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diff --git a/77008-0.txt b/77008-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ccf6a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/77008-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,957 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77008 *** + + + + + + THE PENNY MAGAZINE + + OF THE + + Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + 24.] PUBLISHED EVERY SATURDAY. [August 18, 1832 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + CONSTANTINOPLE. + + [Illustration: View of Constantinople from Galata.] + +This magnificent city, which, won from the degenerate Greeks of the +lower empire, has been for four centuries the capital of the Turkish +empire, is situated in 41° 1′ 27″ north latitude, and in 26° 35′ of east +longitude. + +The ground it occupies is marked out by nature as the site of a great +city. A gently declining promontory, secured by narrow seas, at the east +of Europe, stretches out to meet the continent of Asia, from which its +extreme point is separated by so narrow a strait that in a quarter of an +hour a boat can row from one continent to the other. This strait or +channel, which is called the Bosphorus, running about fifteen miles from +the Black Sea, between the beautiful shores of Europe and Asia, looks +like a stately river, until it sweeps by the angle of Constantinople and +enters the sea of Marmora. But just before it is lost in that sea, it +makes a deep elbow to the right, flowing between the triangle of +Constantinople Proper, and its suburbs of Galata and Pera, and forming +the port which is called the Golden Horn. This is the most convenient as +well as the most beautiful harbour in the world. + +A city was built here by a colony of Lacedemonians as early as the year +660 before Christ, or about a century after the foundation of Rome; but +this city only occupied the apex of the triangle, or precisely that +space now within the enclosures of the Seraglio. It was called +Byzantium. The present immense city, called Constantinopolis, or the +city of Constantine, after its founder, was built about the year 330 of +our era, by the Roman Emperor Constantine, who thought it the best place +for the capital of the world. + +The triangle which the city now entirely occupies is thus washed on one +of its sides (the northern) by the deep waters of the port, and on the +other (the south-eastern) by the sea of Marmora. The base of the +triangle, or the ground immediately beyond the walls which attaches it +to the European continent, is an open elevated flat, with some trifling +inequalities of surface. The area of the triangle is occupied by gentle +hills, which are highest towards the land side, and gradually decline to +the Seraglio point, shelving off on either side to the sea of Marmora +and the port. As Rome was built on seven hills, so the Roman founders of +Constantinople called these “the seven hills,” though, in fact, if the +principal chain only were counted there would be less, and if the minor +hills or spurs were taken into the account, there would be more, than +seven. On these hills the city stands, presenting on each of the three +sides of the triangle the aspect of a stately amphitheatre. The ridge of +the first hill, departing from the acute point of the triangle, is +occupied by the Seraglio, or vast palace of the Sultan, behind which, a +little on the reverse of the hill, the dome of Santa Sophia shows +itself. The second hill is crowned by the mosque of the Osmanieh, whose +dome is strikingly bold and lofty. The still grander mosque of Soliman +the Magnificent towers on the third hill; whilst an ancient aqueduct, +whose bold arches have the happiest effect, unites the summits of the +third and fourth hills. On the very highest point of the chain there is +a lofty tower, built within these few years by the present Sultan, in +which a guard is constantly placed to watch the breaking out of fires, +which are very frequent and destructive in a city where all the private +habitations are built chiefly of wood. Few things are more calculated to +make an impression on the mind of the stranger than when an accident of +this sort occurs at the dead of night, and the immense drum is beaten at +the top of the tower, and the voice of the guard is heard shouting, +‘Vangar’ (fire). + +Though there is one principal street, which, with but few interruptions, +traverses the city from the Seraglio to the inland walls, the houses of +Constantinople are not generally massed together, but interspersed with +open spaces, gardens, trees, ancient ruins, and isolated mosques,--the +tall, slim, arrowy minarets or towers of which, all kept purely white, +and tipped with a gilded crescent, contribute greatly to the beauty of +the views. + +The situation of Constantinople upon hills is not only the cause of its +beauty, but of its salubrity and comparative cleanliness. It catches all +the pleasant breezes from the Bosphorus, the Marmora, and the adjoining +plains of Thrace; and the dirt that might accumulate naturally descends +the hills’ sides to the port or the open sea, in both of which it is +carried off by a strong current. To this advantage must be added the +immense number of fountains and the quantity of flowing water which is +always carrying off parts of the dirt; and the heavy rains which, when +they fall, so wash the sides of the hills, that nothing can well be +cleaner than the greater part of Constantinople at those seasons. +Indeed, at any time, the lower edge of the city that touches the port, +and the opposite suburb of Galata (the Wapping of the Turkish capital), +may be called filthy places, but the term cannot be correctly applied to +Constantinople as a whole. + +Some ill-natured travellers have said that the only scavengers here are +the unowned dogs which roam about in countless thousands; but we believe +in all times there were a set of Turks employed to clean the streets, +and the present sultan has certainly a regularly organized corps for +that service. + +Allowing for the empty spaces, which collectively would form a portion +by no means inconsiderable, Constantinople occupies the whole of the +natural triangle, whose outline is fringed by old walls flanked by +towers. These walls and towers on the side of the sea of Marmora and the +port, where in old times they were not required to be so strong, are now +in a very ruinous state and, in some parts, on the Golden Horn, have +entirely disappeared. But on the land side, where the defences of art +were more called for, Constantinople presents a treble line of most +formidable ancient walls which might easily be repaired; and which, in +their more dilapidated parts, offer such magnificent and picturesque +specimens of mural ruins as no other city can boast of. The length of +this latter line of wall, from the head of the port to the Seven Towers +on the sea of Marmora, is above four English miles. The form of the +triangle, as may be seen by our little plan, is somewhat irregular, +having the side from the Seven Towers to the Seraglio considerably the +longest. According to the best calculations the population contained +within these walls is about 500,000. If we add to this number, as is +usually done, the population of the suburbs of Pera and Galata, of +Scutari, which, though in Asia, is so near as to be considered a suburb, +and of the numerous villages which closely succeed each other on both +sides of the channel of the Bosphorus for several miles, we may arrive +perhaps at the number of from 700,000 to 800,000 souls, comprising +Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Franks. + +On whichever side you approach Constantinople,--whether ascending by the +Dardanelles and the sea of Marmora, or descending from the Black Sea by +the Bosphorus,--whether you arrive by crossing the plains of Thrace, or +come in sight from the opposite hills of Asia,--she presents herself +indeed like “the Queen of Cities.” The effect of the first view is +almost magical. + +The preceding sketch will give some idea of the beautiful outline of +part of Constantinople. It is taken from the hill side, above Galata. +Near this point was an old Genoese tower, burned down within these three +years, from which the view of the city was of surpassing beauty. + + [To be concluded in our next Number.] + + [Illustration: MAP OF CONSTANTINOPLE, AND ITS VICINITY.] + + + --------------------- + + + MEANINGS OF WORDS.--No. 4. + + + Nouns in _ing_ (German, _ung_). + + Build-ing. Draw-ing. + Walk-ing. See-ing. + +These nouns are formed from verbs, and generally by the simple addition +of the syllable _ing_. They denote the _general act_ of doing something, +and often retain the same place in the sentence with respect to the word +following them, that the verb itself does: thus, when we say, “the +building of a house,” we express in a slightly modified manner the idea +of “to build a house.” + +Some nouns in _ing_ express a collection of things, as-- + + Cloth-ing. Stabl-ing. Fir-ing--(fuel). + + + Nouns in _tion_. + + Calculate, calcula-tion. Educate, educa-tion. + Na-tion. Sta-tion. Ora-tion. + +This termination has been introduced into our language from the Latin, +and in some instances differs in meaning very little, or not at all, +from that in _ing_. Thus we could say, _calculating_, _educating_, as +well as _calculation_, _education_. Words like _nation_, _station_, &c. +are pure Latin words, differing from the nominative case of those in the +language from which they are derived, only in having an _n_ at the end +of the word. + + + Nouns in _hood_, (German, _heit_). + + Man-hood. Priest-hood. + Hardi-hood. Boy-hood. + +These words express the _abstract_ notion, as it is called, of the word +from which they are formed; that is, they express in the most _general_ +way possible the state or condition of being a _man_, a _priest_, &c. +They are not very numerous, nor, indeed, are they much used, though they +are well adapted to convey that general notion which we have assigned to +them. + +All languages contain certain classes of nouns which are called +_diminutives_, from their being used to express “things of a less kind +or degree.” + + + Nouns in _ling_ (German, _lein_, in some cases, _ling_). + + Gos-ling. Found-ling. Dar-ling. Wit-ling. + (Goose-ling). Suck-ling. (Dear-ling). Duck-ling. + +In all these examples a notion of some _smallness_ in the object +mentioned, is clearly recognized by common usage. A _duck-ling_ is a +little duck; and a _wit-ling_ is a man of little wit. + +It may here be necessary to make a remark, in order to caution those who +are new at this kind of classification from putting words in the same +class merely because they happen to terminate with certain letters that +are the same. Thus it would be absurd to class under the head of +diminutives such words as, _doubling_, _tippling_, _troubling_, merely +because they appear to terminate in _ling_; they clearly belong to the +words in _ing_, and are formed from the words _double_, _tipple_, +_trouble_. + + + Nouns in _kin_ (German, _chen_). + + Mannikin, a little man, or dwarf. + Wilkin, little Will or William. + Lamb-kin. + Peter-kin, little Peter. + + + Nouns in _th_. + + Strong, strength. Wide, width. Warm, warmth. + Long, length. Deep, depth. Moon, month. + True, truth. + +This is a tolerably large class of words, which may be considered as +formed from adjectives by the addition of _th_, and in some cases by +also changing the sound of the vowel, as, strong, strength; deep, depth. +The meaning of these nouns requires no explanation. But though they +belong to the old and genuine forms of our language, we cannot say much +in their favour as far as the ear is concerned. Foreigners occasionally, +as well as some of our own countrymen, find a difficulty in pronouncing +_strength_, a word containing eight letters, with only one vowel to keep +the consonants from quarrelling. It is sometimes incorrectly pronounced +_strenth_. + +These words in _th_ may be formed from verbs also, as _birth_, from the +verb _to bear_; but some, as _worth_, have no corresponding word in our +own language from which they may be derived, though in the case of this +word, _worth_, there is in the Latin language a word (_vir_), and in the +Anglo-Saxon a word (_were_), which are the parents of our word _worth_. +From the word _ear_ (to plough), we have the word _earth_, signifying +ploughed land, and still correctly pronounced in many parts of England +as a word of two syllables, _e-arth_. It is written _e-orth_ in the +Anglo-Saxon books, which is exactly the pronunciation that the word +still has in some parts of Lancashire. + + + Words in _ght_, (German, _cht_). + + Flight. Might. Night. + Sight. Tight. Right. + +These words are not easy to explain without entering into considerations +foreign to the kind of inquiry that we have thought proper to adopt; nor +is it quite certain that all the words we have given strictly belong to +the same class, though they happen to terminate with the same letters. +We may, however, observe that there is the same relationship between +_fly_ or _flee_, and _flight_, that there is between _see_ and _sight_, +_tie_ and _tight_. The reason why these and other similar words contain +a _g_, is, because the words from which they are formed originally +contained a _g_, or at least some letter akin to _g_. Thus, in German +there is a word _flug_, meaning _flight_, from which is formed another +word _flucht_, which is nearer in form to our own word _flight_. + + + --------------------- + + + SONG. + + Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, + The bridal of the earth and sky, + Sweet dews shall weep thy fall to-night, + For thou must die. + + Sweet rose, whose hue, angry and brave, + Bids the rash gazer wipe his eye. + Thy root is ever in its grave, + And thou must die. + + Sweet spring, full of sweet days and roses, + A box where sweets compacted lie, + My music shows you have your closes, + And all must die. + + Only a sweet and virtuous soul, + Like seasoned timber never gives, + But when the whole world turns to coal, + Then chiefly lives. + + HERBERT. + + + --------------------- + + +_Fear._--Charles Gustavus (the successor of Christina of Sweden) was +besieging Prague, when a boor of most extraordinary visage desired +admittance to his tent, and, being allowed entrance, offered, by way of +amusing the king, to devour a whole hog, weighing two hundred weight, in +his presence. The old General Konigsmarc, who stood by the king’s side, +and who, soldier as he was, had not got rid of the prejudices of his +childhood, hinted to his royal master that the peasant ought to be burnt +as a sorcerer. “Sir,” said the fellow, irritated at the remark, “if your +majesty will but make that old gentleman take off his sword and his +spurs I will eat him before your face, before I begin the pig.” General +Konigsmarc (who at the head of a body of Swedes had performed wonders +against the Austrians, and who was looked upon as one of the bravest men +of the age) could not stand this proposal, especially as it was +accompanied by a most hideous and preternatural expansion of the +frightful peasant’s jaws. Without uttering a word the veteran suddenly +turned round, ran out of the court, and thought not himself safe until +he had arrived at his quarters. + + + --------------------- + + + THE LABOURERS OF EUROPE.--No. 2. + + [Illustration: Driving Wild Cattle in the Maremma.] + +That part of Italy which borders the Mediterranean, from the mountains +of Genoa to the extremity of Calabria, a length of about seven hundred +miles, consists, except in a few places, such as Naples, where hills +intervene, of a broad stripe of flat country extending from the +sea-shore to the lower ridges of the Apennine mountains. This region is +called the Maremma. It is particularly unhealthy during the summer +months, from June to October, when all the inhabitants who are able +remove to the hills, and the few who are obliged to remain are exposed +to the malaria fever, an intermittent ague, which emaciates the body, +exhausts the vital strength, and, if not checked in time, proves fatal +to the patient. The farms in the greater part of this immense tract, and +more particularly in the Roman and Tuscan divisions of it, are very +large, often extending to several thousand acres. They are held by +wealthy tenants, who live in the towns and keep agents and domestics who +reside on the spot, at least till harvest time. By far the greater part +of the land, although arable, is left for pasture, about one-fourth or +one-sixth being brought into cultivation by annual rotation. No villages +or cottages are to be seen; but here and there, at long intervals, a +dingy, dismal looking _casale_ or farm-house, a speck in the midst of +the desert. As there is no fixed population in these plains, labourers +are engaged from the interior, and chiefly from the highlands of the +Apennines, where a scanty soil, though under a healthy climate, does not +furnish sufficient occupation for the native peasantry. They generally +come down from the mountains in October, in bands of about one hundred +each, under the guidance of a leader, a sort of jobber, who stipulates +for their services and pay with the agent of the farm. It is calculated +that about twenty thousand come down in this manner every year in the +Campagna or plains of Rome alone. Many of them remain till May, employed +in the different works of the farm. They are engaged mostly by the +season, and receive at the rate of from ten to fifteen pence a day. +Their chief nourishment consists of _polenta_, or Indian corn flour, +boiled, with water and salt, into a sort of pudding, with the occasional +addition of skimmed milk or grated cheese. They sleep on the bare +ground, either in the casale, or under shelter of temporary huts made +with canes (arundo tenax), which grow luxuriantly in these regions. + +At harvest time, about the latter end of June, a new reinforcement of +labourers from the mountains is required. This is the most critical +period in the year for those poor men who come by thousands from the +pure and wholesome atmosphere of their native districts to inhale the +pestilential air of the lowlands, working by day under a burning sun, +and sleeping at night in the open air, exposed to the heavy dews and to +the bite of gnats and other insects. The harvest men are engaged for +eleven or twelve days, sometimes a fortnight, and they are paid at the +rate of about two francs, or 1_s._ 10_d._ a day. They are also better +fed at this time, and have a plentiful allowance of wine and water. The +corn must be cut, threshed, winnowed, and carried into the granary by +the middle of July, after which no one dares to remain in the fields. +Mr. Chateauvieux, who visited one of these immense farms during the +harvest season, gives the following description of the scene:-- + +“The _fattore_ or steward ordered horses for us to visit the farm, and +while they were getting ready I examined the _casale_, or farm-house, a +noble but gloomy structure. It consisted of a spacious kitchen and two +large apartments adjoining, at the end of which were three other rooms +of similar dimensions; all totally destitute of furniture, not even +having windows. These formed the ground floor of the centre building. +Above them were six other rooms of the same size used as granaries, one +only being furnished for the use of the superintendants. The wings were +formed by capacious arched stables, at once airy and cool; and above +them were lofts for hay. This part of the establishment is almost +superfluous, being merely used to put up the cattle employed in the work +of the farm during the resting time in the middle of the day; at all +others they are turned out to graze in the open air. There was not the +least appearance of care or neatness about the whole farm. Neither +trees, gardens, nor vegetables were to be seen. To my observations about +this negligence the people replied that the cattle would trample down +and destroy whatever might be planted or sown, and that it was therefore +more convenient to purchase their vegetables in the neighbouring towns, +which are surrounded with vineyards, orchards, and gardens. The expense +of carriage is nothing on these large grazing farms, where there are +always cattle in abundance. They put a loaf and a bundle of hay into the +cart, and thus equipped will perform a journey of sixty miles without +any expense. This abundance of animals constitutes the only luxury of +these farms. Neither steward, superintendants, nor even the herdsmen, +ever think of going on foot. They are always on horseback, galloping at +full speed over the plains, with a gun or a _pungolo_ or spear in their +hands, and horses are always kept ready saddled in the stables, each +person employed on the farm having two assigned for his use. As soon as +we were mounted, the steward conducted us to the part of the farm where +the harvest had commenced. Broad stripes, of a golden yellow, extended +at a distance over the undulated surface of the soil towards the sea; +and we at length came in sight of a sort of army in battle array, with +the commanders on horseback having lances in their hands, fixed to their +stations. We passed several carts drawn by oxen, which were loaded with +bread intended for the consumption of the men. We beheld before us a +long line of a thousand reapers round a vast tract of corn which was +silently falling under their sickles, while twelve superintendants on +horseback surveyed and animated them from behind. They raised a loud +shout at our approach, which resounded through the solitude, and was +intended as a salute to the master of the farm. Soon after, the carts +which we had passed drew up under the shade of some oaks, which were +providentially still remaining in the middle of the plain. At a signal +given, the reapers quitted their work, and the whole troop defiled +before us. There were about as many men as women, all natives of the +Abruzzi. The former were good figures, but the women were frightful. +They were bathed in sweat, for the heat was terrible. Though it was only +a few days since they left the mountains, the malaria was beginning to +affect them. Two only had as yet been attacked by the fever, but I was +told that the number would increase daily, and that by the end of the +harvest, scarce half the troop would be left. ‘What becomes of these +poor wretches?’ inquired I. ‘We give them a piece of bread, and send +them away.’ ‘But where do they go?’ ‘They return towards the mountains: +some of them die on the road, and the others reach home exhausted with +illness and fatigue to recommence the same attempt next year.’ The +repast of this day was a festival; for the master, in order to make his +visit the more welcome, had purchased at Genzano two cart-loads of +water-melons, which were distributed to the reapers with the bread, +which in general forms their only food. The eyes of the poor people were +eagerly fixed on these fine fruits, and I cannot describe the joy which +appeared in their countenances when the large knives displayed the red +pulp and refreshing juice of the melons, and spread around a delicious +perfume. They make three meals a day, which divides their labours into +two periods, and they are allowed two hours sleep in the middle of the +day. Their slumbers at that time are unattended with danger; but the +earth still serves as their bed after the cold dews of the evening haze +descended upon it, and they pass the night on the moist turf in the +midst of sulphureous exhalations. Their employers say that they would +lose too much time were they to return every evening to sleep at the +casale, which in these extensive farms is often at a great distance.” + +Thus for about one pound sterling, to which the wages of a reaper during +the harvest fortnight amount, thousands of these poor men walk fifty or +sixty miles and back again, to work in the pestilential flats of the +Maremma, with the prospect of catching the fever, and either dying away +from home, or returning sickly and debilitated for the rest of the year. +Such is, and has been for ages past, the condition of labourers in some +of the most celebrated regions of Italy. In the time of the ancient +Romans the country was cultivated chiefly by slaves, who were considered +no better than cattle, and over whose persons the owners had unlimited +power, beating them, mutilating them, or putting them to death at their +will. Christianity effected a great change: the slaves became, first of +all, serfs attached to the soil, and bound to perform a certain measure +of work for their masters, but their persons were placed under the +protection of the laws. By degrees the serfs became emancipated over the +greatest part of Europe, and although most of them continued poor, they +were enabled to dispose of their own labour and carry it to the best +market. This is as much as human justice and benevolence have been able +to effect as yet for the labourers of Europe in the course of eighteen +centuries. Any further improvement in their condition must be the result +of a slow progress in the general condition of society, to be +accelerated by the diffusion of sound knowledge. + +The only stationary population in the Maremma consists of the cow and +buffalo keepers, and forest rangers. The former are always mounted and +armed with a lance, with which they keep in respect the wild cows and +fierce bulls, which are let to roam about these solitudes. These keepers +lead a life of freedom and independence, like that of the Arabs in the +desert; they are paid by yearly wages, besides which they generally rear +up cattle of their own, which are allowed to feed with the rest. They +retire in the summer months to the shady forests which line the +sea-shore, and where the air is not so unwholesome as in the open +plains. There, also, criminals escaped from the pursuits of justice take +shelter, and are sometimes employed as wood rangers or buffalo drivers +by the people of the neighbouring farms. The following cut, as well as +that at the head of this article, represents the mode of driving cattle +to the towns. + + [Illustration: A man drives four head of cattle with a long stick. The + cattle are yoked together.] + + + --------------------- + + + THE NATIONAL GALLERY.--No. 3. + +Among the restorers of art in the fifteenth century, perhaps the +greatest name, whether in regard to the extent or the versatility of his +powers, is that of LEONARDO DA VINCI. Other artists, his contemporaries +or immediate predecessors, had done much towards the resuscitation, or +rather the introduction, of a just taste, each according to the +particular bent of his genius. But Leonardo, with an intuitive +comprehension, seems to have seized on every principle of excellence, +and although those principles were carried by his successors, at least +by M. Angelo, Raffaelle, and Titian, to higher degrees of perfection, +yet it is not too much to assert that in his works we discover, not the +germs merely, but in visible development, the severe dignity of the +Florentine, the dramatic pathos of the Roman, and the captivating +splendour of the Venetian schools. The works of Leonardo are scarce. The +celebrated picture of the Last Supper, at Milan, has crumbled from the +walls; it is well known, however, by engravings. The picture of _Christ +disputing with the Doctors_, in the National Gallery, is in all that +relates to internal evidence, of unquestionable originality; although, +from the difficulty of having the history of so early a picture, doubts +of its genuineness have been sometimes expressed. Of its value as a +great work of art there can be no doubt. It is evident, that in this +brilliant and elaborate performance Leonardo has tasked his powers to +the utmost. From the depth of colour and chiaroscuro, the figures stand +out in the boldest relief; but in order to concentrate the interest on +the person of the Saviour, the subordinate figures are kept somewhat +smaller than the laws of perspective allow: an artifice not perfectly +justifiable, but, in this instance, fully effective. The person of +Christ is considerably older than is consonant with scriptural +authority, and the countenance has an air of almost feminine mildness +and amiability: indeed, it is evident that the radical lines of the +physiognomy were constructed on that abstract idea of beauty which the +artist had established in his own mind. Hence it is that this head of +the Saviour is, perhaps, somewhat deficient in masculine energy. The +expression, however, is beautiful and characteristic; and announces a +being who, conscious of uttering inspired truths, encounters the +authority of human wisdom without fear, and triumphs without arrogance. +The noble and sedate character of this picture is nowhere disturbed by +strong contrasts or violent expression. The astonishment which the +Doctors may be supposed to have evinced, has subsided; and with the +exception of the eager and determined theologian on the right, they +appear to listen with absorbed and deferential attention to the +arguments and eloquence of their divine antagonist. The drapery of the +Saviour is disposed with great grace and dignity, and the hands are +painted with peculiar beauty. + +There are four pictures by CORREGIO in the National Gallery, and +although neither of them can be said to exhibit the excellence of that +great master in its fullest extent, they are yet fine and beautiful +specimens of his various and extraordinary powers. The two groups of +children’s heads which hang on the staircase are painted precisely on +the same principle with the groups of angels in the Cupola at Parma,--a +style which in breadth and grandeur has never been equalled, except by +Michael Angelo in the Sistine Chapel. The two small pictures exhibit the +extremes of Corregio’s style: that of _Christ praying in the Garden_, +leaning to the last degree of depth and concentration; the other, that +of _The Holy Family_, being made up of semi-tones, and scarcely +exceeding, either in its lights or shadows, the medium of half-tint. The +colouring, too, is negative, never approaching to a primitive hue; but +the execution is exquisitely pure and delicate. If in this work Corregio +is at all inferior to himself in his usual power of expression, the +deficiency is amply compensated in the picture of _Christ praying in the +Garden_, which may be cited as one, among the few works of art, in which +every part of the picture is made a vehicle of the presiding sentiment. +The whole scene is enveloped in gloom and solemnity. No genial hues +enliven the colouring, a part even of the principal light formed by the +mantle of Christ being composed of pale blue, an arrangement rarely +admitted by Corregio or any other great colourist: the only tint +approaching to warmth is that of the drapery of the Angel, a subdued +red, which, for the purpose of harmony, is faintly repeated on the +groups in the middle distance. The first pale grey of dawn appears +breaking over the horizon; but the general effect of the picture is that +of intense gloom, in the midst of which we discern the sleeping +Disciples, and farther off the Jews approaching to seize on Christ. The +figure of the Redeemer himself, isolated, amidst darkness and danger, +while his friends slumber and his enemies pursue him, is a sublime and +touching impersonation of suffering virtue appealing to God from human +persecution, but bowing with implicit resignation to the Almighty will. +In this picture, Corregio exhibits what we so often wish for in +Rembrandt, principals worthy of the beautiful accessories by which they +are surrounded. + + + --------------------- + + + ART OF WRITING. + +Mr. Mariner, in his account of the Tonga Islands, has given us a most +curious and interesting description of the surprise and perplexity with +which the powers of this invention were contemplated, for the first +time, by some of the natives of the Tonga Islands. Mr. Mariner, shortly +after the commencement of his captivity amongst these savages, had, in +the hope of thereby obtaining his liberty, written a letter, with a +solution of gunpowder, on a piece of paper which he obtained from one of +the natives; and he confided it to the care of a chief, with directions +that it should be given to the captain of any ship which might appear on +the coast. Finnow, the king, however, having heard of this transaction, +his suspicions were excited, and he immediately sent to the chief for +the letter, and obtained it. “When it was put into his hands,” the +narrative proceeds, “he looked at it on all sides; but not being able to +make anything of it, he gave it to Jeremiah Higgins, who was at hand, +and ordered him to say what it meant. Mr. Mariner was not present. +Higgins took the letter, and translating part of it into the Tonga +language, judiciously represented it to be merely a request to any +English captain that might arrive to interfere with Finnow for the +liberty of Mr. Mariner and his countrymen; stating that they had been +kindly treated by the natives, but nevertheless wished to return, if +possible, to their native country.... This mode of communicating +sentiments was an inexplicable puzzle to Finnow; he took the letter +again and examined it, but it afforded him no information. He considered +the matter a little within himself; but his thoughts reflected no light +upon the subject. At length he sent for Mr. Mariner, and desired him to +write down something; the latter asked what he would choose to have +written? He replied, Put down me. He accordingly wrote ‘Fee-now’ +(spelling it according to the strict English orthography); the chief +then sent for another Englishman, who had not been present, and +commanding Mr. Mariner to turn his back and look another way, he gave +the man the paper, and desired him to read what that was: he accordingly +pronounced aloud the name of the king, upon which Finnow snatched the +paper from his hand, and, with astonishment, looked at it, turned it +round, and examined it in all directions. At length he exclaimed, ‘This +is neither like myself nor anybody else! Where are my legs? How do you +know it to be I?’ And then, without stopping for any attempt at +explanation, he impatiently ordered Mr. Mariner to write something else, +and thus employed him for three or four hours in putting down the names +of different persons, places, and things, and making the other man read +them. This afforded extraordinary diversion to Finnow, and to all the +men and women present, particularly as he now and then whispered a +little love anecdote, which was strictly written down, and audibly read +by the other, not a little to the confusion of one or other of the +ladies present; but it was all taken in good humour, for curiosity and +astonishment were the prevailing passions. How their names and +circumstances could be communicated, through so mysterious a channel, +was altogether past their comprehension. Finnow at length thought he had +got a notion of it, and explained to those about him it was very +possible to put down a mark or sign of something that had been seen, +both by the writer and reader, and which should be mutually understood +by them; but Mr. Mariner immediately informed him, that he could write +down anything that he had never seen: the king directly whispered to him +to put Toogoo Ahoo, the king of Tonga, whom he and Toobo Nuha had +assassinated many years before Mr. Mariner’s arrival. This was +accordingly done, and the other read it; when Finnow was yet more +astonished, and declared it to be the most wonderful thing he had ever +heard of. He then desired him to write ‘Tarky,’ the chief of the +garrison of Bea, whom Mr. Mariner and his companions had not yet seen; +this chief was blind in one eye. When ‘Tarky’ was read, Finnow inquired +whether he was blind or not? This was putting writing to an unfair test! +And Mr. Mariner told him that he had only written down the sign standing +for the sound of his name, and not for the description of his person. He +was then ordered, in a whisper, to write, ‘Tarky, blind in his left +eye,’ which was done, and read by the other man, to the increased +astonishment of every body. Mr. Mariner then told him, that in several +parts of the world messages were sent to great distances, through the +same medium; and being folded and fastened up, the bearer could know +nothing of the contents; and that the histories of whole nations were +thus handed down to posterity, without spoiling by being kept, as he +chose to express himself. Finnow acknowledged this to be a most noble +invention; but added, that it would not do at all for the Tonga Islands; +that there would be nothing but disturbances and conspiracies, and he +should not be sure of his life perhaps another month.” + + + --------------------- + + + LARGE-HEADED QUADRUPEDS. + +The great teeth of such quadrupeds as the Hippopotamus require +proportioned jaws, and, consequently, the bones of the head are of great +strength and weight. Thence arises a necessity for the head being +supported by a particular ligamentous apparatus, which in the bull is +vulgarly called the _paxwax_ (the ligamentum muchæ). This ligament +extends from the prominent spines of the vertebrae betwixt the +shoulders, to the occiput or back of the head, so as to suspend the +head, and of course without muscular exertion or waste of vital energy. +This ligament, however, differs from the common ligaments which knit the +bones together, in being elastic; without which property it would check +the motions of the head. On this subject of the wonderful provisions +evinced in the bones of the head and neck of the larger animals, we were +much interested in what was lately delivered by Sir C. Bell, the +anatomical Professor in the Royal College of Surgeons. On exhibiting the +skull of the elephant, and leading his audience to remark the weight of +the grinding teeth, the length of the tusks, and the size and strength +of the jaws, he observed it was impossible that such an enormous engine +of mastication could be suspended at the end of a long neck. Jockies, he +said, attended very particularly to a light head and a short neck in a +horse; a heavy head and a long neck brought too great a weight to bear +upon the fore-feet. If such slight differences in the shape were +observed to produce defects in the horse, the consequent imperfection +would be incalculably greater in the elephant. But in this animal, +nature, instead of projecting the head on such a neck as would enable +the mouth to reach the ground, diminishes the depth of the vertebrae of +the neck in a very remarkable manner, so as in fact to fix the head to +the body without the intervention of a neck. But how was the animal to +feed? since the want of a neck and the projection of the tusks made +grazing in the usual way impossible. This implied the necessity of a +trunk, which is equivalent to a hand, and enables the animal to feed +itself without projecting the head to the ground. By these and similar +illustrations, the Professor proved design in the structure of the +skeleton; and contrasted the heads of the horse, the elephant, and the +giraffe. + + + --------------------- + + + WITCHCRAFT. + +The reigns of Philip and Mary and James I. were not sufficiently removed +from the darkness of the middle ages to render enactments like the +following ridiculous, even in the mouths of the legislature:-- + +“All persons who shall practise invocation or conjuration of wicked +spirits, any witchcraft, enchantment, charm, or sorcery, whereby any +person shall happen to be killed or destroyed, shall, with their aiders +and abettors, he accounted felons, without benefit of clergy; and all +persons practising any witchcraft, &c., whereby any person shall happen +to be wasted, consumed, or lamed in his or her body or members, or +whereby any goods or chattels shall be destroyed, wasted, or impaired, +shall, with their counsellors and aiders, suffer for the first offence +one year’s imprisonment and the pillory, and for the second the +punishment of felony without clergy.” + +The like penalties are annexed to declaring by sorcery where any hidden +or stolen treasure or goods may be found. + +Again, “if any person shall consult, covenant with, entertain, employ, +feed, or reward any evil or wicked spirit, or take up any dead man, +woman, or child out of his, her, or their grave; or the skin, bone, or +any other part of any dead person to be employed in any manner of +witchcraft, sorcery, charm, or enchantment[1],” &c., he shall suffer +death as a felon, without benefit of clergy. + +Let us thank God, who has put the means of civilization in our way, that +(in the words of Sir Walter Scott) “the grosser faults of our ancestors +are now out of date; and that whatever follies the present race may be +guilty of, the sense of humanity is too universally spread to permit +them to think of tormenting wretches till they confess what is +impossible, and then burning them for their pains.” + +----- + +Footnote 1: + + 1 James, c. 12. + + + --------------------- + + +_Heraldry._--A sanguine Frenchman had so high an opinion of the +pleasures to be enjoyed in the study of heraldry, that he used to +lament, as we are informed by Menage, the hard case of our forefather +Adam, who could not possibly amuse himself by investigating that +science, nor that of genealogy. + + + --------------------- + + +_A Threat explained._--“Your unchristian virulence against me,” said a +Huguenot who had been persecuted for preaching, “shall cost hundreds of +people their lives.” This menace brought the author into trouble; he was +cited to a court of justice, and was charged with harbouring the most +bloody designs against his fellow-subjects. “I am innocent,” said he, +“of all you lay to my account. My only meaning was, that I intended +(since I could not act as a minister) to practise as a physician.”--If +the Huguenot had practised without the requisite knowledge he would have +kept his promise. + + + --------------------- + + +_Pride._--A Spaniard, rising from a fall, whereby his nose had suffered +considerably, exclaimed, “Voto a tal, esto escaminar por la tierra!” +“This comes of walking upon earth!” + + + --------------------- + + +_Advertisements._--We are sometimes astonished at the impudent +assertions of quacks in their public announcements at the present day. +Their predecessors, however, went somewhat further, as the two following +advertisements taken from the original edition of the Spectator will +show:--“An admirable confect which assuredly cures stuttering and +stammering in children or grown persons, though never so bad, causing +them to speak distinct and free without any trouble or difficulty; it +remedies all manner of impediments in the speech, or disorders of the +voice of any kind, proceeding from what cause soever, rendering those +persons capable of speaking easily and free, and with a clear voice, who +before were not able to utter a sentence without hesitation. Its +stupendous effects in so quickly and infallibly curing stuttering and +stammering, and all disorders of the voice and difficulty in delivery of +the speech, are really wonderful. Price 2_s._ 6_d._ a pot, with +directions. Sold only at Mr. Osborn’s Toy-shop, at the Rose and Crown, +under St. Dunstan’s church, Fleet-street.” + +“Loss of memory, or forgetfulness, certainly cured, by a grateful +electuary, peculiarly adapted for that end; it strikes at the primary +source, which few apprehend, of forgetfulness, makes the head clear and +easy, the spirits free, active, and undisturbed; corroborates and +revives all the noble faculties of the soul, such as thought, judgment, +apprehension, reason, and memory, which last in particular it so +strengthens as to render that faculty exceeding quick, and good beyond +imagination; thereby enabling those whose memory was before almost +totally lost to remember the minutest circumstance of their affairs, &c. +to a wonder. Price 2_s._ 6_d._ a pot. Sold only at Mr. Payne’s, at the +Angel and Crown, in St. Paul’s Church-yard, with directions.” + + + --------------------- + + +_Doubtful Improvement._--A set of parish officers applied to Snetzler (a +celebrated organ builder) to examine their organ and to make +improvements on it--“Gentlemen,” said the honest Swiss, “your organ be +wort von hondred pound, just now--well--I will spend von hondred pound +upon it, and it shall then be wort fifty.” + + + --------------------- + + + ANCIENT PAINTINGS. + + [Illustration: Grotesque representation of a Portrait Painter’s + Studio.] + +During the progress of the excavations at Pompeii, a painting was found +in the Casa Carolina, which scarcely held together to be copied, and +fell in pieces upon the first rain. It is of grotesque character, and +represents a pigmy painter whose only covering is a tunic. He is at work +upon the portrait of another pigmy, clothed in a manner to indicate a +person of distinction. The artist is seated opposite to his sitter, at +an awful distance from the picture, which is placed upon an easel, +similar in construction to ours. By the side of the artist stands his +palette, which is a little table with four feet, and by it is a pot to +wash his pencils in. He therefore was working with gum, or some sort of +water-colours: but he did not confine himself to this branch of the art, +for to the right we see his colour-grinder, who prepares in a vessel +placed on some hot coals, colours mixed with wax and oil. Two amateurs +enter the studio, and appear to be conversing with respect to the +picture. On the noise occasioned by their entrance, a scholar seated in +the distance turns round to look at them. It is difficult to explain the +presence of the bird in the painting-room. The picture is not complete: +a second bird, and on the opposite side a child playing with a dog, had +perished before Mazois (an artist who has preserved some of the most +valuable remains at Pompeii) copied it. This picture is very curious, as +it shows how few things, in the mechanical practice of painting, have +been changed during 2000 years. + +There is another picture preserved at Pompeii, representing a female +employed in making a copy of the bearded Bacchus. She is dressed in a +light green tunic, without sleeves, over which she wears a dark red +mantle. Beside her is a small box, such as we are told by Varro painters +used, divided into compartments, into which she dips her brush. She +mixes her tints on the palette, which she holds in her left hand. + + [Illustration: Painting of a Female Artist.] + + + --------------------- + + +_Union for Ill_.--When the Prince of Conde and Cardinal de Retz, two +leaders of opposite factions in France, were viewing the curious garden +of a hermit who was famous as a florist, they amused themselves by +keeping him attentive to their discourse while they trod to pieces his +best flowers on each side of the path. He soon discovered their plan, +and, shaking his grey locks, “Alas!” said he, “how much were it to be +wished that you could agree in plans to relieve your distressed country +with the same readiness which you show in joining to persecute a +helpless solitary.” + + + --------------------- + + +_Command of Temper_.--Lopez d’Acunha, a gallant Spaniard, who lived in +1578, recorded in the Apophthegms of Juan Ruffo, seems to have had the +affections of his mind under rare command. He was called out from his +tent by a sudden alarm. His servants armed him in great haste, and +although he told them that his helmet pained him exceedingly, they +insisted that it could not be fitted better. The brave Lopez had not +leisure to contest the point: he rushed to the combat, fought with +success, and at his return, unlacing his casque, and throwing it down on +the ground together with his bloody ear, “There,” said he mildly to his +awkward valets, “was I not right when I told you how much you hurt me in +putting on my helmet?” + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + ⁂ The Office of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge is at + 59, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. + + LONDON:--CHARLES KNIGHT, PALL-MALL EAST. + + _Shopkeepers and Hawkers may be supplied Wholesale by the following + Booksellers:--_ + + _London_, GROOMBRIDGE, Panyer Alley, Paternoster Row. + _Bath_, SIMMS. + _Birmingham_, DRAKE. + _Bristol_, WESTLEY and Co. + _Carlisle_, THURNAM; and SCOTT. + _Derby_, WILKINS and SON. + _Doncaster_, BROOKE and CO. + _Falmouth_, PHILIP. + _Hull_, STEPHENSON. + _Leeds_, BAINES and NEWSOME. + _Lincoln_, BROOKE and SONS. + _Liverpool_, WILLMER and SMITH. + _Manchester_, ROBINSON; and WEBB and SIMMS. + _Newcastle-upon-Tyne_, CHARNLEY. + _Norwich_, JARROLD and SON. + _Nottingham_, WRIGHT. + _Sheffield_, RIDGE. + _Worcester_, DEIGHTON. + _Dublin_, WAKEMAN. + _Edinburgh_, OLIVER and BOYD. + _Glasgow_, ATKINSON and CO. + + Printed by WILLIAM CLOWES, Stamford-Street. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + Transcriber’s Notes + + +This file uses _underscores_ to indicate italic text. New original cover +art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain. +Illustrations have been moved in some cases to natural breaks in the +text. Itemized changes from the original text: + + • p. 197: Changed “providentally” to “providentially” in phrase “He + then desired him to write ‘Tarky,’ the chief of the garrison.” + • p. 198: Added closing single quotation mark after “Tarky” in phrase + “providentially” in phrase “which were providentially still remaining + in the middle of the plain.” + • p. 200: Added closing bracket to caption of illustration “Grotesque + representation of a Portrait Painter’s Studio.” + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77008 *** |