity,
+and depends upon the <i>patron</i> or some benevolent society for the
+necessaries of life. Many of the rich landowners have quite an army
+of old retainers who live on their bounty, and nearly all persons of
+wealth contribute to charities. The Prince and Princess de Glorieta
+maintain an orphans’ asylum out of their private fortune, and visitors
+to Sucre are surprised to find at Glorieta a private institution so
+well attended and thoroughly equipped with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> good staff of teachers.
+The girls are taught plain sewing, dressmaking, and kindred domestic
+work, and the boys carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, and other
+customary trades of men. The asylum has a band of music well drilled,
+composed of all the boys belonging to the institution. This band paid
+a delicate compliment recently to two appreciative North American
+visitors by rendering <i>The Star-spangled Banner</i>, which they
+played remarkably well.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_134">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_134.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑORA DE AGUIRRE ACHÁ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>There are in Bolivia more than twenty hospitals, each of which receives
+a subsidy from the government. In nearly all of these the attendants
+are Sisters of Charity, and the ladies of various charitable societies
+are frequent donors. In La Paz the hospitals Landaeta, Loayza, and the
+Lazareto are among the most important, and they are in charge of the
+Santa Ana Sisters of Charity. The Hospital Landaeta, for men, was the
+first founded in La Paz, in 1555, under the direction and government
+of the Cabildo, or Municipal Council. In 1629 it was given over to
+the Brotherhood of Saint John, and in 1664 was rebuilt; among the
+contributors to its improvement and endowment was Señor Don Martin
+Landaeta by whose name it is now known. It has a medical and a surgical
+department; a dispensary for oculist work, a pharmacy, and a hall
+for autopsies. The Loayza Hospital was founded in 1803 by General
+José Ramon de Loayza, and in 1884 a charitable lady of La Paz, Señora
+Sanjinés Uriarte, ordered additions to be built to it at her own
+cost. The budget for hospital service has doubled in less than twenty
+years, showing the increased recognition of the demands of such an
+institution. In Sucre especial attention has been paid to the hygienic
+conditions of the hospitals and asylums, which are eminently creditable
+to the city; the Hospital of Santa Barbara and the Asylum 25 de Mayo
+are particularly well installed and attended. The only insane asylum
+in the republic is the Manicomio Pacheco, of Sucre, so called in honor
+of its illustrious founder, General Gregorio Pacheco, who presented it
+to the nation on October 10, 1884. It is built in modern style, and
+its various <i>salas</i> are commodious and well ventilated. It was
+constructed at an outlay of one hundred and twenty-one thousand seven
+hundred and eighty bolivianos, not including the cost of the site. By
+a law passed in 1885 the national Congress accepted this munificent
+gift of the philanthropic patriot and declared the establishment to
+be of national character, assigning to it a subsidy from the treasury
+of the republic. In Cochabamba the Hospital Viedma takes care of all
+patients sent to it. The Asylum of the Buen Pastor, in La Paz, and
+similar institutions in other cities are designed to provide for the
+helpless and the infirm of all ages. The Buen Pastor, “Asylum of the
+Good Shepherd,” was founded out of funds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> bequeathed for the purpose by
+the charitable Señoras Felipa Cordero and Tadea Guachalla, who left a
+large fortune to be disposed of in this way. The noble object of this
+asylum is to gather into the fold unfortunate women who have stepped
+aside from the path of virtue, and endeavor to save them from further
+vice and crime. It seeks also to give instruction to women, for which
+purpose a girls’ college has been attached to the institution for
+boarding and day pupils. The Orphans’ Home of La Paz is another notable
+charity which has accomplished much good, under the direction of the
+nuns of Saint Vincent de Paul. The boys’ quarters include a refectory,
+school, tailor shop, printing office, and shoemaking and carpentering
+departments, comprising the entire ground floor, with a spacious
+playground; the girls have laundry rooms, bakery, kitchen, sewing room,
+and embroidery frames. The annual cost of this institution is about
+fifty thousand bolivianos, and the officials and inmates number about
+three hundred. Contributions have been made to this worthy charity
+by many of the best-known people of Bolivian society, among them the
+benevolent Señora Modesta Sanjinés Uriarte, who spent her life in deeds
+of kindness to humanity, and left a legacy for their continuance after
+her death.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_135">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_135.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RESIDENCE OF SEÑOR SOLOMON ALEXANDER, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In Cochabamba the sentiment of love for humanity has inspired many
+benevolent efforts on the part of ladies of wealth, and the poor
+and suffering are generally cared for with great kindness. In the
+provinces of the Yungas, notably in Coroico, Chulumani, and Achacachi,
+and in the city of Sorata, hospitals have been founded. Oruro has
+two hospitals, of which one is exclusively for the miners; Tarija
+also has two, the San Juan de Dios and the Lazareto; Potosí, Tupiza,
+Colquechaca, Pulacayo, Santa Cruz, and the Beni—all have hospitals.
+In addition to these, the government maintains offices of hygiene and
+bacteriology in the principal cities; and every effort is made to aid
+the cause of charity by removing the unsanitary conditions which are
+so often responsible for sickness, and consequent distress and want,
+among the very poor. Indeed, it is practically useless to attempt the
+amelioration of existing evils which owe their origin to disease and
+poverty without first improving the surroundings of the suffering and
+unfortunate. With this object in view, the charitable people of Bolivia
+are considering the importance of building better asylums for the sick
+and the infirm; and in some cities, as in Cochabamba, the young ladies
+especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> are taking a more active interest than ever before in
+establishing charitable institutions. The demand for charity is greater
+some years than others; and when, as within a comparatively recent
+period, severe droughts in the agricultural districts have brought
+distress in their train, the richer classes have frequently been called
+upon to aid the government in relieving the dire situation. Charitable
+entertainments are sometimes held for the purpose of raising funds for
+benevolent enterprises, and wealthy people contribute largely to the
+various church societies organized especially to take charge of their
+less fortunate fellow creatures.</p>
+
+<p>The first duty of society is to its fellow man; and the more devoted
+the social world shows itself to the cause of the weak and the
+helpless, the more beautiful is the national character. In spending
+much time and money for benevolent purposes the ladies of Bolivia
+prove themselves worthy of all admiration, and render still more
+attractive their many graces of mind and person by adding to these the
+incomparable charm of a kind heart and a willing helpfulness.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_136">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_136.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A BOLIVIAN DÉBUTANTE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_138">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_138.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A GENERAL VIEW OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">LA PAZ—THE PRESENT SEAT OF GOVERNMENT</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_139">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_139.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COAT OF ARMS OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The City of Peace, standing amid the highest summits of the Andes,
+under the white light reflected from the snows of Illimani and Sorata,
+and flashing back, like the flame of a torch, the dazzling sunshine
+that beats upon her towers, not only symbolizes the lofty human
+sentiment, which at the beginning of the twentieth century inspires
+the world to look for universal concord as the crowning glory of
+civilization, but also typifies the ideal for which her brave sons were
+the first to suffer martyrdom in the vanguard of the struggle for South
+American independence. If the white-robed Illimani is a worthy sentinel
+to guard the sanctuary of Peace, the blue sky itself is a fitting cap
+of Liberty for the fair goddess whose torch, glowing above the clouds,
+showed a continent the way to freedom a century ago. Very slowly at
+first, the ideals of tranquillity and liberty developed under the
+stifling influences of tyranny and greed, and there was little in the
+early history of the city which in 1548 the Spanish governor christened
+“Our Lady of Peace” to give promise of the fulfilment of her destiny.
+During nearly three centuries of colonial rule, the red ribbon of war
+fluttered more conspicuously upon the breast of Our Lady than did the
+pure emblem of her benign mission, and the sunshine blazing on her
+walls often typified a funeral pyre rather than the torch of liberty.
+But her people were brave and resolute, and if her history is full of
+incidents of vital struggle, full of tragic episodes, and the records
+of scenes worthy of Homeric description, it is also a history of
+victories and triumphs and of a continued march onward in the direction
+of progress. The Paceños are strong and fearless in their patriotism,
+whether leading the battle in the national cause or resisting an attack
+against it, and their influence has long been powerful in shaping the
+destinies of the country. Unity is a notable characteristic of the
+people, and genuine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> sympathy exists between the highest and the lowest
+when they are inspired to deeds of devotion for the <i>patria</i>. It
+has been very beautifully said that “whether in the <i>palacio</i> of
+luxury or in the <i>choza</i> of poverty, there is but one voice and
+one heart, one soul and one duty; the defence of the country and the
+maintenance of its independence, the lustre of its honor in peace and
+the brilliancy of its arms in war, is the constant preoccupation of its
+loyal sons.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_140">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_140.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">POST OFFICE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Now that the times of change and confusion have given place to a period
+of steady activity, La Paz is growing rapidly as a metropolitan centre,
+with increasing political, social, and commercial importance, which
+is enhanced by its advantageous situation, in comparison with that of
+other cities of Bolivia; with the exception of Oruro, it is as yet
+the only city of importance having direct railway connection, and the
+route via Lake Titicaca, across which steamers travel twice a week,
+places it within easy access of the Peruvian seaport, Mollendo. Within
+a short time it will have a quicker route, requiring only a few hours,
+to the seaport of Arica. The approach to the city by railway from
+Guaqui, the port of Lake Titicaca, through which passengers from Peru
+enter Bolivia on their way to La Paz, is a surprise which impresses all
+tourists by its novelty. After a two hours’ ride across the plateau,
+with the great Andean range always in view and the snowy peaks of
+Illimani and Sorata claiming special attention as they stand out in
+pristine splendor against the bluest of skies, suddenly a great pit
+yawns in front of the traveller, one thousand five hundred feet deep,
+walled on three sides, and opening into a <i>quebrada</i>, or cañon,
+on the fourth; in its depth, sloping toward the cañon and appearing
+like a cluster of miniature dwellings, as seen from the heights above,
+lies La Paz, twelve thousand five hundred feet above the level of
+the sea, one of the highest cities of the world.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> The great Titicaca
+plateau which stretches a hundred thousand square kilomètres around
+the lake, approaches its limit at La Paz, where the Andes rise in
+towering majesty, the rugged depths of their <i>quebradas</i> giving
+picturesqueness to a scene of imposing grandeur. The descent from the
+railroad terminus at El Alto, as the station on the heights above La
+Paz is called, to the city, is made in an electric car, built after the
+latest modern style, and having a capacity equal to that of the cars
+used in the service of the large North American cities. The panorama
+presented to view as the car glides down the mountain and around its
+curves is ever-varying and unique, the red-tiled roofs of the city,
+the patches of green where parks and gardens have been carefully
+cultivated, and the generally foreign appearance, lending a charm
+which the quaintness of gayly dressed figures that move along the road
+behind groups of llamas or donkeys loaded with produce, on their way to
+market, renders still more absorbingly interesting. The Indian of the
+plateau is as gorgeous a spectacle as the imagination can dream of, his
+<i>poncho</i>, or shawl, suggesting a splash of red, yellow, or green
+against the most sombre of backgrounds, for there is nothing hilarious
+in the manner of the Aymará; he takes his pleasures, like his troubles,
+with a more stoic indifference than his neighbor, the Quichua, who
+seems more gentle and more volatile in character. These are differences
+often noted between the inhabitants of high altitudes and those of the
+valleys; at twelve thousand feet above sea level one learns not to be
+too demonstrative.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_141">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_141.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STREET SCENE, SHOWING HILLS IN THE DISTANCE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_142">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_142.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">HOSPITAL AND MUSEUM, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The city of La Paz is located at the source of the Chuquiapu River,
+which flows through a cleft in the Andean range, believed to have
+formerly connected Lake Titicaca with the Amazon system. The history
+of the city is as old as the records of time. Under the Aymará
+dynasties it was called Chuquiabo,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> and was celebrated as one of the
+most ancient towns in the province of Collasuyo; later, when the Incas
+conquered this territory, the name was changed to Chuquiapu, by which
+it was known until upon its site was founded the City of Our Lady of
+Peace, the name being again changed, after the crowning victory of the
+Independence, to La Paz de Ayacucho, by which the city is now known.
+From the most ancient times it has been famous as the centre of a
+rich gold-producing region, the name Chuquiapu signifying “the place
+of gold”; and in primitive days the people of this town worshipped
+with especial reverence a <i>guaca</i>, or idol, which they called
+Choque Guanca,—“the lord of gold never decreasing.” Another object of
+adoration among the earliest inhabitants was the snow-capped Illimani,
+its name meaning “everlasting,” though the origin of the word is said
+to be Hillemana,—“where the sun rises,”—from the location of the
+mountain, which stands eastward of the city. After the conquest, the
+cupidity of the Spaniards soon attracted them to the locality where
+gold was known to be abundant; and Francisco Pizarro himself visited
+the place in 1540, setting apart as his own one of its principal gold
+mines, which produced for him a large fortune. During the quarrels
+and fighting that marked the years following the conquest, when the
+struggle for supremacy separated the conquerors into opposing forces,
+Chuquiapu was a central battlefield, from its position midway between
+Charcas and the Spanish strongholds in Peru; and it was appropriately
+chosen as the site upon which to commemorate the establishment of peace
+after the defeat and death of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> disturbing warrior, Gonzalo Pizarro.
+Consistently with Spanish custom, the founders, after taking possession
+in the name of King Charles V., began the building of a church, which
+they dedicated to San Pedro; later, King Charles presented the city
+with an image of the Virgin of Pilar de Zaragoza as <i>patrona</i>,
+which to-day is revered as Our Lady of the Assumption. The present
+church of San Sebastian is a reconstruction of the San Pedro church.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_143">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_143.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PRINCIPAL ALTAR IN THE JESUIT TEMPLE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>At the time of its foundation the city numbered fifty Spanish
+residents; and so slowly did colonists arrive in this remote mountain
+retreat, even with the powerful attraction which its mineral resources
+held for the adventurous fortune seekers of those days, that a quarter
+of a century later the citizens of pure Spanish blood numbered only a
+little more than two hundred. Gradually the city was built up, with
+plazas, streets, and roads to the outlying country districts, and some
+of the buildings erected at that time are still in existence. The
+renowned Spanish historian Pedro Cieza de León visited La Paz soon
+after the conquest, and the Inca historian Garcilaso de la Vega, to
+whom the modern writers on this and previous periods of South American
+culture are chiefly indebted, spent some time in the study of its
+events. The coat of arms presented by Charles V. is still preserved
+as a precious heritage; surmounted by a helmet on which rests a dove
+with the olive branch in its beak, the centre shows a garland of roses
+intertwined with four serpents, and in the distant perspective a snow
+mountain, from the base of which a river flows, having on its opposite
+banks the lion and the lamb in peaceful and friendly attitude; the
+entire design is emblematic of peace, the border of the shield bearing
+the legend: “Discords in harmony, they united in peace and love and
+founded the city of La Paz for perpetual memory.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p>
+
+<p>Although La Paz had its <i>triste</i> scenes of conflict and disaster
+in colonial days, it had also its events of great rejoicing and
+magnificent display, as upon the occasion when the most illustrious of
+the viceroys, Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa, visited the city
+in 1572, attended with all the pomp and ceremony that distinguished
+a viceregal reception in those days of abounding formalities; the
+short residence of his court in its midst converted the City of Peace
+into a scene of splendor and gayety, and constituted a social triumph
+which remained a proud recollection for years afterward. The viceroy
+enacted notable reforms in the administration of the city and province,
+especially regarding the government of the Indians, whom he desired,
+above all things, to bring within the influences of civilization and
+Christian teaching.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_144">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_144.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">AVENIDA ARCE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>It was the exception and not the rule when the Spaniards devoted
+themselves to the interests of the conquered race; and as the first
+century passed, the injustice which had begun against the Indians
+was further directed against all the American born, the Spanish
+authorities showing favor to immigrants from their own country,
+regardless of merit, while the natives of the new country were
+oppressed and downtrodden. It was this disposition which first divided
+the colony into two opposing parties, and which finally accomplished
+its independence from Spain. To La Paz, as has been stated elsewhere,
+belongs the honor of having numbered among its sons the redoubtable
+hero who raised the standard of “America for the Americans” more
+than two hundred years ago. The same city supported one of the most
+determined and terrible sieges recorded in history, fighting day and
+night for one hundred and sixty-nine days against the memorable attack
+of the Indian Tupac-Catari. In recognition of such noble heroism,
+the city received from the Spanish crown in 1794 the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> royal decree
+bestowing upon it the title of “most noble, valorous, and faithful.”
+The brave commander of the besieged city, Don Sebastian de Segurola,
+was made first Governor-Intendent of La Paz, in reward for his services.</p>
+
+<p>Among the precious archives of the city is preserved the story of one
+of the greatest heroes of the New World, the patriot Murillo, whose
+martyrdom set the seal of glory upon a career of unfailing devotion to
+the cause of liberty, and proved a beacon light to illumine the field
+of battle and bring courage to the hearts of struggling patriots,
+from the Titicaca plateau to the remotest corners of Spanish dominion
+in America. Indeed, La Paz was one of the chief centres around which
+gathered the lovers of liberty among the oppressed during all the
+centuries of colonial rule in Alto Peru; and though the systematic
+efforts of the few cultured leaders of republicanism, whose training
+had been received in the University of Chuquisaca and fortified by
+European travel, brought to a climax the final preparations for the
+revolution that swept the Spaniards from the continent, the persistent
+and determined fight of the Paceños, through long centuries, had its
+powerful effect upon the spirit of the revolution from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>Since the establishment of the republic, La Paz has continued to play
+an important part as the aggressive power in politics; the attitude
+of the Paceños has never been a negative one, but, whether right or
+wrong, they have been unequivocal in the declaration of their purposes
+and meaning. There is something modernly “strenuous” in the La Paz
+character. This is shown in the predominating qualities of its leading
+men, who have been particularly noted for their great energy, resource,
+and self-poise.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_145">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_145.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CONVENT OF THE CONCEPTION, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The population of La Paz, according to the last census, is seventy
+thousand, of which about one thousand are foreigners, the Germans
+leading in number among those of foreign birth here, as in nearly
+all other South American cities. Although the city lies within the
+tropics, at sixteen degrees south latitude and sixty-eight degrees west
+longitude from Greenwich, its altitude so affects<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> the climate that the
+weather is cool even in the hottest months and very cold during the
+winter season. The most agreeable months for visiting La Paz are those
+of spring, which are September, October, and November in countries
+south of the equator. Notwithstanding the formerly isolated position
+of the city, its great altitude and the difficulties of communication
+with the outside world, the degree of progress attained has been in
+some respects remarkable. Until 1903 there was no railway out of the
+city, the nearest connecting line being that from Oruro to Antofagasta,
+reached only after a two or three days’ ride by diligence from La
+Paz to Oruro; and it is only about ten years since the Oruro and
+Antofagasta Railway was established in complete and permanent service.
+Previous to that time, all the inconveniences attending transportation
+over long distances, and with the drawbacks inevitable to the nature
+of a mountainous country, had to be overcome by the people of La Paz
+in their effort to build up and improve their city. The only freight
+system was one of carts, mules, and llamas, and the proverbial
+disinclination to haste, which is characteristic of the Indian driver,
+and excusable at such great altitude, made the process of construction
+slower and even more expensive than it would be under favorable
+circumstances. Yet the city has many fine buildings, some of them four
+or five stories in height, though the general average is of two-story
+construction. The streets are well paved, usually of the same width
+as the traditional Spanish <i>calle</i>; some of them are of quite
+modern appearance. As the city is built, for the greater part, on the
+sloping hillsides, walking is only pleasant in the parks and avenues,
+for the location of which level ground has been chosen. Owing to its
+sheltered location, the difficulties attending the culture of trees and
+flowers at such a height are less than might be imagined. The Plaza
+Murillo is a beautiful garden, perfumed by the sweetest of roses and
+other flowers, and shaded by broad-branching trees, while the Alameda
+is an ideal <i>paseo</i>, arched by many stately trees, and possessing
+the charm of an urban park, with its fountains and pools, and handsome
+monuments adorning it, erected to commemorate noted historical events,
+or to honor the heroes to whose bravery the nation owes a debt of
+eternal gratitude.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_146">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_146.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PLAZA AND GRAN HOTEL GUIBERT, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Plaza Murillo, to-day a popular breathing space between the ascents
+of the hilly streets, and brilliant several evenings each week with the
+gayety of passing throngs whose light footsteps keep time to the music
+of the inspiring military band, occupies the spot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> where the first
+declaration of Bolivian independence from Spain was proclaimed in 1809,
+and where the gibbet was erected upon which the celebrated martyr of
+liberty, Pedro Domingo Murillo, paid with his life for declaring the
+noble principles of patriotism which all the world has since learned to
+honor and admire. It has also been the scene of many thrilling episodes
+in the history of the republic, and it was the centre around which
+culminated some of the most important climaxes of the civil wars which
+from time to time disturbed the peace of the country, until government
+was finally established upon a firm basis. Through the initiative of
+Señor Don Felipe Pinilla in 1894, the plaza was converted into the
+present beautiful park; the handsome fountain of marble adorning the
+centre was, however, constructed in 1855, the work of an Indian of
+remarkable talent, Feliciano Cantula.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_147">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_147.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CALLE AMERICA, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Alameda, like the Plaza Murillo, has its historical value, having
+been the theatre of war upon many notable occasions. But nothing
+more suggestive of peace exists in the city to-day than this avenue
+of trees, with its broad driveways, promenades, sequestered resting
+places, and its numerous attractions for grown people and children
+in the graceful swans of its pools, the goldfish that play in its
+fountains, and similar charming features. It is divided into five
+avenues, the central <i>paseo</i> being particularly beautiful because
+of its adornment, while the outer avenues are paved for vehicles and
+promenaders. Rows of trees separate the drives and walks, and give
+to the Alameda the appearance of a well-wooded park, which is nearly
+half a mile in length. At night it is lighted by twenty large electric
+lights, placed at intervals down the central avenue. The main arch of
+the gateway at the entrance from the suburban Plaza de la Concordia and
+the Avenida Arce was taken from a convent cloister and set up in 1828,
+the remaining portals being of much more recent date. On passing out of
+the Alameda through the picturesque gateway, the popular <i>paseo</i>
+is prolonged through the Plaza de la Concordia and the Avenida Arce—or
+“12 de Diciembre,” as it has been recently renamed—as far as Obrajes,
+about a league from the city. To the south from the Plaza de la
+Concordia, and a mile distant, lies Sopocachi, a very pretty suburb
+located on the hill of the same name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> and commanding a superb view.
+Potopoto, on the road from the city to Obrajes, is one of the most
+fertile and picturesque stretches of the <i>campiña</i>, or suburbs,
+presenting a perspective of exuberant vegetation; and, overlooking it,
+the heights of Santa Barbara offer an attractive site for the erection
+of pretty chalets. These suburbs are almost as much frequented as the
+Alameda; and as they form an extension of this popular thoroughfare
+of leisure, they are being continually improved and beautified to
+harmonize with it.</p>
+
+<p>La Paz being the present seat of national government, all the palaces
+of the administration are located here, with the exception of the
+Supreme Court and the archbishop’s palace, which remain at the official
+capital, Sucre. The executive palace occupies a handsome three-story
+stone building, overlooking the principal plaza; and facing the same
+public square, stand the buildings in which are the offices of the
+minister of foreign affairs and those of the minister of justice
+and instruction. The presidential palace is of modern construction,
+having been built in 1883 to replace the old palace, called El Palacio
+Terrible, which was destroyed by fire. The old palace was begun by
+General José Ballivian in 1845, and completed by President Belzu in
+1852, when it was formally occupied for the first time. It was the
+scene of most of the dramatic climaxes which diversified the political
+history of Bolivia through the years during which the palace existed,
+and it witnessed the vagaries of one or two rulers who seem to have
+taken the worst of the Roman emperors for their models.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_148">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_148.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PUBLIC LIBRARY, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>With the date of its destruction began a period of peace, signalizing
+the political regeneration of the country. President Frias, who made
+a temporary palace of the ruined edifice, was one of the best rulers
+under the new system. He was opposed to the “gold braid” features
+which had been so conspicuous among some of his predecessors, and he
+possessed none of the affectations of power. A humorous story, which
+not only reveals the democratic spirit of the president, but shows
+the <i>amour propre</i> of his aid-de-camp as well, illustrates the
+point. While passing along the street, on foot, accompanied by his aid,
+President Frias became annoyed by the change of position which his
+officer made at every turn in order to keep the curb, and, turning to
+the young man, he said: “I don’t like this dancing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> quadrille on
+the street; please keep your place, without changing it at every turn.”
+A few moments later the “quadrille” was repeated, and the president
+reprimanded his aid, at the same time explaining that he did not object
+to walking next to the curb. “Ah! your excellency,” replied the young
+officer, “I do not change on your account, but on my own. Everybody
+will think that I do not know the etiquette of the street, which
+requires me to walk next to the curb when accompanying the president.”
+The story may have been embellished in the telling, but it serves to
+illustrate two very different, though thoroughly Bolivian, types of
+character.</p>
+
+<p>The building now occupied by the chief executive was finished and
+opened, on July 24, 1883, for the inauguration of the National
+Exposition to celebrate the first centenary of the birth of Simon
+Bolivar, the great liberator. It is rather too small for the purposes
+of an executive palace, and will be abandoned on the completion of
+the new palace, which is being built on an adjoining corner of the
+square. But it presents a very attractive appearance, and is of solid
+construction, being built of hewn stone; the corridors which surround
+the interior <i>patio</i> are supported by stone pillars, the portico
+and grand staircase being of marble. The new palace will be two stories
+in height, but much more spacious than the present one; the first floor
+will be occupied by the executive, and the second by the legislative
+bodies. It will be one of the handsomest modern buildings in La Paz.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_149">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_149.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A BUSINESS STREET IN LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_150">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_150.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHURCH OF LA MERCED, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The magnificent cathedral of La Paz, which has been under construction
+for three-quarters of a century, and which, when completed, will
+probably be the largest and costliest cathedral built in South America
+since the Independence, stands beside the present government palace,
+occupying the remainder of that side of the principal plaza. The
+cathedral was begun in 1835, but many circumstances have combined to
+delay the work, the cost of which is enormous, while the facilities
+for carrying it to completion are limited. The original design for the
+cathedral was made by a Bolivian architect, Padre Manuel Sanauja, who
+was also the architect of the beautiful cathedral of Potosí. In 1843,
+the foundations were laid and President Ballivian brought stonecutters
+from Europe to teach the natives how to chisel and polish the stones,
+so that the work might continue without depending upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> foreign help.
+The Indians proved very apt pupils and their work is quite as good
+as that of their teachers. But it could hardly be expected that an
+undertaking of such great importance, and essentially a product of
+peaceful conditions, would progress rapidly in the troublous times of
+the first fifty years of the republic. It was continually interrupted,
+and in 1883 an additional delay was caused by the loss of the plans.
+An order was sent to an Italian architect of distinction, Count
+Vespignani, the principal architect of the Vatican, to make new plans,
+and the work was renewed. After several changes, the direction of
+the edifice was given, by a resolution of the government in 1900, to
+Señor Camponoro, who, finding Count Vespignani’s plans inadequate,
+prepared others, which were adopted. The work is now proceeding with
+regularity, and will no doubt be completed soon. The edifice will
+have capacity for seating twelve thousand people, and will cover a
+surface of four thousand square mètres. It is of Greco-Roman style,
+and the interior has five naves, all the pillars which support the
+arches being of polished stone. The two towers will reach a height of
+nearly two hundred feet, and the central cupola will be one hundred
+and fifty feet high. The principal altar will be of <i>berenguela</i>,
+a native marble, which is found in abundance in several provinces.
+About one hundred thousand bolivianos are provided annually for this
+colossal work. Besides the cathedral, the city possesses many beautiful
+churches; according to statistics, there are thirteen churches, five
+public chapels, five convents, and three monasteries. Of these the old
+church and convent of San Francisco have peculiar interest, as they
+occupy the second church building erected in the city in 1547. The
+present edifice was built during the eighteenth century and completed
+in 1778, when it was dedicated with impressive ceremonies. Next to the
+new cathedral, it is the most beautiful church in La Paz, at least as
+seen from the outside, as the façade is entirely composed of carved
+stone of exquisite design and workmanship.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> The interior has three
+naves, and there are eight altars, besides the main altar which is of
+carved cedar in decorative design. The convent, which can accommodate
+two hundred inmates, though only fourteen friars occupy it at present,
+has recently been reconstructed with funds provided by the legacy of
+Señora Maria Galindo, one of the many rich women of La Paz who have
+left fortunes to the church and to charities. Its library is one of
+the largest in Bolivia. Another old church is Santo Domingo, which
+serves as the cathedral. All the great church pageants and the civic
+<i>fiestas</i> are celebrated here. There is little variety in the
+architecture of the remaining churches and convents, all of which
+follow a similar style. Among the more important of the modern public
+buildings, the post office and the building occupied by the Direccion
+General de Telegrafos attract attention. The penitentiary of San Pedro
+is a large modern structure, and a visit to its various wards is an
+interesting experience. It was built during the administration of
+President Pacheco, who laid the cornerstone on July 15, 1885. It covers
+nine thousand square mètres, and the interior is divided into two
+separate wings, one for men and the other for women. The ventilation
+and sanitary conditions are fairly good, and the inmates are well cared
+for.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_151">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_151.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CALLE DEL COMERCIO, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_152">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_152.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SUBURBS OF LA PAZ, WITH VIEW OF ILLIMANI IN THE
+DISTANCE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The National Custom House, which occupies what was formerly part of
+the cloister of San Francisco, is one of the public buildings which
+is constantly increasing in importance as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> the commercial life of the
+city develops and extends. It is the centre of a busy section; just
+across the street, an open-air market attracts the miscellaneous crowd
+which is a feature of “Cheapside” all over the world. The principal
+market occupies the site of the former convent of the friars of Saint
+Augustine. It is centrally located, and is a sight worth seeing on
+the popular market days. Not only is the market building full to
+overflowing, but all the neighboring streets are packed with people
+from one end to the other. Groups of vendors sit along the edge of the
+curb, with their vegetables, fruits, and flowers spread in front of
+them on the ground; and as there is often a whole family in charge of a
+bunch of flowers, the conversation necessary to close even the smallest
+bargain would tax the vocabulary of a diplomat. Politeness will often
+do more than money to accomplish a desirable purchase. The question
+of disposing of her stock seems to be the least of the marketwoman’s
+thoughts. Apparently, she seeks first a congenial atmosphere, where
+she can share in the general gossip, and then she disposes of her
+baby,—there is nearly always a baby, a cunning little brown creature,
+good-natured and wide-eyed, and wearing little more than a knitted cap
+with earflaps, which finishes in a sharp cone on the crown of its tiny
+head,—and she is ready for all who come, and equally contented whether
+anyone buys or not, so far as one can tell from her countenance. As
+the crowd in the market place often includes sightseers and their
+friends, it is not unusual to encounter high hats and frock coats,
+Parisian daintiness and tourist severity, in the midst of the more
+permanent features of the market, and the effect is like a glimpse of
+Broadway or Piccadilly in a Turkish bazaar—though the prevailing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> type
+of marketwoman is more Japanese than Turkish. The “color scheme” of
+the La Paz market is one of ravishing splendor. It glows and radiates
+like a moving prism under the strong light of the sun on the high
+plateau. Wherever there is color it seems intensified, and the bright
+blues, yellows, and greens of the <i>ponchos</i> and voluminous velvet
+skirts are not more persistent than the tones of the adobe walls in
+this neighborhood, painted to match the costumes. Even the vegetables
+and the flowers appear dyed in the deepest hues; the sky is bluer,
+the fleecy clouds are whiter; it is as if Nature amused herself in
+this little corner of her domain by putting great splashes of color
+on everything, to offset the severity of her grays and browns in the
+dreary stretches of highland plain which she has so prodigally bestowed
+on Bolivia, and which geographers call the Altaplanicie.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the market reluctantly, as foreigners usually do, a sightseeing
+tour takes one to numerous other buildings of interest, among them
+the Military College in the Alameda, the School of Medicine, the
+Intendencia de la Guerra, or War Office, the university, the Museum
+and Public Library, and the spacious rooms of the Geographic Society
+of La Paz, the best-equipped institution of its kind in this part of
+the country. The Municipal Theatre is one of the city’s attractive
+features, and the principal club is the favorite resort of the most
+prominent men in political, financial, and literary circles. It is
+exclusively a man’s club, though receptions and balls are given from
+time to time to which the families and friends of the members are
+invited. A few months ago the distinguished courtesy of honorary
+membership was extended to two North American ladies, the first
+“petticoats” to invade this Eveless paradise with the rights of
+membership. It afforded an opportunity to see the club under the best
+auspices; and the experience served to prove that the best clubs, like
+the best gentlemen, are much the same the world over, whether housed
+in marble palaces or amid more modest, and often more comfortable,
+surroundings. The club building overlooks the Plaza Murillo and its
+windows command a view of the evening promenade, when La Paz society
+takes its outing under the trees of that pretty park. There are ten
+plazas in the city, several of them beautiful: the Plaza Alonzo de
+Mendoza was the Churupampa of the inhabitants of Chuquiapu before
+the Spaniards came, and is a popular resort for the people of this
+district; it is in the northwestern part of the city, near the church
+of San Sebastian. Although one fails to notice at first that La Paz
+is crossed not only by the Chuquiapu, but by other small rivers, this
+fact is made prominent as attention is called to the existence of no
+less than twenty-one bridges over these streams in various parts of
+the city. The bridges are of solid construction, that of San Francisco
+being of iron, and of French manufacture. Nearly all the others are of
+stone construction.</p>
+
+<p>Commercially, La Paz is the most important city of Bolivia, and
+everything indicates an increase in international trade. A Chamber
+of Commerce has been organized to promote business interests, and
+the existence of six banks and several banking agencies facilitates
+commercial transactions. The industrial enterprises of the city are
+growing, the annual production from its manufactures being estimated
+at five million bolivianos, though industrial development is in its
+infancy. To the prefect of the department. General Fermin Prudencio,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>
+is due much of the credit for public improvements inaugurated within
+the past few years. A Municipal Council, composed of twelve members,
+has charge of the affairs of the municipality. The city is lighted by
+electricity, and has a complete telephone system. It has some modern
+conveniences which would be entirely unlooked for in the far-away city
+of La Paz, even at the present period of universal progress. Imagine
+the surprise of finding a trolley car waiting at the Alto station when
+one arrives from Lake Titicaca, ready to take one “coasting” down an
+incline of one thousand five hundred feet and around swinging curves,
+at a rate of speed that makes automobiling tame sport! A telegraph
+system which permits a private conference at one’s leisure with the
+remote department capitals, while seated in a comfortable <i>sala</i>
+of the director-general’s office, is a modern convenience not to be
+improved upon. Hotels provided with electric lights and electric bells,
+with telephone and messenger service, as at the Gran Hotel Guibert, are
+not so behind the times as we are taught to believe everything must be
+which is encountered beyond the highways of travel. We are very proud
+of the modern conveniences which we enjoy in the great cities of North
+America and Europe, such as manufactured ice in summer, and fruits
+shipped from the tropics for the Christmas treat; but La Paz sends
+messengers in the morning to the ice fields of Illimani and to the
+fruit farms of her valleys, and these luxuries are brought back in time
+for dinner, fresh from the source of production.</p>
+
+<p>There are few cities of South America which look out on a brighter
+prospect than the City of Peace. La Paz lies in the heart of South
+America, and when modern enterprise shall develop the vast resources
+of that almost unknown continent, then all railroads crossing it must
+pass through Bolivia and close to the door of its Andean metropolis. A
+few years may be expected to work many changes, but though the patron
+saint of the Titicaca plateau may lose a very picturesque identity in
+the evolution of a more modern type, there will always be a rare and
+peculiar charm about this eloquent symbol of New World ideals, “Nuestra
+Señora de La Paz.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_154">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_154.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INSTITUTE OF HYGIENE AND BACTERIOLOGY, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_156">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_156.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHURCH AND PLAZA OF SAN FRANCISCO, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX<br>
+<span class="subhed">INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS—LITERATURE, ORATORY, ART, AND MUSIC</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_157">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_157.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON JOSÉ ROSENDO GUTIERREZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Cradled in revolution and nurtured with difficulty under the most
+adverse conditions, the intellectual life of Bolivia has, in spite of
+all obstacles, developed in both strength and beauty. In literature,
+oratory, art, and music the nation has given proof of surprising
+activity. Under Spanish rule, books were almost an unknown luxury,
+and with the exception of the few that were brought into the country
+surreptitiously from time to time, prayer books and the lives of the
+saints constituted all the literature to be obtained. One of the
+earliest influences in bringing about the War of Independence in South
+America was the secret distribution among the educated classes, and
+particularly among the students of the University of Chuquisaca, of
+the books written by Voltaire and the Encyclopædists, and brought over
+to America by wealthy people of Chuquisaca and Potosí, who, while
+visiting the French capital,—then, as now, the Mecca of wealthy South
+Americans,—had imbibed the liberal ideas so popular in France in the
+latter half of the eighteenth century, ideas which lighted the first
+spark in the mighty social conflagration that wrecked the aristocratic
+institutions of France, and illumined the political skies of two
+continents in the reflection of its blaze. But the majority of the
+people had little opportunity and less training for the appreciation of
+literature, and all efforts toward literary expression were confined to
+religious writers. Then, for half a century after the establishment of
+the republic, the unsettled political and social conditions were not
+favorable to intellectual development, so that it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span> only within a
+quarter of a century, or less, that Bolivian literature, art, and music
+have received uninterrupted encouragement.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_158" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_158.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. NICOLÁS ARMENTIA, BISHOP OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>But at every period of the nation’s history there have been writers of
+talent, orators who have thrilled by the grace and fluency of their
+magnetic speech, and earnest students of art and music. Poets have sung
+their sweet carols amid the smoke of the battlefield and under the
+harsh discipline of poverty and neglect. Indeed it seems that adversity
+is often the friend of poetic inspiration, and that the poet was right
+who said:</p>
+
+  <div class="poetry-container">
+   <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="ileft">“Great souls are cradled into poetry through wrong,</div>
+        <div>They learn in suffering what they teach in song.”</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+<p>If art and letters flourish best among the nations which enjoy peace
+and prosperity, the genius that inspires them does not always develop
+under the same conditions in the individual. The muse is oftener
+wooed by the sorrowful than the gay, and her kindest smile is not for
+the palace of pleasure and mirth, but for the soul that is lonely.
+The merriest stanzas are written with heartache or in bitterness of
+spirit, and the world is charmed by epigrams that have blossomed out
+of mental and moral anguish. Probably the time of peace and plenty is
+more propitious for poetry, because it comes after a period filled with
+events and marked by conditions that make poets and philosophers out of
+all available mentality.</p>
+
+<p>Don Ricardo Bustamente, who, according to a distinguished Spanish
+critic, was the chief of Bolivian poets, wrote the best of his
+inspired verses just after the most unsettled period of the republic.
+He wrote only as a pastime or a distraction from the duties of a
+busy statesman and diplomat, for he filled important offices of the
+government, both at home and abroad, at one time occupying the office
+of Cabinet minister. One of his later poems, regarded by some as his
+masterpiece, is an epic entitled <i>Hispano-America Libertada</i>,
+which he published in 1883, on the occasion of the centenary of
+Bolivar, in homage to the memory of the great liberator. Don Mariano
+Ricardo Terrazas, author of <i>The Siege of Paris</i> and <i>Mysteries
+of the Heart</i>, and Manuel José Cortés, contemporaries of Bustamente,
+wrote better prose than poetry, but the unhappy poet Galindo, the
+poet Tovar, and Luis Vila are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> remembered among the noted writers of
+verse. The same period gave to posterity the poet Don Mariano Ramallo,
+who like Bustamente, wrote only in rare intervals of leisure, his
+duties as minister of the Supreme Court occupying most of his time.
+He was devoted to literature and founded a society, La Colmena, to
+which the aspirants to literary fame were proud to belong. He was
+a journalist of considerable talent, the editor of the <i>Official
+Gazette</i> during the administration of General Ballivian, and later
+editor-in-chief of <i>La Epoca</i>, the first and one of the most
+important dailies of Bolivia. Don Felix Reyes Ortiz, a contemporary of
+Bustamente and Ramallo, was not only a graceful writer of poetry, but a
+brilliant orator, a journalist, and a literary critic of distinguished
+ability, and one of the ablest jurists of his time. His versatility
+was remarkable. Like Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna, of Chile, he seemed
+to possess the gift of prolific genius, and his writings include
+political essays, poetical compositions, and books on religion, law,
+and education, besides editorial articles on an infinite variety of
+subjects published in numerous newspapers of which he was the founder
+and editor. He also published several statistical works, and was
+president of the Circulo Literario of La Paz, one of the many societies
+organized by the littérateurs of Bolivia. Don Serapio Reyes Ortiz, a
+brother of Don Felix, is also to be counted among the intellectual
+leaders of his country, though noted more particularly as a diplomatist
+and jurist than as a writer. Few Bolivians have contributed in a
+greater degree to the intellectual advancement of their country, and
+none has been more constantly identified with its history in the past
+thirty years, during which he has held office as minister of foreign
+affairs, president of the council of state, minister plenipotentiary to
+Peru, and vice-president of the republic.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_159" style="max-width: 449px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_159.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE VISION OF SAN CAYETANO. OLD PAINTING ON COPPER,
+CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Prominent among those who have rendered important services to the state
+as well as to literature, Don José Rosendo Gutierrez is remembered as a
+lawyer of great talent, a diplomat and one of the best known Bolivian
+writers. Having acquired a large fortune in the practice of law, Señor
+Gutierrez was able, in his later years, to gratify a long-cherished
+desire to collect a library of Bolivian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span> literature, and at his death
+he left as a bequest to his daughter, Señora Doña Hortensia Gutierrez
+de Pinilla, one of the most complete collections extant of books on
+Bolivia. The work to which he devoted the last years of his life was
+the compilation of a Bolivian bibliography, for which he secured a
+list of two thousand books and pamphlets, about seventy-five per cent
+being pamphlets, nearly all of them written by Bolivians. Political
+literature predominates, then follow, in the order of production,
+novels, legends, and miscellany, there being comparatively little of a
+historical or scientific character. The immense service rendered to the
+intellectual interests of the country by this collection and tabulation
+of the national literature can hardly be estimated. The plan of the
+work is divided into three parts, the first of which embraces all
+books and pamphlets published in Bolivia, or on subjects relating to
+Bolivia from the year 1825 to the present day; the second comprises all
+periodicals, with notices as to their duration, objects, contributions,
+etc.; and the third includes all South American publications written
+by South Americans which require to be consulted in a study of the
+races, customs, and institutions of the country. During a career of
+unusual activity, Señor Gutierrez still found time to write verse, and
+his <i>Songs at the Foot of Illimani</i> are gems of sentiment. He
+was senator for La Paz during the last years of his life. He had the
+honor to receive more foreign decorations and titles than any other
+Bolivian, being Commendador of the Order of the Rose, Chevalier of the
+Order of Leopold, Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, and a member of
+many historic and geographic societies. He was a self-made man, having
+begun life amid the most adverse circumstances, and achieving by his
+own efforts the highest honors paid to intellect and moral character.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_160">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_160.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON EVARISTO VALLE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Another noted bibliophilist, Don Vicente Ballivian y Rojas, has
+rendered invaluable service to his country by the collection and
+publication of manuscripts written on the history of colonial times
+and of the earlier years of the republic. Owing to blindness, the
+enthusiastic scholar was obliged to give up his work after finishing
+the first volume of the <i>Archivo Boliviano</i>, which was published
+in Paris in 1872. Señor Ballivian y Rojas was the first of his
+countrymen to undertake this kind of work, in which he has been
+succeeded by many others. The present minister of colonization and
+agriculture, Don Manuel Vicente Ballivian, is, like his illustrious
+father, a bibliophilist. He has collected everything written on the
+subject of his country that is of value for reference and general
+reading, and the Geographic Society of La Paz, of which he is
+president, has a complete library of information on Bolivia, whose most
+important works are those written by himself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_161">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_161.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON NATANIEL AGUIRRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Don Gabriel Réné Moreno, a native of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, who
+has been for many years a resident of Santiago, Chile, where he is
+librarian of the Instituto Nacional, and Don Samuel Velasco Flor, of
+Potosí, who resided in Sucre for a long time before his death, each
+in his own way collected books on Bolivia or of Bolivian authorship,
+and accumulated large and useful libraries. Señor Velasco Flor was not
+only a bibliophilist, but a linguist, and had a perfect knowledge of
+the Quichua language, a rare accomplishment even in Peru and Bolivia.
+Few scholars have devoted special attention to the primitive languages
+of the country, and those who have undertaken this task deserve great
+credit. The illustrious Bishop of La Paz, Dr. Nicolás Armentia,
+possesses probably a more extensive knowledge of the languages and
+dialects of the various Indian tribes in Bolivia than any of his fellow
+countrymen. He has travelled through the wilds of the interior, between
+the Beni and the Madre de Dios rivers, having made the navigation of
+the Beni to its source, “with his bundle of clothes, his food, and
+his sextant strapped on his shoulders, his breviary in one hand and
+compass in the other,” says his biographer, Carlos Bravo. The many
+years which he devoted to missionary work in the Acre region, and to
+establishing missions in the most remote districts, also afforded great
+opportunity for study. As the fruit of his journeys he has written
+several important books, of which <i>Lenguas Americanas</i> is one of
+especial value to students of philology and ethnology. The Church has
+among her most illustrious dignitaries several writers and orators
+of extraordinary talent. The late Archbishop of La Plata, Dr. Miguel
+Taborga, was a classical scholar and a member of the Spanish Royal
+Academy; he was a noted polemist, and had no rival in the press or in
+public debate. As Archbishop of La Plata and senator for the department
+of Potosí, he was a power in ecclesiastical and political circles;
+and when his learned predecessor, Archbishop Puch, who, like himself,
+was a native of Sucre and one of the brilliant orators and writers of
+Bolivia, was called to Rome to attend the Council of the Vatican in
+1869, the then Canon Taborga accompanied him, receiving many honors in
+Italy, Spain, and France, where his intellectual talent had become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>
+known. He wrote articles for the chief Catholic reviews of Europe,
+in addition to editing <i>El Cruzado</i>, the principal organ of the
+Church in his own country.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_162">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_162.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">OLD PAINTING IN THE MINT OF POTOSÍ, PRESENTED BY CARLOS
+IV. OF SPAIN.]</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Potosí has the honor of giving to the nation several of her most gifted
+writers, orators, and politicians, among them Don Tomás Frias, the
+Jefferson of Bolivian democracy, whose memory is treasured with great
+affection by his countrymen. Twice he was called to the office of
+chief executive, though he never coveted the honor; he was noted for
+his integrity and industry, as well as for his intellectual genius.
+A contemporary of the grand-marshal of Ayacucho, having been born
+in 1804, he lived to battle for the best principles of republican
+government through a long lifetime, closing his distinguished career
+in exile, after the <i>coup d’état</i> of General Daza, which, as
+previously stated, deprived Bolivia’s “Grand Old Man” of the supreme
+magistracy in 1876, his death following, in Florence, Italy, in 1884.
+As soldier, financier, diplomatist, minister of state, and president
+of the republic, his arduous duties afforded him little leisure. Yet
+he constantly wrote articles and pamphlets on political subjects, his
+style being clear and concise, as it was in speaking. He was an orator
+who convinced as much by the force of his logic as by the vigor of his
+diction.</p>
+
+<p>It is often said of the Latin-American that he is a born orator, to
+whom the demand for a speech is as easily complied with as a request
+for the time of day; given the inspiration of an attentive audience,
+whether on the floor of Congress, in the balcony overlooking the plaza,
+or at the much-favored <i>banquete</i>, his native gift of language
+leads him away into realms of oratorical imagery, far beyond the “ken”
+of the stuttering Saxon, through which admiring listeners follow until
+a particularly well-rounded period brings a picturesque or startling
+climax and the spell is broken by an enthusiastic <i>Viva!</i> or a
+more dramatic demonstration. The middle of the last century produced
+in Bolivia some of the most brilliant diplomats and orators in the
+history of Spanish America. Casimiro Olañeta, who is regarded as having
+been among the best public speakers of his day, and Evaristo Valle,
+whose eloquence was the pride of his friends and the despair of his
+enemies, were but two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> of a brilliant galaxy of polemists who made the
+forum largely responsible for the kaleidoscopic changes which affected
+Bolivian politics during the first twenty-five or thirty years of the
+republic.</p>
+
+<p>Not less distinguished as an orator, and regarded by many of his
+countrymen as entitled to the highest place among the statesmen and
+diplomats of the republic, Don Rafael Bustillo belonged to the group
+of leaders in politics who contributed to the strength and stability
+of the government during the most trying period of its history. First
+appointed minister in the cabinet of President Belzu, he was afterward
+minister in the cabinets of Presidents Achá and Adolfo Ballivian, his
+place in Ballivian’s cabinet being filled after his death, in 1873,
+by Pantaleón Dalence, Bolivia’s most famous finance minister, who
+was later made president of the Supreme Court. Rafael Bustillo was
+not only an orator of remarkable talent, but a writer also, as were
+many of the public men of his time. Don Lucas Mendoza de La Tapia,
+also an orator, was, like Bustillo, a prominent participant in the
+events of the troublous period preceding the government of President
+Adolfo Ballivian; he was associated with the revolutionary movement
+which finally overthrew President Melgarejo, and later he advocated
+in Congress, with the eloquent oratory of which he was master, the
+system of federal government for Bolivia. He was opposed by Evaristo
+Valle, and the clash of these two brilliant wits made the sessions
+particularly interesting. It would be impossible to indicate, among
+many really gifted orators, those to whom the nation is most indebted
+for political reforms. Eloquence is confined to no party or clique,
+and in every administration there have been leaders, both in the
+government and in the opposition, who have held their audiences in
+thrall. Julio Mendez, Juan Crisostomo Carillo, Jorge Oblitas, Casimiro
+Corral, Mariano Reyes Cardona, Antonio Quijarro, and others, through
+the force of brilliant intellect and patriotic sentiment, have rendered
+invaluable services to their country. Julio Mendez, not only as an
+orator, but as a diplomat of superior talent and a skilful journalist,
+has contributed to bring about notable political reforms.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_163">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_163.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. JOSÉ MARIA SANTIVÁÑEZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Conspicuous among these fiery controversialists, but rather because of
+the contrast which marked his style in debate, Don Mariano Baptista
+has been compared to Castelar as an orator, brilliant, calm, and
+persuasive. Beginning his career in the early fifties, he has lived
+to see the development of a sound political system out of the warring
+elements, which at one time threatened the stability of the republic.
+A statesman and diplomat, he has served his country as a member of the
+Chamber of Deputies, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> senator, minister plenipotentiary, member of
+the Cabinet, vice-president and president of the republic. A staunch
+conservative in politics, he became the leader of his party and has
+never wavered from the principles adopted at the outset of his career,
+when, as the political supporter and faithful friend of the dictator
+Linares, he accompanied his beloved chief into exile and closed his
+eyes in the last sleep. One of the most distinguished figures among the
+intellectual leaders of his country, he possesses rare gifts of mind
+and heart, and is noted for decision of character and loyalty to his
+principles. He has visited most of the countries of the Old and New
+World, where he had an opportunity of studying society and politics
+under all forms.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_164">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_164.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL DON ELIODORO CAMACHO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Don Nataniel Aguirre was one of the leading statesmen and orators of
+his day, and quite the greatest historical novelist of Bolivia. He
+was born in Cochabamba in 1843, and, like his father, Miguel Maria
+de Aguirre, who was a famous political leader, he began his public
+career at an early age. While still in his teens he took his degree in
+the university and began the practice of law. Ten years later he was
+elected a deputy to the national Congress, where he became a central
+figure in the debates, his advanced ideas, enthusiasm, and eloquence
+distinguishing him as a man of mark. He belonged to the federalist
+party of which La Tapia was the chief, and which found its strongest
+supporters in Cochabamba and La Paz. When the War of the Pacific
+began he was called from the prefecture of Cochabamba to the ministry
+of war, and he directed the organization of the army sent to repel
+the Chilean invasion. He was president of the national convention of
+1880, which proclaimed the national constitution as it now stands.
+After a career of extraordinary brilliancy, he died at the early age
+of forty-five, while on his way to Brazil to represent his government
+at the imperial court of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. As a writer, and
+particularly as a novelist, Nataniel Aguirre ranks among the best,
+not only in Bolivia, but throughout South America, and the celebrated
+Argentine statesman and critic, Bartolomé Mitre wrote of his novel
+<i>Juan de la Rosa</i>, a romance of the Independence, that it is
+“the most beautiful production of talent and good taste in romance
+that South America can claim.” It is remarkable that no copy of this
+novel can be found in the book stores of Bolivia, so pronounced is
+the preference here as in all South American countries for French
+literature before even the best Spanish productions. The “prophet
+without honor in his own country” seems a universal example of at
+least one shortcoming of humanity. Nataniel Aguirre is the author of
+other charming books, chiefly histories and historical novels, all of
+which are out of print, only a few copies remaining in the possession
+of friends and literary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span> admirers. One feels tempted to make a severe
+criticism of this failure to popularize the works of native authors;
+but it must be remembered that the best North American writers received
+their first recognition in England, and one of the most popular of
+English novels, <i>Trilby</i>, won fame for the author in America
+before it was counted among the successes in London book shops. Another
+temptation to criticism is excited by the fact that although there are
+many able and entertaining writers on historical subjects, no adequate
+history of Bolivia has yet been written. In some cases the modesty of
+the author has forbidden him to claim even as much honor for his work
+as it deserves; and excellent histories of certain periods have been
+published as <i>Studies</i>, <i>Compendiums</i>, <i>Essays</i>, and
+merely <i>Notes</i>. Apparently, however, few have been able to write
+without strong prejudices. Nearly all the principal historical works
+give evidence of marked talent for description. J. M. Cortés, the
+author of an <i>Essay on the History of Bolivia</i>, and L. M. Guzmán,
+author of an <i>Elementary History of Bolivia</i>, are among the most
+important writers on general events. José Maria Camacho and José
+Macedonio Urquidi have written school histories of considerable value.
+The government is trying to stimulate ambition in this direction by
+offering an important premium for the best history of Bolivia. Several
+historical writers have devoted their attention to some particular
+period and have produced biographical and political essays of real
+merit.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. José Maria Santiváñez, in common with most of the noted writers
+of his country, was a politician and a diplomat, as well as a
+historian of distinction. Born in 1815, he belonged to the “turbulent
+period” of Bolivian politics. He was a deputy to Congress during the
+administration of General José Ballivian and, later, during that of
+President Córdova. President Linares appointed him Prefect of Sucre
+and, later, Prefect of La Paz. Recognizing his gifts as a diplomatist,
+President Linares soon afterward sent him as chargé d’affaires to
+Chile, where he remained only until the downfall of Linares and the
+election of General Achá to the presidency. He opposed the tyrannical
+government of Melgarejo, and, being defeated, left the country, and
+remained away two years. He was a candidate for the presidency at the
+close of Tomás Frias’s term, and would have been elected but for the
+revolution which gave its leader, General Daza, the opportunity to
+seize the executive power. In the celebrated convention of 1880 he
+was a leading participant, as the representative from Cochabamba. His
+biographies of General José Ballivian and Don Adolfo Ballivian are
+among the most important historical works of his time. He wrote also on
+boundary questions, public instruction, finance, and other subjects. He
+died in Cochabamba in 1898, aged eighty-three years.</p>
+
+<p>Belisario Salinas, a contemporary of Dr. Santiváñez, and a candidate
+at the same time for the presidency, is another brilliant statesman
+who has contributed to the national literature. Although defeated by
+Daza, he was vice-president, and acting president for a time, during
+General Campero’s administration. The government of General Daza
+allowed little freedom of opinion to writers, and two authors, Jenaro
+Sanjinés and Nicolás Acosta, were imprisoned for ardently defending
+municipal rights. Don Jenaro Sanjinés, a statesman of distinction,
+like José Maria Santiváñez, has also written important biographies.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>
+His most valuable works are <i>Notes on the History of Bolivia during
+the Administration of General Agustin Morales</i> and <i>Notes on
+the History of Bolivia during the Administrations of Don Adolfo
+Ballivian and Don Tomás Frias</i>. The Sanjinés family, of which
+there are branches in Sucre, Cochabamba, and La Paz, is one of the
+most gifted in Bolivia. Ignacio de Sanjinés wrote the words of the
+national hymn during the administration of General Santa Cruz; General
+Ildefonso Sanjinés was minister of war under President Morales, and
+a leading politician; Saturnino Sanjinés, who died in Sucre in 1893,
+was president of the Supreme Court of the republic, and a learned
+writer on jurisprudence; Bernardo Sanjinés has written important
+works on industrial development; Victor Sanjinés, postmaster-general,
+and Abigail Sanjinés, eldest son of the historian, the Bolivian
+consul-general in New York since May, 1906, are among the leading
+politicians and journalists. The government of the dictator Linares
+is the subject of an interesting biography by Antonio Quijarro, a
+Potosino. Quijarro belonged to the period of the great Olañeta, with
+whom he was associated in the publication of <i>El Siglo</i>, in
+company with the poets Daniel Calvo and Ricardo Mujia, to whom Bolivia
+owes many inspired verses; Ricardo Mujia is held by some critics as the
+best Bolivian poet.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_166" style="max-width: 422px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_166.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE BEHEADING OF SAINT PAUL. AN OLD PAINTING IN THE
+CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The city of Potosí has been the centre of numerous important political
+events, from the time when the Vascongados and the Vicuñas fought their
+battles there until the present day. A history of the city has been
+written in charming style by J. L. Jaimes, who, as “Brocha Gorda,”
+contributes to the best literary periodicals of South America. His work
+on Potosí contains historical anecdotes, traditions, and legends of the
+Imperial City, and is a valuable acquisition to the bibliography of
+the country. Potosí furnishes a fertile field for romance and legend,
+and many important writings of this character have been collected and
+published<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> by Modesto Omiste, of Potosí, himself a clever author.
+With the title of <i>Cronicas Potosinas</i>, he has put into four
+volumes the best stories of the Villa Imperial, written by South
+Americans. Ricardo Palma, the Peruvian writer, the most celebrated of
+Latin-Americans in this class of literature, contributes more than
+a dozen traditions. Vicente G. Quesada, Nataniel Aguirre, Benjamin
+and Fidel Rivas, Benjamin Blanco, Manuel J. Cortés, J. M. Camacho,
+Julio César Valdez, “Brocha Gorda,” Luis Manzano, José David Berrios,
+Pedro Calderón, Emilio Fernandez, Angel Diez de Medina, have written
+gems for the collection. José Manuel Aponte, in addition to writing
+several of the Potosí legends, has devoted his talent to historical
+description, and published recently an interesting account of the Acre
+revolution. Juan W. Chacon, a Potosino who knows his Cerro as the
+Londoner knows his Strand, adds greatly to the value of the <i>Cronicas
+Potosinas</i>, by numerous contributions, sentimental and satirical,
+among them a clever commentary on feminine vanity and its punishment in
+the tradition <i>Lo que puede una mujer</i>—“What a woman can do.” La
+Paz, as well as Potosí, has been the subject of historical and romantic
+essays and sketches, the best of these being the <i>Monografia de la
+Ciudad de La Paz</i>, by Luis Crespo, who gives an entertaining history
+of the chief events which have occurred in the city from the conquest
+to the present day. Nicolás Acosta’s <i>Guide to La Paz</i> is a useful
+book of reference. Eufronio Viscarra is the author of an interesting
+history of Cochabamba.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_167">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_167.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON JUAN CARILLO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The history of Sucre has been entertainingly and carefully written
+by Dr. Valentin Abecia, the second vice-president of the republic,
+with the title of <i>Historia de Chuquisaca</i>, under which it
+first appeared in the bulletin of the Geographical Society of Sucre,
+preparatory to publication in book form. It is a complete and authentic
+history of the capital of the Audiencia of Charcas, and as such is
+probably the most important historical work published on Bolivia in
+recent years. Dr. Abecia is a leader in the intellectual progress of
+his country, and has contributed to its advancement in science as well
+as in literature and politics. He is a medical authority of the first
+rank and has written important treatises on this subject; other noted
+writers on medical science are Drs. Julio La Faye, Andrés Muñoz, Isaac
+Aranibar, Cuellar, Quiroga, and Julio Rodriguez. The study of medical
+science has been greatly stimulated within recent years, though it
+shows less progress than might be expected. Dr. Rodriguez, who is now
+senator for the department of Cochabamba, has been conspicuous not only
+in medical but political circles for the past thirty years or more.
+He was recently named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> minister plenipotentiary to Argentina, but was
+obliged to return and resign his post on account of illness. He was
+educated in the Medical College of Sucre, and has been professor of
+pathology and a member of the University Council of Cochabamba for many
+years.</p>
+
+<p>A study of the biographies of Bolivia’s leading men in all branches
+of learning reveals the fact that they have at some period of their
+careers filled government positions. Politics may be regarded as the
+great highway of intellectual progress, into which have thronged
+poets, orators, journalists, historians, scientists, and lawyers, in
+search of fame and fortune. Patriotism has been the keynote of poetry,
+oratory, and journalism; the historian has written for his party
+rather than for posterity; science has made slow progress chiefly
+because it is not easily associated with party politics, except in an
+impersonal way; though it is true that some of the best literature
+of Bolivia is that which relates to the science of government. Law,
+philosophy, and political economy have been treated by the best
+scholars of Bolivia, and of these a few may be named who rank as high
+in their profession as the best of their South American colleagues.
+The late Don Samuel Oropeza, by whose recent death in Sucre the
+nation lost one of her greatest jurists and most devoted patriots,
+was the author of important works, of which <i>Studies of Modern
+Science</i> and <i>Political Economy</i> are the best known. He wrote
+also on <i>Bolivian Finances</i> and a multitude of other subjects,
+and possessed that rare gift of versatility which always affords a
+wide range for the expression of intellectual genius. Federico Diez
+de Medina has written a work, <i>International Law</i>, which the
+best European critics commend; and Agustin Aspiazu is the author of
+<i>Dogmas of International Law</i>, a production of considerable
+importance, published in New York in 1872. José S. Quinteros, the
+present minister of war, is one of the best writers on jurisprudence,
+and his <i>Administrative Law</i> is regarded as a work of great merit.
+José Manuel Gutierrez, author and journalist, wrote <i>Public Law</i>.
+Macario Pinilla, one of the foremost leaders of the government, and a
+lawyer of distinguished talents, who has the honor to be a member of
+the Royal Academy of Jurisprudence, of Madrid, is the author of several
+works on jurisprudence. Angel Moscoso is the author of a dictionary
+of jurisprudence; and Bautista Saavedra has published, among other
+scientific books, an interesting study of criminology. Melchor Urquidi
+writes on penal law, and Daniel Sanchez Bustamente, on <i>Principles
+of Law</i>. Antonio Loaiza, Rafael Canedo, Luis Arce, and others have
+contributed meritorious works on jurisprudence. Nearly all of the best
+works on scientific subjects have been written within the past twenty
+years, and the younger lawyers and politicians appear ambitious to
+raise the standard of national literature pertaining to law.</p>
+
+<p>The vital question of boundaries, which has been an insistent and
+sometimes absorbing one in the history of Bolivia, has been the means
+of calling out especial talent, not only among the country’s diplomatic
+representatives, but among the writers as well. The “literature of
+limits” is almost a complete library in itself, touching upon law,
+history, geography, science, and a multitude of kindred subjects. It
+serves as a valuable reference library for posterity. Some of the
+most noted explorers have been the leading statesmen of the republic.
+Ex-President General José Manuel Pando has written an extremely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>
+entertaining and instructive description of his voyage to the rubber
+region, and is the author of many works of interest on the geography
+of the Territorio de Colonias, of which he is the present chief
+authority. Manuel Vicente Ballivian, the minister of immigration and
+agriculture, has written extensive reports of his journey to the Acre
+region. Don Felix Avelino Aramayo, Bolivia’s most noted “captain of
+industry,” and one of the leading diplomats, is the author of several
+works on Bolivian industries. For six years Señor Aramayo represented
+his country at the Court of Saint James, from 1897 to 1903, rendering
+important services to his government during that period. Previously he
+had been identified with politics as deputy to Congress; and in the
+famous Congress of 1880, which was convened by President Campero to
+reconstitute the Bolivian government in the face of the war with Chile,
+he took an active part in framing the new constitution. While minister
+in London, Señor Aramayo had on his staff as secretaries and attachés
+the brilliant and promising young diplomats, Ignacio Gutierrez Ponce,
+Chevalier of the Legion of Honor; Adolfo Ballivian, the son of the late
+president; Pedro Suarez, a plucky explorer of the Amazon tributaries;
+and Ramon Pando, the son of ex-President Pando. There is probably no
+writer on industrial conditions in Bolivia who has contributed valuable
+and comprehensive information in a more readable style.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_169">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_169.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DON AVELINO ARAMAYO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Federico Blanco has written a charming book, which gives the
+biographies of the various naturalists and other explorers who have
+visited the Amazon region. The Blanco family have been identified
+with Bolivian literature, geography, and history from the time of
+the Independence, contributing greatly to intellectual advancement.
+Federico, Pedro, Benjamin, and Cleómedes will be held in honored
+remembrance for their superior gifts. Among the native explorers who
+have written on boundary questions, Francisco Iraizós is a recognized
+authority, as well as Daniel Campos, who in 1883 led an expedition
+to the Gran Chaco and founded colonies on the banks of the Paraguay
+River. Ernesto O. Ruck, the author of a general guide to Bolivia, has
+accumulated and compiled valuable material for general reference. Pedro
+Kramer, a clever author and scientist who lost his life while exploring
+the Amazon region, left the first volume of a work on <i>Industry in
+Bolivia</i>, and the first volume of a history of Bolivia, which it
+is lamented that he did not live to complete. Octavio Moscoso is the
+author of a geography of Bolivia, and J. A. Palacios has given to
+posterity a most entertaining description of explorations made sixty
+years ago in the territory of the Beni, Mamoré, and Madeira Rivers.
+The latest edition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> of his works contains also those of his grandson,
+Abel Iturralde, with a scientific study of the waterways of northwest
+Bolivia. Santiago Vaca-Guzmán, the author of many books on a variety of
+subjects, writes also of the <i>Chaco Oriental</i>. Don José Aguirre
+Achá, who accompanied General Pando on his expedition to the Acre,
+is the author of a description of the journey in a book entitled
+<i>From the Andes to the Amazon</i>. He is not only a rising young
+politician, being <i>oficial mayor</i> in the <i>ministerio</i> of
+government and promotion, and a prose writer of distinguished talent,
+but is also a poet of great promise, inheriting the versatile genius
+of his father, the immortal Nataniel Aguirre. Nearly all Bolivian
+writers have contributed verse to the national literature, and have
+also been identified with political life. That politics and letters go
+nearly always hand in hand is not to be wondered at in a country of
+limited population, with only a small leisure class to encourage the
+development of purely intellectual talent. The pursuit of literature,
+even in the more remunerative highways, is a precarious career, unless
+supported by ample fortune or an assured income from some other source.
+This is true not only of Bolivia, but, more or less, of all countries.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_170">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_170.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PAINTING PRESENTED BY CARLOS IV. OF SPAIN TO THE MINT OF
+POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Journalism has been, and still is, a popular stepping-stone to young
+politicians, and the most brilliant statesmen and diplomats of Bolivia
+have, with few exceptions, been connected with newspaper work at some
+period of their career. The Bolivian newspaper is still a political
+organ rather than a purveyor of news, in this respect resembling the
+majority of South American journals. On the other hand, it is free
+from the abhorrent features of a press over zealous to give to the
+public the minute details of every occurrence in society, however
+loathsome they may be. On the whole, the Bolivian newspaper with its
+brief paragraphs of cable news, its more or less limited account of the
+day’s events at home, and its predominating political features, with,
+perhaps, a poem or two to give it literary flavor, is to be preferred
+by the normal mind to the sensational columns, glaring headlines,
+inartistic and altogether absurd illustrations, and bulky advertising
+pages of the extreme type of metropolitan dailies in North America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span></p>
+
+<p>Although the printing press was prohibited in the colonies during
+Spanish rule, except for the use of the Church in promoting Christian
+propaganda, the patriots succeeded in establishing a periodical during
+the War of the Independence, <i>El Telégrafo</i> being founded in 1822.
+The first daily paper published in the republic was <i>La Epoca</i>,
+of La Paz, which was founded soon after the war, and counted among its
+editors at one time the brilliant Argentine writer Bartolomé Mitre.
+During the administration of General José Ballivian it was edited by
+A. Quintela, Domingo Oro, and Mitre. Later, the famous journalist and
+diplomat Felix Reyes Ortiz took the editorial management. This gifted
+writer was the founder and editor of at least half a dozen newspapers,
+among others, <i>El Constitucional</i>, <i>La Voz de Bolivia</i>,
+<i>El Consejero del Pueblo</i>, and a humorous journal, <i>El Padre
+Cobo</i>. He edited <i>La Reforma</i>, of La Paz, and was president of
+the Circulo Literario, a society founded in La Paz for the promotion
+of literature. The leading writers of Sucre had also their literary
+society, called La Colmena, meaning “the beehive,” to which the poets
+and journalists of the day belonged. It was organized in the house
+of the poet Mariano Ramallo, and counted among its members the most
+prominent men of the capital. The literary organ of the society was
+named <i>La Colmena de Sucre</i>, in which the best prose and poetry
+was published and reviewed. Among the earliest periodicals of Bolivia
+was <i>La Estrella</i>, of Sucre, founded during the first years of the
+republic, and edited for a long time by Don Domingo Delgadillo, who
+began his public career during the administration of President Sucre,
+and was a member of President José Ballivian’s Cabinet, in company with
+Don Tomás Frias, Don Basilio Cuellar, General Perez de Urdininea, all
+prominent in the politics of that time. <i>El Siglo</i> was the name of
+another periodical of Sucre, founded in the early fifties, and in 1863
+<i>La Aurora Literaria</i> was added to the list of Sucre’s literary
+journals. Don Jorge Delgadillo founded the last-named journal, and
+associated with him in its publication were Don Belisario Loza Santa
+Cruz, afterward editor of <i>La Estrella</i>, Don Mariano Ramallo, the
+poet, and Don Luis Pablo Rosquellas, one of the brilliant writers,
+who was also a statesman of distinction as minister of the Supreme
+Court of the republic. Jorge Delgadillo was the founder of <i>La
+Juventud</i>, <i>La Abeja</i>, and <i>La Floresta</i>. In 1857 the
+<i>Boletin Republicano</i> was founded by Don Daniel Calvo to support
+the government of the dictator Linares. Daniel Calvo has been called
+the Lamartine of his country. He was not only a poet and journalist,
+but a clever statesman, having been a minister in the Cabinet of
+President Adolfo Ballivian and his successor, Tomás Frias, a deputy to
+several Congresses, a leader in the national convention of 1880. He was
+the author of a beautiful legend in verse, <i>Ana Dorset</i>, and of
+many graceful sonnets. Another poet, Dr. Luis Zalles, president of the
+Superior Court of La Paz, was the founder of several periodicals, and
+is greatly esteemed as a writer of both prose and verse.</p>
+
+<p><i>La Revista</i> and <i>La Razon</i>, of Cochabamba, were among the
+best periodicals of the day, twenty years ago. Nataniel Aguirre and
+other leading writers contributed to their columns. General Camacho
+founded <i>El Cazador</i> in the same city. <i>El Heraldo</i>, of
+Cochabamba, founded in 1877 by Don Juan Francisco Velarde, is still
+published by him, and has a general circulation in the department. The
+founder and editor is one of the best-known journalists<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> of Bolivia.
+A native of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, he has occupied important posts
+in the service of his country at home and abroad. He was minister of
+foreign affairs in President Pacheco’s Cabinet, and minister to Brazil
+during President Arce’s government. He has been to the United States
+several times in a diplomatic capacity. <i>El Tiempo</i>, of Potosí,
+founded by Modesto Omiste some years ago, is still in existence, though
+most of the newspapers and periodicals named in the preceding list
+have given place to others. <i>El Cruzado</i>, the Church paper, which
+was founded many years ago by Dr. Miguel Taborga, and edited by him
+until his death, is among the few which have survived and increased in
+circulation and prestige.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Bolivian literature was written some years ago by
+Santiago Vaca-Guzmán, one of Bolivia’s best poets and novelists; but
+like so many other literary productions of Bolivian authors, the
+book is out of print, and not a copy is to be had, unless, by rare
+chance, some friend of the author may have preserved one. The greatest
+difficulty is experienced in Bolivia in securing copies of even the
+best books, as only very limited editions have been printed, and these
+seem to have vanished in an amazing manner; it is true that books are
+published at the author’s expense, and few authors care to assume the
+responsibility of disposing of a large stock.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_172">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_172.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. JULIO RODRIGUEZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>New literary societies have succeeded La Colmena, and its journal
+no longer exists. Sucre now has a Centro Literario and an excellent
+literary review, <i>Vida Nueva</i>, printed in colors and handsomely
+illustrated, which is one of the most creditable productions of
+periodical literature in South America. It is edited by a group of
+young poets who have contributed gems of prose and verse to the
+national literature. Adolfo Guardia Berdecio, Armando D. Alvarez,
+Claudio Peñaranda, and José A. de Jáuregui are the editors, and among
+the contributors are writers of note from all parts of the republic.
+Chief of these is the poet Tomás O’Connor d’Arlach, senator from
+Tarija, who himself founded and edited at least two periodicals; one
+of them, <i>La Estrella de Tarija</i>, is still in existence, though
+the other, <i>El Independiente</i>, of Sucre, suspended publication
+some years ago. He has been a contributor to the literature of his
+country for thirty years or more, during which he has written history,
+biography, and poetry with prolific pen. His style is graceful, though
+his poetic composition is delicate rather than vigorous, and is
+suggestive, in its sadness, of “the throne where sorrow sits.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Vida Nueva</i> is distinctly a modern periodical, and the outlook
+is bright for its permanent success. Prominent among the collaborators
+is Mariano Enrique Calvo, regarded by many as the best prose writer of
+Bolivia. Julio Zamora, deputy from Chuquisaca to the national Congress,
+who is also one of the principal collaborators, has written articles
+for the best periodicals during the past ten years, and, though a
+young man, has made his influence felt in literary circles as well
+as in politics. <i>El Eco Moderno</i>, <i>La Revista de Bolivia</i>,
+<i>La Nacion</i>, and other journals have published essays and poems
+from his pen. Angel Diez de Medina, Andrés Torrico, Jorge Mendieta,
+Benjamin Guzmán, C. Guillermo Loaiza, Réné Calvo Arana, José Raña,
+Alfredo Jáuregui Rosquellas, Juan Manuel Sainz, and the editors of
+<i>Vida Nueva</i>, previously mentioned, are among the nation’s writers
+of prose and poetry. There are more than fifty writers of verse in
+Bolivia, of whose genius a Spanish critic says: “Generally, the
+Bolivian muse is incorrect; but she has inspiration and brilliancy, and
+is sincerely impassioned.” The most recent novel of note written by a
+Bolivian author is <i>Vida Criolla</i>, by Alcides Arguedas.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest newspaper now published in La Paz is <i>El Comercio</i>,
+though there are, in all, twenty-five periodicals issued regularly
+in that city, the principal dailies being <i>El Comercio</i>, <i>El
+Comercio de Bolivia</i>, <i>El Diario</i>, and <i>El Estado</i>. As La
+Paz is the centre of political interest, being the seat of government,
+journalism is even more flavored with politics here than elsewhere,
+and the leading journalists are frequently politicians. Dr. Luis
+Salinas Vega, a familiar figure in social and political circles, was
+the founder of <i>El Comercio de Bolivia</i>, and may be regarded as
+the Nestor of the Bolivian press. Don Alfredo Ascarrunz, editor of
+<i>El Comercio</i>, is a diplomatist and an orator of distinguished
+ability. Don Carlos Villegas, editor of <i>El Comercio de Bolivia</i>,
+and Don Abel Alarcon, editor of <i>El Diario</i> and director of
+the National Library, are prominent in public affairs. The Circulo
+Literario no longer exists, and <i>La Revista</i>, which ten years
+ago was the flourishing organ of the Centro de Estudios, under the
+editorial management of Don Hiram Loaiza and Don Juan Mas, has been
+suspended; but a clever little <i>bibelot</i> is published, called
+<i>Tentativas</i>, which keeps alive literary sentiment in the City
+of Peace. Oruro has two daily papers, <i>El Tribuno</i> and <i>La
+Tarde</i>; Cochabamba has several, <i>El Dia</i>, edited by Don Bráulio
+Pinto, being one of the most important; <i>La Capital</i>, <i>La
+Industria</i> and <i>La Mañana</i> are the chief dailies of Sucre;
+<i>El Tiempo</i> of Potosí, <i>La Ley</i> of Santa Cruz, and <i>La
+Estrella</i> of Tarija, complete the list.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_173">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_173.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. ANDRÉS MUÑOZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The literature of Bolivia has had among its exponents more than one
+authoress and poetess, the most famous writer of the <i>bello sexo</i>
+having been Doña Maria Josefa Mujía, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span> blind poetess, who, in
+addition to original poems, made excellent translations of Victor Hugo
+and Lamartine. Doña Mercedes Belzu de Dorado, daughter of President
+Belzu, Doña Modesta Sanjinés, and Señorita Adela Zamudio have also
+written gems in both prose and verse. Señorita Zamudio, whose pseudonym
+is “Soledad,” has not only produced exquisite poetry, but she has
+painted very beautiful pictures, and may be considered one of Bolivia’s
+best artists.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_174" style="max-width: 530px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_174.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIANS OF POTOSÍ. A PAINTING BY THE BOLIVIAN ARTIST,
+DON ANICETO VALDEZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The history of art in Bolivia is brief, but not without interest.
+During colonial times, when the capital of the Audiencia of Charcas was
+one of the principal centres of Spanish culture in the New World, it
+was not unusual for the wealthy residents of Chuquisaca and Potosí to
+possess paintings by the best masters of Europe. A few of these rare
+productions have been kept by families of the capital for generations,
+though the greater number have been disposed of. Some curious specimens
+of art of the Flemish school adorn the walls of several old public
+buildings; and in the mint of Potosí is a collection of paintings,
+presented to the Imperial City by the Emperor Charles IV. of Spain, and
+said to have been painted by Velasquez. In the cathedral of Sucre hangs
+<i>The Vision of San Cayetano</i>, an oil painting on copper, which was
+brought over from Spain by one of the bishops of Charcas and presented
+to the cathedral. It is well preserved, and one of the best art critics
+of New York has judged it to be a work of great value. <i>The Beheading
+of Saint Paul</i> is the subject of another painting, also on copper,
+signed “Wolfaert,” which is wonderfully preserved. Five beautiful old
+paintings hang in the church of Santa Teresa, of Cochabamba.</p>
+
+<p>Sucre and Cochabamba have, perhaps, given to Bolivia her best artists.
+Don Avelino Nogales, who was born in Sucre in 1871, is one of the
+greatest painters of Bolivia. He studied art in Buenos Aires, and early
+showed signs of a remarkable gift in portrait painting, in which he
+excels. A full-length portrait of ex-President Baptista is among his
+most successful works. José García Mesa, of Cochabamba, is probably
+the best known of Bolivian artists, and by his death, a year ago,
+the nation lost one of its most gifted sons. His life was devoted to
+studying and teaching his beloved art. His initial attempts were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>
+exhibited in Sucre and Buenos Aires, and later he went to Europe.
+At Rome he succeeded in gaining an honorable place among the best
+artists, and two of his paintings, <i>La Ciociarra</i> and <i>Los
+Pescadores en el Tiber</i>, were hung in the Salon. The last-named was
+awarded Honorable Mention, and the artist was elected to membership
+in the International Artistic Association of Rome. He had the honor,
+while at Rome, of painting a portrait of Queen Margharita; and one
+of his paintings, a Saint Louis, was hung in the church of Yassy,
+after receiving the blessing of Pope Leo XIII. In 1885 he went to
+Paris and devoted his talent to portrait painting, in which lay his
+forte. His portrait of President Schenk, of Switzerland, now hangs
+in the Legislative Hall of Berne. He painted portraits of several
+distinguished Europeans, achieving considerable success in his chosen
+field. Returning to Bolivia, he founded an academy of painting in
+the capital, under the protection of the government, but later he
+transferred it to Cochabamba, where it was established under favorable
+auspices, and was maintained until his death. He is the author of
+two historical paintings, <i>Murillo on the Gallows</i> and <i>The
+Martyrdom of San Sebastian</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the artists who have recently achieved distinction are Aniceto
+Valdez, author of <i>Indians of Potosí</i> and other paintings of
+note, Carlos Berdecio, Saturnino Salamanca, Porcel, Sainz, Teodomiro
+Beltrán, and David García. The pupils of José García Mesa have, with
+few exceptions, done excellent work, Señorita Zamudio being one of
+the most talented of his class. Doña Eliza Rocha de Ballivian, who
+studied in Santiago, Chile, has produced several paintings of merit;
+and Don José Alvarez, caricaturist, Don Zenón Iturralde, Felix Jordan,
+Diego Carpio, Cristóbal García, Pompilio Barberí, and Tomás Morales
+have shown artistic talent of a high order. Sucre is the home of a
+most extraordinary genius in the person of an Indian, who, with no
+instruction whatever, has proved himself an excellent amateur sculptor,
+and whose statues adorn many private gardens and some of the public
+parks of the capital.</p>
+
+<p>In music the Bolivian has shown the possession of much natural
+talent, though little instruction has been afforded, owing to the
+remote situation of the country and its limited relations with the
+great musical centres of the world. There are several musicians and
+composers of note, though the soul of the nation seems to find its
+best expression in oratory and poetry, influenced, as Mantegazza says,
+by “the grandeur of nature around, the sublime spectacle of which
+exercises immense power over heart and brain, stimulating the culture
+of philosophy and poetry.” Bolivia has produced talent of widely
+varying character, but the opportunity for development, especially
+in the study of art and music, has been restricted. The late Samuel
+Oropeza, when minister of public instruction, presented to Congress a
+plan for the establishment of an academy of music and the pensioning
+of Bolivian students of art and music to enable them to pursue their
+studies in the best schools of Europe; and the disposition is marked,
+on the part of the present government, to encourage talent in every
+field by the most judicious method. Of the composers who have dedicated
+their genius to music, Don Teofilo Vargas has achieved the greatest
+fame. His first successful composition was a brilliant waltz, in
+two parts, called the <i>Proceso Sejas</i>, which was written to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span>
+commemorate a <i>cause célèbre</i>. It was published in Paris in
+1890. A funeral march, written for the occasion of the obsequies of
+Bishop Granado, of Cochabamba, and published in 1902, is regarded as
+one of the author’s best compositions. <i>Suspiros</i>, a mazurka
+published in Buenos Aires in 1902, and numerous other recent pieces,
+are very popular. He has composed religious music also, and is an
+expert violinist, interpreting the masters with great sympathy and
+intuition. Among other musicians of note are several who have also
+achieved success in politics and diplomacy, and who belong to the
+best-known families of the republic. Adolfo Ballivian is the author
+of <i>Rosy Dreams</i>. Graceful compositions have been written by
+Eloy Salmón, Eduardo and Daniel Nuñez del Prado, José Bravo, Manuel
+Luna, and Francisco Suárez, author of the waltzes <i>Forests of the
+Beni</i>, <i>Glories of the Acre</i>, and other veritable gems. In
+patriotic music, the <i>Viva Bolivia!</i> written by Samuel Arce, and
+<i>Combat and Victory</i>, a military march by Francisco J. Molina,
+are among the best. Eduardo Berdecio is the author of the popular
+waltz <i>Potosí</i>, which is in great vogue, and he also wrote <i>Tus
+Ojos</i>,—“Thine Eyes,”—a very pretty waltz. José Lavadenz, Ercilia
+Fernandez, Juan J. Arana, Pedro Butrón, Dorado Belzu, Zenón Espinoza,
+G. Matienzo, and E. Ortega are young musicians with a promising future.</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual progress of Bolivia has made most rapid strides within
+a very few years. There is much intellectual talent in the nation, and
+its expression needs only the encouragement which an interchange of
+thought and closer association with the outside world can give. Bolivia
+may yet produce Shakespeares, Michael Angelos, and Mozarts.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_176" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_176.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑORITA ADELA ZAMUDIO, “SOLEDAD.”</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_178">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_178.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VIEW OF SUCRE FROM THE SUBURBS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X<br>
+<span class="subhed">SUCRE, THE CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_179" style="max-width: 263px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_179.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COAT OF ARMS OF CHARCAS, NOW SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">To the traveller who views it for the first time from the distant
+heights of Huata, on the road leading to the capital from the north,
+the beautiful white city of Sucre looks like a dove in its nest, as
+it lies enclosed within the surrounding hills, gleaming in the bright
+sunlight under the clearest of skies. It is an enchanting picture, and
+the traveller involuntarily pauses to enjoy its exquisite harmony.
+Repose and beauty are expressed in the whole panorama which spreads out
+before one at this magnificent vantage point. Nature is calm on the
+summits and in the valleys, the heavens are serene and smiling, and
+the fair city nestling there is a vision of delight. It impresses the
+imagination like the reading of a beautiful romance, the sound of sweet
+music, or a day-dream in June. A nearer approach gives animation to the
+picture, which is ever charming. Groups are seen to pass and repass
+on the busy thoroughfares; elegant equipages can be distinguished in
+the parks and along the avenues; and donkeys, resting in the shade, or
+trotting along with their loads, <i>cholas</i> and Indians with bundles
+on their backs, and children playing about the doorways, indicate the
+poorer quarters where work and rest have no separate abode. Here and
+there a tall chimney, with the smoke curling up from it, marks the
+site of the factory or mill, and shows that the spirit of enterprise
+is not wanting. Numerous church towers rise above the tiled roofs.
+Upon entering the capital, the foreigner’s first impression is one
+of surprise that a city so remote from the centres of social and
+commercial progress in the Old and the New World should present such a
+modern appearance, with so many evidences of wealth and culture. The
+sight of paved streets, handsome public buildings, plazas, driveways,
+and private residences that are in some instances veritable palaces,
+shatters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> the preconceived ideas of this far away metropolis. Although
+situated in the heart of South America, from two to three days’ ride by
+diligence from the nearest railway, and longer by muleback,—according
+to the season and the consequent condition of the roads,—Sucre is as
+European as any city of old Spain, and much more advanced than most
+of them. The glorious climate makes mere existence a delight, and the
+pure air of this altitude, which is ten thousand feet above sea level,
+contributes to render it one of the most healthful and agreeable places
+of residence imaginable. The inhabitants show the influence of its
+inspiring atmosphere, and are, as a rule, happy, contented, and genial.
+Everyone who has visited Sucre, even for a short time, retains through
+life a pleasant remembrance of the beautiful city and its cultured and
+hospitable people. Everything pertaining to hard and bitter struggle
+and the turmoil of anxious effort seems to have been banished, or never
+to have existed in this “Happy Valley” of the Occident. Occasionally
+one hears a sigh and some reference to <i>la lucha de la vida</i>—“the
+struggle of life”—from a philosopher of pessimistic temperament, but
+there is seldom any deeper sentiment in the remark than that which
+may be inspired by too long an interval between fiestas. There is
+something restful in the quiet dignity with which the most urgent
+business affairs are despatched, and it is refreshing to observe the
+hopefulness with which each day is welcomed as the herald of important
+possibilities. A Frenchman, writing of the city, says: “It is like one
+of its own lovely ladies; it has the repose of the <i>grande dame</i>,
+the fresh beauty of the <i>débutante</i>, and the fascination of both,
+with its charming atmosphere, the sunny smile of its skies, and the
+persistence with which it lingers in one’s memory!” Needless to say the
+Frenchman left his heart in the Bolivian capital.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_180" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_180.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COLONEL DON JULIO LA FAYE, PREFECT OF CHUQUISACA, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that so few foreigners visiting Bolivia ever
+get beyond the Titicaca plateau, and that the only aspect under which
+they see this great country is presented by the vast stretches of
+the Altaplanicie, with the Andes marking its border. The average
+traveller’s idea of Bolivian life and customs is taken entirely from
+the cities of the Titicaca plateau, and especially from La Paz, which,
+though the commercial metropolis, progressive and enterprising,
+displaying in its social life those characteristics which are most
+admired and give the city one of its greatest charms, is essentially
+a “highland city,” and not typical of every town in Bolivia. Each
+department has its distinctive features, whether of mountain, valley,
+or plain, that give to the department capitals an individuality as
+marked as that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> which distinguishes London from Newcastle, New York
+from Denver, and Berlin from Leipsic. Sucre differs in some respects
+from La Paz and other Bolivian cities, which in turn differ from each
+other.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_181">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_181.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE PRINCIPALITY OF GLORIETA, SUBURBS OF SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>By a law passed July 1, 1826, Sucre was declared the provisional
+capital of the republic, and this title was confirmed by Congress,
+July 10, 1839. A decree issued June 18, 1843, gave to the city the
+additional title of “illustrious and heroic.” Nearly all the department
+capitals, however, have had the honor of being the seat of government
+at some period, and the sessions of Congress have, upon many occasions
+in the history of the republic, taken place at Oruro and Cochabamba
+and at the present seat of government, La Paz. Several amusing stories
+are related in this connection. It is said that a mystified Englishman
+once asked Don Casimiro Olañeta, the Bolivian orator: “But where is,
+really, the capital of Bolivia?” to which the witty reply was: <i>La
+capital de Bolivia es el lomo del caballo que monta el Presidente de
+la Republica</i>—“The capital of Bolivia is the back of the horse
+which the president of the republic rides.” The remote situation of
+the capital and the difficulty of reaching it at some seasons of the
+year are largely responsible for this itinerary system. Sucre is at
+present the seat of the Supreme Court and the archiepiscopal see, but,
+as before stated, the other executive authorities of the national
+government now have their headquarters at La Paz, where the sessions of
+Congress have been held since the overthrow of President Alonso in 1899
+and the establishment of the present political system.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span></p>
+
+<p>Of the history of the site upon which the city was built which has been
+successively known as Charcas, Chuquisaca, La Plata, and Sucre, little
+can be learned antedating the period of Inca rule, though it is known
+that the locality has been from time immemorial a centre of population.
+The name Charcas refers, of course, to the tribes to whom the original
+inhabitants, not only of this locality, but of all Collasuyo,
+belonged. Chuquisaca, an Indian name, signifies, according to various
+authorities, “the bridge of gold,” “mountain of gold,” “stone of gold”;
+but, by whatever interpretation, it shows that the presence of the
+precious metal in abundance suggested the title. La Plata was the name
+given by the Spaniards, who found silver in large quantities in this
+locality. The name Charcas is no longer used, except in an occasional
+reference to the University of San Francisco Xavier as the University
+of Charcas; Chuquisaca is the name of the department of which Sucre
+is the capital; La Plata designates the archbishopric; Sucre is now
+the only name by which the city is known. The Spaniards could not have
+chosen a more advantageous locality for the founding of their chief
+city in Bolivia, at a time when the principal interests of Spain were
+centred in the rich mines of her newly conquered territory. As soon
+as Potosi began to empty its treasure stores, the tide of immigration
+turned in that direction; and as the extreme altitude prevented many
+people from living at the famous Cerro, the colonial capital became
+a favorite place of residence for wealthy Potosinos, as the city has
+continued to be to the present day. It increased in importance with
+the increasing wealth of the colony, and early in the history of the
+Audiencia it became celebrated, not only for its elaborate court
+functions and the costly display of its rich inhabitants, but for the
+attention paid to learning, the University of San Francisco Xavier, as
+before mentioned, taking high rank among the best Spanish universities.
+This characteristic of the capital of the Audiencia has been inherited
+by the capital of the republic, and Sucre is noted for the great
+number of the nation’s most brilliant and gifted sons who claim it as
+their birthplace. The history of the city has been related in that of
+the whole country; it would be impossible to give a record of events
+concerning either the Audiencia of Charcas or the republic of Bolivia
+without presenting to constant view the capital city, which has been so
+often the chief theatre of action.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_182">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_182.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE CATHEDRAL TOWER, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_183">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_183.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MUNICIPAL PALACE, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Every public square and every street has its story connected with
+some period of the city’s history, and all the older buildings have
+historic interest. The legislative palace, which was formerly a Jesuit
+convent, has been the scene of some of the most important events in the
+history of Bolivia. During colonial days, the general chapel, as it
+was called, was used as an assembly hall, where all the corporations
+and chief authorities had their reunions. In this hall one of the
+leaders of the Chuquisaca patriots, Don Ramón García de León Pizarro,
+was imprisoned for a share in the memorable revolution of August 25,
+1809, and it was here that the Act of Independence was signed on
+August 6, 1825. It is the <i>sala</i> for the use of the Chamber of
+Deputies, and has witnessed many stirring scenes in the meetings of
+Congress held within its walls. It has two parliamentary tribunes,
+besides one for diplomatic representatives; a magnificently carved and
+gilded choir, which attracts attention because of its artistic design
+and exquisite workmanship, and which is only one of many legacies of
+architectural beauty bequeathed to posterity by the Jesuit wood and
+stone carvers, extends as a gallery along one end of the <i>sala</i>,
+and is known as the ladies’ gallery of the House. The Senate is a
+spacious hall occupying one side of the palace, and having as its most
+conspicuous adornment a bust of the celebrated Bolivian statesman who
+was one of the nation’s greatest presidents, Señor Don Tomás Frias. In
+the <i>sala</i> of the Chamber of Deputies have been placed handsome
+commemorative busts of General Bolivar, General Sucre, and General
+Ballivian; and in the same hall the swords of the victors of Ayacucho
+and Ingavi are preserved among the nation’s priceless relics. The
+saddle cloth which was worn by General Sucre’s horse on the day of the
+mutiny, when the general was shot in the arm just before Colonel Lopez
+came to his rescue, and which still shows the stain of blood, is among
+the souvenirs of the illustrious hero of Ayacucho that remain in the
+city bearing his name. It is a valued possession of the prefect of
+Chuquisaca, Colonel Julio La Faye, whose grandfather, Colonel Lopez,
+received it as a parting gift from the “philosopher soldier” before the
+latter left Bolivia. It is magnificently embroidered in gold. Colonel
+La Faye may some day present it to the nation, to be exhibited among
+its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> most precious historical heirlooms. The Pacheco <i>finca</i> marks
+the site of the house in which General Sucre recuperated from the
+effects of the wound in his arm, and where he dictated his abdication
+to one of the young captains of his army who acted as his secretary. It
+is a celebrated document, and is regarded as one of the most beautiful
+demonstrations of patriotic feeling, exalted integrity and rhetorical
+brilliancy in the history of Spanish-American politics. The young
+captain who wrote the abdication was José Ballivian, afterward one
+of Bolivia’s most illustrious generals, and the hero of her greatest
+battle, Ingavi. Romance has its share, too, in the stories that survive
+regarding General Sucre, and a picturesque country place is pointed
+out as having been the home of a beautiful daughter of the capital who
+won the heart of the hero, and whose white kerchief fluttering from a
+window that peeped out among the trees was a signal as powerful to lead
+the great soldier into love’s silken campaign as was his country’s flag
+to plunge him into the storm of patriotic combat. “The bravest are the
+tenderest” under all the flags of the world.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_184">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_184.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VIEW OF ONE OF SUCRE’S BEAUTIFUL PLAZAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The new government palace is the handsomest public building in Sucre.
+It occupies half a square on the west side of the principal plaza
+and consists of three stories and a magnificent cupola which has a
+<i>mirador</i>, or balcony, affording an uninterrupted view of the
+city and surrounding country. Spacious <i>salas</i> are provided for
+the use of the chief executive and for the offices of the ministers of
+state. Architecturally and in its modern style of construction, the
+new palace is a fine example of building enterprise. When finished it
+will be furnished in harmony with the most tasteful ideas of artistic
+decoration. Already much of the furniture has been purchased, great
+mirrors have been ordered for the <i>salones</i> as well as rich
+curtains and carpets. The plan of the building is effective, the
+double marble staircases leading from the grand entrance, which turn
+to form a single staircase midway between the ground floor and that
+above, presenting a particularly imposing appearance between stately
+marble columns. The halls and corridors are spacious and conveniently
+arranged, not only for executive and administrative purposes, but as
+banquet halls, ballrooms, and reception<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span> parlors. The façade of the
+building shows in the centre the national coat of arms, and above it
+the legend <i>La Union es la Fuerza</i>—“Union is Strength.” Over the
+entrance is sculptured in high relief a shield bearing the coat of arms
+of each of the departments of Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>Next in importance to the Executive Palace, the Palace of Justice
+claims special attention. In its halls are held the sessions of the
+Supreme Court, Superior Court, and lesser judicial authorities. It
+contains the offices of the national Tribunal de Cuentas, Prefectura,
+and Comandancia General of the department of Chuquisaca, the General
+Archives of the nation, the administration offices of the departmental
+treasury, and the Public Library, containing about ten thousand
+volumes. This imposing old edifice is one of the most interesting
+in the city. Its style is the earliest colonial period, when it was
+erected as a Dominican convent. The cloisters on the second floor are
+still apparently as solid as they were centuries ago, and surpass
+the most substantial corridors and galleries built to-day. In the
+<i>patio</i> is an old quadrant or sun-dial of colonial days, which
+still is as serviceable as ever. The <i>salas</i> of the Supreme Court
+are furnished appropriately and in good taste, and upon the walls are
+oil portraits of the most distinguished jurists of the republic. In
+the Superior Court several old paintings attract attention, though
+only one, a painting of the Crucifixion, appears to have particular
+merit. The president of the Supreme Court, Señor Don Fenelon Pereira,
+is one of the most distinguished jurists of Bolivia, and a statesman of
+unimpeachable integrity as well as superior talent.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_185">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_185.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GROUP IN THE ASYLUM FOR THE AGED, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Prominent among the historical institutions of the country is the
+University of San Francisco Xavier; which, however, pertains more
+appropriately to the subject of educational institutions, to be
+described in a later chapter, along with the Military College and
+School of Engineering, the School of Medicine, and other educational
+establishments. The Manicomio Pacheco, the Hospital de Santa Barbara,
+and similar charitable institutions, have previously been referred
+to in connection with the noble charities with which the ladies of
+Bolivia are largely identified. The Consistorial Palace, in which the
+Geographic Society of Sucre holds its sessions, one of the important
+public buildings, faces the principal plaza, which is called Plaza 25
+de Mayo in memory of the first strike for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span> independence. Among public
+offices of note are: the Post Office, adjoining the Palace of Justice,
+the quartels and police headquarters, the Public Market, the Municipal
+Custom House, and the Tambo de la Independencia, as the penitentiary is
+called,—<i>tambo</i> meaning “inn.”</p>
+
+<p>Sucre has eight churches, twelve chapels, two convents, three
+monasteries, and three cloistered nunneries. Being the seat of the
+archbishopric of La Plata, its importance as an ecclesiastical centre
+can readily be appreciated. The great Metropolitan Basilica, a solid
+edifice of the seventeenth century, to which a handsome tower was
+added late in the nineteenth century, faces the Plaza 25 de Mayo.
+It is the richest cathedral in Bolivia, having many gold and silver
+ornaments and precious jewels. The <i>custodia</i>, or casket, in which
+the consecrated Host is manifested to public veneration, is set with
+precious stones of rare value. In all the churches the image of the
+Blessed Virgin is covered with jewels. The Virgin of Guadalupe, an
+image of solid gold, is adorned with jewels which are said to be worth
+a million dollars. The archbishop’s palace, adjoining the Basilica, is
+an old colonial edifice, spacious and richly furnished, as befitting
+the residence of one of the highest dignitaries of the Church. San
+Felipe, the oratory of the Fathers of Saint Philip, shows wonderful
+specimens of colonial wood carving; and the spacious church of Santo
+Domingo, the monasteries of Santa Clara, and Santa Teresa, the convent
+of the Franciscans, and the numerous other buildings for religious
+worship, are noteworthy examples of the ecclesiastic architecture of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_186">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_186.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GATEWAY OF THE ALAMEDA, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The city has nine plazas. The Plaza 25 de Mayo is situated in the very
+heart of the city, which is planned in the form of a diamond. Two small
+streams, one on each side of the plaza, carry through the city, in
+opposite directions, the headwaters of two of the greatest rivers in
+the world. One pours its sparkling tide into the Rio Grande, to join
+the Mamoré, thence through sloping plains and densely wooded forests,
+to reach the winding course and tumbling rapids of the greater Madeira,
+losing itself in the mightiest affluent of the Amazon; the other, the
+picturesque Cachimayo, blithely begins its long journey in the cañons
+and gorges of the <i>serranias</i> of Yamparaez, growing more sluggish
+as it finds itself in the broad<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> river bed of the Pilcomayo, sometimes
+no more than a lazy stream, and again spreading into a broad, though
+shallow, lake, overhung with verdure of tropical luxuriance, idling
+along, until it enters the Paraguay opposite the city of Asuncion, and
+passes down, between orange groves and fertile gardens, to the great
+estuary of La Plata. The one to the north, the other to the south,
+each carries its message across the continent of South America from
+the beautiful city of southern Bolivia; and whatever of marsh and
+miasma they may encounter on their way to the sea, whatever scenes of
+desolation they may pass on their long route, only the sweetest purity
+and limpid freshness mark them as they leave their mountain source, and
+the only reflections in their clear waters are of beauty and content.
+Thus too the mighty tide of patriotism that first bubbled out of the
+hearts of the noble heroes who made the 25 de Mayo memorable in the
+annals of the Independence, flowed pure and undefiled from its fountain
+head, whatever tortuous windings it may have suffered, and whatever
+evils it may have met in the long war that it carried to the colonies
+of all South America! And as the mighty Amazon and the broad La Plata
+owe a debt to the little mountain streams that feed them, so the
+South American republics owe their gratitude to the initiative of the
+Bolivian patriots, which was the source of a continent’s inspiration.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_187">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_187.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MARKET SCENE IN THE OUTSKIRTS OF SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In addition to the Plaza 25 de Mayo, which is adorned with gardens,
+fountains, and a pretty kiosk, there is the beautiful Plaza
+Libertad, in the centre of which stands a marble column surmounted
+by the Phrygian cap of Liberty; the Plaza Sucre, with a bust of the
+grand marshal of Ayacucho adorning a handsome monument; the Plazas
+Monteagudo, Recoleto, and others. Out of the city good roads lead in
+several directions to the picturesque suburbs, and, beyond, to the
+highways which conduct the traveller to Potosi, Cochabamba, Challapata,
+and other distant cities. The excellent condition of the roads, as well
+as other notable signs of development in the department, are due to
+the direction of the prefect, Colonel Julio La Faye, whose devotion to
+the interests of his department is seen in many improved public works.
+The road and bridge of Azero, the complete building<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> up of hitherto
+bad roads southward, and especially the establishment of the system
+of water works, to be brought from the Cerro of Cajamarca, prove not
+only the will to promote the best interests of progress in this part
+of the country, but the talent necessary to initiate and successfully
+carry out the most important reforms. Colonel La Faye has occupied his
+present post since 1900. Previous to that time he held other offices
+of importance in the government, and as orator, diplomat, soldier, and
+statesman, his career has been one of brilliancy and absolute integrity.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_188">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_188.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE HACIENDA GUEREO, SUBURBS OF SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The inauguration of a new system of water works in Sucre is a
+particularly important event. When the government resolved to bring the
+waters of the Cerro of Cajamarca, fifteen miles away, to the city of
+Sucre, it was decided to use the source in the springs formed by the
+headwaters of the Cajamarca, Uyuni, Pucaloma, and Kolpamayo rivers,
+which belong to the Amazon system. The quantity to be supplied will
+be six thousand cubic mètres per day, more than sufficient for the
+population of Sucre, which has about twenty-five thousand inhabitants.
+The work of laying the pipes and completing the system will take about
+three years, and will cost approximately one million bolivianos.
+Sufficient energy will be transmitted from the headquarters of the
+water works for the public and private lighting of the city and for
+the local industries. Abundant material is found in the Cerro for the
+purposes of construction. Portland cement cannot be used because of
+the high price at which it sells in Sucre, six hundred bolivianos per
+metric ton. The Cerro of Cajamarca is particularly well chosen as the
+source of Sucre’s water supply, as its rainy season is distinct from
+that of Sucre, though at so short a distance away, and its register
+of rainfall is double that of the city. The engineer and director of
+the enterprise, Señor Don Carlos Doynel, a Belgian, who has had great
+experience in such undertakings, is enthusiastic over the promising
+features of the work.</p>
+
+<p>By the establishment of an improved system of water works and the
+development of energy sufficient to provide motive power for the
+factories of the city, the manufacturing interests will profit
+considerably. While this branch of industry is still in its infancy, it
+can nevertheless show very encouraging signs and, in some instances,
+great progress. One of the most important enterprises is the chocolate
+factory of Aranjuez, owned by Rodriguez Brothers, which produces
+three hundred pounds daily of the most delicious chocolate. It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>
+an interesting process to watch the grinding of the cacao berry into
+a powder, its mixture with sugar, always the purest white granulated
+quality, and the gradual conversion into the chocolate sticks of
+commerce. It is shipped to all parts of Bolivia and to Chile, neatly
+put up in a similar style to the Chocolat-Menier, so familiar in
+other countries. Sucre has also a flour mill, in which North American
+machinery is used. The flour, which is made by a firm also engaged in
+manufacturing cigars and cigarettes, is of a superior grade, and was
+given a premium in the Buffalo Exposition of 1901 for its fine quality.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit preserving is one of the flourishing industries, and at Ñuccho,
+a few miles out of the city, there are several large preserving
+establishments. Ñuccho is an ideal country place, and every visitor to
+Sucre enjoys a trip to this historic resort. It was in this picturesque
+spot, on the site where the Pacheco <i>finca</i> now stands, that
+General Sucre recuperated from his wound after the mutiny of 1828, and
+here he dictated his famous abdication. It is situated on the banks
+of the Cachimayo, at its confluence with the Yotala, in the midst of
+magnificent scenery which combines the grandeur of lofty mountains with
+the pastoral beauty of green meadows and prosperous-looking farms. Many
+of the beautiful haciendas near Sucre have fruit farms and dairies,
+from which are shipped the finest products the market affords. The
+beautiful suburb of Cachimayo has many gardens and vineyards, and wine
+of an excellent quality is made. During the bathing season Cachimayo is
+a popular social resort, many Sucre families spending there the months
+of spring and autumn. The beautiful avenues leading out of Sucre pass
+many of these charming suburbs, the chief among them being, beyond
+doubt, the country home of the Prince and Princess of Glorieta. The
+prince, being Bolivian minister in Paris, seldom visits his home these
+days, but a staff of administrators and overseers attends to the care
+of the place. Guereo and Florida are also beautiful <i>fincas</i>,
+adorning the city’s outskirts with their stately trees, and an
+abundance of flowers enhances the beauty of the handsome houses and
+well-trimmed grounds.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Sucre, as previously stated, is superb. Endemic fevers
+and similar ailments do not occur in the city, and the air is so dry
+that the psychrometer has been known to register 0°, which is seldom
+noted elsewhere. Typhoid fever and diphtheria appear at times, but
+statistics show a diminution in the death rate from these causes, owing
+to improved sanitation. During the rainy season, from October to March,
+there are sometimes terrific electric storms, magnificent to witness
+from a distance, but disquieting to the timid in their midst.</p>
+
+<p>Sucre counts few foreigners among her citizens, but those who live
+there are devoted to their adopted home. The English and North American
+residents—of whom Mr. Thomas Moore is the best known, having lived
+half a lifetime there, and married a charming Bolivian—could be
+counted upon the fingers of one hand, and there are almost as few of
+other foreign nationalities. But the hospitable and courteous people
+of this attractive city have a warm welcome and a kindly good-bye for
+all strangers who visit them, and life is made very agreeable. There
+are several good clubs, the Club de la Union being one of the richest
+and of the best <i>ton</i> in Bolivia. Its entertainments are on a
+scale of great luxury; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> when a ball or special function is given,
+no expense is spared to make the occasion worthy of the best society of
+the republic.</p>
+
+<p>Though everyone seems to recall with the greatest facility the
+impression made by a first glimpse of Sucre, few remember its aspect at
+parting; for they see it either through a mist of tears, or with the
+sight far away from what the eyes are looking upon. One recalls the
+affectionate good-byes, and the dear faces of sweet friends who have
+been won during a too brief stay in that enchanting spot never fade
+out of memory; but, on taking leave, one’s thoughts are devoted less
+to the place than to the people, who have won their way into the heart
+and memory so completely that their beautiful city remains only as a
+background against which to group “the cherished pictures that hang on
+memory’s wall.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_190">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_190.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE MISSES RODRIGUEZ, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_192">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_192.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MILITARY COLLEGE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI<br>
+<span class="subhed">EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS—SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_193">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_193.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ENTRANCE TO DON BOSCO COLLEGE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Long after the successful War of Independence had given political
+freedom to South America, and republican rule had been established in
+every Spanish-speaking country from the Caribbean Sea to Cape Horn,
+the deleterious effects of the restricted system of education which
+Spain had imposed on her colonies through nearly three centuries
+were still to be noted in the habits of thought prevailing among the
+people as a whole. Inherited tendencies must be held responsible for
+the inadequate standard of national culture which governed the South
+American republics more or less until within a comparatively recent
+period. Considering the enormous obstacles which had to be overcome,
+evolution has been rapid under the stimulating influence of national
+liberty, and to-day there are few South American countries in which
+popular sentiment has not outgrown the purely theoretical tendency of
+the antiquated Spanish system of education, with its class distinctions
+and limited scope. From time immemorial the power of Spain had been
+represented by the Church and the army, and education was for centuries
+held in esteem only as it promoted the influence of the one and the
+prestige of the other. It is not surprising, therefore, that its
+compass was narrowly limited, and that it was of a character little
+adapted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span> to popular needs. Religious and military training received
+careful attention, but the masses of the people were entirely neglected
+in the provision made for general education. The entire Spanish system
+had, besides, such a pronounced tendency to develop theoretical
+knowledge exclusive of its practical application, that the result was
+a superfluity of orators, poets, and philosophers, but comparatively
+few scientists, inventors, or geniuses in the art of construction.
+It is true that under the Spanish system the celebrated University
+of San Francisco Xavier flourished in the capital of the Audiencia
+of Charcas, now Sucre, and that to its students is to be attributed
+the first revolutionary movement in favor of South American liberty;
+but in contrast with the few brilliant examples of intellectual vigor
+and enterprise brought into prominence through the events of the War
+of the Independence there were thousands of sentimental dreamers
+in the various colleges of the viceroyalties, who, educated in the
+prevailing ideas of those days, absorbed knowledge as it was given to
+them, without evincing any evidence of mental initiative, and without
+contributing anything of value to the cause of human progress.</p>
+
+<p>The University of San Francisco Xavier is famous as having been one
+of the few notable exceptions to the inefficiency of educational
+institutions in the Spanish colonies; for, although its curriculum of
+studies followed the limited system of Spanish education in general,
+yet it developed superior intellectual quality, and its graduates
+adorned the highest circles of learning in America and Europe. The
+university was founded in the year 1623, in accordance with the same
+rules and enjoying the same privileges as the University of Salamanca
+of Spain, which is one of the oldest and was at one time the most
+celebrated of all European institutions of learning. The establishment
+of universities in America began within fifty years after the conquest,
+the first, that of Lima, being founded by a royal decree, granted in
+1551 to a friar of the Dominican order, who was afterward the first
+Bishop of Chuquisaca. The Universities of Lima and Mexico, the latter
+founded a few years after that of Lima, constituted the only advanced
+institutions of learning in America for many years, although, in order
+to attend to the necessities of the Church and to avoid annoyance and
+expense to students living at a great distance, concessions for the
+opening of others began early to be granted to the religious orders,
+and bishops were permitted to confer academic degrees on scholars who
+had studied a certain number of years in Dominican and Jesuit colleges.
+The Universities of Quito, Bogotá, Córdova, and Chuquisaca were founded
+in quick succession. According to chronicles of the times, the studies
+pursued in these universities were limited to a knowledge of Latin,
+the students devoting themselves especially to the study of poetry
+and philosophy, including logic, theology, ethics, metaphysics, and
+kindred subjects. The extraordinary power which the University of San
+Francisco Xavier wielded in South American politics at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century is attributed partly to the advantages of its
+location, and partly to the peculiar character it developed under the
+influence of rich <i>criollos</i>, many of whom were descendants of
+those belligerent Vicuñas who in an earlier period had so persistently
+demonstrated their patriotic antipathy to the avaricious Vascongado
+Spaniards, gradually gaining advantages over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> them, and compelling them
+to recognize native rights in the distribution of the enormous wealth
+of Potosí and Chuquisaca, much of which finally found its way into
+the pockets of the <i>criollos</i>. Remote from the domination of the
+viceroy, and gradually increasing in power as the combined possession
+of wealth and intellectual acumen became more effective to carry out
+its plans, this remarkable institution finally succeeded in making
+its influence felt in every act of the government, whether through
+the Audiencia, the Cabildo, or the Church. It achieved a distinction
+and a destiny which could only have been possible to a people of
+innate independence of character and great mental vigor, capable of
+appreciating and dominating the enormous influence of Church and
+state, which was at that time arrayed against patriotic principles.
+The national characteristics, which were so conspicuous in the acts
+of the revolutionary <i>criollos</i>, have been no less apparent in
+the events marking the progress of the republic, which, even in its
+stormiest period, has continued to reflect the activity of vigorous
+health, requiring only the wise direction of mature judgment to control
+abundant mental and moral force. And mature judgment is not so much a
+question of years as of education.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_194">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_194.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Under the modern system of education which Bolivia has adopted,
+in common with the most advanced South American countries, many
+long-cherished ideals have been swept aside. The aim of the present
+government is to provide instruction suited to the demands of
+the day; and in doing so it has been necessary to reorganize the
+educational system, leaving out those features which belonged rather
+to a sentimental past than to the urgent present, and adopting others
+distinctly modern and progressive. The national edifice of learning had
+become overgrown with accumulated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span> traditions, which had to be brushed
+away to give better opportunity for the remodelling of the structure
+as modern needs demanded, even though regret sometimes accompanied the
+banishment of those charming relics of historic association which cling
+about every ancient institution.</p>
+
+<p>By a supreme decree, issued in 1903, the promotion of national
+culture in Bolivia, general, scientific, literary, and artistic, is
+intrusted to the minister of public instruction. Under his direction
+the educational system has been centralized as far as possible, with
+excellent results, already showing a marked tendency to unity of method
+and general progress. The country is divided into seven university
+districts, corresponding to the seven departmental divisions. La Paz,
+Oruro, Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Potosí, Santa Cruz, and the Beni,
+each district being under the jurisdiction of a University Council,
+authorized to supervise its public instruction, under the direction
+of a rector, deans, and directors of secondary instruction, of whom
+the council is composed. In the interests of primary instruction, each
+council has a special inspector. Education is free and obligatory;
+and instruction is divided into two classes, general and special.
+General instruction is embraced in three grades, primary, secondary,
+and superior, or professional; while special instruction provides for
+training in the arts and sciences, and in commercial and industrial
+branches.</p>
+
+<p>The importance given to primary instruction under the present
+government augurs well for educational progress in general, as the
+attention paid to this branch in any country is an infallible index
+to the character and degree of culture attained by the nation as a
+whole. It is not in the university, but in the public school that the
+average amount of talent is to be found the world over; and that nation
+which can show the highest average is further advanced in progress
+than the one which can produce the most distinguished examples of
+university scholarship. Bolivia, in directing especial attention to her
+primary schools as a means of raising the average of mental culture
+in all classes throughout the republic, is demonstrating her serious
+determination to march in line with the most progressive countries,
+and to establish a new epoch in national development. With this object
+in view, commissions have been appointed by the government to study
+primary school methods in other countries, new school buildings have
+been erected and older buildings have been enlarged and improved to
+meet the growing needs, and purchases have been made, chiefly in the
+United States, of textbooks, desks, charts, and other requisites for
+primary teaching. Many of these purchases have been destined to the
+use of travelling teachers, who distribute them among the Indians, the
+government manifesting a firm desire, as the president stated in his
+last annual message, to have the Indians incorporated in the programme
+of national culture. Frankly and fearlessly, the government is laboring
+to extend the benefits of education throughout the length and breadth
+of the land, appealing to the people to lend their coöperation in the
+establishment of better educational laws, declaring, with its usual
+clear-sighted judgment, that education is the basis and foundation of
+national prosperity, and that, in Bolivia, “the great deficiencies
+which embarrass free and positive progress arise out of the inefficacy
+of the national education.” When the need of a reform is so boldly
+recognized,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span> and the chief authorities of the nation deliberately set
+themselves to the task of improvement, the outlook is very hopeful,
+especially when, as in this country, public opinion is constantly
+growing in sympathy with the efforts of the executive power.</p>
+
+<p>Primary, or, as it is sometimes termed, popular, education is in charge
+of the municipal councils, with the exception of the <i>escuelas
+fiscales</i>, or fiscal schools, which are maintained by the state.
+It embraces three courses and is completed in three years, there
+being nearly eight hundred primary schools in the republic, with an
+average attendance of forty thousand pupils. The annual appropriation
+for primary education is about six hundred thousand bolivianos.
+According to recent statistics, the department of Cochabamba shows a
+higher average of primary school attendance than any other district,
+Chuquisaca ranking second and La Paz third, in proportion to
+population. The attendance at private schools and mission settlements
+is not included in the foregoing statement, of which the statistics
+are incomplete. Secondary education embraces the instruction given in
+colleges and other institutions which are under the direct control of
+the universities, and it is entirely maintained by the state. Seven
+years complete the instruction provided, the first year being entirely
+preparatory, while the remaining six are given to general high school
+work, the graduate receiving the degree of bachelor of arts, which
+entitles him to enter any of the professional courses given in the
+universities. The appropriation for secondary instruction is one
+hundred thousand bolivianos per annum, the attendance being about
+three thousand, distributed among eight colleges, five theological
+seminaries, and a number of private schools. Superior or professional
+instruction is given in three courses, of which law requires five
+years for completion, medicine seven years, and theology four years.
+Law is one of the courses given in all the universities; medicine and
+theology are included in the courses of study in the University of San
+Francisco Xavier and in the universities of La Paz and Cochabamba;
+a course in theology is also given in the University of Tarija,
+and Pichincha College of Potosí has a full curriculum of studies.
+The famous University of San Francisco Xavier is still a leading
+educational institution of the country, having in the law faculty
+five professors and about one hundred students, in the faculty of
+medicine six professors and fifty students, and in that of theology
+two professors and twenty-five students. The College of Junín, the
+Theological Seminary of Sucre, and the Córdova Lyceum prepare students
+for this university, the rector of which, Señor Dr. Ignacio Terán, is
+one of the leading educators of Bolivia, esteemed for his superior
+intellectual talent, not only in his own country, but abroad. Dr. Terán
+has contributed to the national literature several important treatises
+on education, besides which he has made a scientific study of various
+subjects relating to South American geography and history, as shown by
+his interesting works, <i>El Gran Cataclismo</i>, <i>Diluvio Universal
+y Tiahuanaco</i>, and others of a similar character. He has always
+stood in the foreground of the struggle in favor of modern educational
+methods, having been one of the first to recognize the importance
+of the present system of unity in school government, in the use of
+textbooks, etc., which he advocated years ago under the name of the
+<i>sistema gradual concentrico</i>. There have been comparatively few
+contributors of note to the educational<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> literature of Bolivia, though
+important treatises have been written on various scientific subjects by
+leading professors of the universities and by scholars of note, among
+others Don Samuel Ugarte, author of a work on chemistry, Señor Davalos,
+whose treatise on the light and heat of the sun has been translated
+into several foreign languages, Don Rafael Peña, Don Demetrio
+Calvimonte, Don Emilio Molina, Don E. Villamil de Rada, author of <i>La
+Lengua de Adan</i>, who is considered the first philologist of South
+America, Don Facundo Quiroga, Señor Vila, Señor Andrade y Portugal,
+and others. General Camacho has written important works on military
+instruction. The <i>Revista Universitaria</i>, which is published
+monthly under the auspices of the University of San Francisco Xavier,
+is probably the most important educational periodical in Bolivia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_202" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_202.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. IGNACIO TERÁN, RECTOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF SAN
+FRANCISCO XAVIER, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>By a supreme decree issued on February 19, 1906, preparatory
+engineering was added to the other courses given in the University
+of La Paz, marking the tendency toward a practical application of
+university training in its broadest sense. The present rector of
+the university, Dr. Manuel B. Mariaca, has accomplished a great
+deal through his indefatigable efforts to promote the interests of
+intellectual culture in Bolivia. He is one of the leading men of his
+country, and has contributed much to its educational progress. He is
+president of the Medical Society of La Paz. Prominent among national
+educators, Dr. Rodolfo Soria Galvarro, rector of the university of
+Oruro, possesses the versatile intellectuality which distinguishes
+many of the brilliant leaders of his country. He is a diplomat and
+an orator, as well as an educator, and writes with facility and in
+vigorous style on a variety of subjects. The University of Oruro has
+attained a higher degree of learning under his direction than ever
+before.</p>
+
+<p>In all the universities of Bolivia especial attention has been paid
+to the study of law, and graduates in this course are to be counted
+among the best jurists that South America has produced. It may even he
+said that this branch of university education has been promoted at the
+expense of others, though the tendency to give it undue importance is
+growing less as educators recognize more and more the necessity for
+directing the intellectual energies into various channels rather than
+concentrating all effort along any one line. The science of medicine
+attracts an increasing number of students each year, and the outlook
+is promising for a greatly improved standard in this profession in
+Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_203">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_203.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">BOOKBINDING DEPARTMENT OF DON BOSCO COLLEGE, LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>When the Jesuits founded the University of San Francisco Xavier,
+philosophy and theology were the only studies included in the
+curriculum. After the expulsion of the Jesuits from all the Spanish
+possessions, in 1767, when it became necessary to reorganize the
+university, the proctor at that time, Don Martin de Mendoza, asked of
+the Junta de Temporalidades: “that four professorships of theology be
+established, including prime, vespers, holy scripture, and dogmatic
+theology; that two each be devoted to philosophy, canons, law, art, and
+Latinity, and one each to medicine and mathematics; that the printing
+press used in Córdova del Tucuman be brought to Chuquisaca in order
+that the university may be advertised, and that the courses of study,
+sermons, allegations in law made by the Audiencia, and all kinds of
+matter written by the natives, whose extraordinary mental gifts remain
+unrecognized through lack of means to make them known, may be published
+and distributed abroad.” A royal decree of 1798 conceded the request,
+but the professorships in medicine and surgery were not established
+until after the inauguration of the republic, when, in 1826, Dr. Miguel
+Luna, the chief surgeon of the Liberating Army, and General Sucre’s
+personal friend and physician, opened the first class in medicine in
+this country, at Chuquisaca. An associate of Dr. Luna, Dr. Carlos
+Augusto Torrally, may be equally considered as the founder of Bolivian
+medicine. He was chief physician of the Hospital of Santa Barbara, of
+Sucre, for many years, and was noted for his advanced ideas. To his
+instruction Bolivia owes one of her greatest scholars in medicine,
+Dr. Manuel Cuellar, whose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> name is known throughout South America.
+The progress of education in medicine, as in all other studies, was
+retarded by unsettled political conditions, and medical colleges
+which were from time to time established in La Paz, Cochabamba, and
+other cities, during the first fifty years of the republic were of
+intermittent duration. Medical classes were held in the University
+of La Paz, in Junín College, Sucre, and in Cochabamba, but the work
+accomplished was of an uncertain character, notwithstanding the efforts
+of Dr. Cuellar, Dr. Ignacio Cordero, Dr. Pedro Ascarrunz, and others,
+who labored constantly to improve this branch of professional training.
+When, in 1866, the first classic models and skeletons were purchased
+by the government and placed in the medical schools of La Paz, Sucre,
+and Cochabamba, the acquisition was regarded as marking an epoch in the
+progress of medical instruction. Within the past ten years, however,
+phenomenal advances have been made. The Instituto Médico Sucre, of
+which Dr. Valentin Abecia is president, has achieved fame throughout
+South America by the excellent work it has accomplished, especially in
+the bacteriological department. When the terrible epidemic of smallpox
+swept over Valparaiso a year ago and vaccine was sent from various
+countries to supply the urgent demand, it was found that the quality
+of that which was furnished by the Medical Institute of Sucre gave
+the most uniform and satisfactory results, as a letter of thanks from
+the Chilean authorities gratefully acknowledged. The Instituto Medico
+Sucre has, in addition to its well-equipped bacteriological laboratory,
+a museum of anatomical specimens and models which is one of the most
+complete in South America. Meteorology also receives attention, an
+office having been established for observations of this character in
+the same building as that occupied by the Instituto Médico Sucre.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_204">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_204.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PATIO OF PICHINCHA COLLEGE, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The theology course, which is given in all the universities, is one
+that has occupied especial attention ever since the establishment of
+the first colleges in Spanish America. Its graduates have been counted
+among the most renowned scholars, as well as the most gifted orators,
+of the country. The seminaries and schools devoted to education
+in theology are among the important institutions of secondary and
+professional instruction. At the recent celebration in honor of the
+inauguration of the new edifice of the Seminario Conciliar de San
+Gerónimo in La Paz, the purpose of this class of schools was eloquently
+set forth in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> brilliant address by the visiting papal legate,
+Monsignor Alexandro Bavona, who described the Seminario as the place
+“where those aspiring to the priesthood could educate themselves in
+meditation and study, make themselves docile by obedience, become
+transfigured by humility, and acquire that spiritual energy which
+will be an armor in the hard struggle of the ministry, to the end
+that, under the guardianship of virtue, they may penetrate that holy
+of holies, the conscience, and make fruitful the precious seeds of
+redemption.” The Seminario Conciliar, the oldest college in La Paz,
+was originally founded in 1674, under the name of San Gerónimo, by a
+bishop of the Franciscan order, though it was later submitted to the
+direction of the Jesuits for many years. By a decree of the supreme
+government, issued in 1859, the college was placed again under diocesan
+authority, and installed in its present locality. Bishop Calixto
+Clavijo reconstructed the college at his own cost, establishing six
+classes in secondary instruction and four in theology, and at the
+present time this is one of the best institutions of learning in the
+republic. The average attendance is about three hundred. The college
+has its own printing press, in which the textbooks and other important
+works are published, a valuable library, and a conservatory of
+religious music. It has also a handsome chapel, where divine services
+are held, a universal feature of the educational institutions of Roman
+Catholic countries. The name of Bishop Calixto Clavijo is perpetuated
+in one of the most successful colleges founded in Bolivia within the
+past twenty years. In 1881 Bishop Clavijo sent to Lima for the Jesuits
+to come to La Paz and establish a college of secondary instruction,
+which was inaugurated in 1883 under the direction of Padre Antonio
+Perez, and with the title of Colegio San Calixto. The house which had
+once been the residence of General Santa Cruz was purchased for the
+college, and since that time, little by little, neighboring properties
+have been acquired and new additions built to the original structure,
+until now the college is a handsome edifice of three stories, with
+modern installations, well ventilated, and provided with everything
+required for the educational purposes of the institution. Acetylene gas
+is manufactured in the college for lighting. The attendance for 1906
+was four hundred and fifty, including both boarding and day pupils. The
+instruction given embraces three years of preparatory work, six years
+of intermediate, and three commercial courses, if desired. The present
+director of the college is a distinguished scholar and linguist,
+speaking English and other languages with fluency. Not only in the
+establishment of the Colegio Seminario and the Colegio San Calixto is
+the energy of Bishop Clavijo in behalf of education to be noted: to
+his effort is also due the existence of the Colegio de los Sagrados
+Corazones, which he founded in 1883, bringing twenty nuns from Europe
+at his own cost to direct the school. In addition to the subjects
+usually taught in convent schools, such as embroidery, languages,
+music, and composition, the pupils are instructed in hygiene, natural
+history, physics, and kindred subjects, and are trained to become
+teachers. Many young girls of the best families come from the various
+cities of the republic to attend this college, which has also free
+classes for the education of girls of all grades of society.</p>
+
+<p>Under the head of special instruction the military schools of the
+republic are included, the Colegio Militar of La Paz, the Escuela de
+Clases, and the Academia de Guerra. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> consequence of the recent
+military reorganization of the country, public interest has been
+stimulated regarding the national defence, and military instruction
+has received a marked impetus. One of the purposes of the government
+in paying especial attention to this branch of national education,
+aside from its military importance, is to promote athletic training
+and encourage the self-control and endurance which are developed under
+systematic discipline. In the Colegio Militar calisthenic drills are
+practised daily, the extensive grounds of the college being especially
+suited to such exercises. Target practice is provided for in a spacious
+polygon, the finest of its kind in Bolivia, which was constructed by
+the order of General Pando during his term of office as chief executive.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_206" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_206.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SEÑOR DR. RODOLFO SORIA GALVARRO, RECTOR OF THE
+UNIVERSITY OF ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In a country which owes its chief wealth to the products of mining,
+it is natural that the system of education should include instruction
+in mining and metallurgy, and the present government has recently
+established colleges for this purpose in Oruro and Potosí, under the
+direction of expert mining engineers and metallurgists. In the historic
+building of the Mint the Potosí School of Mines has its classes, in
+rooms spacious and well lighted, under domes thirty-four feet high,
+and protected by walls of massive solidity. The Oruro School of Mines
+was inaugurated by the minister of public instruction on February 8,
+1906. The director of this school, Señor A. F. Umlauff, is optimistic
+regarding its future, believing that the government will be fully
+recompensed, in results which can be foreseen from the beginning, for
+the efforts that are being made to establish this school on a sound
+basis, even at great expense. As it is not yet a year since the college
+was opened, the course of studies has not been perfected, but it will
+include mathematics and natural science as preparatory to later studies
+of a more specific character.</p>
+
+<p>The principal industrial schools of Bolivia, called <i>escuelas
+de artes y oficios</i>, are under the management of the Salesian
+brotherhood of Don Bosco, who have colleges all over the world. In New
+York and Troy, in the United States, these schools have an extensive
+patronage, and in all South American capitals they are established on
+a successful basis. Buenos Aires has six of these schools; Brazil,
+Chile, and Peru have one or more in each of their larger cities; Sucre
+has one; and La Paz considers the Escuela Don Bosco as a most important
+factor in the instruction of the working classes, particularly as the
+system of teaching trades is effective and practical. The original
+founder of the schools, Don Bosco,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> lived in Turin, Italy, from 1815
+to 1888. The Don Bosco college of La Paz has about two hundred and
+fifty pupils, who are engaged in practising some industrial art or
+trade, such as printing, bookbinding, shoemaking, tailoring, iron work,
+mosaic work, etc. The mosaics in the floors of the principal public
+buildings of La Paz were made by the pupils of the Don Bosco school.
+They study music and have a band of forty pieces. Frequently, concerts
+are given by them in the city. The Colegio Don Bosco was established
+in 1896, and has continued to show an increase in attendance every
+year. The director of the La Paz school is Dr. José M. Reyneri, who
+takes great pride, and with reason, in the excellent work of his
+classes. In bookbinding the school can present the highest examples
+of the tooling art. The college occupies an area of twenty thousand
+square mètres in the heart of the city, bordering the picturesque
+avenues of the Alameda. Its schoolrooms are spacious and airy, and the
+playgrounds particularly well laid out. Schools of agriculture and
+commercial colleges flourish under the present government, which sees
+in these institutions the realization of plans for development in the
+departments of national progress which have formerly been neglected.</p>
+
+<p>The minister of instruction, in addition to the supervision which his
+department exercises over the institutions of education, is also in
+charge of the interests of national culture as it is represented in
+the public libraries, museums, archives, and scientific societies of
+the country. In 1838, General Santa Cruz ordered the installation of
+public libraries in all the departmental capitals, the principal ones
+being now in Sucre and La Paz. The <i>Archivo Nacional</i> is preserved
+in Sucre, and is said to be the most complete historical record in
+possession of any South American country. The Colegio Nacional and
+the Convent of San Francisco in Tarija have libraries of historic
+value, numbering about ten thousand volumes. In La Paz, the convents
+of San Francisco and the Recoleta have together about nine thousand
+volumes. The Seminario, the University, and the Colegio de Abogados,
+or law college, have fairly good libraries. The library of the Oficina
+Nacional de Inmigracion y Estadística contains nearly ten thousand
+volumes, and the geographic societies of Sucre and La Paz have valuable
+collections of books and pamphlets.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivia is in the transition period of educational development, showing
+the influences both of past conditions and present aspirations, and
+it would not be fair to the present educational outlook to give, as
+indicative of existing conditions, the statistics that have been
+collected under a system of instruction entirely inadequate to the
+needs of a progressive people. The last statement of the Oficina
+Nacional de Inmigracion, Estadística y Propaganda Geografica, published
+six years ago, shows that only about three hundred thousand out of
+the entire population can read and write; but when it is considered
+that this number is equivalent to the population of unmixed European
+descent, it may be presumed that the illiteracy is confined chiefly
+to the Indians and <i>mestizos</i>. The sparsely settled country,
+the difficulties of intercommunication, inherited tendencies to look
+upon education as a right of privileged classes alone, have delayed
+progress in this direction, and the reforms which have recently been
+inaugurated in behalf of a broad national education require<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span> resolute
+determination to make them effective, especially in regions so remotely
+situated as are some of the interior school districts of Bolivia. But
+it is hoped that improved systems of communication will aid in bringing
+all sections within more accessible limits, and will contribute to
+facilitate the general efforts toward development. The vigor of a
+new intellectual force is apparent in the reorganization of public
+instruction; and a growing sense of the possibilities of national
+culture is bringing about a combined effort of the whole people toward
+a realization of higher intellectual ideals.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_208">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_208.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PATIO OF JUNÍN COLLEGE, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_212" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_212.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PUENTE SUCRE, A BRIDGE OVER THE PILCOMAYO RIVER,
+CONNECTING THE DEPARTMENT OF SUCRE WITH THAT OF POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XII<br>
+<span class="subhed">A NEW ERA FOR BOLIVIA—IMPORTANT PUBLIC WORKS—RAILWAYS—TELEGRAPH LINES</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_213">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_213.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PUENTE SUCRE, LOOKING FROM THE SUCRE END OF THE BRIDGE
+TO THE POTOSÍ TERMINUS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Covering an area of about seven hundred thousand square miles, and
+presenting a variety of geographic and geologic conditions unsurpassed
+by any other country of the globe, the problem of transportation, upon
+the satisfactory solution of which so much depends in the promotion of
+national progress in any country, has been one of paramount importance
+in Bolivian politics ever since the organization of the republic. Large
+sums have been paid by the government for the improvement of roads, the
+building of bridges, and the maintenance of communication between the
+principal cities, but the country’s finances have always been taxed
+to the limit by efforts which proved more or less inadequate to the
+task, with the result that although the budget continually shows large
+amounts spent in roadways and bridges, the problem of transportation
+in Bolivia is only now, for the first time, giving promise of a
+satisfactory solution. There are, nevertheless, evidences of excellent
+road building on all the principal highways, especially those
+connecting the departmental capitals, and in some instances, as along
+the route from Sucre to Potosí, and in the environs of Cochabamba,
+massive stone parapets and bridges are seen, which compare favorably
+with the best examples of work done by expert engineers in this branch
+of construction in any part of the world. But nearly all the highroads
+pass through the cañons of the Cordilleras in some part of their
+course, and during the rainy season, from November to March, a flood
+frequently rushes down these <i>quebradas</i> with such destructive
+force that every vestige of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> road building is swept away in a day. For
+this reason, wagon roads are abandoned during the wet months and all
+travel in the interior is done on muleback, usually by a route more
+precipitous than the coach road, but safer because it passes chiefly
+along the higher ledges, with only an occasional descent into the bed
+of the cañon. As stated elsewhere, the only railways now in operation
+are the lines connecting La Paz with Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, and
+Oruro with the seaport of Antofagasta, though surveys have been made
+and the work of construction has commenced on a new railway system,
+which will completely change industrial and commercial conditions in
+Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>The history of railroad building in Bolivia dates from the year 1887,
+when the government issued a decree calling for proposals for the
+construction of railways throughout the republic. The following year
+a proposal was received from the mining company Huanchaca de Bolivia
+to build a railroad from the Chilean frontier to the city of Oruro,
+passing by the mining establishment of Huanchaca. The national Congress
+approved the proposal, with slight modifications, in a decree issued on
+November 29, 1888. The rights acquired by the company were transferred
+the next year to the Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway Company, Limited,
+an English corporation, which now operates the line. This company has
+a guarantee from the government of six per cent per annum for twenty
+years on the capital invested in the construction of the line, which
+guarantee became effective on the delivery of the railway at Oruro on
+May 15, 1892, amounting to forty-five thousand pounds sterling, though
+this is only nominal so far as the Bolivian government is concerned,
+the revenues derived from the line more than covering the guarantee.
+The railway is five hundred and fifty-five miles long, from Antofagasta
+to Oruro, and ascends from about twenty feet above sea level at
+Antofagasta to more than twelve thousand feet, crossing the high
+plateau from Uyuni to Oruro with little variation from its greatest
+altitude. It is the longest single line track in the world of such a
+narrow gauge, only two feet six inches wide, throughout its entire
+length. The Huanchaca company owns and operates for its exclusive
+benefit a branch road from Uyuni to Pulacayo and Huanchaca, the centre
+of its mining industry, nine miles distant. The Bolivian section of
+the Antofagasta and Oruro railway is under the direction of Mr. Hugh
+Warren, a railroad manager of large experience and mature judgment.
+He has his headquarters at Oruro, the present Bolivian terminus of
+the road. The line will soon be extended to La Paz. Passenger trains
+leave Oruro every day for Challapata and Uyuni, and three times a week
+for Antofagasta. They run at an average speed of twenty-five miles an
+hour, the entire trip having frequently been made, on a special through
+train, in twenty-three hours. The roadbed is excellent, and the maximum
+gradient does not exceed two and ninety-eight one hundredths per cent.
+The locomotives are of American manufacture, from the Baldwin, the
+Rodgers, and the Stevenson locomotive works. The passenger cars are
+modern, well built and extremely comfortable. The scenery along this
+road is magnificent, and some of the bridges which cross the great
+ravines are counted among the highest in the world. The construction
+work of this road was done under the direction of an English engineer
+of eminent talent, Mr. Josiah Harding, who built one of the greatest
+incline railways of the world at Junín,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span> Chile, and who is now engaged
+in studying the route of the proposed Arica and La Paz railway. From
+Uyuni to La Paz, the traveller seems to be always within close distance
+of the snow-covered summits of the Andes, which rise above the horizon
+of the high plain like great white temples overtopping the clouds. As
+seen from the car window, the mining towns of Poopo and Machacamarca,
+and others which lie along the route, present a very picturesque
+appearance. But the beautiful scenery of this road hardly surpasses
+that of the railway from La Paz to Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, which has
+in view the majestic Illimani and Sorata and a whole range of lesser
+peaks clothed in perpetual snow.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_215">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_215.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RAILWAY STATION OF PULACAYO, HUANCHACA MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Guaqui and La Paz railroad was the first constructed by the
+Bolivian government out of public funds. Its successful inauguration
+was due to the initiative of ex-President General José Manuel Pando,
+who, in 1900, authorized an expert Bolivian engineer, Señor Mariano
+Bustamente y Barreda, to make the necessary studies and plans. When
+these were finished, they were approved by Congress; and a law was
+passed in the same year, authorizing the construction of the road and
+appointing a board of directors to supervise its management. In order
+to meet the expenses of building, it was provided that all revenues
+from the alcohol monopoly and from rubber taxes in the department of
+La Paz should be set aside for three years for this purpose. The line
+was completed and opened to traffic on October 25, 1903. Its total
+length is fifty-nine miles, from the port of Guaqui to the Altos, or,
+more correctly, to El Alto de La Paz, the road ascending from twelve
+thousand five hundred feet at Guaqui to fourteen thousand feet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> at
+Viacha and descending not more than two hundred and fifty feet to
+El Alto station. The gauge is three and one-third feet wide, and
+throughout the entire distance the tracks cross what appears to be
+almost a level plateau, with Lake Titicaca behind and the wonderful
+white mountain peaks in front glistening in the sun. The total cost
+of the line, including interest during its construction, amounted to
+one hundred and seventy thousand nine hundred and eighty-one pounds
+sterling. On May 31, 1904, a contract was signed by the government
+with the Peruvian Corporation, Limited, which owns and operates the
+Southern Railway of Peru from the port of Mollendo to Lake Titicaca, as
+well as the lake steamers that cross from the Peruvian border to the
+Bolivian port of Guaqui, the terms of the treaty giving to the Peruvian
+Corporation control and administration of the railway under a seven
+years’ lease, thereby affording it a through system of transportation
+from Mollendo to La Paz. The corporation loaned the government fifty
+thousand pounds sterling at six per cent interest, for the purpose of
+constructing an electric car line to connect El Alto de La Paz with
+the city, and in addition to this sum the government recognizes a
+previous indebtedness of about twenty thousand pounds sterling, all
+of which will be charged against an amortization fund of forty per
+cent to be reserved from the revenues of the railway, the corporation
+retaining sixty per cent of the railway revenues for operating expenses
+during the term of its lease. If at the end of seven years the total
+obligation has not been covered by this amortization fund, the
+government agrees to extend the lease or pay the balance.</p>
+
+<p>The history of this railway during the three years that it has been in
+operation is one of continued and increasing prosperity. It has been
+a paying investment from the first, never having yielded less than
+seven per cent dividends since its inauguration. Statistics furnished
+by the acting director of public works of Bolivia, Mr. Pierce Hope,
+under whose management the road was finally completed, show that the
+receipts for the month of January, 1906, were sixty-four thousand two
+hundred and eighty bolivianos. The increase in the freight receipts
+of 1905 was fifty per cent over the year previous. The electric line
+from El Alto terminal down the incline, or La Bajada, to the city
+station of Challapampa was completed and opened to traffic on December
+1, 1905. It is five miles long, and has the same gauge as the main
+line from Guaqui, with a grade of six per cent. The locomotives used
+on the railway and the electric cars for the incline were purchased
+in the United States. The revenue from traffic over this part of
+the line for the month of January, 1906, was fourteen thousand four
+hundred and eighty bolivianos. The trip from Guaqui to the city takes
+about two hours, and will no doubt be a feature of one of the famous
+tourist routes of the world some day. Not only does it offer the
+grandest scenery on the picturesque road from Mollendo to La Paz, one
+of the most beautiful routes in the world, but it possesses especial
+interest in the wonderful ruins of Tiahuanaco, which are situated at
+about an hour’s ride from Lake Titicaca. It affords also the novel
+experience of travelling by rail and steamer above the clouds and of
+enjoying a trolley ride down La Bajada to one of the most interesting
+and foreign-looking cities in America, La Paz, standing radiant in the
+sunlight just below the highest peaks of the Andes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_217" style="max-width: 338px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_217.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CASCADE ON THE PROPOSED ROUTE OF THE ARICA AND LA PAZ
+RAILWAY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>But though the railways from Antofagasta to Oruro and from Mollendo to
+La Paz take the tourist through wonderful and varied scenes, a more
+rapid route is being built in the new railway from Arica to La Paz,
+which will bring the metropolis of the Altaplanicie within fourteen
+hours of the coast, instead of three days, the time now required by
+the most rapid route. Chile has already begun the construction of the
+Arica and La Paz line in accordance with the recent treaty between the
+two countries. It will pass through the rich copper region of Corocoro,
+thus facilitating the shipment of the valuable ores of this district,
+and will connect with the Guaqui and La Paz road at Viacha. Either
+Corocoro or Viacha will be the junction of a line which is proposed to
+connect La Paz with Oruro, in conformity with the arrangements made
+by the government for the construction of a general railway system.
+A decree passed by the national Congress on November 13, 1905, shows
+that the government has determined to carry into immediate effect
+extensive plans for railway expansion, some of which have been under
+consideration from time to time during previous administrations, but
+have never until now been practically developed to the degree necessary
+for their successful consummation. The decree referred to declares:
+that the executive is authorized to contract for and execute with all
+possible simultaneity the construction of the following railways:
+from Viacha or Corocoro to Oruro, from Oruro to Cochabamba, from
+Uyuni to Potosí, from Potosí to Tupiza, and the first section of one
+hundred miles of the line from La Paz to Puerto Pando, at the head of
+navigation on the Beni branch of the Madeira River, employing for the
+purpose the funds derived from the indemnity paid by Brazil and the
+guarantees stipulated in the treaty of peace celebrated with Chile. The
+executive is equally authorized to carry out any financial operations
+that may be deemed indispensable, in the event that the funds above
+named are not sufficient for the construction of the railways
+indicated, but without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> compromising more than the said railways in
+the responsibility of such operations. As soon as the railways above
+determined are constructed, the following lines will be built: from
+Oruro to Potosí, from Cochabamba to Chimoré at the headwaters of the
+Mamoré branch of the Madeira, from Macha or from Potosí to Sucre, and
+the second section of the railway from La Paz to Puerto Pando. For
+the construction of the railway from La Paz to Puerto Pando the funds
+derived from the increased tax on coca will also be employed, as the
+object of this road is to serve the interests of the coca producing
+region.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_218" style="max-width: 387px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_218.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CUT IN THE RAILWAY DECLINE BETWEEN GUAQUI AND LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>For the construction of the proposed new railways the Bolivian
+government has already completed negotiations with the well-known
+firm of New York capitalists, Messrs. Speyer and Company, whereby, in
+conformity with the decree of Congress, a general system of railways
+will be built, to connect the principal Bolivian cities with one
+another, with the chief river ports of the Amazon and the Paraguay, and
+with such railways of neighboring republics as have a direct seaport
+terminus. By this practical method the country will be opened up to
+industrial and commercial development, which could never be hoped
+for under existing circumstances, as the obstacles to communication
+presented by the mountainous character of western Bolivia and the
+unsettled conditions of eastern Bolivia are apparently insurmountable
+by any other means than the establishment of railway connection.
+The importance of this enterprise on the part of the government can
+hardly be estimated. It means practically the launching of Bolivia
+into the full tide of modern progress, with no turning back to the
+old ways of muleback travel and other seventeenth-century systems of
+transportation. When the interior becomes more accessible through a
+regularly established schedule of trains, which will bring the chief
+cities within a few hours of one another and within a reasonable
+distance from the seacoast, the rapid evolution of industrial activity
+will no doubt see the building up of many large fortunes in the rich
+mining districts, on the vast cattle plains, and in the farming
+communities, to say nothing of the inexhaustible possibilities of the
+rubber country. Foreigners are not slow to appreciate this fact. As
+soon as it became known that Bolivia intended to spend millions of
+pounds sterling in the construction of railways, not only railway,
+mining, and rubber syndicates began to seek larger investments than
+formerly, but new enterprises, involving the development of cattle
+raising and other neglected industries, turned in this direction, and
+the outlook is already growing brighter than it has ever been before in
+the history of the country.</p>
+
+<p>For more than a year active preliminary work has been in progress
+throughout the entire route of the proposed system, at first under
+the direction of an American engineer,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> Mr. W. L. Sisson, and then
+under his successor, Mr. W. L. Gibson, who is the present directing
+engineer of the enterprise. Señor Jorge E. Zalles, as secretary of
+the Commission of Studies, has made himself master of every detail
+connected with the work. Surveys have been completed between Viacha
+and Oruro, one hundred and thirty-eight miles; Oruro and Cochabamba,
+one hundred and thirty miles; Uyuni and Potosí, one hundred and twenty
+miles; Potosí and Tupiza, one hundred and fifty miles; Oruro and
+Potosí, one hundred and ninety-five miles. By an examination of the
+map it will be seen that, in the extensive system proposed, railway
+communication will be established, through Bolivian territory, between
+the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards, and, by means of the great Amazon
+and La Plata river systems, with the whole vast region of eastern
+South America. Argentina has been authorized to extend her Central
+Northern Railway as far as Tupiza; and as soon as Bolivia completes
+her lines from Tupiza to Potosí, from Potosí to Oruro, from Oruro to
+Viacha, and from Viacha to Arica, there will be established a trunk
+line across the continent which will bring the Pacific port of Arica
+within five days’ distance of Buenos Aires. By extending north to
+Santa Cruz the branch line now under construction from the Argentine
+Northern Central Railway to the Bolivian border at Yacuiba, and by
+building another line to Santa Cruz from the Paraguay River at Puerto
+Suarez, opposite the Brazilian port of Corumbá, over a route which
+has already been reconnoitred and approved, both lines to be joined
+and pushed on further to a river port of the Beni, an easy outlet
+will be gained for the whole of eastern Bolivia, and the flourishing
+capital of the department of Santa Cruz will quickly develop into the
+Chicago of what may some day be one of the richest agricultural and
+cattle-raising countries in the world. Eastern Bolivia presents no such
+difficult problems of railway construction as the western part of the
+republic, and the lines projected through this region can be completed
+at much less cost. When the various South American continental lines
+are joined to cross Bolivian territory, this country, which has been
+most difficult of access up to the present time, will become the great
+central highway for South American traffic, increasing in commercial
+importance as its own trade with other nations is developed with
+greater facility.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_219">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_219.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SCENE ON THE GUAQUI AND LA PAZ RAILWAY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The formal inauguration of the new railway system took place in Oruro
+on July 4, 1906, when the supreme government went in a body to Oruro
+to initiate the work of construction from that point. It was an
+occasion of general rejoicing, all patriotic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> Bolivians recognizing
+the important significance of the ceremony, which was brilliant and
+imposing. The programme of the day was worthy of so memorable an
+occasion, being distinguished by impressive solemnity. The ceremonies
+began with the celebration of the <i>Te Deum</i> in the cathedral at
+nine o’clock. His Grace Archbishop Pifferi officiated, assisted by high
+dignitaries of the church. The president of the republic, accompanied
+by his ministers of state and the foreign diplomatic corps, attended
+the service, at which were present important government authorities
+from every city of Bolivia. The learned archbishop of La Plata, in
+pronouncing a benediction upon the great work, alluded in gracious
+terms to “the coöperation of the generous inhabitants of North America”
+in the new enterprise, and paid a high tribute to the progressive
+spirit manifested by President Montes and his ministers, to whom its
+successful inauguration was due, praying that the earthly blessings
+to be derived from its material benefits “may serve as a motive and
+stimulus to elevate the thoughts to the incomparable, unlimited, and
+eternal riches of the Kingdom of Heaven.” After the benediction,
+President Montes received at the hands of Señor Francisco Lopez
+Chavez, the Bolivian representative of the construction company, a
+handsome silver shovel, which was presented to his excellency with
+an appropriate address. In a firm voice, which thrilled the vast
+audience by its magnetic eloquence, President Montes made the address
+of inauguration, which was characterized throughout by sentiments of
+practical patriotism, expressed in such sentences as: “The greatness
+and strength of nations is not proved by declaiming ideals and
+aspirations which they have neither the knowledge nor the energy to
+realize, but by the degree of effective force which is exercised
+in a practical way in the civilization and exaltation of mankind.”
+In closing, his excellency applied to the present act the famous
+prophecy of Pedro Domingo Murillo, with a slight variation: “The
+initial step made to-day toward the resurrection of Bolivia shall
+never be detained.” The Act of Inauguration was signed with a gold
+pen, presented to the president by Dr. Isaac Aranibar, ex-prefect of
+Cochabamba, in the name of “La Patria.” The president turned the first
+shovelful of earth with the significant words: <i>Que el arma del
+caudillaje sea reemplazada con el arma del trabajo</i>—“May the arms
+of war be replaced by the arms of labor.” At the official banquet which
+closed the programme of the day, the American minister, Hon. Wm. B.
+Sorsby, in an eloquent response to a toast in honor of his country’s
+anniversary, referred to “the singularly appropriate coincidence
+that Bolivia should solemnize the inauguration of her industrial
+independence on the same day as that which commemorates the political
+and industrial independence of the first American republic.” It was,
+indeed, peculiarly fitting that a date which is celebrated the world
+over as the anniversary of the first Declaration of Independence in the
+New World should have been chosen to commemorate an event which sets
+the seal of commercial freedom upon a country that has struggled for
+nearly a century against the oppression of limited trade facilities.
+The Fourth of July will henceforth signify to the Bolivian patriot the
+inauguration of a new era in the life of his country, an era not less
+glorious in its history than that which was established in the land of
+his North American cousin on July 4, 1776. For political independence
+can do little toward bringing about<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span> national greatness without its
+practical counterpart, commercial independence; and national liberty
+finds its highest development in the friendly intercourse of countries
+bound together by ties of mutual interest. It commemorates the victory
+of a patriotic people determined to reap the full reward of national
+independence; and it marks the last struggle against conditions that
+belong to centuries gone by, and which have been forever overcome by
+the spirit of modern enterprise.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_221">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_221.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">DAM AT ACHACHALLA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_222">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_222.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TRAIN ARRIVING IN GUAQUI FROM LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Until the new railway system is completed and put in operation, Bolivia
+will continue to depend upon the present means of transportation,
+which, with the exception of the two railways previously mentioned, is
+altogether by wagons, muleback, or river navigation. The Cordillera
+Real, or Royal range, of the Andes has always proved an effective
+barrier to easy communication between the Bolivian plateau and the
+great eastern plains, with their wealth of natural production awaiting
+development, and the few mountain passes through which wagon roads and
+bridle paths have been opened represent herculean efforts to overcome
+natural conditions with limited resources at command. Public highways
+are either national or municipal property, the former being built and
+maintained by the government from appropriations granted by Congress,
+while the latter are made and controlled by the municipalities. The
+national highroads connect the principal cities and mining centres of
+the republic. With the exception of the main roads, which unite the
+department capitals,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span> and are used for passenger as well as freight
+service, these highways chiefly abound in the higher sections of
+the Andean range, where the valuable mining properties are located,
+and they are nearly all narrow, precipitous, winding paths, which
+have been built up by Indian labor and are maintained at great cost.
+Along these trails the most valuable freight is taken on the backs of
+mules, donkeys, and llamas, without danger even to the most costly and
+delicate ware, so careful are the Indians of their charge. Exquisite
+French mirrors, rare bric-à-brac, and the finest crystal and porcelains
+for the palatial administration houses, are carried across a country
+which is everywhere broken by ravines, and over a pathway often covered
+by an avalanche of rocks from the mountain sides after a heavy rain,
+yet a long month’s journey will be concluded without the record of a
+single breakage, so marvellous is the Indian’s skill in this humble
+task. The government provides <i>postas</i>, or sheltered places,
+at intervals of from eight to fifteen leagues, where travellers may
+rest and purchase forage for their animals. The <i>posta</i> is in
+charge of a government employé, who is paid a reasonable salary to
+take care of the place, to keep forage on hand for sale, and animals
+for hire, as well as to provide bed and meals at a fair price, and a
+<i>postillón</i> if required as guide. No charge is made for the use
+of this shelter. It is the custom of well-to-do travellers in this
+country to carry their own beds and provisions, except on the coach
+roads. Mules can be hired from <i>posta</i> to <i>posta</i> at twenty
+centavos, about nine cents in gold, for each mule per league, and ten
+centavos per league for the <i>postillón</i> who accompanies them. The
+house in which shelter is provided is usually a low solid structure of
+adobe, built around a courtyard, or <i>patio</i>, and having from five
+to ten or more rooms, each with a door opening on the courtyard and
+banks of adobe built out from the wall, to serve as beds. It has no
+windows. Along the coach roads the houses of the <i>postas</i> are more
+like hotels, and the traveller may journey without carrying either food
+or provisions, as both are furnished at the various stopping places.
+The coach roads are open to traffic only during the winter months, as
+in the rainy season it is impossible to keep them repaired without
+even greater expense than it costs to build a railroad, and with more
+uncertain results. The most important coach roads are: from La Paz
+to Oruro, one hundred and sixty-five miles; from La Paz to Corocoro,
+seventy miles; from La Paz north to Achacachi, sixty-six miles; from
+Oruro to Cochabamba, one hundred and forty miles; from Challapata, on
+the Antofagasta Railway, to Sucre, two hundred miles; from Sucre to
+Potosí, one hundred miles; and from Uyuni to Potosí, one hundred and
+ten miles. There are excellent bridle paths, or, as they are called,
+<i>caminos de herradura</i>, from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span> Cochabamba to Sucre, three hundred
+miles; from Potosí to Tarija two hundred and forty miles, to Tupiza
+one hundred and eighty miles, and to Challapata one hundred and twenty
+miles; from Cochabamba to Santa Cruz, three hundred and eighty miles;
+and from La Paz to the various towns of the Yungas. As the statements
+vary regarding distances, according to the humor and endurance of
+the traveller, and the exact measurement has only been made in a few
+instances, it is impossible to do more than give an approximately
+correct idea of the locality of the more important cities as regards
+their distance from one another.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_223">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_223.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CARAVAN OF FREIGHT ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Travel in eastern and northeastern Bolivia is best undertaken at the
+season of the year when the waterways are navigable, as nearly all
+routes connecting with the towns of the Beni and Santa Cruz necessitate
+navigation through a great part of the distance. On the western plateau
+the traveller arranges his journey for the winter months, to avoid
+the rainy season, but in eastern Bolivia the summer months are most
+desirable for the trip because then the rivers are high, and navigation
+is an easy problem, whereas in winter the delays are sometimes very
+tedious on account of there being little or no water in the upper
+streams of the great river systems. All the branches of the Amazon
+River are navigable, some of them, as the Acre, Purús, Madre de Dios,
+Beni, Mamoré, and Guaporé, admitting steam launches and other vessels
+of from five to six feet draft. In the southeast, the Paraguay and the
+Pilcomayo Rivers are navigable for vessels of two hundred tons. Lake
+Titicaca and Lake Poopo, on the Altaplanicie, are both navigable. Lake
+Titicaca carries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span> steamers of heavy tonnage, but Lake Poopo, and the
+Desaguadero River, which connects it with Lake Titicaca, are navigable
+only for lighter vessels. The Desaguadero River, which is one hundred
+and eighty miles long, is navigable for steamers of five hundred tons
+over part of its length, and carries good-sized vessels from Lake
+Titicaca to Lake Poopo. Communication is better established, both by
+land and water, in this part of Bolivia than in any other section.</p>
+
+<p>Closely connected with the various systems of transportation are the
+telegraph lines of the country, which constitute an important feature
+of intercommunication by serving as the means of determining the
+condition of roads in various sections, thus making it possible to keep
+them in repair and to promote the interests of traffic generally. The
+director-general of telegraphs, Señor Don Carlos Torrico, has made a
+careful study of the telegraph system, and several reforms have been
+inaugurated under his administration. Señor Torrico has served his
+government in many important capacities, having been Prefect of Potosí
+prior to accepting his present office. Under his able direction the
+telegraph system has not only been improved, but important new lines
+have been put in operation with perfect satisfaction. The system now
+covers an extent of three thousand miles, of which eight hundred miles
+are under private ownership, and the annual receipts have increased
+from eighty-three thousand bolivianos in 1904 to one hundred thousand
+bolivianos in 1905, with an equal average, about one hundred and fifty
+thousand each, of despatches sent and received from the various offices
+of the republic. These offices are established in all the chief cities
+and along the principal highways, a long-distance telephone system
+operating in connection with the telegraph; so that more remote towns
+have communication with the main line. An appropriation has been
+asked of Congress for the sum of one hundred and forty-four thousand
+bolivianos, with which to reorganize and repair the entire system and
+to place it on a more efficient basis. The international telegraph
+service has been recently improved by the extension of a line from
+Uyuni to Ollagüe, in Chile, and by the reconstruction of the existing
+line between Tupiza and La Quiaca, in Argentina. Communication with
+Peru is established by a telegraph line through Guaqui, controlled by
+the Peruvian Corporation. Connection with Europe is made by way of
+Argentina, and with the Pacific and North American ports through Guaqui
+or by Ollagüe and Antofagasta.</p>
+
+<p>A new era has dawned for Bolivia. It comes in answer to the abounding
+faith and unfailing confidence of Bolivians in the possibilities of
+their country and in their persistent determination and indefatigable
+efforts to overcome all obstacles in its development. To the world at
+large, ignorant of the real conditions which have combined to militate
+against progress and prosperity in this country of unlimited natural
+wealth, the retarded growth in industrial and commercial importance
+which statistics seem to prove can hardly be fairly considered. It is
+necessary to gain accurate knowledge by a visit to the country and
+a study from actual observation, as well as from information to be
+secured only in the country itself.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivia is not so far away, either from Europe or North America,
+as many people imagine. A very pleasant trip may be arranged to
+Bolivia, starting from European ports or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span> from New York, on one of
+the commodious steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company or the
+Hamburg-American Line, and direct from New York by a steamer of the
+Panamá Railroad Steamship Company, all of which make the trip in six
+days to Colón. The rapid increase in the earnings of these lines to
+the Isthmus of Panamá shows the growth of interest in this part of
+the world, and a tendency of travel to turn elsewhere than to Europe
+and Japan, as formerly, especially in the case of tourist trade.
+According to the latest report which the board of directors of the
+Panamá Railroad Company made to the Isthmian Commission,—the United
+States government now being sole owner of the capital stock of the
+company,—this route is rapidly becoming an important ocean highway
+between North and South America, destined to increase the social as
+well as political relations between countries hitherto more widely
+separated than those of any other continents. The balmy climate of the
+southern waters makes a trip from New York to Panamá an additional
+pleasure, and every year marks an increase of travel over this popular
+route.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_225">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_225.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MOTORING IN THE SUBURBS OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>After a six days’ trip, including many charming features, the traveller
+may spend a few days in Colón and Panamá, enjoying their tropical
+scenes and the atmosphere of industrial activity which has become so
+marked since the inauguration of the canal construction, or he may
+proceed at once southward on one of the steamers of the Pacific Steam
+Navigation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span> Company, or of the South American Steamship Company, both
+of which lines have comfortable and well-appointed steamers, from
+Panamá to Guayaquil, Callao, Mollendo, Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta,
+Coquimbo, Valparaiso, and other South American ports. The Pacific Steam
+Navigation Company has its head offices in London, with its chief
+South American office in Valparaiso, under the direction of Mr. J. W.
+Pearson, who has made the company’s line to Panamá as commodious and
+desirable a means of travel as an ocean voyage can be under the most
+favorable conditions. Even nervous passengers find little to disturb
+the pleasure of a trip from Panamá to the South American ports as far
+as Valparaiso, for the sea is nearly always as smooth as glass and the
+weather superb. From four to five days are required to make the voyage
+from Panamá to Guayaquil, and the same time is taken from Guayaquil
+to Callao, the port of Lima, Peru, as many stops are made along the
+route, though direct, fast steamers could easily make the trip from
+Panamá to Callao in four or five days. From Callao to Mollendo requires
+from three to four days, according to the delays in intermediate
+ports. To the traveller making his first trip along this route it is
+particularly interesting to watch the loading and unloading of fruits
+and other products of this tropical region. Everything is brought out
+to the steamer in <i>lanchas</i>, or lighters, and sometimes the harbor
+swarms with purveyors of merchandise. Disembarking at Mollendo to go
+to Bolivia by what constitutes the shortest route, at least until
+the Arica and La Paz Railway is completed, the traveller is conveyed
+by train over the Peruvian Southern Railway to Arequipa, a charming
+old city situated at the base of the famous volcano Misti, where the
+University of Harvard has a meteorological observatory. Everyone spends
+a day or two in Arequipa before proceeding to Puno, the terminus
+of the road, on the Peruvian border of Lake Titicaca. The director
+of the company, Mr. George Clarke, has spared no effort to improve
+the railway facilities of this line and to provide every possible
+comfort for those who take the trip. People having cardiac troubles
+may suffer a disagreeable experience for a short time while crossing
+the greatest altitude, nearly fifteen thousand feet above sea level.
+But the recompense is great, the scenery being imposing in grandeur.
+From Puno a steamer transfers passengers to Guaqui on the Bolivian
+side of Lake Titicaca, and the trip, whether made at night or in the
+daytime is, under favorable circumstances, the most charming experience
+imaginable. The new steamers, appropriately named the <i>Inca</i> and
+<i>Coya</i> are of five hundred or more tons, the older ships, of which
+the <i>Yavary</i> is one of the best, being much smaller. Sometimes
+the lake is rough, and no sea is more irritating to those who suffer
+from <i>mal de mer</i> than this beautiful lake when the surface loses
+its mirror-like calm. The rough seas of the English Channel, the Bay
+of Biscay, and the Caribbean do not disturb one’s comfort half so much
+as the staccato movement of this mysterious body of water, which seems
+to be unsettled as often from subterranean as from atmospheric causes.
+If the steamer makes a day trip the passengers land at Guaqui at about
+nine o’clock in the evening, and if a night trip, a little later than
+that hour in the morning. The remainder of the journey, as elsewhere
+described, takes one to the city of La Paz, from which various
+interesting journeys may be made to the other cities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_227">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_227.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ROAD LEADING TO MINES NEAR ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>If preferred, the traveller wishing to visit Bolivia need not go
+ashore at Mollendo, but, continuing down the Pacific coast as far as
+Antofagasta, may take a train from that port to Oruro, finishing the
+journey to La Paz by diligence, or may choose one of the numerous
+routes by diligence or muleback leading from Oruro, Challapata, and
+Uyuni, the principal stations of the railway, to the interior cities
+of Cochabamba, Sucre, and Potosí. A delightful trip, which includes
+visits to all the South American countries, may be made by the
+Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s line from Liverpool, which has a
+fortnightly service between Liverpool and Valparaiso, with connecting
+steamers from Valparaiso up the west coast to Panamá. All these
+steamers are elegantly fitted up for the passenger service, and carry
+a band of musicians for the entertainment of those on board. They
+are large twin-screw steamers, four of the transatlantic line being
+of ten thousand five hundred tons, while those of the Pacific coast
+service are of six thousand tons. The steamers from Liverpool call at
+Brazilian, Uruguayan, and Argentine ports on their way to Valparaiso.
+At least a dozen different steamship lines connect Europe and North
+America with South American ports, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company
+and the Hamburg-American Line having handsomely appointed ships to
+Brazil and Argentina; while the Lamport and Holt steamers from New York
+to Brazil and Argentina are commodious, and the service provided on
+board is constantly improving in character. All these lines permit of
+the passengers making connections at Buenos Aires to continue the trip
+to Bolivia, either by railway over the Argentine Northern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> Central to
+Tupiza, and thence to Potosí on muleback, a novel treat in these days
+of universal rapid transit, or from Buenos Aires across the Andes,
+also by railway, to Valparaiso and thence to Antofagasta and Oruro; it
+is possible to take an all sea route, by the Pacific Steam Navigation
+Company’s line from Buenos Aires through the Straits of Magellan as
+far as Antofagasta, or Mollendo. By whatever itinerary, the journey
+is worth while, and aside from the novel features it presents, it is
+sure to prove more restful than the average summer outing to popular
+European resorts. As a means of escaping the vigorous northern winters
+it is as desirable as for a relief from the excessive heat of the
+summers, the South American winter corresponding to our summer, which
+makes the trip a particularly pleasant change, especially in Bolivia
+where the winters are comparatively mild. The best seasons in which to
+visit Bolivia are spring and autumn, when the weather is modified from
+the extremes of either winter cold or summer heat.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_228">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_228.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STONE BRIDGES ON COACH ROAD BETWEEN POTOSÍ AND
+CHALLAPATA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_230">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_230.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LAKE OF SAN PEDRO, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">A THOUSAND-MILE TRIP ON MULEBACK—INCIDENTS OF TRAVEL IN BOLIVIA</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_231">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_231.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">POSTILION OF THE ANDES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The itinerary for the journey was arranged in the conference
+<i>sala</i> of the office of the director-general of telegraphs in La
+Paz. By the courtesy of Señor Torrico, and through the thoughtfulness
+of Senator Jorge Galindo, of Cochabamba, a conference by wire was
+obtained with the Prefect of Cochabamba, Señor Dr. Isaac Aranibar,
+and at the end of a very charming conversation, during which the
+prefect expressed great pleasure in the anticipation of welcoming to
+Cochabamba the <i>distinguida Norte-americana y su secretaria</i>,
+everything remained settled, as to horses, mules, guides, and servants,
+for what proved to be one of the most interesting, delightful, and
+altogether memorable journeys in a record of many thousands of
+miles’ travel by land and sea. It may surprise many people that in
+remote La Paz such facilities were available for a long distance
+conference, and the travellers themselves were thoroughly astonished
+to learn that it was possible, from these comfortable headquarters,
+to hold uninterrupted communication with the Prefects of Cochabamba,
+Sucre, and Potosí, through the services of a telegraph operator, who
+conducted the conversation between cities several days’ journey apart,
+and inaccessible at that season, December, except by long trips on
+muleback. It was decided that the regular semi-weekly diligence should
+convey the travellers to Oruro, where they were to take horses and
+mules for the rest of the trip, the horses to be used on the less
+difficult roads. Through Dr. Aranibar’s courteous attention, horses
+and guides were engaged in Cochabamba and sent to Oruro to await the
+travellers, as the season of the year was not propitious for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span> securing
+animals at short notice in Oruro, especially to serve on such a long
+trip as the one proposed. With the shortest possible delay the best
+animals for travelling over the precipitous trails of the Andes and
+across the rocky beds of the cañons were selected, and the expedition
+was placed in charge of an <i>arriero</i> who had conducted families
+from one end of Bolivia to the other through a period of twenty years,
+a conscientious, shrewd, capable, and thoroughly excellent guide, named
+Indalécio Palácios, who deserves the highest praise for his faithful
+services on this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Not heeding the predictions of disaster that were made by all
+who heard of the proposed journey, to be undertaken at the worst
+season of the year, when the rains were heaviest and the floods
+most destructive,—a journey generally pronounced <i>imposible! un
+suicidio!</i> and otherwise of dire prospect,—the North Americans
+made their preparations with the same eagerness as if only hopeful
+prognostications had been offered, and at six o’clock in the morning
+of the day agreed upon to begin the trip, they were already seated on
+the <i>pescante</i>, as the coachman’s box of the diligence is called,
+saying good-bye to the numerous friends assembled at that early hour to
+<i>despedir</i> them, including the American minister, Mr. Sorsby, who
+appeared a little doubtful as to the outcome of this expedition of his
+compatriots.</p>
+
+<p>The old diligence was similar to most of its kind in Europe and
+America, with seats along the side and a high box for the driver, to
+which two passengers could be admitted in case of a crowded list. In
+pleasant weather the <i>pescante</i> is preferable to a seat inside the
+coach; and even though it was a raw, cold morning when the diligence,
+with its eight horses, pulled out of the <i>carretera</i> station at
+Challapampa, with the “Americanas” wrapped in their furs and waving
+adieus from their elevated seats, the prospect was pleasanter to them
+than it would have been inside, with sleepy people blinking at one
+another and grumbling about their “places.”</p>
+
+<p>“Coaching” is a word which usually suggests high-stepping
+thoroughbreds, rubber tires, and all the accessories of a fashionable
+turnout; but a coaching trip may be a delight, as this one proved, in
+a rattling old vehicle drawn by eight mules unquestionably ordinary,
+evidently chosen for endurance rather than appearances. The old
+<i>diligencia</i> climbed slowly enough until it arrived at El Alto;
+but once on the broad plateau, the well-trained mules tore over the
+level road at a surprising and exhilarating speed. The keen air
+at fourteen thousand feet above the sea was delightful; and when,
+after two hours’ riding, the coach stopped in front of a little
+<i>posada</i>, or inn, everyone was ready for a cup of coffee and a
+roll, which were taken without getting down. After riding on for three
+hours more, the station of Ayoayo was reached, at one o’clock; and
+while the driver changed mules for the second time that morning, the
+passengers had <i>almuerzo</i>, as the noon meal is called in all South
+American countries, meaning breakfast, the early morning coffee and
+rolls being <i>desayuno</i>. Ayoayo is pointed out to travellers not
+only as the birthplace of the celebrated Tupac-Catari, who held La Paz
+in a state of siege for more than three months during an insurrection
+against Spanish rule late in the eighteenth century, but as the scene
+of a massacre of Sucre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> soldiers by Indians only a few years ago under
+peculiarly sad circumstances, the young men representing the best
+families of Sucre society. It is a typical village of the plateau,
+adobe built, treeless, and dreary looking. A few leagues further on,
+the coach stopped at the thermal springs of Viscachani for a few
+minutes only, finishing the day’s journey at Sicasica at about nine
+o’clock at night. All day the snow-white peaks of the Andes had been
+in view, and, dotting the landscape in groups at short intervals, were
+seen curious-looking adobe mounds or towers of from five to ten feet
+in height, with a Gothic archway through the centre, giving a singular
+appearance to the structure. They are called <i>chullpas</i>, an Aymará
+word used to designate not only the buildings but their architects,
+though it was not applied to the latter until late in the seventeenth
+century. These <i>chullpas</i> are generally regarded as the ruins of
+ancient Aymará burial places, though some authorities believe them to
+have been built for dwellings, and it is certain that they were used as
+such at the time of the Viceroy Toledo’s visit to Alto Peru, when he
+gave the order that the Indians should be forbidden to occupy them and
+should be compelled to form communities around a Christian church. That
+the <i>chullpas</i> have been used extensively as burial places at some
+time is proved by the great number of skeletons found in them. Next
+to the colossal ruins of Tiahuanaco and the remains of Inca palaces
+on Lake Titicaca, these <i>chullpas</i> are the most interesting
+pre-Columbian relics of the plateau.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_233">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_233.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center"> ANCIENT SEPULCHRES, CALLED “CHULLPAS,” BETWEEN LA PAZ
+AND ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>A long day’s ride, from six o’clock in the morning until nine at night,
+is sufficiently fatiguing to make any kind of lodging desirable, and no
+one appeared to take much notice of the surroundings at Sicasica. At
+four o’clock the next morning the diligence was on its way again. The
+air was cold and clear, and from the <i>pescante</i> a fine view was
+to be had of the whole country. The moon was just disappearing in all
+its silver splendor behind a bank<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span> of black clouds, still illumining
+with its weird light the towers of a distant church and shedding a
+white radiance over the broad expanse of plain. Within half an hour
+more the sun came out, at first rosy as a child from its bath, and then
+golden in all the splendor of the new day. Along a part of the road
+the coach was whirled over a carpet of snow, the result of a storm the
+night before. The route lay past the battlefield of Aroma, famous as
+the site of the Cochabambans’ victory over the Spaniards in the War of
+the Independence, then through the pueblos, or villages, of Panduro and
+Vilavila, with their plazas, their narrow streets, and little shops,
+over many of which hung gorgeously dressed dolls to indicate that
+<i>chicha</i> was for sale within, passing Caracolla, the breakfast
+station, from which the direction lay due southward to Oruro, where the
+coach stopped at four o’clock of one of the windiest days in Bolivia’s
+windiest city.</p>
+
+<p>Oruro is surrounded by mountains, the sides of which have been
+burrowed in all directions for the precious metals they contain in
+abundance. It presented a particularly attractive appearance to the
+two North Americans the morning succeeding their arrival, when, after
+receiving visits from the prefect, Dr. Andrés Muñoz, and the rector
+of the university, Dr. Rodolfo Galvarro, who extended a cordial
+welcome to their city with the usual hospitality of these kind people,
+they started on a sightseeing tour, with the genial editor of <i>La
+Tarde</i> as cicerone. The market place is always interesting to
+foreigners, and half a day was not too long to spend at its booths,
+where blankets, woven in all the colors of the rainbow, <i>chola</i>
+outfits, all kinds of home-made lace, pottery of primitive design and
+workmanship, and little images to be worn as amulets, are sold at
+whatever price it appears most probable the purchaser will pay. As it
+was necessary to secure provisions for the muleback trip which was
+to begin the next day, a little <i>chola</i> servant in the employ
+of friends was sent to buy chickens and other necessaries in the
+market. In this country methods are the reverse of those employed
+where competition makes every vendor eager to secure purchasers. Here
+it is the buyer who pleads and urges that he must have such and such
+articles. The process of getting a pair of chickens was as complicated
+as if it had been a question of some delicate legal transaction. The
+price did not seem high enough to warrant such exclusive methods.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>arriero</i> Palácios having arrived with the horses and mules
+from Cochabamba, everything was ready to begin the journey by eight
+o’clock on the morning of December 14, 1905. The cheerful optimism with
+which the two travellers regarded the possible experiences in store
+for them was explained in the statement: “Everybody is so kind to us
+everywhere!” and they wore a happy and confident mien as they rode
+out of the <i>patio</i> through the low stone gateway of the hotel,
+and turned their horses’ heads toward the apparently boundless plain,
+across which they were to find their way to the Royal Range of the
+Andes, and, by following its steep ledges and winding cañons, to reach
+the beautiful valleys beyond, and visit the thriving cities of central
+Bolivia. It is not possible to take, on such a journey, the large
+trunks used in Europe and North America, where railroad facilities are
+such that the heaviest baggage can be easily handled. For muleback
+travel light trunks, made of raw hide<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span> and called <i>petacas</i>, are
+used, generally smaller than the average steamer trunk. Two of these
+may be strapped on each mule, and if the weight is well balanced the
+animal will carry very heavy loads. The provisions are also carried
+in these <i>petacas</i>. The saddlebags, or <i>alforjas</i>, are an
+important item of the rider’s outfit, as in this way are carried light
+lunches, fruits, etc., which may be eaten without dismounting, in case
+of emergency.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_235">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_235.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PILLARS OF SANDSTONE, NEAR PORCO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The first day’s trip seemed longer than leagues recorded it, the sun
+beating down with intense heat on the high plateau and the white
+light dazzling by its sheen. The snow mountains were in view all day,
+refreshing to the sight. The road was almost entirely level, and there
+were few landmarks along the way by which to note progress. The old
+town of Paria, looming abruptly in the path after a sudden turn at the
+slope of a hillock, awakened interest chiefly as the first pueblo built
+by the conquerors in Bolivia. It was worth an hour’s delay, though it
+possesses little of architectural merit except an old church which is,
+and probably always has been, its chief adornment.</p>
+
+<p>Small huts, the homes of Indian shepherds, are scattered over the
+plain, apparently not large enough to admit more than one person,
+though whole families occupy them, or rather sleep in them, as a
+protection from the piercing cold of this region after sundown. During
+the day they are deserted, except on rare occasions. Looking into one
+of these curious little hovels, nothing was to be seen but a kettle,
+a box of matches, a bit of tallow candle, a blanket, a handful of
+parched corn, and the stones on which to grind it. There seems to be
+little fear of robbery, as none of these huts have doors. All along
+this part of the plateau, where it slopes toward the Royal Range, there
+are sheepfolds or corrals, enclosed by low walls of adobe or rocks.
+Before reaching the end of the second day’s journey, from Tolopalca
+to Ventilla, the plateau was left behind and the green slopes of the
+valleys appeared. Palácios felt it incumbent upon himself to point out
+objects of interest, and his information was of the most varied and
+weird description. The rocks and jagged peaks took on a new aspect
+under the charm of many legends; and strange faces looked out from
+uncanny depths, curious forms rose up in the crevices of the cañon, and
+above one of the summits the head of Melgarejo was pointed out, with
+a gesture of satisfaction which might or might not bear relation to
+the safe distance at which the celebrated <i>tyranno’s</i> sculptured
+likeness appeared. A terrific thunderstorm caused half a day’s delay at
+Ventilla, but was worth the loss of time, as it gave an opportunity to
+observe a curious custom, when, as a heavy downfall of hail buried the
+ground out of sight, the proprietress of the inn brought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span> out a brazier
+full of incense and set it in the middle of the <i>patio</i>, “to burn
+incense to the Virgin and have the hail stopped.” A few minutes later
+the hail ceased, and the devout little housewife came out triumphantly
+to take away the brazier and to explain its purpose to the astonished
+onlookers. Her little home had few evidences of worldly comfort, but
+in a corner of the family bedroom there was an altar to the Virgin, on
+which fresh flowers were placed daily. She was a happy, contented soul,
+and thought Ventilla the most desirable place of residence in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Five o’clock in the morning was the usual hour for beginning the
+day’s journey. From Ventilla to Chuimani the road was rugged and
+mountainous, and a threatening storm made it doubtful whether the
+usual number of miles could be made without danger of being swept
+down stream by a sudden flood. But fortune was favorable, and after
+an hour’s rest and breakfast at Chuimani the little party pushed on
+to Arque, arriving early in the afternoon. A deputation consisting of
+the chief authorities of the district met the travellers, whose coming
+had been announced in advance by telegram; and they were escorted to
+the municipal building, where, dismounting, they were received with
+formal speeches of welcome. As it was the <i>corregidor’s</i> birthday,
+the town was in <i>fiesta</i>, and presented a gay appearance. But
+though the invitation to remain was cordial, it was necessary to take
+advantage of every fine day for the trip, at a season when storms
+meant possible delay of a week or more; and at four o’clock the next
+morning the party started out of Arque, following the bed of the river
+nearly all the way to Capinota. The scenery of the Quebrada de Arque,
+as this part of the route is called, is grand and imposing beyond
+description. Nothing more stupendous in rocky chasm and pinnacled
+height is to be seen in the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, in the Swiss
+Alps, or even in the Himalayas. It is impressive, awe inspiring, one
+of the noblest of Nature’s architectural wonders. The route from Arque
+to Capinota follows the river bed, and it was necessary to cross the
+stream more than fifty times during the five hours’ ride, frequently
+under rather uncertain circumstances, as a torrent had poured down
+through the <i>quebrada</i> the night before, and fording was still
+difficult and dangerous, the animal’s slightest stumble on a loose
+stone serving to make him lose ground against the heavy current. But
+the <i>arriero</i> never failed to attend closely to his charges,
+and his <i>Cuidado, niñas!</i>—“Be careful, young ladies!”—served
+to guard against any inattention at critical moments. The ride into
+Capinota was like passing along one of the shady bridle paths of a
+European city. For about two miles the road lay between a double row
+of wide-branching trees, through fertile farm lands; and when the
+cavalcade entered Capinota, to the astonishment of the quiet citizens
+who came to the doors to see the <i>estrangeras</i>, nothing could have
+been more grateful to the sight of the fatigued travellers than the
+clean streets and white houses of that attractive little provincial
+capital. The sub-prefect, Señor Maldonado, and his charming family
+extended the welcome characteristic of gentlefolk in every land, and
+their generous hospitality was one of the most pleasing experiences
+of the trip. It would have been pleasant to stay longer in Capinota,
+but a few hours were all that could be spared, and the afternoon saw
+the <i>jinetas</i>, as horsewomen are called, again on their way. The
+afternoon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> was that of a genuine midsummer day, and the sun blazed down
+with extraordinary fierceness on the high, unsheltered ledges of the
+mountain side along which the travellers made their way for hours. The
+scenery was magnificent; and when the winding of the road brought a
+breath of cool air or a stretch of shade, the leagues seemed to grow
+shorter, though it was late in the afternoon when the little town of
+Caraza was reached and the journey was ended for the day. It had been
+less than the usual day’s ride, only thirty miles, but the road had led
+first through the rocky bed of the river from Arque, and then along the
+sun-heated slopes beyond Capinota, which were particularly fatiguing
+during the hottest hours of a summer’s day, with the natural result
+that the following morning found the travellers particularly tired,
+making the continuation of the journey something of an effort. But at
+the usual hour they started, riding slowly for four hours, until a
+distant view of a camp of North American engineers near Quillacollo
+revived their drooping spirits, and cheerfulness increased with the
+anticipation of meeting fellow countrymen to whom they could talk in
+their own language, and of hearing news, perhaps, from their own dear
+land. The engineers, who were engaged in the survey of the new railway
+between Oruro and Cochabamba, had already received information of
+their approach, and appeared equally pleased to see friends from their
+country, showering every kind attention upon their delighted guests,
+who were made comfortable until the effects of fatigue disappeared and
+they were able to go on to Cochabamba, which they reached the next day.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_237">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_237.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RIVER ROCHA, NEAR COCHABAMBA, SHOWING TUNARI IN THE
+DISTANCE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_238">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_238.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">WEAVING THE PONCHO ON A PRIMITIVE LOOM.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>From Oruro to Cochabamba, a distance of about one hundred and forty
+miles, a diligence carries passengers during the greater part of the
+year, and there are always accommodations for passengers at the inns of
+the various diligence stations. But on the long ride from Cochabamba to
+Sucre, these advantages do not exist, as there is now no coach system
+over this road, covering a distance of about three hundred miles. It
+was necessary before leaving Cochabamba to purchase beds and provisions
+for the trip. Army cots were bought, of the kind that can be rolled up
+in a neat bundle and strapped on the mule without requiring too much
+space. Then a shopping tour resulted in a nondescript collection of
+kitchen utensils, an alcohol stove, and a complete picnic assortment
+of canned eatables, nearly all from English, French, or German
+establishments, the United States being far behind in this market.
+After a pleasant week in this Garden City, enjoying the hospitality of
+the charming Cochabamba people, the small caravan was got ready for the
+trip to Sucre. The ladies started out under the brightest auspices,
+with a host of new friends to wish them a safe journey. It was quite a
+cavalcade, consisting of the two travellers and their <i>arriero</i>
+and servant, three saddle horses, two saddle mules, two pack mules,
+and a donkey for the small boy who went as helper to Palácios. The
+first day’s ride was through the fertile valley of Cochabamba to Arani,
+a town thirty miles away, which has a regular coach service to the
+city, uninterrupted the year round. All along this road are to be seen
+curious round-topped buildings, some used as dwellings, and others as
+barns. They resemble the saüba ant mounds of Brazil, on a larger scale,
+or the African bungalows, except that these Bolivian huts are of adobe,
+the well-known sun-dried brick generally used throughout Latin America.
+At Punata, near Arani, an old cemetery presents a remarkable appearance
+on account of the vaults being built in this form. The climate of
+Cochabamba and the vicinity is superb, and a day’s journey in this part
+of Bolivia is an unmixed delight. The second day’s ride from Arani to
+Ayapampa was a taste of what mountain climbing means, and the thirty
+miles between the two <i>postas</i> presented almost every variety of
+climate and weather. Breakfast tasted just as good eaten while sitting
+on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span> a pile of stones by the roadside as if it had been taken at a
+perfectly served table in one’s own house, for the altitude and the
+bracing air gave a wonderful appetite, and the ascent had been a sharp
+one from six o’clock in the morning until noon. A heavy storm of rain
+and hail made particularly serviceable the gorgeous <i>ponchos</i>,
+or blankets, which had been purchased at Oruro for the trip, as
+raincoats did not meet the double requirement of warmth and waterproof
+security. Ayapampa is a brown, rather gloomy-looking cluster of houses,
+high among the mountains, the centre of a pastoral community. It has
+a well-built church and a good school, and some of the homes give
+evidences of comfort. The <i>corregidor</i> placed his house <i>á la
+disposicion de las Señoras</i>,—“at the disposal of the ladies,”—who
+made themselves comfortable for the night, and, with the assistance
+of Palácios and the servant, made experiments in amateur cooking, the
+initial steps toward acquiring a proficiency in culinary art which
+developed marvellously before the end of the journey. That evening’s
+effort was a dismal failure, and a large consignment of embryonic
+“flapjacks” went to feed the birds of the mountains, but <i>ce n’est
+que le premier pas qui côute</i>!</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_239">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_239.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIANS IN FEAST COSTUMES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The next day broke the record of endurance in travelling, and will
+never be forgotten as the most fatiguing day of the whole trip. From
+Ayapampa to Mizque is estimated at fifty miles, but it was as long a
+fifty miles as precipices and rocky slopes and innumerable windings
+can measure. Starting at five o’clock in the morning and riding
+steadily until nine o’clock at night, with only a half-hour’s rest for
+breakfast, this long day’s experience made the weary equestrians decide
+that the fifty miles must have been measured “as the crow flies.” The
+early morning was clear and cold, and from Ayapampa the route lay down
+the valley, the descent being through a bank of clouds, which, when
+seen from above, looked like great billows of seafoam, then as one
+passed through them, the atmosphere was so foggy that the outstretched
+hand could hardly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span> be distinguished, and from below the fleecy coverlet
+gradually rose and was lost to sight in the blue of the sky. The first
+half of the day passed quickly, as the marvellous beauty of the scenery
+absorbed attention. The majesty of the Cordilleras, rising peak above
+peak as far as the eye could see, and the wonderful depths of the green
+valleys far below, were impressive beyond description. And when the
+descent to the bed of the Mizque River began, the varied beauty of
+its winding course, as it spread out like a panorama to the view, was
+enchanting. But what a long time it took to descend the mountain to a
+river bed which seemed to be no more than half a mile away! Palácios
+was appealed to with increasing frequency as the hours passed, to know
+how many leagues still remained, and his cheery <i>dos ó tres leguas
+no más, Señora</i>,—“two or three leagues, no more, lady,”—grew
+dreadfully monotonous as daylight faded and flashes of lightning were
+the only illuminating beacons to show the way. Fortunately, the river
+was reached before dark; but it was pitch dark when the cavalcade rode
+into Mizque, and hardly a light glimmered in the town as the travellers
+dismounted in the plaza and were received by the courteous sub-prefect,
+Señor Ladislao Vasquez, who hastened to provide everything for their
+comfort, expressing his regret that an accident to the telegraph wires,
+caused by the recent storm, had prevented his receiving word of their
+coming.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_240">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_240.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE DEVIL’S BRIDGE ACROSS THE PILCOMAYO RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Mizque is a survival of one of the most important towns of the
+Audiencia of Charcas, once the seat of a bishopric. It is a quiet
+borough, picturesque and attractive in many ways. A day was given to
+visiting its churches and gardens, as the river was too swollen by
+floods to permit of riding across. The next day was the last of the
+old year, and it was spent chiefly on the road between Mizque and
+Aiquile, the latter a thriving provincial capital, the sub-prefect of
+which, Señor Nicanor Arze, is a descendant of the famous Cochabamban
+who led the victorious forces in the battle of Aroma. Señor Arze and
+his wife made the coming of the New Year as bright as possible to the
+two strangers in their city, and Señor Arze accompanied the party as
+far as Novillera, which is one of the finest fruit farms in Bolivia.
+With their saddlebags full of oranges and lemons, the ladies left,
+after breakfast, for Quiroga, where accommodations were scant, but
+hospitality was generous, Señor Manuel Rodriguez giving up his store
+as a lodging for the unexpected arrivals. The only available space was
+on the counter, and here Palácios and the servants arranged the cots
+for the first night’s rest of the New Year. It was a holiday to be
+remembered, as all the town was celebrating with music and procession,
+the Indians, who were in <i>fiesta</i> after their own peculiar
+fashion,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span> shouting and dancing. The commotion caused alarm to the
+travellers, which was quickly allayed by the reassuring announcement of
+the <i>arriero</i>, who kept guard, that all the noise meant nothing,
+or, as he expressed it, <i>No importa nada, Señora</i>.</p>
+
+<p>All along the central valley, which is the route from Cochabamba to
+Sucre, the scenery is very like some parts of Mexico, where the cactus
+grows in profusion and the climate is semi-tropical. But the cactus and
+the pepper tree reach their maximum growth in this region, the cactus
+towering up in a single huge stem to the height of a small poplar,
+while the pepper tree branches out with wonderful vigor. Few signs of
+animal life are seen, except of the domestic variety, though there
+are many beautiful birds, and whole flocks of parrots and paroquets
+fly screaming overhead at short intervals all day long. Not many
+insects were seen, but a great deal of warning was given by friends
+to be prepared for a fierce specimen called <i>vinchuca</i>, a kind
+of vampire beetle, which, however, did not appear. Many magnificent
+country estates are scattered along the sides of the rich agricultural
+valley; and over the Rio Grande, which was crossed scores of times
+during one day, the beautiful Puente Arce has been swung to facilitate
+travel in this section of the country. One night, after a ride of
+thirty-six miles over the stony bed of the river, a <i>choza</i>, or
+Indian hut made of straw, appeared to view, and it was decided that a
+night’s rest under its scanty roof would be better than a too strenuous
+effort to reach the next <i>posta</i>; so, as soon as permission
+was granted, the cots were prepared, and the weary <i>gringas</i>,
+soothed by the moonlight streaming in and the sound of some distant
+<i>postillón’s</i> guitar, or <i>charango</i>, borne faintly on the
+night air, fell asleep, the <i>arriero</i> keeping guard with a
+revolver which never found any more serious use than waking the echoes.
+For experience has proved, in thousands of cases, that travellers are
+as safe in the remote districts of Bolivia as on a city street in
+the most carefully policed centres of the world. The chief trouble
+encountered was that of procuring forage, the season being the worst
+of the year for pasturage. It was of no use to urge the <i>arriero</i>
+to stay at some <i>posta</i> that seemed to offer special attractions
+in scenery or historical interest. <i>No hay forrage</i>—“There is
+no forage”—was the death knell to poetic dreams upon more than one
+occasion on that memorable ride.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_241">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_241.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PUENTE SAN BARTOLOMÉ BETWEEN POTOSÍ AND YOCALLA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The day of the arrival at Sucre broke clear and promising, and from
+the <i>posta</i> of Cantumolino the cavalcade set out at five o’clock
+in the morning to climb the almost perpendicular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span> height that marks
+the approach to the famous city. A terrific storm came on, at first
+in great, splashing drops, then in a steadier downpour, and finally,
+as the level heights, called <i>puna</i>, were reached, the climax
+came in hailstones as large as marbles. The rain quickly drenched the
+ladies to the skin, though it did not dampen their enthusiasm. It was
+a glorious sight up there on the heights, from which the trickling
+rivulets could be seen leaving the crevices of the summits and forming
+into larger streams, which were quickly swollen into floods as they
+swept into the gullies of the lower cañon and were carried in a mighty
+torrent down to the bed of the now raging river. In half an hour it
+was all over, and the sun came out over the peaks and shone down into
+the <i>quebradas</i>, almost visibly checking the rushing waters.
+Sucre looked whiter than ever after such a drenching, and it was a
+most welcome sight after nine days’ journey, though every day had been
+enjoyable.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_242">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_242.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A FREQUENT MORNING ENCOUNTER ON THE JOURNEY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>No one can ever get away from Sucre so soon as he has planned to do,
+no matter how urgent the case may be; and although it had been the
+intention to give only a few days to sightseeing in the capital, the
+time flew by so agreeably that at the end of two weeks it was with
+reluctance that good-byes were said. Hospitality was most cordial and
+genuine, even the problem of taking care of the animals, the eternal
+question of <i>forrage</i>, being solved by a distinguished Sucrense,
+Señor Urioste, brother of the Princess de Glorieta, who turned them
+out to graze on his own magnificent hacienda. Receptions, soirées,
+picnics, and a grand ball which was marked by as much <i>éclat</i>
+as if it had taken place in a European capital, were features of the
+entertainment provided for the visitors, who, on leaving, were escorted
+to the first <i>posta</i> by the distinguished prefect, Dr. Julio La
+Faye, and a party of leading Sucrenses, who treated them to a sumptuous
+breakfast in <i>despedida</i>. It was late before the next <i>posta</i>
+was reached, at the Puente Sucre, which crosses the Pilcomayo River,
+but from this point to Potosí was only three days’ riding, and the
+roads, though steep and narrow, were in no place dangerous. From the
+Puente Sucre the ladies were accompanied for several leagues by the
+courteous official, Señor Rodriguez, and early in the afternoon the
+day’s ride ended at Retiro. One of the temporary attachés of the
+expedition, who has not been described before because he attracted
+little attention, was the <i>postillón</i>. This unique type serves
+from one <i>posta</i> to another only, and it is chiefly in the
+mountains that his personality becomes a picturesque feature of the
+landscape. In the valleys he is an uninteresting creature who runs his
+fifty or sixty miles a day in a plodding, expressionless sort of way,
+but on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span> uplands the species is different. He is a poem in rags and
+patches, a symphony in prismatic <i>ensemble</i>, with an individuality
+as striking as quaintness can make it. He swings his silver-tipped horn
+over his shoulder and holds his beloved <i>charango</i> close to his
+heart, even when he thrums on it the strange, monotonous <i>tristes</i>
+which constitute the musical masterpieces of his race. He is silent,
+yet eloquent in his silence, as the garrulous white man seldom is with
+all his words. His bushy, but straight, black hair makes a thick fringe
+under the knitted cap which he pulls down over his ears, and his black
+eyes are wide open, though not always in innocent questioning. He is
+sometimes a shrewd schemer. The <i>postillón</i>, who trotted on ahead
+to herald the travellers’ arrival at Conapaya, vigorously blowing his
+silver-tipped horn, caused a panic by selecting as their breakfast room
+at the <i>tambo</i>, or inn, an apartment in which the ladies found
+themselves face to face with a case of smallpox at the worst stage
+of the disease. The escape from the dangerous situation was sudden
+and somewhat dramatic; but as a physician who was encountered on the
+road to Potosí the next day explained, the great altitude practically
+prevents contagion, and the disease had never been known to exist
+except in sporadic cases, usually brought from a lower district. This
+did not entirely allay anxiety, however, and upon arriving at Potosí
+the doctor was called in to vaccinate the entire party. Palácios balked
+and refused to be bothered with it, and the <i>postillón</i> could not
+be found, but the small helper was made an unwilling victim.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_243">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_243.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE LLAMA, THE PROUDEST OF BURDEN BEARERS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Naturally there was much to see in the wonderful old city of Potosí,
+and it was only after several days that the enthusiastic visitors
+to the Villa Imperial could make up their minds to go on. Here as
+elsewhere hospitality was liberally shown, and time was made to pass
+very pleasantly in the company of charming new friends. Señor Juan
+Ugarteche and his beautiful wife, whose father is Señor Bebin, one of
+the richest mine owners of Bolivia, were most attentive, as were many
+others.</p>
+
+<p>The route from Potosí to Challapata, the coach road terminus on the
+Antofagasta and Oruro Railway, is said to be better than that from
+Sucre to Challapata, and yet it seems hard to believe that any road
+could present more difficulties to the equestrian than the former. The
+first day’s riding offered few inconveniences except that a flood made
+the river impassable in the neighborhood of the Mendieta placer mines,
+and it was necessary to wait patiently till the river “passed.” An
+expression which sounds strange to the foreigner is that of the river’s
+“arriving” and “passing.” “I think we can get to the next <i>posta</i>
+before the river arrives,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span> the <i>arriero</i> would say, and at first
+the idea of this transient passenger was a source of great amusement.
+But as the rivers depend for their existence on the rains that flood
+the mountain crevices, it can easily be understood that their “arrival”
+is entirely a passing event. A small stream sometimes remains to mark
+their turbulent course, but even this is not a certainty the year
+round. A great deal of work has been done to keep the roads passable.
+A few leagues out of Potosí the Puente del Diablo, between Yocalla
+and Tarapaya, was pointed out by Palácios as a wonderful piece of
+construction done by his Satanic majesty on a wager for the soul of a
+belated lover who was unable to cross the stream to save his sweetheart
+from marriage with another, and who bargained to give his soul if the
+devil would build the bridge before the cock crew in the morning. When
+the work was nearly done the young man repented of his wicked wager and
+prayed to the Virgin to save him from the awful sin he was committing.
+His prayer was heard, and the cock crew before the last stone was
+placed in the arch. He leaped across the nearly completed bridge, and
+while the devil cursed the bad luck that had befallen his enterprise,
+the young man received the blessing of the Church on his happy marriage
+with the fair lady of his choice.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_244">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_244.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COSTUMES WORN BY THE INDIANS ON THE PILGRIMAGE TO THE
+SHRINE OF COPACABANA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>On every highway of the Cordillera great droves of llamas may be
+seen, carrying their small loads to and from the mines. One morning
+a thousand of these stately freight bearers were counted, in droves
+averaging a hundred each. Most of them were carrying blocks of tin
+to Challapata, or merchandise from that city to Potosí. The blocks
+weighed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span> twenty-five pounds, and each llama carried two of them. An
+average-sized llama will carry from fifty to sixty pounds, and the
+larger animals eighty and in rare cases a hundred pounds. But the
+llama knows his loading capacity, and absolutely refuses to have one
+ounce extra put on his back. If such an insult is offered him, he sits
+down in the road until the offending load is removed. Beating and
+coaxing will not get him to his feet again, and sometimes, even after
+the load is taken off, he refuses to continue the journey. The other
+llamas will not go on without him, and it is a serious question with
+his Indian driver whether to carry the llama until he will agree to
+walk, or to kill him, so that the caravan can go on with its freight.
+The llama travels only from nine to ten miles a day, keeping a slow
+majestic pace, with his head held high in the air, turning it from one
+side to the other as objects of interest attract his attention. He is
+a superb-looking creature, sometimes of gorgeous coloring, when his
+coat has been dyed red, yellow, or green to match his master’s, and
+bright-hued ribbons have been tied through holes pierced in the tips of
+his long, erect ears. The Indians believe the llama has the soul of a
+departed Inca, which accounts for his pride. An Indian who owns a drove
+of llamas is independently rich. They find their own forage, their wool
+supplies him with clothing, their bones make his utensils, their meat
+is food for him in an emergency, his sandals are made of their hide,
+and llama dung furnishes the fuel with which he cooks his food. The
+llama chews the cud, and his weapon in anger or fear is spitting at
+the offender. His wool makes durable <i>ponchos</i>, which the Indians
+weave on very primitive looms.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_245">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_245.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A COUNTRY ROAD NEAR LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>As the journey approached its close, the roads seemed to grow steeper
+and the <i>postas</i> further apart. At times it appeared to be a
+question whether the mules were walking on their feet, or picking their
+way down the almost perpendicular slopes on their noses, and then,
+a sudden ascent would reverse appearances, and one could not help
+wondering how long the mules could preserve their equilibrium with the
+scant hold their hind feet had secured on the edge of the precipice,
+while the fore feet floundered around in what seemed an everlasting
+effort to get a solid base. Chasms opened on one side and rocky ledges
+crowded on the other, while nothing was to be seen but illimitable
+space ahead, and there was no way of going back. These were features
+of the trip which were not of unmixed enjoyment, but not a single
+accident occurred on the entire journey; and though part of it, between
+Leñas and Vilcapugio, was travelled at an altitude of over sixteen
+thousand feet, where the cold<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> was intense at night, the road often
+being covered with snow in the morning, not a moment’s suffering was
+felt, and every day brought new diversion. One of the most entertaining
+experiences was the arrival at Tolapalca, near Vilcapugio, on an Indian
+feast day. The <i>patio</i> of the <i>posta</i> was filled with a
+gay crowd in bright green, yellow, red, and blue <i>ponchos</i>, all
+barefooted, even at that high altitude, nearly all the women carrying
+babies swung on their backs. They had musicians whose instruments were
+primitive flutes, called <i>quenas</i>, horns, <i>charangos</i>, and
+drums, and who at frequent intervals marched two by two around the
+<i>patio</i> and into the barroom, where <i>chicha</i> flowed like
+water. Men, women, and children, when drinking, first spilled some of
+the liquor on the ground, as an offering to Mother Earth, or, according
+to some authorities, to propitiate the invisible spirits supposed to
+be present upon all occasions; and after each libation they would
+perform the ceremony of walking across the <i>patio</i>, two by two,
+and kneeling upon the ground at every three steps to kiss the donor of
+all their blessings. As their <i>chicha</i> is made from maize, their
+obeisance is a recognition of the beneficent source which provides
+them with it. Even in the religious <i>fiestas</i> of Copacabana,
+the Indians observe many of their primitive ceremonies, while their
+costumes suggest a strange mixture of pagan with Christian training.
+The arrival of the travellers appeared to make not the slightest
+difference to them, and they hardly glanced at the newcomers.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_246">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_246.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center"> CHALLAPATA. RAILROAD TOWN AND TERMINUS OF THE MULEBACK
+TRIP FROM POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>An amusing process in all the smaller <i>postas</i> of the remote
+country districts was the presentation of the official letter
+from the government to the <i>alcalde</i> of the place, which was
+necessary in order to secure the best attentions. Many of these
+country authorities speak<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span> only the Aymará or Quichua languages;
+and as Palácios is acquainted with both, he had to interpret the
+contents of the mysterious document, which he usually did with florid
+emphasis. <i>Papel! Gobierno!</i> were magic words with which to begin
+his oratorical effort; and it was a fascinating sight to see the
+<i>alcalde</i> in his gorgeous <i>poncho</i>, with his silver-topped
+and tasselled <i>vara</i>, or staff of office, held tightly in one
+hand, peering earnestly into the pages of a document which apparently
+meant much or little to him according to the <i>arriero’s</i>
+eloquence. But these authorities are excellent judges of human
+nature, and are not easily deceived. They saw that the strangers were
+entitled to consideration, and every possible facility was granted at
+a reasonable price, every attention was shown, and the <i>alcalde</i>
+took leave of his visitors upon every occasion with a dignity and
+simplicity that were altogether charming. The <i>alcalde</i> rules his
+little canton well, but he cannot always prevent abuses, the Indians of
+the plateau being shrewd and resourceful. A laughable incident occurred
+to prove that at least they are not so stupid as some foreigners
+believe. It was necessary to buy bread, and the <i>arriero</i> had
+been sent to get it, in the form of <i>pancitos</i>, as the little
+loaves are called. After laying them on the table, he went to unload
+the mules; and in the meantime a poor, old Indian woman appeared,
+with several children clinging to her skirts, to beg bread. All the
+<i>pancitos</i> were poured into her lap, and the <i>arriero</i> was
+called to buy more. Seeing the beggar, his face relaxed in a broad
+grin, in appreciation of the joke, as he exclaimed: “But, Señora,
+that’s the woman who sold me the <i>pancitos</i>!” It was a transaction
+that would have done credit to the sharp methods of Seven Dials! As a
+type of his class, the <i>arriero</i> himself was an interesting as
+well as an amusing study throughout the trip. He had a ready solution
+for every difficulty. The promptness with which he disposed of a tired
+or lazy mule and secured a fine specimen to replace it, the astonishing
+facility with which he obtained favors from the most obdurate officials
+in the little <i>postas</i>, and the real genius he displayed
+in getting the willing services of passing <i>arrieros</i> and
+<i>postillóns</i> in loading and unloading his cargo were proofs that
+under more favorable circumstances Palácios might have been a great
+politician or financial magnate. He was a born diplomat; and although
+it was sometimes annoying to find that, after having listened with
+polite attention to a suggestion, to which he invariably responded with
+<i>Si Señora</i>,—“Yes, madam,”—he continued to carry out his own
+plans in his own way, answering each insisting demand with a reassuring
+<i>No tenga cuidado, Señora</i>, which meant: “Don’t give yourself any
+uneasiness, madam,” experience proved that his judgment was always
+correct; so suggestions became fewer as the journey proceeded, and were
+finally given up altogether.</p>
+
+<p>When the travellers entered the railroad town of Challapata, at the
+end of their ride from Potosí, on February 1, 1906, much sunburned
+in spite of masks, veils, and umbrellas, but as happy and optimistic
+as when they started from Oruro nearly two months before, they
+were enthusiastic in praise of the great country, its wonderful
+climate and abundant resources, and expressed their opinion that it
+offers extraordinary attractions to the tourist as well as to the
+matter-of-fact investor. The trip was not ended until a visit had
+been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span> paid to the mines of Huanchaca, after which the diligence was
+again taken for the final journey from Oruro to La Paz, though it
+required three days this time, on account of the bad roads and the poor
+condition of the animals. The heights above La Paz were a welcome sight
+as they appeared early in the afternoon of the third day from Oruro,
+and at four o’clock the ladies alighted at the <i>carretera</i> station
+of Challapampa. At a few minutes after five they presented their
+cards at the <i>ministerio</i> of justice and instruction to fulfil
+the first obligation upon their return, that of thanking President
+Montes, through Señor Saracho, for the many courtesies received from
+government officials throughout Bolivia. An interview was accorded them
+immediately, during which Señor Saracho expressed great satisfaction
+over the happy termination of this long journey.</p>
+
+<p>All the fatigue, and the few unpleasant experiences of the
+thousand-mile trip through Bolivia and the twenty-four days’ ride in
+the saddle, were quickly forgotten in the cordial reception which
+was given the two ladies on their return to La Paz. Mr. Sorsby was
+complimentary in his praises of the courage and determination of his
+countrywomen, and his excellency the president, on whom they called to
+pay their respects before leaving this interesting country, said to
+them at parting: “In Bolivia we hear much of the remarkable energy and
+courage of the North American woman, and you have shown us a wonderful
+example of it.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_248">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_248.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">QUICHUA INDIAN GIRL OF POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_250">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_250.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PROCESSION OF THE VIRGIN AT COPACABANA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV<br>
+<span class="subhed">LAKE TITICACA AND ITS LEGENDS—THE SHRINE OF COPACABANA</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_251">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_251.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Whatever may be the true origin of the Children of the Sun, the legends
+of their sacred lake are purely Oriental in character, and might
+have come direct from the sources of Hindoo lore, so closely do they
+resemble the traditions of the East. The story of the mysterious birth
+and divine antecedents of the first Inca, Manco-Ccapac, suggests that
+of Vaivasouta, the Son of the Sun among the Hindoos; Manco-Ccapac’s
+sister-wife, Mama Ocllo, has also a counterpart in Oriental mythology.
+Out of the foam of the sea have risen Mongolian, Hindoo, Egyptian, and
+Greek gods and goddesses from remote antiquity, in the same mysterious
+way as Viracocha, and their first appearance has usually been on a
+sacred island. The ancient inhabitants of the Lake Titicaca region
+evolved little new in legendary story to account either for their
+ancestry or their religion, unless theirs is the original version. The
+lake is particularly fitted to be the cradle of myths and traditions,
+its situation high above the clouds seeming to set it apart for some
+peculiar destiny, as sacred mountains, lakes, and rivers have in all
+ages possessed a unique feature to mark them as divinely chosen.
+Popular lore has been well guided in placing here the site of the
+American Garden of Eden. In the strange stillness that reigns around,
+in the clear atmosphere and cloudless skies through which the Alpine
+glow of the encircling summits spreads with unrivalled splendor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span> in
+the varied beauty of its islands, promontories, and bays, and its broad
+expanse, sparkling in the sunlight, contemplation is enthralled and
+the imagination transported, even in this prosaic age, with visions
+of the supernatural, as, under the full light of day, Nature appears
+to make strange transformations, and the islands, floating calmly at
+one moment, at the next take on curious shapes and present mysterious
+illusions, under inexplicable lights and shadows. What more natural
+than that such phenomena should be magnified to the wondering gaze of
+the primitive inhabitants of this region!</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_252">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_252.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SHRINE OF THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA, LAKE TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Lake Titicaca occupies a position on the South American continent about
+midway between the Isthmus of Panamá and Cape Horn, and in the midst
+of the <i>nudo</i>, or knot, which the Andes Mountains form where the
+coast range is separated from the Cordillera Real, or Royal Range, by
+the Lake Titicaca plateau. By air line it is about three hundred miles
+from the Pacific and two thousand miles from the Atlantic coast. It
+crosses the boundary between Peru and Bolivia, the limits of which have
+not yet been definitely settled by these countries. The altitude of
+the lake, which is the highest navigable body of water on the globe,
+is twelve thousand five hundred and fifty feet above sea level, and
+its area is more than five thousand square miles, measuring at its
+greatest length one hundred and thirty-five miles, and in average width
+sixty-six miles. The waters of the lake are four per cent warmer than
+the atmosphere, and never freeze, though the thermometer sometimes
+registers as low as thirty degrees Fahrenheit in the winter months, the
+proximity of the snow range contributing to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> increase the severity of
+this season. The water of the lake is brackish and disagreeable to the
+taste. Its depth varies from two hundred and fifty to one thousand five
+hundred feet, and there are places where it is unfathomable. Around
+the island of Titicaca—the famous Inti-Karka of the Inca legend—the
+depth is very great, though generally it ranges elsewhere between seven
+hundred and eight hundred feet.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the sacred islands of Titicaca and Coati, better
+known as the Island of the Sun and the Island of the Moon, there are
+twenty-three of smaller area, of which Cumaná, about nine miles long,
+is noted for its excellent marble. On the Island of the Sun are still
+to be seen the ruins of the wonderful palace which was occupied by the
+Incas when they visited Collasuyo, and there are remains also of the
+celebrated Temple of the Sun and of the Vestal Virgins. This island
+is the largest in the lake, and is situated about midway between the
+Peruvian port of Puno and the Bolivian port of Guaqui, in the line of
+steamers passing over this route. It is six miles long and four wide,
+and is surrounded by seven small islands, forming what is known as the
+Titicaca archipelago. Coati, the Island of the Moon, lies a little to
+the east of Titicaca Island, and close to the peninsula of Copacabana.
+Its chief interest is found in the famous ruins of the Temple of the
+Moon, which are still in a remarkable state of preservation.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_253">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_253.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LANDING PLACE AT COPACABANA, LAKE TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_254">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_254.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CROSSES CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK, LAKE TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The crowning glory of Lake Titicaca is the snow range of the Andes,
+the highest peaks of which, reflected in its mirror-like surface, are
+not more than twenty-five miles away. They form a noble chain, from
+bold Sorata to Huayna Potosí and Illimani, the massive white pillars
+rising to a height of from twenty thousand to twenty-two thousand feet.
+Like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> the lake itself, these mountains have their legends, the Indians
+peopling them with good and bad spirits, about which marvellous tales
+are related. From their heights several rivers find their way to Lake
+Titicaca, unimportant as a rule, and of little volume, but serving as
+means of communication with the lake for many towns and cities of the
+Altaplanicie. The largest ports on the Bolivian side of the lake are
+Chililaya and Guaqui, the former having been the terminus of a coach
+road over which passengers were taken to La Paz upon their arrival from
+Peru, before the Guaqui and La Paz Railway was built. It is still a
+station of importance on the line from La Paz to Achacachi and Sorata,
+through a part of Bolivia which is celebrated for its marvellous
+scenery. Sorata is a famous health resort, and was once a rival of
+Potosí in opulence, through the enormous yield of its rich placer
+mines. In 1781 the town was destroyed by the army of Tupac-Amaru, and
+the gold fields were abandoned; but it has been rebuilt in a more
+modern style, and is to-day a flourishing little city. At the great
+elevation of twelve thousand five hundred feet there is very scant
+vegetation even in the tropics, little being seen except coarse Puna
+grass and short, thin shrubs. In every sheltered nook, however, flowers
+grow in abundance and are of brilliant colors, giving a warm tone to
+the grays and browns of the bleak Altaplanicie. In the flower market of
+La Paz exquisite blossoms of the richest hues are offered for sale, not
+only those gathered in the valley of Obrajes, but from the sheltered
+places of the high plateau, the prices being the cheapest in the world.
+A few beautiful birds, as the gulls and divers which cross the lake,
+and the flamingoes on its shores, give a little life to the silent
+scene, and fish of an agreeable flavor are caught in its waters. There
+is an old tradition of a wildcat inhabiting the Island of the Sun, and
+some authorities derive the name of the lake from <i>titi</i>, which
+means a “lynx,” and <i>karka</i>, a “rock,” but no animals of this
+species are seen on Titicaca now. Many of the islands are inhabited,
+and the extent to which the Indians have cultivated them is truly
+wonderful, their sloping hillsides being furrowed from the margin
+of the water to the highest summits, while the land all around the
+border of the lake is carefully tilled, producing harvests of barley
+and potatoes. The potato is a staple food of the plateau and all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>
+mountainous regions of Bolivia, and is prepared by a peculiar process,
+which consists of first freezing it, then pressing out every trace of
+moisture and freezing it again, until it is proof against cold and
+humidity. In this condition it is cooked and eaten, under the name of
+<i>chuño</i>, familiar to all travellers in these regions.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_255">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_255.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PENINSULA AND CITY OF COPACABANA, LAKE TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_256">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_256.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RUINS OF INCA TEMPLE ON THE ISLAND OF THE SUN, LAKE
+TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Though Lake Titicaca receives many rivers, it has apparently only one
+outlet, that of the Desaguadero—“drainage”—River. The tradition which
+accounts for the existence of this river is particularly interesting,
+as it introduces into the history of this part of South America a
+personage famous in religious records as Saint Thomas, one of Christ’s
+apostles. The first scene of the story is laid in the town of Carabuco,
+on the eastern border of the lake, near Sorata, close to which is
+located a fountain called the Saint’s. It is related that, centuries
+ago, in a cave by the side of this fountain lived a wonderful man,
+tall, fair, and bearded, who spoke a language different from anything
+the tribes of this region had ever heard before, and who proclaimed
+a new religion, teaching the worship of one God, and preaching the
+virtue of self-sacrifice. With the stranger came six disciples, who
+were all tortured to death by the ferocious Carabucos. Not content
+with this demonstration of cruelty, the savages seized and beat the
+holy teacher himself, and, after tying his hands and feet, threw him
+into a <i>balsa</i>,—a boat made of reeds such as is still navigated
+on this lake by the Indians,—and turned it adrift on the water, to be
+upset by the winds and storms. As the little craft with its saintly
+burden floated out from the shore, suddenly there appeared on the lake
+a woman of marvellous beauty, dressed in magnificent robes and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span> wearing
+a starry crown, who, as the canoe drifted toward her, entered it, and
+turned its course to the southeast, leaving an open track behind which
+still exists among the reeds along the margin, and a long, luminous
+wake on the surface of the water, which remained for many years, clear
+and resplendent as the rays of the sun. When the opposite bank was
+reached the ground opened to make a pathway for the <i>balsa</i>,
+forming a river, broad, tranquil, and many leagues in length, which is
+to-day called the Desaguadero. Thus the apostle mocked the persecution
+of the savages, and was able to continue his civilizing mission, until
+he finally suffered martyrdom in Copacabana. On the island of Titicaca
+is shown the mark of his footprints, and in Carabuco is still preserved
+the crucifix which he carried throughout his pilgrimages. The same
+legend, with variations, is related in every part of South America,
+and in all these countries the natives have traditions handed down to
+them by their forefathers, regarding the arrival, many centuries ago,
+of a wonderful man who preached an unknown religion. In the history
+of the Jesuits, whose missionaries travelled throughout these regions
+teaching and preaching Christianity, one of the priests gives an
+interesting account of the Charrúa Indians of Uruguay. He says that
+he found them possessing clear ideas of the Christian religion, which
+they had absorbed from the teachings of a man they called Paz Tumé, but
+who was really Saint Thomas, everything appearing to prove that the
+apostle was an evangelist in these countries. Another Jesuit missionary
+relates that, upon being received with great kindness by the Indians of
+Paraguay, he asked the reason, to which they replied that when Paz Tumé
+passed through their country, centuries before, he had said to their
+ancestors: “The doctrine which I preach to you, you will forget in
+time, but when after many years other priests come, carrying crucifixes
+such as the one I wear, your descendants will hear and believe this
+doctrine.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span> They and their children and their children’s children will
+never forget it, for it will bring to them the assurance of eternal
+happiness and salvation.” And it was this tradition, handed down for
+generations, which, they explained, had obliged them to give a friendly
+welcome to the wearer of the crucifix.</p>
+
+<p>Since the supernatural opening of the Desaguadero River to make a
+passage for Saint Thomas and his divine rescuer, who, tradition
+says further, was the patron protectress of Copacabana, Our Lady of
+Candelaria, it has been a highway for many a craft directed by less
+sacred hands and bent on the more worldly mission of conducting war or
+commerce. It has been the scene of many a fierce battle between armies
+encamped on its borders, and during the dreadful encounters between the
+patriots of the Independence and the armies of Spain, a tide of blood
+many times marked the course first opened by the little <i>balsa</i>
+containing the rescued Saint Thomas under the direction of the Holy
+Virgin. It is to-day one of the most important waterways in Bolivia,
+not only <i>balsas</i>, but steamers plying between its ports. The
+scientific facts regarding its origin are not established, beyond the
+indication that it was formed by an unknown process, at a very remote
+period. It is one hundred and eighty miles in length from its source
+in Lake Titicaca southeastward to Lake Poopo, into which it empties a
+volume of six thousand cubic mètres of water per minute, having a fall
+of four hundred and seventy-five feet throughout its entire length. It
+is navigable for ships of five hundred tons as far south as Nazacara,
+thirty miles down the river, within a few miles of the copper mines of
+Corocoro, and considerable freight passes over this route to and from
+the great mining centre. Lake Poopo, which receives the Desaguadero
+River, is the second in size of Bolivian lakes, being sixty miles
+long and thirty miles wide. It has subterranean outlets, but on the
+surface not more than sixty cubic mètres are discharged per minute of
+the six thousand cubic mètres which it receives within that time. The
+Desaguadero is the most notable river of the Altaplanicie.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_258">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_258.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VIEW OF MOUNT SORATA FROM LAKE TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The peninsula of Copacabana, which lies within the disputed territory
+between Bolivia and Peru, is celebrated as the site of a shrine
+erected in honor of Our Lady of Candelaria. It is popularly called
+the shrine of the Virgin of Copacabana, and was at one time the
+most famous as well as the richest sanctuary in South America. It
+is related that soon after the conquest an Indian of the family of
+the Incas, called Yupanqui, a native of Copacabana, who had been
+converted to Christianity, felt such great reverence for the Virgin
+of Candelaria that he decided to make a sacred image to be devoted to
+her worship, with the idea also of founding a brotherhood. It was at a
+time when pious Catholics of South America were particularly zealous
+in their devotion to the Virgin of Candelaria, and everything seemed
+propitious for his purpose; but he was ignorant and unskilled, and it
+was necessary for him to spend years of consecrated effort in Potosí
+and La Paz in order to make an image, even of medium value, worthy to
+be venerated by the public. At last, however, the work was finished
+as described by a friar of the convent: “The bust of the image is
+of maguey, so compactly made as to appear like wood. It is gilded,
+with the exception of the hands<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span> and the face, and over the gilding
+curiously flowered and striped designs have been applied in rich colors
+to give the desired effect of an elaborate robe, a graceful tunic, and
+the customary headdress, over which is worn a magnificent crown. The
+crown of gold, and the great jewelled crescent which embellishes the
+robe, are the conspicuous emblems of her sovereignty and virginity.
+One hand, covered with rings, clasps the image of the infant Jesus,
+who also wears a gold crown. A collar of priceless pearls, earrings
+of diamonds, brooches of rare and costly gems, and rings of great
+value, are a few of the more striking adornments, a large fortune being
+represented in these jewels. The entire robe is studded with precious
+stones, and from the wrist of the hand which holds the image of the
+infant Jesus hangs a gold staff, the present of the Conde de Lemos,
+one of the viceroys of Peru. The altar of the Virgin is embowered in
+lilies, and candles burn constantly in the sacred shrine.” Marvellous
+are the miracles attributed to the Virgin of Copacabana, and ancient
+chronicles abound with records of her beneficence. During the colonial
+period the shrine was in charge of the order of Saint Augustine, but
+after the Independence it passed into the hands of the parochial
+priests, and later was committed to the supervision of the Franciscan
+fathers, being at the present time under the administration of the
+parish of Copacabana. The church is built in accordance with the
+colonial style of Spanish architecture, its white cupolas giving it the
+appearance of an imposing cathedral, as seen at a distance. It occupies
+a conspicuous situation on the peninsula of the same name, and is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span>
+visited at all times of the year by devout pilgrims. In front of the
+church are three crosses, cut out of solid rock, which attract special
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>Steamers make regular calls at Copacabana, and it is worth the journey
+to spend a day in the little town, which is as quiet as its famous
+church, except when the annual <i>fiestas</i> transform it into a scene
+of the wildest gayety. The population is almost entirely Indian, of
+Aymará origin, and the chief occupation of the people is tilling “a
+churlish soil.” Their stoic calm is proof against ordinary diversions;
+but when the great feast day of the Virgin is celebrated, they seem to
+make up for reticence and silence during the rest of the year. Dances,
+songs, and weird spectacles succeed one another in a chaos of mirth.
+At the beginning of the <i>fiesta</i> the ceremonies are impressive,
+and there is something quaint and picturesque in the scene, as these
+primitive natives of the soil appear in their gorgeously colored
+<i>traje de fiesta</i>, or holiday costumes, and join in the sacred
+procession, singing in the Aymará tongue the sacred songs, to which
+they give the <i>triste</i> note so characteristic of their own music,
+and so eloquent of their unhappy destiny. In the clear atmosphere the
+sound is carried far out over the lake, and echoes are repeated for
+miles around when the joyous exclamations of the pilgrims rend the
+air. As the <i>fiesta</i> continues, the Indians and <i>cholos</i>
+become more and more excited and noisy, and their dances and songs
+take on many grotesque features. In their curious carnival dress
+and the ludicrous character which the celebration takes before its
+close, the influence of primitive beliefs and customs becomes more and
+more visible, until the conglomeration of Indian rites and Christian
+ceremonies presents a unique though picturesque effect. During recent
+years the <i>fiesta</i> of Copacabana has lost some of its more
+marked characteristics, but it is still an interesting spectacle to
+travellers, as it has some features not seen in similar celebrations
+elsewhere in South America.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_259">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_259.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ABOVE THE SNOW LINE, MOUNT ILLIMANI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_260">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_260.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INCA PALACE, ISLAND OF THE SUN, LAKE TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>All around the border of Lake Titicaca, both on the Bolivian and on the
+Peruvian side, are towns celebrated for their handsome old churches
+and convents, which the Jesuits built in this region when they began
+their missionary work in Alto Peru at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century. Books still exist in the libraries of La Paz which were
+printed by them on their own printing press in 1612, and their grammars
+and dictionaries of the Indian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span> languages of Spanish America, North and
+South, published here, are the earliest, and in many cases the most
+valuable, in existence. In some cases these Christian temples stand
+side by side with the ruins of Inca architecture, which abound not
+only on the islands of the lake, but along its borders. The sanctuary
+of Copacabana is said to occupy the site on which, centuries ago,
+Tupac-Inca-Yupanqui founded a city for the accommodation of pilgrims
+who came every year from all parts of the Inca’s empire to visit the
+Temple of the Sun and to pay homage to their great chief. The city
+must have presented a brilliant appearance when the noble vassals of
+the empire, representing forty-two different tribes, who acknowledged
+their spiritual and temporal lord in the person of the Inca, assembled
+with their retinues on the shore of the sacred lake. From the time
+of its foundation, this famous resort became a sacred city, enjoying
+special prerogatives by the Inca’s order. Handsome hotels, called
+<i>carpahuasi</i>, were built here, and immense storehouses were
+provided, which were always kept well stocked with food, so that
+the pilgrims should have no cause for preoccupation regarding their
+material comfort and well-being, but should be free to give all their
+time to spiritual meditation and devotion. From the peninsula to the
+Islands of the Sun and the Moon it was but a short distance, and the
+temples and palaces which adorned these sacred resorts could be plainly
+seen from the mainland. The story of the consecration of the temples
+of Lake Titicaca is romantic and fascinating, and lends an especial
+charm to the ruins which remain. It is related that the Inca came in
+person from Cuzco, attended by his nobles and vassals, to perform the
+ceremony, fasting a whole year from the use of meat and <i>aji</i>,
+and holding secret conferences with a spirit from the other world,
+who had been sent to him by his father the Sun. Many priests and more
+than a hundred virgins were consecrated to the service of the temple,
+and immense sums were levied in tribute on the vassals<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span> of the empire.
+Animals were sacrificed on the sacred rock of the Sun, and precious
+stones, gold, silver, and the fruits of the earth were afterward
+showered on the spot in adoration of the great deity. Finally, on the
+altar of the Sun was laid a huge gold disk, the image of the Sun, and
+on the altar of the Moon was placed the circular emblem of that sphere
+in silver. With these and minor ceremonies the islands were dedicated,
+one to the Sun, the other to the Moon, both of which were worshipped as
+progenitors of the divinely descended Incas.</p>
+
+<p>Lake Titicaca possesses a remarkable variety of claims to general
+interest, its natural scenery being only one of many charming
+attractions. Scientists find the study of its formation and the
+investigation of its wonderful ruins a fascinating subject. Travellers
+of romantic temperament are enchanted by its legends and traditions,
+apart from any historical significance they may possess or any
+relation they may bear to scientific facts. The more practical and
+matter-of-fact visitors to this wonderful spot see in it the glorious
+possibilities of modern development, and are no less delighted at the
+unlimited prospect it presents as a great entrepôt for the distribution
+of traffic throughout a vast territory hitherto closed to outside
+communication. To everyone it presents an aspect different from any
+other lake in the world. Its situation is unique, the towns on its
+borders are not like lake villages elsewhere, its people are distinct
+in character and feature even from their neighbors a few leagues
+distant, and its native boats, the curious-looking <i>balsas</i>, are
+not quite like those of other waters. They are made of reeds or rushes,
+called <i>totora</i>, found growing near the banks, which are first
+woven into watertight rolls and then bound together with an extra roll
+at the top to serve as a protection. They have broad, flat sails, also
+of reeds, and are pushed through the water by means of a long pole.
+They formerly carried a great deal of freight between the lake ports,
+but since the inauguration of the present steamship line they are used
+only by the Indians. It is entertaining to look at them as they float
+idly on the water, with their miscellaneous cargoes of <i>chuños</i>,
+llamas, and Indians, or scud before a sharp breeze with astonishing
+rapidity. They are managed with great dexterity; and as the Indian is
+a good weather prophet, he is seldom wrecked, though the storms on the
+lake are at times very destructive. Professor A. F. Bandelier, of the
+Hispanic Society of America, New York, spent several months on the
+islands of Lake Titicaca studying their archæology, and he gives a very
+interesting description of the natural phenomena of the lake: “During
+winter the sky is mostly of an intense blue, the air chilling, while
+the sun’s rays scorch and burn the face and hands. Still, thunderstorms
+occur every month, and snowfalls are not uncommon. In summer a lowering
+sky often covers the mountain ranges, thunderstorms are of almost daily
+occurrence, thunderbolts very frequent, and waterspouts not rare. We
+saw two together, in the middle of the lake, and reliable informers
+state that as many as five have been observed at the same time. During
+tempestuous nights St. Elmo’s fire gleams on the steamers’ masts. And
+yet, rare is the evening when, for a few hours at least, the Bolivian
+cordillera does not shine out, even if thin vapor rises before it
+from the deep gorges at its foot, and seldom is the whole chain, from
+the Carabaya range in the north to Illimani in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span> south, completely
+shrouded. In August when winter is at its height and the skies are
+cloudless, the Bolivian Andes display an Alpine glow of unrivalled
+splendor.”</p>
+
+<p>Whatever secrets the islands and rivers of Lake Titicaca conceal in
+their mysterious past, science will no doubt bring them to light
+some day, when the spirit of modern progress directs the study of
+their origin and history with more interest than at present. It seems
+incredible that in this advanced age there should exist a region so
+rich in scientific problems and so generally unknown to scholars. The
+few who have visited its shores and studied on its islands have found
+material for wide speculation, and have expressed very conflicting
+theories concerning its antiquity. But all have agreed as to the many
+attractions offered by this picturesque lake to the traveller, whether
+tourist or scientist; and as the South American route grows more
+popular, Swiss lakes and Scottish highlands will be neglected for the
+more marvellous charms of Lake Titicaca.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_262">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_262.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIAN PADDLING HIS “BALSA” ON LAKE TITICACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_264">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_264.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">EXCAVATION IN PROGRESS, SHOWING CARVINGS, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XV<br>
+<span class="subhed">TIAHUANACO—COLOSSAL REMAINS OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="poetry-container">
+   <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="ileft">“When the Memnonium was in all its glory,</div>
+        <div>And time had not begun to overthrow</div>
+        <div>Those palaces and piles stupendous,</div>
+        <div>Of which the very ruins are tremendous!”</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The traveller’s famous soliloquy in the presence of the mummy of Thebes
+comes to mind as one contemplates the giant walls and huge monoliths of
+Tiahuanaco, which, so far as science has been able to discover, was in
+the height of its splendor when Baalbec and Luxor were new, and before
+King Solomon had built his wonderful temple.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_265">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_265.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A VASE FOUND AT TIAHUANACO, OF EXQUISITE COLORS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Who were the architects and builders of these palaces and temples?
+And whence came the colossal blocks of granite to construct them in
+the midst of what is now a level plateau? One looks helplessly at the
+hieroglyphics, to which no key has yet been found, and is informed
+only that scientists have discovered in these picture writings the
+popular worship of a great deity, Viracocha, who was the god of the
+ancient builders. As represented in the carvings on the temple doorway,
+Viracocha holds in each hand a sceptre,—or, is it a key, symbolic
+of his possessing the innermost treasures of the secret chambers of
+wisdom? Viracocha, according to the traditions that prevail among the
+Aymará inhabitants of this region, was not a war god, but a wise and
+beneficent deity who, rising out of waters of Lake Titicaca, created
+the sun, the moon, and the stars, plants, animals, and men, and who
+made his omnipotence felt throughout the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span> world by performing deeds
+of great wisdom. The two sceptres differ in form and appearance. Some
+authorities believe that they symbolize the double sovereignty of
+Viracocha over the religious and political destinies of the people. The
+half-kneeling figures which surround him have the attitude of rulers
+rendering homage to their greater chief, not in abject obeisance, but
+with head erect, bending only one knee, and holding a sceptre. Perhaps
+they represent the kingdoms of the earth, or political sovereignty,
+inferior only to the Omnipotence that rules both heaven and earth. In
+the opinion of many students, the carving on the great doorway is to
+be interpreted as picturing the adoration of the god Viracocha by his
+angels, an idea that would give their sceptres a religious rather than
+a political significance. In any case, the hieroglyphics show nothing
+suggestive of war, so notable a feature of Egyptian carvings.</p>
+
+<p>It seems incredible that a people who were sufficiently advanced in
+culture to build such stupendous works of architecture as those of
+Tiahuanaco, and to whom the art of picture writing was known, should
+have left no trace of their existence in the historical records of
+antiquity. The legends of a “lost Atlantis” and a “lost Lemuria” may
+yet be accounted for by the complete change which has apparently been
+wrought on the American continent, at some period, through a cataclysm
+which left only a few vestiges of anterior civilization in this part
+of the world. Whether the destructive action originated in the Pacific
+Ocean, from the same centre of disturbance as that which at some time
+in geologic history upheaved the Andes in America and built the chain
+of volcanoes that extends all the way from New Zealand to Kamchatka in
+the Orient, or whether the change was wrought on the Atlantic side, the
+proofs seem equally well established that closer communication once
+existed between America and the Eastern Hemisphere. The liability of
+the earth to volcanic and seismic disturbances, at least within the
+records of modern times, has been more pronounced in the Pacific Ocean
+than in the Atlantic; and the ancient ruins in the scattered islands of
+the Pacific, their great monoliths and curious hieroglyphics, appear to
+afford more evidences of such a change than anything so far discovered
+in the Atlantic. According to the best scientific authorities, the
+origin of these monuments may be even more remote than those of Egypt,
+since nothing exists to prove their exact antiquity. Archæologists may
+yet find proofs that the earliest civilization on the globe had its
+chief centre in America, and that its people were the ancestors, not
+the descendants, of Asiatic races.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the word Tiahuanaco is a disputed question, as is
+everything else which relates to this locality. Garcilaso de la Vega
+derives it from two Quichua words, <i>tiay, huanaco</i>, meaning “sit
+down, huanaco,” and says it originated in an exclamation of the Inca
+Maita-Ccapac to his fleet-footed messenger. It is more reasonable to
+suppose that the name is Aymará, from <i>tia</i>, meaning “border”
+or “bank,” and <i>huañaco</i>, meaning “dried,” equivalent to “dried
+bank.” Many other interpretations are given. Archbishop Taborga, in a
+scholarly study of the word, derives it neither from the Quichua nor
+the Aymará, but from the language of the Mayas of Yucatan, according
+to which it would mean “the country above the waters of the omnipotent
+God.” One authority says an analysis of the word proves the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> repetition
+ten times of the word “water.” According to Dr. Escobari, a learned
+philologist who has made a special study of the Aymará language, the
+word is composed of three words, <i>thia-wana-haka</i>, which mean “the
+man of the dry coast.” Another derivation is secured by the elision
+of the first syllable of <i>inti</i>, meaning “sun,” which results in
+<i>Ti-wuan-hake</i>, “the city of the Children of the Sun.” A Bolivian
+linguist, Dr. Emeterio Vilamil, believes the word comes from <i>Ti</i>,
+which is a variation of <i>Tien</i> of China, <i>Teotl</i> of Mexico,
+and <i>Theos</i> of the Greeks, with the following syllables making
+<i>Ti-wan-aca</i>, “this is of God.” The best authorities say the name
+was suggested by some great deluge.</p>
+
+<p>In the many legends and traditions attributed to the people who built
+Tiahuanaco the predominating feature is the account of a great flood;
+and a German astronomer who visited these interesting ruins some years
+ago believes Viracocha to be a god of the deluge. He says of the
+hieroglyphics which adorn the façade of the temple: “In these figures
+it is necessary to distinguish two things, the allegory itself and the
+other drawings, which at first sight appear to be merely symmetrical
+adornments. The allegory represents the figure of a man or god, who
+holds in each hand a symbol that expresses the uniting of the attribute
+of lightning with the downpour of rain. From his eyes fall teardrops,
+but in combination with the sign of lightning. His head is encircled
+in rays, which are not rays of light, but signs of lightning and rain
+being discharged simultaneously. All the adornments of his clothing
+show the symbol of water; and even the head is not round, but has the
+shape of a letter or character which signifies ‘water.’ In the middle
+of the figure and on the head is clearly shown the drawing of a ship,
+which is again seen in the centre of the hieroglyphic under the feet.
+This figure does not merely speak, but cries out with a clear voice,
+comprehensible to all the world, that it is not an insignificant matter
+that is here treated, something of indifferent importance for history,
+but that it is an effort to narrate to posterity a great fact worthy
+of remembrance, a marvellous phenomenon of nature, the phenomenon of
+extraordinary rains with thunder and lightning, and of a catastrophe
+which occurred not only in this region but throughout the world.”</p>
+
+<p>It must be confessed that it requires a great stretch of the
+imagination to trace in the figure carved over the doorway of the
+ancient temple in Tiahuanaco the symbols of rain and lightning referred
+to, or even the drawings of ships; furthermore, the winged rulers
+kneeling before their greater sovereign do not seem to bear out the
+diluvial idea. But the study of this enigma affords wide latitude
+for original speculation, and the last word has not yet been said.
+Archæologists who have made even a few excavations find that the ground
+within a radius of more than three square miles shows evidences of a
+buried population; and to a depth of from five to fifteen feet buried
+walls, adorned by images in relief, have been unearthed, while the
+soil seems to be full of bones, human and animal, as far down as the
+excavations have been made.</p>
+
+<p>If it was merely a local deluge that inspired the traditions of the
+ancient inhabitants, such as the flooding of the basin which lies
+between the two ranges of the Andes, now known as the Altaplanicie,
+the older civilization must have existed prior to that event, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span> the
+later one after the waters had begun to recede, or else Tiahuanaco may
+have been on a peninsula of the lake submerged for a time. According to
+some authorities this is the explanation of the two or three distinct
+periods of culture found in its ruins. Little has been done so far
+toward finding out the secrets of this wonderful place. The Bolivian
+government has prohibited promiscuous excavations, preferring that the
+work shall be done systematically on a practical basis by experienced
+archæologists. Formerly Tiahuanaco was everybody’s property, and
+mammoth rocks, once hewn to build a temple to the ancient deity, were
+applied to the unromantic needs of a country courthouse. It was no
+unusual sight to observe a shepherd herding his flock in a corral made
+of the stones of the ancient palace, and on the road to La Paz there
+still stands a colossal idol, of frightful mien, which serves to mark
+the distance in leagues from that spot to the city. This figure was to
+have been taken to the museum, but for some reason the transportation
+was interrupted. It will no doubt be placed there soon, as that
+institution is being fitted up with a most valuable historical and
+scientific collection.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_268">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_268.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MONOLITH SHOWING HIEROGLYPHICS, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_269">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_269.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RUINS OF THE DOORWAY OF THE TEMPLE, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The traveller in Bolivia finds a visit to Tiahuanaco both instructive
+and entertaining. The trains which run daily between La Paz and
+Guaqui stop so close to the famous ruins that one of the ancient
+rocks stands directly in the way as the passenger alights from the
+car. It is a great square slab, apparently intended to be used in the
+construction of one of the unfinished temples or palaces, or as a
+sacrificial stone, but was left in this spot, as similar huge rocks
+were, either abandoned because of some great calamity, or forgotten
+during the sudden onslaught of an enemy who drove the workmen from the
+scene, never to return. Indeed, much of the architecture of Tiahuanaco
+represents unfinished temples and palaces. The most conspicuous rock
+is that of the Puerta del Sol, as the great doorway of the temple is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span>
+called, meaning “door of the sun,” its hieroglyphics being especially
+interesting. It measures ten feet in height, thirteen feet in width,
+and nearly two feet in thickness, and its weight is about ten tons.
+The carving of the design on its face is only partly finished, showing
+a space where the artist had made merely the outlines of the design,
+and at which he was evidently working when the place was suddenly
+abandoned. Colossal blocks of stone lie scattered about, some of which
+are estimated as weighing not less than a thousand tons. The rock used
+for the foundations of the palace Tunca Punco, for the obelisks, and
+for the largest of the columns of this great structure, is porphyry of
+fine grain, of red-brown color, with small white spots, and of parallel
+structure. Quartz porphyry is by no means rare in this neighborhood. It
+is the opinion of the best authorities that these rocks were brought
+from a hill five miles away by the same system of inclined planes as
+that used by the Egyptians in transporting heavy stones for their
+pyramids and temples. The process of dividing these huge masses of rock
+is supposed to have been by the expansive action of water on wooden
+wedges. Señor Don Arturo Posnansky, of the Geographic Society of La
+Paz, who has made the Tiahuanaco stones a special study for several
+years, and whose splendid photographs of this interesting place are
+reproduced in this chapter, finds that many of the monoliths of Puma
+Punco, the locality in which stands the carved doorway of the temple,
+are made of volcanic lava. He gives an entertaining explanation of
+their origin and the process of formation: “The material was probably
+brought from the Cerro de Japia,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span> an extinct volcano situated on
+the Isthmus of Yunguyo, where the peninsula of Copacabana joins the
+mainland, about fifty miles distant from Tiahuanaco. The founders of
+the ancient city made use of the liquid lava of this volcano, which
+was at that time in eruption, bringing it, by means of canals, to the
+foot of the mountain, where it flowed into earthen moulds, a primitive
+method employed to-day in the moulding of liquid iron. In Tiahuanaco
+are found moulds which indicate that they were used for casting the
+idols, their outlines having the same appearance as those which are now
+used in casting iron.”</p>
+
+<p>There is something intensely interesting in the aspect of these
+colossal ruins, from whatever standpoint they are viewed. Speculation
+as to the probable uses for which this or that block was intended has
+resulted in the popular naming of each of these huge pieces. “The
+Inca’s writing desk” is the name given to a cyclopean cube, which is
+carved as if for the purpose of holding writing materials, and other
+accessories of the writing table. There is also “the Inca’s bath,” the
+table of the officiating authority in the Palace of Justice, the grand
+stairway to the throne room of the great palace, and a number of other
+furnishings, any of which would be worthy of adorning the colossal
+ancient palaces of Egypt, from their size and the finished style of
+their architecture. So wonderful is the perfection of these stones, the
+apparently carefully chiselled outlines, the exquisite carvings, the
+well polished surfaces, that the best sculptor of our day, making use
+of the finest steel chisels and other instruments, could not improve
+upon the work. It is, of course, only by popular use that the name of
+the Inca has been associated with these remains, as it is known that
+the Incas who first visited Collasuyo found these monumental ruins in
+the same condition as they are at present.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_270">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_270.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ARCHED GATEWAYS OF TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span></p>
+
+<p>The general view of Tiahuanaco shows that one of its most conspicuous
+features is an artificial hill, which is built on a base made of huge
+rocks cut and squared, and which rises to a height of fifty feet,
+being about six hundred and twenty feet in length and four hundred
+and fifty feet in width. It is built in three terraces, superposed
+concentrically. This hill, or <i>cerro</i>, stands between the colossal
+sculptures of Tunca Punco on one side and the massive, carved doorway,
+and neighboring idols of Puma Punco. The purpose of the <i>cerro</i>
+is not known, though it is believed by some authorities to have been
+built as an inclined plane to be used in hoisting the huge rocks into
+place on the walls of the palace, having lost its original form in
+consequence of the many changes that succeeding ages have wrought.
+Others think it may be a burial place of the ancient kings.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_271a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_271a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PORTAL OF A CHURCH, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_271b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_271b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CYCLOPEAN STONES OF TUNCA PUNCO, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Over the entire area are to be seen the beginnings of various
+structures, and at the base of the great carved doorway of the temple
+recent excavations have been made which add<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span> another element of mystery
+to this archæological problem of the West. The huge idols, of which
+there are several, made in human form and measuring from ten to fifteen
+feet in height in standing posture, occupy a prominent place in the
+ruins. They are curious-looking figures, more primitively fashioned
+than the ancient Egyptian idols, and bearing some resemblance to the
+monuments of Easter Island, in the South Pacific, the shape of the
+head and character of the features suggesting those crude relics of
+antiquity. But the Tiahuanaco figures are better carved than the
+Easter Island idols, and show many hieroglyphics on the arms and on
+the cincture around the body. Curiosity makes the study of these
+enigmatical signs a fascinating pastime, and any day a group may be
+seen making an effort at the interpretation of this wonderful language.
+It does not seem reasonable to suppose that they mean nothing more
+than adornment, since primitive people of all races have attached the
+greatest importance to the written sign, and rarely carved anything on
+the rocks which was not intended to serve the purpose of chronology.
+The preservation of records is such a marked tendency among all
+human beings that the least cultured savage can tell something about
+the achievements of his ancestors. What more natural than that the
+hieroglyphics on these idols should have been carved there to relate
+deeds of valor or of wisdom performed by the great personages in
+whose honor they were set up? In front of the doorway of the church
+in the plaza of Tiahuanaco two idols in sitting posture at once
+attract attention, seeming to symbolize the harmony between the old
+religion and the new, and testifying, with silent eloquence, to the
+universal character of the Christian faith, in which all beliefs are
+spiritualized and given a more lofty significance. No doubt, these
+chiselled figures were originally designed to adorn the altar of the
+ancient pagan temple, and perhaps they were to have had a place near
+the throne of the great Viracocha. The idols standing in the square
+beyond the temple doorway were probably also intended to occupy
+important niches in the palace or the temple.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_272" style="max-width: 360px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_272.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ANCIENT DOORWAY, CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The builders of Tiahuanaco have left the usual signs of their culture
+in pottery, woven cloths, metal implements, and similar articles.
+The visitor to Tiahuanaco to-day is pressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> by a little barefooted
+Indian of the Aymarás to buy a <i>huaca</i> as a souvenir; and in the
+midst of the most sentimental reverie, during which the imagination
+may be travelling into realms of the past with a free rein, stimulated
+by the inspiration of these colossal relics, it is not unusual to be
+interrupted with: <i>Señora, cincuenta centavos no más para una huaca
+rica y fina!</i>—“Only fifty cents, madam, for a <i>huaca</i>!” As
+very few of these Indians speak Spanish, the bargaining is usually
+done through an interpreter. But it is far more interesting to find
+one’s own <i>huacas</i>. All relics, whether of pottery, metal, or
+whatever character, are called <i>huacas</i>, and it is a term so
+generally used that it is applied to mummies and burial mounds, as
+well as to the articles manufactured by these ancient people. Some of
+the <i>huacas</i> are very curiously wrought, and indicate advanced
+culture in the race by whom they were made. Exquisite vases of a very
+durable pottery have been found in these ruins, showing that the art of
+coloring was possessed to a remarkable extent, the process of which has
+been lost. The use of copper was known, and many of the implements were
+made of this metal.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_273">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_273.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STONE HEADS EXCAVATED AMONG THE RUINS OF TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>But the predominating question, in the presence of the monuments,
+idols, and other emblems of ancient culture at Tiahuanaco, is: Why
+did these builders choose such a site for their colossal edifices?
+As a fortress it could have served little purpose against invaders,
+from its singularly isolated situation, unless the conditions were
+then totally different from what they are now. Apparently, the
+palace was not being built in the centre of any great population,
+and the temple could hardly be filled with worshippers in a region
+so unfavorable, on account of soil and climate, to the development
+of a rich and prosperous empire. There is something indicative of
+Oriental worshippers in this choice of a spot removed from the
+centres of political activity for the erection of palaces and temples
+for religious purposes. Was it a holy city, like Mecca or Benares?
+Speculation fails to explain satisfactorily the existence of these
+remarkable ruins, and it is devoutly to be hoped that science will
+seriously investigate the problem. A North American lady, Mrs. Phœbe
+Hearst, has earned the gratitude of all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span> students of archæology by
+devoting a share of her large fortune to this purpose, and three
+expeditions have been equipped and sent out to South America through
+her generosity. They were placed under the direction of Professor
+Max Uhle, a noted archæologist, who is still engaged in the work
+of studying and classifying the antiquities of Bolivia and Peru.
+A fine collection, secured during the first expedition, adorns
+the archæological department of the Museum of Art and Science in
+Philadelphia. From the second expedition a valuable collection has
+been made for the museum of the University of California. The third
+expedition has not yet completed the work undertaken, but there is
+every reason to believe that the results will prove of the greatest
+importance to science. The most important museums of the world possess
+collections from the ruins of Lake Titicaca and Tiahuanaco, but it
+is doubtful whether any other monument of antiquity presents to the
+modern world a more difficult enigma than Tiahuanaco, the Sphinx of the
+Occident.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_274a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_274a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">IDOL OF UNKNOWN ANTIQUITY, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_274b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_274b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RUINS OF AN UNFINISHED STAIRWAY, TIAHUANACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_276">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_276.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">HARVESTING COCA IN THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE FERTILE REGION OF THE YUNGAS</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_277">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_277.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STREET SCENE IN THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The famous Yungas of La Paz is the paradise of northern Bolivia.
+Nowhere does Nature smile with more bewitching candor than in these
+valleys of magnificent verdure, through which rippling streams, and
+sometimes raging torrents, carry a crystal tide down from the snow
+mountains of the Royal Range to the tropical forests and plains of
+the Amazon, bathing a region rich in the choicest gifts of a lavish
+Providence. Nature’s most patrician whims find delicate expression in
+the whiff of perfume which is carried on the breeze from a thousand
+dainty blossoms, and in the music trilled by a host of pretty song
+birds from the recesses of her wooded dells. The name <i>yungas</i> is
+given to the deep valleys which lie at the foot of the snow-covered
+range, in the tropical region where the temperature never falls below
+sixty degrees and often rises above one hundred degrees Fahrenheit.
+The Yungas provinces of La Paz cover a territory extending northward
+from the city of La Paz to Puerto Pando, at the head of navigation on
+the Beni tributary of the Madeira, which is the chief affluent of the
+Amazon. They are rich in production, as well as enchanting in scenery,
+and the visitor to Bolivia who fails to see the famous Yungas, misses
+one of the most enjoyable features of a trip to this wonderful country.
+The naturalist D’Orbigny was enthusiastic in his praises of its
+marvellous attractions, and, in a glowing description of its charms, he
+says: “If tradition has lost the records of the place where paradise
+was situated, the traveller who visits these regions of Bolivia feels
+at once the impulse to exclaim: ‘Here is the lost Eden!’”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_278">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_278.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COROICO, CAPITAL OF NORTH YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The eastern slope of the great range presents a totally different
+aspect from that of the Pacific side. As seen from the west, the
+landscape is grand and imposing, where the summits tower above the
+surrounding heights, but the lower levels show no such magnificence
+of foliage and varied beauty as the rich valleys of the Yungas on the
+eastern slopes. One of the greatest surprises which the natural scenery
+of Bolivia presents is experienced, when, after riding over the bare
+plateau until the range is reached, the prospect suddenly reveals a
+scene of tropical splendor, and out of the snows one enters immediately
+a valley of perpetual summer. The rapid scenic transformation is
+dazzling for a moment, as the sight dwells on the new panorama. In four
+or five hours’ riding it is possible to pass from the glaciers and
+the condor’s nest to sunny canefields and humming birds’ haunts, and
+almost before the sensation of the stinging blast and the cold snows
+has passed, one feels the midsummer heat and perfumed zephyrs of the
+tropics. From icicles to orange groves in an afternoon’s <i>paseo</i>!
+The province of South Yungas lies between the rivers La Paz and
+Tamampaya, which join to form the Bopi River, a tributary of the Beni;
+North Yungas province lies between the Bopi and Coroico Rivers, which
+have their confluence at Puerto Pando. Both provinces are situated in a
+rich productive belt, where coffee, cacao, coca, rice, sugar, quinine,
+and all tropical fruits and hardwoods in abundance are obtained. The
+celebrated coffee of the Yungas is considered by many connoisseurs
+superior in quality to Mocha, and at one time this important product
+was in such great demand in the European market that it sold for fifty
+bolivianos per hundred pounds. The cultivation of coffee has been
+somewhat neglected in recent years, the difficulties of transportation
+having made it impossible for Bolivian producers to meet increasing
+competition among other coffee-raising countries. But the plantations
+of Chulumani, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span> capital of South Yungas, and of Coroico, the chief
+city of North Yungas, are still in a flourishing condition.</p>
+
+<p>Chulumani, a town of five thousand inhabitants, occupies a singularly
+picturesque site on a tributary of the La Paz River, at an altitude of
+about six thousand feet above sea level. Not only is it the centre of a
+rich coffee district, but on the surrounding plantations are cultivated
+cacao and sugar cane, the neighboring districts produce quinine, coca,
+and vanilla, and rich cabinet woods are found here in abundance. Gold
+is taken from the river in considerable quantities, by the method of
+placer mining which is generally followed in all Bolivian gold fields.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_279">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_279.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF COROICO, NORTH YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>No product is more highly prized by the Indian than the coca. He chews
+the leaves as people of other countries chew tobacco, and there is
+seldom a moment when he does not have a roll of the precious stimulant
+in his mouth. He will go days without food and perform marvellous
+feats of endurance, often running fifty miles or more during a day,
+provided he has his little pouch of coca leaves, which he sometimes
+hangs at his belt, and at other times carries in the crown of his cap.
+His staple food is parched Indian corn, and with his corn and his coca
+the Indian is contented. As coca is the plant from which cocaine is
+manufactured, it is needless to explain that the Indian uses the leaves
+as a stimulant. So constantly does he resort to its use, that without
+this artificial aid, he is not able to work nearly so well, but grows
+apathetic and dull over his tasks. When the coca habit is indulged
+to excess the effect is very injurious. It is an evil which stands
+greatly in the way of the Indian’s mental and moral development, but
+so fixed is the practice that there is little prospect of its being
+abandoned. The coca plant grows abundantly in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span> tropical regions
+of Bolivia and Peru, attaining a height of from two to eight feet,
+according to the locality. Its leaves resemble bay leaves. It grows
+best at an altitude of from two thousand to five thousand feet above
+sea level and produces three crops annually. Three-fourths of the coca
+grown in Bolivia is cultivated in the Yungas of La Paz, the remainder
+coming from neighboring provinces and from the Yungas, popularly
+called the Yuracarés, of Cochabamba. The total production of all the
+<i>cocales</i>, or coca plantations, in Bolivia is about eight million
+pounds annually, amounting in value to three and one-half million
+bolivianos. For the privilege of gathering the coca the Bolivian
+government collects a tax of two hundred and fifty thousand bolivianos
+annually. A duty of two bolivianos per hundred pounds is paid in La Paz
+on exportation. Indians are employed to gather the coca and to carry it
+to the nearest station for shipment, and it is not unusual to see these
+human freight carriers, loaded so heavily that only their legs are
+visible under the huge bundles of coca, slowly making their way through
+the forests. The <i>cocales</i> of Chulumani, Irupana, Chupe, Chirca,
+and other towns of South Yungas will be within convenient shipping
+distance from the proposed railway now under construction from La Paz
+to Puerto Pando. Two routes for this railway have been surveyed, one
+of which goes through Obrajes and past the flourishing town of Palca,
+entering the Yungas where the La Paz River flows through an opening in
+the Andes range, and following the margin of that river and the Bopi
+to its northern terminus. The other route crosses the range and enters
+North Yungas at Unduavi, passing through Coroico, Unduavi, Coripata,
+and other North Yungas towns.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_280">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_280.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHULUMANI, CAPITAL OF SOUTH YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span></p>
+
+<p>Coroico, the capital of North Yungas, is a prosperous little city of
+five thousand inhabitants. It is beautifully located on the river
+of the same name, at an altitude of seven thousand feet, and is the
+centre of a rich agricultural region. Flourishing fields of corn,
+rice, and sugar cane are numerous in the vicinity, the corn growing
+on the uplands, while the sugar cane and rice are cultivated close
+to the river bank. Quinine, or <i>cascarilla</i>, is exported in
+large quantities from North Yungas, where the cinchona tree grows
+in abundance. The bark from which the quinine is extracted is thick
+and reddish in appearance, and is shipped in small pieces just as it
+comes from the tree. It is found in several departments of Bolivia,
+on the eastern slopes of the Andes, where vast regions contain
+<i>bosques</i>, or woods, of cinchona trees which remain untouched for
+lack of facilities to transport the precious product to the shipping
+centres. The quinine of Challana, a town in the neighboring province
+of Larecaja, is the best in quality, a hundred pounds of bark yielding
+forty-eight ounces of sulphate. The great rubber-producing region of
+Bolivia extends as far south as North Yungas and Larecaja, in the
+department of La Paz, a considerable amount of rubber being shipped
+from Coroico, Songo, Challana, Mapiri, and Huanay through Puerto Perez
+on Lake Titicaca to Puno and thence to Mollendo.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_281">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_281.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIAN COCA GATHERERS IN THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>There are few products of any zone which are not to be found in the
+Yungas of La Paz. It is the rich storehouse from which La Paz is
+supplied daily with the necessities and luxuries of the table, and
+there are no better cereals, vegetables, and fruits than those grown
+in these fertile valleys. Yet the vast resources of this region are
+still comparatively unknown, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span> many of its valuable products are
+neglected, which, if cultivated, would prove an important source of
+revenue. An effort is being made by those particularly interested in
+this part of Bolivia to promote the cultivation of its natural products
+on a larger scale than formerly, and a thorough study is being made of
+its flora with this end in view.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_282">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_282.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A CALLAPO, OR RAFT, ON THE RIVER LOAYZA, REGION OF THE
+YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The attention of agriculturists has recently been called to a very
+nutritious plant, which is supposed to be indigenous to the Yungas, and
+which the Indians call <i>jamacch’ppeke</i>, an Aymará word meaning
+“bird’s head,” which was given because the bulbous roots resemble the
+head and beak of a bird. The natives eat it as a delicacy, and it is
+used as an article of food on many of the plantations of the Yungas,
+its starchy properties making it a substitute for milk when boiled
+with sugar and water. It is said to be extremely efficacious as a food
+for invalids, and in the orphan hospitals of the Yungas it is used in
+feeding even the youngest babies. This product is prepared by first
+crushing the bulbs on flat stones, then washing and drying them in
+the sun, a process by which all the water is drawn out and the starch
+remains. It is said that eighty per cent of this remarkable tubercle is
+starch. A Bolivian writer on the subject says: “The starchy quality of
+this bulb is unknown to botanists, and up to the present time it has
+not been well described or classified. Not the slightest information
+regarding it is to be found in any book on South American flora, or in
+the works of the great botanists of the world. The <i>jamacch’ppeke</i>
+is a herbaceous plant which seldom grows beyond four feet in height. It
+lives in the shade of trees and bushes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span> and on the plantations where
+it is cultivated in the Yungas it is usually grown between rows of
+trees in the <i>cocales</i> and <i>cafetales</i>. It has a beautiful
+flower of bright yellow color, and of the form peculiar to orchidic
+plants. Its fruit is a membranous capsule, the tiny seeds of which are
+preserved and planted to produce a new crop of <i>jamacch’ppeke</i>.
+Nothing more clearly proves the neglect which this wonderful plant has
+suffered at the hands of the Yungas agriculturists than the fact that
+they have not renamed it.” The Bolivian writer referred to suggests
+“Orchis,” as it appears to bear a close resemblance to the <i>Orchis
+Morio</i> of Linnæus.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_283a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_283a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER LOAYZA, IN THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_283b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_283b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PALCA, ON THE ROUTE TO THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The medicinal plants of the Yungas and other provinces of the
+department of La Paz have been classified and their uses specified.
+From the list published by Señor Don Belisario Diaz Romero, of the
+Geographic Society of La Paz, it is seen that out of one hundred
+and twenty-two medicinal plants the majority may be found in the
+provinces of North and South Yungas. The classification was originally
+made by Dr. Nicanor Iturralde, and includes the pharmacopœia of the
+<i>callaguayas</i>, or Aymará Indian doctors of these regions. The
+greatest difficulty was experienced in securing the list, as the Indian
+doctors carefully guard the secrets of their cures, and their people
+will never reveal anything which might come to their knowledge by
+accident regarding the mysterious plants used by their medicine chiefs.
+The Aymará doctors have learned the curative properties of many more
+plants than those in the classified list; and though their system of
+cures is not always to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span> recommended, every traveller who has been in
+the interior knows that they have many excellent remedies.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_284">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_284.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CUTTING SUGAR CANE IN THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Vegetation of every description grows in riotous abundance in the
+fertile valleys of the Yungas, where the upper tributaries of the great
+Amazon River are fed from a thousand streams that find their way down
+the innumerable crevices of the Andean range. They form a network of
+waterways for the <i>callapos</i>, or rafts, used to transport cargo
+in this region, and they serve to fertilize the entire country so
+completely that every foot of ground may be utilized for agriculture.
+Here the Beni River receives its chief tributary, the Bopi, which rises
+in the Cordillera Real, fifteen miles north of the city of La Paz,
+flows southward through the city, and waters the valleys of Sopocachi
+and Obrajes, under the name of the La Paz or Chuquiapu River. A few
+leagues southeast of La Paz the river receives an affluent which enters
+it from the north near the town of Palca, and at the point where it
+crosses the Royal Range through a deep cut south of Mount Illimani,
+an important stream, the Caracato, joins it, in the province of
+Loayza. From this point the river turns northward and is reinforced
+by several tributaries, among others the Tamampaya, Miguilla, and
+others with their many small affluents, such as the Loayza and similar
+picturesque waterways. Though South Yungas is watered chiefly by the
+Bopi, the valleys of North Yungas depend for their fertility and for
+the transportation of their products chiefly on the Coroico branch of
+the Beni and its innumerable small tributaries. Not only the Yungas
+provinces, but those of Inquisivi, Larecaja, and Muñecas, which adjoin
+them and are sometimes included in the general term of “the Yungas,”
+are abundantly supplied with water by the Beni system.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span> The Coroico
+River, which flows northward from its source in the Royal Range, has
+many tributaries navigable for small boats and <i>callapos</i>. In
+North Yungas the Songo River, on the banks of which are important
+rubber forests, is one of the largest branches of the Coroico. The
+Mapiri flows through the province of Muñecas, and the Tipuani and
+Challana through Larecaja to join the Coroico River a few leagues south
+of Puerto Pando. Along the course of all these rivers rubber is found
+in abundance, and in some of them placer gold mining is carried on with
+most satisfactory results. The Tipuani River has long been celebrated
+for its rich gold washings. Rising in the Andes, on the eastern slope
+of the celebrated snow mountain Sorata, it flows northeastward and
+joins the Mapiri at Huanay, near the junction of the Mapiri and the
+Challana with the Coroico. This is one of the most celebrated gold
+bearing regions of Bolivia, and has been under exploitation since the
+time of the Incas, who received from their subjects in this part of the
+empire tribute paid in gold dust. According to historians, the Incas’
+emissaries collected sixty pounds of gold dust every four months from
+the section now known as Larecaja. As early as 1560 some Portuguese
+miners got large quantities of gold here, and a few years later the
+Spaniards established the industry on a permanent basis. Marvellous
+stories are related of the riches of this region, where gold was so
+abundant that sacks of precious gold dust were piled up around the
+walls of the miners’ huts to serve as beds and chairs. Hundreds of
+negro workmen were brought from Brazil by the Portuguese, and the whole
+district was a busy hive of industry. It was at this time that Sorata
+became famous as a city of wealth and luxury. In 1780, one of the mine
+owners obtained six thousand pounds of gold washings from this river.
+The variety of mineral and vegetable products everywhere found in the
+valleys of these rivers makes this a favorite field for speculation,
+and few instances of failure in any enterprise undertaken in this
+region have yet been recorded.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_285">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_285.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TOWN OF IRUPANA, IN THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>So varied are the attractions of the Yungas that the scientist goes
+there to study botany, the speculator to make a fortune, and the
+tourist to see the sights, and each one returns enchanted with the
+success of his mission, and usually broadened in mind by having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span>
+enjoyed the trip from the standpoint of the other travellers. The
+botanist grows enthusiastic over the commercial possibilities of his
+newly discovered “specimen,” the fortune seeker has looked around him
+while on his way to the gold fields, the rubber forests, or the fruit
+farms, and cannot help feeling a glow of interest in the wonderful
+secrets of the forests and the mountain sides; and the tourist, who
+goes merely to enjoy the scenery and to learn something of the customs
+of the country, finds that there is more to see than magnificent
+mountains and picturesque valleys, and that the quaint types that
+pass him on the road tell more than the contour of the face or the
+curious style of the dress reveals; and he often returns with all the
+enthusiasm of the student and the speculating spirit of the gold hunter
+combined.</p>
+
+<p>The proximity of the Yungas to the highways of travel gives this region
+an advantage over others of great promise, which, though abundant in
+natural resources, are more difficult of access. With the conclusion
+of the La Paz and Puerto Pando Railway, this territory will be brought
+into close connection with La Paz, and will, at the same time, have
+convenient access to the great Amazon waterway. Some day it will be one
+of the richest and most popular resorts of Bolivia, where fashionable
+society will make its annual visit. The Yungas hillsides will be dotted
+with the handsome country homes of wealthy Paceños, and merry outing
+parties will throng its valleys. The foreign tourist will find his way
+more frequently to this part of the world, for there is an irresistible
+attraction in the prospect of a comfortable trip in a railway train
+which carries one in an hour or so from the Alpine splendors of the
+snow range to the blossoming hedges and balmy groves of the fertile
+region of the Yungas!</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_286">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_286.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TYPICAL INDIAN OF THE YUNGAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_288">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_288.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE PLAZA, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII<br>
+<span class="subhed">COCHABAMBA, THE GARDEN CITY</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">In a beautiful valley of one of the eastern <i>serranias</i> of the
+Royal Range, sheltered alike from the severe cold of the higher
+altitudes and the excessive heat of the lower plains, the city of
+Cochabamba lies smiling under a benign sun, surrounded by picturesque
+hills and fertile levels, with the snow-crowned summit of Tunari in
+view to the north, and the tortuous cañons of the Rio Grande stretching
+southward. Not in the Vale of Kashmir is the zephyr balmier or Nature’s
+varied expression more lovely. Its gardens blossom with the fairest
+flowers, and in its orchards grow the most delicious fruits. It is the
+metropolis of a region rich in production, the granary of the republic.
+As one of the oldest and most important cities of Bolivia, it possesses
+historical and social interest, as well as the attraction that scenery
+and climate afford, and claims attention not only for its own charm,
+but because it is the cradle of many of Bolivia’s greatest men.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_289">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_289.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>At the time that the noble Don Francisco de Oropesa, Count of Toledo,
+the greatest of the viceroys, gave the order for the foundation of
+Cochabamba in 1570, he was visiting La Paz for the purpose of making a
+careful study of the conditions and needs of the Spanish colony in Alto
+Peru. The fact was called to his attention that several families among
+the loyal subjects of His Majesty King Philip II. were living in a
+valley which the Indians called Cochapampa, where they were completely
+isolated and suffering many hardships through lack of communal
+advantages. With characteristic promptness he immediately despatched
+a representative whom he provided with the necessary authority to
+establish a city, on the site of a pueblo called Canata, though there
+was delay in the execution of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> plan, which was not definitely
+carried into effect until January 1, 1574, when, as before stated, the
+city was named Villa de Oropesa. The name was changed to Cochabamba in
+1786, when King Charles III. bestowed upon it the title of “loyal and
+valorous,” in recognition of the distinguished services rendered by its
+citizens in quelling the rebellion of Tupac-Catari. The word Cochabamba
+is derived from the Quichua words <i>cocha</i>, meaning a “pool,” and
+<i>pampa</i>, a “field,” the valley being level and well watered,
+especially at its eastern extremity, where the city is located, at an
+altitude of nine thousand feet above the sea. The mountains of the
+<i>serrania</i> of San Pedro mark the eastern boundary of the city, and
+the <i>colina</i>, or hill, of San Sebastian overlooks it on the south.
+The river Rocha, a branch of the Tayapaya, which, in confluence with
+the Mizque, joins the Rio Grande, the principal affluent of the Mamoré,
+has its rise in the <i>serrania</i> near Cochabamba and flows along the
+northern and western boundary of the city, fertilizing the neighboring
+<i>campiña</i>, and making it perennially green and beautiful.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_290" style="max-width: 415px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_290.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LA PUERTA DE COCHABAMBA, ON THE COACH ROAD FROM ORURO TO
+COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_291">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_291.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THERMAL SPRINGS NEAR COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The city of Cochabamba has a population of about twenty-four thousand
+inhabitants, or of forty thousand including the suburban population,
+of which only three hundred are of foreign birth, chiefly Peruvians
+and Germans. It is divided into four sections, their location being
+determined by the four angles of the principal public square, the Plaza
+14 de Setiembre. The central plaza of Spanish-American cities is often
+named in honor of some important historical event. The Plaza 14 de
+Setiembre in Cochabamba commemorates the date on which the patriots
+of Cochabamba rose in arms to fight for the cause of independence
+in 1809, two months after the installation of the famous revolution
+led by Pedro Domingo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span> Murillo, and four months from the date of the
+uprising against the royal authority in Chuquisaca. A handsome stone
+column in the centre of the plaza bears the names of the patriots who
+led the movement, of whom Don Estevan Arze, Don Francisco del Rivero,
+and Don Melchór Guzmán performed marvels of valor in the terrible
+struggle that followed. The story of Cochabamba’s share in the noble
+fight for freedom is thrilling in interest, and has some romantic
+features which show the temperament of the <i>hijas de Tunari</i>.
+The women of Cochabamba are of the type of the ancient Roman matron
+in many characteristics, and more than one patriotic daughter of the
+Garden City has earned the admiration of posterity by her courageous
+efforts in behalf of the cause of liberty. The lives of Arze and
+Rivero were saved through the ready wit and quick action of Doña Lucia
+Ascui, the wife of an employé of the government, who learned of an
+intrigue by which the governor planned to get rid of these troublesome
+revolutionists. Promptly the noble lady sought means to warn them
+of their danger, though at great risk to her own life, and through
+her brave efforts they were able to make their escape to a place of
+safety. On September 14, 1809, these two leaders, at the head of an
+army of a thousand men, took the quartel of Cochabamba, the militia
+refusing to resist the attack, with which it was in full sympathy.
+The governor fled to Peru; and from all the country round, crowds of
+patriots came, armed with whips and sticks, the only weapons they
+possessed, eager to join in the revolution. Don Francisco del Rivero
+was elected military and political chief. On September 19, 1810, in
+open Cabildo,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span> he was named governor, the dean of the cathedral church
+of La Plata and the high ecclesiastics of Cochabamba officiating. A
+patriotic curate, named Juan Bautista Oquendo, was the orator of the
+cause, and, under the magic influence of his revolutionary speeches,
+thousands flocked to the standard. Don Estevan Arze was appointed
+general-in-chief of the revolutionary forces, and the campaign began by
+a march on Oruro, resulting in the famous victory of Aroma, of which
+the immortal Bartolomé Mitre said: “Heroic Cochabambans, that alone,
+without arms, without generals, guided only by noble instinct and
+generous enthusiasm, valorously displayed the flag of insurrection,
+and seven days after the battle of Suipacha, armed only with clubs
+and tin cannons made by themselves, and with a few firearms, set out
+to meet the enemy, and in open field, man to man, defeated with blows
+the disciplined and well-armed troops of the viceroy on the glorious
+field of Aroma!” All through the war, the record made by Cochabamba
+patriots was one of heroism and self-sacrifice; and in the subsequent
+history of the republic the efforts of the people of this city toward
+the establishment of political order and progress are written in many
+successful reforms, entitling them to an important place in the annals
+of national achievement.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_292">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_292.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CALLE COMERCIO, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Some of the country’s greatest presidents, most learned scholars, and
+eminent divines have had their home in this charming city. Its society
+shows the influence of inherited refinement and culture; and if there
+are few evidences of great wealth, there are none of the deteriorating
+effects of over-indulged luxury which so often contribute to make
+society a mere fashionable show. When Cochabamba appears in promenade
+on the plazas or the Alameda, the effect is much the same as on the
+popular boulevards of London or Paris, but one hears nothing of the
+“social whirl.” In a dignified and leisurely way, life’s blessings
+are enjoyed, without extravagance or ostentation. It is true that
+the automobile has invaded Cochabamba, and may be seen any afternoon
+taking parties to the Alameda, to Cala-Cala, or to the colina of San
+Sebastian; but there is no exciting effort to break the record in
+speed, and motor-mania is as yet an unknown malady.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_293">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_293.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FEAST DAY OF SAN SEBASTIAN, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Cochabamba has six plazas, ornamented with trees and flowers and
+arranged for the convenience of promenaders, the 14 de Setiembre,
+Colón, San Sebastian, San Antonio, Gonzalez Velez, Santa Teresa,
+Gerónimo de Osorio, and Matadero. The Plaza Colón, situated at the
+head of the Alameda, is one of the prettiest parks in the city. The
+Alameda, popularly called the Prado, extends from the Plaza Colón to
+the river, and is the favorite driveway to Cala-cala on the opposite
+bank. At almost any season of the year the Prado presents an animated
+scene in the late afternoon and evening, when it is thronged with
+people, especially on days of <i>fiesta</i>. It was inaugurated with
+interesting ceremonies by General José Ballivian in 1848, and since
+that time has been the scene of many important episodes in national
+history. The Alameda is divided into five beautiful streets, which are
+separated from one another by rows of willow trees, rosebushes, and
+pretty shrubs. The central avenue is being beautified by fountains,
+monuments, and flower beds. The streets on each side are for the use
+of pedestrians, and the outside streets for driving and riding. On the
+opposite side of the city the plaza of San Sebastian is situated, at
+the foot of San Sebastian hill, but, unlike the Prado, it is almost
+deserted except on January 20th and August 6th, when the races are held
+there. San Sebastian, or, as it is called, Colina de San Sebastian, is
+a sloping hillside, where the air is so fresh and pure, and the scenery
+so beautiful, that everyone finds it a delightful resort. It has
+historical interest also as the site on which the famous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span> insurrection
+of Calatayud broke out, in colonial days, when the news spread that
+Spain intended to tax the <i>mestizos</i> as well as the Indians in the
+collecting of tribute. The Plaza Gonzalez Velez, generally known as the
+Plaza de Toros, situated on the lower slope of the hill, is conspicuous
+for the imposing edifice which is its central adornment, and which is
+used as an arena for the bull fights. As this sport is not popular
+in Cochabamba, the plaza is seldom frequented, though from the upper
+windows of the building a magnificent view of the city and its suburbs
+spreads out before one in a charming panorama.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_294">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_294.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PAVILION IN THE ALAMEDA, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The most important public buildings of Cochabamba are on or near
+the Plaza 14 de Setiembre, which marks the centre of the city.
+The Government Palace, Palace of Justice, Municipal Building, and
+Prefectura, overlook this plaza, and are substantial structures,
+well built and sufficiently commodious. The Cathedral also faces the
+Plaza 14 de Setiembre, and is one of the handsomest edifices in the
+city. It is chiefly interesting to strangers because of the works of
+art to be seen among its treasures. The repentance of Saint Peter is
+represented in a figure of natural size carved in wood, and there
+is also a San Sebastian carved in wood, the Virgin of Lourdes, and
+the Crucified Christ. The city is divided into four parishes, Santo
+Domingo, La Compañia, San José, and San Antonio, each parish being in
+charge of a curate and his assistants. The history of the Church in
+colonial days was chiefly recorded in the benevolent and educational
+work done through the various religious orders, and Cochabamba was once
+an important centre, where the orders of San Agustin, San Francisco,
+the Jesuits, and others had their headquarters. Only three of the
+nine convents once existing in the city still remain, those of San
+Francisco, Santa Clara, and Santa Teresa. The former convent of San
+Agustin is now occupied by the theatre Achá, the temple and convent of
+La Merced have been appropriated as a market place, and other convent
+buildings are occupied as schools and hospitals. After the inauguration
+of the republic all the convents for men were abolished and their
+revenues applied to purposes of public instruction and charities. The
+nunneries which still remain are nearly all educational institutions
+as well as convents, and it is in these schools that the young ladies
+of the city are educated. Cochabamba is especially noted for its many
+churches and schools. In addition to the Cathedral, there are at
+least nine churches and convents, and the city has twenty-six primary
+schools, besides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span> the university, two state schools, and the Colegio
+Conciliar, for the training of advanced pupils in high school work. The
+city has a public library of six thousand volumes of which two thousand
+are old books, which formerly belonged to the monasteries, some of them
+very valuable.</p>
+
+<p>The public works of the city of Cochabamba have been improved during
+the present administration, and not only in municipal, but departmental
+affairs noted progress has been effected. The first observation which
+a traveller makes upon approaching the city is that the highroads are
+in splendid condition, showing that the prefect of the department has
+given special attention to this branch of his administration. The
+ex-prefect, Señor Dr. Isaac Aranibar, who was succeeded in office only
+a few months ago by the distinguished soldier and statesman General
+Zenón Cossío, accomplished many important reforms in the department,
+and was indefatigable in his efforts to advance its progress. He
+is now a deputy to the national Congress from that department, and
+labors faithfully in behalf of its people. Dr. Aranibar is a prominent
+statesman and politician, who, though one of the younger leaders, has
+made his influence count in national affairs with great credit to his
+judgment and patriotism.</p>
+
+<p>As capital of the department, Cochabamba is the metropolis of a
+territory covering two thousand square leagues, and having a population
+of four hundred thousand. The department comprises ten provinces,
+each of which has its capital city and is the centre of a flourishing
+agricultural district. The provinces are Cercado, which includes the
+suburbs of the department capital; Tapacarí, of which Quillacollo is
+the capital, only a few miles distant from the city of Cochabamba
+over a road which leads through a magnificent avenue of shade trees
+along the entire route; Arque, with its pretty little capital,
+Capinota; Campero, of which Aiquile is the flourishing centre; Ayopaya,
+celebrated for the gold mines of Choquecamata; and the provinces of
+Mizque, Tarata, Totora, Punata, and Chaparé. Every climate may be
+experienced in a trip through the provinces of this department, from
+the cold which is never modified on the snowclad summit of Tunari, and
+the perennial springtime of more sheltered slopes and ravines, to the
+equatorial heat of the lower valleys and wooded plains that mark the
+more tropical waterways of the Amazon system. The influence of climate
+is seen in the vegetation, which is of the most varied character. On
+the high <i>puna</i>, at an altitude above twelve thousand feet as
+encountered along the road from Cochabamba to Mizque, vegetation is
+scant, though even here the farmer grows corn, barley, potatoes, and
+a comparatively new product called <i>quinua</i>, more nutritious
+and cheaper than wheat, for which it serves as a substitute. It is
+cultivated on all the high plateaus, and is increasing in favor as a
+staple food. On the slopes of the Cordilleras, Nature has made abundant
+provision for human needs, and every kind of agricultural product is
+harvested in plenty. Wheat, corn, beans, and a great variety of fruits
+are cultivated in the milder zones, and in the more tropical sections
+of the provinces of Chaparé and Totora coffee, cacao, quinine, sugar
+cane, rice, <i>camote</i>,—a yellow potato of delicious flavor, which
+has the appearance of the sweet potato,—as well as all tropical
+fruits grow in abundance. The <i>chirimoya</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span> in English called
+custard-apple, arrives at its highest perfection in this region, and
+the <i>palta</i>, elsewhere known as the alligator pear, and which
+in Mexico is called <i>aguacate</i>, is of delicious flavor. The
+<i>granadilla</i>, a peculiar fruit which looks something like a small
+orange with a hard, smooth skin, and is composed of a mass of seeds in
+a juicy, glutinous white pulp, is very refreshing, either as eaten,
+seeds and all, or made into a refreshing beverage. The province of
+Mizque is noted for its wine, though only the most primitive methods
+are used in viticulture, and the industry has never reached the degree
+of development which is possible under more favorable conditions. The
+Yuracarés, as the Yungas of Cochabamba are called, produce coca, cacao,
+tobacco, rice, and quinine, the chief shipping centre for all these
+products being the capital city of Cochabamba, from which they are
+distributed to their final destination.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_296">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_296.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHURCH OF SAN PEDRO, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The city of Cochabamba presents a busy appearance when the cargoes of
+produce arrive from the farms and forests of the interior, and it is
+not unusual for a street to be blockaded by one of these caravans.
+Large importing and exporting houses usually receive the products and
+direct their shipment. Not only do the surrounding provinces supply
+the market with some of the most important food stuffs and medicinal
+products, but from the hills are taken the marble, stone, clay, lime,
+sand, and other building materials used in the construction of the
+city’s most modern edifices. <i>Berenguela</i>, a native marble of
+great value and beauty, having something of the appearance of old
+ivory, is used a great deal for ornamental purposes. The attention
+of foreign travellers has been especially attracted to the excellent
+properties of <i>berenguela</i> and to the superior quality of all
+the building materials found in this department. The facilities for
+construction which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span> proximity of these materials affords is no
+doubt responsible to some degree for the handsome buildings that have
+been erected within recent years, among others, several for purposes of
+manufacture. Cochabamba is adding annually to the number and importance
+of its manufacturing establishments. Excellent saddles and harnesses
+are made here, leather is tanned, boots and shoes are manufactured,
+the weaving of <i>ponchos</i> of delicate silk and woollen fabrics is
+a special art, and in the country districts butter making is among
+the industries. A number of factories produce on a limited scale the
+more necessary articles of daily use, such as soap, candles, glass,
+etc. The breweries of the city turn out a million bottles of beer
+annually, and there are hat factories, wool and cotton factories,
+and a silkworm establishment. The silk is of a superior quality, the
+cocoons being white or yellow in color. The larvæ show the most robust
+health and strength, mulberry trees seeming to grow particularly well
+in this climate, and to afford the greatest possible nutrition to the
+silkworms. Cochabamba is quite celebrated for its lace making, and
+visitors to the city usually spend some time in examining the beautiful
+designs of the pieces offered for sale in the market. Many of the
+lace-trimmed articles are of the coarsest cotton material, but the
+workmanship is marvellous, and it is not unusual to see the poorest
+vendor wearing a petticoat bordered with lace a half a yard deep,
+made by herself. On feast days the <i>cholas</i> wear dozens of these
+petticoats, starched so stiffly that they make the skirt stand out like
+a balloon, and in Cochabamba, though less conspicuously than in La Paz,
+the <i>cholas’</i> petticoats represent their chief wealth. Beautiful
+lace scarfs, lace edgings of the finest design, and lace curtains are
+made by the natives. Among the very poor some such industry is usually
+adopted to provide a source of revenue for the family aside from the
+wages earned by the husband, and in the humblest little hut there is
+generally a frame for weaving <i>ponchos</i> or a cushion for lace
+making, as most of the lace is made on cushions by means of bobbins and
+pins, though crocheted laces are also seen. As a rule, these humble
+homes are the abode of content, and they are wonderful examples of how
+little is needed to make the poor happy, where they do not have to
+face daily the terrible struggle which is waged by the less fortunate
+in large European and North American cities. There is a haven of
+promise for the emigrant in the glorious climate and fertile valleys of
+Cochabamba, and he will find a welcome here if he is industrious and
+honest, no matter what his nationality.</p>
+
+<p>Cochabamba is growing, in spite of occasional dull seasons, which
+usually affect the progress of an agricultural community. The
+authorities of the municipality are doing all in their power to improve
+this beautiful city, and to provide modern conveniences wherever
+possible. A street car system is to be built which will connect the
+city with Quillacollo and other suburban towns, and improvements are
+to be made in lighting and otherwise providing for the comfort of the
+citizens. The driveway which leads to Cala-cala is being beautified
+and made more attractive, and the public baths are to be enlarged and
+improved.</p>
+
+<p>Cala-cala is the most beautiful suburb of Cochabamba, and is the
+popular residence quarter for many of the leading families, and for
+nearly all the foreigners of the city. The European population is
+small, but it represents many countries, English, German, French,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> and
+other nationalities being counted among its leading citizens. One of
+the most attractive <i>chacras</i> in Cala-cala is owned by a North
+American, Mr. Oscar Ehrhorn, of San Francisco, California, who has
+lived in Cochabamba many years and is enthusiastic over the climate
+and the future business prospects of this section, which he regards
+as the garden spot of Bolivia. Others express the same opinion and
+predict a very prosperous future for this city, which some day will
+be one of the richest industrial centres of South America. Foreigners
+are treated with the greatest consideration and have equal privileges
+with the natives of the country. The completion of the new railway
+between Cochabamba and Oruro means a great deal to the people of this
+department, as it will serve to bring them at least three days nearer
+to the coast, and will place their rich products in many more markets
+than formerly. Whether in intellectual attainment or in material
+progress, Cochabamba has always been able to keep a leading place among
+the cities of Bolivia, and it is certain that her people will continue
+to maintain the title so often bestowed upon her as the “Athens of
+Bolivia” and the “Garden City.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_298">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_298.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LOVERS’ TREE IN CALA-CALA, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_300">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_300.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">BOLIVIA A FIELD FOR LARGE ENTERPRISES—NATURAL
+CONDITIONS—IMMIGRATION—CLIMATE</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_301">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_301.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PICTURESQUE SCENE IN THE RUBBER REGION.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">With a larger territory than that covered by France, Germany, and Spain
+together, and a smaller population than the French capital claims,
+Bolivia certainly seems to offer plenty of scope for the development
+of large enterprises. Colonization presents an inviting opportunity,
+and immigration may be fostered with golden results to the individual
+as well as to the state. To the natural advantages of a productive
+soil and healthful climate are added those which arise from a great
+variety of resources. Bolivia is comprised in three well-defined
+regions: the Altaplanicie, about five hundred miles long and eighty
+miles wide, which extends from Lake Titicaca to the southern boundary
+of the republic; the great system of the Royal Range, which includes
+the <i>serranias</i> that are its offshoots, and their fertile valleys;
+and the vast plains, grassy or forest-grown, which stretch away from
+the Andes to the eastern and northern boundaries, and are noted for the
+valuable rubber trees that make this section one of the most important
+centres of Bolivian industry. In each of these regions there is a great
+deal of territory unoccupied, and very rich in the products peculiar
+to its locality. Of the Altaplanicie, the northern part is famous as
+the centre of the copper-mining district of Corocoro in the department
+of La Paz; in its central province of Carangas are located some of the
+most valuable silver and tin deposits of the department of Oruro; and
+the southern district, included in the department of Potosí, is rich
+in borax and other saline products. Deposits of borax are found not
+only in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span> southern part, where the Lago de Sal, or “Salt Lake,” is
+situated, but also in the central and northern sections, especially
+in the province of Carangas, where the salt marsh of Coipasa covers a
+territory of fifty square kilomètres. A subterranean river connects
+Coipasa with Lake Poopo, or Pampa-Aullagas, as it is also called.
+The Altaplanicie is not entirely level, an occasional mountain peak,
+usually of conical form, giving a pleasing variety to its landscape.
+Some of the mountains are snow-capped, and others appear like irregular
+brown rocks set up on the plains. A curious freak of nature is seen
+in the sinking ground of the Cerro Milluni, near Huayna Potosí, where
+great rugged monoliths are brought into picturesque relief by the
+sinking sand.</p>
+
+<p>The Altaplanicie is not only productive in minerals, as the wealth of
+Corocoro and Carangas proves, but it yields good harvests of barley,
+maize, and potatoes in the more sheltered regions, and provides
+pasturage for large flocks of sheep and goats. The inhabitants regard
+the <i>chalona</i>, or salted mutton, of the plateau as an excellent
+food, and the cheese known as <i>queso de Paria</i> is esteemed
+a delicacy throughout western Bolivia. Alpacas are found on the
+Titicaca plateau in large numbers near the eastern slope of the Royal
+range, and a few are to be seen in every province, from Pacajes and
+Sicasica in the department of La Paz to Porco, Chichas, and Lipez in
+the department of Potosí. This valuable wool-bearing animal seeks
+the coldest and loneliest regions, where snow falls instead of rain,
+on the slopes of the high <i>serranias</i> and in the clefts of the
+Cordilleras. The raising and shearing of the alpaca is in the hands
+of the Indians, who by their patient methods succeed better than any
+other class of shepherds in getting good results from the care of these
+animals. Alpacas are black, white, brown, or yellow in color, and
+yield wool of very fine quality. They are sheared every other year,
+the fibre being sometimes a foot in length, and a shearing amounts to
+as much as fifteen pounds. As the demand for this wool increases in
+the European markets, greater attention is paid to the industry, but
+it has never occupied the place it deserves, and the output might be
+made many times what it is to-day,—about two million pounds. In form
+and size the alpaca resembles a large sheep, though its neck is long
+like that of the llama, to which it is similar in general appearance,
+but having shorter legs and a less graceful form. The alpaca is
+never used as a beast of burden, but is reared only for its wool.
+The vicuña,—<i>camelus vicogna</i>,—a smaller and more delicately
+proportioned animal than either the llama or the alpaca, though it
+bears some resemblance to both, is highly prized for its valuable
+coat, vicuña furs being very much appreciated by connoisseurs, because
+of their fineness of texture, their extremely light weight, and the
+exquisite tones of mauve and tan that distinguish their color. They are
+particularly suitable for rugs, carriage robes, and automobile coats.
+In all South American countries the <i>ponchos</i> woven of vicuña wool
+are greatly valued and bring a high price. The vicuña is about the
+size of a young fawn and quite as timid. Its favorite haunts are above
+the region of perpetual snow, and it is seldom seen on the highways of
+travel. It is more frequently met with than the alpaca, on the Bolivian
+highlands, especially in the departments of La Paz and Oruro. On the
+higher Andes, in the departments of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosí, the
+precious little chinchilla<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span> is also found, on the high slopes. It is
+very difficult to catch and is becoming rarer every year. It feeds on
+small grasses and herbs with the dew on them, but it drinks no water
+from other sources. The chinchilla is about the size of a mouse, which
+it resembles, though its color is a light blue-gray.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_303">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_303.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VINEYARDS OF PARANÍ, DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>None of the resources of the Altaplanicie have been fully developed,
+and there are still possibilities for the acquirement of wealth in its
+mines and borax fields, as well as in its pasture lands. The climate is
+severe, but healthy, and for immigrants who come from cold countries
+it has advantages over the more enervating climates of a warmer zone.
+The average altitude of the Altaplanicie is twelve thousand feet
+above sea level. In the south, a <i>serrania</i> of the Occidental,
+or Coast Range, crosses the plateau and unites with the Royal Range
+in what is known as the Cordillera de los Frailes, one of the most
+majestic snow ranges of the whole chain of the Andes. It divides the
+departments of Potosí and Oruro south of Lake Poopo, and is an imposing
+sight as viewed either from the city of Potosí, from which it appears
+in the distance like a bank of fleecy clouds against the purple of
+lower peaks, or as seen from the Oruro side of the range, where the
+view, though of different aspect, is one of enchanting beauty. The
+name, which means the “Friars’ Range,” is said to have been given to
+commemorate the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, when many of their
+number died from exhaustion and exposure while trying to find their way
+across its frozen passes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span></p>
+
+<p>The most thickly settled and generally developed region of Bolivia
+is that which belongs to the division of the country made by the
+Cordillera Real and its fertile valleys. From the Yungas of La Paz and
+Cochabamba on the north to the <i>serranias</i> of Tarija on the south,
+the vast riches of this wonderful region have been exploited, to some
+extent, in its mines, agricultural industries, and other productions;
+yet there are mineral districts which have never been explored, and
+fertile tracts of farm land that remain untouched by the plow. Almost
+every kind of mineral may be found in the mountains of the Royal Range.
+Besides the more important gold, silver, tin, copper, and bismuth
+mines, there are indications which point to extensive deposits of coal
+in the departments of La Paz, Chuquisaca, and Santa Cruz. Anthracite
+coal has been discovered in large quantities near the Argentine
+boundary, which, it is claimed, is of a quality to compete with the
+best in the market. Iron is found in the departments of Santa Cruz,
+Oruro, La Paz, and the Beni, but the deposits have never been worked
+to any extent. Antimony is exported from Oruro, Potosí, and La Paz.
+An excellent quality of marble comes from the neighborhood of La Paz,
+as well as from several districts between La Paz and Cochabamba. Of
+precious stones, the amethyst, emerald, opal, topaz, and turquoise are
+found in the departments of La Paz, Potosí, and Santa Cruz.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_304">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_304.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ENTRANCE TO CACHIMAYO HACIENDA, NEAR SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Nearly all writers on the subject of Bolivia’s natural resources and
+the opportunities they present to the foreign capitalist emphasize
+the riches of Bolivian mines, but very few call attention to the
+enormous wealth which may be gained by investing in large agricultural
+projects. It is true that enterprises which involve the occupation and
+development of vast tracts of land can only be successfully promoted
+where the advantages of railway transportation are assured; and this
+fact no doubt accounts, in a measure, for the indifference shown to
+colonization in Bolivia in the past. But now that a complete railway
+system is under construction, the greatest obstacle to investment
+in farm lands is being removed. Already there is a tendency among
+Bolivians to give greater attention than ever before to the agriculture
+of the country, and to investigate the possibilities of this industry,
+which has hitherto been practically ignored except in the most favored
+sections along the highways of travel. One hears a great deal of the
+fertile lands of the Yungas, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba, and the Beni,
+and their productions are shipped to all parts of the country. But
+though tobacco, rice, sugar, wheat, corn, and other products have been
+harvested in increasing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> quantities from year to year, not one of them
+is cultivated to the extent possible in the fertile region where it
+grows.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_305">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_305.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FERTILE VALLEY ON THE ROUTE OF THE ARICA AND LA PAZ
+RAILWAY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Viticulture promises to be an important source of revenue, when it
+is given the attention it merits; and from the beautiful vineyards
+of Parani and elsewhere, in the departments of La Paz, Cochabamba,
+and Chuquisaca, wine may some day be manufactured in sufficient
+abundance and of a quality to compete with the best vintage of other
+countries. There are fertile valleys in every part of the republic
+which require only small investment to make them yield abundantly.
+Even the suburbs of La Paz, though on the border of the Altaplanicie,
+are dotted with pretty gardens, especially along the coach road to
+Obrajes, and the valley of Sopocachi is a typical agricultural scene as
+it lies blooming in the beauty of green fields and orchards. The new
+railroads pass through valleys not only picturesque but fertile, many
+prosperous-looking farms lying along the line of the La Paz and Arica
+Railway, in the lower slopes. Between Cochabamba and Sucre there is
+apparently no limit to the possibilities for industrial development.
+The flourishing haciendas in the neighborhood of Sucre are a proof of
+what may be done toward making this region one of the richest farming
+districts in the world. Everything that is planted on the Cachimayo
+hacienda grows in abundance, and is of superior quality, and there is
+not a more prosperous-looking country place to be seen anywhere. Not
+only its farm products, but also its fruits and wines are of excellent
+quality. Cattle raising is a profitable industry, and fine specimens
+are seen at the annual <i>ferias</i> in the chief cities. The large
+haciendas of Chuquisaca are divided into cattle ranges, farm lands,
+and fruit orchards, the estates in some cases covering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span> many square
+leagues. Further in the interior eastward, in the province called
+La Cordillera, large tracts of land are given up to cattle raising
+exclusively, especially along the valley of the Parapiti River, a
+branch of the Otuquis, which is one of the chief affluents of the
+Paraguay. This section of the country is only partly settled, much of
+it is still unexplored, and, where cattle roam its wilds no boundaries
+are established to limit the range. It is very like what western Texas,
+in the United States, was before the railroads crossed it, though it
+nowhere presents the arid wastes which are to be found in some parts of
+the Lone Star State. There is, however, a marked resemblance between
+these two cattle-raising countries. Not less extensive than the ranges
+of Chuquisaca are those of Tarija, Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz, the
+lower slopes of the <i>serranias</i> supplying fine pasturage. But
+very little attention has been paid to this important industry, which
+is still in its infancy. When once these ranges are well stocked and
+properly irrigated, the results will be astonishing, as the grass lands
+are as good here as in some of the best grazing districts of Argentina.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_306">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_306.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CATTLE FAIR IN SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>At present, the cultivation of cereals and fruits receives more
+attention than cattle raising, and the markets of all the principal
+cities of the central valley are usually thronged with vendors of
+oranges, lemons, bananas, pineapples, and other varieties of fruits.
+The Cochabamba marketwoman is a particularly contented-looking creature
+as she seats herself behind her pile of fruit with her baby by her
+side. Except for the difference in the appearance of the vendors, the
+Cochabamba market looks much the same as that of La Paz, but every
+department shows something distinct from all others in the dress of
+the Indians and <i>cholas</i>, giving an individuality to the type in
+each locality. The La Paz <i>cholas</i> are noted for their coquetry in
+dress, and even when trudging along the country roads from Obrajes and
+other points to the city, they have a jaunty air and carry their load
+with an indifference to its weight that attracts attention.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_307">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_307.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COACH ROAD TO OBRAJES, NEAR LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_308">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_308.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VALLEY OF SOPOCACHI, NEAR LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The region which extends from the Royal Range eastward and northward to
+the boundary of the republic is destined to be the centre of industrial
+activity in Bolivia when the means of communication are established
+between this rich country and the outside world. Its western border is
+marked by the eastern limits of the department of La Paz, Cochabamba,
+and part of Tarija, its northern boundary by the Peruvian frontier and
+its southern limits by the Argentine republic. It is not all level
+land, but generally rolling plain, broken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span> at intervals by scattered
+ranges and groups of hills, which in some places reach an altitude of
+four thousand feet above sea level, though the whole territory slopes
+gently from an altitude of two thousand feet at the eastern foothills
+of the Royal range to about four hundred feet above the sea on the
+Brazilian and Paraguayan borders. As the drainage of the great Andean
+chain is chiefly toward the Atlantic Ocean, eastern Bolivia is watered
+by important tributaries of the Amazon and La Plata River systems.
+The Paraguay River forms the eastern, and the Guaporé, or Iténez,
+River the northeastern boundary, the northwestern limit being still
+unsettled between Bolivia and Peru, though Bolivia claims as this
+limit the Acre River from its headwaters to Riosino and a line thence
+eastward to the Madeira River, near the confluence of the Beni and the
+Mamoré. The river Beni, with its great tributary the Madre de Dios;
+the Mamoré, with its affluents the Guaporé and the Rio Grande; and the
+Paraguay, into which flow the Pilcomayo and the Otuquis, or Rio Negro,
+with their tributaries, supply irrigation for the whole vast region of
+eastern and northern Bolivia. Of these rivers the Rio Grande, with the
+Mamoré, has the longest and most circuitous route, having its source in
+the <i>serranias</i> between Oruro and Cochabamba and watering, with
+its numerous tributaries, the departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca,
+Santa Cruz, and the Beni. At its source the Rio Grande is a turbulent
+stream, and in the rainy season swells to a fierce torrent, destroying
+everything in its way as it rushes down through the <i>quebradas</i>,
+widening and deepening its channel, until it reaches a breadth of
+nearly a mile a few leagues to the east of the city of Santa Cruz de
+la Sierra, where it sweeps northward to pour its surging tide into the
+Mamoré. During the dry season, it is confined in a narrower channel,
+and is a placid, gently flowing stream. This changing character of the
+Rio Grande is common to all the rivers that water the same region.
+The Pilcomayo, which rises in the Cordillera near Sucre, receives
+many foaming mountain streams on its way to the plains of the Chaco,
+and in rainy weather it is a formidable flood, but it diminishes in
+volume during its progress through the Chaco, where it widens in some
+places to more than a mile. After a course of two hundred leagues, it
+enters the Paraguay a sluggish and shallow river, navigable only for
+small steamers of two hundred tons, and lighter vessels. Navigation in
+steam launches is the general method of transportation on the Madre
+de Dios, Beni, Mamoré,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span> and Guaporé Rivers in the summer months, from
+December to May, and even in June and July these launches can still
+be used, but with greater difficulties and delays; during the rest of
+the year small craft have to take their place. The trip up the river
+is much slower and more tedious than the descent, though the latter
+is sometimes dreaded because of the swift currents. It is impossible
+to have a schedule for river steamers, as everything depends on the
+condition of the river, and in the dry season boulders and other
+obstacles may entirely block the channel for an indefinite period, so
+that even small boats cannot pass. With the increase of industrial
+development in this part of Bolivia, greater attention is being paid to
+the condition of the rivers and streams, with a view to utilizing their
+overflow and providing against blockade. The summer and autumn months,
+particularly the latter, are usually chosen by travellers in eastern
+and northern Bolivia, because, although the land journey may be less
+agreeable on account of bad roads or swollen streams, the rivers are
+in better condition for navigation. A vast extent of fine forest and
+rich soil stretches out for many leagues along the course of the rivers
+of eastern Bolivia, probably fifty per cent of the whole country being
+forest. The scenery in some parts is very beautiful. Mr. John Minchin,
+president of the municipality of Oruro, who has lived in Bolivia for
+many years and has travelled from one end of its vast territory to the
+other, gives a charming description of a journey from Cochabamba to
+Santa Cruz, when, he says, “after nine days’ travelling on muleback
+from Cochabamba, and on reaching the summit of the last range, the eye
+rests with delight on the dark green forest-clad eastern plains, some
+thousands of feet below, forming an horizon like that of the ocean,
+and stretching out, almost without interruption, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> the banks of the
+distant Paraguay. From this point, in the early morning, the wide
+channel of the Rio Grande, some fifty miles away, winds like a white
+ribbon through the forest, the river itself, like a silver thread,
+flashing back the rays of the rising sun.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_309">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_309.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SINKING GROUND, CERRO DE MILLUNI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>It is in the vast region of virgin forest and grassy plain that the
+Bolivian government most desires to establish foreign colonies, and
+it is for the purpose of developing its enormous resources that
+immigration to this part of the country is being encouraged by every
+possible means. At present the population is extremely sparse, probably
+not exceeding four hundred thousand inhabitants altogether, in a
+territory covering about one million square kilomètres. The prospect
+is brighter now than it has ever been for the realization of ambitious
+plans in this direction, as the tide of civilization has for some years
+been moving northward over the plains of Argentina, and, with the
+increased facilities which the new railroad system guarantees, it can
+be only a question of a few years when these vast and fertile solitudes
+will be peopled, not only from neighboring states, but from foreign
+lands. The teeming millions of overcrowded Europe, who look toward
+America as their haven of content and prosperity, are already beginning
+to turn their eyes from the popular goal so long sought in the United
+States and to shape their course toward a shore where the restrictions
+upon foreign immigration are less rigorous than those that now govern
+the laws of the great North American republic. Also, the opportunities
+offered to immigrants by the United States are lessening with the
+increasing population; and this fact cannot fail to have its effect in
+turning the tide to South America, where competition is not so great,
+and independence is equally assured by the very liberal laws made for
+the benefit of the foreign citizens. Especially is it true of Bolivia,
+as foreigners who live in this country invariably testify, that foreign
+residents are treated with the greatest consideration and enjoy the
+full benefits of the liberal constitution which governs the Bolivian
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>In August, 1903, the department of colonization issued a statement
+of the regulations governing the acquirement of lands for colonizing
+purposes, which shows the generous opportunity offered to immigrants.
+Allotments are made free under special circumstances,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> such as
+previous occupation for ten years, or the conditions of applicants
+who are natives of the place, and of settlers who contribute to and
+increase agricultural and other industries. Lands may be assigned,
+on application, to enterprises having in view their cultivation and
+settlement, subject to regulations previously stated as governing
+their purchase. For immigrants who wish to go to the country as
+workmen or as colonists, the acquisition of lands is facilitated,
+payments are made easy by a system of instalments, and possession is
+guaranteed. The government frankly states that only colonists who are
+accustomed to work are desired, especially those who will advance
+agriculture and aid in developing the rubber industry, and no effort
+is made to force immigration except where it means assured industrial
+progress. Immigrants who possess no capital may acquire lands for
+permanent settlement, if industrious and enterprising; and to those
+who have families, or are in charge of a group of settlers employed
+in the cultivation and exploitation of lands, especial facilities and
+advantages are afforded, both for the acquisition and payment of lands.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_310">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_310.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SHEEP RANCH ON THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_311">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_311.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE MARKET PLACE, COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>One of the first questions asked by foreigners when inquiring about
+the countries of South America is: “What is the climate?” and there
+seems to be a general impression that the climate of the whole South
+American continent is tropical and more or less unhealthy. Yet,
+with the exception of some localities in the equatorial region, the
+conditions are as healthful as those prevailing in North America.
+Bolivia lies within the torrid zone, but its climate depends upon the
+altitude rather than upon the latitude of the various localities.
+The temperature lowers in proportion as the altitudes become higher,
+and varies with the latitude; for each six hundred feet of height,
+a degree less—centigrade—is observed in the temperature. The
+modifications which are due to altitude are no doubt responsible for
+the notable and sudden changes between the temperature in the daytime
+and at night,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span> varying in colder and warmer zones. In the course of
+a few hours the thermometer daily runs a scale of from thirteen to
+seventeen degrees centigrade in the valleys and from eight to fifteen
+degrees in places close to the Cordilleras. The Oficina Nacional de
+Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica describes the climatic
+conditions of Bolivia in accordance with six divisions of altitude:
+the region of perpetual snow, at seventeen thousand feet and upward,
+has an annual average temperature of one degree centigrade; on the
+highest <i>puna</i>, or tableland, with an altitude of sixteen thousand
+feet, the annual average is six degrees; the Altaplanicie, fourteen
+thousand feet high, shows an average temperature of twelve degrees;
+in the upper valleys, where the altitude is about ten thousand feet,
+the average temperature registers fifteen degrees; the more fertile
+valleys in the lower <i>serranias</i>, eight thousand feet above sea
+level, are subject to a medium temperature of eighteen degrees; and
+in the Yungas, where the altitude is not more than six thousand feet,
+the thermometer marks about twenty-one degrees on an annual average.
+In the region of perpetual snow, the temperature ranges annually from
+twenty-seven degrees to zero, with an average, as previously stated,
+of one degree centigrade. Referring to the seasons, the same authority
+says: “The thermic periods do not coincide with the astronomical
+seasons, the meteorological changes being totally different from those
+occurring outside of the tropics, not only because the country lies
+within the torrid zone, but from other causes. The spring months are
+August, September, and October; those of summer are November, December,
+and January;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span> autumn extends through February, March, and April;
+and winter, through May, June, and July. Summer is divided into two
+periods, the first being hot and dry, and the second rainy. The heat is
+excessive, even in high altitudes, where, during the first two months,
+the atmosphere is heavily charged with electricity, the rains beginning
+during the third month. Autumn weather is really experienced only
+during the months of March and April, the summer rains usually lasting
+through February; and even during the autumn, the humid atmosphere
+makes the season only a modified summer. In the Yungas and in the level
+regions of eastern and northeastern Bolivia winter is not known, the
+only change of climate being marked by a wet and a dry season, but in
+the higher altitudes frosts are continuous, and snow falls.”</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Bolivia is, in general, extremely favorable, and there
+are no regions totally unhealthful. On the high tablelands, illness
+from causes of climate are practically unknown, except in a few
+instances where heart trouble is developed by too vigorous exercise at
+this altitude. In the valleys of the Cordillera Real the only illness
+is from occasional intermittent fevers in the summer season, though
+these are no more frequent than in the semi-tropical regions of Europe
+and North America. Only in the wet season are the <i>tercianas</i>, or
+intermittent fevers of the Beni, developed, and, taken altogether, the
+great sloping plains between the Andes and the eastern and northern
+borders of Bolivia are desirable places to live in, the inhabitants,
+both native and foreign, declaring that, with a few exceptions along
+the lower levels that border the Madeira and the Mamoré, this region
+has one of the most delightful climates in the world.</p>
+
+<p>A very important field for the promotion of various industries is now
+opening up in Bolivia, and not only the people themselves, but their
+neighbors and the outside world in general, are taking a greater
+interest than ever before in investigating its natural resources.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_312">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_312.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FRUIT VENDOR OF COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_314">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_314.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PATIO OF THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE OLD MINT OF POTOSÍ—BOLIVIAN COINAGE AND BANKING LAWS—COMMERCE</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Historic association and romantic interest combine to lend a peculiar
+charm to the old Spanish edifices of colonial times that are still to
+be seen in the various cities of South America. Though many of them are
+in ruins, and others have been completely modernized to serve as new
+public buildings or residences, there are still a few that preserve
+the appearance they had when erected centuries ago “by order of His
+Excellency the Viceroy.” Of these generally unclassified architectural
+monuments, none possesses a greater claim to interest than the famous
+mint of Potosí, the Casa Real de Moneda. Its history dates from the
+most flourishing period of Spanish possession in the New World, and
+is intimately connected with the accounts of fabulous wealth and the
+records of terrible cruelty written in the annals of the seamed and
+weather beaten Cerro de Potosí.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_315">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_315.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">WOODEN MACHINERY FORMERLY USED IN THE OLD MINT OF
+POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The first money coined in the Spanish-American colonies was made in
+Mexico in the sixteenth century, when the first viceroy, Don Antonio
+de Mendoza, who was afterward second Viceroy of Peru, issued the
+decree to establish a mint. The coins were cut with scissors out of
+hammered silver and were marked with a cross, which was the only seal
+they bore. Some years later, the illustrious Viceroy Toledo, during a
+visit to Potosí in 1572, ordered the construction of the Royal Mint of
+Potosí. It occupied the site of the present palace of justice, the old
+chimney of the foundry still remaining to mark the spot where, more
+than three hundred years ago, silver from the famous Cerro was coined
+into reales, of about the value of a dime. By a law passed soon after
+the establishment of the mint, miners were obliged to leave here a
+fourth part of their bullion, which had been assayed and smelted in
+the royal foundries after the payment of the “fifth” and other fiscal
+taxes, and this was reduced to reales and returned to the owner in that
+form. In the seventeenth century the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span> annual coinage reached the sum
+of one million pesos, of eight reales, and counterfeiting began to be
+practised on such a large scale that it was brought to the attention of
+King Philip IV., who ordered a rigorous investigation and decreed the
+death penalty against offenders. Several Spanish nobles were executed,
+including the chief assayer of the mint, and a command was given that
+all money held by private individuals as well as public officials
+should be presented for examination. Within five days the amount
+exhibited was thirty-six million pesos! Shortly after this episode a
+royal decree was issued for the coinage of money bearing the stamp of
+two columns, instead of a cross, but it was not until 1728 that a royal
+ordinance established the circular form of the money, its standard, and
+other important conditions necessary to a satisfactory basis of coinage.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_316">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_316.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FOUNDRY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The present Casa de Moneda was founded in 1753, and required twenty
+years for building, the cost amounting to nearly two million pesos. As
+materials were cheap and laborers were paid practically nothing under
+the <i>mita</i> system, this cost seemed incredible to the Spanish
+king, Charles III., who, when informed of the expense, exclaimed: “The
+building must be made of silver!” But the beams of <i>tipa</i> wood
+and crossbeams of cedar, which are as solid to-day as when put in
+place one hundred and fifty years ago, had to be brought from a great
+distance and with enormous difficulty. According to the chronicles of
+the period, there were single pieces of wood which cost two thousand
+pesos each for transportation. Roads were opened and levelled through
+the wild regions of eastern Charcas expressly for the purpose of
+providing a route to Potosí from the hardwood forests of Tomina and
+Orán, the latter being situated more than two hundred leagues distant,
+in the present territory of Argentina. Thousands<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span> of Indians were
+employed in the colossal task of constructing this large edifice,
+which is a marvel of solidity and endurance. It occupies a central
+locality in the city of Potosí, on the Plaza del Gato, and covers two
+squares. Built of solid stone and brick masonry, its dome and floors
+supported by beams of imperishable hardwood, it is as strong as a
+fortress, for which purpose it has been used many times in the history
+of the republic. The fiery orator Casimiro Olañeta called it, upon
+one occasion, “the Bastille of Bolivia,” a title which has clung to
+it with the persistence that is usually noted in the popular adoption
+of comparisons suggestive of classical associations. The first money
+coined in the new mint bore the bust of King Charles III. and the royal
+arms of Castile. The machinery used in this coinage is still to be seen
+in the museum of the mint, and is a curious collection of old wooden
+wheels, spikes, and beams. The machinery for pressing the sheets of
+silver to the required thinness before cutting out the coins is located
+on the second floor, and was formerly connected, on the floor below,
+with a treadmill which used to be worked by mules and Indians. The
+whole apparatus is of the clumsiest and most primitive description.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_317">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_317.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LA PAZ CUSTOM HOUSE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The mint of Potosí, as it is operated under the present government, is
+provided with modern machinery, the first purchase having been made
+during the administration of President Melgarejo in 1868, at a cost,
+it is stated, of three hundred thousand bolivianos. New machinery was
+bought in 1900, and an order was given still more recently for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span>
+purchase of apparatus necessary for the elaboration of the sulphides
+of silver and of the ashes and sand that result from the treatment of
+silver metal. All the machinery now in use in the mint was bought in
+the United States. Since 1857 no gold has been coined, and by a law
+passed in 1905 the English pound sterling is recognized as a standard
+of exchange for the value of twelve bolivianos and fifty centavos;
+but with the modern machinery, recently purchased, the government
+is prepared to renew the coinage of gold whenever it may be deemed
+advisable. Silver coins of fifty centavos and twenty centavos are the
+only moneys issued by the mint at present, though this is a temporary
+arrangement. During the year 1904 the coinage was eight hundred and
+sixteen thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven bolivianos. The total
+coinage of the mint, from its foundation to the present time, is one
+billion eight hundred million pesos, silver, and about five million
+pesos, gold.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_318">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_318.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TUPIZA CUSTOM HOUSE ON THE ARGENTINE BORDER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Outside of the section where the foundry is at work and where the
+machinery is whirring in the busy process of turning silver bars
+into half-dollars, or <i>medio bolivianos</i>, the Casa de Moneda
+suggests the events of a century ago rather than of modern activity
+and enterprise. The handsomely carved doorway is the work of artists
+of the eighteenth century, and the <i>patios</i>, of which there are
+several, are reminders of incidents that happened more than a hundred
+years ago. In the inner <i>patio</i>, an old sun-dial marks the site of
+the execution of Alonso Ibañez, one of the first patriots to die for
+the cause of liberty in the New World. Passages lead from this court
+to hidden recesses in the old building, some of them in a subterranean
+labyrinth of turns and windings that are hopelessly puzzling to the
+uninitiated. One cannot help speculating as to the possible uses
+to which these dungeon-like alleys may have been put in the urgent
+emergencies of revolutionary times, and a covered cistern built in the
+thick wall between two suspicious-looking cells suggests all kinds
+of weird and tragic scenes. The watchman of the mint says that the
+old building is known to very few, and that he himself finds passages
+which are new to him every time he makes a careful exploration. In the
+first <i>patio</i> a modern ornament, the work of an artist of fifty
+years ago, occupies a conspicuous position over the central arch. It
+is a huge, grotesque head, painted in vivid colors, and is said to
+have been placed there as a caricature in disrespect for one of the
+most radical of Bolivia’s presidents. It is the first object that is
+seen upon entering the main <i>patio</i> from the street, and is a
+conspicuously striking adornment. In the unused part of the mint, on
+the second floor, where the old machinery is preserved as a curiosity
+and a valued relic, the rooms remain much the same as they were when
+the noble officers of the Spanish king held sway as directors of the
+institution. There is something<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span> fascinating in the glimpses which
+the now deserted rooms afford of the character of those times, when
+this great establishment, which was maintained at the price of untold
+abuses and infinite intrigue, bore on every door some devout eulogy or
+prayer. <i>O dulce Virgo Maria!</i> is the pious sentiment still to be
+read over the entrance to the old stamping room, and <i>O clemens, ó
+pia!</i> marks the doorway through which the unfortunate Indians passed
+to work out their <i>mita</i> on the treadmill or at the furnace. Not
+less interesting is the library, in which are preserved specimens
+of the coins and medals that have been issued by the Casa de Moneda
+since its foundation. Around the walls hang old paintings which were
+presented to the mint by King Charles IV., said to be the work of
+famous painters of the Spanish court. Old parchments contain historical
+records of value, and there are a few relics of the earliest days of
+the first mint, though it is to be regretted that greater care has not
+been taken to preserve these priceless treasures.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_319">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_319.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ARGANDOÑA BANK, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>According to law, the boliviano is the standard of the national
+coinage. It weighs twenty-five grammes, contains three hundred and
+forty-seven and one-half grains of pure silver, and is worth one
+hundred centavos. But at present the silver money in circulation is
+represented only in pieces of fifty, twenty, ten, and five centavos,
+of a standard and weight in proportion to that of the boliviano.
+When at par, the boliviano is worth five francs. It is now worth
+about two francs. Exportation of silver money is free, but its
+importation is prohibited. No money is recognized as legal except
+that which is legitimately emitted by the state, in conformity with
+the existing laws. Banknotes, popularly called <i>billetes</i>,
+represent the equivalent of one, five, ten, twenty, fifty, and one
+hundred bolivianos. It is not unusual in La Paz and elsewhere to see a
+<i>billete</i> divided into halves to make change, though the halves
+are not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span> accepted by the banks, and serve only as a convenience in
+the use of small change. The amount of banknotes in circulation is
+estimated at a little over ten million bolivianos.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_320">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_320.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GERMAN-CHILEAN BANK, ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In order to increase confidence abroad and to promote economic
+advancement at home, the government of Bolivia is giving special
+attention to perfecting the monetary laws of the country. One of
+the most eminent authorities on Bolivian finance, Señor P. Beer,
+director of the German-Chilean bank, in La Paz and Oruro, who very
+kindly furnished the information which is here given on this subject,
+speaks in the highest terms of the favorable financial outlook for
+Bolivia. The recognition of the English pound sterling as a standard
+of exchange, equivalent to twelve bolivianos and fifty centavos is
+an important step, as formerly the variations in the price of silver
+caused considerable fluctuation in the value of the boliviano. It
+is obligatory to pay half of all duties in gold, or, if paid in
+silver, an increase of five per cent is charged to cover the cost
+of the importation of gold. Fluctuations in exchange have greatly
+diminished under the new law, having been reduced from three pence to
+one penny and a quarter within the year. Under the present rule, the
+minimum value of the boliviano is nineteen pence, the maximum twenty
+and one-fourth pence. This is regarded as the first step toward the
+introduction of the gold standard. The government is also considering
+various projects for improving the banking laws. The emission of the
+banks will be reduced and unified. When the Acre campaign exacted
+extraordinary expenditure on the part of the government, the necessary
+funds were secured by loans on the banks of the country. The National
+Bank of Bolivia, the Argandoña Bank, and the Industrial Bank of La Paz
+had the right to issue notes, or <i>billetes</i>, for the sum of their
+paid-up capital, on the condition that thirty per cent of the notes in
+circulation were covered by coin stored in their vaults. By a special
+law, these banks were authorized to increase their emission to one
+hundred and fifty per cent of their paid-up capital, and by this means
+they were able to provide the government with the funds necessary for
+the Acre campaign. In this way an internal debt was incurred, which at
+present amounts to a little more than one hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds sterling, covered by state bonds that are guaranteed by the
+income from the customs duties of La Paz, about eighty thousand pounds
+sterling annually. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span> bonds are amortised at six per cent, and the
+annual interest on them is ten per cent, this arrangement being carried
+out regularly twice a year, so that the debt may be considered as
+practically cancelled. Another internal debt, consequent upon the Acre
+campaign, consists of the pension roll, military salaries, indemnities,
+etc., and is met by bonds of the Compensacion Militar, of which
+twenty thousand pounds sterling are in circulation. Ten per cent is
+amortised and the bonds earn ten per cent interest annually. The part
+amortised is replaced by new bonds. Congress is at present occupied
+with an old internal debt, amounting to about three hundred thousand
+pounds sterling, which has not been entirely recognized, but which
+will be paid as far as justifiable, with the approbation of Congress.
+The municipal debts are confined entirely to private loans. La Paz is
+contracting a loan of forty thousand pounds sterling, with which to
+build new hospitals and to perfect the canalization of the city.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_321">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_321.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">NATIONAL BANK OF BOLIVIA, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Not only has Bolivia adopted methods for the improvement of the
+national finances, but by treaties with the neighboring republics,
+the government has recovered sovereignty over the import duties on
+products and manufactures from the republics of Chile and Peru. Both
+these republics formerly had the right to introduce their products and
+manufactures free of duties, by virtue of temporary treaties. Under
+the new treaties, Chile and Peru enjoy only the rights of favored
+nations in bringing in their merchandise. It is estimated that the
+increase in import duties arising from this arrangement will yield
+Bolivia at least eighty thousand pounds sterling annually. Under such
+auspicious circumstances the government is inaugurating a new era in
+commercial development. There are several reasons why the statistics
+of international trade give Bolivia a comparatively unimportant place
+among commercial nations. When the foreign trade of Bolivia passed
+through the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> ports of Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil, without a
+clearly defined law regarding the port privileges, the Bolivian exports
+were largely credited to these countries, a condition of affairs which
+can be corrected under the present system of customs regulations.
+Limited facilities for transportation have been responsible, in a
+great degree, for the lack of commercial enterprise which has hitherto
+retarded the progress of the country, but this drawback has also been
+overcome. Bolivia is no longer isolated from the rest of the world
+because of the great wall of the Andes which looms up on one side and
+the thousands of miles that stretch between it and the seacoast on the
+other, since the problem of rapid transportation has been solved by
+the inauguration of a complete system of railways. The importance of
+railway facilities in promoting commerce is shown by the history of
+the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway and the Guaqui and La Paz Railway.
+As previously stated, since the construction of the former line the
+shipments through the port of Antofagasta have increased seventy per
+cent, and after the line from La Paz had been in operation a year
+the statements of shipping showed an increase of fifty per cent over
+previous years.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_322">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_322.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">IMPORTING HOUSE OF MORALES AND BERTRAM, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Liberal conditions govern the international relations of Bolivia, the
+protective policy being moderate in the commercial system of this
+country. Foreign merchandise, whether from Europe, North America, or
+elsewhere, finds easy access to the markets here, and, in compensation
+for the difficulties of transportation, advantageous terms are made
+in the regulation of customs duties on goods of foreign manufacture.
+Bolivia imports, chiefly, all kinds of machinery, hardware, furniture,
+cotton and woollen goods, clothing, wines, spirits, canned goods,
+and provisions. Every article imported must pass through one of
+the Aduanas, or custom houses, of the republic, to be examined and
+subjected to the customs charges, unless exempt by special laws,
+such as govern the privileges of diplomatic representatives, who pay
+no customs duties. The scale of duties on goods imported is fixed
+every eighteen months, and rules from the date named by the national
+Congress. The annual imports amount to one million five hundred
+thousand pounds sterling in value, and the exports to two million five
+hundred thousand pounds sterling, according to the latest statistics.
+Peru takes first place in supplying the Bolivian market, with nearly
+one-fifth of all imported goods. Germany follows with eighteen per
+cent, England with seventeen per cent, and the United States with
+sixteen per cent. The chief exports are silver, tin, copper, bismuth,
+rubber, quinine, coca, and hardwoods. The mining industry provides
+about eighty-five per cent of Bolivian exports, and rubber constitutes
+the remainder, except about three per cent, which is represented in
+quinine, coca, and miscellaneous products.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_323">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_323.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">IMPORTING HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, CHALLAPATA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The principal shipping headquarters, in which are located the Aduanas,
+or custom houses of the republic, are: La Paz, Oruro, Uyuni, Tupiza,
+Tarija, Puerto Suarez, Villa Bella, Abuná, and the new Aduanilla, or
+minor custom house, of Iténez, at the confluence of the Rio Verde
+and the Guaporé, on the southeastern border of the Beni. The custom
+house of Guaqui, the chief Bolivian port on Lake Titicaca, has been
+removed to La Paz. The commerce through the custom house of La Paz
+last year amounted to nearly a million pounds sterling, and import
+and export taxes were collected in the sum of one hundred thousand
+pounds sterling, representing the most important share of the trade
+of the republic. The customhouse agencies of Port Pérez, Huaicho,
+Pelechuco, Desaguadero, and Copacabana are dependencies of the La Paz
+custom house. The Oruro Aduana is for the inspection of the commercial
+movement that passes through the Agencia Aduanera of Antofagasta.
+Last year’s report of the minister of finance shows the revenue from
+import and export taxes at Oruro to be about thirty thousand pounds
+sterling. Under the new treaty with Chile it is made possible to secure
+more accurate figures regarding the exports through Antofagasta, which
+are despatched from the Aduanas of Oruro, Uyuni, and Tupiza, as well
+as from the tax-collecting offices of Potosí and Chayanta. Oruro is
+the great exporting centre for silver and tin, which are produced in
+large quantities in this region. In addition to the Agencia Aduanera,
+or custom house agency, in Antofagasta, Bolivia has similar offices
+in the ports of Mollendo and Arica. The custom house of Uyuni, which,
+like that of Oruro, is one of revision, collects a storage tax that
+constitutes one of its important sources of revenue. Its record of
+commerce last year showed a notable increase over that of the year
+previous, amounting to eighteen thousand pounds sterling. The Aduana of
+Tupiza, near the Argentine border, secures its revenue chiefly through
+the exportation of national products and by tolls, the import duties
+amounting to about one thousand pounds sterling annually. Connected
+with this Aduana are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> the small stations, or <i>resguardos</i>, of
+Sococha, Talina, Estarca, San Pablo, Chaguana, Esmoraca, and Mojo, for
+the protection of trade on the Argentine frontier. A great deal of
+the commerce with Argentina, and, through its port of Rosario, with
+other foreign countries, passes through the custom house of Tarija and
+those of its dependencies, Salitre, Pulario, Padcaya, and Camacho, its
+total commerce for 1905 amounting to about thirty-five thousand pounds
+sterling.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_324">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_324.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STREET OF THE BANKS, SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The commerce of northern Bolivia which passes through Brazil is
+conducted chiefly by means of Aduanas and Aduanillas in the river
+ports of the upper Amazon. The chief of these is Villa Bella, at
+the confluence of the Beni and the Mamoré on the great Madeira
+River. It was established in 1880 as an Aduanilla and raised to the
+more important rank in 1886. The distance from this port to Pará,
+at the mouth of the Amazon River, is two thousand three hundred
+and seventy-three miles. Most of the commerce of the Beni and the
+Territorio de Colonias passes through Villa Bella, though since the
+recent boundary settlement with Brazil, the frontier port of Abuná, at
+the junction of the Abuná and Madeira Rivers further north, has been
+increasing in importance as a shipping port for this region.</p>
+
+<p>Eastern Bolivia has, in Puerto Suarez, a shipping place for merchandise
+destined for the Paraguay River ports and La Plata. It is a thriving
+town, situated on the western bank of the Paraguay, in the department
+of Santa Cruz, opposite the Brazilian port of Corumbá. The dependencies
+of the custom house of Puerto Suarez are La Gaiba, Marco, and San
+Ignacio, also on the Paraguay River. Ocean steamers ascend the river
+Paraguay as far as Puerto Suarez, and a regular line, that of the
+Lloyd-Brazileiro of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, has a weekly service to
+Corumbá, which is one of the principal Brazilian ports on the Paraguay
+River. With the completion of the new system of Bolivian railways,
+Puerto Suarez will become one of the most important commercial centres
+of the republic, as it is to be connected by rail with Santa Cruz and
+the Beni, a region rich in natural products. There is now a well-beaten
+road from Puerto Suarez to Santa Cruz, and surveys have been made for
+the proposed railway. The commerce which passes through Puerto Suarez
+is chiefly that of Santa Cruz and the Beni, and amounts to one hundred
+and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span> twenty-five thousand pounds sterling annually, of which two-thirds
+is represented by the export of rubber.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_325">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_325.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GUAQUI, ON LAKE TITICACA, ONE OF THE CHIEF SHIPPING
+PORTS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The commerce of Bolivia is conducted chiefly through large importing
+and exporting houses in the various cities, and the financial
+operations connected with it are carried on by means of banking
+institutions in these cities. In the smaller and more remote commercial
+centres the business houses are also banking agencies. The financial
+standing of these important establishments furnishes the chief index
+to the commercial prosperity of any section of the country. The oldest
+bank of the republic now in existence under its original charter is
+the Credito Hipotecario de Bolivia, which was established in La Paz
+in 1870. Its authorized capital is ten million bolivianos, subscribed
+capital two million bolivianos, and paid-up capital six hundred
+thousand bolivianos. The president, Señor Don Fermin Cusicanqui is also
+president of the Banco Industrial of La Paz, and is greatly esteemed
+as one of the leading financiers of Bolivia. The vice-president, Señor
+Don José Gutiérrez Guerra, to whose courtesy is due the acquirement
+of valuable data for this chapter, is prominent in financial circles,
+not only through his relations with this institution, but as one of
+the directors of the well-known bank of Crespo and Gutiérrez Guerra,
+of La Paz. The Credito Hipotecario de Bolivia has a branch office in
+Cochabamba. In consequence of a fraud perpetrated in the Cochabamba
+office a few years ago, which resulted in the loss of half a million
+bolivianos, this bank suspended the payment of dividends for a time,
+but the stockholders received eight per cent dividend for the last
+half-year of 1905, showing that the institution has recovered from the
+effects of its loss. The Banco Nacional de Bolivia, established in
+1871, succeeded the Banco Boliviano, the first in Bolivia. It is one of
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span> most important in the republic, and has a paid-up capital of three
+million bolivianos, with a reserve fund of nearly two hundred thousand
+bolivianos. In 1906 a mortgage section was established, for which the
+bank has a capital of one hundred thousand bolivianos. The dividends
+paid to stockholders in 1905 amounted to ten per cent. This bank
+has its headquarters in Sucre, with agencies in La Paz, Cochabamba,
+Oruro, Potosí, Tarija, and Tupiza. The Banco Francisco Argandoña, of
+Sucre, belongs to the Prince de Glorieta, the Bolivian minister in
+Paris, and, although it is constituted an anonymous society, all the
+shares are held by the Argandoña family, one of the richest in South
+America. The paid-up capital of this bank is two million five hundred
+thousand bolivianos. The principal agencies of the bank are located in
+Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, and Potosí. The head offices, both of the
+National Bank and the Argandoña Bank, are handsome edifices, situated
+in the Calle de los Bancos, or Street of the Banks, in Sucre. An
+important banking institution of Sucre is called the Banco Hipotecario
+Garantizador de Valores. It was established in 1887, and has a
+subscribed capital of one million bolivianos, with a paid-up capital
+of one hundred thousand bolivianos. In 1905 a dividend of twenty-nine
+per cent was declared on the paid-up capital. The emission of mortgage
+notes in circulation on December 31, 1905, amounted to five hundred
+and fifteen thousand three hundred bolivianos. These certificates bear
+an annual interest of ten per cent, and are quoted in the market at
+a premium of eight per cent. The Banco Industrial of La Paz does a
+very large business, especially in western and northern Bolivia. The
+authorized capital of this bank is four million bolivianos, its paid-up
+capital is one million five hundred thousand bolivianos, and the
+dividend paid in 1905 was fourteen per cent. It has branches in Oruro
+and Cochabamba.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_326">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_326.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PUERTO SUAREZ, ONE OF THE PORTS ON THE PARAGUAY RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Cochabamba, as the centre of a rich agricultural district, having
+extensive commercial relations, has several important banking
+institutions. The Banco Hipotecario Nacional, founded in La Paz in
+1890, has its headquarters in this city, where it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span> established in
+1903. The subscribed capital of this bank is one million bolivianos; it
+has a paid-up capital of one hundred thousand and guarantee and reserve
+funds of thirty-three thousand bolivianos. A dividend of twenty per
+cent was paid last year. One of the most recently established banks is
+the Banco Agricola, of La Paz, created by law in 1902, and opened on
+November 17, 1903. The authorized capital of this bank is two million
+bolivianos, the paid-up capital six hundred thousand bolivianos,
+the contingent and reserve funds eight thousand bolivianos, and the
+undivided surplus four thousand and forty-four bolivianos. Twelve per
+cent dividends were paid in 1905. The foreign banks of Bolivia are
+represented by the German-Chilean Bank, which has its Bolivian head
+office in La Paz and a branch in Oruro, and the Bank of Tarapacá, an
+English institution. The chief headquarters of the German-Chilean Bank
+is in Hamburg, the Bolivian agency having charge of all operations in
+this country, such as the arrangement of loans, the issue of drafts,
+letters of exchange, and similar business. There are several foreign
+life insurance companies that have agencies in Bolivia, chiefly
+Peruvian and Argentine enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial progress in Bolivia owes a great deal to the efforts of
+the commercial societies, which are generally composed of bankers
+and importers or leaders in industrial development. La Paz, Sucre,
+Oruro, and Tarija, each has a Camara de Comercio for the purpose
+of stimulating trade; Cochabamba’s Circulo Comercial has the same
+object in view; and the Junta Comercial é Industrial of La Paz seeks
+the advancement of both trade and industry. These societies work
+by methods similar to those of the various chambers of commerce in
+England and North America, and among their members are managers of
+foreign as well as native business houses. In all the larger cities
+the Germans have established themselves in business, either on their
+own account or as representatives of German houses. English, French,
+Italian, Spanish, and North American merchants are among the European
+residents of La Paz, Oruro, Cochabamba, Sucre, and Potosí, though the
+Germans are in the majority. The importing house of Bebin Brothers, in
+Challapata, supplies a large territory with European and North American
+goods. The Bolivian house of Morales and Bertram is one of the most
+important business establishments of Sucre, and the German importers
+of Cochabamba have a flourishing trade. There is a growing demand
+for North American goods, and it is now no unusual occurrence to see
+an advertisement of <i>articulos Norte-americanos</i> as an especial
+attraction. The firms of De Notta and of Harris and Company, in La
+Paz, deal extensively in North American novelties. But it is possible
+even here to make a hopeless search without finding some familiar
+articles, no especial effort having been made by North Americans to
+introduce their merchandise. They are, as a rule, less informed than
+the merchants of Europe regarding this country, and are far behind
+the Europeans in learning the commercial needs of the nation. The
+diplomatic and consular representatives of the United States accredited
+to South America have had very arduous duties to perform in their
+efforts to educate their own people regarding these republics in
+general. The American minister, now in La Paz, Hon. William B. Sorsby,
+has won the admiration and esteem of the Bolivians by his constant and
+unfailing devotion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span> to the task of making better known to the political
+and commercial world of the United States the actual conditions that
+govern Bolivia. The fact that sentiment is growing in favor of a
+better understanding between the countries of North and South America,
+and that trade between the two continents has increased twenty-five
+per cent in the past ten years, is largely due to the persistent,
+determined, and conscientious labor of the officials representing their
+governments in these countries. They have succeeded in overcoming, to
+some extent, the bad effects of sensational travellers’ tales founded
+on events of fifty years ago, and they are using their powerful
+influence to modify the prevailing ideas of the press, which still
+seems influenced by a tendency to draw imaginary pictures of thrilling
+social adventure and political pyrotechnics that are entertaining,
+perhaps, but not quite up to date. However, journalistic pride will
+not permit an antiquated idea to dominate beyond the period of its
+usefulness. Within a short time the world will see the newspapers of
+Europe and North America vying with one another to secure the account
+of the latest advance made in the political or intellectual progress of
+South America, instead of devoting sensational headlines to some stupid
+riot on a feast day, an event of no more importance than the average
+schoolboy’s row. Bolivia deserves that friendly judgment should be
+passed on the efforts her people are making toward national progress.
+Since the election of the present government nearly three years ago,
+its officers have worked in accord and with energy to promote the
+national welfare. Not a single change has been made in its Cabinet,
+though “ministerial crises” have been a conspicuous feature of several
+other South American governments. It is apparent to all who seriously
+study the tendency of affairs in this country that the prospect is
+bright for political and commercial progress, and that Bolivia is
+destined to occupy, one of these days, an important place among the
+great trading nations of the world.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_328">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_328.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE NATIONAL MINT, POTOSÍ. BUILT UNDER THE
+VICEROYALTY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_330">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_330.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">WOMEN EXPERTS SORTING ORES, HUANCHACA SILVER MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XX<br>
+<span class="subhed">CELEBRATED MINES OF BOLIVIA—THE CERRO DE POTOSÍ—HUANCHACA SILVER MINES</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_331">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_331.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ENTRANCE TO PULACAYO MINE, HUANCHACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Few events in the history of modern times have been so universally
+recorded as the discovery of the mines of Potosí. In the middle of
+the sixteenth century, when the ships of Spain arrived with the first
+treasure from the silver mountain, all Europe became interested,
+and excitement grew as the abundance of the marvellous Cerro proved
+apparently unlimited and inexhaustible. It became the theme of courtier
+and poet, and eclipsed every other event for a time. The victories of
+the Holy League, the proclamation of His Catholic Majesty’s coronation,
+and even more important occurrences of the latter part of the sixteenth
+century, were hardly welcomed with greater <i>éclat</i> than the
+announcement of a new cargo of treasure received from the American
+mines; and the fame of the wonderful land beyond the sea continued to
+increase, as each arrival of silver-laden ships brought fresh stories
+of the marvellous mountain called Potosí, out of which the precious
+white metal poured in never-ceasing streams. Fabulous tales and
+fanciful legends were related everywhere regarding this famous mine.
+All the world talked of its riches, poets wrote stanzas inspired by
+visions of its opulence, and lovers dreamed of bestowing its abundance
+on their dear ones. It was an extravagant serenader who offered his
+lady love the wealth of Potosí for a kiss:</p>
+
+  <div class="poetry-container">
+   <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="ileft">“Te diera, si me dieras</div>
+        <div>De tu linda boca un sí,</div>
+        <div>Las aromas de la Arabia,</div>
+        <div>El Cerro de Potosí.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span></div>
+      </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+        <div>[I would give, if you would give me</div>
+        <div>From your pretty lips a “yes,”</div>
+        <div>All the perfumes of Arabia,</div>
+        <div>The Cerro de Potosí.]</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+<p>At the time when Spain found her new treasure in America, chivalry
+had not yet lost its romantic influence and charm, and many a knight
+made his way across the sea and over the snow-covered passes of the
+Andes in search of adventure by which to prove his devotion, or,
+perhaps, to find riches that would mend a broken fortune and entitle
+him to sue for the hand of some noble lady of his choice. For, in the
+unwritten law of chivalry, poverty was counted, as it is to-day under
+a more modern code, if not a crime, at least a bar sinister on the
+escutcheon of sentiment. In the written romances of those days, the
+popular hero returned unexpectedly from Potosí with untold treasures,
+which he laid at the feet of the queen of his heart after destroying
+his rival and achieving renown by many brilliant deeds of valor. The
+author of <i>Don Quixote</i> naturally refers to Potosí as a synonym
+for fabulous wealth, and there was hardly a writer of the time who did
+not find occasion to use the name of the silver mountain to illustrate
+the idea of lavish abundance. The news that the city of Potosí, which
+received the name of Villa Imperial by order of King Charles V.,
+spent ten million dollars in the festivities of the coronation of
+his successor, Philip II., created no surprise, since millions were
+supposed to roll like pebbles into the lap of that famous city. A
+chronicler of the sixteenth century estimates at six million dollars
+the amount of the “royal fifth” paid in taxes annually, and, knowing
+the facilities that existed for evading the tax, he adds: <i>Y que
+seria lo que se dejó de quintar!</i>—“And what must that have been on
+which the ‘fifth’ tax was not paid!” Improbable as some of the stories
+related of the Cerro appear, there is more truth than fiction in the
+accounts of extravagance and luxury that have been handed down to us
+in the <i>Annals of the Imperial City</i>. It is recorded that the
+amount of silver which was taken out of Potosí from the date of the
+discovery in 1545 until the beginning of the nineteenth century was
+three billion three hundred and ninety-four million dollars, and a
+liberal estimate gives nearly four billion dollars as the total output
+of silver from the Cerro de Potosí up to the present day. Curious old
+documents relating to the history of this great silver mountain have
+been collected and published by Señor Don Vicente Ballivian y Rojas
+in a volume of fascinating interest. In one paragraph we are told
+that “in 1566 a Spanish noble, who was entering the Cotamito mine
+with his Indian laborers, stumbled against an object which proved to
+be a magnificent crucifix of pure silver, the arms and legs being of
+<i>rosicler</i>, evidently formed by nature under divine direction.”
+It became the subject of much speculation, and was held to be a sign
+that the powerful hand of God would work for the future prosperity of
+this particular mine. The crucifix was sent to Spain and placed in
+the church of San Agustin, of Barcelona. Another chronicle relates
+that one of the rich owners of the Cotamito mine, Don Antonio Lopez
+de Quiroga, paid in fifths to the King of Spain not less than fifteen
+million dollars. According to this authority, the great millionaire was
+once paying a visit to the viceroy at Lima, when an officer of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span>
+household remarked that the expenses of the viceregal establishment
+amounted to the exorbitant sum of four hundred dollars a week, which in
+those days was considered a great extravagance. “Well, I spend the same
+sum for candles in my mines of Potosí,” responded the visitor!</p>
+
+<p>For centuries Bolivia occupied third place among the silver-producing
+countries of the world, the annual production at one time amounting to
+ten million ounces of silver. Even with such an enormous yield, the
+mines were only superficially worked by very primitive methods; and of
+the ten thousand abandoned silver mines which are to be found scattered
+throughout the country to-day, not one was exhausted, the obstacle to
+continued production being in every case a lack of means to protect the
+mine from inundation, or insufficient capital to buy new machinery,
+etc., as was the case after the War of Independence.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_333">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_333.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PORCO, SITE OF THE OLDEST SILVER MINES IN BOLIVIA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>While the exploitation of the mines was at its height in the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries, the most absurd and fantastic extravagance
+prevailed; and no provision was made for a possible period of
+depression, which came later in the form of plagues, inundations, a
+lowering of the price of silver, increased cost of transportation, and
+similar contrarieties. Although the famous Cerro de Potosí no longer
+produces the enormous quantities of metal which history records of
+former days, it is not by any means exhausted, the value of the silver
+taken from its mines from 1895 to 1902 being nearly four million
+dollars in gold. It is claimed that about seven thousand mines have
+been opened in the Cerro since the discovery of its wealth, and the
+records show that up to the middle of the nineteenth century five
+thousand mines were registered as being in operation at some time on
+the famous mountain. About seven hundred are worked at present for
+both silver and tin, and five thousand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span> laborers are employed. The
+Cerro presents a unique spectacle as seen from a distance, towering
+behind the city in the shape of a carefully chiselled cone, of the
+dark red-brown color that suggests metallic composition, and marked at
+intervals all over its surface by gray and yellow patches that show
+where a <i>boca-mina</i>, or opening to a mine, is located. In the
+early hours of the morning when the Indians are on their way to work,
+the Cerro is alive with moving colors, the bright yellow, red, or
+green skirts and <i>ponchos</i> giving a kaleidoscopic effect to the
+scene. Both men and women work at the mines, the women being engaged
+in pounding and sorting the ore which is deposited in sheds for the
+purpose. Although most of the mines are located at an altitude of
+seventeen thousand feet or more, the people seem to be so accustomed
+to the rarefied atmosphere that they do not notice it, and it is a
+remarkable fact that at the altitude of twelve thousand five hundred
+feet at Lake Titicaca one suffers far more difficulty in breathing
+than at the much greater height of Potosí. There is something quite
+picturesque in the appearance of the Potosí miner, whose garb is a
+mixture of European and Indian dress, and even the little tallow dip
+which he wears in his cap attracts attention, not only by its shape,
+which is like a tiny tin jug with the wick lying over the spout, but
+because it is invariably ornamented by a small cross which stands up
+from the rim as a conspicuous adornment.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_334">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_334.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SILVER AND TIN MINES, REAL SOCAVÓN, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_335" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_335.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ESTABLISHMENT OF SOUX AND HERNANDEZ FOR VARIOUS
+TREATMENTS OF TIN ORES, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_336" style="max-width: 689px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_336.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ASSORTED TIN ORES FOR TREATMENT AT HUAYRA, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>A traveller riding up the winding heights of the Cerro de Potosí is at
+once struck by the prevalence of great masses of petrified lava that
+are seen everywhere around the base of the mountain, and at each turn
+the impression grows stronger that the huge pyramid, constituting a
+solid mass of metal, is an upheaval from the very centre of volcanic
+energy. Though the Spaniards mined only for silver, the Cerro contains
+also quantities of copper, iron, and lead, and it is to-day one of
+the chief centres of the tin-mining industry, which, by the enormous
+abundance of this important metal, promises to make Bolivia as
+famous commercially in the twentieth century as Alto Peru was in the
+sixteenth. Although only a few mines have been opened, Bolivia already
+ranks high among the tin producing countries, and new discoveries of
+the deposit are constantly being made. Many mine owners of Potosí are
+devoting special attention to the tin ores and are treating the silver
+production as of lesser importance for the time being until conditions
+become more favorable to resume this mining as the principal industry.
+There is an abundance of tin in the Cerro, where it is found in layers
+between the veins of silver, as, for instance, silver is found near the
+summit, then, lower down, there are tin mines, and below them again are
+veins of silver. The mines of the Real Socavón, or Royal Silver Mines,
+are located near the base of the mountain and yield both silver and
+tin. There are only two important mines near the foot of the Cerro,
+the Real Socavón, which is the property of an English company, and
+the Socavón Porvenir which belongs to Señor Don Juan M. Saracho, the
+Bolivian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span> minister of public instruction. These two mines perforate
+the mountain from east to west, having the great advantage that they
+cut through all the veins, which run from north to south. Though the
+work has been delayed through lack of sufficient capital and because
+of the more rapid returns which the mining of tin brings at present,
+they offer great promise with the investment of larger funds. The
+Royal Silver Mining Company owns, in addition to the Real Socavón,
+the old mines of Cotamitos, Forzados, and Candelaria, higher up the
+Cerro. In fact, nearly all the mines now in operation in Bolivia are
+the same properties as those worked under the Spanish viceroyalty,
+except that the present system is more modern and the mining is
+not so superficially conducted. The Real Socavón has all necessary
+conveniences for the work, such as a railway through the various
+galleries, and air tubes for ventilation. It is possible to ride on
+horseback through the principal corridors, so high is the tunnel. The
+rich vein in this mine produces daily three <i>cajones</i>, equivalent
+to five thousand pounds each, of silver metal of a standard of fifty to
+sixty <i>marcos</i>, a <i>marco</i> being equal to seven and one-half
+ounces troy, and about twenty per cent tin, and the output will be
+increased, with the completion of certain improvements, to eight to
+ten <i>cajones</i> of a standard of fourteen to fifteen <i>marcos</i>
+and eight to ten per cent of tin. The same process of treatment for
+extracting the silver and tin is in vogue in all the more important
+<i>ingenios</i>, or mining establishments, with variations according
+to the predominating quality of ores. When the ore is taken from the
+mine it is transferred to the furnaces or kilns, where the excess of
+sulphur is extracted, and the process of crushing facilitated. After
+being calcined in the furnace, the metal passes to the crusher, from
+which it is taken to another furnace to be chloridized. For very high
+grade ores, which show a large percentage of precious metal, smelting
+is the preferred process, but where the grade is lower the system of
+lixiviation or concentration is used, as in the <i>ingenios</i> of
+Velarde and Huayllahuasi, where both silver and tin ores are treated.
+These establishments, which are owned by Messrs. Soux and Hernandez,
+are worked in connection with the company’s mines, which are counted
+among the richest of the Cerro. In the <i>ingenios</i> of Bebin
+Brothers, known as Santa Rosa and Huayra, the smelting process is
+used in the former, and concentration in the latter establishment.
+The minerals from the mines of Señor Matias de Mendieta are treated
+by concentration, as are also those of the Ingenio San Marcos, owned
+by Mr. Robert Scott. In the establishment Quintanilla, the property
+of Señor Juan Rubarth, both smelting and concentration are used in
+the treatment of the ores.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span> These firms are all engaged chiefly in
+the exploitation of tin mines, but they regard the silver production
+as an assured source of wealth, only held in reserve for the time
+being, while tin is so much more in demand and brings better prices.
+Señor Don Juan Ugarteche, managing director of Bebin Brothers, mines,
+estimates the entire production of the Cerro de Potosí, at present, as
+four million bolivianos annually, and he places the gross average grade
+of the metals as twenty per cent pure, though he says a great deal of
+it is sixty per cent pure, and is exported to Europe without previous
+treatment of any kind.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_337" style="max-width: 701px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_337.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">BARS OF TIN PREPARED FOR SHIPMENT, MINES OF BEBIN
+BROTHERS, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>It is interesting to visit an <i>ingenio</i> and to follow the various
+methods by which the ore is treated before it comes out of the last
+ordeal a shining block of silver or tin, ready to be loaded on the
+backs of the mules, llamas, and donkeys, to be carried to the railway
+station or to the seaport of Antofagasta for shipment. The large sacks
+which contain ore to be shipped in crude condition, just as the mineral
+is taken from the mines, are sometimes loaded on muleback, but the
+square blocks, weighing about twenty-five pounds each, are generally
+carried by llamas. The courtyard of an <i>ingenio</i> presents a
+busy sight on shipping day. It is particularly entertaining to see
+the <i>arrieros</i> being photographed at the Huayra and Santa Rosa
+establishments before they set out with their cargoes. One after
+another, they face the camera, with their numbers held in plain view
+so that there may be no mistake. The purpose of this is to enable the
+company to identify an <i>arriero</i> in case of his absconding or
+deserting his cargo. There is no danger of his stealing the silver or
+tin blocks, but there is always the possibility that he may grow tired
+of his task before he gets to his destination, and leave cargo, mules,
+and llamas in the road while he seeks more congenial employment. By
+means of the photograph, such a delinquent may be easily traced; at any
+rate, it has proved to the employers an excellent system for keeping
+informed regarding the whereabouts and conduct of these Indians. The
+delinquents furnish a sort of “rogues’ gallery” as a safeguard to
+mining establishments. But usually the <i>arrieros</i> are faithful and
+dependable, arriving sooner or later at their destination, whether it
+is ten leagues or five hundred, no matter what may be the condition of
+the weather or the roads. They do not make record-breaking journeys, as
+the llama and the Indian have a common aversion to speed, the llama’s
+nine or ten miles a day being quite in accord with his driver’s ideas
+of pedestrianism. When noon comes the load is taken from the animal’s
+back, and he strolls away to find forage on the mountain sides, while
+his master stretches himself on the ground for a nibble at his handful
+of parched<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span> corn, after which he takes a siesta. It may be one hour or
+three before the caravan moves on, but nobody is disturbed about so
+trifling a difference in the schedule, and a few days more or less on
+the road are not to be considered. Naturally, the mining companies are
+glad to know that a system of railways will soon give them an improved
+freight service, but there will no doubt always be enough business to
+keep the llama and his driver as much occupied as these leisure-loving
+companions care to be.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_338">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_338.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CARTS OF SILVER ORE EN ROUTE FROM HUANCHACA MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The history of the discovery of the Potosí mines is associated with the
+records of the still older mines of Porco, which, tradition says, were
+discovered by the Inca Maita-Ccapac, when that great Peruvian emperor
+conquered the Charcas tribes, centuries before the Spaniards came to
+the New World. The annals of the Imperial City record that in 1462
+Huayna-Ccapac, while on his way to the mines of Porco, spent one night
+within view of the now famous Cerro de Potosí, and was so impressed
+by the belief that the great mountain contained riches in silver that
+he ordered his servants to go there and dig for the precious metal.
+In obedience to the royal command, they approached the Cerro and were
+about to begin their task, when a terrific peal of thunder held them
+spellbound, and a voice from the silence that followed called to them:
+“Touch not the silver of this Cerro, because it is for other owners!”
+Terror-stricken, the servants of the Inca fled, and, seeking their
+royal master, told him of the extraordinary occurrence, repeating
+the word <i>potojsi!</i> which is Quichua, meaning “it made a loud
+noise!” This story is another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span> instance of Garcilaso de la Vega’s
+picturesque philology, and its naïve transparency is like many other
+interpretations from his fanciful pen.</p>
+
+<p>The thunder that rolls over the Cerro de Potosí is sufficient to
+suggest the still, small voice forbidding approach even to-day, and
+there are few places on the globe where an electrical storm is more
+magnificent and startling. A less imaginative authority derives Potosí
+from a Quichua word, <i>potojchi</i>, meaning “fountain of silver.” It
+is further related that Atahuallpa, the last of the ruling Incas, who
+came to Porco to collect an army for the conquest of Chile, also passed
+the Cerro de Potosí, but did not approach it because of the command
+the mysterious voice had given to his royal ancestor. Yet it was an
+Indian, after all, who first discovered the precious silver of Potosí.
+A shepherd named Guallca, after searching in vain for hours to find
+one of his flock, caught the truant animal on the Cerro just as night
+came on. He tethered the sheep and prepared to spend the night on the
+mountain, lighting a fire to protect him from the bitter cold. The next
+morning he was surprised to see that a stream of silver had flowed from
+the place where the fire was built, and formed a white stripe on the
+dark red of the Cerro. The Indian reported the matter to the Spanish
+captain, Don Juan de Villarroel, who, in company with Don Diego Centeno
+and Don Alonso Santandia, founded the first mine in Potosí in 1545, the
+famous “Descubridora,” out of which fifty million dollars’ worth of
+silver was taken in an incredibly short time, and which continued for
+two centuries to be one of the richest mines in the world.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_339" style="max-width: 693px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_339.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LOADING TIN ON CARTS, MULES, AND LLAMAS, SOUX AND
+HERNANDEZ SMELTING FOUNDRY, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span></p>
+
+<p>If the Cerro de Potosí is noted as the site of the most famous silver
+mines of Alto Peru, Huanchaca can claim the honor of being the centre
+of the richest silver mines of Bolivia; for what the wealth of Potosí
+was to the viceroyalty, the enormous treasure of Huanchaca has been to
+the republic,—one of the most important sources of its revenue. And
+the Huanchaca mining company has been a potent agency in developing
+the industrial and commercial interests of the country, by taking the
+initiative in the construction of its railways, telegraph lines, and
+other public improvements.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_340">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_340.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VIEW OF HUANCHACA, CENTRE OF RICH SILVER MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The usual element of romance, which is associated with the discovery of
+mines everywhere, is not wanting in the history of Huanchaca, and the
+reward of long and patient search is as beautifully illustrated in the
+case of its discoverer as in the experience of other famous treasure
+seekers, to whom Fortune has come with her hands full of riches just
+as Fate was about to throw over them the pall of despair. Don Mariano
+Ramirez had been looking for gold and silver for twenty years before
+chance led him to the treasure which has made his name famous, and
+his discovery great, as one of the most important industrial events
+of the nineteenth century. Everyone who lived fifty years ago in the
+district of the now famous Huanchaca knew Don Mariano. He worked for
+years in the mines of Ubina, twenty leagues from Pulacayo, with little
+success, but with constant hope that some day would see the realization
+of his dream of discovering a rich vein. He won the devotion of the
+Indians of that region by his kindness to them, and there was not a
+native for miles around who would not run to do him a service. While
+his white companions made him the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span> butt of their jokes and ridicule,
+the Indians held him in the greatest respect and affection. Finally,
+one day, an old Indian woman, whom he had cured of a wound, sought him
+in his little hut at Ubina and told him that if he would follow her
+she would take him to a place where plenty of precious metal could be
+found, without the hard work that was killing her <i>patron</i> at
+Ubina. Don Mariano permitted himself to be conducted by her across the
+country, though secretly blaming himself for such absurd credulity,
+and frequently stopping to ask his guide where she was leading him
+and what reason she had for believing there was treasure there. At
+last, as they reached the heights of Pulacayo, she turned to him, and,
+pointing ahead, said: “Now, <i>patron</i>, you have only to go over
+there and begin to dig; you will find silver enough to build a city.”
+This occurred in 1837, and from that day Ramirez began to realize his
+fondest hopes, for all that the Indian had told him proved true. He
+died, however, without reaping the full reward which this great silver
+mine promised, and it was not until many years later, when the present
+Compañía Huanchaca de Bolivia was formed in 1875, that the mines began
+to yield the enormous riches which have made Pulacayo famous as the
+second silver-producing district in the world, Broken Hill, Australia,
+being entitled to preëminence.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_341a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_341a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">AQUEDUCT OF YURA, CARRYING WATER TO THE HUANCHACA MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_341b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_341b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GENERAL VIEW OF PULACAYO MINES, HUANCHACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Within the past quarter of a century these mines have given to the
+world nearly five thousand tons of silver, worth twenty-five million
+pounds sterling. The mountain from which this enormous wealth has been
+extracted is one of the scattered <i>cerros</i> apparently belonging
+to the Cordillera de los Frailes, near the southwestern border of the
+republic. The mining towns of Pulacayo and Huanchaca are situated on
+the opposite sides of the Cerro, at an altitude of fifteen thousand
+feet above sea level, and about nine miles in a direct line from Uyuni,
+where the Huanchaca railway forms a junction with the Antofagasta
+and Oruro line. A ride on the Huanchaca railroad is an experience to
+be remembered, as the train follows a succession of rapid curves,
+travelling fifteen miles on its circuitous route. The ascent is sharp
+in places, as Pulacayo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span> lies fifteen hundred feet higher than Uyuni.
+The road leads up the side of the mountain, through several cuts
+between great rocks twenty or thirty feet high, and at an elevated
+point it passes through one of the longest tunnels in the world, eleven
+thousand feet in extent, which required five years for building and
+cost over half a million bolivianos. The scenery is magnificent all
+along the route, a distant view southward showing the white summit of
+Chorolque against a blue sky, while a nearer prospect gives glimpses
+of the snow range of the Frailes and the brown slopes of lesser peaks.
+As soon as the present company was organized, the work of building a
+cart road from Huanchaca, where the <i>ingenios</i> for the treatment
+of ores from the mine of Pulacayo were then located, to Cobija on the
+Pacific coast, at that time a Bolivian port, was undertaken and carried
+to successful conclusion in a remarkably short time. The product of
+the mines was shipped to Europe from the port of Cobija until the War
+of the Pacific closed this outlet, and it became necessary to seek
+an Argentine port. With this object in view, the company constructed
+a telegraph line, the first in Bolivia, to connect Huanchaca with
+the official headquarters which were then in Sucre, extending it to
+Potosí and Tupiza, to facilitate communication with that section of
+the country and through Tupiza with Argentina. The company still owns
+this line, as well as an additional service to Ollagüe on the border of
+Chile, an extension, in all, of about five hundred miles. As soon as
+Bolivian traffic was reëstablished through Pacific ports, the Huanchaca
+company, realizing the necessity for railway transportation to the
+coast, began the construction of the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway,
+which, as previously stated, was sold later to an English company, with
+the exception of the branch from Uyuni to Huanchaca.</p>
+
+<p>About three years ago a decline in the price of silver obliged the
+Compañía Huanchaca to seek means of reducing the expense of exploiting
+and treating the minerals of Pulacayo, especially in the matter of
+fuel, as coal cost five pounds sterling per ton, and necessitated
+enormous expenditure for this item alone. At the same time that the
+decline of silver came to embarrass the operations of the enterprise,
+another calamity befell the company in the inundation of the principal
+galleries of the mine, and at one time the outlook was almost hopeless,
+the water invading depths of one thousand five hundred feet in some
+places. Apparently the only way to save the situation was by adopting
+electricity as a motor power; and this was done, the force being
+generated by means of water obtained from the Yura River, twenty
+leagues distant, and conducted through an aqueduct having a fall of
+thirty-five feet. Electricity equivalent to three thousand horse power
+was thus transmitted on three wires of one thousand horse power each,
+representing twenty-five thousand volts, and the problem of draining
+the mine and establishing it once more on a paying basis was finally
+solved. This electric installation ranks fifth in importance in the
+world, and is a credit to the enterprise of the company, which is shown
+also in many other modern improvements. A huge Corliss engine of one
+thousand horse power has recently been installed in the mine, with
+capacity to generate a sufficient current for the electric engines
+of the establishment; and when the Yura plant is not working, this
+machinery supplies all the force required. Another Corliss engine, of
+three hundred and fifty horse power, is used for compressing air with
+which to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span> ventilate the mines, and for hoisting purposes. Decauville
+electrical engines are used in some departments, and the machinery for
+illuminating the offices and mines by electricity is of the latest
+model and perfection. The machine shops and foundry are the largest in
+Bolivia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_343">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_343.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LAKE AND DAM IN THE CORDILLERA, SUPPLYING WATER TO
+HUANCHACA MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The automobile has invaded the Huanchaca mines; and although not of
+a boulevard model, it is quite as rapid a motor machine as the more
+ornamental specimens. Two North American ladies who visited the mines
+recently were taken into the interior in an auto, over more than
+two miles of tracks, the route leading through passages brilliantly
+lighted by electricity and built of solid stone masonry, constituting
+a succession of well-arched and well-ventilated tunnels. During this
+subterranean trip the party passed a little chapel in one of the
+galleries, in which is a silver image of Christ. It was touching to
+see the stolid miners remove their caps as they passed, none of them
+failing to show this mark of veneration for the sacred image. There are
+twelve miles of galleries in the mine, and nearly ten miles of rails.
+Seven shafts are used, of which some are a quarter of a mile in depth.</p>
+
+<p>About three thousand workmen are employed by the Compañía Huanchaca
+de Bolivia, and at least a thousand women are engaged in sorting the
+ores and arranging them according to quality and properties. It is
+marvellous how expert these women become in their tasks, and with what
+apparent indifference they toss the pieces of metal on one pile or
+another, chattering and gossiping with one another, and seeming not to
+take the slightest notice of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span> the kind of ore they are handling. Yet
+they never make a mistake, and the administrator of the mine says they
+are quicker than an experienced chemist in detecting different classes
+of minerals. They seem to enjoy their work, to which they have become
+so accustomed that they will sit for hours in the same position, on the
+ground, with their feet curled under them, scarcely moving except to
+reach for a piece of ore that has rolled away from the pile in front of
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Every system known in the modern treatment of minerals is used in the
+various <i>ingenios</i> of Huanchaca; and the electro-magnetic method
+of separation, which has recently been adopted, is probably the first
+of its class in the world installed on such a large scale as it is
+here practised. Formerly, the establishments of Huanchaca, Pulacayo,
+and Ubina smelted all the metal from the Pulacayo mines, but a few
+years ago a large <i>ingenio</i> for the smelting and amalgamation of
+the Pulacayo ores was opened at Playa Blanca, near Antofagasta, where
+machinery was set up on a magnificent scale, costing nearly half a
+million pounds sterling. The entire plant of the company represents an
+outlay of four million pounds sterling. The president, Señor Seneschal
+de la Grange, who lives in Paris, paid a visit to the mines last year,
+investigated the various institutions of the city of Pulacayo, as well
+as the mining establishments, and made a note of necessary improvements
+to be effected in the educational and charitable advantages offered the
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Ten thousand people live in Pulacayo, and are supported by the mine and
+the different industries connected with its exploitation. Everything
+in the city belongs to the Huanchaca company, and no one can live
+in the community without permission from this authority. All the
+officials of the municipality are appointed by the company, and every
+institution is under its direct supervision and government. There are
+several churches, schools, and hospitals, and the town has a good
+theatre. It is a typical mining town among the mountains, built like an
+amphitheatre on the slope of the Cerro, and the steep, narrow streets
+present a puzzling problem to the foreigner who makes a first attempt
+to scale their uncertain heights.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_344">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_344.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ARRIEROS PHOTOGRAPHED FOR IDENTIFICATION, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_346">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_346.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PRINCIPAL PLAZA OF POTOSÍ DURING A FEAST DAY
+PROCESSION.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI<br>
+<span class="subhed">POTOSÍ, THE FAMOUS VILLA IMPERIAL OF COLONIAL SPAIN—ONE OF BOLIVIA’S
+MOST PICTURESQUE CITIES</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">A brilliant past still casts its glamour over the historic city of
+Potosí. Romance lingers about its wonderful old palaces, fascinating
+in their antiquated style, with their exquisitely carved doorways and
+curiously wrought <i>miradores</i>. Unwritten history is suggested in
+every varying design, and in a thousand indefinable touches of the
+elaborate art that constructed them in centuries gone by. Imagination
+revelling in the presence of these charming old edifices, pictures
+with vivid pleasure the scenes and events of their past, long since
+forgotten by the people, except as preserved in many enchanting
+traditions. As the traveller rides up the steep, narrow streets,
+they appear silent and deserted, except in the main thoroughfare,
+where busy vendors exhibit their wares in gayly decorated booths
+in front of their little shops, and exchange the gossip of the day
+across the pebble-paved <i>calle</i>. The scarlet, yellow, and green
+<i>ponchos</i>, blankets of a gorgeous mixture in hue, and bright
+articles of every description, which hang outside the shops, give a
+welcome dash of color and warmth to the otherwise rather <i>triste</i>,
+though wonderfully picturesque, little city at the base of the great
+silver mountain. There is an attractiveness about it all which few
+cities of the New World possess. A heritage of fanciful legends and
+traditions, supported by artistic relics of architectural grandeur and
+historic records of daring patriotism, makes the quaint old town rich
+in treasure more valuable than the precious metal of its famous Cerro.
+There is hardly a house without its tradition, or some story of a great
+event which occurred on the spot where it is built.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_347">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_347.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MONUMENT OF LIBERTY, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the quaint fashion of the chronicles of the period, it is recorded
+in September, 1545, that Captain Villarroel, Don Diego Centeno, and
+other Spanish nobles founded the city of Potosí, and that “the building
+continued so rapidly the two following years that houses were put up
+without digging proper foundations or levelling the streets,” which
+is not surprising when one reads that the population increased by
+twelve thousand inhabitants during that short time. One of the first
+large edifices completed was the cathedral in 1547, the churches of
+San Francisco, San Lorenzo, and Santa Barbara being constructed the
+following year. The interesting chronicle gives a chapter to the story
+of the miraculous arrival at the church of San Francisco, the same
+year, of the image of the Holy Christ of the True Cross. To use the
+enthusiastic description of the chronicler: “That wonder of sculpture,
+that prodigy of marvels, that amazing power of miracles, that true
+father of mercies, from which Potosí experiences singular and daily
+favors, I say, and I do declare it once for all, the Holy Christ of
+the True Cross, appeared in the door of San Francisco, without anyone
+knowing whence it came, who sent it, or who brought it hither; it was
+found in a box in the form of a cross, and, as I say, without its being
+known whence it came or who was the artificer, though it appears not
+to have been made by human hands, for it is all a miracle. In this way
+was it found, though it is said by some that it was first discovered
+in one of the ports of the Indies, with an address on the box which
+read ‘for San Francisco de Potosí.’” As stated elsewhere, the literary
+chronicles of those days were chiefly the work of the clergy, which no
+doubt accounts for the importance given to this event, only one of many
+of like character.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_348">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_348.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE IMPERIAL CITY OF POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_349a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_349a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CITY HALL, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_349b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_349b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PICHINCHA PLAZA, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Within five or six years after the city of Potosí was founded, the
+fame of the Cerro began to bring fortune seekers and all classes
+of adventurers from Europe, while the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span> importance of his Catholic
+majesty’s possessions here required that the highest representatives of
+the government should be sent to supervise the collection of the royal
+funds. Spanish nobles were charged with the management of the royal
+treasury and the mint in the new country, and their residence in Potosí
+made that city the centre of great display and luxury. Magnificent
+palaces were built, special architects being brought from Spain to
+superintend the construction, and, in recognition of the importance
+of the new city, the Emperor Charles V. bestowed upon it the title of
+Villa Imperial de Potosí. In 1565 Philip II. presented the city with a
+coat of arms, representing the royal arms of Spain on a silver field,
+an imperial eagle; in the middle of this were two castles and two lions
+counterpoised; and marking the centre of the royal arms was the great
+Cerro de Potosí; the <i>ne plus ultra</i> column appears on each side;
+the imperial crown is the crest, and the columns are ornamented by the
+Collar of the Golden Fleece. The wealth of the city grew so rapidly
+that the extravagance of its citizens became renowned throughout the
+world. The most ordinary utensils for household use were made of silver
+wrought in exquisite designs. A lady’s gown cost five thousand dollars,
+which, three centuries ago, was not the dressmaker’s bagatelle that
+it is to-day, but represented a very fine fortune; Queen Isabella was
+thought recklessly munificent when she spent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span> twenty thousand dollars
+on the fleet that brought Columbus to America. There were some Lucullan
+feasts in the city of the Cerro in those days, if the chronicles are
+to be relied upon which tell us that gay companies of revellers drank
+whole casks of wine at a supper and paid for their patrician taste at
+the rate of thirty dollars a bottle. When in 1559 the news arrived that
+the Emperor Charles V. was dead, the city became as extravagant in its
+grief as it had been in revelry, and the royal obsequies which were
+celebrated in the church of San Francisco cost one hundred and fifty
+thousand dollars, which the record says “is not surprising, as wax
+candles cost twelve dollars a pound.” There appeared to be something
+intoxicating in the atmosphere of so much wealth, and the people lived
+in an excitement of spendthrift follies that verged on mania.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_350">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_350.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL STREETS OF POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_351">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_351.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STREET SCENE SHOWING CERRO DE POTOSÍ IN THE DISTANCE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Potosí had its astrologers, the same as the European courts in those
+days, and when the mines failed to yield their usual amount, or plagues
+afflicted the people, as was the case in the sixteenth century, these
+wise men were called upon to “read the stars.” The <i>Anales de la
+Villa Imperial de Potosí</i> gives an entertaining paragraph from
+one of the chief astrologers: “In 1555 the influence of the planets
+Jupiter and Mercury dominate Potosí, the latter inclining the people
+to prudence and intelligence in their manners and business affairs,
+while Jupiter makes them magnanimous and liberal in spirit. The signs
+Venus and Libra incline those born in Potosí to be affectionate and
+fond of music and feasting, as well as devoted to the acquisition of
+wealth and the affairs of gallantry.” Evidently the astrologer knew his
+Potosí! Less lenient are the judgments passed upon the pleasure-loving
+Spanish nobles of Potosí by some authorities, who condemn their
+cruelty to the unfortunate Indians, and their reckless contempt for
+all social laws. The mediæval practices of jealous knights, which
+were beginning to fall into disrepute at that time in Europe, reigned
+in all their intensity in the city of the Cerro, and the priest was
+constantly being dragged from his convent, blindfolded and tied,
+and taken to the Palacio Encantado of the Knights of Santiago, or
+to some other remote and lonely palace to shrive the unhappy victim
+of a tragic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span> crime. But those were the darker features of life in
+the imperial city, and they gradually faded out as the laws became
+better established. The great Viceroy Toledo, who visited Potosí in
+1573 did much to advance the well-being of the city and to correct
+the abuses of his too powerful countrymen. He ordered the streets
+widened and the city divided into separate quarters for the Spaniards
+and the Indians. As may be imagined, the viceroy’s visit was the
+occasion of splendid <i>fiestas</i>, pageants and banquets succeeding
+one another for fifteen days without intermission. It was soon after
+his departure that the feud between Vascongado and Vicuña began to
+threaten the peace of the community, and it developed rapidly into a
+terrible war. The Criollos of Potosí joined the Vicuñas, and the last
+few years of the century saw many sanguinary battles between the two
+forces. Their hatred of each other became a motive of rivalry even
+in the <i>fiestas</i>. A description of one of these entertainments,
+as given in the chronicles of the period, reads like a tale of the
+Middle Ages: “The sports began with six days of comedies, eight of bull
+fights, three of soirées, two of tournaments and other <i>fiestas</i>;
+six nights were given up to the masquers, the Potosinos appearing in
+magnificent style, their persons and horses covered with jewels and
+precious stones. The master of ceremonies for the award of premiums
+was Don Francisco Nicolás de Arsans, a Knight of Calatrava, and
+grandson of the Duke of Alba, a young man whose income represented
+more than five million dollars. On the day of the contest of skill,
+Don Francisco, accompanied by forty young nobles, rode into the plaza,
+where the spectators were assembled, mounted on a magnificently
+caparisoned horse, wearing over his armor a cape embroidered in blue
+damask and sprinkled with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds; his plumed
+helmet glittered with jewels. In his right hand he carried a lance,
+and in the left a shield on which was painted his coat of arms, also
+richly jewelled, with the device <i>Desde el Alba vine aqui</i>. His
+saddle was of finely wrought gold, as were his stirrups, and the bridle
+was made of ropes of pearls. His followers, all young scions of the
+highest nobility of Spain, among whom were Don Severino Columbus,
+great-grandson of the discoverer of America, and Don Nicolás Saúlo
+Ponce de Leon, of the ducal house of Arcos, were richly dressed
+and rode splendid chargers, which were caparisoned in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span> the same
+costly style as that of their leader.” The grandest spectacle of the
+<i>fiestas</i> was the parade on the final day. All around the main
+plaza, now called Pichincha Plaza, were arranged tiers of seats for
+the spectators, who represented the wealth and fashion of what was at
+that time one of the richest cities in the world. An enormous fortune
+was displayed in the prizes alone, which were borne to the plaza in
+a gilded coach drawn by two milk-white ponies, “glittering with the
+costly jewels and precious stones that were to be awarded as premiums.”
+The procession eclipsed anything of its kind seen nowadays in elaborate
+style and costliness. First came twelve arquebusiers in scarlet, then
+twelve mousquetaires in Holland cloth bordered with white points, after
+which the triumphal car of gilded silver appeared, drawn by eight
+black horses, in the midst of which was a dais of silver, surmounted
+by a throne of ivory. On the throne was seated the young master of
+ceremonies, wearing over his armor a rich Roman toga, bordered in gold,
+silver, and precious stones; on his head was a wreath of emeralds,
+signifying the laurels of victory; the Cross of the Order of Calatrava,
+which he wore on his breast, was of priceless rubies. Following the
+triumphal car came twelve cavaliers dressed in dark green, riding
+horses of different colors, but all gorgeously caparisoned in gold
+and silver. After these horsemen followed the other participants in
+the parade, each bearing some symbol or emblem of his profession in
+gold, silver, or jewels. Don Severino Columbus appeared with a globe
+of silver; young Ponce de Leon, a Knight of Santiago, bore a silver
+image of the Cerro de Potosí; and another young nobleman’s exhibit
+was a unique representation of the Cerro in an electrical storm, with
+the sound of thunder and the play of lightning and hail ingeniously
+described. Millions of dollars were spent in these <i>fiestas</i>,
+the chief object of which was to give the Criollos an opportunity to
+break lances with the Vascongados. One of the bitterest fights ever
+waged between the rival parties arose out of a tourney between Don
+Nicolás Saúlo Ponce de Leon, a Criollo born in Potosí, and Don Sancho
+de Mondragon, a Vascongado, for the hand of a beautiful girl, Margarita
+de Ulloa, who loved Don Nicolás, but had been betrothed to Don Sancho
+against her will. In the tilt, Don Nicolás defeated not only the fiancé
+of his beloved Margarita, but also one hundred of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span> opponent’s
+followers successively; after which he seized his beautiful sweetheart,
+lifted her to his saddle, and fled with her to Chuquisaca. The story
+of the fleeing lovers, the pursuit by the defeated Don Sancho, the
+sanguinary duels that followed, and the final successful appeal of the
+lovers to the Viceroy of Lima, is one of the most thrilling romances
+of colonial Spain. And it is of peculiar historical interest, since
+the union of a Criollo with the daughter of a Vascongado resulted in a
+later reconciliation between the two parties, at least for a time, and
+the Criollo’s triumph had its influence in shaping political affairs in
+favor of the party which afterward won the independence of the American
+colonies from Spain. As it is seen, a woman had no small share in
+bringing about that portentous event.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_352">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_352.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">OLD COLONIAL DOORWAY OF THE MINT, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>With the War of the Independence, and even preceding that time, the
+riches of Potosí began to decline and the city gradually lost its
+magnificence. From a population of more than one hundred and fifty
+thousand inhabitants, the life of the silver capital dwindled until
+its population became less than it is at present, about twenty-two
+thousand inhabitants. But the spirit of the patriotic Criollo never
+died out; and in the long War of the Independence some of the bravest
+fighters were the Potosinos, who spared nothing to achieve the freedom
+of their beloved country. A beautiful story is told by “Brocha Gorda”
+of a Potosí heroine who saved the life of the great Bolivar from
+a premeditated attack of the royalists on the night of his famous
+ascent to the Cerro to plant on its highest peak, nineteen thousand
+feet above the sea level, the sacred standard of liberty. Thanks to
+her watchfulness and warning, the liberator was enabled to outwit his
+enemies and to leave the city without being harmed.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_353">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_353.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CERRO DE POTOSÍ, OVERLOOKING THE CITY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In the early days of the republic the people of the city of the Cerro
+played an important rôle in political affairs, and Potosí was the scene
+of some of the most notable struggles in the history of the nation.
+Near this city the celebrated Argentine general, Don Bartolomé Mitre,
+who had charge of the Military College of La Paz under General José
+Ballivian’s administration, defeated the revolutionary forces arrayed
+against the government, in recognition of which he received a handsome
+shield and the title of “Well-deserving of the country in heroic and
+eminent degree.” The same distinguished soldier and scholar was later<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span>
+imprisoned and banished by Belzu, during a period of rapid changes in
+government, when Potosí was the chief theatre of revolt. While prefect
+of the department, General Campero was seized by the revolutionists
+and was only at the last moment rescued from the scaffold, where he
+was about to be put to death because at the command of the invading
+forces he refused to give up his authority and the protection of the
+National Mint. Many of the most celebrated statesmen of the republic
+have been natives of Potosí, which gave to Bolivia the famous dictator
+Dr. José Maria Linares, the ideal patriot Don Tomás Frias, and other
+great leaders. Among its prefects who have contributed not only to the
+progress of their own departments, but to the lustre of the national
+fame, are such distinguished men as Don Casimiro Olañeta, Don Aniceto
+Arce, Don Manuel José Cortés, Don Juan Crisóstomo Carrillo, Don Modesto
+Omiste, General José Manuel Rendón, Don Demetrio Calbimonte, and Don
+Carlos Torrico, all of whom are known in diplomacy and letters, as
+well as for their executive ability. The present <i>intendente</i>
+of Potosí, Señor Don Luis Subieta S., is a clever writer and an
+acknowledged authority on the history of Potosí, to which he has
+devoted years of careful study and research.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_354">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_354.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THERMAL SPRINGS OF TARAPAYA, NEAR POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Although the city of Potosí does not display the splendor of the former
+Villa Imperial, it has many attractive features, and is, altogether,
+extremely picturesque. The ruins of colonial temples and palaces are
+marvels of preservation, considering the centuries that have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span> passed
+since their construction, one of the most famous being the tower of
+the old Jesuit church, known popularly as the Torre de la Compañía. It
+was built in 1590, remodelled in 1700 by a wealthy miner, Don José de
+Quiroz, who spent a fabulous fortune in works of pious devotion. At his
+own exclusive expense, the altar of the Church of Mercy was gilded. He
+rebuilt the principal chapel of the convent of San Agustin, constructed
+two subterranean vaults and a magnificent altar, and for the rebuilding
+of the Jesuit tower he paid more than forty thousand dollars. The tower
+is built of stone and is divided into three sections, of which the two
+upper ones have seventeen niches for bells and a clock. The tower is
+about sixty feet in height, and is adorned on both sides with handsome
+columns. The capitals, architraves, and cornices are exquisitely
+carved. In the frieze of the entablature is carved in high relief the
+inscription “Praised be the most holy Sacrament of the Altar.” In
+addition to the Jesuit tower and the marvellously carved doorways of
+San Lorenzo and other old temples, the palace of Don José de Quiroz
+is hardly less an object of interest, though it has been divided up
+into many small houses; and the great stone doorway, above which the
+coat of arms of Quiroz, chiselled in marble, may still be seen, now
+marks the entrance to a humble bakeshop. The penitentiary in which the
+unfortunate Indians were punished, is now a mass of forbidding ruins,
+but it serves to recall the stories one has heard of the cruelties of
+the <i>mita</i> system.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_355">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_355.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ARTIFICIAL LAKE OF SAN SEBASTIAN, NEAR POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The modern attractions of Potosí consist in its spacious and
+picturesque plazas and its public buildings. Plaza Pichincha, which
+is a favorite resort at all times, presents a particularly brilliant
+scene on feast days. On occasions of religious celebrations the
+entire community flocks to the plaza, from which the processions may
+be witnessed to the best<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span> advantage, as they leave the cathedral.
+The centre of the plaza is adorned by a handsome monument erected
+to commemorate the Independence. Facing this square are several of
+the most important public buildings, such as the City Hall and the
+celebrated Pichincha College, which was founded in 1826 by General
+Sucre and restored later by General Belzu. It is one of the most
+notable edifices of the city. The public library and museum are of
+especial interest for the splendid old volumes and several notable
+pictures to be seen there. An oil painting of Don Antonio Lopez de
+Quiroga, the first millionaire of the Cerro, and founder of the
+Franciscan Convent of Potosí, occupies a conspicuous place, though the
+position of honor is given to a painting of the Spanish King Charles
+III., which was ordered to be executed for the occasion of that
+monarch’s acclamation in 1760. Potosí has a social club, entertainments
+being given from time to time under its auspices.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_356a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_356a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COMMERCIAL HOUSE OF BEBIN BROTHERS, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_356b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_356b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">BREAD VENDOR, POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>On a fine day, when the air is clear and the sky wears a deep,
+beautiful blue, such as is seen only at great altitudes where the
+variety of the atmosphere gives it a peculiar brilliancy, the most
+delightful pastime is a ride on the heights around the city, first, of
+course, to the famous Cerro and then to other points of interest in the
+neighborhood. Hours may be spent enjoyably in visiting the artificial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span>
+lakes, which were built by the Spaniards for the purpose of securing a
+constant and permanent water supply for the <i>ingenios</i>, and which
+are still in use. The enormous scale on which these establishments
+were conducted may be judged from the statement that they extended
+in a continuous line from the upper part of the city to a distance
+of more than a league below it. From the artificial lakes above came
+surging down the mountain side the great stream of water, equivalent to
+a river in volume, which, after flowing through these <i>ingenios</i>
+to operate the machinery and wash the metal, was so deeply colored in
+transit that it carried a rich red tide all the way to the Pilcomayo,
+leagues below, into which it was discharged. The work of building the
+lakes was begun in 1574 and completed in 1621 at a cost of two million
+five hundred thousand dollars. The first to be finished were those
+of the Cerro of Cari-cari, called San Ildefonso and San Pablo, after
+which followed San Sebastian, Illimani, and the rest, thirty-two in
+all, though only twenty-two remain. The largest of these is Chalviri,
+three miles in circumference, and about thirty feet in average depth,
+which is filled with water six months of the year and supplies the
+city fountains as well as the mining establishments. The lakes are
+all located at great altitudes, those of Illimani and San Sebastian
+being sixteen thousand feet above sea level, and they are surrounded
+by a series of walls, the first of which is of stone, to receive the
+shock of the suddenly checked torrent which pours into the lake from
+the neighboring summits. The second wall is of clay, the third of
+limestone, and the fourth and fifth are of limestone and clay, the
+thickness of the five walls being from thirty to forty feet. A system
+of ditches connects the lakes with one another, and the water is
+brought down to the city through a conduit more than fifteen miles in
+length. By the system in use at the present time, each of the lakes has
+a sluice which controls the amount of water discharged from it. San
+Sebastian is the receiving medium for the water from all the lakes, and
+from it the current is carried down to the city, as required.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_357" style="max-width: 659px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_357.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ARTIFICIAL LAKE ILLIMANI, SIXTEEN THOUSAND FEET ABOVE
+SEA LEVEL, NEAR POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Before the artificial lakes of Potosí were constructed, the problem of
+supplying water for mining establishments was brought to the attention
+of the Viceroy Toledo, as up to that time it had been necessary to
+use the most inadequate machinery, worked by Indians and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span> mules,
+in pulverizing the metals. The viceroy, in company with leading
+miners, reconnoitred the neighboring country, and decided that the
+<i>quebrada</i> of Tarapaya offered the only solution of the question,
+as here was abundance of water. Accordingly, the first <i>ingenios</i>
+were established in this cañon, twelve miles west of the city. The
+fame of Tarapaya antedates that of the Cerro de Potosí, its marvellous
+thermal springs having been a favorite resort long before the Spaniards
+came to America. The principal spring is a deep, round pool, which has
+been called the “swallower of men,” because of the many drowned in its
+deceptive depths. Maita-Ccapac, when on a visit to the mines of Porco,
+stopped at Tarapaya, and first made the spring famous by giving it the
+royal favor. He beautified the place, making the spring a perfectly
+circular lake, as it remains to this day. The thermal waters in the
+vicinity of Potosí are of a very healthful quality, and wonderful cures
+have been effected at Miraflores and Don Diego, and other springs.</p>
+
+<p>Potosí is on the direct transportation highway northward and
+southward, and by the system of railways under construction it will be
+connected with all the chief cities and brought several days nearer
+the coast. Then every tourist to South America can visit the famous
+Cerro and enjoy one of the grandest sights in the whole realm of
+Nature, as unfolded to view from its heights. At one’s feet lies the
+quaint old city, with its Spanish <i>calles</i> and its picturesque
+<i>miradores</i>, its colonial ruins and the more modern edifices,
+and beyond, the view appears to stretch to infinity; far away is the
+scintillating Cordillera de los Frailes, reflecting the sun’s rays as
+if every separate peak were a huge diamond flashing under the strong
+white light; nearer are the peaks of the many <i>serranias</i> that
+cling like fringe to the great Royal Range. Wherever the gaze is
+turned, the vision is a succession of mountain summits, purples, dark
+reds, lighter grays, and snow white. There is still another potent
+attraction—the kind and hospitable people of Potosí have a pleasant
+welcome for all who visit their city.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_358">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_358.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COAT OF ARMS OF POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_360" style="max-width: 679px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_360.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COROCORO, CENTRE OF THE GREATEST COPPER MINES IN SOUTH
+AMERICA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXII<br>
+<span class="subhed">RICH SILVER, TIN, AND COPPER MINES OF WESTERN BOLIVIA—MINING LAWS</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_361">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_361.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">IN THE HEART OF THE COROCORO COPPER REGION.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Though the fame of Bolivia as a mining country has been gained chiefly
+by the enormous production of the Potosí and Huanchaca silver mines,
+these colossal treasures do not by any means represent all the mineral
+wealth stored in its mountains and carried down its streams. Almost
+every known metal exists in some section of the country, and silver,
+tin, and copper are found in several districts that have become
+celebrated, and rank among the richest in the world. Colquechaca
+silver, Oruro tin, and Corocoro copper are known in all the great
+markets and represent the best quality of these valuable metals to
+be found. The geologic formation of a country so noted for valuable
+ores is interesting for the relation it bears to these deposits. Of
+the mountain systems, which are its chief feature, says an eminent
+authority, the Coast Range is essentially volcanic, tertiary formations
+are met with on the high plateau between the Coast Range and the
+Cordillera Real, and the latter, on the eastern side, presents a
+vast extent of Silurian slates and shales, usually tilted at high
+angles and frequently bent and distorted. Fossils are scarce, though
+the ancient ripple and rain marks are extremely clear and abundant.
+Trilobites are met with in the valleys to the southeast of La Paz.
+The carboniferous system appears to exist along the extreme east of
+the Andes and indications of petroleum are met with at various points
+in the foothills. Along the southern part of the plateau there is an
+extensive formation of trachytic porphyry which appears to have been
+ejected and to have spread over the older rocks. The ravine in which
+the city of La Paz is situated cuts through and exposes a horizontal
+layer, some twenty feet thick, of volcanic ashes with fragments of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span>
+pumice stone, evidently deposited under water although it is now
+buried some six hundred feet below the surface of the plains; further
+south this layer crops out at various points and is visible for some
+seventy miles. Probably it was ejected from the Sajama and neighboring
+volcanoes at the time when the great lake, of which Titicaca and Poopo
+are the surviving features, occupied the entire plateau. Eruptions of
+porphyritic and other igneous rocks are seen at many points along the
+eastern side of the tableland, breaking through and distorting the
+older shales and slates and forming a distinctive feature of all the
+silver and tin mining centres.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>serrania</i> in which the silver mines of Colquechaca are
+located is in the heart of one of the richest mineral regions of
+the globe. Colquechaca is the provincial capital of Chayanta in the
+department of Potosí, and is situated midway between the railroad town
+of Challapata and the city of Sucre. It has been a mining centre for
+hundreds of years, though under Spanish rule the mines were worked only
+in a superficial and primitive way; and when the War of Independence
+put a stop to all mining industry, they were abandoned, as were nearly
+all the great mines of the country. About twenty-five years ago the
+exploitation of the Colquechaca minerals was established on a practical
+and permanent basis, and since that time the mines have yielded nearly
+a hundred million bolivianos. The Colquechaca silver ores yield in some
+instances two thousand seven hundred ounces to the ton, these mines
+being renowned throughout the world for the high-grade <i>rosicler</i>,
+which is found in abundance. The Compañía Colquechaca Aullagas
+de Bolivia is the principal owner of the mines of this district,
+controlling six <i>socavones</i>, in which several miles of railway
+are operated, equipped with freight cars for hauling the metal out of
+the mine. A traction engine and a Cornish pump have been established,
+and the company has four steam engines and two foundries in connection
+with the mines. The ores are treated in the <i>ingenios</i> of Rosario
+and Palca. Since the closure of the Indian mints to the free coinage
+of silver in 1893, and the consequent heavy fall in the price of the
+metal, Colquechaca has been worked for other metals as well as silver,
+the production of this mineral being necessarily reduced. The same
+circumstances have prevailed in nearly all the silver-mining districts,
+though the metal is still produced in considerable quantities in Cinti,
+Porco, Portugalete, Andacaba, and other well-known silver mines. It is
+probable that with the completion of the railway system, the improved
+facilities for transportation will revive this industry throughout the
+whole country with wonderful results.</p>
+
+<p>At present, Bolivia is gaining worldwide fame by the enormous quantity
+and excellent quality of tin which the country produces. This metal
+has not as yet been found anywhere in the Coast Range of the Andes,
+but it abounds in the Royal Range. Mr. John Minchin, an authority on
+everything connected with Bolivian mines, says that ores running as
+high as forty or fifty per cent of fine tin are not uncommon, and under
+favorable circumstances as low as three per cent may be worked to a
+small profit, but the average contents in fine tin of ores worked by
+the larger enterprises may be estimated at from eight to ten per cent.
+Ores worked more especially for silver also frequently contain from two
+to five per cent of tin oxide, which in such cases is cheaply extracted
+from the tailings resulting from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span> amalgamation or lixiviation. Water
+power is scarce on the plateau, and, in consequence, steam power is
+employed in the mining establishments, native fuels being chiefly used,
+as coal costs eight pounds sterling per ton at the railway stations.
+Of late years several anthracite producer gas engines from the Deutz
+works, in Germany, have been introduced, with very satisfactory results
+as regards economy, the working cost being about twopence per horse
+power, as compared with threepence for native fuel and fourpence to
+fivepence for steam coal. “In spite of all the care at present possible
+in the concentration of tin ores,” says Mr. Minchin, “there is commonly
+a loss of from twenty to twenty-five per cent, though it is hoped that
+this may be reduced later on with improved methods of treatment.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_363">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_363.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COLQUECHACA, CELEBRATED FOR ITS MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The total tin production of Bolivia for the year 1905, reduced to
+bar tin, was eighteen thousand tons. The development of this branch
+of mining industry is still in its infancy in this country, new
+tin deposits being found constantly, while the few mines that were
+discovered by the Spaniards and the natives long ago are practically
+new in exploitation, never having been worked to any extent formerly,
+as this metal, unlike gold and silver, was not regarded as valuable
+in the earlier days. The history of tin mining is of comparatively
+recent origin, the first tin mines exploited in Europe having been
+those of England and Germany, discovered in the thirteenth century.
+An interesting monograph published by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span> the Oficina Nacional de
+Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geográfica of La Paz gives
+information to prove that the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the province
+of Larecaja, and of other tin-bearing regions of Bolivia, discovered
+tin and worked it, but without being aware of its full value as a
+metal. Archæological investigations show that tin, amalgamated with
+copper, was used by the Aymará and Quichua Indians for making war
+weapons and other objects, though the bronzes of this composition
+indicate only a slight knowledge of its metallurgical possibilities.
+These bronze <i>huacas</i> are found with much more frequency in
+ruins of Quichua construction than in those known to be of Aymará
+origin. This is the more remarkable because the greatest abundance
+of tin is found in the territory occupied by the Aymarás. Tin mines
+were exploited during the Spanish colonial period, but only on a very
+limited scale. In an old document published in 1640, the author, a
+curate of Potosí, calls attention to rich mines of tin in the provinces
+of Chayanta, Larecaja, Oruro, and elsewhere, which he says “were worked
+by the Indians in the time of the Incas, and which have since been
+exploited by the Spaniards.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_364">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_364.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MINING TOWN OF INQUISIVI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The tin mining region of Bolivia is divided into four districts: La
+Paz in the north, Oruro in the centre, Chorolque in the south, and
+Potosí in the east. In the department of La Paz, the beautiful snow
+range which extends from Illimani to Sorata, and which is known to
+all travellers who cross Titicaca, because of the enchanting prospect
+it offers as seen from the lake, marks a region rich in minerals,
+especially in tin, silver, iron, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span> bismuth. Huayna Potosí, with its
+twin peaks, Kaka-aca and Locka, is one of the richest <i>cerros</i>
+of this district, and it has been exploited at various periods for
+silver, bismuth, and tin, which are found here in abundance. With the
+investment of large capital, this mountain might prove an enormous
+producer of tin, as it is rich in good ore. A few miles distant from
+Huayna Potosí the peak of Milluni may easily be distinguished among
+the towering summits. It is the site of valuable tin mines and yields
+rich iron ore. The width of the silver veins in this mine varies from
+two to thirteen feet, and enormous quantities of almost pure metal
+are taken out of them, with very little expense. The greater part of
+the work has been done on the surface, in the outcroppings, by means
+of open cuts, so that the interior of the Cerro is hardly known. One
+socavón only has been opened within the mine to a depth of about two
+hundred and fifty feet, with two broad and well built galleries. The
+mines of Huayna Potosí and Milluni are exploited by a French company,
+having headquarters in Paris, and an office in La Paz. Milluni being so
+close to La Paz, and the roads in good condition, cargoes can be taken
+in carts direct from that city or from the port of Chililaya on Lake
+Titicaca, and the rate of shipment from Milluni to Mollendo is less
+than that charged for ores going from Oruro to Antofagasta. In both
+mines lumber for construction purposes is cheaper than in La Paz, as
+it comes chiefly from Songo in the Yungas, only a few miles distant,
+though for Oregon pine the same price is paid as in La Paz, about
+fifteen cents, gold, a square foot. Both Huayna Potosí and Milluni
+are worked for tin at an altitude of sixteen thousand feet above the
+sea. Chacaltaya, a peak which belongs to the same group, is also under
+exploitation, and with more favorable conditions may develop very rich
+lodes, as it has not yet been thoroughly worked.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_365">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_365.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CARRYING FREIGHT TO THE MINES OF QUIMSACRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_366">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_366.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FAMOUS ROSICLER SILVER MINES, COLQUECHACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Probably the richest tin mines of the La Paz district are those of
+Inquisivi, and especially Quimsacruz. Recently these mines have been
+producing enormous quantities of the valuable metal, and, according to
+the noted French geologist Dereims, the lofty range of Tres Cruces,
+otherwise known as Quimsacruz, which rises to an altitude of about
+twenty thousand feet above sea level, contains the richest minerals in
+all Bolivia. This section of the Cordillera Real begins south of the
+peak Illimani, on the opposite side of the natural cut in the great
+range through which the La Paz River flows on its course northward;
+and it extends entirely across the southern part of the province of
+Inquisivi, where it borders the department of Oruro. In this noble
+range tin mines are being worked with magnificent results, and
+mineralogists of eminent authority pronounce this to be the richest
+tin-mining district to be found anywhere, equal to Malacca, which is
+generally supposed to have the finest tin mines in the world. Not
+only tin, but silver and other metals abound here. The Colquiri mine
+was worked by the Spaniards for chloride of silver, the deepest veins
+having been exploited one hundred and seventy-five feet below the
+surface, and at water level. One vein is recognizable for three miles
+on the surface by débris scattered along the course. A tunnel of one
+thousand feet in length still exists, cutting this lode above the level
+of the water, and another vein as long as the one already mentioned.
+Evidently tin as well as silver was extracted in those days, though
+only in small quantities, owing to the indifference universally shown
+by the Spaniards for tin mining. The mineral wealth of Inquisivi
+has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span> recently attracted new enterprises, and several important mines
+have been discovered within the past year or two. The mines of Monte
+Blanco are enormously productive, as are also those of Avicaya, owned
+by Abelli and Company, and the Totoral and Chuncho mines, in the
+Cerro of Challa Grande. These mines are situated near the base of
+the Cerro, Chuncho being at the greatest altitude, near the centre,
+Totoral further down the slope, and Avicaya four hundred feet below
+Totoral. On the opposite side of the Cerro are rich veins of silver,
+and it is noteworthy that all the tin mines of Quimsacruz are on the
+south side of the range, the mineral veins on the eastern slopes being
+silver, while on the north is found auriferous quartz. Tin mining in
+the mountains of Tres Cruces offers a particularly promising prospect,
+as is proved by the new discoveries of this valuable metal which are
+constantly being made in this region.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_367">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_367.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">IRON MOUNTAIN ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO THE MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_368">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_368.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MOUNT KAKA-ACA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In the tin-mining district of Potosí are included the rich
+<i>cerros</i> of the province of Chayanta, in which are found the mines
+of Uncía and Llallagua, both in the Cerro de Uncía. This mountain was
+formerly noted for the rich quality of silver taken from its mines, but
+at present it is worked chiefly for tin. The Compañía Minera Uncía,
+which is under the direction of Mr. John B. Minchin, owns several
+of the principal mines of the Cerro, which are exploited according
+to the most modern methods and are producing a superior quality of
+tin. The output of this company’s mines for the year 1905 amounted
+to four hundred and eighty-five tons of two thousand two hundred and
+forty pounds. Modern machinery is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span> used in the treatment of the ores
+by lixiviation and other processes. The Salvadora mines, of Uncía,
+owned by Don S. Patiño, are also yielding a large quantity of rich
+tin under the modern system of treatment which the ores receive in
+the well-equipped establishments. Llallagua is the centre of some
+of the most valuable tin mines in Bolivia. The name of one of the
+leading statesmen of the country, General Sainz, is associated with the
+exploitation of the chief of these mines, which owe their development
+to the Empresa Llallagua, of which he was the organizer and chief
+owner. Last year General Sainz negotiated with a Chilean-Bolivian
+syndicate, which agreed to purchase this valuable property. The capital
+stock of the new company is one hundred thousand pounds sterling,
+divided into one hundred shares of one thousand pounds sterling each,
+and the directors are leading financiers of Chile and Bolivia. The
+mineral wealth of Llallagua is comprised in three mines now under
+exploitation. La Blanca, San José, and Quinsachata, which cover a
+territory of about one thousand acres. The mines are situated about
+forty miles east of Challapata, and three miles from Uncía. A cart
+road connects the mines of both Llallagua and Uncía with the railway,
+the construction of this highway having been completed at the expense
+of the mine owners, General Sainz and Mr. Minchin. The new railroad
+now being built from Oruro to Potosí will pass through these mining
+properties. The production of the Llallagua mines is estimated at five
+tons daily of <i>barrilla de estaño</i>, or concentrate tin, of seventy
+per cent tin, of the best quality. The establishments in which the ores
+of these mines are treated are equipped with modern machinery, and a
+trolley connects the mines with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span> <i>ingenio</i> for concentration.
+The minerals from this part of Bolivia are shipped by way of
+Antofagasta, while those of Huayna Potosí, Milluni, and other mineral
+districts in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, are carried across the
+lake to Puno and thence to Mollendo.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_369">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_369.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TRANSPORTATION OF COPPER FROM THE COROCORO MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>On the Titicaca plateau, about fifty miles southwest of La Paz, are
+located the extensive copper mines of Corocoro, the richest in South
+America. Like other famous mines of Bolivia the wealth of Corocoro was
+discovered long ago by Indians, but it is only within recent years that
+its treasures have been exploited with important results. The copper
+lodes of Corocoro exist in a sandstone formation, the metal being
+met with in solid fragments and in fine grains disseminated through
+the matrix and requiring only grinding and concentration to obtain a
+product containing some eighty-five per cent of copper <i>barrilla</i>,
+in which form it is exported. A few of the huge pieces of metal found
+at Corocoro have been placed on exhibition in the museum of La Paz, and
+are considered among the largest ever found in this form, measuring
+many feet in circumference. These masses are called <i>charquis</i>.
+The abundance and rich quality of Corocoro copper entitles it to rank
+second only to the famous mines of Lake Superior in the United States.
+There are numerous companies engaged in exploiting the riches of the
+Corocoro region, though probably the largest mining interests here
+are held by a French company under the direction of Señores Berthin,
+who control several mines. The output of the Corocoro mines amounts
+in value to about two million bolivianos annually. In addition to
+Corocoro, which represents the principal wealth of copper-producing
+Bolivia, there are promising deposits in various sections of the
+departments of Potosí, Chuquisaca, and Cochabamba. The Compañía
+Cobrizos de Bolivia has important mines of both copper and silver
+situated about six miles from Rio Grande near the Antofagasta and
+Oruro Railway, southwest of Uyuni, and in the province<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span> of Frias, near
+the city of Potosí, metals which some experts claim to be superior in
+quality and equal in quantity to those of Corocoro have been found,
+though the mines are not worked, because of the lack of capital for
+their development. In the province of Porco, in the canton of Yura,
+midway between Huanchaca and Potosí valuable mines of copper, as well
+as of gold, have recently been discovered, and it is only a question of
+a short time when large capital will be invested for their development.
+The railway which is to join Uyuni with Potosí will pass through one
+of the richest mineral regions of the globe, and within twenty-five
+miles of the mines just referred to. A great opportunity is offered in
+Yura for the exploitation of the mines, as there is abundance of water,
+a prime necessity for the economical treatment of the ores. Several
+of the older mines, worked originally for silver, contain in their
+ores from ten per cent to twenty-five per cent of copper, but want of
+capital and high freights have prevented their being worked in modern
+times for copper. Copper pyrites and other copper ores also exist at
+many points, but for similar reasons little attention has as yet been
+given to them. In fact, ores containing anything less than twenty-five
+per cent of copper would not pay to work and export under present
+conditions, and, owing to the scarcity and cost of suitable fuel,
+neither could such ores be advantageously reduced to bar copper in the
+country. The construction of more railways is a vital necessity in
+Bolivia, the Antofagasta line being taxed to the utmost to handle the
+abundant traffic, with the result that freights are necessarily high,
+rendering the importation of machinery, fuel, and general merchandise
+extremely costly, as well as making the export of produce enormously
+expensive.</p>
+
+<p>Mine owners say that the native labor, although at times somewhat
+limited, is not so unsatisfactory as might be supposed, the Indians
+and <i>cholos</i> working steadily and peaceably as a rule, though
+they spend a great deal of time in their numerous <i>fiestas</i>, when
+they always require an extra holiday for getting sober and ready for
+work again. A great many mine owners are urging the modification and
+improvement of the mining laws, which, though good in principle, are
+frequently distorted in their application, owing to the interpretation
+put upon them by badly informed petty authorities. The present
+government is devoting careful attention to this as well as to other
+problems which affect the development of the national industries.</p>
+
+<p>The mining laws of Bolivia are liberal and offer few restrictions.
+All metalliferous substances belong to the state. Anyone who enjoys
+civil rights may obtain thirty <i>pertenencias</i> of new mining
+property, and as much as he wants of mining lands already worked.
+The preferred right is given to the first who presents his petition
+for the concession. A <i>pertenencia</i> is a hectare, about two and
+one-half acres, of undefined depth, which is measured in the direction
+requested. The method of exploitation is optional. Concessions are
+perpetual, providing that a <i>patente</i> of four bolivianos per lode
+per annum, and two bolivianos per annum for each <i>pertenencia</i> in
+placer mines is paid semi-annually. The failure to pay for a year is
+sufficient cause for considering the concession abandoned. Machinery
+destined for the exploitation of mines pays no fiscal duties. Inorganic
+substances, with the exception of those of an earthy nature, are
+acquired in conformity with the mining law, concessions being given<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span>
+for sixty-four <i>pertenencias</i> in new deposits, and more than that
+territory in old fields. Ten bolivianos is the sum charged for the writ
+of adjudication. The preliminary procedure relative to acquiring mines
+is made in the presence of a special notary resident in the capital
+of the district in which the desired property is found. The prefect
+of the department is the authority through whom the concession of
+<i>pertenencias</i> is transmitted. All matters relative to priority of
+petition, transgression of limits, and similar causes for complaint,
+are brought before the ordinary justices. The owner who desires to
+leave off working his mine must notify the authorities, in order not
+to be held responsible for the payment of <i>patentes</i>. In case of
+failure to pay these charges for a year, the mine is auctioned to the
+highest bidder; and failing a purchaser, it remains in possession of
+the state, to be given as a concession to the first petitioner.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_371" style="max-width: 697px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_371.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THREE PRINCIPAL MINING ESTABLISHMENTS OF COROCORO:
+CHILD, CARERAS, AND MALACATE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The mining laws which govern the Cerro de Potosí have frequently
+required revision. They are, in some respects, distinct from those
+governing the acquisition of new mines. A great deal of difficulty has
+been encountered in the past because of the impossibility of marking
+absolute limits to the mining properties of Potosí. Formerly, the owner
+who could employ the largest body of workmen and extend his mines most
+rapidly could swallow up the lesser properties. For instance, if while
+working a vein the owner strikes through the wall which separates his
+claim from a neighboring mine he becomes the possessor of the latter.
+This law has necessitated the keeping of a guard at all points where
+such an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span> invasion might be feared, and it has frequently proved a
+source of dissatisfaction. The government has considered various plans
+for the solution of the problem, and the law has been amended in
+notable features, but as the Cerro seems to be a great mass of metal it
+presents unique features for legislation. In some respects the mining
+laws of Bolivia necessarily differ from those of other countries, the
+conditions being distinct, but the law-makers are thoroughly conversant
+with the requirements of the mining districts and the question is
+studied carefully from every standpoint. From long experience in
+dealing with the problems that are peculiar to a mining country, the
+Bolivian people have become informed on all that relates to mining laws
+and their interpretation, and improvements are constantly being made to
+advance the progress of this important industry.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_372">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_372.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MINING DISTRICT OF QUIMSACRUZ, NEAR ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_374">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_374.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CITY OF ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">ORURO AND ITS PROSPEROUS MINES</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">During the colonial period Oruro was the second great mining centre
+of Alto Peru, ranking next to Potosí in the wealth of its mines and
+the luxury and extravagance of its inhabitants. The <i>fiestas</i>,
+pageants, and tourneys of the Real Villa de San Felipe de Austria
+frequently rivalled in splendor those of the Villa Imperial itself,
+and the population increased so rapidly in consequence of a continuous
+development of mineral wealth that, from a hundred inhabitants at the
+time of its foundation in 1604, the city grew to number seventy-six
+thousand residents in 1678.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_375">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_375.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COAT OF ARMS OF ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The earliest history regarding Oruro is found in pre-Columbian records
+which state that several Incas visited this locality, and that it was
+an important centre of population in the province of Collasuyo. The
+great Pachacutec, who is generally considered the most noted of the
+Peruvian emperors after Manco-Ccapac, made Oruro his place of residence
+for some months while conducting expeditions to various sections of the
+Aymará province. The Spaniards passed very close to this settlement
+when they first invaded Collasuyo and founded the city of Paria, three
+or four leagues distant, but it was not until 1595 that its existence
+was discovered by the conquerors, when a curate named Don Francisco de
+Medrano, who had been told by the Indians of the mineral wealth of this
+neighborhood, found his way to the little pueblo of Oruro, or Uru-uru,
+meaning “whence comes the light,” and established here his authority
+as its first <i>alcalde</i>. As previously stated, the city was not
+officially founded until some years later, when, according to the
+interesting old document which is still preserved in the archives of
+the city, the ceremony was performed under the authority of Don Manuel
+Castro y Padilla, who represented His Catholic Majesty King Philip III.
+The occasion was one of great importance to the new colony, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span>
+official services were marked by extreme formality, beginning with the
+celebration of mass and the unfurling of the royal standard, while a
+choir of priests sang the hymn of <i>Veni Sancte Spiritus</i>, and the
+site of the new municipality was blessed with solemn consecration.
+The standard was thrice raised during the naming of the city: “The
+very noble and loyal city of San Felipe de Austria, for the King Don
+Philip our sovereign and for his successors in the Crown of Castile and
+Leon and Peru, whom may God keep for many years.” As was the custom
+upon such occasions, a gallows was immediately set up in token of the
+royal possession. Oruro sustained well the dignity of a royal city,
+christened with imposing rites, and in the social and political events
+of the colonial period took a conspicuous part, the citizens being
+especially renowned for their hospitality, which was lavishly shown
+upon the noted occasions when high political and church authorities
+from Spain visited this prominent centre of colonial wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Not only did Oruro count among the richest and most important
+cities of the viceroyalty of Peru, but it early became noted for
+the independent character of its citizens, who were among the first
+to raise the standard of revolution against the tyranny of Spanish
+rule, and to whose valiant and loyal efforts some of the most noted
+victories of the Independence were due. Since the inauguration of
+the republic the city has twice been honored by a supreme decree of
+eulogy, the first qualifying it as “heroic and intrepid, deserving the
+national admiration,” and the second, as “first city savior of the
+institutions.” Congress has held sessions here upon several occasions,
+and, in recent years especially, the city has been constantly advancing
+in commercial as well as in political importance.</p>
+
+<p>Although Oruro has a severe climate, due to its situation on the
+high plateau, at an altitude of about twelve thousand five hundred
+feet above sea level, exposed to strong southwest winds, which in
+July, August, and September are sometimes veritable hurricanes;
+it is healthful, and those who live there, foreigners as well as
+natives, find it agreeable, except during the worst season. There
+are many foreign residents in Oruro, English, German, French, and
+North American, who have established very comfortable homes and have
+organized several clubs. The chief activity of the town centres in the
+principal plaza and in the streets branching from it in all directions.
+Owing to the great altitude and the exposure of the city to cold winds,
+vegetation has not shown any great development in this district, and
+the city itself presents a rather dull aspect without the adornment
+of trees and shrubs. But the plaza is well paved and makes a pleasant
+promenade, and during the favorable season band concerts are frequently
+held here. Some of the more important buildings face the plaza, such
+as the University, the Government House, and others, though there are
+large and well-built edifices on all the principal streets. The Spanish
+style of architecture prevails, and houses are generally of one or two
+story construction. To the North American the aspect of long rows of
+buildings of one or more stories in height is particularly foreign,
+and at first sight disappointing, as it seems to indicate lack of
+enterprise or of prosperity. But a visit to one of these modest-looking
+houses is often a surprising revelation, as they make up in surface
+space what they lack in height, and sometimes cover<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span> a remarkably large
+area, with their <i>patios</i> and corridors. The churches, hospitals,
+and schools are commodious buildings, and the city has a theatre, a
+mineralogical museum, and a public library.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid increase of production in the mines of the department of
+Oruro has contributed to make its capital an important industrial
+centre; and as the new system of railways provides for several branches
+from this point to the eastern and southern cities of the republic,
+its growing fame as a rich entrepôt for the valuable mineral products
+of neighboring departments will make it still better known as one of
+the great mining centres of the world. The present population of the
+city is about eighteen thousand inhabitants, though it is increasing
+annually since the exploitation of tin has attracted many people to
+this department and to its chief city.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_377">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_377.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MAIN PLAZA, ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The department of Oruro covers fifty thousand square kilomètres, and is
+divided into four provinces, Cercado, Carangas, Poopo, and Abaroa, each
+of them rich in minerals and renowned for their splendid contributions
+to the royal treasury during colonial times. At one time five thousand
+mines were in operation in this department alone, and it is recorded
+that during the three years preceding the Independence its mining taxes
+to the Crown<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span> amounted to forty million dollars. The Socavón de la
+Virgen, San José, Huanuni, Negro Pabellón, Morococala, and Antequera,
+which now chiefly represent rich mines of tin, were, centuries ago,
+the sites of important silver mines, the tin being held of such little
+value that it was rarely extracted. The Socavón de la Virgen is
+situated close to the city of Oruro, at the foot of the neighboring
+<i>cerro</i>, and it is still rich in silver as well as in tin. It has
+the distinction of being one of the oldest mines in Bolivia, having
+been the first exploited by the curate Don Francisco de Medrano,
+when he discovered and settled in the Aymará pueblo of the Serrania
+Uru-Uru, at the foot of the Cerro Pie de Gallo, or cock’s foot. The
+Compañía Minera de Oruro now owns this mine, which is provided with
+modern machinery, the establishment for the treatment of its ores being
+situated at Machacamarca, where both silver and tin are extracted by
+the amalgamation and lixiviation processes.</p>
+
+<p>The San José mine is situated two miles from the city of Oruro, in a
+sheltered slope of the <i>serrania</i>, where a very busy little town
+has grown up to mark the site occupied four hundred years ago by an
+Indian settlement. The town of San José is a typical mining pueblo,
+containing about two thousand inhabitants, and on feast days it is a
+scene of great revelry. Like all towns of the plateau, it has scanty
+vegetation, and the people supply all the brightness there is in the
+landscape. Photography is inadequate to give a correct picture of these
+gorgeous spectacles, which depend so much on the “color scheme” for
+their effectiveness. The town of San José is lighted by electricity
+and has several modern improvements. This mine has always produced
+silver, and is still worked on a small scale for that metal, though the
+mining of tin is usurping the silver industry here as elsewhere. Modern
+machinery is used in the mine, which has twin vertical shafts of nine
+hundred and seventy feet in depth, that are worked from the surface
+by a steam engine of two cylinders. The principal square is situated
+in the centre of the working region of the mine, and is one thousand
+feet deep. It is served by a Robey engine of forty horse power. The
+<i>socavón</i>, or entering passage, which is three hundred feet long,
+with walls and roof of hewn stone, is without a rival of its kind in
+South America. The equipment for this mine is said to have cost one
+hundred and fifty thousand bolivianos. Machinery for the treatment of
+tin ores has been set up in the <i>ingenios</i>, and in 1902 the new
+Wetherill machine was adopted for the electro-magnetic treatment of
+ores. The mine yields about fifty-five thousand dollars monthly in
+silver and tin, the ores being shipped over the private railway of
+the owners to the <i>ingenio</i>, where the silver ore is treated by
+lixiviation, and the tin ore by concentration and smelting. About one
+thousand workmen are employed in the San José mine, those above ground
+working the customary ten hours a day, and those inside the mine eight
+hours a day. The mine is provided with water brought in pipes from a
+stream twelve miles away. The water taken out of the mine is deposited
+in tanks to be used in the concentration of the tin ores.</p>
+
+<p>The mines of Antequera, as well as that of San José, are still worked
+for silver, though the principal attention is given to tin mining.
+Antequera was famous during the colonial period for rich lodes of
+silver, and they have yielded millions of dollars of this precious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span>
+metal under the republic, though now they are exploited chiefly for
+tin. Several large companies are engaged in developing the mines, most
+of which are fitted up with modern improvements, the <i>ingenios</i>
+being equipped with the best machinery for the elaboration of the
+ores. All the Antequera mines are located in the vicinity of Poopo,
+on the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway, where there are several large
+<i>ingenios</i>. Poopo is a thriving little town of three thousand
+inhabitants, with considerable commercial movement, being the nearest
+railroad centre for a large territory. The extent and importance of the
+mining industry in this section is illustrated by the fact that one
+company is under contract to deliver two thousand quintals, about two
+hundred thousand pounds, of metal daily to the railroad, to be carried
+to the <i>ingenio</i> of Bella Vista, in consideration of which the
+railway has extended its line to this establishment, passing through
+Antequera.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_379">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_379.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SAN JOSÉ, ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Huanuni is said to contain the richest tin mines in the department of
+Oruro. It is situated fifteen miles from the station of Machacamarca,
+on the Antofagasta and Oruro Railway, and can be reached by diligence,
+as there is a good coach road. The beautiful Cerro of Pozocani, in
+which the mines of Huanuni are located, is conical in form, not unlike
+the noble Potosí, and rises to a height of ten thousand feet above
+the neighboring <i>quebrada</i>. It is crossed by innumerable lodes
+and veins, which have been worked on a large scale and are still
+yielding enormous riches. The Cataricagua vein, now under exploitation,
+produced one thousand one hundred and ninety-two tons of bar tin, of
+two thousand two hundred and forty pounds per ton, in 1905, the value
+of bar tin being about one hundred pounds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span> sterling per ton, though
+the market price varies, sometimes reaching one hundred and fifty
+pounds sterling per ton. The Cataricagua vein varies in width from
+two to eight feet, and the quality of tin is uniformly good, selected
+ore containing fifty per cent oxide, while the poorest quality yields
+twenty per cent. The washings which remain after the ores have been
+treated are put through a second process, and are found to contain
+about five per cent oxides. In some instances, selected ore yields
+as much as sixty-five per cent tin, without concentration, and the
+washings yield fifteen per cent. The company which is operating this
+mine has ten crushers and several automatic strainers and rotatory
+tables for the concentration of the ores by the Cornish system.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_380">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_380.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MINERS’ HOLIDAY AT SAN JOSÉ, ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The treatment of nearly all tin ores in Bolivia is limited to
+grinding and concentration, the product being exported in the form
+of sand <i>barrilla</i>, containing an average of sixty-four per
+cent of metallic tin, or, as in the case of some of the Potosí
+mines previously mentioned, in the form of bars. The mines of Negro
+Pabellón, Morococala, and Vilacollo form a group about ten miles north
+of Huanuni, in the vicinity of Paria. Negro Pabellón is especially
+noted for the superior quality of its tin and for the facility with
+which the ores are treated. The principal lode is about three feet
+in width, and is crossed by several smaller veins, rich<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span> pockets of
+the valuable metal being found at the various points of intersection.
+The <i>barrillas</i> obtained from the concentration of these ores
+contain more than seventy per cent tin. In the Morococala mine, the
+ores yield a good grade of tin, the principal lode measuring in some
+places from twelve to fifteen feet in width, and containing very rich
+oxides. Vilacollo is situated a short distance from Morococala, in a
+<i>cerro</i> of the same name. It was formerly a rich silver mine, and
+has produced great quantities of both silver and tin. Though the lodes
+contain continuous veins of hard tin ore of different widths up to two
+feet, and, owing to the extreme hardness, difficulties are encountered
+in extracting this metal, yet, on the other hand, veins are met with
+which contain kidneys and grains interposed, and these are worked with
+profit, while the tin pyrites are treated for the extraction of the
+metal by first being calcined and then crushed and put through the
+concentration process. About ten miles south of Huanuni, the tin mines
+of Challa-Apacheta are notable for the great width of the principal
+lode, which measures from twenty-five to thirty feet in places, though
+the ore is not so rich as in thinner veins, owing to the mixture of
+gravel and clay.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_381">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_381.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MINE OF SAN JOSÉ, ORURO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Berenguela, which is situated about fifty miles east of Oruro on
+the heights to the south of the Quebrada de Arque, is said by some
+authorities to possess a quality of tin not excelled by any other
+mines in Bolivia. Although it belongs to the province of Cochabamba,
+all the metal is exported through Oruro, the mines being located about
+midway between the two departmental capitals. The Spaniards worked
+the mines for silver, but it is only within a few years that its rich
+tin mines have been exploited to any extent, the silver veins of
+this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span> Cerro being distinct from those which contain tin in abundance.
+The hydraulic machinery used in operating the mines is established
+about three-quarters of a mile away where an abundant water supply is
+obtained. There is a town called Berenguela in the province of Pacajes,
+in the department of La Paz, near the border of Oruro, where alabaster
+is found, and these places are frequently confounded with each other.</p>
+
+<p>Every province of the department of Oruro is rich in mineral products.
+The Cercado, of which the city of Oruro is the capital, is particularly
+famous as the district in which the rich tin mines of Huanuni are
+located, though the adjoining province of Poopo also claims distinction
+for the wealth it represents in the Antequera and other mines. Not only
+silver and tin, but many other valuable minerals are found in large
+quantities in this department. Iron, lead, manganese, bismuth, and
+antimony have been discovered in the provinces of Cercado and Poopo,
+awaiting only the necessary capital for their exploitation on a large
+scale. Antimony is exported in ores containing from fifty per cent to
+sixty-four per cent of the metal. The province of Abaroa, named in
+honor of one of Bolivia’s heroes in the War of the Pacific, covers
+a territory rich in minerals, of which Challapata is the thriving
+capital. There are two towns called Challapata, within a mile of
+each other, the old city being the more picturesque, though of less
+importance commercially. It is noted for its beautiful old church,
+which was erected during the colonial period, and which is frequently
+visited by travellers because of the rich ornaments in silver that it
+contains. The modern town of Challapata is of recent existence, having
+been founded only in 1893, as a station on the line of the recently
+constructed Antofagasta and Oruro Railway. It is a town of about two
+thousand five hundred inhabitants, many of them foreigners, who are
+engaged in mining enterprises. The second city in the department in
+size, it is important as a railroad town and the terminus of the coach
+roads from Potosí and Sucre. Among other towns of this department, the
+historic Salinas de Garcí-Mendoza is deserving of special mention,
+as it was once the centre of rich silver mines, which yielded great
+fortunes during the colonial period. It is a small town of less than
+two thousand inhabitants, but preserves many social features of its
+more prosperous past, and its people are noted for their hospitality.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Carangas is rich in minerals, and has other industries
+which have been developed on a small scale. The <i>serrania</i> of
+Carangas was once the centre of the silver-mining industry in this part
+of the plateau, but owing to the inundation of the mines, and lack of
+proper machinery with which to put them again in working order, they
+remained abandoned until purchased by a company recently established,
+which, it is said, possesses sufficient capital to develop their full
+productiveness. Under the viceroyalty the town of Carangas was rich and
+prosperous and had its grand <i>fiestas</i> as did the other “silver
+cities” of Alto Peru; in its deserted streets are still to be seen
+vestiges of the opulence of former days, arches, carved doorways, and
+churches. The province has a small population now, less than twenty
+thousand people altogether, the greater number being Indians, who are
+engaged in tending flocks of sheep, goats, and alpacas, or in hunting
+the vicuña and the chinchilla. Vegetation is scanty, though the Indian
+raises potatoes, quinoa, and barley sufficient for his own use.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the southwestern district of the department of Oruro, in the
+province of Carangas, are found large deposits of borax, those of
+Chilcaya covering an area of about thirty thousand acres. The borax
+of Chilcaya is considered equal to the best produced anywhere in the
+world. It is exported through the port of Arica, a little more than a
+hundred miles distant. The saline deposits found in the department of
+Oruro, especially in the region of Chilcaya and Coipasa, are said to
+mark the southern limit of the great lake which scientists claim once
+covered the plateau for an area of over forty thousand square miles,
+and constituted the chief reservoir of the Amazon. The lake Chilcaya
+is entirely within the limits of this department, Coipasa marking the
+boundary between Oruro and Potosí. The boracic <i>capa</i>, or layer,
+which is found on this lake is a foot thick, more or less, of a very
+high grade, and the production per acre is estimated at one thousand
+five hundred tons. Though Chilcaya is surrounded by <i>cerros</i>,
+the climate is cold and windy, and the aspect is bleak and dreary in
+the extreme, as the very nature of the soil in this region makes it
+impossible for anything, even <i>puna</i> grass, to flourish.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_383">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_383.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SILVER AND TIN SMELTING WORKS, POOPO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>No city in Bolivia looks out upon a more favorable prospect than
+Oruro, which is entering on a new era of prosperity, signalized by the
+inauguration of the railway system, which is to branch out from this
+point in all directions, and by the not less interesting ceremonies
+which a few months ago marked the establishment of new educational
+institutions of the greatest importance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span></p>
+
+<p>The citizens of Oruro, foreign as well as Bolivian, are enthusiastic
+in their efforts to promote the interests of the municipality, and
+the favorable attitude of the Bolivians toward foreign residents is
+exemplified by the fact that a foreigner, Mr. John B. Minchin, is
+president of the Municipal Council. Mr. Minchin has lived many years
+in Oruro, and is firmly convinced of the bright promise of the future
+already illuminating his adopted country. He has made a careful study
+of the country under various aspects, and his authority on many
+subjects, particularly mining, is accepted as the best known. Under
+his administration, the city of Oruro is undergoing many important
+improvements. Another foreigner, who has lived in Oruro so many years
+that he is known throughout the department as “Don Andrés,” is Mr.
+Andrew Penny, who has contributed a great deal toward the development
+of the mining industry in this department. He is identified with the
+success of the San José, Huanuni, and other mines, and is highly
+esteemed by all who know him for his sterling character and kindness of
+heart.</p>
+
+<p>The chief authority in the department is the prefect, to whose
+initiative is due the progress of the department in general. Dr. Victor
+Sanjinés, the present prefect, who succeeded Señor Dr. Andrés Muñoz
+a few months ago, is a distinguished leader in the politics of his
+country, and has given proofs of exceptional administrative ability
+in various official posts. Under his direction, the roads and other
+public works are receiving special attention, and the city, as well as
+the department, is benefiting by many improvements in the condition of
+the highways. With the conclusion of the new railway to La Paz, Oruro
+will be within a few hours’ distance of that city, and when the line to
+Arica is put in operation it will be possible to leave Oruro at night
+and arrive at the seaport next morning. Oruro will no longer be only
+the terminus of a railway, but the centre from which trains will run in
+many directions.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_384">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_384.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">BERENGUELA TIN MINES.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_386">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_386.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GOLD WASHING AT CHUQUIAGUILLO, NEAR LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIV<br>
+<span class="subhed">GOLD MINING IN BOLIVIA—TUPIZA AND ITS MINES—BISMUTH</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Gold mining in Bolivia has not attracted so much attention in recent
+years as its importance merits, though there was a time when the fame
+of this country as a gold producer nearly eclipsed the universal
+renown of its vast wealth of silver. In the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, which marked only the beginning of their development, the
+mines of Alto Peru yielded in gold, according to the authority of
+Humboldt, about two billion dollars, and in the eighteenth century
+the mine of Chuquiaguillo alone produced more than one hundred and
+twenty-five million dollars in gold. It is a remarkable fact that this
+mine has not once failed to yield large quantities of gold annually,
+ever since its discovery.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_387">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_387.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">DISTANT GLIMPSE OF TUPIZA, THROUGH A TUNNEL.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The history of the Chuquiaguillo mine is as old as that of the Incas,
+who received tribute from their Collasuyo subjects in the gold nuggets
+of this wonderful stream. Like the Chuquiapu, of which it is a small
+tributary, the Chuquiaguillo received its name from the Indians, in
+whose language the word means “heir of gold.” The mine is situated in
+the beautiful valley of Poto-Poto, about a league distant from La Paz,
+where the Spaniards found the Indians engaged in washing gold at the
+time of the invasion. Many thousands of Indians worked at the task of
+gathering gold for the Inca, and the settlement in which they lived was
+the Chuquiapu on the site of which the Spaniards founded the present
+city of La Paz.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[378]</span></p>
+
+<p>The conqueror himself, Don Francisco Pizarro, was the first
+<i>dueño</i>, or owner, of the mine of Chuquiaguillo after the fall
+of the Inca empire. History does not record the amount taken out
+of the mine while under the exploitation of Pizarro’s agents; but
+during the colonial period huge nuggets were frequently found, one
+of these treasures, which was sent to the Museum of Madrid in 1718,
+weighing forty-seven pounds and eight ounces. The extraordinary
+feature of this mine is that it appears inexhaustible, great nuggets,
+or <i>pepitas</i>, being continually found. After the Spaniards were
+expelled from the country, Chuquiaguillo passed into the hands of
+various <i>dueños</i>, all of whom were made rich by its gold. One of
+these proprietors found a nugget of twenty-two pounds in weight.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_388" style="max-width: 640px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_388.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RICH GOLD MINING REGION OF CHUQUIAGUILLO, NEAR LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_389" style="max-width: 629px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_389.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ADMINISTRATION HOUSE, CHUQUIAGUILLO MINES, NEAR LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In 1901 the Chuquiaguillo valley, with its rich gold mine, became the
+property of a German company; and under the able administration of
+the present director, Mr. Joseph Antonio Sedelmayr, the production
+has been increased greatly beyond what it was a few years ago. The
+latest improvements in machinery and other working apparatus have
+been made, the modern installations used in California placer mines
+being adopted, with some monitors which give the very best results.
+The earth is very rich in metal, a cubic mètre yielding thirty-five
+cents gold. The quantity of gravel appears inexhaustible, as the
+<i>cerros</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span> are immense. Water is brought from the neighboring snow
+mountains, and there is sufficient incline to the valley to carry off
+the tailings. With other machinery which it is the purpose of the
+company to add to that already in use, the output of Chuquiaguillo may
+be enormously increased. So recently as March 22, 1905, a gold and
+quartz nugget weighing fifty-two ounces, of which forty-five ounces
+were pure gold, was taken from the mine, this handsome specimen being
+now in the possession of Messrs. Speyer and Company, of New York. The
+annual production of the mine since 1900 has been about an average of
+sixty kilogrammes, though the increase has been notable since 1902.
+The value of the gold taken out amounts to nearly one hundred thousand
+bolivianos annually. The <i>cerros</i> are so rich in metal, that the
+gravel which is washed down from their sides yields thirty-five cents
+worth of gold per cubic mètre, and nuggets as large as almonds are
+not rare. The process of bringing the gold-bearing gravel down to the
+river is by means of a hose which ejects a powerful stream that when
+turned on the <i>cerro</i> dislodges the earth, bringing the rich
+pebbles down to the base. In a beautiful locality, overlooking the
+valley, the administration house of the company is situated, and here
+the director receives his guests,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span> entertaining them with the most
+charming hospitality. No <i>paseo</i> is more popular than a day’s
+outing at Chuquiaguillo, which is reached after a short horseback ride
+from La Paz through one of the prettiest of valleys, presenting many
+picturesque scenes along the route, and ending at the administration
+mansion. Every foreigner who visits La Paz and enjoys the honor of
+being a guest of the courtly <i>dueño</i> of Chuquiaguillo remembers it
+as a distinguished occasion.</p>
+
+<p>There are other rich placer gold mines besides Chuquiaguillo in the
+department of La Paz which have yielded enormous treasure. As stated
+elsewhere, one of the most celebrated gold-bearing regions of Bolivia
+is in the province of Larecaja, in the neighborhood of Sorata, where
+the river Tipuani, which flows down from the snow-covered peak,
+contains large quantities of the precious metal. The gravel deposits
+in this river are so great that at a depth of one hundred feet no rock
+bottom is found, the production of gold increasing with the depth
+of the gravel. Tipuani gold is from twenty-two to twenty-three and
+one-half carats fine, and so abundant that the owners of the richest
+mine of this region, Señores Villamil, obtained during the fifty years
+from 1818 to 1868 one hundred and fifty-one thousand ounces of gold.
+Much of this gold comes in flat grains of the size of a melon seed,
+and it is always of high standard. Not only from the heights of the
+mountain Sorata, or Illampu, but from the other <i>cerros</i> of the
+chain which joins it to Illimani further south, innumerable streams
+flow into the valleys of the Yungas of La Paz which carry gold in the
+gravel that is found in their currents. Cajones, in the Yungas, is one
+of the richest gold streams. It is a singular fact that while quartz
+lodes have been discovered in different places about the headwaters of
+the ravines through which the gold-bearing rivers flow, they do not
+appear to correspond at all in richness to the deposits lower down.
+The rich placer mines of Yani and Tacacoma are in the same province as
+those of Tipuani.</p>
+
+<p>In the province of Caupolican, the river Suches is noted for the
+abundance and quality of gold found in its sand and gravel, and
+this district presents the advantage of being within convenient
+distance of the shipping ports, as the town of Suches, the chief
+centre of the mining in this river, is situated only forty miles
+from the port of Lake Titicaca, and two hundred miles from La Paz.
+A great many rich placer mines have remained unexploited because of
+their inaccessibility. All around La Paz gold is continually being
+discovered, nearly every river having some gold-bearing gravel in
+its course. The Cerro Illimani contains gold in abundance, and it is
+related that in the year 1681, a lightning stroke detached a huge rock
+from the side of the mountain which was found to be enormously rich in
+the precious metal. All the streams that flow from Illimani contain
+gold, such as the Palca, Calacoto, Chungamayo, and others. The gold
+mines of Vila-haque, near La Paz, were famous in the times of the
+Incas, and are worked to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Gold has been taken from the streams of Loayza province ever since
+colonial times, and the gold district of Araca, which lies at the
+foot of the Tres Cruces Range, is said by mining engineers to be one
+of the richest in Bolivia, lack of capital having prevented its full
+development in recent years. Under Spanish rule the celebrated gold
+mine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[381]</span> of San Francisco, which belonged to a fabulously rich Spaniard,
+named Don Diego de Baena, brought an income of two million dollars
+gold, which the chronicle says the worthy miner spent to build the
+magnificent church of San Francisco in La Paz and the Cathedral in
+Oruro. He suspended the working of the San Francisco mine because of
+inundations. A mining expert, reporting on this district, says: “Many
+millions of dollars have been taken out of the gold mines of Araca,
+and much more could be obtained if capital were forthcoming for their
+exploitation.” The quartz vein of the Araca mines is very wide, the
+standard varying between five and twelve grains per ton of two thousand
+two hundred and forty pounds when treated by amalgamation, which, by
+the way, is an unsatisfactory method, as about thirty per cent of the
+gold is lost owing to the extreme fineness of the gold particles. A
+difficulty encountered in the exploitation of many of these mines is
+that of securing modern machinery for the treatment of the gold so that
+every unnecessary waste may be avoided. The Araca district has not been
+fully surveyed, though mining authorities say that what is known as the
+Rosario belt contains a million cubic mètres of gold quartz, and it is
+estimated that more than half a million tons could be worked with rich
+results. In Inquisivi, also, there are gold mines of great promise.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_391">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_391.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MOUNTAIN OF CHOROLQUE, SITE OF THE HIGHEST TIN AND
+BISMUTH MINES IN THE WORLD.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The department of Cochabamba, which is rich in products of every
+description, can boast of some of the most valuable gold mines of
+Bolivia. Choquecamata, situated about<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span> seventy-five miles from the
+capital city of the department in the <i>serrania</i> of Tetillas,
+is the centre of an extensive mining region. The central part of the
+<i>serrania</i> consists of granite and quartz, the Choquecamata River
+containing gold-bearing gravel from the point of its junction with the
+Potrero, at Encañada, over a distance of six miles down its course.
+It is an excellent mining region, the conditions being favorable for
+its development on a large scale by the hydraulic system. At their
+confluence the two rivers have made a new channel which cuts across
+the former channel of the Choquecamata, leaving a wide dry space, rich
+in gold-bearing gravel. It was here the mines were first discovered
+and worked by the Spaniards in 1740, and from this marvellously rich
+deposit, covering little more than half a league, which was called
+the Angostura, meaning “narrows,” gold was taken out to the value of
+more than forty million dollars. It is located at an altitude of about
+twelve thousand feet above sea level in one of the many picturesque
+<i>quebradas</i> of the province of Ayopaya, and was apparently known
+to the primitive inhabitants as a gold-bearing district, the name
+Choquecamata being Aymará and signifying “breeding place of gold.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_392">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_392.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">QUECHISLA, MINING ESTABLISHMENT OF ARAMAYO, FRANCKE AND
+COMPANY, NEAR TUPIZA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Near the site of the old missions which the Jesuits founded during the
+colonial period in the province of Chiquitos, now forming part of the
+department of Santa Cruz, rich gold mines were discovered centuries
+ago. The <i>serrania</i> of San Simon yielded handsome returns for the
+labor of the Indians under the direction of their Spanish masters.
+Within recent years other valuable mines have been found in this
+province, which is only partially settled and contains vast stretches
+of territory, the natural resources of which are practically<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span> unknown.
+The gold mines of Santa Rosa, which lie along the route of the new
+railway to be built from Santa Cruz to the Beni, were famous during
+the past century for their abundance, having yielded two thousand five
+hundred pounds’ weight of gold between the years 1847 and 1877. The
+few travellers who have journeyed through this region pronounce it one
+of the richest in the whole of Bolivia, and it possesses the special
+advantage of having as fine a climate as any country in the world, the
+four seasons being distinctly marked, though in a moderate degree.
+Gold is found in the Beni and in the Territorio de Colonias, but it
+will hardly be developed to any great extent until the transportation
+facilities in this part of Bolivia are improved. There is plenty of
+gold in the upper streams of the Acre, Madre de Dios, Orton, and the
+Beni, as well as in those of the Mamoré and other tributaries of the
+Guaporé or Iténez.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_393">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_393.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">DREDGE IN CONSTRUCTION AT SAN JUAN DE ORO MINES, TUPIZA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>From central Bolivia southward a gold-producing region extends in a
+wide strip from Cochabamba to the border of Argentina. Chuquisaca is
+said to have been at one time a great mining centre, and, according to
+the historian Calancha, the name itself signifies “rock of gold.” The
+Inca’s subjects knew of the existence of gold in all these provinces,
+and the Spaniards merely followed their guidance in searching for the
+precious metal. Whenever it was possible, the Indian deceived his new
+masters and kept secret his knowledge of the locality of these mines.
+But though many rich <i>cerros</i> and gold-bearing streams exist which
+were never known to the Spaniards, they took possession of hundreds of
+mines in all parts of the country and worked them with great profit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the department of Potosí, the <i>cerro</i> of Poconota contains
+one of the oldest gold mines in the country. It is situated in the
+province of North Chichas, on the route from Potosí to Tupiza, and will
+be on the line of the railroad which is being built from Potosí to the
+Argentine border. The <i>cerro</i> shows evidence of having been worked
+by the Spaniards on a very large scale and with great success, as there
+are still vestiges of elaborate and expensive apparatus, which could
+only have been afforded by enormous returns from the exploitation of
+the mines. The gold of Poconota shows a standard of ten grammes per
+hundred pounds. The lode extends for a distance of two thousand seven
+hundred feet, and is forty inches in width and nearly three hundred
+feet in depth. It represents about half a million tons of ore, which
+will produce, at a conservative estimate, several tons of fine gold.
+In the provinces of Linares, Chayanta, and Lipez gold is found in
+abundance, the Indians having exploited mines in all the principal
+<i>serranias</i> and streams of these districts. They still wash gold
+from the streams of Caiza, Yura, and San Juan. In the province of
+Lipez gold quartz is found in the <i>cerros</i> of Colcha, one of the
+<i>socavones</i> being so rich that the Indians call it <i>abitans</i>,
+which means “storehouse of gold.” The Yura River, which flows through
+the province of Porco to join the Rio Blanco, San Juan, and other
+tributaries of the Pilcomayo, contains large quantities of auriferous
+gravel; and in the <i>cerros</i> of Yura, a canton of Porco, immense
+gold veins have been discovered which still await exploitation. In
+Suipacha, on the border of Argentina, a few miles south of Tupiza, gold
+is found in a vein forty miles long and seven feet wide, the precious
+metal being plainly visible in the quartz. Portugalete, midway between
+Tupiza and the famous Cerro Chorolque, is the centre of a region of
+gold mines which extend in all directions. All the <i>quebradas</i>
+of this district contain gold, which has always been worked in a
+primitive way by the Indians, and still provides their chief means of
+subsistence. The gold-mining district of Santa Catalina extends along
+the course of the river San Juan from its source in the Cordillera
+Real as far as the Suipacha mines, which are an extension of the Santa
+Catalina veins. It includes the quartz and placer mines of Esmoraca,
+Estarca, Chilco, and other rich valleys, which, like Portugalete, have
+for centuries been worked by Indians. Foreign enterprise is now being
+attracted to these rich deposits.</p>
+
+<p>Tupiza is one of the most important mineral centres of Bolivia, all the
+gold-producing districts of the province of South Chichas, of which
+Tupiza is the capital, being tributary to it, while it is further
+famous as the centre of the finest bismuth mines in the world. The
+various companies engaged in exploiting mines of gold, silver, tin,
+wolfram, antimony, lead, zinc, and bismuth, which are found in this
+locality, have their headquarters in the city of Tupiza. Minerals
+and precious stones, especially emeralds, are brought here for sale
+by the Indians, who find them in the various mines of the province.
+Portugalete, San Vicente, Lipez, Santo Domingo, Chocoma, Esmoraca, San
+Juan de Oro, Tatasi, and the magnificent Chorolque are among the most
+important mining centres.</p>
+
+<p>The mine of San Juan de Oro is one of the very few in the province
+of South Chichas which are being exploited on a large scale and with
+the use of modern machinery. In 1905 a company was formed in Buenos
+Aires for the purpose of developing the San Juan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[385]</span> de Oro mine to its
+full capacity; a capital of about half a million dollars in gold was
+invested in the enterprise, and a powerful dredge was put in the river
+as one of the initial steps of the work. Several dredges are now in
+operation, and the returns are most satisfactory, showing an average of
+fifty cents’ worth of gold per cubic mètre. The opinion is generally
+expressed by experts in mining industries that there is a great future
+in store for Bolivian gold mines, not only in this province, but
+throughout the entire country. The universal prediction is that the
+advent of the railroads will bring new enterprise to the development of
+abandoned mines and lead to the discovery of hitherto unknown mineral
+wealth.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_395">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_395.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PICTURESQUE VIEW OF TUPIZA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The mining industry of Tupiza owes a great deal to the enterprise of
+one of Bolivia’s leading statesmen, Señor Don Felix Avelino Aramayo,
+whose name is identified not only with the progress of the city,
+but of the entire province. Many of the most valuable mines are his
+property, and it is owing to his great energy and enterprise that they
+have been made to yield an enormous fortune. Bolivia leads the world
+in bismuth, and it is chiefly out of Señor Aramayo’s mines that the
+precious mineral is taken. The firm of Aramayo, Francke and Company
+bought the silver, tin, and bismuth mines of Chorolque in 1889, and
+in addition to this famous mountain they also control the output of
+the mines of Tasna, a mountain thirty leagues from the city of Tupiza,
+which produces bismuth, tin, wolfram, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span> other minerals, and they
+have a large establishment for the refinement of ores at Quechisla,
+twenty-five leagues from Tupiza.</p>
+
+<p>The magnificent <i>cerro</i> of Chorolque, which towers above the
+clouds and is visible hundreds of miles distant, where it looks like
+a huge white pyramid looming above the horizon, is the centre of the
+highest tin and bismuth mines in the world. The mines are worked at an
+altitude of eighteen thousand feet. The different lodes of tin are of
+great thickness, and their lower strata contain bismuth in chlorides
+or sulphides. Bismuth is sometimes met with also in its native state,
+as in Coribiri, where it is found in nuggets weighing six or seven
+grammes. The deposits of bismuth in the Chorolque lode are found only
+on the <i>cerro</i> and its slopes. Rich bismuth mines were recently
+discovered in the province of Inquisivi, and this mineral is found
+in some quantity wherever there are large deposits of tin. The total
+production of bismuth in Bolivia averages from four thousand to five
+thousand metric quintals annually, and its value fluctuates between
+fourteen and sixteen pounds sterling per metric quintal.</p>
+
+<p>The picturesque little city of Tupiza has a population of about
+three thousand inhabitants. It is situated about sixty miles north
+of the Argentine boundary line, in the heart of a beautiful country,
+diversified by mountain, valley, and stream, and blessed by a climate
+which in summer is balmy and delightful, and even in winter is
+not too cold. Along its valleys are many prosperous haciendas and
+picturesque <i>fincas</i>, or country places, where various kinds of
+fruits and vegetables are grown. Cattle roam over the lower mountain
+slopes, and every condition is favorable for the future development
+of this locality as one of the richest in pastoral and agricultural
+possibilities as well as mineral wealth. Nowhere are valleys more
+picturesque, the skies bluer, or the fragrance of flowers and shade of
+trees more attractive to the sight than in this charming little border
+city.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_396">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_396.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PLAZA OF TUPIZA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_398">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_398.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE INDIAN MISSION OF SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXV<br>
+<span class="subhed">SANTA CRUZ, THE CENTRE OF A RICH AGRICULTURAL DISTRICT</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_399">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_399.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COAT OF ARMS OF SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Santa Cruz de la Sierra is the only Bolivian city of importance which
+is tropical in climate as well as locality. Although it is situated
+at about the same distance from the equator as La Paz and Oruro, it
+bears little resemblance to these cities in natural scenery, because
+of the great difference in altitude. Too distant from the Cordillera
+Real to be influenced by its temperature, and lying in the midst of a
+valley not more than one thousand five hundred feet above sea level,
+Santa Cruz is essentially a tropical city, though the heat is never
+insupportable, as pleasant breezes are constantly blowing from the
+<i>serranias</i> of Valle Grande on the west and those of Chiquitos on
+the east. It is a typical Spanish city, with spacious plazas, shaded
+by wide-branching trees and beautified by luxuriant gardens. Its long
+<i>calles</i> are, like those of Spanish cities everywhere, walled
+on each side by solid-looking houses, and they present very artistic
+features in their picturesque <i>miradores</i> and quaint, barred
+windows, where a pretty <i>señorita</i> may sometimes be seen looking
+out, as a handsome <i>caballero</i> lingers near to pay homage to the
+charm of her “adorable eyes.” For the Cruceña, as a lady of Santa Cruz
+is called, is generally beautiful, graceful, and of a frank, happy
+disposition, altogether charming. The city is not more Spanish-looking
+than its people, who represent the pure Castilian type, and preserve,
+with few changes, the customs and characteristics of their Iberian
+ancestors, proud of their descent from the noblest families of Spain.
+Foreigners who have visited the city of Santa Cruz and its neighboring
+<i>estancias</i>, as the large cattle ranches are called, invariably
+remark upon the Spanish type of the people, and the very slight
+evidence of an admixture of races to be seen here. The population
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span> the city is about nineteen thousand, of which two hundred are of
+foreign origin, belonging to German, Italian, and other nationalities.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Santa Cruz was founded, as elsewhere stated, by Ñuflo
+de Chavez, soon after the Spanish conquest, and was later removed
+to its present site and given the name of Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
+Everyone who is familiar with Bolivian history knows with what
+courage and success the Cruceños sustained their part in the struggle
+for independence, and that the famous victory of La Florida, one
+of the most brilliant of the war, was due to their bravery. The
+history of the republic bears record to the patriotism and genius
+of many distinguished Cruceños who have achieved national fame as
+statesmen, diplomats, jurists, littérateurs, and orators. Don Santiago
+Vaca-Guzmán, a Cruceño, has written gems of prose and verse, and
+represented his country abroad as minister plenipotentiary with honor
+and distinction. Don Manuel Ignacio Salvatierra, one of the most
+illustrious statesmen Bolivia ever had, was a native of Santa Cruz, and
+loved the pretty city of La Sierra better than any other, though he was
+received at all the courts of Europe and welcomed in the intellectual
+circles of its chief cities; he was a member of the Cabinet in his own
+country as minister of finance, and was <i>fiscal general</i> of the
+republic. Don Rafael Peña, also a Cruceño, has filled many offices of
+distinction, and has rendered invaluable services to the government as
+prefect of Santa Cruz, minister of the Supreme Court of the nation,
+and <i>fiscal general</i>, and he has written books of great merit,
+especially <i>La Flora Cruceña</i>, which is regarded as one of the
+most important contributions to Bolivian literature. Don Juan Francisco
+Velarde, Bolivian minister to Washington a few years ago, and several
+times member of the Cabinet, is a noted journalist and writer. Don
+Gabriel Réné Moreno, one of the most brilliant writers of South
+America, and Don Ignacio Terán, the learned director of the University
+of San Francisco Xavier, are proud to claim Santa Cruz as their native
+city. These are only a few names selected to show how active the
+Cruceño is in contributing his share to the national progress.</p>
+
+<p>Santa Cruz de la Sierra is situated in the central part of the
+department of Santa Cruz, and in a well-watered region, marking the
+divide which from this point eastward separates the tributaries of
+the Madeira from those of the Paraguay. Although distant about three
+hundred and fifty miles from Cochabamba, the nearest large city, Santa
+Cruz is reached on horseback without difficulty, though sometimes, in
+the wet season, with delays occasioned by bad roads. The citizens are
+naturally desirous of seeing the early completion of the new railroad
+system, which will put them in closer connection not only with other
+cities, but also with the chief shipping port of the department,
+Puerto Suarez. But though so remote from the popular highways of
+travel, the city has many modern conveniences, fine public buildings,
+and commodious residences. As the seat of a bishopric, it has a
+cathedral of imposing structure; and the government palace, national
+college, agricultural school, public library, and hospital occupy
+well-constructed edifices. Manufacturing establishments are numerous,
+including saw mills, silk and cotton factories, tanneries, and various
+small enterprises devoted to the manufacture of <i>dulces</i>, or
+preserved fruits, chocolate, and other confections.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[391]</span> Panamá hats, which
+are woven of <i>jipijapa</i> fibre, are also made in this city. All
+the commerce between Santa Cruz and foreign countries passes through
+the ports of Villa Bella, Puerto Suarez, and Antofagasta. The city is
+connected with the other department capitals by telegraph, and several
+long-distance telephone lines connect it with neighboring towns and
+with the provincial capitals of the department. Roads lead out of the
+capital to all the principal cities of the department. In the vicinity
+of the city are celebrated mineral springs and thermal baths of the
+highest medicinal value.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_401">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_401.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GOVERNMENT PALACE, SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_402">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_402.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CALLE FLORIDA, SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The department of Santa Cruz comprises one of the most productive
+regions of South America. It is so favored by climate and an abundance
+of natural resources that travellers unite in pronouncing it a
+wonderful land of promise, awaiting only the necessary industrial
+enterprise and commercial facilities to convert it into the most
+flourishing and prosperous of agricultural countries. Nature seems
+to have bestowed unlimited wealth on this territory, in which gold
+and precious stones are known to abound, forests of rubber trees
+yield great wealth, all kinds of fruits and cereals grow with little
+cultivation, and cattle raising is always a profitable enterprise. The
+department covers about twenty thousand square leagues. Its western
+boundary is marked by the headwaters of the Mamoré, which divide it
+from the department of Cochabamba; on the east it extends to the
+Paraguay River and to the Rio Verde branch of the Guaporé, by both
+of which it is separated from Brazil;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span> the department of the Beni
+extends across its northern boundary, and to the south it adjoins
+the department of Chuquisaca. The western section is close to the
+foothills of the Cordillera Real, the provinces of Valle Grande,
+Cercado, and Sara, which border the department of Cochabamba, being
+traversed by <i>serranias</i> that are rich in minerals and afford
+unlimited pasturage for cattle on their fertile slopes. In the south
+are grown peaches, oranges, lemons, figs, bananas, and pineapples,
+while in the central and northern districts the more tropical dates,
+<i>chirimoyas</i>, and <i>granadillas</i> are cultivated. Medicinal
+trees and plants of great value are found here, the best known
+being the cinchona, from which quinine is extracted, the coca, the
+sarsaparilla,—<i>smilax medica</i>,—and the jalap. Almost every
+agricultural product known is cultivated in some section of the
+department. Wheat, corn, and alfalfa grow in abundance in the hills of
+the western districts, and in the rolling plains and more level tracts
+of the central provinces of Velasco and Chiquitos are large plantations
+of sugar cane, cotton, cacao, cocoa, mandioca, vanilla, tobacco,
+rice, and coffee. The low lands which border the upper streams of the
+Paraguay and the Guaporé are rich in rubber trees, an important source
+of revenue to the department. The growth of all products is luxuriant,
+corn being harvested three months after planting, sugar cane within
+eight months, and rice every five or six months. Chiquitos produces
+rice without cultivation. An example of the enormous undeveloped wealth
+of eastern Bolivia is shown in the rice crop alone, which is hardly
+sufficient to supply the market of a single province of the department.
+Though rice can be planted at any season of the year, is cultivated
+with the greatest facility, grows so abundantly that for every bushel
+sown the harvest is forty bushels, and is of the very best quality,
+yet millions of pounds of rice are imported every year. A planter
+has been known to sow a <i>fanega</i>, about one and a half bushels,
+at the beginning of the year, harvest forty fanegas in five months,
+plant the forty fanegas immediately and gather at the end of the
+year a harvest of one thousand six hundred fanegas, the year’s labor
+having recompensed him by an increase of one thousand five hundred and
+fifty-nine fanegas. There are two kinds of Bolivian rice, the white and
+the pink variety. The soil and climate of Santa Cruz are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[393]</span> peculiarly
+suited to its cultivation, and it will no doubt be one of the principal
+products of the department in the near future, as the attention of
+progressive agriculturists has already been attracted to the great
+possibilities of this industry.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_403">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_403.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">OLD QUARTER OF SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Another product which grows in prolific abundance and of superior
+quality in Santa Cruz is the sugar cane. This department should be one
+of the greatest sugar-producing regions in the world, so favorable
+are the conditions for its cultivation. At present only the most
+primitive methods are used in the development of this industry, while
+the expense of transportation is too great to make it as profitable
+as it should be. When modern machinery is imported to take the place
+of the antiquated apparatus which has been generally used, the sugar
+industry will become one of Bolivia’s greatest sources of wealth. The
+influence of the progressive conditions that have been governing the
+country during the past few years is having a beneficial effect on
+agricultural as well as other enterprises. The report for 1905 shows
+a notable increase over the five preceding years in the quantity of
+sugar exported, which amounts to more than a million pounds annually.
+Little or none of the Santa Cruz sugar leaves Bolivia, most of it being
+consumed in this and other departments, excepting in Chuquisaca and
+Potosí, which grow their own sugar. The manufacture of alcohol and rum
+increases every year, the quantity produced by Santa Cruz alone being
+estimated at three hundred thousand gallons annually. The process
+of setting out a sugar plantation is described by those who have
+seen it as the simplest imaginable. First a space is cleared in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[394]</span> the
+<i>bosque</i> by cutting down the trees and underbrush; and a few days
+afterward, when the wood is quite dry, it is set on fire and burned, to
+leave the land perfectly clean for cultivation. Then the planter, with
+a wooden stick, digs holes in the ground, about three feet apart, and
+in each of these he plants a piece of cane, pushing it down into the
+soil with his hand. This is done in November, and in May the harvesting
+begins. Such a plantation will continue to yield for four years, each
+successive harvest producing a sweeter quality of sugar. The cane grows
+to a height of from fifteen to twenty feet the first year.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_404">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_404.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PICTURESQUE PLAZA OF SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Cotton grows with so little cultivation that it receives hardly any
+attention, though it will no doubt provide an important industry when
+improved transportation facilities lead to the general development of
+agriculture on a larger scale.</p>
+
+<p>Although the cinchona tree grows in great abundance in the department,
+this industry is, like nearly every other of eastern Bolivia, still in
+the infancy of development. There are vast forests of these trees which
+have not even been thoroughly explored, and the few <i>quinales</i>,
+as the quinine-producing plantations are called, which are exploited
+by large companies, chiefly belong to foreign syndicates. These
+<i>quinales</i> are usually situated on the slopes of the mountains,
+at an altitude of from three thousand to seven thousand feet above sea
+level, and have been raised from seed gathered in the springtime and
+sprouted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span> in hothouses. The trees grow within five years to a height
+of eighteen feet, straight and slender in form, the trunk measuring
+about twenty inches in circumference. After five years’ growth it is
+sufficiently developed to yield bark for the market, a few strips about
+two inches wide and five feet long being cut from the trunk and laid
+out to dry before shipment. This is done twice or three times a year,
+the bark growing anew within a couple of years, when the tree may be
+stripped again, in other places. Older trees yield bark from their
+largest branches, as well as from the trunk, and a mature tree will
+produce on an average about five pounds of bark.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_405">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_405.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CALLE DEL COMERCIO, SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Petroleum is found in abundance in the department of Santa Cruz,
+within ten leagues of its capital city, and yet this valuable product
+remains unexploited, while four bolivianos per gallon are paid for
+the imported article. In the provinces of Valle Grande and Sara iron
+and mercury exist in large quantities, gold abounds in the mountains
+and streams of Chiquitos province, and salt is a product of several
+lakes of the department. Besides the celebrated mine of Santa Rosa,
+which is situated in the province of Velasco about two hundred miles
+north of the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, on the border of the San
+Miguel River, and which, as stated elsewhere, has long been a famous
+gold-mining centre, there are other rich and promising placer mines in
+this province and in Chiquitos. Sorotocó, Quebrada Ancha, Clemente,
+Limas, Pehichi, Brígida, and Naranjos are names well known to Bolivian
+miners as belonging to districts that have yielded many thousands of
+pounds of gold within the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[396]</span> past half-century. Every explorer who visits
+Chiquitos returns with wonderful stories of its mineral wealth and the
+precious stones to be found there. San José, which lies on theroute
+of the new railway to be built from Santa Cruz to Puerto Suarez, has
+been worked only in the most primitive fashion, yet has produced large
+quantities of gold, and the whole province of Chiquitos gives promise
+of proving a rich storehouse full of the precious metal when once its
+mountains and streams are thoroughly explored. Most of the rivers in
+the department contain gold, and the river system is very extensive,
+including affluents both of the Amazon and the La Plata waterways.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_406">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_406.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VIEW OF SANTA CRUZ, SHOWING LAKE IN THE VICINITY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The western part of Santa Cruz department is watered chiefly by the
+Rio Grande or Guapay, which after traversing the provinces of Valle
+Grande and Sara, turns northward to join the Mamoré. This large river
+is navigable throughout nearly its whole length, and its tributaries,
+the Piray and the Yapacaní, which flow through the province of
+Sara, are also navigable for <i>callapos</i> and <i>balsas</i>. The
+province of Velasco is watered by the river San Miguel, which rises in
+Lake Concepcion on the border of Chiquitos province and crosses the
+department in a northwesterly direction, joining the Guaporé, after
+traversing the eastern section of the department of the Beni. It is an
+important river and receives many tributaries throughout its course,
+chief among them the Rio Negro. Dense forests of rubber are found along
+the route of these rivers, as well as in the neighborhood of the Rio
+Blanco, the Serre or Paragua, and the Rio Verde, all of which rise in
+Velasco province and, after crossing the Beni, join the Guaporé. The
+Rio Verde is especially rich<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[397]</span> in rubber trees, and has the additional
+importance of marking the source of navigation on this branch of the
+Madeira system of waterways. The recently established port of Iténez
+at the junction of the Rio Verde with the Guaporé, on the northeastern
+boundary of Santa Cruz department, is an important acquisition to the
+transportation facilities of this region.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_407">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_407.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CACIQUE AND HIS FAMILY, SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Of the river system which fertilizes the southern provinces of
+Chiquitos and La Cordillera, the principal affluent is the Otuquis, or
+Rio Negro, a tributary of the Paraguay, formed by the confluence of
+the Tucabaca and the San Rafael Rivers. The Tucabaca is a small stream
+which receives its waters from the periodical torrents that sweep down
+from the <i>serranias</i> of Santiago and Sunsa, and it flows through
+an almost uninterrupted stretch of virgin forest, and between level
+banks free from undergrowth, though the river is impeded at intervals
+by the débris which usually collects in the channels of forest streams.
+The San Rafael is formed by the uniting of many small affluents from
+the <i>serranias</i> of Santiago, and in its course to the Otuquis
+it receives the thermal waters of Florida and Topera, entering the
+main river under the name of Agua Caliente, “hot water,” at a point
+called Santo Corazón. The Otuquis is navigable for thirty-six miles
+from its mouth, and may be made a serviceable waterway for a distance
+of two hundred and fifty miles when the work of clearing its channel
+from tree trunks and other obstacles is completed. The Pirapiti, which
+rises in the <i>serrania</i> of Pomabamba, department of Chuquisaca,
+is variously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[398]</span> given as a tributary of the Otuquis, which it is said
+to join near the headwaters of the latter, as an independent river
+emptying into Lake Concepcion, and as a tributary of the San Miguel,
+which is generally described as having its source in Lake Concepcion,
+in the province of Chiquitos. This lake is one of the most important in
+the department, having a circumference of about twenty leagues, though
+there are several lagoons, called <i>curiches</i> and <i>bañados</i>,
+along the courses of the various rivers which water the department.
+The Salinas de Santiago and Salinas de San José, in the province of La
+Cordillera, are similar in appearance to those of Poopo and Coipasa on
+the Titicaca plateau, and are noted for their saline properties.</p>
+
+<p>The river system of the eastern part of Bolivia is somewhat
+complicated, there being some sections of the great <i>divortia
+aquarum</i>, or water divide, between the Amazon and La Plata system,
+which are so slightly marked that a heavy flood is sufficient to alter
+the direction of the currents. The Rio Aguaclara, which flows into the
+Alegre and is known a few miles below as the Guaporé, rises in the
+same <i>cerro</i> as the Pezca which is a branch of the Jaurú, as the
+Paraguay River is called for the first few miles of its course. The
+Guaporé and the Paraguay are only five miles apart, and it has been
+suggested that the two waterways could be profitably joined for the
+purposes of commerce. At Bahia Negra, which is the name given to that
+region of the Upper Paraguay which marks the junction of the Paraguay
+with the Otuquis, the main river is bordered by very low banks hardly
+more than five or six feet above the water at high tide and subject to
+inundation during the rainy season. Puerto Pacheco, which is situated
+south of Bahia Negra, in the region popularly known as the Chaco
+Boreal, and at a distance of one thousand five hundred miles from
+Buenos Aires, is the chief river port of this part of Bolivia. To the
+north of Puerto Pacheco, the Paraguay River has sufficient depth for
+the navigation of small steamers as far as Lakes Gaiba and Uberaba,
+where the Jaurú enters a broader channel and becomes known as the
+Paraguay. The Gaiba is deep enough to admit boats drawing from six
+to eight feet of water. This is one of the richest zones of eastern
+Bolivia; and once it is opened to industrial development, pasture
+lands of the first order will be established here, an increasing
+demand will be made for the forest lands on which valuable timber
+grows in abundance, and the advantages of this region for the purposes
+of agriculture, such as coffee growing and rice culture, will be
+recognized. When one considers how desperate is the competition in
+industry and commerce in the overcrowded countries of Europe, and what
+a constant struggle the masses have to endure in order to get their
+daily bread, it is not surprising that enthusiasm should be awakened at
+the spectacle of the abundance which is to be had by little effort in
+these vast forests and fertile plains, and the prediction is naturally
+forced upon one that the day is not far distant when the steamers that
+ply up and down the Paraguay will bring multitudes of immigrants to its
+shores, and that the thousands of square leagues which now lie idle
+will provide for the comfort and well-being of many happy colonists.</p>
+
+<p>As in all tropical countries, the climate of the department of Santa
+Cruz is marked by only two seasons, the winter being known as the dry
+and the summer as the wet season.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span> Winter usually begins in April and
+lasts until September or October, and is characterized by alternating
+north and south winds, the north wind being very pleasant, but the
+south wind bringing such an abrupt lowering of the temperature that the
+inhabitants are obliged to wear heavy clothing during the two or three
+days that it lasts. The warm season becomes more marked each month
+from September until February or March; and the rains, which begin in
+December or January, continue until April, diminishing gradually. In
+the southern part the seasons are modified, and in Chiquitos, where the
+<i>serranias</i> mark an altitude of four or five thousand feet above
+sea level, the four seasons are very clearly defined.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_409">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_409.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">LAS BARRERAS, A HACIENDA NEAR SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Hunting is one of the pastimes afforded by the abundance of wild
+animals in the forests of Santa Cruz, the game being of the species
+usually found in tropical countries. Handsome tiger skins are
+frequently brought into the city for sale, as well as huge cobra skins,
+the largest to be found anywhere, some of them measuring thirty feet
+in length. Foxes, rabbits, tapirs, wildcats, and monkeys abound. The
+sloth is a native of these <i>bosques</i>, and is seen everywhere in
+the great tropical forests of Velasco. It is very interesting to watch
+this animal, the symbol of laziness, slowly making its two or three
+feet of progress a day. It has protection from attack in long talons,
+which it fixes so securely in the flesh of the enemy that they can be
+removed only by being cut out. So deliberate are its movements that a
+hare can run miles while it is turning its head. The sloth is about the
+size of a cat, though it bears no resemblance whatever to the feline
+species. Its coat is of coarse gray hair. Fishermen find good sport in
+the streams, though there are not many varieties of fish, but turtles
+are found of every kind. The forests abound in every variety of the
+feathered species from the magnificent macaw with its glorious plumage
+flashing in the sunlight, where golden rays pierce the deep shadows
+of tropical woodland, to the tiny humming bird that sparkles like a
+brilliant gem as it sips the sweetest blossoms of groves that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[400]</span> are
+laden with perfumed flowers. Hunters seldom disturb these beautiful
+birds, and they enjoy unlimited freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The charm of the tropics is acknowledged by all who have lived under
+its spell for a time. There is a beauty in the great, towering monarchs
+of the forest, in the luxuriant verdure, in the rich greens of the
+valleys, and in the gorgeous hues of a thousand blossoms. The birds are
+so happy in perpetual summer land, and even those which do not sing are
+enchanting in their gay plumage and graceful flight. Murmuring streams
+and flashing cascades have a beauty that is irresistible, and there is
+no voice so alluring as the whisper of the tropical breeze borne upon
+the still air of Nature’s ideal dreamland.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_410">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_410.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE CACTUS OF SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_412">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_412.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">OPENING THE ROAD FROM PUERTO PACHECO, ON THE PARAGUAY
+RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[403]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVI<br>
+<span class="subhed">TARIJA—EXPLORATIONS IN THE CHACO</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The city of San Bernardo de Tarija, founded in 1574 as a Spanish
+settlement for the headquarters of the missionaries who were
+working among the Indians of the Chaco, still preserves some of
+the characteristics of the old Spanish convent city, the handsome
+cathedral and the temple and convent of San Francisco being among its
+most conspicuous buildings. The city has an interesting history, the
+chronicles of colonial times, which are preserved in the national
+archives, recording such deeds of heroism on the part of its early
+inhabitants as are seldom surpassed in the annals of a people. When
+the Viceroy Toledo visited Potosí in 1573 he was informed of the great
+difficulties encountered by the Christian fathers in their efforts to
+civilize the Chiriguanos of the Chaco, and of the dangers in which they
+constantly risked their lives, and he at once decided to establish
+garrisoned Spanish towns along the frontiers of the Chichas territory,
+which adjoined that of the Chiriguanos. The Chichas were peaceable
+tribes, inhabiting the district now comprised in the department
+of Tarija, and they had suffered from the hostile and predatory
+Chiriguanos long before the conquest, the Incas having been obliged
+to construct fortifications for the protection of the vassals of the
+empire against these savages of the Chaco, who could never be brought
+under Inca dominion.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_413">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_413.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GIANT TREE IN TARIJA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[404]</span></p>
+
+<p>On January 22, 1574, the viceroy despatched a commission under the
+direction of a Spanish noble named Don Luis de Fuentes, with authority
+to found, in the valley of Tarija, a city with the name of San Bernardo
+de la Frontera. The founder received the title of captain and chief
+justice of the new city and of all its jurisdiction, extending for
+fifty leagues, twenty in the territory of the Chichas, and thirty in
+the Chiriguanos’ lands. He was also given full power to remunerate
+those who took part in the conquest and population of the new country,
+distributing among them the lands they were to occupy. As founder, he
+was rewarded with one-fourth of these lands. It is related that Don
+Luis Fuentes found it very difficult to secure colonists, because,
+though the viceroy promised much for the future, there was little to
+live upon in the meantime, and the atrocities constantly committed by
+the Chiriguanos struck terror to the hearts of the boldest. Finally
+about forty-five Spaniards from Potosí and Chuquisaca were induced to
+settle in the new town, an equal number of Indians were employed to
+begin the work of laying out the town and constructing the houses, and
+the vicar of a Dominican convent of Chuquisaca was engaged as chaplain
+to the people. With such an insignificant defense did the brave
+missionaries establish their headquarters on a frontier where more than
+six thousand Indians were prepared for war, offensive and defensive,
+opposing with poisoned arrows any attempt of the Spaniards to interfere
+with their raids on the Chichas’ camps. While the millionaires of
+Potosí were enjoying the luxury of their wealth from the mines of
+the Cerro, and the Spanish monarch was employing his newly acquired
+revenues to equip the famous Armada with which he hoped to bring new
+glory to Spanish arms and humiliation to Queen Elizabeth of England,
+a few devoted soldiers of the Cross were establishing themselves,
+without aid and without ostentation, on the remote frontiers of a new
+country, in the midst of a savage people, surrounded by danger, and
+menaced by starvation, to work for the civilization and conversion of
+colonial Spain. They renounced comfort, peace, and security, and went
+into voluntary and lifelong exile among the Indians to accomplish their
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The tradition relating to the supposed missionary journeys of Saint
+Thomas in South America is associated in a singular way with the
+sacred relics long preserved in the church of Tarija. Soon after the
+foundation of the city, a large wooden cross, apparently very old and
+having done much service, was found by an Indian in one of the caves
+of the hills several leagues distant from the city, in a part of the
+country which, it was supposed, had not hitherto been visited by the
+Spaniards. The cross, which was about fifteen feet in height, was
+much worn, and the bottom was decayed as if from having been buried
+in the ground. The only explanation of its origin was supplied by the
+Indians of the Chaco, who, like the natives of the Titicaca region,
+had a popular legend of a tall man of pale complexion, with long hair
+and beard, and dressed in flowing garments almost to his feet. Their
+ancestors had handed down the story that the pale stranger was a great
+teacher who went about among the tribes, telling them that God had come
+into the world and died on a cross, like one which he brought with him
+and set up in their midst. The sacred relic was placed in the church of
+Tarija, which became celebrated as a shrine where many miracles were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span>
+wrought. Whatever may be the true story of this particular cross, it is
+believed by many students of the history of the South American Indians
+that a cross was used as a religious symbol by some of the tribes long
+before the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_415">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_415.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE NARROWS, NEAR TARIJA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The city founded under such adverse circumstances grew slowly at
+first, the population being reduced soon after its foundation to about
+twenty-five inhabitants; but the resolute spirit of the colonists
+triumphed over disaster and sickness, and gradually the town increased
+in numbers, importance, and wealth. In 1690 the little settlement had
+three hundred citizens, five convents, a hospital, and a college.
+During the viceroyalty Tarija was under the administration of the
+Intendencia of Potosí, but after the inauguration of the republic the
+department of Tarija was formed, with San Bernardo de Tarija as its
+capital city. The name Tarija was given in honor of the discoverer
+of the site on which the city was founded. It lies in a picturesque
+valley at an elevation of seven thousand feet above sea level, and
+is noted for its delightful climate and beautiful scenery. The
+present population is eight<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span> thousand, of whom about two hundred are
+foreigners. As capital of the department, Tarija is the residence of
+the prefect, and the seat of a court of justice, university council,
+committee of public safety, and other departmental organizations.
+The city has an excellent public library, twelve schools for primary
+and secondary instruction, a university, two banks, a hospital, and
+public buildings of minor importance. Many of the private residences
+are handsome modern structures, of European style, with pretty gardens
+and shade trees to beautify them. Two newspapers are published, one
+of which, <i>La Estrella de Tarija</i>, was founded many years ago.
+The social life of Tarija is particularly charming, the people being
+cultured and gracious in manner and extremely hospitable. The city
+has not hitherto been especially noted as a commercial centre, though
+always an important highway for traffic entering Bolivia through
+Argentina. It has been chiefly regarded as a city more distinguished
+for political than commercial influence, as its most prominent men
+have always been identified with the affairs of government. The
+present minister of instruction, Señor Don Juan Saracho, was born
+in Tarija, which was also the birthplace of ex-President Arce and
+of the illustrious soldier and statesman General Campero. Senator
+Tomás O’Connor d’Arlach, one of Bolivia’s best poets, is a Tarijeño,
+belonging to a family who have, for generations past, been among its
+most distinguished citizens. The fame of its Christian teachers and
+missionaries is still preserved by such self-sacrificing and kindly
+souls as Father Giannechini, who is esteemed not only by his own
+people, but by many foreign travellers who have enjoyed his assistance
+and hospitality. Dr. Crevaux, the noted French explorer of the Chaco,
+not only reported to the Bolivian government how deeply he was indebted
+to the good father for aid and information, but paid an enthusiastic
+tribute to the noble priest in his letters to the French government
+as well. He has accompanied several hazardous expeditions through
+the wilds of the Chaco, and was chaplain to the Bolivian commission
+which in 1883 made a survey of the national territory bordering on the
+Paraguay River. The explorer Thouar and his party expressed in letters
+their eternal gratitude for the kind services shown them by Father
+Giannechini, whose name is known to all travellers who have occasion to
+journey in this part of Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>Not only have explorers visited Tarija in the interests of botany and
+ethnology, which present special features in the region of the Chaco,
+but palæontologists have found in the vicinity of the city itself some
+of the most valuable fossils ever discovered. In all the great museums
+of the world specimens from the valley of Tarija are on exhibition,
+and especially in the Museum of Natural History of Paris, to which
+the noted naturalist H. A. Weddell contributed many fine fossils as a
+result of his visit to this region. He describes the valley as having
+the aspect of an immense channel, which he thinks it evidently was
+at some period. The hills scattered over its surface give apparent
+proof that it was traversed by much more tumultuous currents than
+those that now water its course. The diluvial nature of the soil is
+particularly evident in the immediate vicinity of the city, where the
+ground is cut in all directions by deep fissures crossing each other in
+a labyrinth, and leaving isolated hillocks at intervals, some of them
+distinguished by the most bizarre shapes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span> The walls of these gullies
+show plainly that the soil of the valley, down to a great depth, is
+formed of an immense bed of mud, due to the former action of a strong
+current of water. The fossils found here, according to Mr. Weddell, are
+of various kinds. His collection included not only the <i>Mastodonte
+Humboldtii</i>, but the remains of about fifteen other animals of the
+mammiferous species. He unearthed bones and teeth of the Megatherium,
+a variety which was larger than the rhinoceros, and found fragments
+of prehistoric shellfish, rodents, ruminants, species of the horse,
+the deer, and other animals, all herbivorous, with the exception of
+a single specimen which is supposed to belong to the bear family.
+Mr. Weddell’s theory is that a powerful current of water brought the
+fossils from another locality, and as its force was abated in passing
+through the valley, they were deposited in this place.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_417">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_417.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">BOLIVIAN COMMISSION OF LIMITS, ENCAMPED IN THE CHACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Tarija is chiefly interesting as the centre of a territory which is
+rich in industrial possibilities and practically an unexploited field
+for enterprises of this character. The department covers an area of one
+hundred and eighty-four thousand square kilomètres and is divided into
+six provinces: Cercado, Mendez, Aviléz, Arce, Salinas, and Gran Chaco.
+All the provinces, with the exception of the Gran Chaco are traversed
+by <i>serranias</i> of considerable altitude, though diminishing toward
+the east, where great rolling plains and gently sloping hills provide
+abundant pasturage for cattle. On the higher levels, wheat, corn, and
+barley are grown of a superior quality and in plenty, while the more
+tropical districts of the Chaco yield bountiful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span> harvests of rice,
+tobacco, and the usual tropical products. In the mountain districts
+minerals and precious stones are found, but little capital has been
+invested for the development of mining properties. The climate is
+superb in the western part of the department, the Gran Chaco being more
+tropical, though healthful and agreeable. All the rivers of this region
+are tributaries of the Paraguay: the Pilcomayo and the Bermejo are the
+principal waterways.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_418">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_418.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PALM TREES IN THE GRAN CHACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In a recent report to the supreme government, the Prefect of Tarija,
+Colonel Don Leocadio Trigo, gives a complete description of the
+climate, natural resources, and the inhabitants of the Gran Chaco,
+which affords a glimpse of the condition and people of this little
+known but very important province. Colonel Trigo led an expedition
+which explored the left bank of the Pilcomayo for fifty leagues down
+its course, starting from Caiza, a few miles north of Yacuiba on the
+Argentine boundary. From Caiza to the Crevaux colony, one of the
+recently established posts on the river, at about twenty-two degrees
+south latitude, the distance is twenty-five leagues, fourteen of which
+extends through fertile territory, offering little difficulty to
+development. Crevaux colony lies on a beautiful peninsula, on the right
+bank of the Pilcomayo, and is the centre of extensive pasture lands.
+A small garrison is established here. From Crevaux colony to the next
+settlement on the river. Fort Murillo, the distance is six leagues,
+the river being crossed at this point in small canoes, which the
+Indians call <i>chalanas</i>. At Fort Murillo sugar cane is cultivated,
+though cattle raising is the chief industry. From Fort Murillo to Fort
+Campero, about thirty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[409]</span> leagues further down the river, the exploring
+party passed through the territory of the Tobas and the Chorotis,
+Indians of the Chaco, semi-civilized tribes. Many <i>estancias</i>
+belonging to Bolivian ranchmen were visited on the way, one of the
+largest being the property of Señor Gomez, a typical “cattle king”
+of the Chaco. Everywhere pasturage was abundant, and sufficient
+fish and game were caught for the needs of the expedition. At the
+<i>estancia</i> of Señor Gomez the prefect was visited by several
+chiefs of the Tobas, to whom the friendly mission of the government
+was explained satisfactorily, the Indians promising not to oppose the
+progress of civilization in their territory. From Fort Murillo onward
+the <i>bosques</i>, which were frequent higher up the river, became
+more scattered and of lesser growth, disappearing finally in open
+fields of pasturage. The river Pilcomayo at various points overflowed
+its low banks, spreading out in marshes, or <i>bañados</i>, changing
+its channel, and occasionally forming peninsulas, on which rice, sugar
+cane, cotton, and corn are grown almost without cultivation. As the
+river approaches the Paraguay its channel becomes deeper and narrower,
+and its banks higher and better defined, making navigation easier. The
+zone inhabited by the Chiriguanos is marked by a great forest of palm
+trees which stretches along the river bank for a considerable distance.
+In an interview with the Indian chief it was learned that these tribes
+were better disposed than formerly to come under the influences of
+civilization, and their leader asked for supplies and the necessary
+guarantees, which were given, the chief being presented by the prefect
+with a Remington rifle to insure his protection against invading hordes.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_419">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_419.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SCENE ON THE PILCOMAYO RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>At Fort Campero, on the river Pilcomayo, the territory of the Tobas
+joins that of the Chorotis, the tribes of which are three times
+more numerous and are in possession of a much greater extent of
+land than the Tobas. Still further down the river the Tapietes are
+dominant, living in the depths of the forests and remaining completely
+uncivilized. The other two tribes are more advanced, and frequently
+seek employment in the haciendas and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span> pueblos of Gran Chaco. In all
+their settlements, Indians are met with who speak a little Spanish.
+Colonel Trigo, in his report of the expedition, says that while their
+arrival appeared to cause little surprise to the Tobas, who received
+them all along the route with friendliness, the Chorotis tried by every
+possible means to discourage their progress by depicting all kinds
+of dangers. As the party proceeded in spite of the evil predictions
+of the Indians, the country presented a more beautiful aspect than
+anything seen before. The pasture was rich and covered a vast extent
+of territory, and distant <i>bosques</i> lent a picturesque variety
+to the scenery. Beyond this magnificent stretch of plain, which the
+enthusiastic explorers called a perfect paradise, they came upon
+a Choroti settlement, which marked the boundary line between the
+territory of the Chorotis and the Tapietes. Here they rested for the
+night, the Indians refusing to trade with them, or even to converse,
+until they had assembled in parliament. When it was made known to them
+that the government sought their protection and well-being, and the
+advancement of civilization in their midst, they appeared well pleased
+with the idea. The conference ended with the distribution of the usual
+presents of tobacco and other articles, the oldest woman of the tribe
+chanting a weird, monotonous song in token of the friendly acceptance
+of the strangers’ visit.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_420">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_420.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CAMP OF CHOROTIS ON THE PLAINS OF THE BOLIVIAN CHACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The story of the journey made by the Prefect of Tarija and his
+commission for fifty leagues through unexplored territory and in the
+midst of uncivilized Indians has many interesting features besides
+the simple relation of meetings with friendly tribes and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span> usual
+experiences of an exploring party. There were days when the heat was
+intense, when the path led through dense forest, over sandy stretches,
+and through thorny undergrowth where it was necessary to cut a route
+with hatchets. The guides were not always faithful, and seldom
+truthful, especially those of the Chorotis, who did not at first relish
+the idea of the white man’s invasion, though they became good friends
+of the expedition as its motive was made known. The Tapietes offered
+no welcome to the advancing party, but, on the contrary, burned their
+camps at the newcomers’ approach. When face to face with the prefect
+and his followers, however, the Tapietes did not show themselves
+so valiant. The firearms and other accoutrements of the white man
+filled them with especial admiration for his prowess. After the usual
+formalities, they were informed of the purpose of the expedition, and
+gave the promise of their friendliness.</p>
+
+<p>The exploration made by the Prefect of Tarija along the course of
+the Pilcomayo proves that it waters a region rich in pasturage and
+offering great advantages for colonization. Much of the territory
+through which the journey was made is as abundant in pasturage as the
+best lands of Argentina, and there is practically no limit to the
+possibilities of development. On the few <i>estancias</i> scattered
+throughout the country fine cattle and horses are reared, and chickens,
+ducks, and other barnyard fowl thrive here. The journey gave proof
+of the facilities existing for the opening up of traffic in this
+part of Bolivia by way of the Pilcomayo and Paraguay Rivers, as
+navigation for small craft is easy and boats and barges of sufficient
+capacity for carrying considerable cargo can be used on this waterway.
+Dr. Santiago Vaca Guzmán has written an interesting book entitled
+<i>El Pilcomayo</i>, in which he gives a great deal of valuable
+information about this great river: The Pilcomayo, in its course of
+six hundred miles, waters three distinct regions; that of the Bolivian
+<i>serranias</i>, where it rises, called the <i>puna</i> by some
+geographers; that of the plains, where it spreads out over a wide area
+in the rainy season; and that of its <i>embouchure</i>, comprised
+in the delta by which it enters the Paraguay. In its long course it
+receives several affluents, the Tarapaya being particularly notable as
+the stream which supplies many <i>ingenios</i> of Potosí with water,
+and which, during the early period of the silver mining industry,
+carried millions of dollars’ worth of the precious metal down to the
+Pilcomayo. It is the opinion of those who have explored the Pilcomayo
+that it may be made navigable from the point where its main tributaries
+enter the river at the base of the Royal Range to the Paraguay, and
+that in order to accomplish this benefit it is necessary only to use
+a dredge in some parts and to clear the débris in others, so that the
+river course may be better regulated.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Chaco is generally applied to the great region which
+extends from the province of Chiquitos in the department of Santa Cruz
+to the Rio Salado on the northern border of the Argentine pampas. It
+is divided into the Chaco Boreal, or northern Chaco, of which Puerto
+Pacheco is the chief river port; Chaco Central, of which Villa Hayes
+is the river port at the mouth of the Pilcomayo, and Chaco Austral, in
+the Argentine republic. By a recent treaty of limits with Argentina,
+Bolivia ceded its claim to that part of the Chaco comprised between the
+Pilcomayo and Bermejo Rivers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span></p>
+
+<p>The new railway which is to connect Yacuiba with Santa Cruz will assist
+in developing trade and encouraging immigration in this promising
+province, and within a few years the Gran Chaco, which has always
+been regarded as the least important province of the department,
+because of its isolation from the highways of travel and its almost
+total occupation by the indigenes, will be one of the most prosperous
+districts of eastern Bolivia. The Indians are, as a rule, peaceable
+and friendly, except in a limited district where few white men have
+penetrated except on scientific expeditions. The stories of attacks by
+the Indians are very often exaggerated, and the traveller is frequently
+to blame for the antagonism of the tribes. The unsettled territory is
+becoming more and more reduced as the opportunities for industrial
+enterprise are being recognized, and few regions exist where the
+conditions are more favorable for colonization than on the plains of
+the Chaco. Tarija will always be the chief metropolis of this part
+of Bolivia; and while its riches increase as the centre of valuable
+agricultural provinces, its importance will be still greater as the
+chief market for the cattle of the vast pasture lands of Gran Chaco.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_422">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_422.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COAT OF ARMS OF TARIJA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_424">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_424.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">STEAMBOAT ON THE MAMORÉ RIVER, EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[415]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVII<br>
+<span class="subhed">EL BENI, THE BOLIVIAN EL DORADO</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">Every year exploring expeditions go to the Beni, penetrate its forests,
+find new tributaries to its rivers, examine its <i>sierras</i>,
+and bring back wonderful stories of gold mines and precious stones
+in abundance, of rich pasture lands and agricultural valleys, of
+great forests of hardwood, medicinal plants, and tropical fruits,
+and crowning all, of unlimited treasures in rubber, one of the most
+important articles in the world of commerce.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_425" style="max-width: 238px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_425.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE RUBBER GATHERER AT WORK, EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>From the southwestern border of the department of El Beni, where it
+is separated from La Paz and Cochabamba by the foothills of the Royal
+Range, to the eastern and northern limits, where it is divided from
+Brazil by the Guaporé River and from the Territorio de Colonias by the
+Beni, the climate and products of this fertile zone vary greatly. This
+fact accounts for the conflicting stories which are heard regarding
+the country. Explorers and prospectors who travel in the western and
+southern part of the department, in the region of Rurrenabaque, Santa
+Ana, and Trinidad are generally enthusiastic about the climate and
+great fertility of the soil for the purposes of agriculture, while
+those who make the rubber forests their chief destination frequently
+complain that the climate is unhealthy and the country an undesirable
+place to live in. In reality, the Beni, as it is popularly called,
+includes all kinds of climate and every description of natural
+conditions. It covers an area of two hundred and sixty-five thousand
+square kilomètres,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span> and is divided into four provinces: Cercado, of
+which the department capital, Trinidad, is the chief city; Yacuma, with
+its capital, Santa Ana, near the junction of the Yacuma River with the
+Mamoré; Iténez, of which the capital is Magdalena, on the San Miguel,
+or Itonamas, River, a few leagues south of its junction with the
+Guaporé; and Vaca Diez, with its capital, Riberalta, at the confluence
+of the Madre de Dios and Beni Rivers, near the extreme northern limit
+of the department. Each of these provinces has its distinguishing
+features.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_426">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_426.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MISSION OF COVENDO ON THE BENI RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_427">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_427.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE ACRE DELEGATION LEAVING TRINIDAD, EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In every department of Bolivia the province in which the capital is
+situated is called Cercado, equivalent to “environs,” and, as a rule,
+it is the most populous of the provincial divisions. The Cercado of
+the Beni is sometimes called the province of Mojos, the name by which
+the whole department was known when it constituted a dependency of
+the Audiencia of Charcas. When Gonzalo Pizarro and his followers made
+explorations in this region soon after the conquest, they found it
+inhabited by Indians of the Mojos tribes, and the founder of Trinidad,
+Don Pedro de Zúñiga y Velasco, brother of the Count of Nieva, chose the
+site for the town on the spot where prehistoric ruins marked the former
+existence of a palace, which, the Indians explained, had once been
+the residence of “the Great Mojo.” As the town was founded on Trinity
+Sunday, in the year 1562, it was given the name of Santisima Trinidad,
+though, when El Beni was created a department in 1842, its capital
+was named simply Trinidad. The principal means of transportation in
+this, as in all the other provinces of the Beni, is by river boats,
+and travellers who wish to go to Trinidad find the best route by way
+of Cochabamba. A very interesting book, written to describe a journey
+made to the Acre territory in 1900 by a military commission under the
+command of the present president of the republic, General Montes, then
+colonel of the army and minister of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span> war, gives an excellent idea of
+this region of the Beni. The author, Don José Aguirre Achá, was one of
+the officers of the commission, and his vivid picture of the territory
+and its people has the double merit of being accurate and entertaining.
+After leaving the city of Cochabamba, the usual route lies through the
+Yungas, or Yuracarés, to the north as far as the river San Antonio, a
+branch of the Chaparé, which is navigable for small canoes only; larger
+craft do not ascend the Chaparé beyond the river port of Santa Rosa,
+on the boundary between the departments of Cochabamba and El Beni. The
+small canoes which are used on the San Antonio and other streams of
+this vicinity are generally the property of the Yuracaré Indians, who
+carry passengers down the river or across to the opposite bank. They
+are summoned by the discharge of a gun, which brings the Indian quickly
+to the spot. The Yuracaré boatman wears a single short garment which
+is called a <i>tipoy</i>, though, unlike the Paraguayan dress of that
+name, it is not white in color, and is very heavy, being made of a kind
+of fibrous bark. It covers the body and shoulders only, leaving the
+arms and legs bare. From the port of Santa Rosa, the canoes which the
+Yuracarés use in descending the river Chaparé to the Mamoré are longer
+and heavier than those of other small rivers in the Beni, and measure
+from forty to fifty feet in length and five feet in width. They are
+made of the trunks of trees, which are hollowed by burning them out.
+Five Indians are usually employed in rowing one of these boats, while a
+pilot stands at the stern to direct its course. Señor Aguirre Achá says
+that one of these primitive canoes will carry more than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[418]</span> five thousand
+pounds of cargo. Larger boats, called <i>batelones</i>, are sometimes
+used for heavy cargo, and are very common on the rivers of eastern
+Beni. They carry four times as much as the canoes just mentioned, and
+measure about twenty-five feet long by eight feet wide and about three
+feet in average depth. They are of more complicated construction also,
+and have a space protected by an awning. The scenery of this region is
+intensely tropical, the rivers being bordered to the water’s edge by
+palm trees and ferns. At the junction of the Chaparé with the Chimoré,
+a navigable river at the headwaters of which is situated a port that
+will soon be connected by railway with the city of Cochabamba, the
+river takes the name of Mamorécillo, or little Mamoré, and from this
+point the traffic steadily increases, canoes, <i>batelones</i>, and
+other craft passing one another in rapid succession. The <i>balsa</i>
+is frequently seen, as well as the <i>callapo</i>, which is made by
+joining two or three <i>balsas</i> together. Alligators abound in these
+waters, and parrots of brilliant plumage are seen everywhere. Fish of
+great variety and infinite abundance are found here, and many species
+of small game afford entertainment for sportsmen. The Rio Grande enters
+the Mamoré, or rather the Mamorécillo, a few leagues below Trinidad,
+deepening and widening the latter for a considerable distance.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_428a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_428a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CALLAPOS CARRYING PASSENGERS AND CARGO ON THE BENI
+RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_428b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_428b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIAN CARRIERS CUTTING A PATH THROUGH THE FOREST, EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_429">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_429.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A CAMP IN THE RUBBER FOREST, EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The city of Trinidad, the capital of the Beni, is situated a few miles
+distant from the main current of the Mamoré, near a small tributary,
+the Ibary. The city has about five thousand inhabitants, though its
+population varies at different seasons of the year, depending chiefly
+on transient passengers to and from the rubber regions. It is the
+great highway for all traffic from Cochabamba and Santa Cruz to the
+Madeira River ports. The many small steamboats which ply up and down
+the Mamoré call at Trapiche, which is an <i>aduanilla</i> and the port
+of Trinidad, the town itself being situated two leagues from the river.
+As the chief interest of its citizens, as well as transient visitors,
+is centred in the rubber country, little attention has hitherto been
+paid to public improvements or to the beautifying of the town, though
+a spirit of enterprise has recently developed in its people which
+promises well for future progress.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Yacuma has the magnificent climate of the Yungas in its
+southern extremity, the heat gradually becoming more excessive toward
+the north where its rich rubber lands adjoin those of the neighboring
+province of Vaca Diez. Through the port of Rurrenabaque, in Yacuma, on
+the Beni River, large shipments of cacao, cocoa, tobacco, and other
+products are made annually, the Beni being one of the most favored
+regions in the world for the cultivation of cacao. The chocolate made
+from the cacao of the Beni requires no foreign flavor, such as vanilla
+and cinnamon, which are frequently used in its manufacture from cacao
+of an inferior quality. It is equal to the best in the world. Cacao
+trees in the Beni require little cultivation, they bear within four
+years after planting and are most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[420]</span> prolific when ten or twelve years
+old. They yield two crops annually, the best districts producing from
+thirty to forty pounds of cacao per tree. With greater attention
+this industry would provide a very important source of revenue to
+Bolivia, which is exporting the article in increasing quantities
+every year. Another industry of promising future is tobacco growing,
+which is extremely profitable in this department. Several varieties
+are cultivated, such as “Havana,” “black Havana,” “Criollo,” “lettuce
+leaf,” and “ox tongue,” but the production is insignificant compared
+with the possibilities for development. The annual yield of all tobacco
+plantations of Bolivia is estimated at three million five hundred
+thousand pounds, the Beni supplying only a small share of the output,
+but the exportation does not exceed fifty thousand pounds.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_430">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_430.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CARRYING PROVISIONS TO THE RUBBER CAMP, EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The greatest industry of the Beni is rubber gathering, which is carried
+on in every province, chiefly along the courses of the Beni River
+and its tributaries. All through the upper Beni the trees are found,
+and new companies are constantly being organized for the purpose of
+further exploring this region and getting possession of valuable
+rubber-producing districts. A special law governs the acquirement of
+rubber lands in Bolivia, rubber trees being the property of the state.
+Everybody, foreign and native alike, has the right to exploit the
+uncultivated <i>bosques</i> in which these valuable trees are found,
+the discoverer of trees having the preferred right to ownership,
+providing that he presents his petition for the concession before
+the competent authority within one hundred and eighty days after the
+discovery. The Delegado Nacional of the Territorio de Colonias and the
+prefects of the departments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[421]</span> have authority to adjudicate as much as
+five hundred <i>estradas</i>, or paths, to each individual,—the rubber
+properties being divided into paths to which the trees on each side
+for a certain distance belong,—and one thousand <i>estradas</i> to a
+legally organized company. Petitions for a larger concession can only
+be granted by Congress. Every concessionary must pay the sum of fifteen
+bolivianos for each <i>estrada</i>, at the rate of one boliviano
+annually for fifteen years, in order to establish his claim to the
+property, under penalty of losing all rights, though the total payment
+may be made before the expiration of the fifteen years if preferred.
+The <i>estrada</i> is comprised in a group of from one hundred to one
+hundred and fifty rubber trees. The roads which lead to the rubber
+properties are free to the public, as well as navigation on the rivers
+and the use of the <i>bosques</i> on the river banks. The work-man in
+the rubber forests is not merely a laborer for hire, but exercises the
+privileges of an explorer and contractor, who, when he finds new trees,
+marks them as his own and contracts for the sale of them or for their
+exploitation. In addition to the high price he gets for his daily labor
+and for his discoveries, usually receiving all amounts in gold, his
+employer provides him with food and other necessaries at a reasonable
+price. The improvidence of rubber gatherers is proverbial, however, and
+many of them spend their money before it is earned.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_431">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_431.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VIEW NEAR SUAPI CENTRAL, UPPER BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_432">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_432.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">NAVIGATION ON THE UPPER BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The rubber trees of the Upper Beni average eight feet in height and
+two feet in diameter, though trees are occasionally met with which
+tower up to a hundred feet high and are more than three feet thick.
+A distinctive feature of these rubber trees is that they have no
+branches except at the top, and the bright green of their leaves,
+with the reddish color which the new leaves show, makes the trees
+easily distinguishable at a distance, especially when they appear in
+groups. The moisture by which the tree is sustained and which is so
+necessary for the production of its <i>latex</i>, as the rubber sap
+is called, is received in part from the soil, but chiefly from the
+atmosphere, the tree drinking in through its trunk and branches the
+humidity which is permanently conserved in the air by the deep shade
+of the <i>bosque</i>. Señor E. Gonzales, of one of the large rubber
+companies of Bolivia, has made many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span> interesting observations regarding
+this fact in the rubber forests of his company, which extend over a
+territory of about four million acres at Suapi Central, in the Upper
+Beni. According to his statement the rubber trees, whatever their size
+and the locality in which they are found, when tapped for the first
+time give only a few drops of <i>latex</i>, the flow increasing little
+by little with repeated incisions, and being at first so very dense
+that it is coagulated by contact with the air, even when the trees are
+tapped at the height of the rainy season. If the production of the new
+trees growing in distinct regions is compared, as, for instance, in the
+dry part of Suapi Central and in the more humid section of San Miguel,
+it is found that a greater quantity of <i>latex</i> is taken from
+the trees in the moist atmosphere than in the dry. However great the
+amount of rainfall may be, little moisture is retained in the ground
+because of the impenetrable character of the soil, which is of chalky
+composition. Furthermore, on the steep slopes of the <i>quebradas</i>
+in the Upper Beni the water from rainfalls does not remain long enough
+to sink into the ground, but is immediately carried down innumerable
+streams, every crevice being converted into a river course during the
+rainy season. In the Lower Beni, on the other hand, the trees remain
+submerged in water for months at a time, the land, which is composed
+of mud to a depth of several mètres, retaining an enormous amount of
+moisture. The quantity of <i>latex</i> produced bears no relation to
+the period of rainfall, but only to the density of moisture of the
+atmosphere. The average amount of <i>latex</i> collected by tapping is
+the same on the plains along a river course as on the <i>cumbres</i>,
+or summits, of the hills. After a rubber tree is cut down, its leaves
+remain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[423]</span> fresh for about fifteen days, little by little losing their
+color from that time until they finally die and drop off. The life of
+the trunk of the tree seems concentrated in the upper part, to such an
+extent that if tapped in the middle it yields no <i>latex</i>, only
+the extreme branches containing a thick sap. Even when the tree has
+apparently succumbed, and the insects are already destroying it, two
+days’ rain will work a wonderful change, the renewed moisture of the
+atmosphere causing the <i>latex</i> to issue in a cream color from all
+the incisions and from the holes bored by the insects. An examination
+of rubber trees which are completely exposed to the sun, not surrounded
+by other trees or entwined by ivy, shows that, in spite of heavy
+rains and repeated tappings at different heights, only a few drops of
+yellowish <i>latex</i> is secured, and this of such thick consistency
+that it coagulates immediately.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_433">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_433.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RUBBER TREES, EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The first tapping is done in the months of October, November, December,
+January, and February. The trees then rest during March, the second
+tapping season including the months of April, May, June, and July,
+after which the trees rest again during August and September. The
+process of treating the <i>latex</i> by smoking it, twirling it around
+a stick until it solidifies in the form of a ball about fifteen inches
+in diameter, which is called a <i>bolacha</i>, is very well known.
+In the Lower Beni the seasons for collecting rubber are shorter than
+in regions higher up the river courses, because of heavier rains and
+floods.</p>
+
+<p>There are vast tracts of rubber lands in the Beni which have never
+been explored, and the present annual output of Bolivian rubber, which
+amounts to nearly three thousand tons, will be greatly increased as
+new rubber districts are developed. The value of the rubber exported
+annually averages about half a million pounds sterling. But, although
+this industry absorbs the chief attention of all who live in the Beni,
+and attracts new investments constantly, yet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span> it has not entirely
+prevented the development of other forest industries. Considerable
+capital is employed in the exploitation of hardwoods, medicinal plants,
+and spices. From all the provinces, through the ports of Trinidad,
+Santa Ana, Magdalena, and Riberalta, large quantities of mahogany,
+rosewood, ebony, cedar, logwood, gum, cork, and other products of the
+tropical forests are shipped down the Madeira River and via the Amazon
+to foreign markets. There are few countries in the world possessing a
+greater variety of commercial products.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_434a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_434a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GRAN CRUZ HACIENDA AT THE CONFLUENCE OF THE MAMORÉ AND
+BENI RIVERS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_434b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_434b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">COAT OF ARMS OF EL BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_436">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_436.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RIVER BOAT, OR CALLAPO, ON THE MADRE DE DIOS, TERRITORIO
+DE COLONIAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[427]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE TERRITORIO DE COLONIAS—THE BOUNDARY LINE WITH BRAZIL—CHIEF
+WATERWAYS</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_437" style="max-width: 277px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_437.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A CHOZA, THE HUT OF THE RUBBER GATHERERS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">By Bolivia’s recent treaty with Brazil an exchange of territory was
+made between the two countries in accordance with which the Bolivian
+boundary was extended in one direction and cut off in another; and, as
+the areas exchanged were not equivalent, an indemnity of two million
+pounds sterling was, as previously stated, paid by Brazil in settlement
+of the negotiation. In conformity with this treaty, which was signed
+at Petropolis, Brazil, November 17, 1903, by Señores Don Fernando E.
+Guachalla and Don Claudio Pinilla on the part of Bolivia, and by Baron
+de Rio Branco and Don José Francisco de Assis-Brazil on the part of
+Brazil, the boundary line between the Territorio de Colonias, on the
+northern frontier of Bolivia, and Brazil is definitely established:
+on the eastern boundary, the Territorio is separated from Brazil
+by the Madeira River, from the confluence of the Beni and Guaporé
+Rivers northward to the confluence of the Madeira and Abuná Rivers.
+The northern boundary line of the Territorio extends from the mouth
+of the Abuná upward along its course to latitude ten degrees twenty
+minutes, this latitude marking the limit as it extends westward until
+the Rapirrán, or Ina, River is reached, when the dividing line ascends
+the course of that river to its main tributary, then turns due westward
+to the Iquiry, which it ascends to the source, again turning westward
+till it meets the Acre, or Aquiry River, which it ascends to latitude<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[428]</span>
+eleven degrees, continuing along this line of latitude to the frontier
+of Peru. On its western boundary, the Territorio de Colonias joins
+Peru, and its southern limit is marked by the course of the Madre de
+Dios River, which separates it from the neighboring department of La
+Paz.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_438">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_438.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE KNAUDT EXPEDITION TO PUERTO PANDO IN CAMP.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Madeira River, with its tributaries, famous for valuable rubber
+forests, is the longest and the most important of the Amazon branches.
+Historically and commercially it is of particular interest. For
+centuries it has been an object of investigation by scientific
+explorers, and a landmark in the progress of civilization, its
+course directing the itinerary of geographers, naturalists, and
+missionaries, who have furthered the cause of knowledge and truth
+by their labors in this remote field. Almost every book of travel,
+history, or botany which treats of tropical America contains some
+reference to the scenery, resources, flora, and fauna, as well as to
+the native inhabitants, of the Madeira region, and especially of that
+part which is watered by its great tributary the Beni, and by the
+abundant affluents of that mighty stream. The Madeira is formed by the
+confluence of the Beni with the Mamoré at the port of Villa Bella,
+where these two rivers together pour out a volume of thirty thousand
+cubic feet of water per minute, the Beni being about half a mile broad
+and the Mamoré a little less, at the point of entering the Madeira.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_439">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_439.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A BATELÓN ON THE MADRE DE DIOS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Villa Bella is a picturesque little city of a thousand inhabitants,
+situated on the triangular <i>playa</i>, or bank, formed by the
+junction of the Beni and Mamoré Rivers. It stands at an altitude of
+five hundred feet above sea level, and its climate is agreeable and
+healthful, modified by cooling breezes. The streets are broad and
+straight, and cut one another at right angles, those which run east
+and west extending right across the <i>playa</i> from one river<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[429]</span> bank
+to the other. All the houses are of one story, and the walls are built
+of reeds, called <i>chuchíos</i>, which are set up in rows and bound
+together at intervals with interlacing cords or fibres, the roofs
+being made of palm leaves. The richer people have their dwellings
+finished with a thin coating of plaster inside, which admits of being
+papered over or covered with muslin as an adornment and a guarantee
+of greater privacy. A Bolivian writer very amusingly describes what
+he calls the transparency of social life in Villa Bella, in contrast
+to the rigorous custom of other cities, where the thickest walls and
+most carefully barred windows conceal both the virtues and the defects
+of social modesty. The spectacle of this interesting town is unique,
+especially at the height of the rubber-gathering season, when the
+<i>batelones</i>, which carry rubber from the Beni and Guaporé regions
+down to San Antonio on the Madeira, in Brazil, are ranged along the
+sandy <i>playa</i>, awaiting inspection. These boats are employed to
+descend the nineteen <i>cachuelas</i>, or rapids, including Theotonio,
+Riberón, and others, which altogether constitute a fall of two hundred
+feet in a distance of a little more than a hundred miles, between Villa
+Bella and San Antonio. From San Antonio steamers and sailing ships
+transport the rubber to foreign countries. By the terms of the recent
+treaty with Bolivia, the government of Brazil agrees to build, on
+Brazilian territory, a railway which will extend<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[430]</span> from San Antonio to
+Guayaramerím, a few leagues south of Villa Bella, on the Mamoré River,
+above the <i>cachuela</i>, or falls, of the same name, the railway to
+have a branch line to Villa Bella.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_440">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_440.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO, ON THE MADEIRA RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Although Villa Bella is the largest port of the Territorio de Colonias,
+it is no longer the last Bolivian port on the northern border of the
+republic, the new boundary settlement making the town of Abuná, at
+the junction of the Abuná and the Madeira Rivers, the frontier port.
+The river Abuná, which now forms part of the northern boundary of the
+republic, is a picturesque and abundant stream, overhung by the foliage
+of tropical trees and vines, and presenting an interesting aspect as
+the canoes and cargo boats ply up and down its winding course. Several
+rapids occur at intervals to impede navigation, and the river is not a
+favorite with travellers, who tell thrilling stories of adventure in
+its <i>cachuelas</i>, and of narrow escapes from death as a result of
+wounds from its dangerously armed fishes, or shocks from its electric
+eels. It is not unusual for an incautious swimmer to be paralyzed by
+the electricity which the eel discharges, especially when aroused
+by fear or anger. Señor Don José Manuel Aponte, who accompanied the
+government delegation to the Acre in 1901, describes the many dangers
+encountered from the <i>rayas</i>, <i>caimanes</i>, <i>palometas</i>,
+and other habitants of this river. The forests of the Abuná are
+particularly rich in rubber trees, and along its banks paths may be
+seen to cross one another in all directions, indicating the many
+<i>estradas</i> that are under exploitation. The principal tributaries
+of the Abuná are the Rapirrán, the Caramanu, and the Rio Negro, all
+of which are, like the main river, rich in rubber trees. The Iquiry
+River, a branch of the Purús, rises in the Territorio de Colonias, and
+flows through that part of it which is generally known as the Acre
+district, the Acre River running in a parallel line with the Iquiry
+for a considerable distance. All this region is prodigiously rich in
+rubber of superior quality, the name “Acre rubber” being considered a
+guarantee of the best article. A number of small towns are scattered
+along the courses of the rivers, usually marking the site of a valuable
+property belonging either to some private individual or to a company,
+often some foreign syndicate. On all these rivers navigation is more or
+less impeded by frequent <i>cachuelas</i>, that of Riosiño interrupting
+the traffic on the Acre near the Bolivian border at some seasons. The
+town of Riosiño lies just north of the recently established limits,
+Capatará being the nearest town to the frontier on the Bolivian side.
+The Acre River is navigable throughout its course during six months
+of the year, from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span> December to May, and steam launches from Pará make
+two trips each way at this season. For the remaining six months,
+navigation is limited to small <i>batelones</i> and <i>monterías</i>,
+especially in September and October when the waterways are practically
+useless. In addition to the Abuná, the Iquiry, and the Acre, with
+their tributaries, the Orton River also waters the central and
+southern districts of the Territorio. The Orton, named in honor of the
+celebrated naturalist, is formed by the confluence of the Tahuamanu and
+the Manuripi, and is navigable for steam launches during the summer
+months only. It flows into the Beni a few leagues below the junction of
+that river with the Madre de Dios.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_441a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_441a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">VIEW OF THE MADEIRA RIVER, ISLANDS IN THE DISTANCE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_441b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_441b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">FORDING THE RIVER PIQUENDO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The name Madre de Dios, meaning “Mother of God,” was given to this
+river by the Spaniards, the Indian name being Amarumayo, or “River of
+the Serpent.” The Madre de<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span> Dios rises in the Cordillera de Vilcanota,
+in Peru, near the source of the Ucayali, another great tributary of
+the Amazon, and in its long course to the Beni it waters a territory
+covering seven thousand square leagues. It is navigable for small boats
+almost throughout its entire length, and, in the rainy season, steam
+launches ascend from Riberalta to the mouth of the Pando, Chandless,
+Inambary, and Heath, its principal tributaries. Few rivers of the
+Amazon system have been more thoroughly explored within recent years
+than the Madre de Dios. In 1883 the Bolivian government voted a sum of
+money for its exploration and for the establishment of missions in that
+region, and in 1884 Father Armentia, now Bishop of La Paz, in company
+with the government delegate, Señor Don Antenor Vásquez, explored the
+river, ascending it in a small boat as far as latitude thirteen degrees
+and longitude seventy-one degrees forty-one minutes, where the reverend
+father planted a cross to mark the limit reached. Without including its
+navigable tributaries, the Madre de Dios is a continuous waterway for
+more than two hundred and fifty miles. It is not so deep as the Beni
+or the Mamoré. Within its immense curves, wide, sandy <i>playas</i>
+are formed, the favorite haunts of the turtle, whose eggs, found
+in vast numbers, constitute one of the delicacies of this region.
+Travellers in the Madre de Dios country must have waterproof clothing
+and waterproof coverings for their baggage, as the heavy rains play
+havoc with everything exposed to their penetrating force. The present
+governor, the <i>delegado nacional</i> of the Territorio de Colonias,
+ex-President José Manuel Pando, explored the Madre de Dios River in
+1893, and discovered the tributaries Heath, Pando, and Inambary. In
+1897 he continued his explorations, ascending these tributaries to the
+Peruvian boundary line.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_442">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_442.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CONFLUENCE OF THE BENI AND MAMORÉ RIVERS, VILLA BELLA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[433]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_443a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_443a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">RIVER PORT OF GUARAYOS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_443b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_443b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">SCENE ON THE MAMORÉ RIVER, NEAR VILLA BELLA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Riberalta is the headquarters for most of the expeditions up the
+Beni and Madre de Dios Rivers. Like Villa Bella, it overlooks the
+confluence of two rivers,—the Beni and the Madre de Dios,—and the
+name, Riberalta, “high bank,” indicates the position it occupies on
+the elevated cliff bordering the river Beni. A long avenue crosses
+the town, flanking which a row of houses is ranged in uniform style
+overlooking the confluence, the view of the Madre de Dios being
+rendered additionally picturesque by a beautiful island embowered
+in verdure. Steam propellers and side-wheel launches are used in
+these rivers, the mail steamer <i>Tahuamanu</i> being fitted up with
+convenient accommodations. From La Paz to Riberalta, the present
+route <i>via</i> Puerto Pando offers many difficulties, but it is
+being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[434]</span> constantly improved, and the trip may be made entirely by
+steamer from Puerto Pando, where the Bopi River enters the Beni, small
+<i>balsas</i>, <i>callapos</i>, <i>monterías</i>, <i>gariteas</i>, and
+<i>batelones</i> being used on the upper streams. Numerous expeditions
+have recently made the journey, and a new bridle road of about one
+hundred and fifty miles in extent now connects La Paz with Puerto
+Pando, greatly facilitating this part of the trip. From Puerto Pando
+northward the Beni River has several short rapids and falls which
+impede navigation, especially at the points known as Chepite, Bala,
+and Atamarani, after which the route is clear as far as Rurrenabaque,
+the most important port of the Upper Beni. Situated on the opposite
+bank of the river is San Buenaventura, also a thriving shipping port.
+Continuing down the river, the next port is Salinas, a short distance
+below the rapids of Atamarani. From Rurrenabaque to Puerto Salinas
+the voyage is made in <i>callapos</i>, the steamer again receiving
+passengers at the latter port for Guarayos, Carmen, and other points
+until Riberalta is reached. From Guarayos down the river many rubber
+establishments are passed, both banks being marked at short intervals
+by signs of the rubber industry.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_444">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_444.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CAMP OF RUBBER GATHERERS, TERRITORIO DE COLONIAS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>As before stated, Riberalta is the distributing point for the great
+rubber region of the Territorio de Colonias. From this port to the
+mouth of the Orton River is twenty miles, and eighty miles below are
+encountered the rapids of Esperanza, after passing which the river
+extends twenty miles further, when the port of Villa Bella is reached,
+and the Beni loses its course in the great Madeira. From La Paz to
+Villa Bella the distance is about nine hundred miles. Eight days are
+required for the trip from Villa Bella to Puerto Pando; and as soon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span>
+as the railway is finished from Puerto Pando to La Paz, the entire
+journey can be made in nine days. A road has been opened from Puerto
+Pando to Rurrenabaque along the right bank of the river Beni, and
+from Rurrenabaque to Atamarani a road is also being built. It is the
+intention of the Bolivian government to contribute by every possible
+means to the development of all this part of the country, and to
+facilitate colonization, especially in the Territorio de Colonias. A
+new hospital is under construction, and means of improving sanitary
+conditions are eagerly considered. The climate, though tropical, is,
+with the exception of a few localities, generally healthful.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_445">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_445.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TRANSHIPPING CARGO AT THE RAPIDS OF THEOTONIO, ON THE
+MADEIRA RIVER.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In the rubber country the work of the day is done in the early morning.
+During the <i>epoca de fabrico</i>, as the season for gathering is
+called, the workmen are already on their way to the <i>estradas</i>
+by four o’clock. As they pass each rubber tree on their route, they
+stop to make a slanting cut in its trunk, into which the edge of
+one of their little tin <i>tichelas</i> is easily fastened, so the
+cup remains there and receives the <i>latex</i> that slowly pours
+into it, while they continue their way until every tree of the
+<i>estrada</i> has been tapped and its <i>tichela</i> put in place.
+Some large trees have two or three, and even four, <i>tichelas</i>
+attached. By about nine o’clock in the morning this work is finished,
+and the <i>seringuero</i>, as the rubber gatherer is called, returns
+over the same route, carrying a large pail, into which he pours the
+contents of the <i>tichelas</i>. When he reaches his hut, he proceeds
+at once to smoke the <i>latex</i> until it takes the solid form of
+a <i>bolacha</i>, as elsewhere described. Sometimes the gatherings
+of several days are required to make a <i>bolacha</i> of a hundred
+pounds, more or less, and when it is completed the <i>patron</i>, or
+employer, sends to get it. The day’s work is ended at noon, and the
+<i>seringuero</i> is free to spend the remaining hours as he pleases.
+The industrious ones<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[436]</span> cultivate their little gardens, where they grow
+corn, plantains, yucca, and other food products. It is said that the
+women of this region are better rubber gatherers than the men, as they
+are more careful, do not cut too deeply into the tree when tapping it,
+are less wasteful of the <i>latex</i>, and never abscond, as the men
+sometimes do, when they are in debt to the <i>patron</i>. The life
+of the rubber gatherers is not so <i>triste</i> as it is sometimes
+painted. The people have many holidays here, as elsewhere, and when
+the daily working hours are over they frequently spend the rest of
+their time in little canoes on the river or stretched comfortably in a
+hammock under the trees.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly two-thirds of the rubber exported annually from Bolivia is
+produced in the Territorio de Colonias, one of the richest rubber
+countries of the world. And the quantity which is taken out of its
+vast forests represents only a small proportion of the existing
+wealth. The industry is restricted by the scarcity of laborers, the
+population being only ten thousand, in a territory that covers an area
+of nearly two hundred thousand square kilomètres. The few explorers who
+have travelled in this region find it rich in a variety of tropical
+products, though little cultivated, and very sparsely settled, the
+population being centred in the towns and villages where the rubber
+gatherers live, or where there are establishments of large rubber
+companies, many of which have their shipping headquarters here.</p>
+
+<p>Immigration and colonization are the most important factors to be
+sought in the development and prosperity of the Territorio, and the
+government of Bolivia is giving this matter especial consideration.
+Not only are the resources of the country being carefully studied and
+classified, but the means of transportation, the political security
+of the colonists, and the protection of health are receiving the most
+careful attention.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_446">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_446.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GLIMPSE OF FOREST AND STREAM, THE RUBBER REGION.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_448">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_448.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">DANCING THE KENA-KENA. FIESTA OF DECEMBER EIGHTH.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIX<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS OF BOLIVIA—THEIR CUSTOMS AND RELIGION—THE
+CHOLO—PICTURESQUE TYPES</span></h2></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_449">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_449.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIAN WATER CARRIER OF LA PAZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap p-left">The population of Bolivia is composed of three separate social
+classes, the Bolivians of European ancestry, the Indians, and the
+<i>mestizos</i>, or <i>cholos</i>, of mixed European and Indian origin.
+The white race, chiefly of Spanish blood, inherits many qualities
+of the parent nation, though modified by centuries of isolation
+from Spain. When the fabulous wealth of Potosí attracted thousands
+of Spaniards to Alto Peru during the first century of colonial
+rule, many of the noblest families of Europe were represented in
+the rapidly increasing populations of Potosí, Oruro, and other rich
+mining centres; and so important were the interests of his Catholic
+majesty in this part of the royal domain that the most distinguished
+grandees of the realm were sent to take charge of colonial affairs,
+to supervise the coinage in the colonial mint, and to guard against
+any evasion of the royal prerogatives. The quarrel which began early
+between the Vicuñas and the Vascongados, and which developed into a
+struggle between Criollos and Spaniards, was sustained, on the part of
+the patriotic Criollos, by men in whose veins flowed the best blood
+of Spain. Their love for their native land was stronger than their
+allegiance to a government which was unjust and oppressive, and they
+fought for and obtained their independence. Their descendants are the
+people who control the politics and society of Bolivia to-day. They
+are in the minority so far as population is concerned, a condition
+which exists in all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">[440]</span> Spanish-American countries. A similar state of
+affairs governed the population of the United States before the great
+tide of immigration brought millions of Europeans to its shores, and
+the native Indians were thus reduced to the minority. But, unlike
+the North American Indians who were driven westward by the advancing
+multitude, until crowded almost out of sight in a small corner of their
+former vast territory, the Indians of Bolivia still remain undisturbed
+in the haunts of their ancestors, whether of the Andean plateau, the
+plains of Mojos, or the river banks of Guarany. They have always been
+too useful to the white man of these regions to be allowed to vanish
+out of sight, and too submissive to constitute the powerful menace to
+civilization which the Iroquois and the Apache proved to the earlier
+inhabitants of North America. With the exception of a few scattered
+tribes, the Indians of Bolivia are more or less civilized, and they
+form an important factor of the communities, not only as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">[441]</span> servants,
+but as contributors to the development of the native industries, in
+a primitive way, but usefully and creditably. A foreign traveller
+in Bolivia cannot fail to be impressed by the fact that the white
+man here thoroughly understands his primitive protégé, and that the
+Indians, as a whole, receive at the hands of the governing race as
+much consideration as the ignorant poor of any land receive from those
+who, by inherited or acquired power, hold over their less competent
+fellowmen the rights of authority. The laws of Bolivia provide for
+the welfare of the Indians in a liberal manner, and the best means of
+promoting their mental and moral development is at present occupying
+the attention of the leading legislators of the country. The question
+as to what should be the political responsibility of a primitive
+people, untrained in independent thought and action, is not easily
+disposed of, and the blunders which have been committed by the most
+enlightened of nations in this respect prove how important is the
+problem presented. In Bolivia the Indian has evolved slowly but surely
+under the influence of civilization, and he shows an awakened spirit
+of independence as compared with his ancestors, who merely reflected
+the will of their chief. Under Spanish rule, the Indian, though
+nominally recognized as possessing certain individual rights, was in
+reality seldom free to exercise them; but since the inauguration of the
+republic the law governing his rights has not been so completely a dead
+letter in effect. He is still a child in mental and moral growth, but
+he is progressing under the benign influence of peace and security.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_450a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_450a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">PICTURESQUE TYPE OF THE COCHABAMBA INDIAN.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_450b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_450b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">TEMBETAS, INDIANS OF SANTA CRUZ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_451">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_451.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIANS OF POTOSÍ. HEADGEAR OF PIZARRO’S TIME.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_452">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_452.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE STIRRUP-CUP.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Indians of Bolivia are usually classified according to their
+geographical distribution. The Andean tribes are divided into the
+Peruvian branch—which includes Aymará and Quichua—and the North
+Andean, composed of many nations, among others the Yuracarés,
+Mosetenes, Tacanas, Araonas, Cavineños, Chunchos, Guayaros, Lecos,
+and Apolistas, that inhabit the eastern <i>serranias</i> of the
+northern Andes and the plains of the Territorio de<span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">[442]</span> Colonias, the
+department of La Paz, and El Beni. The Pampean tribes are divided
+into the Mojeña and the Chiquitana branches, and inhabit the great
+plains of eastern Bolivia in the provinces of Mojos and Chiquitos,
+which extend from the foothills of the Andes to the Brazilian border.
+The third division is called the Guaranic, and is sub-divided into
+the Guaraya and Chiriguana branches apparently closely related to the
+Guarany tribes of Paraguay; they occupy the territory included in
+the northern, central, and southern Chaco. The above divisions are
+made in accordance with the scientific studies and investigations of
+D’Orbigny who devoted many years to the subject. The Aymará Indians,
+as is generally known, occupy the territory surrounding Lake Titicaca,
+including the southern part of the department of La Paz and all the
+department of Oruro; the provinces are named after the various tribes,
+Omasuyos, Pacajes, Sicasicas, Larecajas, Carangas, and Yungas. To the
+north and northwest their territory adjoins that of the Quichuas of
+Cuzco, their southern and southeastern neighbors are the Quichuas,
+or Charcas, of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, and Potosí; to the east and
+northeast are the Tacanas, Apolistas, and Mosetenes, all popularly
+called Chunchos; while to the southwest the Aymará territory borders
+that of the Chinchas of Tarapacá. The Aymará Indian of the present day
+is a strong, muscular native of the highlands, of medium height, of
+bronze complexion, varying from the color of the North American redskin
+to the darker brown of more tropical types, possessing well-defined
+features which remind one of the Japanese race by the slant of the
+eyes and the high cheekbones. They are a reticent people and are
+generally industrious and sober, excepting on the occasion of a grand
+<i>fiesta</i>, when they display characteristics hardly recognizable
+in the Indian of everyday conditions. They are extremely religious,
+and devoted to the services of the Church; at any hour of the day an
+Indian may be found kneeling before the altar of the virgin or of one
+of the saints in the churches of the various towns. It is the beautiful
+custom of the country to keep the doors of the churches always open,
+and many an Indian leaves his little drove of llamas as he enters a
+town and goes to say his prayers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">[443]</span> and to feast his eyes on the images
+and pictures of the sacred place. Indian women with their babies swung
+on their backs, kneel on the floor of the church and forget all their
+troubles in contemplation of the holy symbols. Children they seem in
+all but physical growth, after centuries of contact with civilization.
+Limited opportunity may be responsible to some extent, but natural
+conditions govern all primitive people, and they are neither benefited
+nor made happy by being crowded into a path of progress opened for them
+by the too eager white man, who demands that they assimilate at once
+the civilization which his own race has achieved only after thousands
+of years of progressive culture. Indian colleges and Indian missions
+may aid in a limited way to develop a primitive race, but important
+results are not achieved within a few short generations. Experiments
+in the Indian school established by the United States government at
+Carlisle, Pennsylvania, prove this to be true of the North American
+Indian, as it is of his primitive brother in South America. Whether the
+Aymará race has passed its zenith in culture and is now at a period
+corresponding to “second childhood,” or whether it is still in the dawn
+of development, the actual condition is that of a dependent people, as
+regards intellectual and moral responsibility.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_453a" style="max-width: 348px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_453a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">QUICHUA INDIAN OF THE VALLEY BETWEEN COCHABAMBA AND
+SUCRE.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_453b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_453b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A GENIAL BEGGAR OF COCHABAMBA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The foreigner, upon arriving in Bolivia, is immediately interested
+in the picturesque spectacle presented by the Indian of the Titicaca
+plateau. His <i>poncho</i> and cap are woven of the most gorgeous
+colors, and the brighter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">[444]</span> their reds, greens, and yellows, the better
+the wearer is pleased. The Aymarás make their own dyes, which are
+entirely of vegetable composition, and it is remarkable to what an
+extent they have developed their knowledge of the many herbs which are
+useful for this purpose. The art of weaving all kinds of blankets and
+<i>ponchos</i> is known to both the Aymará and Quichua tribes, who
+blend the colors in a great many combinations, and yet use no other
+loom than that which they make by driving four stakes in the ground,
+or by means of an apparatus of clumsy and primitive manufacture, which
+was introduced by the Spaniards at the time of the conquest. They spin
+the wool of the llama, the alpaca, and the vicuña, and some of the
+<i>ponchos</i> which they make are of exquisite workmanship, woven of
+vicuña and silk. In the province of Pacajes especially the Indians make
+excellent cloth, and here they weave the <i>bayeta</i>, a black and
+white mixture of which they make their own clothes, the men wearing
+over this sombre color the picturesque <i>poncho</i>, while the women
+appear in darker wraps, adorned with brightly woven borders.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_454">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_454.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">INDIANS IN FIESTA AT TRINIDAD, THE BENI.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Quichua Indians of Bolivia, sometimes called the Charcas, are
+easily distinguished from the Aymarás in general appearance and
+character. Their features are less rugged and they are gentler in
+disposition. They are more submissive than the Aymarás, and have a
+sunnier temperament, the reflection of milder skies. In Potosí they
+dress to-day as they did in the days of Pizarro, and the men still wear
+the casques introduced by the conquerors in the sixteenth century. The
+women wear high-heeled wooden shoes, or sandals, which they fasten by
+straps drawn between the toes and buckled with large silver buckles
+made in the design of the coat of arms of Charles V. Their ornaments,
+called <i>topos</i>, are of silver, some of them in the design of
+the double-headed eagle, while others are great disks, hammered and
+cut out in many curious figures. The spoon is a favorite form for a
+<i>topo</i>, which serves the double purpose of ornament and shawl pin,
+and may also be used in taking food. It is customary to have the bowl
+of the spoon carved in some design.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">[445]</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>fiestas</i> of the Aymarás and the Quichuas vary little, to
+all appearance, both being marked by religious observances of more or
+less recognizable solemnity, and both invariably terminate in a grand
+revel. There are special feasts in different localities which are not
+held in any other, such as the anniversary of the <i>alacitas</i>,
+when miniature figures of every description are sold at the place of
+celebration. It is remarkable to what perfection the art of making
+these objects has been developed, some of the tiny dishes, furniture,
+and other articles being of infinitesimal size, yet without a flaw.
+A tray, containing bottle, tumbler, and wineglass, all of wood, made
+entirely by hand, may be passed through a finger ring, and an entire
+set of furniture may be put into a liqueur glass. The Indians of Sucre
+and Potosí are very expert in miniature work. The tiny dolls, which
+are much appreciated by travellers who visit Sucre, are no larger than
+a mosquito, yet when examined under a magnifying glass they are seen
+to be perfectly made and dressed in the latest fashion. The miniature
+souvenirs most sought after by visitors to Potosí are the tiny silver
+tea and coffee sets, which are marvels of workmanship.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_455a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_455a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHOLA OF POTOSÍ, IN COSTUME OF FIESTA.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_455b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_455b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHOROTIS, INDIANS OF THE CHACO.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The primitive races of Bolivia show a particular aptitude for certain
+industries. Not only are the Aymarás and the Quichuas skilled in
+weaving and in making pottery, but the Mojos<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">[446]</span> and the Chiquitos have
+shown themselves competent workmen in various primitive manufactures.
+They weave cotton cloth, sheets, towels, hammocks, and other articles,
+which are so durable that they last an incredible length of time. While
+these simple children of Nature have not been stimulated to remarkable
+progress, they have established in the country many native industries
+of importance and value.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_456a">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_456a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">CHOLA OF THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_456b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_456b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE MODE OF CARRYING THE BABY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Of the total Indian population of Bolivia, which is estimated at nine
+hundred thousand, about eight hundred and fifty thousand are subject
+to the laws of the country, the remaining fifty thousand, who inhabit
+the remote forests of the extreme north and a part of the Chaco, being
+uncivilized. According to statistics collected by the Oficina Nacional
+de Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica, the gradual
+disappearance of the primitive races has been noted for a considerable
+length of time. Since 1878 the Indians have died at an increasing rate
+from plague and alcoholism, the number of births by no means covering
+the mortality. At present they are about the same in number as they
+were half a century ago, while the white race and the <i>mestizos</i>
+have notably increased. It appears to be universally the case that a
+primitive people gradually vanishes when surrounded by conditions of
+advanced civilization. The Indian is not adaptive, and seems to be ill
+fitted for rapid progress. In Bolivia, as in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">[447]</span> other countries, all
+attempts to induce him to throw aside the antiquated implements of toil
+used by his ancestors have proved futile, and it would be ludicrous, if
+it were not pathetic, to see the laborious methods of tilling the soil
+which the Indian follows. Neither by threats nor by promises can he be
+led to make his task easier by using modern tools.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_457a" style="max-width: 380px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_457a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A CHOLA BELLE OF POTOSÍ, IN VELVET, LACE, AND JEWELS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_457b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_457b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">THE AYMARÁ INDIANS OF THE TITICACA PLATEAU.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>On the northern frontier and in the southern Chaco the uncivilized
+tribes have been visited from time to time by the Catholic
+missionaries, and in all the frontier provinces missions have been
+established for the civilization and Christian teaching of these
+tribes. Many faithful teachers have spent the greater part of their
+lives in these remote forests, and have accomplished a great deal in
+the work of civilizing the Indians. The missionary work of Bishop
+Armentia was devoted chiefly to the civilization of the North Andean
+tribes of the Madre de Dios region, the territory of the Indians
+popularly called Chunchos, though known under the names of Tacanas,
+Guarayos, Araonas, Cavinas, Mosetenes, and others. The mission of
+Covendo, in the country of the Mosetenes, has been the centre of
+widespread efforts in behalf of the natives, and other settlements
+of similar character have been established in various localities.
+Dr. Armentia says the chief of the Araona tribes are not elected,
+but chosen according to the number of their sons and relatives,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">[448]</span> the
+Indian without family being made the slave of his chief. It seems
+base ingratitude that the Indian who has been forced to deny himself
+a wife because of the polygamous proclivities of his chief should
+have insult added to injury by being made the humblest servant of
+his lucky rival on that very account. It is the irony of fate. The
+Araonas are excellent hunters, and their method of catching the tapir
+especially is unique. This animal suffers greatly from the attacks of
+<i>garrapatas</i>, or ticks, and its mode of getting rid of the pest is
+by attracting the <i>chuvi</i>, a bird of the eagle species, which is
+very fond of the <i>garrapata</i> as a food. The tapir makes a hissing
+sound very like the whistling note of the <i>chuvi</i>, and when the
+latter whistles, the tapir responds and runs in the direction from
+which the sound proceeds, eager to have the <i>chuvi</i> rid it of the
+<i>garrapatas</i>; the Indian has learned to imitate the <i>chuvi</i>
+and thus he secures his game.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_458">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_458.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">GUARAYO INDIANS.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The Indians of the Chaco, the Chiriguanos, Tobas, Chorotis, Tapietes,
+and others, differ greatly in character and customs from the North
+Andean tribes. The Chiriguanos, who have lived for centuries in the
+vicinity of civilized communities, cannot be counted as entirely
+uncivilized Indians. The Tobas, though uncivilized, are more or less
+influenced in their customs by contact with civilized people, as they
+are frequently employed on the estates of Tarija and in Argentina. The
+Chorotis and Tapietes are savages. Colonel Trigo, in his recent report
+on the subject, says all the savage tribes of the Chaco have similar
+customs and modes of life, with very slight differences. Good relations
+between tribes are maintained with astute diplomacy. Any offence
+against the rights of the tribe is punished by war. The law of force is
+supreme. Terror maintains mutual respect. Vengeance is a sacred dogma.
+The government is paternal. These Indians are fond of adornment, and
+paint and tattoo themselves with vegetable dyes. The Chorotis insert
+round blocks of wood in the lobes of the ears, increasing the size
+gradually until these ornaments are several inches in diameter. The
+Tapietes perforate the lower lip and adorn it by inserting a large
+round block. Marriages are made by the savages without other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">[449]</span> formality
+than proof of mutual love, which is shown by digging the fingernails
+into each others’ faces, a ceremony highly esteemed. Wives mourn for
+their husbands by cutting off their hair and by weeping at a certain
+hour every day until it grows out again. A widow will not marry again
+until her hair has grown long.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the white race and the Indians, Bolivia has a third
+element in its population, the <i>mestizo</i>, or <i>cholo</i>, a mixed
+race derived from the union of Spaniard and Indian. The <i>cholos</i>
+constitute a people quite distinct from the other two, though related
+to both. The origin of this mixed race is explained by the conditions
+which governed the Spanish-American, in common with the North American,
+colonies in the early history of their settlement. In North America,
+women from the mother country were sent out to the colonies to become
+the wives of the settlers, but the Spanish government did not take this
+means of peopling its American possessions; and many of the colonists
+married native Indian women, in frequent instances forming happy
+alliances, especially with the Aymarás and Quichuas, who were advanced
+in primitive culture.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_459" style="max-width: 366px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_459.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">A BRIDAL COUPLE OF THE COUNTRY DISTRICT, NEAR POTOSÍ.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The <i>cholos</i> of the better class are good citizens, excellent
+soldiers, and possess the quick intellect of the Spaniard, in
+combination with the mechanical ability of the Indian. They are
+capable of receiving the highest industrial training, and their
+handiwork compares favorably with the best European productions,
+whenever they have an opportunity to develop their skill. They are
+light-hearted and careless, very fond of gayety, and never so happy
+as when celebrating one of their numerous <i>fiestas</i>. The women,
+called <i>cholas</i>, are extremely vain and greatly devoted to the
+charms of dress, their costumes being at times the <i>ne plus ultra</i>
+of adornment. A <i>chola</i> belle of La Paz wears at least a dozen
+starched white petticoats, embroidered halfway to the waist, and
+over these a red, green, blue, or yellow velvet skirt which reaches
+to the calf of the leg, the petticoats showing their beruffled edges
+beneath. Two bright-colored shawls are worn, coquettishly pinned, one
+on the right shoulder and the other on the left; a Panamá hat rather
+mars the effectiveness of the costume; but a particularly attractive
+feature is the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">[450]</span> dressing of the feet, which are encased in pink,
+blue, or yellow stockings and high shoes, with French heels, the tops
+of which are perforated in exquisite patterns to show the pretty
+stockings underneath. The <i>chola</i> of each city has distinguishing
+characteristics and dress, though all costumes are a modified copy of
+the one just described. A <i>chola</i> is sometimes a very fascinating
+bit of femininity, and many of them are both pretty and quick-witted.
+The men are successful tradesmen, and, altogether, the <i>cholo</i>
+race constitutes an important part of the business community. They have
+not the Spaniard’s traditional aversion to trade, and, in consequence,
+they supply what would otherwise be a serious deficiency in industrial
+and manufacturing enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>The people of Bolivia are kind and hospitable to foreigners, and have
+a pleasant welcome for all who visit their country. It is necessary
+to spend some time in their midst, in order to become acquainted with
+their manners and customs and to know their many admirable qualities.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_460">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_460.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ALL SOULS’ DAY IN THE CEMETERY.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_461">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_461.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">MAPA GENERAL<br>
+DE LA REPUBLICA DE<br>
+BOLIVIA<br>
+<i>FORMADO PARA EXPLORADORES</i><br>
+<i>VIAJEROS, ESTUDIANTES etc.</i><br>
+<i>por</i><br>
+Luis Garcia Mesa<br>
+<i>Ing. Geog. del Muasterro de Colonias y Agricultura</i><br>
+ESCALA 1: 5,000,000<br>
+1907</p>
+  </div>
+
+
+<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Notes:<br>
+<br>
+1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
+corrected silently.<br>
+<br>
+2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
+original.<br>
+<br>
+3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
+been retained as in the original.<br>
+<br>
+4. Where appropriate, the original spelling has been retained.</p>
+
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77232 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #77232
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77232)