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+ page-break-before: always; } + .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76980 ***</div> + +<div class='tnotes covernote'> + +<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> + +<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div class='titlepage'> + +<div> + <h1 class='c001'>BLACKWOOD’S<br> EDINBURGH MAGAZINE.<br> <span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>No. CCCCLXXXV.</span>      MARCH, 1856.      <span class='sc'>Vol. LXXIX.</span></span></h1> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <h2 class='c002'>CONTENTS.</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Liddell’s History of Rome</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Monteil</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Biography gone Mad</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_285'>285</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>The Greek Church</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_304'>304</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Nicaragua and the Filibusters</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_314'>314</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>The Scottish Fisheries</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_328'>328</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Sydney Smith</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Peerages for Life</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_362'>362</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>The Wensleydale Creation</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_369'>369</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div><span class='large'>EDINBURGH:</span></div> + <div>WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, 45 GEORGE STREET,</div> + <div>AND 37 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON;</div> + <div class='c005'><i>To whom all communications (post paid) must be addressed</i>.</div> + <div class='c005'>SOLD BY ALL THE BOOKSELLERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.</div> + <div class='c005'>PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c006'> + <div>This day is published,</div> + <div class='c005'><span class='large'>INDEX</span></div> + <div class='c005'>TO</div> + <div class='c005'><span class='large'>THE FIRST FIFTY VOLUMES</span></div> + <div class='c005'>OF</div> + <div class='c005'><span class='large'>BLACKWOOD’S MAGAZINE.</span></div> + <div class='c005'><i>In Octavo, pp. 588. Price 15s.</i></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span></div> +<div class='chapter ph1'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c006'> + <div>BLACKWOOD’S</div> + <div class='c005'>EDINBURGH MAGAZINE.</div> + <div class='c005'><span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>No. CCCCLXXXV.</span>      MARCH, 1856.      <span class='sc'>Vol. LXXIX.</span></span></div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <h2 class='c002'>LIDDELL’S HISTORY OF ROME.<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c007'><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Engraved on certain Syrian or +Assyrian rocks lie innumerable inscriptions +in an unknown character; +the solid rock and an Asiatic +climate have preserved them for us: +they lie there facing the world, in +the broad light of day, but none can +read them. A whole mountain-side +seems covered with the records of +departed greatness. What truths, +what historic facts might not these +mysterious characters disclose! The +scholar cannot sleep for desire to interpret +them. At length, by extreme +ingenuity and indomitable patience, +and those happy sudden incidental +revelations which ever reward the +persevering man, some clue is put +into his hand. He begins to read, he +begins to translate. We gather round +and listen breathless. “I, Shalmanasser,” +so runs the inscription, “I +assembled a great army—I engaged—I +defeated—I slew their sovereigns,—I +cast in chains their captains and +men of war—I, Shalmanasser, I——” +Oh, hold! hold! we exclaim, with +thy Shalmanasser! There was no +need to decipher the mysterious characters +for this. If the rock, with all +its inscriptions, can tell us nothing +wiser or newer, it is a pity that there +were no rains in that climate to wash +the surface smooth, and obliterate +these boastful records of barbarian +cruelty and destruction. Better that +the simple weather-stained rock +should face the eye of day, oblivious +of all but nature’s painless and progressive +activities.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Some such feeling as this has passed +across the minds of most of us, when +invited to peruse new histories of the +ancient world. They were terrible +men, those warriors of olden time. +They besieged towns—and so, indeed, +do we; but they did more; they put +the children to the sword, and carried +away the mother into captivity, and +those of the men whom they did not +chain and enslave, they slew as grateful +sacrifices to their gods! Strange +and execrable insanity! and yet the +religious rite was the legitimate result, +and the clear exponent of their +own savage nature. There was no +spectacle to them so pleasant as blood +that flowed from an enemy. How +deny the god who had helped them +to win the victory his share in the +triumphant slaughter! There have +been loathsome and terrible things +done upon the earth; let us forget +them, as we forget some horrible +nightmare. At all events, having +known that such men and such times +have been, and having gathered what +lesson we can from them, let us be +spared from the infliction of new +Shalmanassers, or from new details +of their atrocities. Such feeling of +satiety in the old narrative of war +and conquest we must confess to participate +in, when the narrative relates +to some Asiatic monarchy that has +appeared and disappeared, leaving no +trace of any good result behind it, or +which merely lingers on the scene +undergoing fruitless and bewildering +changes. It is otherwise, however, +when we are invited again to peruse +the history of Rome, and her conquest +of the world, as it has been +proudly called. We are reading here +the history of European civilisation. +The slow, persistent, continuous progress +of her consular armies is one +of those great indispensable facts, +without which the history of humanity +could not be written, without +which a civilised Christendom could +not have existed. It is the conquest +of a people, not of a monarch—a +people who for many years have to +struggle for self-preservation (the +secret this of their lasting union and +exalted patriotism)—of a people +whose pride and ambition undergo +the noble discipline of adversity, who, +being firmly knit together, proceed +steadily to the taming and subjection +and settlement of the surrounding +nations. It is a conquest the +very reverse of those great invasions +of Hun or Scythian, where population +rolls like an enormous sea from +one part of the world to another; it +was truly the <i>settlement</i>, first of +Italy, then of surrounding countries. +Nomadic habits were checked. Siculi +and Oscans, Sabines, Samnites, and a +host of shifting populations too numerous +to name, were brought under one +government, and moulded into one +nation. What the Alps could not do +for Italy, was done by the republic of +the seven hills. The peninsula was +secured from the invasion of the more +northern barbarian. The Gaul was +first arrested, then subjugated, settled +in his own home, civilised and +protected. Carthage, who would have +conquered or colonised in the interest +only of her own commerce, was driven +back. Greece, and her arts and her +philosophy, were embraced and absorbed +in the new empire, which +extended over the finest races of men +and the most propitious climates of +the earth.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It has been well said that the +Romans were not the only people +who entertained the glorious anticipation +of the conquest of the world. +There was one other nation that had +a still more magnificent conception +of its own future destiny, of its own +exalted prominence and supremacy. +It was impossible for the monotheism +of the Jews to attain the elevated +character it did, and yet sanction the +belief, in any narrow sense, of a +national god. The only God of all +the world must surely reign over all +the world. The universal Monarch +must imply a universal monarchy. +From this centre of the world,—this +holy temple at Jerusalem, and +through His chosen and peculiar +people, would God govern all the +nations of the earth. Such extension +of the faith of the Jew to the Gentile +was inevitable. All nations would +come in, as suppliants and subjects, +to the throne of God’s elect. And +the prophetic inspiration, though not +precisely in the sense in which the +ancient Hebrew understood it, was +destined to be fulfilled. But it was +not the sword of Israel, nor of the +angels, that Divine Providence employed +to establish the supremacy of +the great Truth developed in Judea. +It was the sword of the legions of +Rome. The armies of a Scipio and +a Cæsar were gathering the nations +together under the one true worship. +The spiritual dominion did issue from +Judea, but it governed the world +from the throne of the Cæsars.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Judea,—these +are the four great names which +occur to one who looks back on the +history of European civilisation. To +these four powers or nations we owe +that status or condition which has +enabled us to make such advances as +we claim to be peculiarly our own. +Indirect contributions are doubtless +due to India and to Persia. Babylon +is no more; but a people who once +sojourned in Babylon may have learnt +something there from the Persian, +and transmitted it to us in their imperishable +records; and Greek philosophy +bears impress, in one phase +of it, of the teaching of Indian theosophists. +But still the four whom we +have mentioned would furnish forth +all the essential elements which the +past has given to our present European +culture.</p> + +<p class='c009'>If we look at the map of the world, +or turn under our hand a terrestrial +globe, we shall be struck with the +peculiar adaptation of the banks of +the Nile to be an early seat of civilisation. +It is not only that the river, +by periodically overflowing its banks, +produces a spontaneous or unlaboured +fertility, but this fertile tract of land +is made precious, and the people are +bound to it, by the enormous deserts +that extend around it. The desert +and the sea imprison the people in +their “happy valley,” thus rendering +it in all probability one of the earliest +abodes of a stationary population. +However that may be, it is certain +that, whether we appeal to written +history or to monumental inscriptions, +there is no spot on the earth +where the records of the human race +extend so far back into antiquity. +We must open our history of civilisation +with the growth of arts and +knowledge in Egypt. From Egypt +we proceed to Greece—to Athens, +the marvellous, who did so much in +so short time, and who accomplished +even more for the world at large than +for her individual self. She learnt +her arts from Egypt; her scientific +spirit was her own. What we owe +to Judea (which at an early period +was not unconnected with Egypt, nor +at a later with the mind of Greece) +needs not to be here particularised. +It was the part of Rome to reduce into +order and combine under one sway +large tracts of territory and great varieties +of people; so that whatever had +been given to the Greek, or revealed +to the Hebrew, might blend and +be diffused over vast portions of the +human race. Nor was this office less +effectually performed because the empire +is seen to break up amidst much +temporary confusion, produced by internal +corruption and rude invaders. +Europe finally assumes a form the +most conducive imaginable to progress. +It is divided into separate +kingdoms, speaking different languages, +but possessing a common religion, +and many of the same sources +of culture. Their similarities, their +contrasts, their emulations, form together +a condition the most favourable +for the excitement and progress +of the human intellect.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We can therefore look with complacent +admiration, and undecaying +interest, upon the wars and victories +of ancient Rome. But indeed, such +has been the revolution lately brought +about in our historical studies, that +the mention of a new History of +Rome is more likely to call to mind +perplexed controversies upon myths +and fables, than visions of battles or +triumphal processions winding up to +the Capitol. Not many years ago, +the early periods of Roman history +suggested to the imagination the +most vivid pictures of war and patriotism; +we heard the march of the +legions—we followed Cincinnatus +from the plough to the camp—we +were busied with the most stirring +realities and the strongest passions of +life. Now these realities have grown +dim and disputable, and we are reminded +of learned controversies upon +poetic legends, or on early forms of +the constitution,—we think more of +Niebuhr than of Camillus, more of +German critics than of the Conscript +Fathers. It is not a pleasant exchange, +but it is one which must be +submitted to. The first question that +every one will ask, who hears that Dr +Liddell has told again the history of +Rome, is, How has he dealt with the +mythical or legendary portions? What +degree of credibility has he attached +to them? Has he followed the example +of Arnold, and reserved for +them a peculiar style savouring of +antique simplicity; or has he followed +the older, and, we think, the +wiser course, of Livy, and told them +with genuine unaffected eloquence, +without either disguising their legendary +character, or making the +very vain attempt to distinguish the +germ or nucleus of real fact from the +accretions and embellishments of oral +tradition?</p> + +<p class='c009'>Before we answer this question, let +us say generally of Dr Liddell’s History, +that we think the public is indebted +to him for a pre-eminently <i>useful</i> +book. To the youthful student, to +the man who cannot read many volumes, +we should commend it as the +one History which will convey the latest +views and most extensive information. +The style is simple, clear, explanatory. +There are, indeed, certain +high qualities of the writer and the +thinker which are requisite to complete +our ideal of the perfect historian. +We are accustomed to require in him +something of the imagination of the +poet, combined with and subdued by +the wide generalising spirit of the +philosopher. We do not wish to have +it understood that there is a signal +deficiency in these qualities, but, +whilst acknowledging the utility of +Dr Liddell’s laborious and learned +work, we cannot say that he has +given to the literature of England a +History of Rome.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Indeed, the author in his preface +claims for his work no such high +distinction. He describes the origin +it had in the desire to supply the +more advanced students at public +schools with a fit work of instruction, +conveying to them “some knowledge +of the altered aspect which +Roman history has assumed.” The +work grew upon his hands, “and the +character of the book,” he continues, +“is considerably changed from that +which it was originally intended to +bear. A History of Rome suited to +the wants of general readers of the +present day does not in fact exist, +and certainly is much wanted. Whether +this work will in any way supply +the want is for others to say.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>We have already intimated our +opinion that there is no other work +at present existing which so ably +supplies this want; and our immediate +object in placing it at the head +of this paper was to assist in giving +notice to all whom it might concern +where such a work of instruction +was to be found. The preface +then proceeds to touch upon the +thorny and perplexing controversies +in the early history:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The difficulty inseparable from a +work of this kind lies in the treatment +of the Early History. Since what may +be called ‘The Revolution of Niebuhr,’ +it has been customary to give an abstract +of his conclusions, with little attention +to the evidence upon which they rest. +But the acute and laborious criticisms of +many scholars, chiefly German, have +greatly modified the faith which the +present generation is disposed to place +in Niebuhr’s authoritative dicta; and in +some cases there may be observed a disposition +to speak lightly of his services. +If I may say anything of myself, I still +feel that reverence for the great master +which I gained in youth, when we, at +Oxford, first applied his lamp to illuminate +the pages of Livy. No doubt, many +of the results which he assumes as positive +are little better than arbitrary assertions. +But I conceive that his main +positions are still unshaken, or rather +have been confirmed by examination and +attack. If, however, they were all +abandoned, it will remain true for ever, +that to him is due the new spirit in +which Roman history has been studied; +that to him must be referred the origin +of that new light which has been thrown +upon the whole subject by the labours +of his successors. In a work like this, +dissertation is impossible; and I have +endeavoured to state only such results +of the new criticism as seem to be established. +If the young reader has less of +positive set before him to learn, he will +at all events find less that he will have +to unlearn.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Far the greater part of this work +was printed off before the appearance of +Sir George Cornewall Lewis’s <cite>Inquiry +into the Credibility of Early Roman History</cite>. +Much labour might be saved by adopting +his conclusions, that Roman history deserves +little or no attention till the age +at which we can securely refer to contemporaneous +writers, and that this age +cannot be carried back further than the +times of Pyrrhus. It is impossible to +speak too highly of the fulness, the +clearness, the patience, the judicial calmness +of his elaborate argument. <i>But +while his conclusions may be conceded +in full for almost all the wars and +foreign transactions of early times</i>, we +must yet claim attention for the civil +history of Rome in the first ages of the +republic. There is about it a consistency +of progress, and a clearness of intelligence, +that would make its fabrication +more wonderful than its transmission in +a half-traditionary form. When tradition +rests solely on memory, it is fleeting and +uncertain; but when it is connected with +customs, laws, and institutions such as +those of which Rome was justly proud, +and to which the ruling party clung with +desperate tenacity, its evidence must +doubtless be carefully sifted and duly +estimated, but ought not altogether to +be set aside.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The large concession which the +work of Sir G. C. Lewis seems to +have extorted from Dr Liddell after +the writing of his own History, was +not present to his mind during its +composition. He sometimes gives +as historical fact such-and-such a +war, and then relates some legend as +connected with this war. “With the +Volscian wars is inseparably connected +the noble legend of Coriolanus.” +The story of Coriolanus is +marked as legend, the Volscian wars +as fact. If we are justified in making +the concession marked in italics, the +Volscian wars are no more history +than the story of Coriolanus.</p> + +<p class='c009'>As to the remark here made on the +civil or constitutional history of this +period, it would have great weight +if there were really presented to us in +that history a clear, intelligible, indisputable +account of the earlier constitutions +or governments of Rome. +It happens that it is precisely on this +subject there has been so much conjecture, +and so much debate. So far +as Dr Liddell can really trace in the +narrative preceding the time of Pyrrhus, +a manifest, indisputable, <i>constitutional +history</i>, so far as he can confidently +point to that “consistency of +progress and clearness of intelligence” +of which he speaks, so far he is entitled +to claim for the whole narrative +our most respectful attention. +But the difficulty is notorious of +forming a distinct conception of many +points in this constitutional history, +and this difficulty has given rise to +much of our guess-work. We must +take care, therefore, and not fall into +the logical error, of <i>first</i> eliminating +some consistent view of the constitutional +history by the aid of much ingenious +conjecture, and <i>then</i> appealing +to this consistency in the constitutional +history as ground of presumption +in favour of the whole narrative.</p> + +<p class='c009'>For our own part, we suspect that +there is a greater measure of truth in +the legend as it stands than is now +generally conceded; and at the same +time we have an utter distrust of all +the attempts which have been made—laudable +and ingenious as they may +be—to separate the truth from the +fable. We can believe in Tarquin +the Proud, in Lucretia, in Coriolanus, +much more readily than in any new +historical views obtained by a sifting +of the narrative which contains these +heroic stories. One thing is plain, +that no historian of Rome can omit +these narratives; and we should much +prefer that he would relate them in +a natural style—in the style due at +least to the noble sentiments they +illustrate—than reserve for them (a +manner to which Dr Liddell on some +occasions leans) a certain bald and +ballad simplicity, as if the writer +were almost ashamed of having to +relate them at all.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is now generally understood, by +all who have paid any attention to +the subject, that although the name +of Niebuhr is popularly associated +with a sceptical and destructive criticism, +he is really distinguished by +the bold manner in which he has undertaken +to construct and restore +certain portions of the history. Preceding +writers, both ancient and modern, +had uttered the word “fable” +or “legend;” it was the gathering +from the fable some truth indirectly +revealed; it was the bold inventive +genius, which could recast the old +materials into a new form, which +characterised his labours. Amongst +other things, he fearlessly asserted +that a modern critic might obtain a +more precise knowledge of the civil +history and early constitutions of +Rome than Livy or Cicero possessed. +Now, these reconstructions of Niebuhr, +though received at first with +great enthusiasm in many quarters, +have not stood their ground against +a calm and severe examination; and +in this country all such conjectural +methods of writing the early history +of Rome have lately received a decisive +check from the work of Sir +George Cornewall Lewis, <cite>On the Credibility +of Early Roman History</cite>. +This is a work which combines the +ample and laborious scholarship of +the German, with that sound sense +which the Englishman lays especial +claim to. We can only here incidentally +mention it; but it is impossible, +and it will be a long time impossible, +for any one to touch upon Roman +history without alluding to this +work. It will be for many years the +text-book for the subject of which it +treats.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The manner in which a legend, +which is itself admitted to be false, +may yet convey to us indirectly some +important historical truth, admits of +easy illustration. Suppose that some +chronicler, living in the time of our +Henry V., chose to relate a quite fictitious +history of Prince Arthur. All +his battles, all his victories, his whole +kingdom, might be a mere dream; +but as the imagination of the writer +would have no other types to follow +than those which his own times presented +to him, he would necessarily +convey to us much historical truth +touching the reign of Henry V., +whilst describing his imaginary +Prince Arthur. His inevitable anachronisms +would betray him into a +species of historical truth. Prince +Arthur would assuredly be a valorous +knight, and whence would come +the ceremony of investiture, and all +the moral code of knighthood? Prince +Arthur would undoubtedly be a good +son of the Church, and from what +type would be drawn the picture of +the orthodox and pious Christian? +If the Prince were to be crowned, +whence would come the sceptre and +the ball, and the oaths he would +take upon his coronation? Prince +Arthur would be a knight, a Christian, +and a king, after the order of +the Plantagenets. It is plain that, +in such a fabulous narrative, there +would be mingled up much historical +matter; it is plain that we, reading +such a narrative by the light of knowledge +gained from other sources, can +detect and discriminate the historic +truth: whether, if such a fabulous +narrative <i>stood alone</i> before us, we +could then make the same discrimination, +whether we could then take +advantage of its involuntary anachronisms, +is another question. Imagination +must always have its type +or starting-place in some reality, but +it may deal as freely with one reality +as another; it may take as much +liberty with religious ceremonies +and coronation oaths as with anything +else.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Is there not a slight oversight in +the following criticism, which Sir G. +C. Lewis makes on the method of +Niebuhr? At all events, our quotation +of the passage from his work, +with a solitary remark of our own +upon it, will constitute as brief an +exposition as any we can give of this +branch of the subject. The question +is, what can be gathered of the constitution +of Rome under her kings? +There is clearly no contemporary history; +but <i>if</i> a tradition, though of a +quite mythical character, could be +fairly pronounced to have originated +in the regal period, that tradition +might indirectly convey to us some +knowledge of the regal constitution. +Fragments have come down to us +through the works of later classical +writers, which may convey this sort +of traditional knowledge. Let them +by all means be rigidly examined, +whatever their ultimate value may +be found to be.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“One of the passages,” says Sir G. C. +Lewis, “which Niebuhr cites from Cicero, +relates to the constitutional proceedings +upon the election of Numa. +Yet Niebuhr holds, not merely that the +entire regal period is unhistorical, but +that Numa is an unreal and imaginary +personage—a name and not a man. Now, +what reliance, according to Niebuhr’s +own view, is to be placed upon Cicero’s +information respecting a man who never +lived, and an event which never happened, +even if it was derived from some +pontifical book, which professed to record +old customs?”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Continuing the discussion in a +note, Sir G. C. Lewis adds:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“For Niebuhr’s account of the legend +of Numa, see <cite>Hist.</cite>, vol. i. pp. 237–240. +Afterwards he says—‘Hence it seems +quite evident that the pontiffs themselves +distinguished the first two kings +from the rest, as belonging to another +order of things, and that they separated +the accounts of them from those which +were to pass for history.... Romulus +was the god, the son of a god; Numa a +man, but connected with superior beings. +If the tradition about them, however, is +in all its parts a <i>poetical fiction</i>, the fixing +the pretended term of their reigns can +only be explained by ascribing it rather +to mere caprice or to numerical speculations.’—‘With +Tullius Hostilius we reach +the beginning of a new secle, and of a +narrative resting on historical ground of +a kind <i>totally different</i> from the story of +the preceding period.’ Niebuhr considers +the mythico-historical age of Roman +History to begin with the reign of +Tullius Hostilius, and the age of Romulus +and Numa to be purely fabulous. +Moreover, he commences the second +volume of his History with the following +sentence—‘It was one of the most important +objects of the first volume to +prove that the story of Rome under +the kings was altogether <i>without historical +foundation</i>.’ He lays it down likewise +that the names of the kings, their +number, and the duration and dates +of their reigns, are fictitious; yet he +cites the proceedings at the election of +Numa, and of the subsequent kings, as +historical proof of the constitutional +practice of that period.”—Vol. i. p. 123.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Niebuhr does not hold that there +was no regal period, however fictitious +the history of the kings may +be. It was to throw light on that +regal period in which the myth of +Numa is supposed <i>to have originated</i> +that the passage must have been +cited, not certainly on the times of +Numa. Whatever, therefore, may +be the infinitesimal value of the passage +cited which relates to the constitutional +proceedings upon the election +of Numa, there was no logical +inconsistency on the part of Niebuhr +in making a reference to it. If the +myth of Numa really originated in a +regal period, what the pontiff declared +about it might indirectly convey +some information as to the constitution +of that regal period.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Dr Liddell may well speak of the +“altered aspect which Roman history +has assumed.” We begin our +annals with an account of the “religious +myth,” of which, however, the +specimens are very few. Romulus +is <i>Strength</i> and Numa is <i>Law</i>; they +are godlike persons, or in communication +with gods; they together found +the city of Rome. Strength and +Law assuredly founded the city: it +is good philosophy, whatever history +it makes; and the pontiffs were fully +justified in placing these kings where +they did—the first, and presiding, +and eternal kings of every commonwealth. +From the religious myth +we proceed to the “heroic legend.” +In this species of fable the veritable +man and his real action is extolled—is +exaggerated—is multiplied. The +hero himself is multiplied, or he is +transplanted from one region to another. +The story is expanded and +enriched by each successive narrative, +until a literary age makes its appearance. +It then assumes a fixed form, +from which any wide deviation is no +longer permissible.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In all such heroic legends, when +they have been fairly born on the soil +on which we find them, and have not +been transplanted from a foreign +country, there is always some element +of historic truth. For what we +call invention must start from, or be +supplied with, given facts. There is +a vague but very prevalent error on +the nature and power of <i>poetical invention</i>. +It is spoken of as something +that will account at once for the +marvellous narrative. This is supposed +to spring forth complete from some +poet’s brain. Poetical invention can +only take place where there is already +some amount and variety of known +incidents or traditional stories; these +the poet strings together in new combinations. +The first writers in metre +(as we may see in the earliest ballads +of Spain and of other countries) content +themselves with a bald narrative +of some fact or tradition. Their +successors add to this narrative—add +a sentiment or a detail; and when the +number of such narratives has increased, +poetical invention, in its +highest form, becomes possible. It +has been lately a favourite hypothesis +that the earliest literature of Rome +consisted of a number of poems or +ballads, which supplied the first historians +with their materials. It appears +to us highly probable that separate +legends were shaped into something +like completeness of form before +any continuous history of the +city of Rome was written; but whether +such legends were written first +in prose or verse is matter of very +little moment, and of very great uncertainty.</p> + +<p class='c009'>After expressing the belief that +there is a substratum of truth in these +heroic legends, it is not very satisfactory +to be compelled to add that we +cannot distinguish it from the superstructure +of fiction. Unfortunately, +it is not the marvellous and supernatural—which, +indeed, are but +sparingly introduced—which have +alone contributed to deprive these +legends of their credibility: they +have been convicted, in some cases, +of historic falsehood. A species of +pious fraud has been committed to +conceal the defeats of the Romans. +Family pride has, in other instances, +led to the undue exaltation of individual +heroes. We must chiefly honour +these legends, after all, as manifestations +of the mind and spirit of the +Romans, rather than as positive materials +of history.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We always revert to this consolation—every +literature must be the +history of the <i>thoughts</i>, if not of the +<i>deeds</i> of a people; and all our various +records are chiefly valuable as they +enable us to write the history of the +human mind. How pre-eminently +this is the case wherever the subject +of religion is introduced! Omens, +auguries, oracles—what matters whether +in this or that case they were +really seen or uttered? the great fact +is, that they were currently believed +in, and acted on. The <i>belief</i> here is +all that we can possibly be concerned +with. Whether Æneas really did see +that white sow, with her litter of +thirty pigs, which he took for so good +an omen of prosperity (it was no bad +sign of fertility), may be questioned; +but even the invention of such an incident +proves that men, and wise men, +were supposed to be under the influence +of such omens. That an eagle pounced +down, and took from the head of +Tarquin his cap, and, after wheeling +in the air, <i>put it on again</i>, is what +we do not believe; eagles, neither +at Rome or elsewhere, have this habit +of restitution. But the frequency of +legends of this kind points to a time +when men were in the constant expectation +of finding their own future +destiny prefigured to them in the actions +of birds and beasts, or the operations +of inanimate nature. What +was the precise <i>degree</i> of influence +which superstitions of this nature +exercised on the course of human +conduct, must still be problematical. +Did any pious general, at the head of +the legions at Rome, really determine +whether he should give battle +or not by the appetite with which the +sacred chickens took their food? +Did men ever colonise, or build a +city, according to the flight of vultures +or the perching of an eagle?</p> + +<p class='c009'>But superstition itself, and that in +some of its most terrible forms, is +animated and dignified by the spirit +of Roman patriotism. Read this old +story of the self-devotion of Decius, +as Dr Liddell tells it to us. It will +be an excellent example in which to +take our stand, if we would estimate +at their full value these old heroic +legends. One of those decisive battles +is to be fought which is to determine +the supremacy of Rome in +Italy.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The Latin army marched hastily +southward to protect their Oscan allies, +and it was in the plains of Campania +that the fate of Rome and Latium was +to be decided. (The two consuls, Manlius +and Decius, commanded in the +Roman camp.)</p> + +<p class='c010'>“When the two armies met under +Mount Vesuvius, they lay opposed to +one another, neither party choosing to +begin the fray. It was almost like a +civil war: Romans and Latins spoke +the same language; their armies had +long fought side by side under common +generals; their arms, discipline, and +tactics were the same.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“While the armies were thus lying +over against each other, the Latin +horsemen, conscious of superiority, used +every endeavour to provoke the Romans +to single combats. The latter, +however, were checked by the orders of +their generals, till young Manlius, son +of the consul, stung to the quick by +the taunts of Geminus Metius, a Latin +champion, accepted his challenge. The +young Roman conquered, and returned +to the camp to lay the spoils of the +enemy at his father’s feet. But the +spirit of Brutus was not dead; and the +stern consul, unmindful of his own +feelings and the pleading voices of the +whole army, condemned his son to +death for disobedience to orders. Discipline +was thus maintained, but at a sore +expense, and the men’s hearts were +heavy at this unnatural act.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“In the night before the day on +which the consuls resolved to fight, +each of them was visited by an ominous +dream, by which it was revealed that +whichever army first lost its general +should prevail; and they agreed that he +whose division first gave ground should +devote himself to the gods of the lower +world.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“In the morning, when the auspices +were taken, the liver of the victim offered +on the part of Decius was defective, +while that of Manlius was perfect. +And the event confirmed the omen; for +Manlius, who commanded on the right, +held his ground, while the legions of +Decius on the left gave way.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Then Decius, mindful of his vow, +sent for Valerius, the chief pontiff, to +direct him how duly to devote himself. +He put on his toga, the robe of peace, +after the Gabine fashion, bringing the +end or lappet under the right arm, and +throwing it over his head; and then, +standing on a javelin, he pronounced the +solemn form of words prescribed, by +which he devoted the army of the +enemy along with himself to the gods of +death and to the grave. Then, still +shrouded in his toga, he leaped upon +his horse, and dashing into the enemy’s +ranks, was slain.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Both armies were well aware of +the meaning of the act. It depressed +the spirits of the Latins as much as it +raised those of the Romans. The skill +of Manlius finished the work of superstitious +awe.... The enemy fled +in irretrievable confusion.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>One consul sacrifices his son to +the cause of military discipline; the +other consul sacrifices himself to the +gods, to obtain the destruction of +the enemy. We believe in a Decius, +in some Decius, at some time, in +some battle. Many of the details +brought here together were probably +added by different narrators. But it +may be laid down, we think, as a +sound canon of criticism, <i>that no +act of moral greatness was ever invented +till the like of it had been +really performed</i>. Imagination of +what the human heart is capable of +cannot precede the genuine feelings, +the genuine heroism of man. The +several acts of Manlius and of Decius +are Roman deeds, whether they occurred +precisely here or not. Then +note the traces we have in this +legend of the rite of human sacrifice, +and the terrible boon extorted by it. +Indeed, the whole passage is fertile +of suggestions which we will not +weaken by attempting to enumerate.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Rome had scarcely obtained the +ascendancy over her neighbours +when her own destruction was threatened +by the Gauls. Yet ultimately +this invasion of the Celt, by weakening +her enemies more than herself, +was not unpropitious to the final +predominance of Rome. “The Gauls,” +writes Dr Liddell, “burst upon +Latium and the adjoining lands with +the suddenness of a thunderstorm; +and as the storm, with all its fury +and destructiveness, yet clears the +loaded air, and restores a balance between +the disturbed powers of nature, +so it was with this Gallic hurricane. +It swept over the face of Italy, crushing +and destroying. The Etruscans +were weakened by it; and if Rome +herself was laid prostrate for a season, +the Latins also suffered greatly, the +Volscians were humbled, and the +Æquians so shattered that they never +recovered from the blow.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>It was a disastrous day for Rome. +A large portion of her army, under +her great general Camillus, was +absent from the city. What forces +she could muster were routed and +dispersed. There were not enough +men to defend the city; it was given +up to the Gauls. The Capitol alone +held out. Finally, the Romans were +fain to ransom themselves, and to +obtain peace, by the payment of one +thousand pounds in weight of gold. +The popular and legendary history +tells us, that whilst this gold was +being weighed out—and just as the +insolent Gaul had thrown his sword +into the scale, bidding them weigh +that too, with his “Woe to the conquered!”—the +great Camillus returned +with his army, marched into +the forum, ordered the gold to be +returned, declared that it was with +<i>iron</i> he meant to redeem the city, +and forthwith drove out the Gauls, +so completely destroying their host +that not a man was left to carry +home the news of their calamity.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“So ran the legend,” continues Dr +Liddell, “embellished by the touch of +Livy’s graceful pen. But, unfortunately +for Roman pride, here also, as in the tale +of Porsenna, traces of true history are +preserved, which show how little the +Roman annalists regarded truth. Strabo +and Diodorus mention stories to the +effect that the Gauls carried off the gold +without let or hindrance from Camillus, +but that they were attacked in Etruria, +some said by the Romans themselves, +others said by the friendly people of +Cæré, and obliged to relinquish their +precious booty. But Polybius has left +clearer and more positive statements. +That grave historian tells us, as if he +knew no other story, that the departure +of the Gauls was caused by the intelligence +that the Venetians, an Illyrian +tribe, had invaded their settlements in +northern Italy; that, on receiving this +intelligence, they proposed to make a +treaty; that the treaty was made; that +they actually received the gold, and +marched off unmolested to their homes.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Where did Polybius get <i>his</i> story? +The legend may be false, but where +were the materials from which Polybius +could have obtained a more historical +account? But before again +alluding to this subject, we cannot +but pause to take notice that here +also is a striking example of the value +of the legend as a history of the mind +and thoughts of a people, even where +it fails us as a history of events. +Consider what must have been the +religious faith, what the ardent patriotism, +that gave birth to this magnificent +fable (if fable it is) of the +conduct of the Senate, when the army +of Rome had been utterly vanquished, +and the Gaul, in insolent confidence +of victory, was rejoicing and revelling +at the gates. Here it is, in the +version of Dr Liddell:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Meantime the Senate at Rome did +what was possible to retrieve their fallen +fortunes. With all the men of military +age they withdrew into the Capitol, for +they had not numbers enough to man +the walls of the city. These were mainly +Patricians. Many of the Plebeians had +fallen in the battle; many had escaped +to Veii. The old men of this order, with +the women, fled for safety to the same +city. The priests and vestal virgins, +carrying with them the sacred images +and utensils, found refuge at the friendly +Etruscan city of Cæré. <i>But the old Senators, +who had been Consuls or Censors, and +had won triumphs, and grown grey in their +country’s service, feeling themselves to be +now no longer a succour but a burthen, +determined to sacrifice themselves for her; +and M. Fabius, the Pontifex, recited the +form of words by which they solemnly devoted +themselves to the gods below, praying +that on their heads only might fall the +vengeance and the destruction.</i> Then as +the Gauls approached, they ordered their +ivory chairs to be set in the Comitium, +before the temples of the gods, and there +they took their seats, each man clad in +his robes of state, to await the coming of +the avenger.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“At length the Gallic host approached +the city, and came to the Colline gate. +It stood wide open before their astonished +gaze, and they advanced slowly, +not without suspicion, through deserted +streets, unresisted and unchecked. When +they reached the Forum, there, within +its sacred precincts, they beheld those +venerable men sitting like so many gods +descended from heaven to protect their +own. They gazed with silent awe; till +at length a Gaul, hardier than his brethren, +ventured to stroke the long beard +of M. Papirius. The old hero raised his +ivory staff and smote the offender, +whereupon the barbarian in wrath slew +him; and this first sword-stroke gave the +signal for a general slaughter. Then the +Romans in the Capitol believed that the +gods had accepted the offering which +those old men had made, and that the +rest would be saved.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Grander fable never was invented—never +grew up out of grander feelings +or wilder convictions. How +little do we seem to know of the ancient +religion of Rome! We listen too +exclusively to the poets of the Augustan +age. Elegant fictions and placid +deities, from whom little was to be +hoped or feared, did not constitute +the religion of early times. There +were terrible gods in those days—without +whom, indeed, no religion +has existed which has really influenced +the conduct of mankind.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The next great event in the history +of Rome which arrests our attention +is the war with Pyrrhus. Here the +Romans come in contact with a +literary people. The attention of +the Greeks is drawn towards them. +Greek historians collect what accounts +they can of these new barbarians, +who are pronounced to be “not +barbarians at least in war.” The first +Roman historians wrote in the Greek +language. We enter, it is said, into +the historic period.</p> + +<p class='c009'>This is a fit place to quote some +judicious remarks which Dr Liddell +makes on the sources of early Roman +history:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“When the Gaul departed and left +Rome in ashes, it was not only the +buildings of the city that perished. We +are expressly told that all the public +records shared in the general destruction—the +Fasti, or list of yearly magistrates +with their triumphs, the Annales +Pontificum, and the Linen Rolls (<i>libri +lintei</i>), which were annual registers or +chronicles of events kept by the pontiffs +and augurs.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“This took place, we know, about the +year 390 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span></p> + +<p class='c010'>“Now the first Roman annalists, +Fabius Pictor, Cincius Alimentus, Cato +the Censor, with the poets Nævius and +Ennius, flourished about a century and +a half after this date. Whence, then, +it is natural to ask, did these writers +and their successors find materials for +the history of Rome before the burning +of the city? What is the authority for +the events and actions which are stated +to have taken place before the year +390 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>?</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The answer to these questions may +partly be found in our fifth chapter. +The early history of Rome was preserved +in old heroic lays or legends, which lived +in the memories of men, and were transmitted +by word of mouth from one generation +to another. The early history of +all nations is, as we have said, the same; +and even if we had the Fasti and the +Annals complete, we should still have to +refer to those legendary tales for the +substance and colour of the early history. +The Fasti, indeed, if they were +so utterly destroyed as Livy states, must +have been preserved in memory with +tolerable accuracy, for we have several +lists of the early magistrates which only +differ by a few omissions and transpositions. +The Annals and Linen Rolls, if +we had copies of them, would present +little else than dry bones without flesh—mere +names with a few naked incidents +attached, much of the same character as +the famous Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. For +narrative we should still have been dependent +upon the legends. We might +know the exact time at which Coriolanus +appeared at the head of the Volscian +host, but the story would remain untouched....</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The false statements of the Patrician +period are quite different in kind from +the greater part of the legendary fictions +of Greece or Regal Rome. There we +discern no dishonesty of purpose, no +intentional fraud; here, much of the +baser coin is current. In the legends of +Porsenna and Camillus the dishonour of +Rome and the triumphs of the invaders +are studiously kept out of sight, and +glorious deeds are attributed to heroes +who are proved to have no claim to such +honour.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>If the legends of the Regal period +are mythical, and if those of the +Patrician period were falsified by +bards and minstrels, who made it +their vocation to flatter the family +pride of the nobles, it is plain there +is little of historic narrative relating to +these early times which can be depended +on. There is no essential difference +in the account which Dr Liddell and +Sir G. C. Lewis give of the materials +of the early history of Rome; but the +first of these writers has a far greater +faith in that species of constructive +or conjectural history, in which Niebuhr +was so great an artist, than the +second can at all admit. Sir G. C. +Lewis contends with great force and +clearness that historical evidence does +not differ in kind from judicial evidence. +They are both founded “on +the testimony of credible witnesses.” +Unless you can trace your narrative +to some contemporary writer +who had a fair opportunity of knowing +the facts to which he testifies, +you have nothing worthy of the name +of history. Nor can any ingenuity +of reasoning avail if the materials on +which you reason are constantly open +to suspicion. In the time of the +second Punic war there commences +a series of Roman historians or annalists +who recorded the events of +their own age; their works are lost +to us, but they furnished subsequent +writers, whose histories remain, with +<i>their</i> materials. If now, for the years +preceding this epoch, you have nothing +but a series of meagre official +annals, kept by the chief pontiff, +some ancient treaties, and a few +laws which you can bring into court +as historical evidence—if you have +nothing but these “dry bones,” there +is no help for it; you must be contented +with the skeleton. By no +means can you, in any legitimate +manner, cover these bones. You +have no narrative, both lifelike and +trustworthy, that extends beyond the +age of Pyrrhus. Here the Greek historian +steps in. Moreover, the war +with Pyrrhus was “not so long prior +to the time of Fabius and Cincius +(the earliest Roman annalists) as to +render it improbable that they and +other subsequent writers may have +collected some trustworthy notices of +it from native tradition and documents.” +The speech, too, of Appius +the Blind, delivered in the Senate on +the occasion of the embassy of Cineas, +the minister of Pyrrhus, was +extant in the time of Cicero. But +beyond this period of the war of +Pyrrhus, historic narrative based on +acceptable evidence there is none.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Sir G. C. Lewis states the matter, +at the opening of his third chapter, +in the following lucid manner:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“In the previous chapter we have followed +the stream of Roman contemporary +history up to the war of Pyrrhus, +but found that at that point the contemporary +writers deserted us. There is no +trace of any historical account of Roman +affairs by a contemporary writer, native +or foreign, before that time; nor can it +be shown that any Roman literary work, +either in verse or prose, was then in existence. +But although there was no contemporary +history, and no native literature +at Rome before the war with Pyrrhus, +yet we have a history of Rome for +472 years before that period, handed +down to us by ancient classical writers +as a credible narrative of events.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>But we must not be seduced further +into following the discussions of Sir +G. C. Lewis “on the credibility of the +early Roman history.” We must not +forget that it is Dr Liddell’s History +we have at present before us. The +wars of Pyrrhus are related by him +in a very distinct and spirited manner, +and the chivalrous character of +the Greek prince—the <i>Cœur-de-Lion</i> +of his age—stands out before us in +very clear relief. The wars, too, of a +greater than Pyrrhus—of the Carthaginian +general, Hannibal—are told +with more perspicuity than will be +found, we think, in the pages of any +of his predecessors. But for very +manifest reasons we must pass over +voluminous details of this description.</p> + +<p class='c009'>No portion of the work will be +read with more interest and profit +than those chapters which give an +account of the civil constitution of +Rome, such as it existed in the palmy +days of the republic. We confess +ourselves to be utterly incredulous of +the ability of any writer to describe +to us what the constitution of Rome +was under her kings, or during the +earlier periods of the commonwealth. +So much the more pleasure do we derive +from a view of that constitution +when the clouds seem to break away, +and it stands revealed to us in the +light of history. When he has driven +Hannibal out of Italy, conquered +Sicily, and imposed those terms on +Carthage which ended the second +Punic war, Dr Liddell takes the occasion +to review the constitution of +Rome such as it displayed itself when +the republic was in its full vigour. +It was during the time of the Punic +wars, he tells us, that this most remarkable +and most complex system +of government under which men ever +lived, attained to some completeness +of form. Our own British constitution +is often cited as a marvel of complexity; +incongruous powers and institutions +come into collision at this +and that point, till a harmonious +action is at length produced; and +the prerogative of the Crown is seen +to be opposed by the privilege of Parliament, +in such a manner as rather +to represent a contest between rival +institutions, than an understood co-operation +of great functionaries of +state. But the British constitution +is a simple and consistent scheme +when compared with the constitution +of the Roman republic; with its wild +right of the Tribune, which at once +seems subversive of all law; with +its annual elections, and that even of +the general at the head of its armies, +which seems at once subversive of all +military discipline, and an insuperable +obstacle to all military success; +with its coequal legislative assemblies, +which seems to strike at once +at the unity of the laws, and to be a +provision for the dissolution of the +society.</p> + +<p class='c009'>That which explains the mystery, +that which accounts for the long +duration and signal success of so complicated +a system, is to be found in +the predominating power of the +Senate. And if again we are asked +how it happened that the Senate endured +so long, and was not sooner +dissolved or reduced to subjection +by some military chief, we can only +refer to the jealousy which the great +men of Rome, patrician or plebeian, +entertained of each other. Many a +patrician would have been king, none +would have endured to have a king +over him. This determination to bow +to no superior, except the law, except +the State, is the feeling of every +aristocracy which grows up within a +city. It is otherwise with a territorial +aristocracy. Here some form +of our feudal system invariably presents +itself; the common safety requires +it. But in a municipal +aristocracy, like that of Rome or +Venice, the prevailing spirit, the <i>conservative +feeling</i>, is precisely this determination, +that no one member of +the body shall obtain predominance +over the rest. Looking at the history +of Rome and the magnitude of her +conquests, we feel that it was inevitable +that the Senate should succumb +at length to some victorious Cæsar, +and we feel that it was equally inevitable +that it should deliver its last +protest in the daggers of a Brutus +and a Cassius.</p> + +<p class='c009'>An extract from this portion of Dr +Liddell’s work cannot fail to be acceptable +to our readers. What precisely +was the august Senate of Rome +many of us may not distinctly remember, +if indeed we have ever been so +distinctly told as we are in the pages +of this writer. We have no space to +enter on the description of the two +legislative assemblies, the “Tribe Assembly,” +and the “Centuriate Assembly,” +as they are here called, +nor of the extraordinary power of +the Tribune; we must limit our quotation +to that part which rather +bears on the ordinary and executive +government of Rome.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“To obtain each of these high offices +(as those of Quæstor, Ædile, Prætor, +Consul, Censor), the Roman was obliged +to seek the suffrages of his fellow-citizens. +They were all open to the ambition of +every one whose name had been entered +by the Censors in the Register of Citizens, +provided he had reached the required +age. No office, except the Censorship, +was held for a longer period than twelve +months. No officer received any pay or +salary for his services. To defray expenses, +certain allowances were made +from the treasury by order of the Senate. +To discharge routine duties and to conduct +their correspondence, each magistrate +had a certain number of clerks +(Scribæ), who formed what we should +call the civil service, and who had before +this assumed an important position in +the State.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“But though the highest offices seemed +thus absolutely open to every candidate, +they were not so in practice. About the +time of the first Punic war an alteration +was made, which in effect confined the +Curule officers to the wealthy families. +The Ædiles were charged with the +management of the public games, and +for celebrating them with due splendour +a liberal allowance had been made from +the treasury. At the time just mentioned, +this allowance was withdrawn. +Yet the Curule Ædiles were still expected +to maintain the honour of Rome by +costly spectacles at the Great Roman +Games, the Megalesian Festival, and +others of less consequence. A great +change was wrought by this law, which, +under a popular aspect, limited the +choice of the people to those who could +buy their favour. None could become +Ædile who had not the command of +money, or at least of credit.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“That which strikes the mind as most +remarkable in the executive government +of Rome, is the short period for which +each magistrate held his office, and the +seeming danger of leaving appointments +so important to the suffrages of the people +at large; and this is still more striking +when we remember that the same system +was extended to the army itself, as well +as to its generals. The Romans had no +standing army. Every Roman citizen +between the complete ages of seventeen +and forty-five, and possessing property +worth at least 4000 lb. of copper, was +placed on the military roll. From this +roll four legions, two for each Consul, +were enlisted every year; and in cases +of necessity additional legions were +raised. But at the close of the year’s +campaign these legionary soldiers had a +right to return home and be relieved by +others. Nor were there any fixed officers. +Each legion had six tribunes and sixty +centurions; but these were appointed, +like the consuls and soldiers, fresh every +year. The majority of the tribunes were +now elected by the people at the Comitia +of the tribes, and the remainder were +nominated by the consuls of the year; +the only limitation to such choice being, +that those elected or nominated should +have served in the legions at least five +campaigns. The Centurions were then +nominated by the Tribunes, subject to +the approval of the Consuls. No doubt +the Tribunes or Consuls, for their own +sake, would nominate effective men; and +therefore we should conclude, what we +find to be the fact, that the Roman +armies depended much on their Centurions, +and on those Tribunes who were +nominated by the Consuls.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Everything hitherto seems to be in +a state of perpetual change and disorganisation. +If a consul were pursuing +his operations ever so successfully, +he was liable to be superseded +at the close of the year by his successor +in the consulship; and this successor +brought with him new soldiers +and new officers. This inconvenience +was so great that the constitutional +usages were necessarily broken +through: the same men were re-elected +to the consulship notwithstanding +the law that no one should hold the +office a second time except after the +lapse of a certain interval. Impolitic +laws, and these frequently suspended, +present us with a poor guarantee for +the permanence of the republic.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“But though the chief officers, both +in state and army, were continually +changing at the popular will, there was +a mighty power behind them, on which +they were all dependent, which did not +change. This was the <span class='sc'>Senate</span>.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The importance of this body can +hardly be overstated. All the acts of +the Roman Republic ran in the name of +the Senate and People, as if the Senate +were half the State, though its number +seems still to have been limited to three +hundred members.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The Senate of Rome was perhaps the +most remarkable assembly that the +world has ever seen. Its members held +their seats for life. Once senators, always +senators, unless they were degraded +for some dishonourable cause. But +the Senatorical peerage was not hereditary; +no father could transmit the +honour to his son. Each man must win +it for himself.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The manner in which seats in the +Senate were obtained is tolerably well +ascertained. Many persons will be surprised +to learn that the members of this +august body, all, or nearly all, owed their +places to the votes of the people. In +theory, indeed, the Censors still possessed +the power really exercised by the kings +and early Consuls, of choosing the Senators +at their own will and pleasure. But +official powers, however arbitrary, are +always limited in practice—and the Censors +followed rules established by ancient +precedent. A notable example of +the rule by which the list of the Senate +was made occurs at a period when, if +ever, there was wide room for the exercise +of discretion. After the fatal days +of Trasimene and Cannæ, it was found +that, to complete the just number of +Senators, no less than one hundred and +seventy were wanting. Two years were +yet to pass before new Censors would +be in office; and to provide an extraordinary +remedy for an extraordinary case, +M. Fabius Buteo, an old Senator of high +character, was named Dictator, for the +sole purpose of recruiting the vacant +ranks of his order. He thus discharged +his duty: after reciting the names of all +surviving Senators, he chose as new +members, first, those who had held Curule +offices since the last censorship, according +to the order of their election; +then those who had served as Ædiles, +Tribunes, or Quæstors; then of those +who had not held office, such as had decorated +their houses with spoils taken +from the enemy, or with crowns bestowed +for saving the lives of fellow-citizens!</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The first qualification for a seat in +the Senate then was that of office. It is +probable that to the qualification of +office there was added a second, property; +a third limitation, that of age, +followed from the rule that the Senate +was recruited from the lists of official +persons. No one could be a Senator till +he was about thirty years of age.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The power of the Senate was equal +to its dignity. It absorbed into its ranks +a large proportion of the practical ability +of the community. It was a standing +council, where all official functions +were annual. And thus, it is but natural +that it should engross the chief business +of the State.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>This body of ex-consuls, ex-prætors, +and the like (we need hardly say +that the distinction between Patrician +and Plebeian had been early +erased) might well justify the figure +of speech which the minister of Pyrrhus +used when he called the Roman +Senate an assembly of kings. “Many +of its members had exercised sovereign +power; many were preparing to +exercise it.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Senate had the absolute control +of foreign affairs, except that, in +declaring war and concluding treaties +of peace, the people were consulted. +The conduct of the war, and +all diplomatic negotiations, were in +their hands. The Consul was the servant +of the Senate; the sacred pontiffs +took their orders from the +Senate. And, what was of no less +importance, “all the financial arrangements +of the State were left to +their discretion.” In times of difficulty, +as is well known, they had +the power of suspending all rules +of law by the appointment of a dictator.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“They prolonged the command of a +general or suspended him at pleasure. +They estimated the sums necessary for +the military chest; nor could a sesterce +be paid to the general without their +order. If a Consul proved refractory, +they could transfer his power for a time +to a dictator. All disputes in Italy or +beyond seas were referred to their sovereign +arbitrement.... They might +also resolve themselves into a High +Court of Justice for the trial of extraordinary +offences.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Nor was this great Executive +Council without participation in, or +control over, the function of the legislative +assemblies; for, as a general +rule, no law could be proposed which +had not already received the sanction +of the Senate. This body may +be well described as having been for +many years “the main-spring of the +Roman constitution.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Next to the wars with Hannibal +follow those with Philip, and Antiochus, +and Perseus, all of which Dr +Liddell relates with singular perspicuity. +It is sad to notice how soon +after the report of victories and extended +empire is heard the complaint +of corrupted manners, of a +Senate greedy of gold, of a people +following the war for plunder, making +of arms a trade and profession. +It was at the end of the second +Punic war that we were called upon +to take a survey of republican institutions, +and republican simplicity +of manners—of a people rude and +warlike indeed, but agricultural, domestic, +where divorce was unknown, +faithful and pious,—and the third +and last Punic war does not break +out before we hear of the city being +startled and alarmed at the report +of wives poisoning their husbands, +and at the discovery of secret associations +of men and women where +some new and licentious worship of +Bacchus was introduced. The disease +first manifests itself in the rude efforts +to check it, and one of the earliest +symptoms of corruption is the appearance +on the stage of Cato the +Censor.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Of Cato the Censor Dr Liddell +gives us the outlines of a very vigorous +portrait. “More familiar to us,” +he says, “than almost any of the +great men of Rome, we see him, with +his keen grey eyes and red hair, his +harsh features and spare athletic +frame, strong by natural constitution +and hardened by exercise, clad even +at Rome in the coarsest rustic garb, +attacking with plain but nervous +eloquence the luxury and corruption +of the nobles.” This type of a whole +class of men, more honest than enlightened, +stands out to us in still +more distinct relief from his opposition +to his great contemporary +Scipio, the proud and the reflective, +whom he chose to fasten upon as his +antagonist. Cato had rushed to the +conclusion that the wickedness of +Rome was traceable to the arts and +philosophy of Greece. He ought to +have directed his scrutiny to the +cupidity and ambition of Rome. It +was wealth and power, not art and +philosophy, that were corrupting his +fellow-citizens. He should have done +his utmost to check their spirit of +pillage and of conquest. Instead of +which, he joins in the war-cry of the +people, and directs his hostility +against Scipio, the introducer of +Greek literature. Another motive also +is assigned for this hostility, which +is of a still more commonplace character: +there were political parties +in Rome as elsewhere, and Cato +had attached himself to the party of +Fabius, which was opposed to the +Scipios.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Born at the provincial town of +Tusculum, and inheriting some patrimony, +lands and slaves, in the Sabine +territory, near the spot once occupied +by the great Curius Dentatus, the +future Censor of Rome had early +adopted a quite rustic mode of life. +The young Cato, we are told, looked +with reverence on the hearth at +which Curius had been roasting his +radishes when he rejected the Samnite +gold, and resolved to make a +model of that rude and simple patriot. +He used to work with his +slaves, wearing the same coarse dress, +and partaking of the same fare. But +conscious, nevertheless, of superior +powers, and fond, we may be sure, +of seeing justice done amongst his +neighbours, he would resort occasionally +to the nearer courts of law, +to plead the cause of some client. +His shrewd sayings and caustic eloquence +attracted the attention especially +of one Valerius Flaccus, “a +young nobleman of the neighbourhood, +himself a determined friend +of the ancient Roman manners.” +Flaccus persuaded him to leave his +farm, and enter public life at Rome. +There he rose, step by step, through +the several offices of state, till he +reached the highest honour, that of +the Censorship.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Cato was now in full possession of +the immense arbitrary powers wielded +by the Censor, and determined not to +act, as most Censors had acted, merely +as the minister of the Senate, but to put +down luxury with a strong hand. He +had thundered against the repeal of the +Oppian law,<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c007'><sup>[2]</sup></a> during his consulship, but +in vain,—the ladies were too strong for +him. But now it was his turn. Hitherto +no property had been included in the +Censor’s register, except land and houses. +Cato ordered all valuable slaves to be +rated at three times the amount of other +property, and laid a heavy tax on the +dress and equipages of the women, if +they exceeded a certain sum. He struck +seven Senators off the list, some for paltry +causes. Manilius was degraded for kissing +his wife in public; another for an +unseasonable jest; but all honest men +must have applauded when L. Flaminius +was at length punished for his atrocious +barbarity.<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c007'><sup>[3]</sup></a> It savoured of personal +bitterness when, at the grand review +of the knights, he deprived L. +Scipio Asiaticus of his horse.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“In the management of public works +Cato showed judgment equal to his +vigour. He provided for the repair of +the aqueducts and reservoirs, and took +great pains to amend the drainage of the +city. He encouraged a fair and open +competition for the contracts of tax-collection, +and so much offended the powerful +companies of Publicani, that, after +he had laid down his office, he was prosecuted, +and compelled to pay a fine of +12,000 ases.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>That fine of 12,000 ases we are +disposed to reckon amongst his highest +titles to honour. Restricted in his +notions, the Censor still claims our +esteem for the genuine sturdy independence +which accompanies him +throughout his life, and in the presence +alike of the Senate and the +people. He is no craven demagogue. +“You are like a parcel of sheep,” +he tells the people on one occasion, +“which follow their leader, they care +not whither.” He interferes to prevent +a gratuitous distribution of corn, +which he foresaw would encourage +the growth of a lazy mob in the +metropolis; and on this occasion he +begins his oration thus, “It is a +hard thing, Romans, to speak to the +belly, for it has no ears.” He was +a hard-headed, self-sufficient man, not +too humane, since he could recommend, +in his book on agriculture, the +selling off of old slaves as a useless +lumber, and by no means disposed +to act with clemency or justice +towards foreign nations. In his old +age, when he numbered eighty-four +years, he led the party which clamoured +for the destruction of Carthage. +The old Sabine farmer appeared in +the Senate, and unfolding his gown, +produced some giant figs, which he +held up and said, “These figs grow +but three days’ sail from Rome.” He +then repeated the oft-reiterated and +fatal sentence, “Carthage must be +destroyed!—<i>delenda est Carthago!</i>”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The morality between nation and +nation always has been, and still +is, execrable. Indeed, there can +be no international morality until +men have learned that the interest +of one people is bound up with the +interest of others; till, just as individuals +learn that their welfare is +inseparable from the welfare of some +community of individuals, so nations +shall learn that their own wellbeing +and prosperity is inseparable from +the wellbeing of some community of +nations. The early policy of Rome +in the treatment of the Italian cities +which were compelled to acknowledge +her supremacy, has often been +praised; it could not have been very +censurable, since at the period of +Hannibal’s greatest success there +were so few defections. Probably +the value of some large Italian confederacy +had begun to be generally +appreciated; and as there was little +to pillage from each other, there was +the less room for injustice. When +the government extended beyond +Italy, over rich and conquered provinces, +the historian has no longer +any commendation to bestow.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“It was a general rule that all Italian +land was tax-free, and that all provincial +land, except such as was specified in +treaties or decrees of the Senate, was +subject to tax. This rule was so absolute +that the exemption of land from +taxation was known by the technical +name of <i>Jus Italicum</i>, or the Right of Italy.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“This last distinction implies that the +imperial revenues were raised chiefly +from the provinces. In the course of +little more than thirty years from the +close of the Hannibalic war, this was the +case, not chiefly, but absolutely. The +world was taxed for the benefit of Rome +and her citizens....</p> + +<p class='c010'>“It was as if England were to defray +the expenses of her own administration +from the proceeds of a tax levied on her +Indian empire. The evil was aggravated +by the way in which the taxes were collected. +This was done by contract. +From time to time the taxes of each +province were put up to public auction +by the Prætor or Proconsul; and the +company of contractors which outbade +the rest received the contract and farmed +the taxes of the province. The members +of these companies were called +<i>Publicani</i>. It is manifest that this system +offered a premium on extortion.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The Proconsuls and Prætors exercised +an authority virtually despotic. +They were Senators, and responsible to +the Senate alone. It may too surely be +anticipated what degree of severity a +corporation like the Senate would exercise +towards its own members in times +when communication with the provinces +was uncertain and difficult, when no one +cared for the fate of foreigners, when +there was no press to give tongue to +public opinion, and indeed no force of +public opinion at all. Very soon the +Senatorial Proconsuls found it their interest +to support the tax-gatherers in +their extortions, on condition of sharing +in the plunder. The provincial government +of the republic became in practice +an organised system of oppression, calculated +to enrich fortunate Senators, and to +provide them with the means of buying +the suffrages of the people, or of discharging +the debts incurred in buying them. +The name of Proconsul became identified +with tyranny and greed.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>We would gladly accompany Dr +Liddell farther down the stream of +history, but the stream widens as +we proceed. The events increase in +magnitude, and the territory over +which they extend expands before +us; we have not “ample room or +verge enough” for such themes as the +names of Sylla, Pompey, Cæsar, +suggest.</p> + +<p class='c009'>One subject we cannot help glancing +at. The battles and conquests of +Rome led to the making of innumerable +slaves; and nowhere is more +plainly illustrated the great truth, that +injustice works evil—that wrong, or +the recklessness of other men’s wellbeing, +will bring with it a penalty of +some kind, on some head,—for her +slave-system was the curse of Rome, +and the chief cause of her ruin and +downfall.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Unfortunately for any distinctness +of view on this subject, the same +name slavery is applied to very different +institutions, to very different +relations between man and man, to +very different rights and conduct of +him who calls himself master or +owner. All systems of slave-labour +are no more alike than all systems of +monarchy. In some cases the institution +we call slavery is the only +possible system that could have been +adopted. But amongst the Romans +slavery exhibited itself in its harshest +features; here, it in part superseded +and thrust aside the labour of the +free peasant: in Italy it drove the +native agriculturist from the soil, and +converted cornfields which had been +cultivated by hardy yeomen, into +wild pastures, where the cattle were +watched by slaves. In the city, it +retarded or prevented the growth of +a free industrious middle class; even +what we call liberal professions suffered +a certain social degradation +from being thrown into the hands of +slaves or freedmen. The Romans +were always a harsh people, and a +system which put unlimited power +of life and limb into their hands, and +supplied the circus with gladiatorial +combats, was not likely to improve +their humanity.</p> + +<p class='c009'>They were always a harsh and severe +people; it is suspected that +some unrecorded conquest and subjugation +was the origin of the distinction +between patrician and client, +and that the history of the city ought +really to commence with the invasion +and domination of a conquering <i>caste</i> +or race. Be that as it may, one of +the first laws we hear of is of so +severe and cruel a character—a law +of debtor and creditor of so atrocious +a description—that it is almost as +incredible as any of the wildest legends +of that early time. We can +scarcely believe that a people who +had advanced to the making any +laws at all, could have made one in +which it was provided that “the +creditor might arrest the person of +his debtor, load him with chains, and +feed him on bread and water for +thirty days, and then, if the money +still remained unpaid, he might put +him to death, or sell him as a slave +to the highest bidder; or, if there +were several creditors, they might +hew his body in pieces and divide +it”—with a saving clause that, “if +a man cut more or less than his due, +he should incur no penalty.”—Vol. +i. p. 100. Possibly this last provision +was a mere threat, and to be +sold as a beast of burden was the +heaviest penalty that a patrician creditor +ever inflicted on his debtor. It +is plain, however, that when a multitude +of slaves fell into the hands of +the Romans, they fell into the hands +of men who were not disposed to use +their power leniently. They were +men of blunt sensibilities. One who +visited a Roman senator in the time +of the Scipios might have had his +ears assailed by the sharp cry of pain +from a beaten slave, and certainly +the first object that would have +greeted his vision would have been +a slave chained like a dog to the +door—the “hall-porter” of those +days. In subsequent times the more +refined Roman could not have endured +such sounds and sights in his +own presence or neighbourhood; but +what went on in the “ergastula” upon +his estate, he probably never cared +to inquire.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Our readers will perhaps prefer +here a brief extract from Dr Liddell +to any general statements of our +own. He says:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“A few examples will show the prodigious +number of slaves that must have +been thrown into the market in the +career of conquest on which the republic +entered after the Hannibalic war. To +punish the Bruttians for the fidelity with +which they adhered to the cause of the +great Carthaginian, the whole nation +were made slaves; no less than 150,000 +Epirotes were sold by Æmilius Paulus; +50,000 were sent home by Scipio from +Carthage. These numbers are accidentally +preserved; and if, according to +this scale, we calculate the hosts of unhappy +men sold in slavery during the +Syrian, Macedonian, Illyrian, Grecian, +and Spanish wars, we shall be prepared +to hear that slaves fit only for unskilled +labour were plentiful and cheap.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“It is evident that hosts of slaves +lately free men, and many of them soldiers, +must become dangerous to the +owners. Nor was their treatment such +as to conciliate. They were turned out +upon the hills, made responsible for the +safety of the cattle put under their +charge, and compelled to provide themselves +with the common necessaries of +life. A body of these wretched men +asked their master for clothing: ‘What!’ +he asked, ‘are there no travellers with +clothes on?’ The atrocious hint was +soon taken: the shepherd-slaves of +lower Italy became banditti, and to travel +through Apulia without an armed retinue +was a perilous adventure. From assailing +travellers the marauders began to +plunder the smaller country-houses; and +all but the rich were obliged to desert +the country, and flock into the towns. +When they were not employed upon the +hills, they were shut up in large prison-like +buildings (<i>ergastula</i>), where they +talked over their wrongs, and formed +schemes of vengeance.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>No wonder we hear of Sicilian +slave-wars. Nor can we wonder, +after this, at the statement sometimes +made, that Roman civilisation +never extended beyond the cities—that +the <i>country</i> of such provinces of +Gaul and Spain was still barbarian—that +there was no civilisation or humanity +<i>here</i> for Goth or German to +destroy. We cannot wonder, at all +events, that there was no patriotism +to withstand their invasion. Their +invasion was a restoration of the +<i>country</i>, if it was a temporary destruction +of the <i>town</i>. And even in +the large towns, while the system of +slavery endured, the industrial arts, +and even studious and liberal professions, +never received their due honour +and due encouragement. Wealth +and military and civil appointments +were the only valid or generally recognised +claims to social distinction.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We must take our leave of Dr +Liddell’s book, again commending it +to the student. In a passage we +quoted from the preface, the author +says that if less of positive history is +laid before the reader than in some +older books, “he will, at all events, +find less that he will have to unlearn.” +We venture to think that there is +still a good deal set down here as +history which the student will have +to unlearn. But we make no objection +to the work on this account; +for every student must be solicitous +to know what is the last hypothesis +of eminently learned men. There +has been an overflow, in our own +times, of conjectural history. As it +chiefly concerned the dry details of +civil government, and the development +of constitutional laws, the free +employment of a conjectural method +was disguised: this flood, we may +venture confidently to say, is now +receding.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Additions of this kind, made by +one able man, will be destroyed by +another; but it does not follow on +this account that there has not been +a real progress made in the study +of Roman history. This progress +chiefly consists in the discrimination +made in the comparative value of the +materials which have come down to +us. “In the first two centuries after +the invention of printing,” says Sir +G. C. Lewis, “the entire history of +Rome was in general treated as entitled +to implicit belief; all ancient +authors were put upon the same footing, +and regarded as equally credible; +all parts of an author’s work +were, moreover, supposed to rest upon +the same basis. Not only was Livy’s +authority as high as that of Thucydides +or Tacitus, but his account of +the kings was considered as credible +as that of the wars with Hannibal, +Philip, Antiochus, or Perseus; and +again, the lives of Romulus, Numa, +or Coriolanus by Plutarch, were +deemed as veracious as those of +Fabius Maximus, Sylla, or Cicero. +Machiavel, in his <cite>Discourses on the +First Decade of Livy</cite>, takes this view +of the early history. The seven +kings of Rome are to him not less +real than the twelve Cæsars; and +the examples which he derives from +the early period of the Republic are +not less certain and authentic than +if they had been selected from the +civil wars of Marius and Sylla, or of +Cæsar and Pompey.” An instance +so striking as this of Machiavel ought +to give us a double lesson, one of +modesty and one of confidence;—of +modesty, because we too may be involved +in some general and prevailing +error; of confidence, because +where the reason of the case is clear, +no name or authority, however great, +ought to influence our convictions.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span> + <h2 class='c002'>MONTEIL.<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c007'><sup>[4]</sup></a></h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>To struggle for literary fame—to +devote forty years to the composition +of an imperishable work—to toil +amid pain and sickness, and the +growing infirmities of age—never to +be appreciated during all the period +of that laborious existence except by +the chosen few—and finally to die in +poverty, perhaps in want—and then, +when you have long been buried, and +your name is nearly forgotten, your +work to get slowly but surely into +circulation, and to be pronounced a +master-piece—this is the fate of few; +but it was the fate of Amans Alexis +Monteil, author of the <cite>History of the +French of Various Conditions</cite>—a +book of amazing research, great skill +in composition, picturesque, humorous, +and characteristic, and now received +as the sovereign authority +upon all the subjects on which it +treats. The author was worthy of +the work. Its object is to give a +clear description of the French +people, as they presented themselves +to their contemporaries during the +five last centuries. Old cartularies +are ransacked, baptismal registers +consulted, manners and habits inquired +into; the private life of the +tradesman, of the merchant, of the +labourer, earnestly investigated, and +brought before us with the distinctness +of a picture. And Alexis himself—he +was more undecipherable +than a charter of the time of Clovis, +more dusty, begrimed, and antiquated +than the records of a Benedictine +monastery: nobody knew him; he +breakfasted, dined (when he dined at +all), and supped alone. Yet that +man of parchment had a heart, +loved passionately, mourned deeply, +hoped ardently, and had such wit, +such observation, such combination! +Half of his qualities remind us of +Dominie Sampson, and the other half +of Sydney Smith. Let us dip into +the contents of his volumes and the +history of his life; and first of the +man.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Poor old Alexis, amid the desolation +of his later years, fled for consolation +to the past. He revived the +scenes of his youth, flew back to his +native town, and gave daguerreotypes, +in an autobiography which he +never finished, of his father, his mother, +his brothers, the people he had +known, and the very stones he remembered +in the walls. These reminiscences +are very minute. Of +course they are, for it was the habit +of the man’s mind to record the +smallest particulars. He preferred +them indeed to great ones. He would +rather know the number of buttons +on a general’s coat than the battles he +had won. So his father is brought before +us in his habit as he lived. This +worthy man had had losses, like Dogberry, +and, like that great functionary, +had also held authority in his +native town. The town was a very +small town, and the authority not +great; but it was enough: it gave +rank; it gave dignity; and the son +records it as evidence that he came +of gentle kin.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It was in the small city of Rhodez, +partly situated in Auvergne and partly +in Rouergue, that Monsieur Jean +Monteil, before the French Revolution, +held the office of receiver of +fines and forfeits. This does not +seem a lofty post, but the worthy +holder managed, by a little ingenuity, +and a lawsuit which lasted six years, +to get it recognised as one of the +offices of the crown, inasmuch as the +fines were those levied by a royal +court; and he was therefore as much +a king’s servant as the procureur +himself. On the strength of this +connection with the administration, +of justice, Monsieur Monteil wore a +hat with a gold band, a gown also +with a similar ornament; and on Sundays +and fête days he had a right to +march to the church, looking the embodiment +of a beadle, and of sitting +on a raised place near the altar, and +being “incensed” by the officiating +priests. His son dwells with filial +pride on the noble figure his progenitor +presented to the eyes of his fellow-townsmen, +as he walked along +the street with his gold-headed cane, +and lifted his three-cornered hat in +answer to the salutations of all who +saw him. How long this went on +we are not told; but one day the +alarm-bell frightened the town of +Rhodez from its propriety. The Revolution +had found its way to the +deepest recesses of Auvergne, and +the Reign of Terror began. The +guillotine showed its hideous shape +in the main street; war was declared +against aristocrats; and who +could be more clearly proved to belong +to that doomed body than the +portly gentleman with the gold-laced +hat and the gold-handled ivory staff? +John Monteil and the Dukes of +Montmorency were equally worthy +of death. There was no place left +for De Grammonts or Monteils, and +the servant of the king was no more +saluted with respectful bows as he +paraded his official costume on the +first sound of the bell which called the +faithful to church, and was no longer +received with humble obeisances by +the priests before the service began. +In a short time there were no bells +to ring; they were melted down to +make sou-pieces by order of the Convention. +Then there were no priests; +they were all executed or banished, +or had enlisted in the armies of the +Republic: and finally there was no +church; it was turned into a prison +for the refractory; and John Monteil +laid aside his gilded toga, and +his cocked-hat, and his cane, and hid +himself as well as he was able in the +dark parlour of his house. There he +gave himself up to despair. And no +wonder; the blow had fallen so unexpectedly, +and death was on every +side. He only waited till his turn +should come; and at last it came. +In the days of his grandeur he had +taken into his service two of the +boys of Rhodez—one Jerome Delpech, +who seems to have had no +family tree at all, and Jules Bauleze, +the son of a poor sempstress. They +had acted as his clerks, and were +grateful to their old employer. They +were now engaged in the public +offices, and saw the whole tragedy as +it went on. From time to time they +slipt into the darkened parlour, and +said, “Be on your guard”—“Fly”—“Save +yourself.” But John Monteil +did not know whither to fly. +All France was nothing but a scaffold, +so he staid at home.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The two clerks came near him no +more. They were suspected. Jerome +Delpech died of the jail fever, waited +on in his illness by his old master; +and Jules Bauleze, the son of the +sempstress, he was accused of being +an aristocrat: the fact could not be +denied, and he was executed in front +of the town-hall. Then the Committee +of Public Safety began to +tremble for the liberty and equality +of the nation if such a very exalted +personage as Monsieur Monteil were +suffered to live. So the ci-devant +beadle is dragged to prison—to the +very church, the scene of his weekly +glories—where he sat on the front +bench, and white-robed choristers +swung censers under his nose till he +was nearly suffocated with perfume +(and smoke); and here, at the eastern +end of the melancholy ruin (for the +windows were taken out, and the +ornamental work all carried away) +he saw the sempstress Bauleze kneeling +in an agony of silent grief at the +remains of the broken altar. She +had been thrown into confinement as +the mother of an aristocrat, and +would probably on the following day +be his companion on the scaffold. +But before the following day, Robespierre’s +reign was over, and the two +representatives of the aristocracy of +Rhodez were saved. What now is +Monsieur Jean Monteil to do? He +is nothing if not magisterial. Rob +him of his robes, and what is he? A +poor man indeed, more sinned against +than sinning, reduced to leave the +splendours of his native city, and, +like Diocletian, plant cabbages in +retirement. He occupied a cottage, +and cultivated a few fields. But +there was still left to him, companion +and soother of his griefs, the +gentle Marie Mazet, whom he had +married when they were both in the +sunshine of prosperity—both distinguished +for birth and station; for +she was the daughter of a mercer who +sold the finest cloths in the town, +and claimed some sort of unknown +kindred with the Bandinellis of Italy +and the Maffettes of France. But +this lofty genealogy was due to the +antiquarian zeal of her husband. +She herself only knew that Italy was +a long way off, and that the Bandinellis +and the Maffettes were probably +no better than they should be. So +she did not keep her head an inch +higher on account of her noble origin, +but was the most sedate, quiet, +economical, pains-taking manager of +a household that Rhodez had ever +seen. She sang, but only at church, +or over the cradles of her children; +she walked, but only to mass or +vespers; she lived, as was the custom +of good housewives then, in the +kitchen, presided at table, helping +the young ones, cleaning up the +dishes, ironing the clothes, arranging, +settling, ordering all—a charming +picture of a good mother of a family; +and no wonder her son dwells with +affecting tenderness over the details +of his early home. And the vintage! +The labours of the whole house +were suspended on that blessed occasion. +The dry and dusty streets were +left behind; old and young took their +way rejoicing to the vineyard which +Monsieur Monteil possessed a few +miles from the town; and even Madame +Monteil forgot her cares—forgot +her economics, and renewed her +youth in the midst of the universal +joy. A harvest-home is a delightful +sound in English or Scottish ears; +it recalls the merry dance, the rustic +feast, the games in the barn, the +ballad, the smoking bowl,—but what +are all these to the vintage? The +harvest itself consists in wine. The +children of the south kindle with enthusiasm +at the very sound of the +word; and Bacchus and the ancient +gods seem once more to revisit the +earth in a visible shape. All Rouergue +was in a ferment of enjoyment +the moment the grapes were ripe; +but even then the mother of the +future historian had hours of serious +reflection. With her hand clasped +in the hand of her silent thoughtful +little boy, she looked often, long, and +in silence, out of the window of the +summer-house, her eyes lifted to the +sky, her mouth mantling with a +smile, sunk in an ecstasy of holy +contemplation, such as we see in Ary +Scheffer’s noble picture of St Augustin +and his Mother. “What are you +thinking of, dear wife?” said Monsieur +Jean Monteil. “On eternity,” +she replied in a soft voice, and gave +her little boy’s hand a warmer clasp. +It must be from the maternal side +Alexis derived his quiet strength, +and the exquisite feeling of romance +which enables him to realise the +states of society, the sentiments and +family connections so long past away. +A mother like this would have been +a fatal loss at any time; but happening +when it did, the blow was irrecoverable. +So good a manager might +have restored the family fortunes; so +loved a parent might have kept the +sons united and respectable; “but +she fell into the dust,” says Alexis, +seventy years after her death, “and +our household was ruined for ever.” +These are strange revelations of the +interior economy of an obscure family, +in one of the most obscure of +the provinces of France, before and +during the Revolution: and the curtain +rises and falls upon all the sons; +for Alexis survived his brothers, and +traces them with a light and graceful +hand from the cradle to the grave. +The eldest was old enough to know +the distinction of his position as heir +of the family name, when the Revolution +broke out, and buried Jean +Baptiste Jacques under the ruins of +the feudal system. He had studied +for the law—he had, in fact, had the +honour of being called to the bar, +and, by his great eloquence and +knowledge, of getting his client—the +only one he had—condemned to the +galleys for life. But he, like his +father, was forced to put off the gown, +and, unlike his father, who stayed to +brave the tempest at home, he fled. +Meanly, ignominiously he fled, and +hid himself amid the retired valleys +of the Gevaudan, where he thought +nobody would find him out, and +where he might boast of his loyalty +and sufferings without danger. But +his boastings brought dangers from +which greatness could not be exempt. +A certain loyalist of the name of +Charrie—a peasant who thought that +a few of his fellow-labourers could +restore the <i>fleur-de-lis</i> on the points +of their pitchforks and other agricultural +implements with which they +armed themselves—heard of the +exiled magnate who made the echoes +of the Gevaudan vocal with his lamentations +and cries for vengeance, +and came to the gownless advocate +and made him colonel of the ragged +regiment on the spot! Here was a +choice of evils. If he refused the +colonelcy, he would in a few minutes +be cut into many hundred pieces by +the scythes of the furious Legitimists; +if he accepted, he was certain in a +few weeks to be guillotined for rebellion +against the Republic. But as +weeks are better than minutes, he +accepted the honourable rank, and +Colonel Jean Baptiste showed himself +at the head of his troops, and +armed himself with a reaping-hook, +which looked like a Turkish scimitar +with the bend the wrong way. He +armed himself also with a white +cockade, which had the remarkable +property of presenting the tricolor +when turned inside out; and, prepared +for either fortune, retained, as +it were, on both sides, the colonel-advocate +considered himself secure +whatever might happen. But Charrie +was not so blind as was thought. +The trick was found out, and the +colonel fled: he ran, he climbed, +he struggled over walls, he staggered +across gardens,—the scythemen, the +pitchforkmen, the reaping-hookmen, +the flailmen after him; and by +dint of quick running, and artful +turnings, and scientific doubles he +might have been safe; but a dreadful +outcry in an outhouse, the infuriate +babblings of turkey-cocks, the hissing +of geese, the quacking of ducks, +betrayed him. He had concealed +himself in a hen-roost, and the denizens +of the poultry-yard had regarded +neither the tricolor nor the white +cockade. In spite of his duplicity +and cowardice, he got off. Happier +than Charrie, who paid for his brief +authority with his head, the eldest +hope of the Monteils lived in peaceful +obscurity, cultivating potatoes, +both red and white, and brewing the +best wine of the district, till having +planted and brewed all through the +first wars of the Empire, he died at +sixty, forgetful alike of his legal +studies and military adventures, and +only doubtful as to the superiority of +the long kidney or the pink-eyed +rounds.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The next was a wit—a <i>roué</i> to the +extent of a few rows on the street, +and a poet to the extent of a few +lampoons on the respectable dignitaries +of Rhodez. He tore off the +knockers of the street-doors, changed +the sign-boards of different tradesmen, +and went through the usual stages of +a fast young gent’s career. He proceeded +to Paris, determining to be +chancellor; he moderated his desires +in a few years, and would have been +satisfied to be a peer of France; he +sank lower still, and would have accepted +anything he could get, but he +could get nothing, so he became a +land-measurer of the humblest kind, +retained his gaiety to the last, sang +his own little songs and repeated his +own little epigrams, and died of corpulence +and laziness at the age of +eighty-two, as happy, perhaps, as if +his dreams of ambition had been fulfilled. +The third and last brother +was the black sheep of the flock. +He enlisted in the hopeful time for +any one who had courage and a +sword, in 1793, and might have been +a Soult, or a Ney, or a Murat. Instead +of that, he was an idle, dissipated +dog, who sank from vice to +vice, till, having some musical talent +and great strength of wrist, which +obtained him the situation of drummer +in the regiment, he behaved so +ill that some brother of the trade +was employed to drum him out of +the army, and he returned to his +home, living at his impoverished +father’s expense—getting a dinner +where he could—drinking when he +could obtain wine—gambling when +he could borrow a button to toss +with—useless, shameless, heartless; +and when the old man died, and the +cottage passed to strangers, and his +contemporaries had perished, and the +new generation knew him no more, +he found his way to Paris, wandered +through the streets in search of an +hospital, was so thin and worn and +broken down that he was admitted +without certificate, and lay down on +a crib in the charitable ward and +died: and this the result of the education +and the example given by +Monsieur Jean Monteil of Rhodez, +and the gentle Marie Mazet! Was +it for this they were so strict in +honour, so pure in heart, so tender +in affection, only to produce a coward, +an idler, and a beggar? The fate of +families well and carefully brought +up, circled round “by father’s blessing, +mother’s prayer,” during all +their youth, and giving way at once +to the excesses of vice, and sinking +into the abysses of shame, is one of +the most curious of our everyday experiences. +Are we to blame the parents? +They have done the best they +could; but Tom gets a commission, +and is cashiered; Billy gets into a +bank, and forges a draft; Harry goes +to the bar, and drinks himself to +death at the cider-cellar; and the +proud and chivalrous old father, the +soft and affectionate mother, after +mourning for a few years in the +small lodging to which the extravagance +of their family has reduced +them, die of broken hearts. But in +the case of the Monteils there was +one redeeming point: one son was +all they could wish in the way of +affection, of uprightness, of quietness, +and devotion to his books. +There was Amans Alexis studying +from morn to night—very shy—very +awkward—very queer—caring nothing +for society—knowing little of +anything that had occurred since the +battle of Pavia—insatiate in his hunger +after old scraps of manuscript—starting +off, stick in hand, bread in +pocket, if he heard that in some miserable +valley among the hills there +had been a demolition going on of a +monastery, or rotten old chest discovered +among the rat-holes of some +tatterdemalion town-hall. The odd-looking +youth, tired and travel-stained, +saw at a glance if the muniment-chest +was old and useless +enough to be of any value; he +opened the moth-eaten lid, and saw +a file of moth-eaten papers. In +a moment he ran over the hieroglyphics +they contained. The language +they were written in, though +Latin in name, would have puzzled +Cicero and the College of Augurs +to interpret a syllable. Alexis +read them off like round-hand, and +bought them—sixpence—ninepence—a +franc—and the treasure was his. +He turned his heels on the monastery +or the town-hall, and pursued his way +to Paris. He goes to the Depository +of the Archives of France. “Do you +want an original charter granted by +Louis le Hutin to the Abbey of St +Bernard de Romans in Dauphiny?” +“Certainly. It is worth its weight +in gold;” and it is now a valued article +in the Bibliothèque Impériale.</p> + +<p class='c009'>But old charters are not to be found +every day, even if monasteries—which +is greatly to be wished—were every +day demolished; and yet the daily +bread is to be procured. Buonaparte +is in the first dash of youthful power. +Nothing escapes him; no amount of +bushels can hide any candles which +can light his way to empire. The +laborious student, the groper among +old documents, the retiring antiquary +is discovered, and is installed Professor +of History at the Military School. +No man in France knew more of +history than Amans Alexis Monteil; +but it was the history of the citizen, +not of the soldier. He knew what +was the position of the grocer, of +the shoe-black, of the petty tradesman, +since grocers and shoe-blacks +and petty tradesmen were created. +He dwelt on the family circle gathered +round the cottage-fire in the +year 1450. He could tell of every +article of furniture in the castle of +the noble, and also all the circumstances +of the carpenters who made +them. He knew the habits of the +scholars of Amboise or of Paris in the +days of Joan of Arc; but the wars of +Frederick of Prussia, the wars of +Charles the Twelfth of Sweden! he +hated wars; he was the biographer of +the people, and did not concern himself +much about the great ones of the +earth. So his pupils were rather inattentive; +they did not care much for +the simple annals of workmen and +labourers who had been dead four +hundred years; and, besides, they +were listening for the guns which were +thundering all over the world. How +could they hear a dissertation on the +quarrels of the Benedictines and the +Cordeliers, when they were in momentary +expectation of a bulletin +from the Army of Italy? How could +they listen to a description of the +agricultural labourers of Provence on +the day after the news of Marengo? +They went off and were killed, or rose +to be generals, governors, marshals. +And Alexis plodded on. He gathered +materials in all directions for the +great work that was never absent +from his thoughts—pondered—inquired—compared, +and finally completed +the most marvellous reproduction +of the past which any country +possesses. It is, in fact, a minute +detail of the humble ranks in France, +the inhabitants of obscure towns and +farms and hamlets. What Monfaucon +is to the nobility, with his fourteen +folio volumes of emblazoned +arms, and vivid representation of the +life in hall and palace, the glitter of +the tilt-yard, the mustering of knights +and squires for battle, the gentle +Alexis is for the peasant, for the roturier, +the bourgeois, and the serf. +He erects his tent in the market, in +front of the monastery, at the great +gate of the chateau, or in the fair, +where he is surrounded by mountebanks +and ballad-singers and jugglers, +and writes down exactly what he sees. +He sees a leper sitting at the gate, +veiled and guarded. He meets a funeral—he +meets a wedding; he accompanies +the corpse to the church, +and the bride to her chamber. He +omits nothing; and he supports every +statement by the most amazing array +of documents. There are writings +and inscriptions, and medals of brass, +and carved pieces of stone, and fragments +of chests of drawers, all giving +confirmation strong to whatever fact +he states. And this minute supervision +he extends over four centuries. +The tradesman is followed from the +time of the domination of the English +to the time of the domination of Louis +the Fourteenth. The noble is seen, +over all that lapse of time, governing, +quarrelling, trampling, oppressing; +and you soon see that the Revolution +of 1789 was a great revenge for centuries +of wrong; that the guillotine +of 1793 was built out of timber planted +by feudal barons, when Francis +the First was king; and you wonder +no longer at the inhuman ferocity of +a peasantry and a middle class, equally +despised and equally hated by the +spurred and feathered oligarchy who +ground them to the dust, and insulted +them in their dearest relations. +Happily for us, feudalism died a natural +death, or was put an end to like +a gentleman in fair fight at Naseby +and elsewhere, or scientifically bled +into its grave by acts of Parliament, +or John Bull would have torn it in +pieces like a tiger; for the <cite>History +of the French of Various Conditions</cite> +would apply equally well during the +first century of the record (the fourteenth) +to our English trades. But +in the sixteenth the divergence is +complete. Nobles in England are +tyrants no more, nor the lower +classes slaves. When Leicester was +entertaining Elizabeth at Kenilworth, +an Englishman’s house was +his castle. When Sully was raising +adherents for Henry the Fourth, the +French peasant had no property and +no rights. Leicester would have been +tried for robbery if he had taken forcible +possession of John Smith’s ox or +cow. Sully would have passed scot-free +if he had burned Jacques Bonhomme’s +cottage about his ears, and +tossed that starveling individual into +the flames on the point of his lance. +There is such an impression of truth +and reality about these revelations of +Monteil, that we never have a doubt +on the smallest incident of his details. +If for a moment we pause in our perusal, +and say, “Can this possibly +be correct? Can such things be?” +What is the use of farther hesitation? +You turn to the note at the +end of the volume. You find voucher +after voucher, from all manner of +people—priests, lawyers, and judges. +You might as well doubt your own +marriage, with the certificate of that +stupendous fact before your eyes, +signed by parson and clerk, two +bridesmaids, and the Best Man. It +is better to read on with unhesitating +belief. You will only get into a cloud +of witnesses which will throw you +positively into the dark ages, as if +you had been a spectator of the scene. +And the author all this time—is he a +mere machine—a mill for the grinding +of old facts into new and contemporary +pieces of knowledge, as an old +bronze statue may be coined into +current money? Alexis is married; +Alexis has a child—such a wife and +such a child no man was ever blessed +with before. His father, our deceased +acquaintance, the former aristocrat +of Rhodez, Monsieur Jean Monteil, +married his student son, shortly after +the tempest burst out upon the +throne and nobility of France, to a +charming creature, young, innocent, +and an heiress, daughter of a gentleman +who, long before this, had retired +to enjoy his fortune with dignity—a +Monsieur Rivié, a little man, but +strong—strong as a blacksmith. And +this was lucky, for he was a blacksmith +by trade. Not a common blacksmith, +be it understood, but so clever, +so sharp, so knowing, and withal +such a dreadfully hard hitter, that +he was a very uncommon blacksmith +indeed. Little Rivié was the name +he was known by all over the part of +the country where his anvil rung. +But little Rivié rose to be great Rivié +before long. He shod horses for great +men; he shod a war-horse for the +Prince of Conti; he shod a charger +for Marshal Saxe; he shod a lame +horse so skilfully for a certain colonel +that the colonel got him the contract +for supplying the regiment with its +remounts. He bought lame horses, +of course, cured them, and sent them +capering and caracolling to the barracks. +It was the best-horsed regiment +at Dettingen, and ran away at +the first fire. So the smith grew rich, +and married, and retired, as was said +above, to show his well-earned wealth +and his delightful family to his admiring +townsfolk. As he rattled +through the street, he became so inflated +with pride and happiness that +the axle of his carriage broke, and he +was forced to alight. Luckily the +accident happened just opposite a +smithy. The mulciber was an old +fellow-apprentice, but could not recognise +his ancient comrade in the +person of the great seignor who had +crushed his axle-tree by the mere +weight of his importance. He also +could not mend the fracture. In a +moment the noble stranger pulled off +his embroidered coat, tucked up his +fine-linen sleeves, seized the sledge, +and, O heavens! wasn’t there a din?—a +hail of blows?—a storm of sparkles?—a +rat-a-tat on the end, on the side, +on the middle, and still the twelve-pound +hammer went on. “By St +Eloi!” said the owner of the instrument, +“you are either the d—l himself +or little Rivié.” And little Rivié it +was. And little Rivié he continued +to the end, for all his grandeur disappeared. +That dreadful Revolution +meets us at every turn. It broke the +axle-tree of Monsieur Rivié’s carriage, +beyond the power of Vulcan himself +to mend—it took off his embroidered +coat, which nobody could ever restore—it +tucked up his fine-linen +shirt-sleeves, and nothing could ever +bring them down again. In the days +of his prosperity he had given his +eldest daughter (and a dowry) to the +Marquis de Lusignan—a nobleman +who advanced claims to the island of +Cyprus and the kingdom of Jerusalem, +but was delighted to accept a +few thousand francs as “tocher” +with the daughter of a contractor. +He borrowed a few thousands more +on the income of the baronial estates +of the Lusignans, besides a collateral +security on the revenues of the Holy +City when it was restored to its legitimate +king. This mortgage was +settled as the marriage fortune of the +younger daughter, the sweet and excellent +Annette. But the barony of +Lusignan followed the example of +Cyprus and Jerusalem, and vanished +into thin air at a twist of the necromantic +wand of Danton and Robespierre. +Little Rivié was too old to +resume the hammer. He retired, +with his sons and daughters, to a +small farm in the neighbourhood +of Rhodez; and the ex-beadle and +the ex-blacksmith arranged a marriage +between the historian of the +trades and the sister of the Queen of +Cyprus. Her majesty had died, and +her royal lord was flourishing a pair +of scissors, and occasionally a razor, +in the Burlington Arcade. Did the +gentle Annette repine at her change +of fortune? Did she mourn over the +days of her father’s grandeur, and +despise the queer, learned, modest, +loving being she had enriched with +her first affection? Ah! never for an +hour. They sometimes had a dinner, +sometimes not; but always mutual +trust, always perfect love. Occasionally, +when fortune smiled more +than usual, Alexis would address a +letter to her as “Her Royal Highness +the Princess of Lusignan, in her +patrimonial Realm of Cyprus;” but +this was only when a manuscript had +put them in funds. At other times +they were sad enough. With the +amount of their united fortunes they +had bought a small cottage and garden +near Fontainebleau. Here he resided, +walking every day six miles to +his class and six miles back. Annette +regularly met him, on his return, a +mile or two from home, and arm-inarm +they re-entered their own domain. +But the class disappeared, the +chair of history was suppressed, and +the house was offered for sale. A +purchaser appeared, and Alexis, in +the interest of some future antiquarian +of two thousand three hundred +and nine, preserved the “Agreement +to buy.” It was between +“Dame Monteil and his majesty +Napoleon the Great, Emperor of the +French, King of Italy, and Protector +of the Confederation of the +Rhine.” It is a pity that the sum +agreed on was not so magnificent as +the titles of the buyer. It was only +two hundred pounds—“a small +price,” says Alexis, with a sigh, “out +of the contributions of all Europe.” +They now removed into a garret in +a suburb of Paris, and day by day +the husband put on his hat and traversed +the great dark streets in +search of something to do, but got no +comfort from the interminable lines +of narrow-windowed houses; for not +a door was opened, not an offer was +made, and, weary and disheartened, he +found his way back to his attic, to +the suffering smile of Annette, and +the playful caresses of his boy. His +Alexis was now two years old, and +with these two the heart of the +simple student was completely filled. +There never had been such a child +before, except among the cherubs of +Murillo. He would make him such +a scholar! such a Christian! such a +man!—but in the mean time their +two hundred pounds (diminished by +the expenses of the sale) were rapidly +disappearing. The time of the green +leaves was coming on. They heard +birds whistling in the dusty trees +on the road before their windows—they +thought of the chestnuts, and +limes, and hedgerows of Rouergue. +“Come,” said Alexis, “Paris has no +need of such a useless fellow as I am. +Let us go home.” Annette packed +up her small possessions, took the +young Alexis in her arms, and away +they go in the first sunny days of the +month of May. Away they go on +foot, Alexis generally bestriding his +father’s shoulders as if he felt Bucephalus +beneath him, and through the +smiling plains: through Nemours, +Montargis, Cosne, Pouilly, lies their +course, and Paris gradually is forgotten. +They walked at a good pace, +for they liked to have an hour or two +to spare when they came to a shady +place and a spring. Then they undid +the knapsack, and bread soaked in +the fountain became ambrosia, and +they did not envy the gods. Through +Moulins, Clermont, Issoire, on they +go, talking, arranging, hoping. And +at last they see the chestnut trees, +the limes, the hedgerows—they are +in the paradise of their youth: they +know the names of every field—they +are beloved by all that see them—and +they live on sixty francs (two +pounds eight and fourpence) a-month. +The vegetables are delightful, the +milk plentiful, the loaf abundant, and +they never think of meat. Amans +Alexis writes—writes—writes. Annette +sits beside him, and listens with +entranced ears as he reads to her, +chapter by chapter, the history of her +countrymen who lived, and worked, +and hungered so long ago. His great +book is now begun, and his life is +happy. Scraps of paper with perfectly +illegible lines furnish him with +a hint, which he works up into a +statement. The statement grows a +story, the story grows a picture, and +we become as familiarly acquainted +with Friar John, Cordelier of Tours, +and Friar Andrew, Cordelier of Thoulouse, +as with any of our friends. And +such a correspondent as Friar John +of Tours has seldom been met with +since he started on his memorable +journey to Paris in the year 1340. +Then all the personages introduced +are as real as a lord mayor. Where +Alexis got his knowledge of character, +his sly observation, his exquisite +touches of humour, is a puzzle to those +who know his story. But it was not +in Stratford that Shakespeare got his +knowledge of the tortures of a successful +usurper like Macbeth; nor in +London that he repeated at second +hand the wit of Benedict or Mercutio. +Alexis found the grave dignity +of the Sire de Montbason, the +ill-repressed ardour of the soldier-monk +Friar William, and the noble +lessons in chivalry given by the +Commander of Rhodes, in the same +wonderful reservoir of unacted experience +in which Shakespeare found +the jealousy of the Moor and the +philosophic wanderings of Hamlet. +The family group in the Castle of +Montbason is worthy of Sterne, and +the warrior-colouring of Scott.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The book grows—it takes shape—visions +of wealth and honour look +out in every page; and again to Paris +must they go. They go—and the +same wretched life comes upon them +again. They are again in a garret. +Again Alexis walks through desolate +streets; again his misery is cheered +by his wife and the prattle of his +son: but he does not see a hectic +colour on Annette’s cheek, or hear a +cough which shakes her frame. She +never mentions how weak she is +growing—till at last concealment is +impossible. She languishes in the +town air, and pants once more for +the fields and gardens. She sees, +when lying on her sleepless bed, the +whole district rise before her as if +she were there. She sees the church—the +farm—the cottage where they +were so happy. Nothing will keep +her in Paris; she must die in her +native village. Alexis is broken-hearted. +It is impossible for them +all to travel so far; the journey by +coach is too expensive, on foot too +far; but Annette must be gratified +in all. It seems a small favour to +give to so good a wife—the choice of +a place to die in.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“There are three spots,” says +Alexis, “which I never pass without +thinking of Annette—the Rue de +Seine, at the corner of the Rue de +Tournon. It was there that she all +of a sudden began to limp, attacked +by rheumatism. ‘Ah!’ she cried, +‘’tis the last of my happy walks.’ +Another time, on the Pont Royal, a +band of music passed, followed by +the Imperial Guards. Annette said +to me, ‘I scarcely see them; there +is a cloud before my eyes.’ Alas, +alas! my last recollection of her is +at the coach-office, where I saw her +take her departure. ‘Adieu, adieu!’ +she said to me over and over with +her sweet voice—and I was never to +see her again!” Alexis took no +warning from the limping in the +Rue de Seine, or the blindness on +the Pont Royal. She stayed with +him, cheering him, soothing him, +sustaining him to the last; and then, +when she could only be a burden and +a care to him, she unfolded her wings +like a dove, and flew away and was +at rest.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Alexis was very desolate now, but +he laboured on; he lavished on his +son all the affection that formerly +was spread over two. He educated +him himself—made him the sharer +of his studies, the partner of his +pursuits. Brought up in such poverty, +and accustomed only to his +parents, he never was a child. At +thirteen he was grave, thoughtful, +laborious, and had the feelings of a +man of middle age. The government +did not altogether pass over the +claims to compensation for the suppression +of the Historic Chair which +Alexis now advanced. He was made +a sub-librarian at the school of St +Cyr, and ate his bread in faith; and +he published his volume, but got +nothing for all his toil. It was in a +style so new, and on a subject so +generally neglected, that it had a +small circulation, though highly +esteemed by all who had the power +to appreciate the skill of the workman +and the value of the work. +Still he toiled on, for he had his son +to provide for; and the boy was now +grown up—a fine stately young man, +reminding Alexis of his mother by +the sweetness of his temper and the +beauty of his features. There were +other points of resemblance which he +did not perceive. The youth was +his father’s only companion, the +father was the youth’s only friend; +and great was the pride of Alexis +when he was told that his comrade +was in love, was loved, and was soon +about to marry. A bright prospect +for poor old Monteil! who saw a +renewal of his own youth, and the +tenderness of Annette, in the happiness +of his son and the attentions of +his daughter-in-law. The son was +admitted as clerk of the historical +archives of France, and his salary +was enough for his wants. The +audience, fit, though few, which +approved of the father’s volumes, +encouraged him to proceed. There +was at last a prospect of a brilliant +fame and a comfortable income. They +could buy a small house at Fontainebleau; +they would all live together: +when children came, there would +be new editions of the Fourteenth +Century, to be a portion for the girl; +the Fifteenth Century should educate +the boy; the Sixteenth should go +into a fund for saving; and the other +centuries could surely be a provision +for the author’s old age. Could anything +be more delightful or more +true? But young Monteil grew +weak, no one knew why. He walked +home in the rain one evening, and +dried himself at the stove: he +shivered as he stood before it, and +then went to bed—and then was in +a fever—and in three days he died!</p> + +<p class='c009'>“I lost him,” says Alexis, “on the +21st September 1833, at eleven o’clock +at night. I closed his eyes. Oh, +misery! Oh, my child!—my second +self! Hearest thou the cries and +sobs of the wretched being who was +once thy father? Dost thou recognise +the voice of the poor old man +whom thou so lovedst—who loved +thee so? Thou leavest him alone +upon the earth, and his hair is now +white, and his arms empty!”</p> + +<p class='c009'>And his house was empty, and his +purse, but not his cup of suffering. +Away went all his dreams of buying +the little villa at Fontainebleau, with +its garden and paddock, its cow-shed +and hen-roost. A vault was now to +be purchased, and Monteil had not +the necessary sum. But was his son, +the hope of his old age, the tenderest +and most affectionate of children, to +be committed to the common grave, +tossed in without a name, without a +headstone, without a flower above his +head? No! he would beg, he would +pray—he would implore as a favour +that a little spot of earth should be +given him to be the resting-place of +his boy till he joined him in the +tomb—together the loving two, in +death as in life. He wrote to the +prefecture of the Seine with his +simple request; but not a clerk in all +that establishment had heard of his +book. He got no answer. Still he +did not despair. He left the corpse +for an hour—he walked to the prefect—he +saw him, he said to him, bare-headed, +broken-voiced, “Monsieur, I +am Monteil;” but a look at the dignitary’s +face showed him that there +was no response to the announcement. +“Perhaps,” he said, “you +never heard my name?” And it was +too true. He turned away, staggered +blindly down the stair, with his hand +before his eyes. And he saw his son +cast carelessly, disdainfully, into the +vast ditch—into which the penniless +are thrown.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Amans Alexis Monteil wrote at his +great work no more. Fortune so far +smiled on him that he succeeded to a +sum of £300. With this he bought +a cottage at Cely, a pretty village +near Fontainebleau, and lived on +hermit’s fare. He wandered and +mused in the Bois de Boulogne; he +sat on the stone seats of the gardens +of the Luxembourg; but he saw no +one at home, visited no one abroad. +He had ventured all the happiness of +his life on two frail barks, and both +had foundered. Annette and Alexis, +both had gone, and why should he +labour more? The villagers saluted +him as he passed, out of respect to +age and sorrow, and he repaid them +after his kind. He traced up their +genealogies—discovered for them +where their ancestors had come from, +and finished by composing a veritable +History of the hamlet where he +lived. The historian of the commons +of France became also historian +of Cely, and more—he became +its benefactor and friend. Just before +his death, he founded recompenses +for good conduct. He consented to +the sale of a certain portion of his +domain, and with the interest of the +money so raised he ordered medals +of honour—silver, with an inscription—to +be given annually to the +man who should drain a marshy +piece of ground—to him who should +plant the finest vine round his cottage—to +the best labourer—to the village +crone or washerwoman who should +amuse her circle of listeners with the +most entertaining (and innocent) +stories—and to the shepherd who +should show the kindest treatment +of his flock, <i>remembering that all +have the same Creator</i>. And thus +mindful of his poorer neighbours, and +just and benevolent to the end, +Amans Alexis Monteil closed his +honourable life. His work has been +twice crowned by the Institute of +France; it is in its fourth edition; it +has been eulogised by Guizot—it will +be the delight of many generations. +But what cares Amans Alexis for +favour that comes so late? Sufficient +for him is the neglected turf +grave in the churchyard of Cely, +with the short inscription of his +name and the record of his seventy-five +years of pain. “Requiescat in +pace.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The <cite>History of the French of Various +Conditions</cite> extends over the five +last centuries, and the plan of each +century differs. The Fourteenth is +painted in a series of letters, as we +have said, from a certain Friar John, +a Cordelier of Tours, to a brother of +his rule residing at Toulouse. The +character of the worthy letter-writer +is charmingly sustained. Keen, cautious, +observant, and yet with the +simplicity natural to the inmate of a +cloister, he gives a clear description +to his friend of everything he sees, +every conversation he hears, every +place he visits. He enters the huts +where poor men lie, and we learn the +state of the labourer; he enters the +dungeon, and reveals the secrets of +the prison-house; he goes to the Fair +of Montrichard, and we walk about +among the booths. He gives the +minutest details of the royal court—and, +in short, manages to lift the +reader completely back into the days +of rich monasteries and private wars, +and tournaments and duels. He has +no antiquarian disquisitions or tiresome +catalogues of furniture or dress; +we rely on the faithfulness of the +loquacious and gentlemanly Friar, +and feel certain they are real letters +written at the dates assigned. The +fifteenth century is presented with +the same marvellous freshness of detail, +but without the individuality of +the inimitable Friar John. It is a +pity that excellent special correspondent +did not turn out to be the Wandering +Jew, and traverse all the +centuries from first to last. We must +suppose he died full of years and +honours—let us hope, as head of some +noble abbey—before the fifteenth century +began. His place, however, is +admirably supplied. We perceive a +change taking place in the relations +of the different classes of society, and +the change is traceable in still stronger +colours when, in the sixteenth century, +we come to the impression produced +by his visit to France on a +clear-headed unprejudiced Spaniard. +His glance is as penetrating, and +his inquiries as minute, as those +of Friar John and the other; but +the same may be said of all the +supposed observers. They are all +mere secretaries of Monteil, and +write the same pure idiomatic and +characteristic style. The laughing +eyes and scornful lips of the Cordelier +of Tours, the Hermit of Cely, come +out through all disguise; and the +Spaniard of the sixteenth century, +and “Memoirist” of the seventeenth, +are only admirable continuers of the +correspondence commenced between +the priests. It will, therefore, be +like mounting to the fountain-head +if we go back to the fourteenth century, +and read the account of Friar +John’s visit to the great Castle of +Montbason—a perfect representative +of a feudal residence just before +feudalism began to fall into decay. +A dreadful event has happened in +the chateau. While the Sire de +Montbason is absent at the head of +his vassals assisting the king, he left +everything in charge of the grand +huntsman. The grand huntsman, in +pursuing a peasant who had offended +him, knocks out his brains on the +arch of a gateway, and is found dead +on the road. The peasant, as if he +had been guilty of murder, is immediately +tied up to a gallows and +hanged. During the preparations +the wife and children of the wretched +man stood at the foot of the wall +crying “Mercy, mercy!” but the +representatives of the grand huntsman +are inexorable. The peasant +swings off, and the cries of the +widow and orphan ascend to Heaven +for vengeance. The Curé of the +parish hears of the transaction, and +excommunicates the revengeful sons +of the grand huntsman. The Sire +de Montbason returns and compensates +the peasant’s family, and founds +a perpetual mass for the poor man’s +soul. But nothing will do; noises +are heard in the castle, furniture +moves about, chains rattle; the house +is haunted, and the spirits resist the +exorcisms of the Curé, and kick up +wilder confusion than ever. The +Sire sends to the monastery of the +Cordeliers at Tours, and Friar John +is fixed upon by the prior. There +could not have been a better choice. +He goes and prays, and burns incense, +and lights candles, and the +supernatural noises are heard no +more. He remains at the chateau +an honoured guest, and the almoner +even resigns to him the privilege of +saying grace before and after meat. +John is overwhelmed with the +honour, but accepts the duty; and, +we doubt not, was the pleasantest +ghost-layer the Sire de Montbason +had ever seen. His nineteenth letter +to Friar Andrew is all about the +house he is in:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Montbason is one of the finest +chateaus in France. Fancy to yourself +a superb position—a steep hill +rugged with rocks, and indented +with deep ravines and precipices. +On the ascent is the castle. The +little houses at its feet increase its +apparent size. The Indre seems to +retire respectfully from the walls, and +forms a semicircle round its front. +You should see it at sunrise, when +its outside galleries glitter with the +arms and accoutrements of the +guard, and its towers are shining in +the light. The gate, flanked with +little towers, and surmounted by a +lofty guard-house, is covered all over +with heads of wolves and wild boars. +Enter, and you have three enclosures, +three ditches, three drawbridges to +cross. You find yourself in the +great quadrangle where the cisterns +are placed, and on right and left the +stables, the hen-roosts, the dovecots, +the coach-houses. Underground are +the cellars, the vaults, the prisons. +Above are the living-rooms, and +above them the magazines, the larders, +the armoury. The roofs are surrounded +with parapets and watch-towers. +In the middle of the yard +is the donjon, which contains the +archives and the treasure. It has a +deep ditch all round it, and cannot +be approached except by a bridge, +which is almost always raised. +Though the walls, like those of the +castle, are six feet thick, it has an +external covering of solid hewn stone +up to the half of its height.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The castle has been lately repaired. +There is something light +and elegant about it which was +wanting in the chateaus of old. You +may well believe it is finished in the +most modern style: great vaulted +rooms with arched windows filled +with painted glass; large halls paved +in squares of different colours; handsome +furniture of all kinds; solid +stands with bas-reliefs, representing +hell or purgatory; presses carved +like church-windows; great caskets; +immense leather trunks, mounted in +iron; great red boxes; mirrors of +glass, at least a foot in width, and +some of metal of the same size; +great sofas with arms, covered with +tapestry and ornamented with +fringes; benches with trellis-work +backs; others, twenty feet long, with +hanging covers, or stuffed cushions, +embroidered with coats-of-arms. I +must tell you, however, that the +beds do not seem at all proportioned +to the rank of the owner. They +are not above ten or eleven feet +wide; I have seen much larger in +houses of less pretence. But as to +the decoration of the apartments, +nothing can be more sumptuous. +There are show-rooms and chambers +of state, which are named from the +colour or subjects of the hangings +with which they are covered. There +are some where the great pillars +that support the beams of the ceiling +are ornamented with ribbons +and flowers in tin. There are some +where figures of life-size, painted on +the walls, carry in their hands, or +projecting from their mouths, scrolls +on which texts are written, pleasant +to read, and most excellent for the +morals of the beholders.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“As to the mode of life, it is pleasant +enough, except that we do not dine +till nearly twelve o’clock, and never +sup till after sunset—which appears +to me a little too late. The day, in +other respects, is agreeably varied. +In the morning the courtyard is filled +with squires, huntsmen, and pages, +who make their horses go through +their evolutions. Then they divide +into parties, and defend and attack +some staked-off piece of ground with +amazing strength and activity, amid +the applause of all the spectators. +After dinner there is leaping at the +bar, quoit-throwing, ninepins, and +other games. In addition to all this +we have the parrots and monkeys. +We have also the old female jester of +the late Sire de Montbason and the +young fool of the present lord. He +is so gay, and so full of tricks and +nonsense, that in rainy days he is the +life of the whole house.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The almoner has charge of the +evening’s entertainments. He has +seen the world, and recounts agreeably; +but, as he has never gone on +pilgrimage, and has not lived either +in convents or monasteries, he cannot +give us above three stories in a night, +for fear of repeating himself. But, +fortunately, we have an ancient Commander +of Rhodes, who has visited +the Holy Land, and has travelled in +the three parts of the world. He is +an uncle of the Sire de Montbason. +He relates his adventures delightfully. +It is only a pity his bad health makes +him go to bed so soon. Frequently, +also, we have jugglers and vaulters; +wandering musicians sometimes come, +and we have concerts on the trumpet +and flute and tambourine; harps and +lutes, cymbals and rebecs. This very +day we had a visit from a man who +played on the viol, and never could +get the strings in harmony. And no +wonder; for it was found out that +some of the chords were of the gut +of a sheep, and others of the gut +of a wolf. How could they agree? +But he was paid as liberally as the +rest.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Life in these castles would be almost +too happy if it were not mixed, +like every other, with anxieties and +alarms. Sometimes when we least +expect it—in the middle of dinner or +when we are sound asleep—the +alarm-bell is rung. In a moment +everything is astir—the bridges are +raised—the portcullis falls, the gates +are closed—everybody starts up from +table or bed, and runs to the turrets, +to the machicoulis, to the loopholes, +to the barbicans. A few days ago I +was witness to one of these “alertes,” +and during the space of forty-eight +hours nobody was allowed to close an +eye but the almoner and me. Every +one was kept to his post—but nothing +came of it. It was a Vidame of the +neighbourhood, who had thought that +the Sire de Montbason was levying +his retainers, and preparing to attack +his chateau; and so, without sending +letters of defiance, he had taken the +field against us with three hundred +men. There were parleyings and explanations +on both sides, and everything +was arranged. On this subject +the Dowager-Lady of Montbason +tells us that these private wars are +not so frequent as they used to be. +She remembers that, in the week of +her marriage, there was such a fierce +and long-continued attack upon the +castle, that not a soul went to bed +for eight days.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>This letter is dated the fifteenth +day of February; and other experiences +are recorded during almost +every week of his five months’ residence +in the chateau of Montbason. +He describes the kitchens, the grates, +the cooking apparatus, and all the +feeding appliances required for the +army which garrisons the castle. In +a day or two he is summoned to visit +a prisoner in the <i>souterrain</i> or cave, +to which he descends, like a pitcher +into a well, suspended by a rope; and, +by the light of the lantern he carries, +he recognises the wretched captive +on his handful of straw, with the pan +of water near him in which the untasted +crust is soaked. He has been +condemned to this wretched dungeon +for neglect of certain duties; and +what they are we learn from the eloquent +pleading of Friar John, who +intercedes for the unhappy man with +the Sire de Montbason. “My lord,” +he says, “I come to implore your +pardon and compassion for one of +your men. It is not true that he has +refused to have his wheat ground at +your mill, or his meat baked at your +ovens; that he cut his hay or his +crops, or gathered his grapes, before +the publication of your ‘ban;’ that he +had his ploughshare sharpened without +obtaining your permission and +paying you the fee. He can prove all +this by a hundred witnesses. He can +prove, also, that he has regularly +laboured and reaped your lands, and +always paid the rates and rent of his +holding; that he has carried the +wood and water and provisions up to +the chateau; that he has never chased +upon your grounds, and has always +fed your dogs.” These, and many +other denials urged by the good-hearted +Friar, are nearly losing their +effect by the opposition offered to his +entreaties by the Commander of +Rhodes. That sturdy old knight +pertinaciously stands up for the +rights of his order, and on all occasions +is for the exercise of power. +“To the gallows! to the gallows!” +he cries; and points to that instrument +of paternal government, which +consists of two tall uprights before +the window. But eloquence has its +reward. “The Sire de Montbason,” +says Friar John, “has pardoned his +unfortunate retainer, and he is now +in the midst of his children. That +old Commander,” he adds, “his long +exercise of authority sometimes makes +him harsh, and turns his heart as +hard as the steel that covers it.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>But a field-day is at hand, in the description +of which there is condensed +a whole history of a feudal baron’s +relations with his tenants. It is the +day when the Sire de Montbason +holds his court baron, and a tremendous +time it must have been for the +holders of his fiefs.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“To-day the Sire de Montbason +left the chateau, attended by all his +suite. He was mounted on a white +horse, with a hawk on his wrist, in +robe of state, with armorial bearings +on his coat, which was one-half red +and the other blue. On arriving at +the place called the ‘Stone Table,’ +he took his seat. All his household, +dressed in cloth liveries, ranged +themselves behind his chair. A +gentleman whose lands are held +under Montbason presented himself +bare-headed, without spur or sword, +and knelt at the Sire de Montbason’s +feet, who, having taken his hands in +his, said to him, ‘You avow yourself +my liegeman in right of your +castle, and swear to me, on the faith +of your body, that you will serve me +as such against all who may live or +die, except our lord the king.’ The +gentleman having replied, ‘I swear,’ +the Sire de Montbason kissed him on +the mouth, and ordered the act of +homage to be registered.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“There next came forward a gentleman +of the neighbourhood and his +son, who demanded the right of lower +justice over the western half of their +great hall, because on the eastern +side their manorial rights extended a +full league. The Sire de Montbason +consented with a good grace to this +abridgment of his fief. Scarcely had +this gentleman and his son concluded +their thanks for this favour, when +another gentleman advanced, and said +a few words in the Sire de Montbason’s +ear, touching the ground with +his knee several times while he spoke. +‘I consent,’ said the Sire de Montbason. +‘Since you find your residence +too small, I permit you to +build a stronghold, with curtains, +turrets, and ditch; but no weathercock, +no towers, and, above all, no +donjon.’</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Meanwhile the Sire de Montbason +beckoned a crowd of villagers to +approach, who had stood respectfully +at a distance, all loaded with provisions +and goods of different kinds. +Immediately the ground at his feet +was covered with wheat, with birds, +hams, butter, eggs, wax, honey, vegetables, +fruits, cakes, bouquets of +flowers, and chaplets of roses. They +were instantly carried away by the +people of the chateau, and several +tenants came forward into the empty +space, some making grimaces, and +some going through strange contortions +of body. Others came, some to +kiss the bolt of the principal gate of +the dominant fief, some to sing a +ludicrous song, and some to have +their ears and noses slightly pulled +by the <i><span lang="fr">maître d’hôtel</span></i>, who also bestowed +a few smacks on the right and +left cheeks. The Sire de Montbason +ordered legal quittance to be given to +all. The assembly then formed a +circle round him, and the Sire de +Montbason spoke. ‘My friends,’ he +said, ‘I have received too much +money of you this year, to my great regret; +the forfeitures for thefts, quarrels, +wounds, blows, and bad language, +have never come to so much before. +I have hitherto remitted the fines for +improper conduct and indecency, but +I will remit them no more. Ask +Friar John if I can conscientiously +do so.’ Everybody’s eyes were turned +upon me at once; I made a sign of +strong negation with a shake of my +head. The Sire de Montbason went +on. ‘I am very well satisfied with the +way in which the statute-labour has +been done, but there are still some +suits of page’s livery not delivered; +a good many boots are required for +my people, and a still greater quantity, +I hear, need to be mended.’ ‘My +lord,’ replied a poor man named +Simon, ‘the artisans of your lands, +the tailors, shoemakers, and cobblers, +have all worked the full week they +owe you, and you cannot call upon us +for more.’ ‘Ah! very well,’ said +the Sire, and cried to a labourer he +recognised far off in the crowd, +‘Come on, Jacques, I see you there; +advance! I found the south door of +my castle of Veigné in a very bad +state. You know very well that, according +to your tenure, your family is +bound to keep it in repair; and besides +it is as much your affair as mine, for +if the enemy takes the field, as may +very likely happen, what will be the +use of your right to refuge in a stronghold, +if its gates are bad?’ He next +addressed a woman who stood near +him. ‘Widow Martin, you keep poor +guard in my castle of Sorigni. I am +told you often sleep instead of watching. +You don’t sleep when you have +to come for the corn you receive, +according to old agreements, for this +very duty.’ He then spoke to the +whole assembly again. ‘I have further +to complain of you, that you are +not active in taking arms when my +trumpets make proclamation of war; +and, moreover, that your weapons are +not good. When I make an attack +with fire and sword, you enter into +arrangements with your friends and +relations who occupy the lands of +the lords I am at feud with. They +are not so complaisant on my grounds, +and that is the reason I have so often +to build you new houses, or pay you +compensation. I have to complain, +also, that those who have heritages in +other manors go and live on them. +Methinks you are well enough treated +here, to be content to keep the fire +alive. You also let your lands lie +fallow for more than three years. I +have the right to cultivate them for +my own use, and I will exercise it. I +blame you further for refusing my +purveyors credit for fifty days, as you +are bound to do. My good friends, +I am bound, indeed, to give you my +favour and protection, but you are +bound no less to show your affection +for me.’</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The tenants now made way for the +serfs, and I remarked more familiarity +and kindness between them +and the Sire de Montbason than I +had seen with the others. To all +their requests, he answered, ‘With +pleasure—with great pleasure: what +you lack in the house, you shall find +in the castle.’ The Sire de Montbason +retired. Scarcely had he gone, +when there rushed in a man—fat, +breathless, red-faced, with perspiration +oozing at every pore. This was +the courier of the manor, an office he +inherited from his great-grandfather, +who had been an active, strong-limbed +man, and one of the swiftest runners +of his time.” The plethoric Mercury +came to render homage for his fief, +and would not have had breath to +utter his oath even if he had not been +too late. The day concludes with +the extraordinary performances of the +villagers in clearing the moat of +Montbason of frogs—a service they +are bound to render when the voice +of the animals hindered the inhabitants +of the castle from repose.</p> + +<p class='c009'>How superior this method of giving +a view of some of the peculiarities +of feudalism is to the common dissertations +we meet with, will be acknowledged +by any one who prefers a +chapter of <cite>Ivanhoe</cite> to an explanation +by Ducange. We are tempted +to make quotation from the conversations +between the worthy Friar +John and the Commander of Rhodes, +in one of which the veteran soldier +fights nobly in defence of the right +of private war; and there are other +incidents in which the two men are +brought out with a freshness and +individuality not at all to be expected +in the lucubrations of the chief +of the French Dryasdusts; but we +must content ourselves with the last +glimpse of knight-errantry. Ill fares +it with a period when it can be truly +said its days of chivalry are past. +But chivalry was a thing and a principle, +and knight-errantry a pretence. +There is the same difference between +them as between the quiet benevolent +practice of a physician, and the +noisy operations of a quack doctor at +a fair. How, in the midst of all that +ignorance, and that rough handling +of sword and spear, arose the poetic +idealisation of personal honour and +respect for woman, it is impossible to +say. The fact is all we can answer +for, and the result. At first the ennobling +pictures of unselfishness and +courtesy and generosity were viewed +by the portly baron, the rough, gruff +old head-breaker on the dais, as +they were meant to be viewed; namely, +as altogether fictitious and imaginary +representations of a state of +manners which never had real existence. +But the young squire his son, +the long-haired maiden his daughter, +who sat on the tabouret at his feet; +the pages who stood open-mouthed +behind his chair—were of a very different +opinion. They believed in King +Arthur, and in Amadis, and in Gualior, +and in the peerless damosel who +cheered him with such loving caress +and such purity of heart; and, in the +next generation, they resolved to form +themselves on the model set before +them in the achievements of these +heroes and princesses. And if the +state of their quarrels did not allow +them to carry out all the refinements +practised in those romances—if they +were still forced to carry battle into +their neighbour’s manor, and carry +off their neighbour’s daughter, they +did so “with a difference;” they +doffed their plumed helmet when +they received their vanquished enemy’s +sword; they bent knee to ground +when they locked the captive maiden +into her bower. Chivalry was a recognised +fact, and was at all events a +standard by which to measure their +actions, if not always a barrier against +the actions themselves. But its truest +merit is the effect it undoubtedly produced +on the civilisation of Europe. +It supplied the place of religion itself, +when religion was either locked up +entirely in an unknown tongue, or +enveloped in manifold additions +which concealed it like the cerements +of an Egyptian mummy. The code +of honour gradually exerted its +sway where civil laws were ineffectual. +There were virtues inculcated, +and vices condemned by it, which +criminal courts could neither reward +nor punish. Truth, generosity, temperance, +purity, defence of innocent +weakness, resistance to strong injustice—these +formed the true knights’ +system of laws. The opposite evils +were forbidden on pain of general +censure. And the final effect has +been this—that no nation which has +not gone through the period of chivalry +can give its true and full meaning +to the great word “Gentleman.” +India, China, Russia, never felt its +force; they have, therefore, no civil +freedom, no personal self-respect. A +system which has given rise to all the +gentlemen of Europe should never +lightly be talked of; and Amans +Alexis in his garret had as high an +appreciation of gallant knight and +fair ladie as if he had been present, +when</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“High in the breathless hall the minstrel sate,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>and charmed young and old with the +music of harp and song. But knight-errantry—a +running to and fro in +search of adventures!—a travelling +attorney in pursuit of practice in the +courts of Honour!—it scarcely needed +the genius of Cervantes to bring this +extravagance into ridicule; for even +the commander of the fourteenth century, +himself vowed to the protection +of injured innocence, laughs at the +pre-Quixotic absurdity as if he had +had the knight of La Mancha before +his eyes. A specimen of the genus +even then was looked on as our naturalists +would now look upon a dodo. +“I must tell you a curious thing that +lately occurred here. A knight-errant +is not often seen nowadays, though +the genus is not extinct. One came +here and wound the horn which +hangs before the great gate of the +chateau. No trumpet having sounded +in reply, as is the rule on these +occasions, he turned his horse and +rode away. The pages ran after him, +and after many excuses for their want +of skill on the trumpet, they persuaded +him to come back. Meanwhile +the ladies had dressed to receive +him, and taken their places in state, +holding embroidery-frames in their +hands. The Lady of Montbason was +attired in a robe stiffened with gold, +which had been in the house for +more than a century. The dowager +covered her head with a fur cap +according to the fashion of her youth, +and loaded herself with ermine. The +knight comes in along with his squire, +both covered all over with dangling +plates of brass, making as much noise +as a mule when loaded with copper +pots and pans ill packed. The knight +having ordered his squire to take off +his helmet, revealed a head nearly +bald, and fringed with long white hair. +His left eye was tied up with a piece +of green cloth, of the same colour as +his coat. He had made a vow, he +said, not to see with his left eye, nor +eat with the right side of his mouth, +till he had accomplished his enterprise. +The ladies offered him refreshment. +He replied by throwing himself +at their feet, and swearing eternal +love to old and young, saying, that +though his armour was of truest steel, +it could not defend him against their +arrows; that he should die of the +wounds they inflicted—that he felt +himself expiring—and a hundred other +follies of the same kind. As he persisted +in this style, particularly in +his address to the lady of Montbason, +whose hand he frequently kissed, I +became impatient; the Commander +perceived my annoyance. ‘Good!’ +he said: ‘these old fools have their +set words and phrases like a village +lawyer. But keep your temper; perhaps +he won’t stay the day.’ And +in fact in a few hours he departed. +Such are the ridiculous remains of +that ancient chivalry which at one +time ennobled humanity with so many +virtues and so much glory.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Poor old frivolous knight-errant! +away he goes for ever out of human +ken, with both eyes bandaged now, +and all his enterprises accomplished; +and, at the same time with him, dies +off also another form of resistance to +oppression, where the performer was +of far humbler rank, and came in aid +of justice in a much more legitimate +way. There seems to have been no +town in France of sufficient importance +to have a court of civil or criminal +process, which did not maintain +a champion as one of the chief officers +of its administration. The duty of +this distinguished functionary was +to supply any lack of evidence +which might occur in the course of a +trial; and as it was generally necessary +to obtain the assistance of two +witnesses in the conviction of a culprit, +the champion watched over the +cause, and when only one witness +was producible, threw his sword into +the scale which he believed to be +just, and did battle with any one +who would take up arms on behalf +of the other side. All through the +early centuries, the office of town or +precinct champion was as well recognised, +and considered as indispensable, +as that of notary or judge. +But some terrible things happened +in the fifteenth century, which put +the arbitrement of the sword into +disrepute. Printing and gunpowder, +when they came to maturity, were +fatal to many a stout-armed gentleman, +who had been installed in his +honourable post of champion of the +town, and had brought up his children +with the honourable ambition +of handling his sword and stepping +into his shoes. How many Oxford +coachmen and Cheltenham “whips,” +in the same way, had to descend from +the box, and turn their energies into +other channels, on the first whistle +of the railway engine!</p> + +<p class='c009'>It happened one day, says Alexis, +in the first page of the second volume +(which is equivalent to the middle or +latter end of the fifteenth century), +that a good many people were collected +in the great chamber of the +town-hall of Troyes, along with the +mayor and bailiffs, when a curious +question arose, as to which of all the +trades and conditions were the worst. +Everybody, as might be expected, laid +claim to that bad eminence on behalf +of his own. But at last it was arranged, +that on that evening, and at +their succeeding meetings, the question +should be thoroughly gone into, +and every man give some account +of the evils he complained of, so that +the company might decide after a +full hearing of the evidence. On this +hint the different personages speak. +There is a beggar who paints a wretched +picture of the state of his fraternity, +even in those days of meritorious +alms and food at the monastery +gates.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Who denies,” he cries, “that the +beggar’s state is the most miserable +of all?—who? Why, the bad Christians, +the hard-hearted rich; and they +are so plentiful now! How often +have I heard it said in the days of +my prosperity, that the poor were in +the happiest state; that their revenues +were secured on the charity of +the public; and that they lived without +care, with nothing to do but say +their paternosters, and hold out their +hands! Alas, alas! nobody thought +of adding how often their hands remained +empty—how often they had +to submit in patience to the hunger +of many days, to the cold of many +months.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Then come the farmer, the messenger, +the comedian, and many +more; but after the noble (for even +he has discomforts to complain of), +the tale is taken up by a person who +is minutely described and introduced +by the name of Vieuxbois.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Vieuxbois, who remembers the time +when he was champion of the city, +and believes that he is so still, though +there is now neither champion nor +lists, generally sits near the chimney. +He is always dressed in an old suit of +clothes, very tidy and clean, and always +carries a long iron sword suspended +by a sash of red silk. His +face is so haggard and thin that it is +nothing but bone. People call him +more than a hundred years old, but +he has the vanity of being thought +young, and only confesses to ninety. +This evening he rose from his chair, +and having saluted the company several +times with his sword, he resumed +his chair, and thus began:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Gentlemen, you are all complaining +of your callings, which proves, +at least, that callings are still left +you; but for us miserable champions—for +us, the most miserable of +you all—there is no calling left except +in name. Oh! the long past, +happy, blessed days of France! days, +above all, of the fourteenth, thirteenth, +twelfth centuries!—why can’t I prolong +them into the present time! +Then the sword of the champion was +honoured—it decided where the judge +was puzzled. Then the champion, the +lists, the trumpet, the charge in every +doubtful case: but now there is so +much knowledge! there is so much +learning! no more doubts—no more +puzzled judges—and the champion’s +occupation’s gone! But oh! little +did my grandfather, the Champion +of Chalons—he was hanged in that +office—foresee this wretched time. +Just before he was turned off, he +summoned my father, who had fled +from the scene in tears, and said, +‘Champion, my son, weep not: it +does not become a champion to weep: +the cause I supported was just. I +die because I did not parry in carte. +Study the carte, my son; it is the +best of the thrusts: you must deliver +it free—you must have your wrist +well placed. My adversary made a +movement—it was against all the +rules—but it deceived me. Champion, +my son, attend to your trade—it is a +good one; and above all, I beseech +you, do not neglect the carte.’ But +the people became impatient, and +cried out for his execution; they were +enraged because he had undertaken +the defence of a wretch whom they +considered guilty; and disdaining to +reason with his inferiors, my grandfather +shrugged his shoulders two or +three times in sign of contempt, +and died like a true and noble champion.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“My father also was hanged. You +are astonished, gentlemen; that is +because you did not know the good +old times, when, the moment a +champion was vanquished, he was +dragged from the lists, and hoisted on +the gallows. After having been victorious +a great number of times, he +died at last, not from want of courage +or address, but because he slipt. He +died, recommending me always to +wear sharp-headed nails in my shoes. +I can declare that his fate was much +regretted by the people, while the +person for whom he fought, and who +was going to be hanged along with +him, had the bad taste to find fault +with him in coarse insulting language. +He was an advocate, and always an +uncivil sort of man. My father was +a man of fine manners and excellent +temper. ‘Master Martean,’ he said, +‘neither you nor any of your craft +are able to give me lessons in the +management of my sword. I shall +speak to you no more.’ He kept his +word; the next moment they were +run up. My mother brought me my +father’s sword: and though it was at +that time a little taller than myself, I +managed to draw it from the sheath +and swing it at arm’s-length. This +was thought a good augury, and +great expectations were entertained of +me when I should be old enough to +be champion. When I was twenty, +my active life began. Two men of +distinction, each above sixty years of +age, had accused each other without +sufficient proofs. The judicial duel +was ordered, of course. A beautiful +closed ring raised on the banks of the +Marne was crowded on the following +day with all the rank and fashion of +Champagne—for such sights were already +become rare. The combat was +on the point of beginning. I was at the +summit of felicity. My eyes flashed +brighter than my arms. The party +for whom the opposite champion +was engaged, perhaps perceived this, +for offers of accommodation were +made, and the duel was at an end. +The disappointment of the spectators +was immense. The authorities feared +an uproar, and to quiet the populace, +it was proposed by the mayor +and magistrates that I should marry +the daughter of my adversary, and +that a fête should be given in honour +of the event. Her name was Championnette: +she was beautiful as the +day—she was just sixteen; and you +may imagine I offered no opposition +to the match. The wedding rejoicings +commenced at once, and the +enclosure where the combat was to +have taken place, could scarcely contain +the dancers. Next day there +were joustings with sword and lance. +The trumpets of the town-hall had +never ceased their music, and at +night there were bonfires and illuminations.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>After his marriage with Championnette, +it was impossible for him to be +the hostile champion to his father-in-law; +and his travels in search of occupation +take him through several districts +in France. In all he finds the +dignity of the office decaying, its +privileges denied, and its income +annihilated. He goes from place to +place, but the scales of justice were +now getting so evenly balanced that +he seldom required the sword to adjust +the weight. He comes, among +other places, to Lyons. “What do +you take us for?” says the bailiff. +“Perhaps you think Lyons a Gothic +town of the fourteenth century. +Lyons is a polished city, enlightened +and civilised, where everybody knows +how to write. Nobody, therefore, can +now deny his signature. Go rather +to some out-of-the-way valley in the +Jura or the Vosges. It is possible a +champion may still be useful among +the savages there.” It is impossible +to describe the indignation of the +gallant Vieuxbois on this insulting +speech. However, he restrains his +wrath, and passes on, but no better +reception awaits him wherever he goes. +At last there is a glimpse of prosperity +and a chance of work when he +gets to the valley of the Aspe, among +the Pyrenees. The magistracy of +that small republic receive him +courteously, but even here he finds +he comes too late. “‘We might have +sent you,’ said the rulers of the republic, +‘into the valley of Lavedan, +but it has no intention now of seeking +a champion to resist our claims.’ +‘And why did the valley wish to +fight you?’ I inquired. ‘It was because +their little abbé, St Sevin, irritated +against the valley of the Aspe, +uttered his curse upon it. Whereupon +every year we were visited with +great storms and tempests, and sometimes +for months the hail fell upon +our republic, but we were miraculously +avenged. The earth, and all the inhabitants, +and all the cattle, great +and small, were struck with sterility +throughout the Lavedan. To get remission +of this dreadful plague, they +came and begged for mercy on +the valley of the Aspe. Peace was +made between the two valleys, and +Lavedan was absolved from the sin +of its old abbé. During the eighty +years of this treaty, the conditions +have several times been broken. Our +republic demanded satisfaction. The +valley of Lavedan wished to defend +itself by a champion, but has not +been able to find one. We therefore +have no occasion for your services, +but if a few acres of ground, a few +sheep and oxen, a cottage such as +you see——’</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Thanks, gentlemen of the republic +of the Aspe,” says Vieuxbois, “my +fathers were gentlemen, and lived by +the sword. I am not yet so fallen as +to maintain myself by flocks and +herds.” But years pass on, and no +doubt he looked back on the offers +he had rejected with useless regret. +Meanwhile his family becomes numerous, +but they are victims of the +advancing arts and sciences. One +is a transcriber of manuscripts, and +the press throws his pen out of work. +Another illuminates old books, and +engraving upsets his colours. Another +is a maker of bows and arrows, +and arbalists and other engines of +war, but gunpowder and cannon unstring +all his bows, and knock his +ballistas in pieces. A grandson is +sedulously educated for the profession +of a fool; but as a profession it +falls into disrepute, and the jester +unlearns his quiddities, keeps his features +at rest like other people, and +starves as becomes a reasonable man. +The only happy one of the family +is another grandson, who is blessed +with such a tremendous eruption on +his face that he has got admission to +a leprosy-house, where he is wonderfully +fed and kindly treated. The +eruption is not leprosy; but, in the +alarming scarcity of real sufferers by +that malady, the office-bearers of the +houses of retreat, who derive great +salaries for their posts (which they +execute by deputy), are glad to accept +a pensioner with so near a resemblance +to the true disease; for what +would they do if leprosy disappeared +altogether? The story of the old +champion comes to an end, and it is +difficult to imagine that any of the +other complainants can give a more +wretched account of their position. +But misery is, in fact, in that century, +the characteristic of all conditions of +life. As the ages move on, men get +better; their places become more +defined.—The remaining volumes of +the work are occupied with the progress +of the people, and their gradual +elevation into civil consideration and +political power. We may return to +the same portrait-gallery for pictures +of the innkeepers, the fishermen, the +town-criers, the merchants, the nurses, +the lawyers, and the artists of the +different periods. They are all drawn +from the life, and are warranted likenesses. +But at present we have said +enough.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span> + <h2 class='c002'>BIOGRAPHY GONE MAD.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>At certain intervals, ever since the +days of Solomon, it has been found +necessary, as a matter of sheer duty, +to lift the voice of warning against +that much study which wearies the +flesh, and the making many books of +which there is no end. It is now +several years since a strong protest +was raised in this Magazine against +the too common and most reprehensible +practice of raking among +dead men’s ashes, and violating the +confidences of the living, for no higher +purpose than the gratification of biographic +weakness and vulgar curiosity. +Man is indeed, as Goethe has said, +ever interesting to man, and no species +of bookmaking finds readier excuses +than biography. But man ought also +to be sacred to man; and of all the +injuries that can be inflicted on a +dead man’s memory, none is more +cruel than the act of the friendly +ghoul who unnecessarily recalls him +from the silence of the grave. <i><span lang="la">Corruptio +optimi est pessissima.</span></i> Biography, +well done, is one of the most +instructive and interesting kinds of +composition; ill done, it is about the +worst. We call it ill done, either +when a good subject is marred in the +handling, or when the choice is an +unworthy one. The number of men +whose lives are worthy to be recorded +for an ensample to mankind is really +small. In saying so we are far from +meaning to express a contemptuous +opinion of human nature. Some of +the best men that ever lived were +those whose lives had fewest incidents, +and offered the scantiest materials for +the ingenuity of the bookmaker. +Happy, it is said, is the nation whose +annals are dull—happy also the man +whose life escapes the chronicler, who +passes at the end of his day’s work +into the silent land, to enjoy “No +biography, and the privilege of all the +weary.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>A stupid biography of an interesting +person is indeed a very lamentable +thing; and not only so, but a +grave injustice alike to the dead and +to the living. Since the protest alluded +to was uttered, there has been +no lack of this sad work. The most +conspicuous recent examples that +occur to us are the Lives of Thomas +Moore and of Lady Blessington. But +though the life of a man of genius, +served up in the form of hodge-podge, +is rather a melancholy repast, there +are biographic nuisances less tolerable +still. The features of a Jupiter or an +Apollo may be hard to recognise in +the plaster of an incompetent dabbler; +but if the model were really a noble +one, something of the god will break +through to edify the spectator. It is +different, however, with the rude idol +of the savage. The biography of +a respectable mediocrity is, it may +be safely said, among the least interesting +or useful of literary performances. +Minerva Press novels are bad +enough (those who think the species +is extinct are greatly mistaken); spasmodic +poems are anything but enlivening; +and numismatic treatises +are not ambrosial fare; but against any +of these we would back for true invincible +unreadableness the Memoir +and Remains, we will suppose, of the +Rev. Jabez Jones, D.D., late pastor +of Ramoth-Gilead Chapel, Battersea. +We select our instance from the class +of religious biographies, because it is +by far the most numerous, and the +most distinctly chargeable with the +sin of bookmaking. Jabez, we have +no doubt, was in his day and generation +an excellent man, though given, +as his Memoirs of course will amply +testify, to unnecessary groaning. But +why his life should have been written, +is a mystery to be solved only by +the astute publisher, who calculates +on a sale of several hundred copies +among the bereaved congregation +of Ramoth-Gilead. The sorrowful +biographer, whose name on the +title-page plainly marks him as an +eligible candidate for the degree of +D.D., will inform us in a “sweet” +preface that the materials of the present +work were put into his hands, +&c.; that, painfully conscious of his +own inability, he had long, &c.; but +that a perusal of the documents had +so deeply impressed him with the importance +of giving the world, &c.; +that such as it is, in short, he commits +it—and then is pretty certain to follow +a piece of nauseous blasphemy as +to the nature of the patronage to +which the pious speculation is held +entitled.<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c007'><sup>[5]</sup></a> The number is perfectly +sickening of bereaved husbands, sons, +and fathers, who practise this strange +alchemy on the penitential tears and +devout breathings, the sick-bed utterances +and dying ejaculations of sainted +wives, mothers, and babes.</p> + +<p class='c009'>But bad as it is causelessly to exhume +the poor victim of mortality in +order to make him sit for his likeness, +the posthumous method of biography +is the natural and becoming one. +Only when a man has finished his +work, and escaped beyond the reach +of human passions and cares, is it +fitting to delineate his character and +trace the story of his devious path +through life. The practice of biographising +living men, however, has now +become very common. The publication +of éloges used formerly to be reserved +as a posthumous honour, but +this generation is wiser, and writes +the éloge while the subject of it can +himself enjoy its perusal in the land +of the living and the place of hope. +One would think it a curious evidence +of regard, independently of the question +of delicacy, to adopt so suggestive +a method of reminding a man +that he is due to posterity. But tastes +differ, and some men are not averse +to the Charles V. method of trying +on their shrouds, to see, as the old +woman said, what “a bonnie corpse” +they will make. With us in Britain +this practice of spiritual vivisection, +or <i>ante-mortem</i> inquests, has been +confined for the most part to short +sketches, pretentiously critical in +general, and very seldom of any +value. Fundamentally gossiping in +its character, this school of literary +sketchers (what may be called the +Biographical Life Academy) has appealed +mainly to the weak curiosity +that hungers after any small scraps of +information regarding the private life +and habits of living notorieties. Such +curiosity is no doubt extremely natural, +but the men who have undertaken +the function of gratifying it, have, as +might be supposed, been distinguished +by no qualities less than by discernment +and good taste, correctness +of outline being with them a small +consideration compared to abundance +and strength of colour. This vulgar +species of authorship, the servants’-hall +gossip of the literary family, has, +we hope, seen its palmy days.</p> + +<p class='c009'>On the other side of the Atlantic, +however, the business seems to flourish, +like all other business, with great +briskness. Our American friends, +excellent people as they are in so +many respects, have long been known +to us as pre-eminent in the gossiping +line; one of the chief characteristics +of the Anglo-American race +being intense curiosity—an admirable +principle, as every one knows, +when subordinate to a high end, a +decided weakness when not. To say +that the American people universally +are influenced by the spirit of vulgar +curiosity, would be as unjust as it +would be to charge the whole British +nation with foulness of taste because +the <cite>Mysteries of London</cite> has found +myriads of readers. But that the +fashion has been exemplified very +extensively by Americans of making +the public familiar with the insides +of private drawing-rooms, and telling +the world how popular poets and +historians handle a tea-pot or blow +their noses, is a fact not to be denied. +Among a people recognising, +or professing to recognise, as the fundamental +principle of government +and society, the Irishman’s profound +axiom, that “one man is as good as +another—faith, and a great dale betther +too!” it is not indeed surprising +that in the sphere of literature, as +well as in others, they should make +more free with the characters and +habits of private life than is by us +old-fashioned Britons considered +tasteful and becoming. Having now, +however, passed their infancy, and +in literature as well as in social +development “progressed” towards +manhood, it is high time that they +should put away childish things. It +has always grieved us to see citizens +of the great Republic betray so +weak-minded a delight in scrutinising +the costume and domesticities of +English aristocrats, or the private +life and fixings of American democrats.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In the department of contemporary +biography, it must be confessed +our energetic cousins have fairly got +the start of us. It seems, in fact, to +have attained the rank of an “institution” +among the other beautiful +machinery of their political life. +When Jullien visits the provinces, +he heralds his coming by means of a +set of fascinating portraits, which +announce from every print and +music shop window that the great +Conductor is at hand. Somewhat +similar, but more intellectual and +elaborate, is the proceeding of the +American “coming man.” No aspiring +senator now thinks of trying +for the Presidency without securing +in good time the services of a competent +biographer to relate the heroic +story of his life, and make his transcendent +merits known to all whom +it may concern. Even a meditative +Hawthorne turns his vision-weaving +pen to such service, and considers it +no way unworthy of his genius to +polish off an electioneering biography +of General Franklin Pierce. So deeply +do politics mingle in the current of +American life; so sweet to the aspiring +statesman are the uses of +biography!</p> + +<p class='c009'>But if the lives of politicians be +written for the admiration of mankind +and the good of the State, should +the lives of the mightier men who +make and unmake presidents and +governments be esteemed less worthy +of that honour? Assuredly not. At +it then, ye diligent Yankee scribes, +and hasten to convert into obsolete +absurdity the oft-quoted line of the +dull old fellow who sang—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The world knows little of its greatest men.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c009'>Let it not henceforth be said, to the +reproach of civilisation, that the +world was ignorant during their +lives of the birth and genealogy, the +schoolboy adventures and manly +freaks, the trials and the triumphs +of such men as Horace Greeley and +James Gordon Bennett. Be careful +to inform us, ye veracious cinder-gatherers—for +posterity will not pardon +the omission—the length, breadth, +and weight of these remarkable men,—their +complete phrenological development +(so far as the addition of abnormal +bumps by hostile shillelahs +can permit accuracy),—the kind of +clothes they wear—the kind of pens +they write with, whether quill, iron, +or brass—the ink they use, whether +common blue-black or sometimes +black-and-blue, or perhaps a cunning +distillation of ditch-water—the attitude +in which they sit when discharging +their thunder at the heads +of kings and cabinets, or composing +their delicate invectives at one another;—in +short, let us have perfect +daguerreotypes of these supremely +interesting and estimable men.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Behold! the thing is done, the good +work has actually been commenced. +There, lying before us, in all the +square-rigged ugliness of New York +upgetting, are the first-fruits of this +new field of biographic enterprise—the +lives, in two stout volumes, of +the “two noble kinsmen,” the two +great Arcadians whose names we +have above mentioned. Many of our +readers, perhaps not grossly illiterate +persons either, will look up and ask, +Who are Horace Greeley and James +Gordon Bennett? While duly pitying +the limitation of culture implied in +such a query, we cannot be too hard +on these poor ignoramuses, as we +must plead guilty to having been +ourselves frequently staggered, in +reading American books, by meeting +names associated with those of Milton +and Aristides, as utterly new to +us as was, till recently, that of his +Majesty Kamehameha III., Dei +gratiâ king of the Sandwich Islands. +These two men, then, let all such +ignoramuses know, are the editors of +two widely circulated New York +papers—the two most widely circulated, +we believe, of any in America.<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c007'><sup>[6]</sup></a> +What other claims they have to the +honours of biography and the remembrance +of posterity, we shall +consider by-and-by. Meantime we +have to say of the books that they +are the most unique things in the +way of biography, or indeed of literature, +that have come in our way +since America, about a year ago, furnished +us with the autobiography of +one of her smartest citizens. They +are of very different character—as +different as the men whose lives they +profess to record—but in both the +biographic muse appears in a state +of decided inebriety, highly unbecoming +the ancient dignity of her +vocation. In the work of Mr Parton +she is what is called half-seas +over, unsteadily hilarious, and amusingly +absurd, hiccuping out smart +things now and then in a way that +is irresistible, then suddenly looking +grave and uttering sublimities that +are still more outrageously laughable. +In the anonymous companion-volume +she is far gone towards mortal insensibility; +she might be said, in +fact, to be in <i>delirium tremens</i>, but +that there is not a single flash of +the wild energy that diversifies the +symptoms of that shocking malady. +It is pure dazed stupidity and double-vision +from beginning to end. We +have met nothing comparable to it +in all our experience of biographies.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The sole ground on which these +volumes claim any notice, contemptible +as they both are (though not in +equal degree) in matter and treatment, +is that which gave some importance +to the infamous revelations +of Barnum. They are in some degree +typical; their subjects at least +are so in a very considerable degree—“representative +men” of their kind, +and so far important. A newspaper +editor is in all civilised countries an +important personage. We are not +going here to enter on an elaborate +consideration of the functions and +influence of the press—so let nobody +dread a homily. The subject has been +often enough handled well and ill, +and lately we have heard a good deal +about it. We are nowadays rather +given to flourishing about the “Fourth +Estate.” There is a tendency towards +cant on this as on all other interesting +subjects. The Fourth Estate is a +grand fact, but let those who have +any pretensions to connection with +it rather strive to keep it so than +talk magniloquently about it. As for +those who have not, let them take +care that it does its duty, and does +not go beyond it. Newspaper editors, +we say, are important personages; +but they are like other human +beings, some of them eminent for intellect +and virtue, many of them +highly respectable for both, others of +them dignified by neither. The anomalous +and fluctuating conditions of +newspaper life make it inevitable +that men should sometimes attain +high influence in virtue of connection +with the press, whom neither nature +nor education has eminently qualified +for the guidance of their fellow-men. +This applies, of course, peculiarly +(though not exclusively) to America, +where, on the admirable Irishman’s +maxim above quoted, everybody is +equally fit for everything—faith, and +a great deal fitter too! where toll-keepers +and publicans are colonels in +the army, and the man who fails as a +ratcatcher turns his hand to preaching, +and, if that fail also, straightway +sets up a newspaper. But though +applying peculiarly to the American +press, our statement is not exclusive +of Britain. Journalism is becoming, +indeed, with us more and more of a +recognised profession—a profession, +too, calling for special gifts and training—gifts +and training, higher and +more liberal, to those who think +rightly of their vocation, than do any +of the three hitherto exclusively entitled +“learned.” The press is no +more with us, if ever it has been, a +kind of literary Diggings, where the +outcasts and desperadoes, the halt, the +maimed, and the blind, of every other +calling, may find a precarious refuge +and irregular adventurer-work, from +forging of thunderbolts to winnowing +of ash-buckets. But it is true, nevertheless, +that the fundamental conditions +of success in this career are compatible +with a moral and intellectual +standard by no means exalted. It is +a common mistake, that high literary +ability is the first requisite for editorial +success. The fact is nearly the +other way. The first requisite is +knowledge of men, the second confidence, +and the third perseverance. +Let a man possess the concentrated +gifts of a whole academy of <i>belles +lettres</i>, and be deficient in shrewd +practical discernment of what suits +the public, he may pipe ever so melodiously, +but he will get few subscribers +to dance. Let him know, +or imagine that he knows, ever so +well what suits the public, if he have +not a quick eye to see what other +men are fit for, and how far they can +be trusted to do his work, he may +shut his shop and retire. Let him +possess encyclopædic knowledge, and +the readiest flow of winged words, but +if he be not a man of hard-working, +dogged persistence, he might as well +sow the great Sahara as undertake +to conduct a newspaper. A paper +once fairly established may, indeed, +conduct itself successfully, despite an +unpractical and easy editor; for good +machinery compels even inert matter +into activity and order. But to rear +a paper into vigorous existence amid +a host of competitors—to make bricks +without straw, and snatch the bread +of victory out of the jaws of famine—the +editor or conductor must be, in the +first place, a man of business—it is of +very subordinate importance that he +be a man of letters. Hence it is +sometimes objected, that newspapers, +being in so many cases merely commercial +speculations, must necessarily +subordinate principle to profit. The +objection is neither sound in logic, nor, +in this country at least, true in fact. +The manufacturer of shawls and +blankets is not the less an honest +man and estimable citizen because +his primary object is not the good of +the community but his own private +advantage. His shawls and blankets +are not the less excellent and indispensable +because he converts them +into pelf. If the shawl-manufacturer +indeed become a power in the State, +and begin to arrogate high virtue to +himself for his services to the public, +and to dictate laws in virtue of the +prosperity of his business, it is reasonable +that we should apply to him +something analogous to the question, +“Doth Job fear God for nought?” +Applying this test to the press of +our own country, we arrive, on the +whole, at satisfactory conclusions. +If we do not see so much as we could +wish of a grave sense of responsibility, +and a careful weighing of facts and +motives, we know how much is due +to the terrible exigencies of time. +This we are assured of, that in no +other profession or occupation is +there more of manliness and fair +play; in none other is the professional +honour so untarnished by the +contact of lucre; and, so far as chastity +of sentiment and expression is +concerned, “the freest press in Europe +(Mr Macaulay might have said, +in the world) is also the most prudish.” +Occasional examples of recklessness +and violence, of meanness +and bad taste, invalidate in no wise +the force of this general assertion. +Newspaper editors and writers are, +we repeat, human like others. To +expect that they should in every case +display faultless wisdom and virtue +is a devout imagination, but an extremely +vain and irrational one. As +to the paltry £. <span class='fss'>S. D.</span> considerations, +we have, for our own part, often admired, +as a striking example of the +innate virtue of human nature, despite +its depravity, the magnanimous +zeal which sustains so many newspaper +proprietors in the task of instructing +the public at a very swinging +loss to themselves!</p> + +<p class='c009'>The power of the press is greatly +aided, as every one knows, by the +mystery which shrouds the writer, +merging all personality of the individual +in the mysterious plurality of +the organ through which he speaks. +It is not John or Thomas that proclaims +the danger of the nation, the +incapacity of a Minister, the justice +or injustice of a deed. It is an unknown +voice, uttered out of darkness, +and therefore formidable—the voice +not of one, but of many, and therefore +claiming respect. The voice of a +Greek tragedian sounded through his +mask more awful than it really was; +and the majestic buskin raised a very +ordinary figure to the kingly height +of Agamemnon. The “we” of John +or Thomas, through the speaking-trumpet +of the <cite>Times</cite>, becomes a +very different pronoun from the “I” +of these gentlemen uttered through +their individual windpipes. If any +argument were necessary to prove +that this formidable anonymousness +is not only essential to the liberty of +the press, but the true safeguard of +its health and honesty, we might +point for proof to the Press of those +States, whether despotic or free, +where it is not tolerated. In the +United States, for example, there is +almost as little anonymous writing +as in Paris or Vienna. There is no +statute on the subject, and no legal +censorship exists, but the state of +public feeling makes it almost impossible +for a man to conceal his personality. +The writer may not put his +name to his articles, but if he does +not, it is only because he finds it unnecessary. +Is the press there more +honest, more discreet, more tender +of individual character than in Britain? +No candid American will answer +that question with an affirmative. +The press of America is not +the less formidable, not the more +honest and scrupulous, that its principal +writers are known or notorious +men.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The character of the two nations +is illustrated by some of their distinctive +peculiarities in this respect. +With us the tendency is to merge +the individual in the body—with +them the notion of liberty is associated +with the clear recognition +of individual independence. Here +the newspaper editor is generally the +invisible head of an association—there +he is a right-well-known entity +of flesh and blood, as cowhide and rattan +applications have too often most +strikingly demonstrated. There the +journal is generally his, and his name +figures conspicuously at the head of +its columns—here he belongs more +frequently to the journal, and, while +wielding a great power in the community, +his personal existence is a +kind of myth, and his name may +never have been heard by the great +majority of his readers. The American +editor, on the contrary, must +make himself known, or he will not +be listened to. All pugnacious republicans +must have the means of +knowing who it is that abuses them. +The occupant of the White House +must be made familiar with the name +of the man who attacks or defends +his policy, whose mouth may be +silenced, or whose fidelity rewarded +by a due share of the federal dollars. +Let it not be imagined that any uncomplimentary +remarks we make on +the American press are intended to +apply universally. So speaking, we +should convict ourselves at once of +ignorance and dishonesty. There +are American newspapers and editors +of high and unblemished character, +as there are American politicians +worthy of a better fate than to be kept +waiting three months for the election +of a Speaker. But of the American +press generally the criticism +still holds good, that, while boasting +to be the freest in the world, it is in +practical thraldom to an inextricably +tangled system of democratic terrorism. +Improvement there has been, +we delight to think, within the last +dozen years—so much so, that even +papers which were the very offscourings +of journalism, have become, in +their European editions at least, fit +for decent mortals to read. Out of +a total of nearly three thousand papers, +circulating among so mixed and +changeful a population, it is little wonder, +also, that there should be a large +class of papers at which a cultivated +man of any nation must look with +contempt and sorrow. We know too +well, from examples in our own colonies—as +in India and Australia—how, +in heterogeneous and young +communities, where men of high talent +and education seldom resort except +in the established paths to success, +newspapers are apt to fall into +the hands either of government agents +or of reckless adventurers, with the +natural result, in the one case, of insolence +and servility, in the other, of +indecent violence and gossiping personality. +That, therefore, in a country +like the United States, where +men of intelligence and enterprise +are never at a loss for profitable occupation, +the press should be left in a +great measure to those who can get +nothing better to do, need not surprise +us; nor, as the necessary result, +that its moral and intellectual standard +should hitherto have been such +as a civilised and educated nation +would, if it were not too busy, and +too jealous of foreign criticism, have +viewed with consternation as a professed +mirror of itself.</p> + +<p class='c009'>While willingly granting thus much, +the painful fact remains, that the +papers which have all along enjoyed +the largest share of public countenance +in the United States, are those +whose conductors have most openly +set at defiance every sentiment of +justice, decency, and good taste. The +mere circulation of a journal is not, +indeed, a conclusive test of its importance +as an organ of public opinion, +but it clearly enough points out +what way the taste of the majority +lies, and in a land of universal suffrage +it gauges exactly the amount of +its political influence. Our <cite>Weekly +Dispatch</cite> has perhaps twenty readers +for the <cite>Spectator’s</cite> one, but the one +reader probably has more power in +the commonwealth than the twenty. +In a commonwealth, on the other +hand, where all men are equally good, +a hundred thousand Barnums are as +good as a thousand centuries of Washington—faith, +and in American politics, +“a great dale betther too!” +Thus it is that the most widely +circulated paper becomes the greatest +power in the State, and a power +to which, even while loathing it, +presidents and politicians are forced +to bow the knee. Unwilling as we +are that Mr James Gordon Bennett +should lose any of the benefit accruing +to him from these remarks +(which, of course, he will turn duly +to account),<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c007'><sup>[7]</sup></a> we have no hesitation +in saying that they are intended to +apply <i>par excellence</i> to the organ +which, under his consummate management, +has resolved one of the +most singular problems of modern +times. That problem may be stated +thus: Given the minimum of literary +ability, and the maximum of +moral worthlessness—to educe out of +their combination a machinery which +shall control the political action of a +Great Republic, and attain a leading +place among the recognised +mouthpieces of twenty million English-speaking +freemen. There is a +question of maxima and minima over +which Dr Whewell might puzzle his +knowing head till doomsday, if he +omitted to take into his calculations +an element or two of the plus description! +What these elements are, we +must, however, leave for after consideration. +In the mean time we propose +to treat our readers to a few of the +biographic delicacies furnished by the +considerate Mr J. Parton. We consider +his volume in every way entitled +to the precedence. It was the first +published, and evidently suggested +the rival performance. It has all the +marks of honesty about it, and, compared +with the Life of Bennett, is a +perfect <i>chef-d’œuvre</i> of ability. Its +subject, in like manner, if considerably +removed from our idea of a hero +or a gentleman, is, compared with the +editor of the <cite>New York Herald</cite>, a +very Bayard in chivalry, a Job in +uprightness.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Mr Parton sets about his work in +a very thorough-going manner. The +industry with which he has raked together +all the information that could +possibly be gathered regarding not +only Horace Greeley, but Horace’s ancestors +to the third and fourth generation, +is quite inconceivable; and +his own ingenuous account of his +preliminary labours is well calculated +to awaken, if not the admiration, +at least the astonishment of +the reader. The style of procedure +is exquisitely characteristic; and, as +he himself phrases it, “the reader +has a right to know the manner” +thereof. Let us thank heaven that +the promulgation of the recipe is not +likely here to instigate imitation. +First of all, the ingenious youth procures, +“from various sources, a list +of Mr Greeley’s early friends, partners, +and relations; also a list of the +places at which he had resided.” The +young bloodhound! This done, “all +those places I visited; with as many +of those persons as I could find I +conversed, and endeavoured to extract +from them all that they knew +of the early life of my hero.” From +these veracious sources this high-minded +young scribbler compiled the +narrative of the great man’s early +years, not disdaining even to accost +drunken “old soakers” on the highway +who might “hiccough out” a +little tale about Greeley; and where +he could not ferret out information +on the spot, applying for it <i>by letter</i>. +But this was a small portion of the +self-imposed labour, which included a +diligent inspection of the complete +files of the “<cite>New Yorker</cite>, <cite>Log Cabin</cite>, +<cite>Jeffersonian</cite>, <cite>American Laborer</cite>, +<cite>Whig Almanac</cite>, and <cite>Tribune</cite>,” nearly +every number of which, “more +than five thousand in all,” he carefully +examined. After such a course +of reading, our wonder is, not that +the biographic muse is slightly maudlin, +but that she survived to put two +sentences together!</p> + +<p class='c009'>We are treated to a preliminary +sketch of the history of Londonderry +(not omitting the siege), and the +Scoto-Irish colony who thence emigrated +to New England. To the +hasty reader all this may seem highly +unnecessary, but to those who are +desirous deeply to penetrate into a +“nature” so uncommon as that of +Horace Greeley, it is supremely important, +as we are told that “from +his maternal ancestors he derived +much that distinguishes him from +men in general.” Another chapter is +devoted to the paternal ancestors, regarding +one of whom it is interesting +to learn that he was a “cross old dog,” +“as cunning as Lucifer,” and that +he died at the age of sixty-five, with +“all his teeth sound!” At length, +at page 33, we come to the great fact +of Horace’s birth. As has been the +case with many great men, it was +attended with some remarkable circumstances. +To these our biographer +does full justice. His account of the +interesting scene is too fine to be +omitted:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The mode of his entrance upon the +stage of the world was, to say the least +of it, unusual. The effort was almost +too much for him, and, to use the language +of one who was present, ‘he came +into the world as black as a chimney.’ +There was no sign of life. He uttered +no cry; he made no motion; he did not +breathe. But the little discolored stranger +had articles to write, and was not +permitted to escape his destiny. In this +alarming crisis of his existence, a kind-hearted +and experienced aunt came to +his rescue, and by arts, which to kind-hearted +and experienced aunts are well +known, but of which the present chronicler +remains in ignorance, the boy was +brought to life. He soon began to +breathe; then he began to blush; and +by the time he had attained the age of +twenty minutes, lay on his mother’s arm, +a red and smiling infant.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>If the reader does not grant that +to be one of the most graceful climaxes +in biographic literature, we shall +not write another word. Presuming +on a general unanimity on this point, +we proceed. The red and smiling +infant in due time of course turned +out a prodigy; “he took to learning +with the promptitude and instinctive +irrepressible love with which a +duck is said to take to the water,” and +was able to read “before he had +learned to talk.” In spelling he soon +became pre-eminent; and great marvels +are recorded of his orthographic +prowess. Unfortunately he was +less distinguished by those virtues +which we usually desiderate in boys. +Though never afraid of ghosts, or overawed +by superiority of rank or knowledge, +he was eminently deficient in +physical courage. “When attacked, +he would neither fight nor run away, +but ‘stand still and take it;’” the report +of a gun “would almost throw +him into convulsions.” Fishing and +bee-hunting were the only sports he +cared for, “but his love of fishing did +not originate in what the Germans call +the ‘sport impulse.’ Other boys fished +for sport; Horace fished for <i>fish</i>.” Bee-hunting, +again, “was profitable sport, +and Horace liked it amazingly. His +share of honey generally found its +way to the store.” His passion for +books was generally attributed to +indolence, and it was often predicted +that Horace would never “get on.” +Superficial idea! Even in very early +life, says Mr Parton complacently, +he gave proof “that the Yankee element +was strong within him. In the +first place, he was always <i>doing</i> something; +and in the second, he had always +something to <i>sell</i>.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Notwithstanding Horace’s remarkable +cleverness, we are told that he +was sometimes taken for an idiot—a +stranger having once inquired, on his +entering a “store” in a brown study, +“what darn fool is that?” Even his +own father declared that the boy +would “never know more than +enough to come in when it rains.” +These pleasing anecdotes are given +on the authority of a bibulous old +wretch, whom the indefatigable Mr +Parton encountered and cross-questioned +on the highway. He was +quite drunk at the time, but “as the +tribute of a sot to the champion of +the Maine Law, the old man’s harangue +was highly interesting.” Mr +Parton sets it down to the praise +of his hero, that though brought +up in the bosom of New England +orthodoxy, “from the age of +twelve he began to doubt,” and +“from the age of fourteen he was +known, wherever he lived, as the +champion of Universalism.” Here +the biographer indulges in what he +considers appropriate reflections, and +points out to his readers the valuable +effects of youthful infidelity. “The +boy,” he coolly observes, “seems to +have shed his orthodoxy easily.”<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c007'><sup>[8]</sup></a> +Horace Greeley was in a fair way of +training for his editorship.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The juvenile Universalist had +long been ambitious of becoming a +printer, and at last obtained a vacant +apprenticeship in the office of +Mr Amos Bliss, proprietor of the +<cite>Northern Spectator</cite>. The great event +is described with elaborate circumstantiality. +The young “tow-head” +proved a first-rate workman, and +presently tried his hand at composition. +“The injurious practice of +writing ‘compositions,’” says his biographer, +“was not among the exercises +of any of the schools which he +had attended.” Considering the general +literary character of editorial +writing in the United States, we are +not surprised to find an American +pronounce the early practice of composition +<i>injurious</i>; the sentiment +evidently is not peculiar to Mr Parton. +Early attention to style might of +course tend to weaken that native +force in the use of epithets which apparently +conduces so much to editorial +success. Horace also joined a +debating society, where he proved +himself a perfect “giant.” His manners +were entirely free from aristocratic +taint, or any weak tendency to +politeness. “He stood on no ceremony +at the table; he <i>fell to</i> without +waiting to be asked or helped, devoured +everything right and left, +stopped as suddenly as he had begun, +and vanished instantly.” Again, +“when any topic of interest was +started at the table, he joined in it +with the utmost confidence, and +maintained his opinion against anybody.” +He never went to tea-parties, +never joined in an excursion, and +“seldom went to church.” A most +interesting young man, on the whole, +was Horace Greeley.</p> + +<p class='c009'>At length the <cite>Northern Spectator</cite> +broke down, and the apprentice was +left to shift for himself. His departure +is described in quite a choice Minerva-Press +style. “It was a fine +cool breezy morning in the month of +June 1830; Nature had assumed +those robes of brilliant green which +she wears only in June, and welcomed +the wanderer forth with that heavenly +smile which plays upon her +changeful countenance <i>only when she +is attired in her best</i>. Deceptive +smile!” &c. &c. Horace at length determined +to try his fortune in New +York, and with ten dollars in his +pocket, a shabby suit on his back, +and a small bundle on his stick, +landed “at sunrise, on Friday the +18th of August 1831,” near the Battery. +The biographer, as in duty +bound, comes out strong, and Benjamin +Franklin, with his penny roll, +appears in the proper place to garnish +the story. “The princes of the +mind,” says he, waxing sublime, +“always remain incog. till they +come to the throne.” Poor Horace’s +appearance “was all against +him.” Certainly, if the vignette representation +of the youth with which +Mr Parton has adorned his volume +conveys any adequate idea of his aspect +that morning, the statement is +emphatically true. The prince of the +mind was incog. with a vengeance—a +more calculating and skinny-looking +young Yankee it would be difficult +to imagine. To the portrait on +the opposite page, of the adult Horace +in his white greatcoat—bought from +an Irish emigrant!—we must, however, +give the palm as a thoroughly +characteristic representation of a full-blown +Yankee Wilkes-Bentham Socialist, +Maine Law champion, Vegetarian, +Spirit-rappist, and we don’t +know what else. The following bit +of information is important:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The gentleman to whose intercession +Horace Greeley owed his first employment +in New York, is now known to +all the dentists in the Union as the leading +member of a firm which manufactures +annually twelve thousand artificial +teeth. He has made a fortune, the reader +will be glad to learn, and lives in a mansion +up town.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>To the event which gave Horace +his “First Lift” in the world, the +biographer devotes a whole chapter. +That event was the establishment +of the first Penny Paper. +The idea originated in the head +of an unfortunate medical student +afflicted by Providence with +ready cash to the amount of fifteen +hundred dollars. Horatio David +Sheppard, unwisely neglecting his +pestle and scalpel, took to dabbling +in newspapers and magazines, and in +due time found himself <i>minus</i> his +dollars. Speculatively musing as he +passed through Chatham Street, a +great mart of penny wares, he was +struck with the rapid sales effected +by the energetic stall-keepers and +itinerant venders of shoe-laces. Parting +with an odd cent or penny seemed +so natural and easy a proceeding +that the offer of any article for that +sum seemed irresistible. Might not +a newspaper be produced at one +cent with certain success? The idea, +it must be admitted, was a happy +one. As might have been expected, +however, the proposal at first excited +unbounded ridicule, and for eighteen +months Dr Sheppard could not get +“one man” to believe in its feasibility. +At last, on New Year’s Day, +1833, appeared the <cite>Morning Post</cite>, +published by “Greeley and Story,” +price two cents. It lived only twenty-one +days, dying from pure want of +funds. The idea was soon after successfully +realised by other speculators, +and in a few years the penny +press was able to take society by the +throat. Its first reception is thus +described:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“When the respectable New Yorker +first saw a penny paper, he gazed at it +(I saw him) with a feeling similar to that +with which an ill-natured man may be +supposed to regard General Tom Thumb, +a feeling of mingled curiosity and contempt; +he put the ridiculous little thing +into his waistcoat pocket to carry home +for the amusement of his family; and he +wondered what nonsense would be perpetrated +<i>next</i>.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>If such was the reception of the +cheap press among the go-ahead +New Yorkers, it need not surprise us +that in our own steady-going community +it should have been still less +favourable. The experience of the +last few months, however, has pretty +well demonstrated the absurdity of +the principal objections. The anticipated +peril to the health of society +has, as every believer in the national +good sense well knew, proved +a chimera. British intellect and morals +fortunately are not dependent +on taxes and high price; and the gradual +removal of all restrictions on +the freedom of the press has only +shown more signally that this people +needs no legal bridling to keep on +the path of decency and order. The +number of cheap papers has indeed +proved much smaller than was anticipated, +few people seeming to have +been aware how much energy and +capital are required for the establishment +of a paying penny paper—a +fact which was alone sufficient to +answer the fears of those who looked +in June 1855 for the coming of the Deluge. +In New York the case unfortunately +was far otherwise. The Father +of the American Penny Press, if to +any one man that title is due, must +be regarded as having treated his +country in a way the reverse of what +St Patrick did for Ireland—as a male +Pandora, in fact, who opened the lid +that shut in a countless brood of very +hideous creatures. The thing will +end well, we hope, as we hope for +a millennium; and improvement, as +we have admitted, there already is. +But that the birth of the cheap press +in America was followed by a deluge +of quackery, virulence, and indecency +which has not yet entirely subsided, +is a fact written in disgraceful characters +on pages innumerable, and +legible on the skins of men now living, +had they not been tougher than +bison’s hide. That such should have +been the result of cheapening the favourite +stimulant of the American +rabble was perfectly inevitable, and +that the new development of journalism +was accompanied by marked +features of superiority is undeniable. +The increase of violence and slander +was itself a point of superiority in +the eyes of the vulgar herd,—for +coarseness passed for strength, and +scurrility for smartness, the American’s +“darling attribute.” But, among +a people of intense activity and inquisitiveness, +the increased energy in +the procuring of news (whether true +or false) must be looked upon as the +chief cause of the immense popularity +attained in so few years by the principal +American journals. To this +source, rather than to any general +predilection for the vile and malicious, +would we seek to attribute the extraordinary +success of papers in which +libel and indecency constituted a +regular stock in trade. This is certainly +no excuse for the patronage so +bestowed, but it at least helps to explain +it in a way not utterly destructive +of our respect for a whole community.</p> + +<p class='c009'>And now, to return to our Horace. +Of his dignified manners towards his +workmen the following may suffice +as an example. It is interesting, +moreover, as showing that the extraordinary +voracity of his early +years had given place to utter indifference +to considerations so low +as the eating of dinner:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“There was not even the show or pretence +of discipline in the office. One of +the journeymen made an outrageous caricature +of his employer, and showed it to +him one day as he came from dinner. +‘Who’s that?’ asked the man. ‘That’s +me,’ said the master, with a smile, and +passed into his work: The men made a +point of appearing to differ in opinion +from him on every subject, because +they liked to hear him talk; and, one +day, after a long debate, he exclaimed, +‘Why, men, if I were to say that that +black man there was black, you’d all +swear he was white.’ He worked with +all his former intensity and absorption. +Often such conversations as these took +place in the office about the middle of +the day:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“(H. G., looking up from his work)—Jonas, +have I been to dinner?</p> + +<p class='c010'>“(Mr Winchester)—You ought to +know best. I don’t know.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“(H. G.)—John, have I been to +dinner?</p> + +<p class='c010'>“(John)—I believe not. Has he, Tom?</p> + +<p class='c010'>“To which Tom would reply ‘no,’ or +‘yes,’ according to his own recollection or +John’s wink; and if the office generally +concurred in Tom’s decision, Horace +would either go to dinner or resume his +work, in unsuspecting accordance therewith.”</p> +<p class='c009'>With that interesting proneness to +heresy of all kinds which distinguishes +Mr Greeley, he soon after +adopted the semi-vegetarian principles +of a certain Rev. Dr Graham, +who, says the biographer, “was a <i>discoverer</i> +of the facts, that most of us +are sick, and that none of us need +be; that disease is impious and <i>disgraceful</i>, +the result in almost every +instance of folly or crime.” The +italics are Mr Parton’s, whose digestion, +it is to be hoped, is unexceptionable.</p> + +<p class='c009'>At length, early in 1834, Horace, +with two partners, started the <cite>New +Yorker</cite>, a weekly paper, “incomparably +the best of its kind that had +ever been published in this country;” +so good, in fact, that after seven years +of hard struggle it gave up the ghost. +We would rather believe that its want +of success was due to the incompetency +of its management; but if the +editor was in the habit of uttering +such unpalatable truths as is contained +in the following specimen, we +are afraid it must be conceded with +the biographer that the <cite>New Yorker</cite> +was not half enough spicy, or fawning:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The great pervading evil of our social +condition is the worship and the +bigotry of Opinion. While the theory of +our political institutions asserts or implies +the absolute freedom of the human +mind—the right not only of free thought +and discussion, but of the most unrestrained +action thereon within the wide +boundaries prescribed by the laws of the +land, yet the <i>practical commentary</i> upon +this noble text is as discordant as imagination +can conceive. Beneath the thin +veil of a democracy more free than that +of Athens in her glory, we cloak a despotism +more pernicious and revolting +than that of Turkey or China. It is the +despotism of Opinion.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The <cite>New Yorker</cite> having never, +during its whole term of existence, +reached the paying point, the poor +editor was obliged to keep the pot +boiling by other means. In 1838 he +undertook the sole charge of the +<cite>Jeffersonian</cite>, a paper of a class peculiar +to America, and denominated +“Campaign Papers.” The noble purpose +of the <cite>Jeffersonian</cite> is thus described +by Greeley himself: “It was +established on the impulse of the +Whig tornado of 1837, to secure a +like result in 1838, so as to give the +Whig party a Governor, Lieutenant-governor, +Senate, Assembly, United +States Senator, Congressmen, and all +the vast executive patronage of the +State, then amounting to millions of +dollars a year.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The <cite>Jeffersonian</cite> existed only one +year, having served its end. The +labours of the editor were enormous; +“no one but a Greeley” could have +endured it all. In 1840 he started +another “Campaign Paper,” in the +interest of General Harrison. The +absorption of the editorial mind during +this exciting season is illustrated +by another of those graceful anecdotes, +in which our biographer delights—relating +how Mr Greeley arrives +late at a political tea-party +(Sunday evening), and straightway +plunges into a conversation on the +currency; how the worthy landlady +asks him in vain to take tea; how she +begs him to “try a cruller anyhow,” +and is rudely repulsed; how she places +a large basket of these unknown delicacies +on his knees, and he mechanically +devours every morsel; how, +fearing the consequences, she substitutes +for the “cruller” basket a great +heap of cheese; how the remarkable +boa-constrictor gobbles it all up; and +how, finally, he was <i>none the worse</i> of +it all. “Anecdotes,” says Mr P., are +“precious for biographical purposes.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The <cite>Log Cabin</cite> had a circulation of +from 80,000 to 90,000, and yet such +was the easy virtue of the subscribers +that the proprietor made nothing by +it, and the last number contained a +moving appeal “to the friends who +owe us.” Such, also, is political gratitude, +that Mr Greeley did not even +receive the offer of an office in acknowledgment +of his valuable services, +at which his biographer is duly +disgusted. He adds the following +significant anecdote:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Mr Fry (W. H.) made a speech one +evening at a political meeting in Philadelphia. +The next morning a committee +waited upon him to know for what office +he intended to become an applicant. +‘Office?’ said the astonished composer—no +office.’ ‘Why, then,’ said the committee, +‘<i>what the h—ll did you speak last +night for</i>?’ Mr Greeley had not even +the honour of a visit from a committee +of this kind.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Mr Greeley at length ventured on +the bold experiment of starting a new +daily paper. There were already +eleven in New York; but a cheap +Whig paper<a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c007'><sup>[9]</sup></a> was wanted, and accordingly, +on the 10th April 1841, appeared +the <cite>New York Tribune</cite>, price +one cent. It began with only six +hundred subscribers, and encountered +much opposition, but was “from its +inception very successful.” The <cite>Tribune</cite>, +says Mr Parton, was “a live +paper,” and it prospered by opposition. +“<span class='sc'>Fight</span> was the word with it +from the start—<span class='sc'>Fight</span> has been the +word ever since—<span class='sc'>Fight</span> is the word +this day.” One thing was wanting to +success—an efficient business-partner. +Such a man was found in the person of +Mr Thomas M‘Elrath. The biographer +shouts and rubs his hands with +ecstasy at such a combination of excellence +as was now realised. Hear +him:</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Roll Horace Greeley and Thomas +M‘Elrath into one, and the result would +be, a very respectable approximation to +a Perfect Man. The Two, united in +partnership, have been able to produce a +very respectable approximation to a +perfect newspaper. As Damon and Pythias +are the types of perfect friendship, +so may Greeley and M‘Elrath be of a perfect +partnership; and one may say, with +a sigh at the many discordant unions the +world presents, Oh! that every Greeley +could find his M‘Elrath! and blessed is +the M‘Elrath that finds his Greeley!”</p> + +<p class='c009'>And woe to the Greeley that finds +his Parton!</p> + +<p class='c009'>For a complete history of this respectable +approximation to perfection, +says Mr Parton, “ten octavo volumes +would be required, and most interesting +volumes they would be.” Mr +Parton gives us instead the small +dose of “over” 200 octavo pages, +and we are bound to say that it is +at least 190 too many. In these +weary sheets the curious will find +a full account of Mr Greeley’s exertions +in defence of Fourierism, +Whiggism, Teetotalism, Anti-Slavery, +Woman’s Rights, and Irish Rebellion, +his libels on Fenimore Cooper, +his motions in Congress, his lectures, +his European travels, his personal +appearance, his private habits, &c. +&c.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“For Irish Repeal,” among other +good causes, the <cite>Tribune</cite> “fought +like a tiger,” the magnanimous editor +accepting a place in the Directory of +the Friends of Ireland, “to the funds +of which he contributed liberally.” +Mr Greeley is not a warlike man, as +his boyish experiences have indicated, +but incendiarism and bloodshed in +British territory are things for which +he willingly sacrifices a few dollars. +Our readers are aware that the publication +of the wildest fictions, pleasantly +denominated “hoaxes,” constitutes +an attractive element in American +journalism. In August 1848, +New York red-republicanism was +“on the tiptoe of expectation for important +news of the Irish rebellion.” +The fortunate <cite>Tribune</cite> obtained exclusive +intelligence, and hastened to +publish, “with due glorification,” a +flaming account of the great battle of +Slievenamon (afterwards known as +“Slievegammon,”) in which 6000 +British troops were killed and wounded. +“For a day or two the Irish and +the friends of Ireland exulted; but +when the truth became known, their +note was sadly changed.” The editor, +we learn, was absent at the time, but +there is no doubt he would have exulted +as much as any man to hear of +the “stench” of a three-mile shambles +of British soldiers. His tone on the +subject of the Russian war has betrayed +no weak sympathy with the +Western combatants; and doubtless +he takes a brotherly interest in +the insane and detestable conspiracies +now or lately hatching among the +unhappy exiles of Erin.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In November of that year, Mr +Greeley was elected to a seat in Congress, +by a machinery the corruption +of which is testified by no less a person +than himself. He was very active as +a member, and soon made himself +prominently obnoxious by exposing +various legislative jobs. Some of the +lively scenes that occurred are described +at immense length. Mr Parton +draws no flattering conclusion +from the reception of his hero in the +House of Representatives. Let our +American friends console themselves +with the assurance that his testimony +is not decisive.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“An honest man in the House of Representatives +of the United States seemed +to be a foreign element, a fly in its cup, +an ingredient that would not mix, a +novelty that disturbed its peace. It +struggled hard to find a pretext for the +expulsion of the offensive person; but +not finding one, the next best thing was +to endeavour to show the country that +Horace Greeley was, after all, no better +than members of Congress generally.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>In 1849, the <cite>Tribune</cite>, with its +habitual predilection for the fanatical +and revolutionary, or, as Mr Parton +loftily phrases the thing, “true to +its instinct of giving hospitality to +every new or revived idea,” devoted +large space to the promulgation of +Proudhon’s delightful ideas on the +subject of Property. Among other +things also, says our chronicler, it began +a rejoinder to the <cite>Evening Post</cite> +in the following spirited manner,—the +only specimen we choose to quote of +Mr Greeley’s vituperative abilities:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“You lie, villain! wilfully, wickedly, +basely lie!”</p> + +<p class='c009'>This observation, placidly remarks +the historian, “called forth +much remark at the time.” The +person to whom it was addressed was +<span class='sc'>William Cullen Bryant</span>. With the +same instinctive hospitality towards +every form of delusion, the <cite>Tribune</cite> +opened its accommodating columns +to the Spirit-Rappers, who, notwithstanding +a few hundred cases of insanity +and other small evils, have, in +Mr Parton’s opinion, done much good. +About the same time it took up the +Woman’s Rights humbug, acknowledging +that the ladies are perhaps +unwise in making the demand, but +maintaining that no sincere republican +can give any adequate reason for +refusing them “an equal participation +with men in political rights.” A +whole chapter is devoted to Mr Greeley’s +platform exhibitions, which it +seems are very frequent and edifying—Horace +having, as Mr Parton tells +us, a benevolent appreciation of the +delight it gives “to <i>see</i> the man +whose writings have charmed and +moved and formed us.” Not only +does he lecture as often as possible, +but</p> + +<p class='c010'>“At public meetings and public dinners +Mr Greeley is a frequent speaker. +His name usually comes at the end of +the report, introduced with ‘Horace +Greeley being loudly called for, made a +few remarks to the following purport.’ +The call is never declined; nor does he +ever speak without saying something; +and when he has said it, he resumes his +seat.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The remarkable man!</p> + +<p class='c009'>In 1851, Horace went to see the +World’s Fair in Hyde Park. No +foolish curiosity or sentimentality +instigated the philosophic editor; +his main object, as announced (the +American editor keeps his readers +regularly informed on all his movements) +in the <cite>Tribune</cite>, being to inspect +“<i>the improvements recently +made, or now being made, in the +modes of dressing flax and hemp</i>, and +preparing them to be spun and woven +by steam or water power.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The departure and passage are +carefully described; Mr Parton having +apparently paid a steward to +note, watch in hand, all the phenomena +of Horace’s sea-sickness. Nothing +that he saw in this effete +country seems to have in the least +impressed his great mind. The +royal procession would have faded +before “a parade of the New York +Firemen or Odd Fellows.” The +Queen he patronisingly noticed, and +was even “glad to see,” though “he +could not but feel that her <i>vocation</i> +was behind the intelligence of +the age, and likely to go out of +fashion at no distant day;” but not, +poor thing! “through <i>her</i> fault.” +The posts of honour nearest her person +should have been confided, he +thought, to “the descendants of Watt +and Arkwright;” the foreign ambassadors +should have been “the sons +of Fitch, Fulton, Whitney, Daguerre, +and Morse,” &c. &c. Hampton Court +he thought “larger than the Astor +House, but less lofty, and containing +fewer rooms.” Westminster Abbey +was “a mere barbaric profusion of +lofty ceilings, stained windows, carving, +graining, and all manner of contrivances +for absorbing labour and +money;” less adapted for public worship +“than a fifty thousand dollar +church in New York.” He gives +credit to the English for many good +qualities, but thinks them “a most +<i>un-ideal</i> people,”—he, the romantic +Greeley! “He liked the amiable +women of England, so excellent at +the fireside, so tame in the drawing-room; +but he doubts whether they +could so much as <i>comprehend</i> the +ideas which underlie the woman’s +rights movement.” (The amiable +women of England may well console +themselves under a doubt so complimentary +to their common sense.) +In Paris the great man was apparently +in better humour, devoting +two days to the Louvre—a wonderful +fact. His great political sagacity +shines forth in his estimate of French +affairs in June 1851. France he found +as “tranquil and prosperous as England +herself;” as for fear from Louis +Napoleon, he “marvels at the <i>obliquity +of vision</i> whereby any one is +enabled, standing in this metropolis, +to anticipate the subversion of the +Republic.” In Italy his first remark +was, that he had never seen a region +so much in want of “<i>a few subsoil +ploughs</i>.” Edinburgh, it seems, was +honoured, before his return to New +York, by a visit from this great unknown; +and we are proud to learn +that it “surpassed his expectations.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>“In the composition of this work,” +says our judicious biographer, “I +have, as a rule, abstained from the +impertinence of panegyric.” When, +therefore, he tells us that the rolling +together of Greeley and M‘Elrath, +after the manner of a dumpling, +would result in something like perfection; +that Greeley is “too much +in earnest to be a perfect editor;” +that “he is a <span class='sc'>Born Legislator</span>,” +and “could save a nation, but never +learn to tie a cravat;” that he is +“New York’s most distinguished +citizen, the Country’s most influential +man,” and editor of the best paper +in existence; that, in short, he is +“the Franklin of this generation—Franklin +liberalised and enlightened,”—we +are to take these statements as +the sober expression of bare hard +fact; and the reader is left to conclude +from them how much might +have been said by a more partial and +weak-minded biographer—his imagination +is left to fill up the outline +of a Greeley’s perfections!</p> + +<p class='c009'>But does the reader wish to see +the man himself—to know his height +and weight, not metaphorically, but +actually, in British feet and inches, +and in pounds avoirdupois? So +pleasant and laudable a desire the +amiable Parton is far from disappointing; +for does not the great man say +that “there’s no use in any man’s +writing a biography unless he can +tell what no one else can tell.” Here, +then, reader, you have it, what no +one else assuredly could, would, or +should dream of telling you but +the inimitable, the unapproachable +Parton:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Horace Greeley stands five feet ten +and a half inches, in his stockings. He +weighs one hundred and forty-five pounds. +Since his return from Europe in 1851, +he has increased in weight, and promises +to attain, in due time, something of the +dignity which belongs to amplitude of +person. He stoops considerably, not +from age, but from a constitutional +pliancy of the back-bone, aided by his +early habit of incessant reading. In +walking, he swings or sways from side to +side. Seen from behind, he looks, as he +walks with head depressed, bended back, +and swaying gait, like an old man; an +illusion which is heightened if a stray +lock of white hair escapes from under +his hat. But the expression of his face +is singularly and engagingly youthful. +His complexion is extremely fair, and a +smile plays ever upon his countenance. +His head, measured round the organs of +Individuality and Philoprogenitiveness, +is twenty-three and a half inches in circumference, +which is considerably larger +than the average. His forehead is round +and full, and rises into a high and ample +dome. The hair is white, inclining to +red at the ends, and thinly scattered +over the head. Seated in company, +with his hat off, he looks not unlike the +‘Philosopher’ he is often called; no one +could take him for a common man.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Now, then, reader, if you do not +give us credit for introducing you to +the acme of modern biography, we +pronounce you the most ungrateful +and least discriminating of human +beings. “If Horace Greeley were a +flower,” says J. P., “botanists would +call him single, and examine him +with interest.” “He is what the +Germans sometimes style ‘a nature.’” +And if J. P. also were a flower, +botanists would inevitably pronounce +him “a tulip.” He is what in Scotland +we sometimes call “a natural”—otherwise +known as “a halfling;” +or, in vernacular English, a born +fool. Horace Greeley is not, to our +mind, a person very agreeable or very +venerable; but intensely as we dislike +his bad qualities, and those of +his paper (in some respects a good +one—very attentive, in its own +peculiar way, to literature, and excellently +printed<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c007'><sup>[10]</sup></a>), his dreary fanaticism +and vulgarity, his bigoted Yankeeism, +his strong anti-British feeling—much +as we dislike all this, we do not like +to see him made absolutely ridiculous, +had he no other good quality than +the pleasure he takes in farming. +We are not surprised, however, to +learn that he has few friends, “and +no cronies.” His biographer, at +least, is not among the former; for +any man would accept his chance +against a Kentucky rifle sooner than +a biography at the hands of Mr J. +Parton. There is this comfort, at +least, that Horace Greeley “has no +pleasures, so called, and suffers little +pain,” otherwise, we imagine, the admiring +scribbler would not, with such +inconceivable indelicacy, have opened +the doors of his closet, and exhibited +him <i><span lang="la">in puris naturalibus</span></i> to the gaze +of the world.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Turn we now to the veracious record +of the Life and Adventures of +the Jack Ketch of editors, the redoubtable +and happily unparalleled +James Gordon Bennett, with whom, +for several reasons, we must be brief. +The author has of course sought no +counsel from “Mr Bennett, nor any +one connected with him.” The work +is a pure labour of love, “a spontaneous +act of literary justice” to +the character of a noble and much +maligned man. The former statement +we perfectly believe, as we +imagine the consultation would naturally +proceed <i>from</i> and not <i>to</i> the +subject of the memoir. As to the +spontaneity, there can be little doubt +that the work was prompted by the +dumpy and infatuated volume of +which we have attempted faintly to +shadow forth the beauties,—as to +“justice,” no man is more dreadfully +in earnest for justice than when he +defends himself. The motto prefixed +from Dr Johnson is admirable: +“<i>History, which draws a portrait of +living manners, may perhaps be +made of greater use than the solemnities +of professed morality, and +convey the knowledge of vice and +virtue with more efficacy than axioms +and definitions.</i>” Which being applied +to the present case, may be +interpreted to signify that the life +of a notorious blackguard is more +eloquent than a sermon of Dr Blair, +and conveys the knowledge of virtue, +through the exhibition of its +contrary, with more impressiveness +than all the proverbs of Solomon! +In this sense the Life of Mr James +Gordon Bennett might, in faithful +and competent hands, do as much +good as the <cite>Newgate Calendar</cite>, or +Defoe’s Autobiography of an Unfortunate +Female,—it might carry along +with it, as this preface says, “not a +few valuable lessons.” Unhappily, +however, the genius of this biographer +is utterly unequal to the +subject, and instead of a lifelike and +instructive portraiture, he has produced +a senseless and incredible +daub. More speaking by far is the +portrait which fronts the title-page. +It represents in sharp outline +the face of a hard-headed, heavy-browed, +obstinate man; vulpine +sagacity in the wrinkles of the +mouth and the corners of the eyes; +long upper-lip and heavy under-jaw, +and bold vulturine nose seeming +to scent carrion from afar. The +eyes are upturned in sculptured lifelessness—in +artistic justice, we presume, +to that unfortunate ophthalmic +defect known as a diabolical squint. +The portrait, we say, is better than +the book, and tells, though probably +a flattering likeness, a clearer and +more honest story.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Is it not,” inquired Mr Dickens +in New York, “a very disgraceful +circumstance that such a man as +So-and-so should be acquiring a large +property by the most infamous and +odious means, and, notwithstanding +all the crimes of which he has been +guilty, should be tolerated and abetted +by your citizens? He is a public +nuisance, is he not?—Yes, sir. A +convicted liar?—Yes, sir. He has +been kicked, and cuffed, and caned?—Yes, +sir. And he is utterly dishonourable, +debased, and profligate?—Yes, +sir. In the name of wonder, +then, what is his merit?—<i>Well, sir, +he is a smart man!</i>” Such is the +satisfactory solution of the problem +to which we have already alluded, +the solution of the Barnum phenomenon, +and with it of all analogous +phenomena. Similar is the testimony +of the smart young man whom +we have just parted with. “Every +race,” he says, “has its own ideas +respecting what is best in the character +of a man.... When a +Yankee would bestow his most special +commendation upon another, he +says, ‘That is a man, sir, who generally +<i>succeeds</i> in what he undertakes.’” +Let no delicate and high-minded +person, therefore, be astonished +that such a man as James +Gordon Bennett, whom the respectability +of New York has for twenty +years loathingly patronised, should +have attained a commanding position +among the spiritual powers of +the American Republic. He is a man +of undeniable “smartness”—not in +our sense, indeed, for we have never +seen a line of his composition that +exhibited anything above what could +be called third-rate mediocrity of +thought and style, but in the sense of +keen appreciation of means and ends, +audacious scheming, impenetrability +to shame, and invincible endurance of +chastisement. His inflictions in this +respect, both moral and physical, he +has uniformly turned to the best account: +in a sense different from that +of the Psalmist, he can say that +it was good for him to be afflicted. +No man probably ever made more +dollars by the proclamation of his +own disgrace. A mere catalogue of +the horse-whippings he has undergone +during his long career of inglory, +would astonish the nerves of our +readers.<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c007'><sup>[11]</sup></a> Each new infliction has +been prominently blazoned in the +columns of the <cite>Herald</cite>, and the +attractive words “<span class='sc'>Cow-hided +Again!!!</span>” have been duly followed +by a rush of buyers and a cheering +flow of cents into the pockets of the +complacent victim! On this subject +his own testimony and that of his +biographer are singularly frank and +decided:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Since I knew myself, all the real +approbation I sought for was my own. +If my conscience was satisfied on the +score of morals, and my ambition on the +matter of talent, I always felt easy. On +this principle I have acted from my +youth up, and on this principle I mean +to die. Nothing can disturb my equanimity. +I know myself—so does the +Almighty. Is not that enough?”</p> + +<p class='c009'>“This,” says the biographer, “<i>is +not the language and spirit of a +common mind</i>. It is the essence of +a philosophy which has not deserted +a man who has never failed to republish +every slander against himself, +and who has been conscious +always that calumnies cannot outlive +and overshadow truth.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>A man whose conscience seems +never to have given him much +trouble, and whose ambition has been +satisfied with the acquisition of +wealth and political power, may +well feel easy under the whips and +scorns of a whole universe! This is +assuredly, and we rejoice to think +so, not the language and spirit of +the majority of mankind. Those +only despise the approbation of their +fellows who have shaken off the +attributes of humanity, and accept +the reverse of the proverb, that “a +good name is rather to be chosen +than great riches.” The impious +allusion to the Almighty is worthy +of a Couthon or a Marat.<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c007'><sup>[12]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>The success of such a journal as the +<cite>New York Herald</cite> is an undeniable +blot on the community on whose follies +and vices it battened into prosperity. +The damning fact cannot be +denied, that it was not in spite but +<i>on account</i> of their scandalous character +that such journals first attracted +public attention and secured a +hearing. While, therefore, we diminish +not a jot our abhorrence of the +men who reared these monuments of +their own infamy, we are bound to +regard them as but the concentrated +type of the character that pervaded +their constituency. If the <cite>New York +Herald</cite> was unprincipled and obscene, +the readers of the <cite>New York +Herald</cite> must have shared in these +qualities. Its conductor may have +been a scoundrel, but he certainly +was no fool; he fed his readers with +such food as suited their taste. Had +that taste been purer, he was knowing +enough to have provided cleaner +fare: in a grave and religious community +he would probably have +preached with unctuous decorum. +Already the taste of that community +has improved (no thanks, assuredly, +to him); the deluge of vituperation +and indecency has subsided, and the +<cite>New York Herald</cite> has followed the +temper of the time. It may not, as +the helpless biographer tells us it is, +be “a familiar journal at every court +throughout the world, and in all intelligent +communities,” but, compared +with its former self, it is positively respectable.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Granting, therefore, that James +Gordon Bennett was as disreputable +an editor as Dr Faust’s great patron +ever let loose upon mankind, it is +both philosophically and historically +just that we should regard him, as +Germans would say, not as an isolated +phenomenon, but as a highly-remarkable-and-in-itself-much-embracing-development +of social existence. +The half-apologetic statements on +this subject by the biographer, who +is in general so preposterous in his +partiality and admiration as to be +utterly beyond criticism, are among +the most curious things in the book. +After describing the state of society +and of journalism previous to 1833, +he says:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“A more fortunate position of circumstances +cannot be imagined than that +which presented itself for Mr Bennett’s +talents at this period. He had been +moulded by events and experience to +take a part in the change which the +Press was about to undergo....</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Mr Bennett was prepared in every +way for the occasion. He had been just +so far injured as to urge him to take +hold of the world with but little mercy +for its foibles, and with so little regard +to its opinions that he could distinguish +himself by an original course in Journalism. +He felt as Byron did after the +Scotch Reviewers had embittered his +soul by their harsh treatment of his +‘Hours of Idleness.’ This was a mood +highly favourable to the production of a +rare effect. The dormant spirit of the +people could only be awakened by something +startling and novel, and circumstances +had produced a man for the +times.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The early numbers of the <cite>Herald</cite>, +we are told, were “agreeable, pleasantly +written, and comparatively +prudish.” The habits of the editor +were “exemplary.” Finding that +this sort of thing was “no go,” the +astute adventurer took a bolder +course, and flung aside those trammels +of decency and moderation +which would have impeded or ruined +the prospects of a weaker and less +original mind. The biographer admits +that his hero behaved somewhat +grossly, but argues, as one +might plead in defence of a vampire +or a cobra-de-capello, that he merely +used the weapons which nature had +given him, and that at any rate he +was no worse than his neighbours.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The improved taste of the present +hour will not sanction the mode in which +Mr Bennett at first undertook to be the +censor of society: but <i>a philosophical +analysis of the means which were used in +his peculiar and eccentric course (!)</i> exhibits +motives as the springs of action, +which do not necessarily indicate a callous +heart or a bad temper.... +That Mr Bennett had been provoked to +use any and all power at his command, +to overturn the wanton assailants of his +character, cannot be denied. <i>He had but +armed himself with the best instruments +heaven had bestowed upon him</i>, and his +mode of warfare was quite as dignified +as that which had been resorted to, and +adopted for fifteen or twenty years before, +by the Press generally.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>If instead of the blasphemous word +“Heaven” we substitute another +more congruous to the nature of the +subject, the above may be taken as a +sufficiently “philosophical” view of +the point at issue. A little farther on +there is a still clearer admission. +After telling us that the public did +not care for political articles in such +small sheets as the <cite>Herald</cite>, the biographer +shows how it became <i>necessary</i> +for Mr Bennett to fill his paper +with falsehood and obscenity:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“It would have been folly, therefore, +to have attempted to make a daily offering +to the public of a newspaper, such +as is accepted even at the present hour. +Mr Bennett saw this—he felt it. He +wrote to create an interest for himself +and the <cite>Herald</cite>. In this he was pecuniarily +wise, for had he taken a more +dignified course, and thus have produced +only such studied articles as he had contributed +to the <cite>Courier and Enquirer</cite>, from +1829 to 1832, the <cite>Herald</cite> would not +have existed for a single month, unless +sustained by a sacrifice of capital which +it was not in the power of Mr Bennett +to command. All of his success depended +upon his making a journal wholly +different from any one that was in existence.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>And in that attempt the enterprising +editor succeeded to a miracle, for +certainly anything approaching to the +<cite>Herald</cite> in its “peculiar” character, +the literature of civilisation had not +seen!</p> + +<p class='c009'>That there may be no mistake on +the matter, the biographer, in summing +up the transcendent merits of +Mr Bennett near the close of the +volume, assures us that the course +pursued was perfectly deliberate:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“On the 5th of May 1835, he commenced +<i>his work of regeneration</i> by publishing +the first number of the <cite>New York +Herald</cite>, which, till it was established, +was conducted with such peculiarities as +secured it attention—<i>peculiarities which +seemed to have sprung from a mind resolved +to carry out certain broad personal +characteristics</i>, which in themselves +furnish the bitterest satire upon the +true nature of political and social life +known to the literature of any age or +country. <i>The course adopted was not +based on impulse. There is no excuse for +it on that ground. It was the fruit of the +most careful reflection, as is proved by the +fact that the original prospectus has not +been departed from in any point whatever +during a period of twenty years.</i> +The original design was to establish a +journal which should be independent of +all parties, and <i>the influence of which +should be grounded upon its devotion to +the popular will</i>—a plan which has found +numerous imitators, and which is the +only one suited to satisfy the demands +of the public.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Mr Bennett, who of course “endorses” +these sentiments, is thus, it is evident, +as much at ease in his “conscience” +with regard to his past conduct +as ever, and would, if the thing +were to be done over again, do it <i>con +amore</i> again. The <i>popular will</i>—not +Truth or Righteousness; the +most sweet voices of the rabble, +not the still small voice of the man +within the breast—that, then, is the +creed of this “regenerator” of journalism—<i>Apage +Satana</i>.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The best type of Scottish character +is eminently distinguished +by force and earnestness; but as +a Scotchman, when he is good, is +intensely so—a Scotchman, when he +sells himself to Clooty, is perhaps of +all human beings the most devoted +servant of that personage. Scotland, +which has produced such eminent +examples of genius and nobleness in +this century as Thomas Chalmers +and John Wilson, had the misfortune +to give birth also to James Gordon +Bennett. Let her not grieve, +for the same England that gave birth +to John Milton, was the mother likewise +of Titus Oates.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span> + <h2 class='c002'>THE GREEK CHURCH.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>There can be no question with the +philosopher, that war is one of the +great sources of change in the movement +of the world. Whether its +purpose be conquest or defence, or its +stimulant ambition or restlessness, or +its immediate impulse the genius of +some great leader, urging the rapacity +of a people, the changes which +it makes in the general mass of +society are always more remarkable +than those of any other instrument +of human impression. Wars are the +moral thunderstorms, which either +cover the face of society with havoc, +or purify its atmosphere. War is the +shifting of the channel in which the +great stream of society has hitherto +flowed on, and the formation of the +new course which fertilises a new +region, while it leaves the old one +barren; or, is like the power of steam, +a pressure in its nature explosive, +and marking its power only in its +ruin, but capable of being guided into +a general benefactor of man, and +originating effects large and general +beyond the means of any other mover.</p> + +<p class='c009'>To the reader of the Scriptures, +the question is decided at once. War +is constantly held forth as the instrument +of Divine action—sometimes as +punishment, sometimes as restoration, +but always as subservient to +a great providential intention. A +voice of more than man calls Cyrus +from the sands of Persia, at once to +smite the pride of Babylon, and to +break the chains of the Jew. The +same voice summons Alexander +from the hills of Macedonia to subvert +Persepolis, and be the protector +of the chosen people. We have the +distinct declaration from the highest +of all sources, that the Roman war +which closed the national existence +of that unhappy but memorable +people, was the direct performance of +the Divine will by the instrumentality +of the heathen sword.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is true, that in later history we +have not the same power of ascertaining +the distinct purposes of Providence. +We “see through a glass +darkly,” through the dimmed medium +of human knowledge, through the +comparison of things imperfectly +shown, and the misty conjectures of +man. Yet still it is a study honourable +to human intelligence, and we are +sometimes enabled, even by flashes +and fragments of evidence, to trace +without superstition or exaggeration +the ways of that great Disposer, +who balances the fates of nations, +and whose vigilance is as sleepless as +His power is immeasurable. No man +conversant with modern history can +doubt, that the war of the German +princes in the sixteenth century +sheltered the cradle of the Reformation, +until the mighty infant was +enabled to quit that cradle and assume +maturity; or that the war with +Spain and the destruction of the Armada +gave English Protestantism +an embodying of strength in England, +and a renown abroad, which secured +it from all assault either at home or +abroad; or that the wars of William +III., in Ireland and on the Continent, +were the virtual throwing of a shield +over Protestantism in England, and +extinguishing by the sword in France +the power which had pledged itself +to the extermination of French Protestantism; +or that the French revolutionary +war, however originating +in the national vices, had, in its +conquest of the three Capitals of +Austria, Prussia, and Russia, a direct +connection with the vengeance of insulted +justice, and the retribution of +outraged humanity on the royal +spoilers of unhappy Poland.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Nothing among the phases of human +affairs has been a matter of older +or more frequent wonder to both the +philosopher and the Christian, than +the condition of the country ranging +along the eastern shore of the +Mediterranean. That, within the perpetual +hearing, and almost within +sight of the civilisation of Europe, +with the sounds of its moral revolutions, +progress, and discoveries in its +ears, it has never exhibited an inclination +to try the strength of its own +frame in any of the exercises of self-government; +that, with a population +highly gifted by nature, acute, adroit, +and even warlike, fifty-fold more numerous +than the Turk; that, with +the finest climate of the globe, the +richest soil, the noblest historic recollections, +the whole region, from +Egypt to the Euphrates, should have +exhibited its bravery in nothing but +the exploits of banditti, its intelligence +in nothing but the craft of the +trafficker, and its philosophy in nothing +but the submission of the +slave, seems unaccountable.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Yet especially that Palestine, the +land of which we can never speak the +name, or remember the afflictions, or +revolve the history, without homage, +sorrow, and hope; that the soil, with +every hill and valley and sea-shore +sacred to the Christian heart, and the +object of promises, on which we fully +rely, yet which transcend all that +earth has seen of blessing, power, and +splendour,—the land of which Inspiration +has pronounced: “Thy sun +shall no more go down; neither shall +thy moon withdraw itself: for the +Lord shall be thine everlasting light, +and the days of thy mourning shall +be ended. Thy people also shall be +all righteous: they shall inherit the +land for ever, the branch of my planting, +the work of my hands, that I +may be glorified. A little one shall +become a thousand, and a small one +a strong nation: I the Lord will +hasten it in his time” (Isaiah, lx. 20); +that Palestine, towards which every +man, Christian or Jew, looks, as the +prophet in the days of the captivity +looked in his prayer, should be still +desolate; that even Jerusalem, whose +very dust is dear to us, should be +known as scarcely more than the +haunt of obscure superstition, and the +squabbles of Greek and Latin monks,—is +among the most surprising facts +of human annals.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We are by no means sanguine as +to the <i>effect</i> of the war, into which +Russia has provoked the Powers of +Europe. It is an impulse which may +pass away—a “wind which bloweth +where it listeth, and we hear but the +sound thereof”—a form of ambitious +frenzy, starting up from the imperial +couch, and, in the first moment of +exhaustion, sinking back within its +curtains. But, notwithstanding all +those possibilities, to chide the +eagerness of human anticipation, +nothing is more evident than that +the war has some features which +distinguish it from all the wars since +the fall of the Greek Empire. It +is remarkable that its first quarrel +was in Jerusalem, and the express +contest was for the possession of the +most venerated spot in Jerusalem, +the Holy Sepulchre. Whether this +quarrel was sincere or a pretence—whether +to restore injured rights or +to cover a determination of wrongs—is +a matter of no moment in presence +of the fact that thus began the Russian +war. Another obvious fact is, +that though there have been expeditions +to the Levant within the century, +as the march of Napoleon into +Syria, and the later assaults on Acre, +this is the first war, since the Crusades, +which ever poured the weight +of the great armies and navies of +England and France on the East, +which ever planted a solid step on +the lands under the Mahommedan +rule, which ever exhibited European +strength, arts, discipline, and +treasure, in their actual and distinct +character, to the eye of the Mahommedan. +If the European forces should +be withdrawn to-morrow, there can +be no doubt of their having thrown +a new light on the mind of the Mahommedan +world. The old generation +must soon pass away, and a large portion +of its prejudices must pass away +with it. The new generation may respect +its memory, and act as the pallbearers +in its obsequies, but they will +not go down into its grave. Already +the Turk is becoming associated with +the Englishman and the Frenchman; +the English discipline of the Contingent +must leave its impressions, +even when the Contingent shall be +broken up. The pay, the punctuality, +the good order, and the gallantry +of the service, cannot be forgotten; +and the man will be cast into +a mould, manlier and more capable +of progress than any Turk, since the +tribe, with the “black banner” before +them, descended from the slopes +of the Himalaya. The Christians of +the Ottoman Empire have obtained +new privileges already by this war. +Measures are on foot for making +their testimony available in the +courts of justice. They are to have +the right of bearing arms in the +Ottoman service—a highly important +innovation, and leading to every privilege; +and there can be no doubt +that the Ottoman government must +acknowledge its old power of oppression +to be at an end, or that any attempt +at persecution or violence to +its Christian subjects would be under +penalty of provoking resistance from +its Christian allies. All those results +have their origin in the war, and +those are in their nature progressive. +Privilege begets privilege, and the +next quarter of a century, whether +in the struggles of war or the activity +of peace, will place the Christians +of the East in a position higher +than their most sanguine speculation +could have contemplated before the +war on the Euxine.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Views of this order give additional +value to that interesting subject, +the character of the Christian Church +in the East. It becomes important +to know how far that Church is +capable of assisting the progress, aiding +the energies, or even conforming +to the character of a people on the +eve of renovation; whether it is to +continue the swamp that it has been +for the four centuries since the capture +of Constantinople, or to be the +fount flowing with the waters of national +life; whether it is to be regarded +as a monument of dreary ceremonial, +encumbering the soil with its +weight, and of doctrines incompatible +with the gospel, or as only waiting +to be freed from the barbarian accumulations +of antiquity, to show the +world an architecture worthy of its +apostolic founders, and fit for the +reception of enlightened mankind.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Greek Church has, beyond all +question, high claims to the consideration +of Christendom as the mother of +all the churches,—founded by the +Apostles, governed by the last of the +Apostles,—the Church of the first +Christian empire, and for the first four +centuries exhibiting the most illustrious +examples of virtue and ability, +of patience under trial, and of piety +in the propagation of the faith. In +the Church of proconsular Asia was +the arena in which the strength of +revelation was first tried against all +the power of imperial heathenism, +the severer combats than against +the lions of Numidia. To that province +was sent the message to the +“Angels of the Seven Churches;” in its +neighbouring Byzantium was erected +the central Church, the spiritual sun, +which spread its light through the +East and West, through the shores +and forests of the North, and through +the mountains and wildernesses of +the South,—the Church which, resisting +the image-worship of the Western +nations, and the mysterious mythology +of the East, continued for fifteen +hundred years the Ark of Christianity.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The subject has been frequently +touched on in the rapid publications +of our time, but with an inaccuracy +of detail, and an obscurity of view, +which fully justifies the attempt to +rectify the one, and to clear up the +other.</p> + +<p class='c009'>From the fourth century, the subtle +spirit of the Greeks began to exercise +itself in those questions of Scripture, +which, being confessedly above the +range of the human faculties, are to +be received on the authority of Scripture +alone, as the objects of faith, +and not of experience. The Arian, +Nestorian, and Eutychian heresies began +to disturb the world. The great +Council of Nice (<span class='fss'>A.D.</span> 325), an assemblage +of 318 bishops, declared the +voice of the Church against the doctrine +of Arius; yet the heresy continued +for some ages to distract the +empire. When these disputes had +worn themselves out, another source +of disturbance exhibited itself in the +Civil claims of the rival Sees of Rome +and Constantinople. The Bishop of +Rome demanded the Supremacy for +the sitter in the ancient capital of +empire; the Bishop of Constantinople +demanded it for the sitter in the capital +of the actual empire. But the +contest was unequal. The Bishop of +the West had no imperial figure to +thwart his authority; the Bishop of +the East stood directly under the +shadow of the imperial figure. The +former was the lord of the faith to +the half-civilised and superstitious +millions of the barbarian settlers in +Europe; the latter was surrounded +with as many heresies as episcopates, +with keen inquiries and doubtful fidelity, +with philosophy envenomed into +scepticism, and with four Patriarchs, +sometimes denying his doctrine, and +always envying his authority.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The contest continued through two +centuries, treated by the warlike emperors +with contempt, and regarded +by the feeble emperors with alarm. +At length it was decided by Justinian, +one of those characters who +form epochs in history. It is only by +such epochs that we can mark the +progress of those unvarying years +and casual trains of events which +form the stream of Time. Remote +history is like the remote landscape; +we judge of the country only +by its mountain-tops. History has +done but narrow justice to this restorer +of the Roman empire. It has +measured his imperial strength on +the scale of his personal weakness; +but the true estimate of the governor +of kingdoms is by what he has +done on the throne. Monarchs are +<i>actors</i>, with their kingdom for a +stage, and the world for their audience. +When they throw off the +royal robe and the buskin, they are +but men; but who has a right to +follow them behind the scenes? In +the reign of Justinian was reunited +the dislocated empire. Italy and +Northern Africa were conjoined. The +barbarian kingdoms of Europe were +reduced into submission, the celebrated +Code was established which +formed the body of law to Europe +for nearly ten centuries, and which +exists as the civil law to this day. +The noblest temple of Europe (until +the sixteenth century), the Santa +Sophia, was built by him, and he +held the sceptre with undiminished +authority to the end of a reign of +thirty-nine years, and a life of eighty-three!</p> + +<p class='c009'>The sole imperial weakness of +Justinian was his theology; he loved +to mingle in the turbid discussions +of the time. In one of those discussions, +to conciliate the verdict of +the Roman bishop, he conferred on +him the title of “Head of the Universal +Church,”—a title which no +man could be guiltless in either bestowing +or accepting, the title belonging +to Him alone who earned it on +Calvary; the bestowal was a usurpation, +and the adoption a crime. From +this transaction, and from the year +533, the Papacy dates its assumed +supremacy over the Universal +Church.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The separation of the Greek and +the Latin Churches was near at hand. +In the seventh century Rome had +adopted image-worship. In the +eighth century the Emperor Leo +proclaimed it an abomination, and +ordered that all images should be +taken from the altars. The Pope +(Gregory II.) answered the command +by a challenge. His answer was an +Anathema. “You accuse,” said his +letter, “the Catholics of idolatry: in +this you betray your own impiety. +You assault us, tyrant, with a carnal +and military hand; we can only implore +Christ that he will <i>send you a +devil</i> for the destruction of your body +and the salvation of your soul. Are +you ignorant that the Popes are the +bands of union, the mediators of peace +between the East and the West? The +eyes of the nations are fixed on our +humility, and they <i>revere as a God on +earth</i> the Apostle St Peter, whose image +you threaten to destroy. The remote +kingdoms of the earth present their +homage to Christ <i>and His viceregent</i>.” +A war followed; Gregory sent out his +“pastoral letters” through the West. +The imperial troops were beaten in +Italy by the peasant insurrection. A +battle was fought on the banks of +the Po, with such slaughter of the +Greeks, that for a succession of years +the people refused to eat of the fish. +Rome was broken off from the empire. +The imperial sovereignty of +the West was at an end, after a dominion +of seven centuries; and image-worship +was established as the religion +of the Popedom.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The schism of the churches was +now begun. But the question had +changed from doctrine, which the +growing ignorance of the age was +unable to discuss, to jurisdiction, a +discussion which at once excited the +ambition and fed the animosity of a +time of <i>darkness</i>. The bitterness of +the contest was increased in the ninth +century by the elevation of Photius +to the see of Constantinople.</p> + +<p class='c009'>This remarkable man was the solitary +light of his age in the East. He +was a layman, who had passed +through the highest offices of the +State, and a scholar who has left the +monument of his scholarship to posterity +in his celebrated <cite>Bibliotheca</cite>. +To place him in the bishopric, the +emperor deposed its former possessor, +who appealed to Rome. The +pope ordered his restoration; the +emperor repeated his refusal.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It would be as idle to trace, as it +would be difficult to disentangle, +the perplexities of a quarrel which +continued for centuries. But the +consummation was now at hand. +The Pope (Leo IX.), and the Patriarch, +Cerularius, had excommunicated each +other. A conference of pretended +conciliation was held in Constantinople +with the papal legates. It +ended in new claims, met by new +resistance: the legates, at last, went +solemnly to the church of Santa +Sophia, publicly read the letters of +excommunication, placed the document +of anathema on the high altar, +and then departed from Constantinople! +Thus in 1054 was completed +the Schism, which had been commenced +in arrogant ambition, and +continued in priestly rancour; which +had scandalised Christendom, and +libelled Christianity; and which, in +Asia, was punished by the conquests +and conversions of Mahommedanism, +and in Europe by the increased +power, the darker superstition, and +the sterner severities of Rome.</p> + +<p class='c009'>From this period we may state the +doctrines and practices of the Greek +Church, as an independent community.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The doctrine of the Holy Trinity +is established. But the Holy Spirit +is assumed to <i>proceed</i> from the +Father only; in this point differing +from the Popish and the Protestant +Churches. This difference was the +subject of long controversy between +the East and the West, but, with the +usual fate of ancient disputation, +leaving both parties more confident +in their own opinions.</p> + +<p class='c009'>On the doctrine of Redemption, its +language is that of Scripture; Christ +is acknowledged to be the Regenerator +of our fallen nature. Justification +by Faith includes the works +which prove the sincerity of the +faith, without which “faith is dead.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Regeneration is regarded as <i>essential</i>, +but this Church admits of no +<i>Indulgences</i>; on this point differing +totally from the practices of Rome.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Church acknowledges no <i>purgatory</i>. +But it holds an “intermediate +state of the departed;” the +spirits of the wicked remaining in a +place of sorrow and comparative suffering, +and those of the virtuous in a +place of rest and comparative happiness; +and both thus remaining until +the Resurrection. But it admits +“prayer for the dead;” not for the +redemption of the spirit from a place +of <i>purification</i> or partial penalty, but +from a consideration of the Divine +mercy. In those doctrines it makes +some approach to Protestantism, +though in praying for the dead it +obviously goes beyond the only +authority to which we can look for +the condition of man after death—namely, +Scripture.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In its ritual, the Church more +nearly approaches Rome. It acknowledges +as Sacraments, Marriage, +Confirmation, Extreme Unction, Ordination, +and Penance, in addition to +Baptism and the Lord’s Supper.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Baptism is administered by trine +immersion.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Infants are baptised on the eighth +day.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Chrism, or anointing with holy +oil, which is regarded as confirmation, +is administered soon after baptism.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Lord’s Supper is administered +under both forms, the bread and the +wine, to both priest and laity. But +the Church holds transubstantiation, +or, in the words of the Confession, +“when the priest consecrates the +elements, the very substance of the +bread and wine is transformed into +the substance of the true body and +blood of Christ.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The ceremonial of the consecration +is worth remarking, as it seems to +have been taken in some degree as +the model for the modern innovations +in the English Ritual. The elements +are first carried round the church +<i>on the head of the deacon</i>; then the +priest prays that the Almighty may +convert them into the substance of +the body and blood. He then prays +to the Holy Spirit for His gift. He +then prays to Jesus Christ, as sitting +on the right hand of the Father, and +yet invisibly present, to impart to +the receivers “His immaculate body +and precious blood.” Still, there are +some distinctions in the Eastern and +Western practice. The <i>same</i> degree +of worship is not offered to the Host +as in the Romish Church. It is not +carried in procession, nor is it offered +to public adoration, nor is there any +festival in its honour. It is carried +to the sick, but the priests do not +prostrate themselves before it. All +this ceremonial the Eastern Church +pretends to justify on the ground of +antiquity, where it was not to be +found in the purest and most primitive +centuries. The Protestant looks +to the original solemnisation, and +takes his practice from Scripture. +What common sense can believe that +Jesus of Nazareth gave His actual +body to be eaten before His eyes, or +that the Apostles, while at supper, +believed that they were eating flesh +and drinking blood, and this without +a sign of repulsion and reluctance, or +without even a remonstrance or an +inquiry? The words, “This do in +<i>remembrance</i> of me,” are a sufficient +declaration that neither His flesh nor +His blood was to remain on <i>earth</i>; +for remembrance implied departure. +And that the <i>remembrance</i> was the +express purpose, is distinctly declared +in the words, “As oft as ye eat this +<i>bread</i> and drink this <i>cup</i>, ye do show +the Lord’s death <i>till He come</i>;”—thus +extinguishing at once transubstantiation, +and the more diluted doctrine +of the “Real presence.” St Paul +(<span class='fss'>A.D.</span> 59) describes the Sacrament as +still the <i>bread</i> and the <i>cup</i> (1st Corinthians, +xi. 26), the popular dishonour +of which would involve dishonour +to the body and blood of +which they were the <i>representatives</i>. +And he further states, that when the +“Real presence” shall have come, +the representation shall pass away; +as in the instance of the Jewish +sacrifices, which represented the offering +of Christ, but when the <i>real +offering</i> was come, the representation +naturally passed away, the Temple +was overthrown, and sacrifice was no +more. And this was the language of +the great Apostle of the Gentiles upwards +of a quarter of a century <i>after</i> +the Crucifixion. If St Paul believed +in Transubstantiation, it is impossible +to doubt that he would have scrupulously +avoided any mention of the +“bread and the cup,” particularly on +an occasion when he was warning +the dissolute and disputatious Corinthians +of the danger of <i>disrespect</i> +to the Sacrament.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Greek Church holds the doctrine +of Penance, Absolution by the +priest, and Auricular Confession, as a +consequence of the doctrine of Absolution, +“the priest not knowing <i>what</i> +to absolve until he knows the state +of the penitent.” Absolution and +Confession are held to be of the highest +importance, and of the most +general application. They have been +termed “the axle on which the globe +of ecclesiastical polity turns;” and +beyond question they have been the +most extensive sources of power and +revenue to both the Greek faith and +the Roman.</p> + +<h3 class='c013'>CEREMONIAL.</h3> + +<p class='c014'>The Ritual of the Eastern Church +is even more laborious than that of +the Roman, both churches in this +point straying from the simplicity of +Scripture. The elaborate ritual of +the Jewish dispensation was for a +Divine purpose—the separation of the +people from Heathenism; but when +that purpose ceased with the cessation +of the national privileges and +the coming of Christianity, ceremonial +perished, as being unnecessary +to a religion whose laws were to be +“written in the heart,” and as inconsistent +with the nature of a religion +which was yet to be <i>universal</i>. Christ +came to redeem mankind, not only +from the yoke of sin, but the yoke of +ceremonial. “Come unto me, all ye +that labour and are heavy laden,” +was the language, not merely of help +to human nature, but of relief from +the weight of ordinances. Christianity +has <i>no ceremonial</i>, and but two +rites, Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. +It has <i>forms</i>, for forms are essential +to <i>order</i>, but it prescribes no <i>system</i> +of worship, no locality, and no <i>labour</i> +of devotion.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Greek Church abounds in +Fastings, and those of the severest +order. Besides the Lent of the Western +Church, it has three seasons of +public abstinence within the year—one +from St Whitsuntide to St Peter’s +Day, one from the 6th to the 15th of +August, and one during the <i>forty +days</i> before Christmas. In the monasteries, +to this number is superadded +one for the first fourteen days +of September, in honour of the “Exaltation +of the Holy Cross;” and +those unnatural and unnecessary abstinences +are practised, in general, +with extreme severity, even to the +rejection of all fish. On the other +hand, the festivals of their saints are +literally <i>feasts</i>; thus producing, in the +one instance, hazard to health, and +in the other, hazard to morals. These +feasts, however, and their attendant +levities, have the presumed character +of religion; and the saint of the day +is especially invoked as an intercessor, +equally in contradiction to +common sense and the Gospel,—the +first telling us the folly of appealing +to beings of whom we cannot possibly +know whether they can hear or +answer prayer, and the second, declaring +that there is but one intercessor +between God and man, Jesus +Christ.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Image-worship is held in abhorrence +by the Eastern Church, yet it pays the +same species of adoration to pictures; +on the idea, that while images represent +the inventions of man, pictures +represent some real existence; +or that, in the words of St Paul, “An +idol is nothing in the world” (1st +Corinthians, viii. 4), while a picture is +the <i>adumbration</i> of some true transaction,—as +the existence of Christ, the +Virgin Mary, the saints, &c. But, +for the purpose of preserving their +devotion as pure as possible, they +make those pictures generally the +most unattractive possible. With the +higher orders the picture may serve +only as a stimulant to devotion, but, +with the peasantry, the adoration is +probably complete.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Greek priests of the higher +order generally exhibit a reluctance +to acknowledge the reality of this +worship, this “pinakolatria,” if we +must coin a word for it. They acknowledge +the popular homage, but +excuse it on the ground of respect for +memorable names; as in common +life we preserve the pictures of +memorable persons, and value those +of our departed friends. But the +Eastern homage goes wholly beyond +this grateful observance. <i>We</i> do not +make genuflections to the pictures +of our great men, nor pray to those +of our friends, nor send those pictures +to assist women in the sufferings +of childbirth, nor place them on +the beds of the dying, nor believe +them to work miracles.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In fact, this worship of resemblances, +whether pictures or images, +is one of the most general, and yet +most <i>improbable</i>, delusions in the +world. To imagine that the statue +which we carve, or the picture which +we paint, the actual work of our +hands, is gifted with powers above +the man who has made it; or can +have a holiness which he has not, +or faculties of which he is unconscious, +or a <i>spirit</i> which he can approach +only with homage,—is an absurdity +which tasks the utmost +credulity of man. Or if he be willing +to try the effect of this contempt, +he may fling the statue from its +pedestal, or take down the picture +from its shrine, with the most perfect +impunity. And yet, what millions +have worshipped the statue +and the picture, and worship them +still!</p> + +<p class='c009'>In the first ages of Christianity, +worship was exclusively given to the +God of the Gospel; the objects of +heathen adoration were an abhorrence, +and the ceremonial of the temples +a theme of perpetual scorn. At +length, however, the influence of +heathenism returned; Christian corruption +adopted its emblems, and +the images of Christ and the Virgin +were surrounded by the sicklier devotees +or more fanatical formalists +of the Church. Then came miracles. +The perils of the Greek Empire required +supernatural protectors; and +the Greek, unused to arms, and +trembling at Saracen invasion, gladly +committed the hazardous trust +of defending his battlements to the +saint in his hands. The city of +Edessa was thus <i>saved</i>! by the sight +of a napkin, marked with the face of +Jesus. These cheap defences finally +failed, and Mahomet was lord of the +Empire; but the passion for the picture +still lived among the serfs of the +Caliph; and while Europe, looking on +the remote danger with secure contempt, +multiplied her idols, Greece, +under her Arab scourge, cherished +her pictures as the source of her consolation.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The chief treasure of her mythology, +the Veron Eikon, or true resemblance, +was a picture of our Lord, +supposed to bear His impression from +having wiped His face on Calvary. +This He gave to a woman, who gave +it to the Emperor Tiberius, whom it +cured of the gout! But as the +napkin was triple-folded, it carried +<i>three</i> impressions, which were impartially +divided among the faithful; +one being sent to Constantinople, +another to Paris, and the third being +already in the hands of that rather +hazardous guardian of relics, Tiberius. +The Veron Eikon has seen a +great deal of service since, and its +last exploit was its attempt to rout +the French column advancing to +Rome in 1796, an attempt in which +it unhappily failed. Such is the +history of the most authentic, renowned, +and sacred relic of the +Greek and Popish world. The +historian<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c007'><sup>[13]</sup></a> gives the hymn of Byzantium +to the Veronica (for they +changed it into a female, and the +female into a saint) in the sixth century. +“How can we with mortal +eyes contemplate this image, whose +celestial splendour the host of +heaven presumes not to behold? He +who dwells in heaven condescends +this day to visit us by His venerable +image. He who is seated on the +Cherubim visits us this day by a +picture; which the <span class='sc'>Father</span> has delineated +with His immaculate hand, +which He has formed in an ineffable +manner, and which <i>we</i> sanctify by +adoring it with faith and love.” +Such is idolatry everywhere at this +hour!</p> + +<p class='c009'>The “<i>sign</i> of the Cross” is universal, +and almost perpetual. The +Cross itself is frequently addressed +in prayer, and in language applicable +only to the Divine Being. A quotation +from Stourdza, a man of intelligence +and learning, in his defence of the +Greek Church, will show to what an +extent this mysticism can be carried.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The Cross is the representative of +the structure of man. It seems to +have been formed expressly for man, +and its punishment explicitly to serve +as the emblem of his misery and his +grandeur. Standing erect, looking +down on all surrounding things, the +arms extended as if to embrace the +immense space of which it appears +the King; the feet fixed in this valley +of tears, the brow crowned with thorns, +signs of the cares which surround man +even to the tomb. Behold the Man! +<i>Ecce homo</i>—behold the adorable attitude +of the God-man upon the earth. +The more we contemplate, the more +we must feel that it is only by the +punishment of the Cross that Jesus +Christ could express in Himself all the +woes and all the transgressions of +man, expiate them, ransom them, and +exhibit collectively the human race +under one form alone.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The use of tapers and torches in +daylight services is defended, not on +the Popish principle of emblematising +the Holy Spirit, but on the more +plausible ground of imitating the +primitive ages, when the Christians +met only before daylight and in +caverns. Both are equally presumptuous, +as unauthorised by Scripture; +and both equally profane, as palpably +adopted from heathenism.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The services of the Greek Church +are wearisomely long; they are in +<i>Hellenic</i>, and therefore almost wholly +unintelligible to the people, and they +are intolerably laborious to the priest; +the whole body of the services occupying +twenty folio volumes, with an +additional volume of directions!—a +study to which the time of the priest +is almost wholly confined, not for its +knowledge, but for its manipulation; +the selection of the services appropriate +to the day, which change every +day, and even in the course of the +day. The Liturgy, so called, is limited +to a small portion of those labours, +namely, the Communion.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Ambition in a priesthood and ignorance +in a people always produce +superstition; the priest eager to extend +his authority, and the people +unable to detect the imposture. The +natural results are, the Legend and +the pretended Miracle. These practices +in the Greek Church take a +colouring from the picturesque region +and the romantic fancy of the people. +Every island, and perhaps every hill +and valley, has its sacred spot, to +which the population approach in +long processions on any remarkable +public circumstance, whether of Nature +or the Calendar. To appease an +epidemic, to still an earthquake, to +make the skies propitious after a +drought, or to call down the peculiar +aid of the Virgin, who usurps, in the +Greek mind, the whole power of <i>intercession</i>, +and thus effectively possesses +the sceptre of Omnipotence, +summons the multitude in all their +pageantry.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The services of the Church being +performed in a tongue comparatively +obsolete, and being recited by the +priest habitually in a tone of mystery, +which renders them scarcely audible, +if they were understood, leave the +people in almost total ignorance of +their meaning, and of course indifferent +to all but the forms of devotion. Like +the priest of Rome, the Greek priest +is the presumed <i>mediator</i>, not the +leader of the popular devotion; his +prayers are <i>for</i>, not <i>with</i>, the people. +Thus his performance of the service +is supposed to answer its purpose, +whether audible or whispered. One +portion of his duty, however, addresses +itself to the general ear,—the reading +of the “Lives of the Saints,” entitled +“The Tablet of the United Worthies,” +a record of 365 lives; all equal to +gorge the most ravenous credulity. +Greece, once the land of invention, +is now the land of imposture; the +original talent of the soil is now +exhausted on dreary fiction. Still +believing in magic, charms, the influence +of dreams, and the inspiration +of the “genius loci,” they are +prepared to welcome every folly of +fanaticism, and submit to every artifice +of superstition.</p> + +<h3 class='c013'>GOVERNMENT.</h3> + +<p class='c014'>The four Patriarchs, of Constantinople, +Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, +are the religious rulers of the +Greek Church; the three latter being, +in a certain degree, subordinate to the +Patriarch of Constantinople, without +whose consent nothing of general importance +can be effected. This Patriarch +is elected by the votes of the +neighbouring bishops; but he must +be presented to the Sultan for institution; +and as nothing is done in +Turkey without a present, the fee on +this occasion amounts to 20,000 or +30,000 dollars, the Sultan still retaining +the power of deposition, banishment, +or even of death. The Patriarch +possesses the considerable privilege +of naming his brother patriarchs, +but the rescript of the Sultan is still +necessary for their confirmation, and +even to that of every bishop who may +be appointed by the Patriarch. Thus +the Greek Church exhibits none of +the “supremacy” of the Roman. It +has since the reign of Constantine +claimed no “temporal sovereignty,” +and it has thus in some measure been +freed from the intrigues, violences, and +crimes, which form so large a part of +the history of priestly ambition.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Another important prevention of +those evils was the marriage of the +parochial priesthood. In the earlier +periods of this Church, marriage was +<i>commanded</i> to the priest, and was +considered so necessary to his office +that on the death of his wife he must +give up his parish. Even now, notwithstanding +the example of Rome, +the <i>secular</i> clergy are permitted to +marry, though only once. The <i>regular</i> +clergy (monks) are not permitted to +marry, on the absurd principle that +their lives are an offering for the popular +sins, and that celibacy belongs to +holiness. The marriage of the priesthood +had the natural effect of rendering +them loyal, by the connection +of their children with the +country, of preventing the irregularities +to which constrained celibacy +inevitably gives rise, and of preventing +that ambition for the influence +of their class which naturally +exhibits itself in great bodies who +have no tie but to the head of +their order. <i>Constrained</i> celibacy is, +in fact, a conspiracy against human +nature, which always transpires in +a conspiracy against human Allegiance.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Monasticism forms a prominent +feature of the system. The Greek +convents are numerous, powerful, +and in some instances opulent. Their +inhabitants are divided into Caloyers +(monks) and lay brethren. The lives +of the former are comparatively indolent; +of the latter, comparatively +laborious. But the Caloyer has his +peculiar round of irksome occupations. +Matins begin at four in the +morning, and last until dawn. The +performance of the Liturgy is followed +by reciting the life of some +saint, and that is followed again by +nine hymns, six of which are to the +Virgin, and three to the saint of the +day. In Lent, his task is wearisome: +he must go through the whole Psalter +every day, and perform the Metania, +which consists in kissing the +ground <i>three hundred</i> times in the +twenty-four hours. To this employment +four hours of the night, of +which two are immediately after +midnight, are devoted. How any +human understanding can conceive +that this drudgery is connected with +virtue, is productive of good to man, +or is acceptable to his Creator, must +be left to the reveries of the monk, +and the recorded absurdities of human +nature.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The lay brothers are the farmers, +the shepherds, the tillers, and the +traders of the convent. They are +industrious, and so far they remove +the stigma from the general uselessness +of conventual life. Some of +those communities are largely endowed. +The monks of the well-known +brotherhood of Mount Athos +have twenty convents, and possess +extensive lands. Their Turkish taxation +is generally moderate, and indolence +never had an easier form +than in the shape of the Caloyer.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The state of the Russian Church +would lead us too far into inquiry; +but it has a history of its own, some +remarkable peculiarities, and some +prospects well worthy of examination. +Those who feel an interest in the +subject may be referred to Stourdza, +<cite>Considerations sur la Doctrine</cite>, to +King <cite>On the Russian Church</cite>, and +to the brief but exact <cite>Treatise on +the Greek Church</cite> by the present +learned Dean of Durham. The subject +may well interest us, when it +involves the religious welfare of the +millions inhabiting the Eastern provinces +of Europe, the Danubian provinces, +the length of Asia Minor, a +portion of Syria, Assyria, and Africa, +and the sixty millions of Russia—an +immense extent of human existence, +which a few years may open to a +purer faith, and which is already +qualifying, by the effects of knowledge, +suffering, and war, for the +<span class='sc'>Gospel</span>.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span> + <h2 class='c002'>NICARAGUA AND THE FILIBUSTERS.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>It is a fixed idea with the American +people, that in due course of time +they are to have the control of all +the North American continent, and +of the Island of Cuba; they consider +this their “manifest destiny,” and +any movement in that direction is +looked on by them as a matter of +course, and deserving of encouragement.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The popular name for the agency +by which such a state of things is to +be brought about is “filibusterism.” +The word “filibuster” is a French +and Spanish corruption of the English +word freebooter, an appellation +which, in former days, from its being +frequently assumed by a certain class +of men, who disliked the harsher +name of pirate, became familiar to +the inhabitants of the West India +Islands and Central America; but +as filibusterism is now used, it expresses +the action of the American +people, or a portion of the people, in +the acquisition of territory which +does not belong to them, unrestrained +by the responsibilities of the American +Government.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The sovereign people of the United +States, and the United States Government, +are two distinct bodies, influenced +by different motives. The +Government is obliged to maintain +the appearance of keeping faith with +other friendly powers, but at the +same time is so anxious to gain +popularity at home, that it does not +take really effectual measures to +check any popular movement, however +illegal it may be, if favoured +by the majority of the people.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The manner in which the State of +Nicaragua has been reduced, or, it +should rather be said, raised to her +present position, by being occupied +and governed by a large body of +Americans, affords an instance of the +truth of this statement.</p> + +<p class='c009'>For the last two years the American +and English Governments have +been exchanging diplomatic letters, +arguing at great length on the abstract +meaning of certain words of a +treaty, by which either power was +equally bound not to occupy, fortify, +colonise, or take possession of, any +part of Central America. In the +mean time a party of American citizens, +under command of a certain +Colonel Walker, have virtually taken +possession of, and do now govern the +State of Nicaragua, one of the States +specially mentioned in the treaty. +When they first landed in Nicaragua, +not ten months ago, they numbered +only fifty-six men; but in as far +as they had the good-will of the +majority of the American people, +they represented the nation as truly +as General Pierce and his Cabinet. +Colonel Walker was merely the practical +exponent of a popular theory, +and his success has been so rapid and +decisive, and such is the position he +now holds in Nicaragua, strengthened +by daily accessions to his force from +California and from the United States, +that the Americanisation of Nicaragua +may be almost considered an +established fact.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Should the Americans in that +country be able to maintain their +position, of which, at present, there +seems to be every probability, the +successful filibustering of Nicaragua +will be but the beginning; the end +will be the occupation, by Americans, +of all the Central American States, +and, in due course of time, of Mexico +and Cuba.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In order to show why the filibustering +energies of the Americans have +been specially directed to Nicaragua, +and how it is that so small a party +of them have so quickly got control +of that State, and also to appreciate +fully the position which their leaders +occupy as members of the newly-formed +government, it is necessary +to give some information on the political +condition of the country, and on +recent events there, which the writer, +while a resident in the country during +the greater part of the revolution, +had good opportunity of acquiring.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the discovery of gold in California +in 1848, when there was such +a rush of gold-hunters to that land +of promise both from the Old and +the New World, the route generally +followed was that by Panama, as the +most expeditious—lines of steamers +being established by American companies +from New York and New +Orleans to Chagres, and from Panama +to San Francisco.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The supply of steamers, however, +was never sufficient for the accommodation +of the crowds of eager emigrants; +the profits of the steamship +companies were enormous, and American +enterprise was not long in discovering +and opening a new, and in +many respects superior, route to the +golden regions of the Pacific.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The new route lay through the +State of Nicaragua, one of the five +States into which the Central American +Confederation was dissolved in +the year 1831.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It was to the advantages offered +by its geographical position that +Nicaragua owed its distinction. The +Lake of Nicaragua, a splendid sheet +of water ninety miles long by about +fifty broad, lies within the State. Its +most western extremity is only +twelve miles from the Pacific, and +at its eastern extremity about one +hundred and fifty miles from the +Atlantic: it empties itself into that +ocean through the river San Juan, +which is navigable all the distance +for small vessels, and forms at its +mouth the harbour of Greytown or +San Juan del Norte. An inter-oceanic +canal was first talked of, but +it was found that it would take all +the gold in California to construct it; +so that idea was for the time abandoned, +and a New York company, +styled the Accessory Transit Company +of Nicaragua, got a charter from +the State, granting them for considerations +the exclusive privilege of +steam-navigation of the river San +Juan, and of the Lake Nicaragua, +for a period of ninety-nine years.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Steamboats of various capacities, +to suit the navigation of the river +and of the lake, were sent out—a +road over the twelve miles of land, +between the lake and the harbour +of San Juan del Sur on the Pacific, +was commenced—steamships were +put on between that port and San +Francisco, and between New York +and Greytown, and a large share of +the Californian emigration began to +stream through the country.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The difficulties of the route were +at first considerable, owing to the +number of rapids in the River San +Juan requiring boats of peculiar construction +for their navigation, and +from the fact of the country through +which lies the road to the Pacific +being a mountainous wilderness, +the greater part covered by a dense +tropical forest.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In the rainy season, which lasts for +about five months, the road was so +bad that a mule would sink to his +belly at every step; the twelve miles +were not unfrequently a two days’ +journey, and many a poor mule, +after vainly struggling to extricate +himself, succumbed to his fate, and +was absorbed in the mud, leaving his +rider to fight his own way through, +which he generally did without much +trouble. Such little difficulties were +not thought much of by Californian +emigrants in those days.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Company, however, soon completed +the road, and so far perfected +their arrangements that the passage +from ocean to ocean is performed in +two days.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The travel to and fro between +California and the Atlantic States is +not confined to any particular class +of the community. Capitalists, merchants, +professional men, mechanics, +labourers,—in fact, people of all +classes, are constantly going and +coming. For the last five years an +average of two thousand Americans +per month have passed to and fro +by this route, and, during the few +days occupied in transit, have had +ample time to admire and covet the +splendid country through which they +passed, to look with utter contempt +on the natives, and to speculate on +what a country it would be if it were +only under the Stars and Stripes.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The country, its climate, its advantages, +resources, and social and +political condition, have thus been +gradually made familiar to a constantly +increasing proportion of the +people of the United States and of +California.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is in natural consequence of all +this, and of the apparent hopelessness +of immediate success in Cuba, +that the attention of the filibustering +portion of the American community +has been gradually directed +to the State of Nicaragua, and the +late civil war in that country offered +too favourable an opportunity to be +lost for making a beginning in furtherance +of the cherished idea.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The constitution of Nicaragua, +like that of all the Spanish-American +States, is republican—that is to say, in +name; in effect it approaches more +nearly to a despotism, a mode of government +much better adapted to a +people the majority of whom are +quite incompetent to form any idea +on the subject of self-government.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Since the dissolution of the Central +American Confederation the +country has been in a constant state +of revolution. Two years is about +the longest period of peace which has +intervened. The people are wantonly +destructive and cruel in their civil +warfare; and having been so actively +employed for nearly twenty years in +cutting each other’s throats, battering +down each other’s cities, spending +their money in gunpowder, and ruining +all producing interests by taking +the labourers from the field to serve +as soldiers, they had managed to reduce +themselves and their country to +such a wretched state of misery, that +it really appeared to be the duty of +some civilised nation to step in and +keep them all in order.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In passing through the country, +one cannot but be struck with the +ruin and desolation everywhere apparent, +and with the remains of bygone +wealth and grandeur, but little +in accordance with the poverty and +listless indolence in which the inhabitants +are now contented to live.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Their cities are half in ruins, and +the churches, which, in their mode of +warfare, they use as fortresses, have +come in for their full share of destruction. +Those which remain are +peppered all over with cannon balls. +The ruins on the old indigo and +cotton estates give one an idea of the +different way in which the people +once employed themselves; but now, +in a country capable of producing in +the greatest abundance indigo, cotton, +sugar, rice, coffee, tobacco, and nearly +every other tropical production, little +else is to be seen but plantains and +Indian corn, the two great staple +articles of food. The tobacco grown +in the country is good; the people, +men, women, and children, are inveterate +smokers, but they do not +even raise sufficient tobacco for their +own consumption. The “cacao,” or +chocolate, raised in the neighbourhood +of the town of Rivas, is the +finest in the world: it is a national +beverage, and the greater part of the +crop is consumed in the country; a +small quantity is exported to the +neighbouring States; but with the +exception of a few bullock hides and +deerskins, which are sent to New +York, the country cannot be said to +have any exports.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The climate generally is by no +means unhealthy. It varies very much +throughout the State, being in some +parts much tempered by a constant +breeze off the lake, while in the high +lands of Segovia and Matagalpa, the +temperature is so moderate that most +of the grains and fruits of the north +can be raised in great perfection.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The rainy season commences about +the end of July, and continues till +November or December. During this +season it rains in torrents for days at +a time, and the roads become almost +impassable. The most sickly periods +of the year are the beginning and the +end of this season; fever and ague are +then very prevalent, but the natives +suffer more than foreigners, chiefly +owing to the wretched way in which +they live, the habitations of the lower +orders affording generally but poor +protection against the weather.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In the mountains of the district of +Matagalpa, which form part of the +great range which traverses all the +North American continent, are mines +of gold and silver. They have hitherto +only been worked by the Indians +in a very rude manner, but sufficient +has been done to prove that they are +rich: if scientifically worked, they +will no doubt prove very productive.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The forests abound in rosewood, +mahogany, and other beautiful woods, +and throughout the State many +valuable medicinal gums and plants +are found.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The scenery is varied and very +beautiful; at certain seasons the +trees are completely covered with +flowers, and the forests are a confused +mass of luxuriant vegetation.</p> + +<p class='c009'>There are several volcanic mountains +in the country, all of great +similarity of appearance: the finest +is Ometepe, which rises out of the +lake, in the shape of a perfect cone, to +the height of many thousand feet.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The people are very deficient in +ambition and energy, and have a +very decided objection to labour. As +long as a man has sufficient to supply +his immediate wants, he cannot +be induced to work, but will devote +himself to the passive enjoyment of +swinging in his hammock, and smoking +a cigar. In this way they pass +the greater part of their time, as very +little labour is requisite to provide +plantains, beans, and Indian corn, +which are the principal articles of +food.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Gambling is a prevailing vice, cards +and dice being chiefly played. Cockfighting, +however, is the great national +sport, and at this the most +money is staked. The fight is never +of very long duration, being generally +nothing more than a flutter of +wings for a moment, when one cock +crows over the other lying dead at +his feet, nearly cut in two by the +long sharp knives with which their +heels are armed.</p> + +<p class='c009'>They have celebrated breeds of +chickens, on which they pride themselves, +and in almost every house in +the country may be seen one or more +gamecocks tied by the leg in a corner. +The owner is always ready to fight a +cock on any occasion, but Sunday afternoon +is the time generally devoted +to this amusement, which is patronised +by all classes.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The people possess a great deal of +natural grace, and are extremely polite +and formal in their manners; +even the lower orders are remarkable +for their gracefulness of gesture, and +for their courteous phraseology.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The principal cities of Nicaragua +are Granada, on the northern shore +of the lake, and Leon, about a hundred +and fifty miles to the north, and +not far from the Pacific coast. They +are both fine cities, built in the usual +Spanish-American style, with narrow +streets, and large houses of a single +storey, covering an immense area, +and built in the form of a square, +the centre being an open space, generally +planted with trees and flowers, +and all round which is a wide open +corridor. The houses are very spacious +and lofty, and admirably adapted +to the climate.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The population of Granada is about +15,000, that of Leon is rather more. +Between the inhabitants of these two +cities there has always existed a bitter +feeling of jealousy and enmity, +and in most of their revolutions the +opposing factions have been the Granadinos +against the Leoneses. So it +was in the revolution which is only +now terminated, and which commenced +in May 1854.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The government at that time was +in the hands of the Granada party. +The president, the late Don Fruto +Chamorro, was a man of great energy +and determination, but unfortunately +also of most stubborn obstinacy. He +would listen to advice from no one, +but blindly insisted on carrying out +his own ideas. After being a little +more than a year in power, and becoming +more despotic every day, he +issued a decree, declaring himself +president for four years more than +the usual term.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Leon party of course immediately +got up a revolution, of which +the leaders were a few prominent +men, whom Chamorro had a few +months before banished from the +State, on suspicion of their being engaged +in a conspiracy against the +government. At the head of them +was Francisco Castillon, a man of +superior education, and with much +more liberal and enlightened views +than most of his countrymen, having +spent some years in England as minister +for Nicaragua. The object of +the revolution was to place Castillon +in power, and the party professed to +entertain liberal ideas, and styled +themselves the Democratic Party. +They commenced their operations at +Realejo, a small port on the Pacific, +at the northern extremity of the State, +where, with a small force, they surprised +the few soldiers of the garrison. +They proceeded to Chinandega, a considerable +town about six miles on the +way to Leon. Here they met but +slight resistance, the majority of the +people being favourable to them; and +with a large addition to their force, +they marched towards Leon, distant +about thirty miles, where they established +their head-quarters, after +fighting one battle in the neighbourhood +with the government forces under +Chamorro in person, who was +defeated, and retired to Granada. In +Leon they remained some time recruiting +their forces, before venturing +to attack Granada, which is the great +stronghold of the government party.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The system adopted of recruiting +is very simple indeed. A few soldiers +with fixed bayonets are sent +out to bring in fresh men, or, to use +their own expressive term, to “catch” +men. When the unfortunate recruit +is “caught,” a musket is put in his +hands, and he becomes a soldier. +Soldiering is by no means a popular +occupation: during a revolution, at +the approach of forces of either party, +the peace-loving natives, in order to +escape being “caught,” and forced +into the service, will remain hidden +in the woods till they are nearly +starved. The lower orders take but +little interest in the revolutions, or +in politics, and from troops raised in +this way, of course very valorous deeds +are not to be expected. They generally +desert on the first opportunity; +but, if they do not take their muskets +with them, it is of little consequence, +as other men are soon caught, and +made to carry them. Sometimes, +however, men become scarce, the +able-bodied having emigrated to some +more peaceful locality; in such a case +one-half of a garrison is placed to +keep guard over the other half, to +prevent their running away.</p> + +<p class='c009'>There is consequently no mutual +feeling of confidence between officers +and men. During impending danger +of an attack, the officers will keep +their horses saddled all night, and +sleep with their spurs on, ready to +cut and run at a moment’s notice, +and leave their men to take care of +themselves. The men, in their turn, +when led into battle, will turn round +and desert their officers at the most +critical moment. There are exceptions, +of course; and during the late +revolution, many, both officers and +men, fought well and bravely; none +more so than the late President Chamorro.</p> + +<p class='c009'>While the Democrats were recruiting +in Leon, Chamorro was busy collecting +his forces in Granada, and +preparing to stand a siege.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In all these Spanish towns is a +large public square called the Plaza, +in which are generally the principal +church, the barracks, and other public +buildings. The Plaza, in case of +war, becomes the citadel, the streets +leading into it being all barricaded, +and cannon planted so as to command +the approaches. Chamorro enclosed +within his barricades the Plaza, and +a considerable portion of the city immediately +surrounding it. The streets +being narrow, barricades were soon +made of logs of wood and “adobes,” +a sort of sun-dried bricks, of which +the houses are built.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Double and triple barricades of +this sort, eight or ten feet high, presented +a very effectual resistance to +anything which the enemy had to +bring against them. The Democrats +soon made their appearance, and +taking possession of all that part of +the city not enclosed in the barricades, +they fixed their head-quarters +in an elevated situation, from which +they could pop their cannon balls +into any part of the Plaza.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Neither party were well provided +with artillery. They had each three +or four guns, twelve and twenty-four +pounders, with which they blazed +away at each other for nearly a year, +and between them managed to lay +about three-fourths of the city in +ruins.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The city was never completely invested, +and occasional skrimmages +between small parties of the opposing +forces took place outside the town, +but nothing worthy the name of an +assault was ever attempted. The Democrats +soon became masters of the +entire country, with the exception of +the besieged portion of the city of +Granada occupied by Chamorro and +his party, the Legitimists, as they +called themselves.</p> + +<p class='c009'>When a small detachment of the +Democratic army marched upon +Rivas, the only town of importance +in the part of the country through +which the Transit road passes, the +inhabitants, being mostly in favour of +the Chamorro government, fled <i>en +masse</i>, taking with them all their valuables +and movable property, to +the neighbouring state of Costa Rica, +the frontier of which is within twenty +miles.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The few who had the courage to +remain were not molested, but the +Democrats appropriated to their own +use as barracks, &c., whatever private +houses suited their convenience, +and commenced levying contributions +on the inhabitants; but as they had +fled, and were not present to respond +to the call, their property was advertised +for sale, their stores broken +open, their goods sold, and sundry +other forcible measures taken to +raise funds.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The mode of financing in time of +revolution is equally simple with that +of recruiting.</p> + +<p class='c009'>When a contribution, as they call +it, is levied on a town, the principal +inhabitants are assessed arbitrarily +by the officers in command for as +much as each is supposed to be able +to pay. The unfortunate victims +have then to fork out the dollars; +there is no help for them. If they +refuse, or plead poverty, they are perhaps +imprisoned and kept on low +diet: a few days of this treatment +has a wonderful effect on the memory, +and frequently enables a man to remember +where he has buried his +cash, or to discover some means of +raising the needful, to be handed +over for the support of the party, to +which probably he may be opposed. +When his own party come in to +power again, they will make him disgorge +to double the amount by way +of punishment. For these forced loans +he may get some sort of debenture, +worth about as much as the paper it +is written on. In such times the +people are afraid to let it be supposed +that they have any money at all; they +feign poverty, burying their money +secretly, and the houses of foreign +residents are lumbered up with all +sorts of chests and boxes, sent there +stealthily by the unfortunate natives, +in order to keep them safe from the +rapacity of their countrymen.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Democrats from the first were +eager to obtain the good-will of the +American residents; and as they professed +to be fighting in the cause of +liberty and progress, against tyranny +and old-fogeyism, they succeeded in +enlisting a dozen or so of Americans +in San Juan del Sur and Virgin Bay. +The latter place is a small village on +the lake, where the passengers by +the Transit route embark on the +steamers. They paid these men +about a hundred dollars per month, +gave them commissions as colonels +and captains, and sent them to Granada +to pepper the Chamorro party +with their rifles.</p> + +<p class='c009'>With the aid of some Americans, +they also took possession of San +Carlos, which is an old fort situated +at the point where the lake debouches +into the river San Juan. It is a position +of great importance, as it commands +the entrance into the lake, +by which is the only communication +between the interior of the country +and the Atlantic. They also occupied +an old Spanish fort about fifty +miles down the river, called Castillo, +where there are a few hotels kept by +Americans for the accommodation of +passengers by the Transit route.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In Leon, the head-quarters of the +Democrats, they proclaimed their government, +declaring Castillon president. +They appointed all the necessary +government functionaries +throughout the State, and in fact +were the virtual government of the +country.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Legitimists remained in a state +of siege in Granada, and would have +had to surrender for want of ammunition, +had they not succeeded in retaking +San Carlos from the Democrats, +and thereby opening their communication +with the Atlantic; they +then procured a large supply of powder +and shot from Jamaica.</p> + +<p class='c009'>During the siege the besieging +army of Democrats numbered about +fifteen hundred, while the Legitimists +did not number more than a +thousand.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Democrats were assisted by +the state of Honduras to the extent +of two hundred men; and the Legitimists +were long in negotiation with +the government of Guatemala, which +was favourable to their cause, but +they did not succeed in getting any +material aid from that State.</p> + +<p class='c009'>After ten months’ vain endeavour +to take the Plaza of Granada, the +Democrats, last February, broke up +their camp, and retired to Leon. At +a town called Masaya, about half-way +from Granada, they were overtaken +and attacked by the opposite +party. A bloody fight ensued—the +thickest of it took place in the church, +in which some three hundred men +were killed.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Granada party now regained +possession of the southern part of the +State, while the Democrats continued +to hold Leon and all the northern +portion.</p> + +<p class='c009'>During the time that the Transit +route had been held by the Democrats, +they had been most active +in their endeavours to enlist Americans +in their cause. Cash was scarce, +but their offers of lands to those who +would join them were very liberal; +and it soon became known, both in +Nicaragua and in California, that a negotiation +had been concluded between +Colonel Walker in San Francisco, +through his agent in Nicaragua, and +the Democratic government, whereby +large tracts of land were granted to +him, and other privileges guaranteed to +him, on condition of his coming down +with a certain number of men to serve +in the Democratic army.</p> + +<p class='c009'>This Colonel Walker had already +distinguished himself as the most +daring filibuster of the day. In the +month of October 1853, he was the +leader of an expedition which sailed +from San Francisco, with the intention +of taking possession of Sonora, +a northern state of Mexico, adjoining +California. He landed at a small +place on the coast, with some fifty or +sixty men, where he met but little +resistance. He proclaimed himself +president, and appointed each one of +his party to some high office of state. +He very soon, however, had to evacuate +the premises, and escaped to +California, with but a small portion of +his original band; and on his arrival +in San Francisco, was tried for a violation +of the neutrality laws: he +conducted his own defence, and of +course was acquitted. The people of +California are not disposed to judge +very harshly of such an enterprise, +and from the larger portion of the +community he met with more sympathy +than condemnation.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It was so publicly known in San +Francisco that Walker was fitting +out his Nicaraguan expedition, that +the authorities were of course compelled +to interfere. Their endeavours +to stop the sailing of his brig, however, +were not very effectual, as +Walker, having embarked all his +small party of fifty-six men, managed +to get under weigh during +the night.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In the month of May they arrived +in the port of Realejo, and marched +to Leon to join the head-quarters of +the Democratic army.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Legitimists were now in a +perpetual state of consternation: during +the siege of Granada they had +learned to appreciate the efficacy +of an American rifle in American +hands; and in their frightened imaginations, +Walker’s modest force of +fifty-six men was augmented to 500. +They made active preparations, however, +to give him a warm reception: +proclamations were issued with the +object of rousing the patriotism +of the people, calling on all to be +ready to take up arms to save the +independence of the country, and +ordering all the inhabitants, on the +approach of Walker, to retire to the +nearest garrison. However, excepting +among the political leaders of the +party, and those compromised with +them in the revolution, the prospect +of Americans gaining the ascendancy +in the country seemed to be regarded +with indifference. Indeed, many +of the upper classes, tired of their +constant revolutions, and the ruin +and misery attendant upon them, +longed secretly for the presence of +any foreign influence which should +guarantee peace in the country.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The first active service in which +Walker and his men were engaged +was in an expedition which was formed +by the Democrats to recapture the +town of Rivas. About the end of +June, the expeditionary force, consisting +of Walker’s party, and two +hundred native troops under the immediate +command of their own officers, +embarked at Realejo in two or +three small vessels, and landing in +the neighbourhood of San Juan del +Sur, marched across the country upon +the town of Rivas, distant about +twenty-five miles.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The people of Rivas, when the +Legitimists retook the town in February, +had returned from their voluntary +exile in Costa Rica; and feeling, +no doubt, ashamed of the inglorious +way in which, a year before, they abandoned +their town to the Democrats +without ever firing a shot, they roused +themselves now to make a stout resistance, +their spies having given them ample +warning of the enemy’s approach.</p> + +<p class='c009'>When the Democrats arrived, and +the fight began, Walker was most +shamefully deserted by the whole of +the native troops, and he found himself, +with his fifty-six Americans, +opposed to a force of about four +hundred.</p> + +<p class='c009'>His party, however, had taken up +their position in a house, from which +their rifles dealt sudden death most +profusely—all the natives killed were +hit in the head; but at last they expended +their ammunition, and the +Legitimists setting fire to the house, +they were obliged to cut their way +through them, and retired to San +Juan del Sur, which place they reached +unmolested, the natives not caring +to follow them.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The loss on Walker’s side, in this +affair, was six men killed; while the +Legitimists lost about seventy.</p> + +<p class='c009'>At San Juan del Sur they found a +small schooner to take them back to +Realejo; and before sailing, Walker +performed an act of summary justice, +which raised him highly in the opinion +of many people in the country. +He and his men had all embarked +quietly in the evening on board the +schooner, which was lying in the harbour, +and were waiting till morning +for a breeze, when, about midnight, +two Americans, who did not belong +to Walker’s party, and were well +known to be bad and desperate characters, +set fire to a large wooden +building which was used as a barrack: +their object was to burn the +town, and take the opportunity of +the confusion to rob and plunder the +inhabitants, expecting, no doubt, +that Walker’s party would join them.</p> + +<p class='c009'>They made a great mistake, however; +for, on going on board Walker’s +vessel, and boasting of what they had +done, he immediately arrested them, +and as there were no authorities +ashore to whom he could hand them +over, he had them tried by a court-martial +at once, by which they were +sentenced to be shot. One was shot +while endeavouring to make his +escape in a boat; the other was +taken ashore to be shot, where, in the +darkness of the night, he managed to +escape from his guards.</p> + +<p class='c009'>About a month before this time +General Chamorro died of an illness, +under which he had been for some +months gradually sinking. He was +succeeded as General-in-chief of the +Legitimist party by General Corral, +who had already been actually in +command for some time.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Walker did not attempt another +descent on that part of the country +till the month of August, when he +landed at San Juan del Sur with +about seventy-five Americans and two +hundred native troops. There he met +with no opposition, the forces of the +Legitimists being all concentrated in +the town of Rivas. He shortly marched +to the village of Virgin Bay on the +Lake: while there he was attacked +by a vastly superior force of Legitimists +under General Guardiola. The +fight lasted several hours, but Walker +succeeded in driving them back to +Rivas with considerable loss. The +casualties on his side were, two Americans +wounded and half-a-dozen +natives killed. After this he again +returned to San Juan del Sur, where +he remained quietly receiving reinforcements +from California, and enlisting +from the passengers passing +through the country.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Virgin Bay and San Juan del Sur +are two small villages, called into existence +by the establishment of the +Transit route. They form the termini +of the land travel, and are composed +principally of American hotels +for the accommodation of passengers; +the requirements of the Transit route +also furnish employment to a small +number of Americans at these two +points.</p> + +<p class='c009'>About the middle of October, +Walker—now holding a regular commission +as Commander-in-chief of the +Democratic army, and having gradually +augmented the number of Americans +under his command to two +hundred, and having a force of two +hundred and fifty native troops—proceeded +to Virgin Bay, and, taking +possession of one of the Transit Company’s +steamers, he embarked his +whole force. After a few hours’ passage +he landed his troops about two +miles from Granada, and marched +directly on that stronghold of the +Legitimists. General Corral, the +Commander-in-chief, was in Rivas +with the greater part of his forces, +expecting that Walker would make +that the first point of attack. The +garrison in Granada were completely +taken by surprise, and, after firing +but a few shots, Walker had full possession +of the city. The inhabitants +were at first greatly alarmed, expecting +that the Democrats would commit +all sorts of excesses; but Walker +quickly issued a proclamation, promising +protection to person and property. +As the people found that +he maintained such strict discipline +among his troops as to be able to +keep his word, tranquillity was soon +restored; and no doubt favourable +comparisons were drawn between the +order and quiet which prevailed on +the taking of their city by the Democrats +under Walker, and the scenes +of plunder and excess which had ensued +on such occasions in their former +revolutions.</p> + +<p class='c009'>During the months of July and +August, the country had been visited +by cholera in its most deadly form. +Many small villages, Virgin Bay and +San Juan del Sur among the number, +were almost depopulated. In +the town of Masaya, with a population +of about ten thousand, nearly +one-third of the number perished. +Castillon, the Democratic president +in Leon, fell a victim to the disease; +and Walker, being General-in-chief, +was now at the head of the party. +He was offered the Presidency, which +he judiciously declined, retaining his +more effective office of General-in-chief.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Commander-in-chief of the +Legitimist party, General Corral, +being at Rivas with his forces, it +was proposed to offer him terms, as +it must have been evident to him +that his cause was now hopeless. +Colonel Wheeler, the United States +Minister resident in Nicaragua, was +induced, at the urgent solicitation of +the people of Granada, to undertake +the duty of negotiating terms, assisted +by Don Juan Ruiz, a man of great +influence in the Rivas department.</p> + +<p class='c009'>On their arrival in Rivas, in pursuit +of their pacific object, Colonel +Wheeler very soon found himself a +prisoner in the hands of the Legitimists. +Some days afterwards, his +non-appearance causing alarm to his +friends of the other party, a schooner +was despatched to make a demonstration +before Rivas, which is situated +about a mile from the shore of the +Lake. After a few guns had been +fired, the Legitimists took the hint, +and set Colonel Wheeler at liberty.</p> + +<p class='c009'>A negotiation was afterwards entered +into, which resulted in a treaty +of peace being agreed upon, and signed +by Walker and Corral, as the representatives +of their respective parties.</p> + +<p class='c009'>By this treaty, which was concluded +towards the end of October, it was +agreed that the two governments +which had existed in the country +since the commencement of the revolution, +should cease. Don Patricio +Rivas was declared provisional President +for fourteen months, and General +Walker was acknowledged General-in-chief +of the army, who, with four +ministers to be appointed by the +President, were to form the government.</p> + +<p class='c009'>According to the stipulations of the +treaty, General Corral, a day or two +afterwards, entered the city of Granada +with his troops, and was received +by Walker. The two generals then +went through an imposing ceremony +of solemnly ratifying the treaty in +church. A Te Deum was sung, the +Legitimist troops were joined to the +Democrats, and became one army +under command of Walker, and +the following government was proclaimed:—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Don Patricio Rivas</span>, <i>President</i>.</div> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>General Wm. Walker</span>, <i>Commander-in-Chief</i>.</div> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>General Maximo Xeres</span>, <i>Minister of State</i>.</div> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>General Ponciano Corral</span>, <i>Minister of War</i>.</div> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Col. Parker H. French</span>, <i>Minister of the Hacienda</i>.</div> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Don Fermin Ferrer</span>, <i>Minister of Public Credit</i>.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c009'>Although the Democrats had gained +the day, the new government was +composed of men of both parties.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Rivas the President is a gentleman +much esteemed and respected; he is +the head of an influential family, who +have always been opposed to the +Democratic party. For some years +he has been collector of customs at +San Carlos.</p> + +<p class='c009'>General Walker, commander-in-chief, +filled the same office in the +Democratic government.</p> + +<p class='c009'>General Maximo Xeres, minister +of state, was Walker’s predecessor +in command of the Democratic army, +he and Corral, the new minister of +war, having been the generals of the +two hostile armies during the greater +part of the revolution.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Colonel Parker H. French, minister +of the Hacienda, is an American +who distinguished himself some years +ago in the intestine wars in Mexico, +and has latterly been conducting a +newspaper in California.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Don Fermin Ferrer, minister of +public credit, is a wealthy citizen +of Granada, who took no active part +in the late revolution.</p> + +<p class='c009'>A very few days after General +Corral had so solemnly ratified the +treaty, letters were intercepted, written +by him to some other leaders of +the old Legitimist party, from which +it was evident that he was conspiring +with them to upset the government, +of which he had just become a member. +He was immediately tried by +court-martial for treason; and being +found guilty, he was sentenced to be +shot next day. With his party he +was immensely popular, and during +the revolution had displayed great +ability as a military leader; but the +evidences of his treachery admitted +of no doubt, and he was shot according +to his sentence, in the Plaza of +Granada, in presence of the whole +army. His summary execution will +no doubt have a beneficial influence +on the people, by inculcating on them +the necessity of acting with sincerity, +in whatever obligations they come +under.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The new government was now +formally acknowledged by Colonel +Wheeler, the American minister, the +only foreign minister resident in the +State. The president was also visited +by the captain of the United States +sloop of war Massachusetts, then lying +in the harbour of San Juan del Sur.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The natural consequences of a restoration +of peace, after a year and a +half of revolution, were soon manifested +in the return of many of the +inhabitants, who had absented themselves, +to avoid the horrors of civil +war, and in the impulse given to all +peaceful pursuits.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The power of the press is such an +acknowledged fact in the United +States, and the establishment of a +newspaper follows so closely on the +advance of civilisation, that wherever +half-a-dozen Americans are +settled together in the backwoods, +one of them is sure to publish a newspaper +for the edification of the rest.</p> + +<p class='c009'>So in Granada one of the first +things the Americans did was to +bring out a weekly paper, called “<cite>El +Nicaraguense</cite>”—“the Nicaraguan,” +half English, half Spanish. It is a +very respectable sheet, with a good +deal of its space devoted to the enlightenment +of the public regarding +the natural advantages of the country, +its fertility, its delightful climate and +great mineral wealth. The only +thing in the shape of a newspaper +hitherto known in Nicaragua, had +been a mere Government Gazette, +published once a-month or so.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The State of Costa Rica, adjoining +Nicaragua on the south, is the most +flourishing of all the Central American +States. It has been for many +years free from revolution, and the +people are comparatively thrifty and +industrious. The finances of the +State are in a good condition, and +in military matters it is far in advance +of Nicaragua, having a well-organised +militia of 4000 or 5000 +men. A certain proportion of the +troops are armed with the Minié +rifle, and they are well provided with +artillery. There are great numbers +of Germans in the country, many of +them in the employment of Government, +and it is to them that the +people are indebted for the effective +state of their army. The principal +production of the country is coffee, of +which the export is large, the greater +part being sent to England. The Government +were in great consternation +at the success of the Walker party +in Nicaragua, thinking, no doubt, +that their turn would soon come. +They made active preparations to +resist invasion, but it is not likely +that they will attempt to act on the +offensive.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Honduras, which adjoins Nicaragua +on the north, was favourable to the +Democratic party, and has acknowledged +the Americo-Nicaraguan Government. +The president of that +State lately visited Walker in Granada; +and as Honduras is threatened +with a renewal of hostilities by +Guatemala, Walker is about to assist +the former State with a portion of his +American forces. The fact of Walker +taking half of his force from Nicaragua +to the assistance of a neighbouring +State, is a convincing proof of his +confidence in the security of the +position which he has attained. In +Honduras, of course, the same game +will be played as in Nicaragua. In +fighting for the people, the Americans +will gain the ascendancy over them, +and will keep it.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Guatemala, which lies to the north +of Honduras, is the largest and most +important of the Central American +States, and is also the most hostile +to American influence.</p> + +<p class='c009'>But whatever be the feelings of +the other States towards Americans, +it is not to be supposed that, having +gained the foothold they have in +Central America, they can be restrained +by the weak and indolent +people by which they are surrounded +from extending their dominion. In +whatever way they may come into +contact, whether in war, diplomacy, +or peaceful competition in mercantile +and industrial pursuits, the superior +boldness, energy, and perseverance of +the Anglo-Saxon character is sure to +assert its supremacy.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The spirit of filibusterism is not +confined to any particular class of +the American community. Among +the small party with which Walker +originally sailed from San Francisco +were several lawyers and doctors, +and others holding a respectable +position. General Walker himself +is of a respectable family in Alabama. +He is about forty years of +age, and is a man of superior education, +the greater part of which he +received in Europe. He originally +studied medicine, but afterwards became +a member of the legal profession. +For some years he conducted a +newspaper in New Orleans; but +when the California excitement broke +out, he went to that country, and +for some time edited a journal in +San Francisco, and has latterly been +practising his profession in Marysville, +a city of some importance in +the northern part of California.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In personal appearance he is not at +all what one would suppose such a +daring and successful filibuster to be, +being an exceedingly quiet man, with +a mild expression of face, and very +decidedly Saxon features. His followers +hold him in the utmost esteem +and admiration; and his conduct, +since his accession to power in Nicaragua, +has been such as to inspire +with confidence in his judgment and +abilities many influential theoretical +filibusters in California, who are not +likely to allow the present flattering +prospect of the realisation of their +ideas to be lost for want of support.</p> + +<p class='c009'>He has been receiving continual +accessions to his force, and now the +Americans in Nicaragua under his +command amount to upwards of 900 +men.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The following article from the <cite>San +Francisco Herald</cite> of the 6th October +gives a very good idea of the popular +feeling in favour of Walker, even before +the achievement of his success in +Granada had become known. The +inefficiency of the executive to repress +such a wholesale shipment of recruits +and arms is also remarkable:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“<span class='sc'>The Departure of the Walker Reinforcements +from San Francisco.</span></p> + +<p class='c010'>“<i>Exciting Scenes along the Wharves—Ineffectual +Attempt of a Party to board the +Steamer in a Sailing Vessel—Three Hundred +Stand of Arms for Walker’s Army—Proceeding +in the Twelfth District +Court—The Sheriff’s Party too late—Incidents, +&c.</i></p> + +<p class='c010'>“The current rumours of the past week +relative to the number of adventurers +who intended to embark on the steamer +Uncle Sam, to join Walker at Nicaragua, +served to attract a large crowd in the +vicinity of the steamer on the occasion +of her departure yesterday. The vessel +was advertised to sail at 9 o’clock <span class='fss'>A. M.</span>, +and long before that hour Jackson Street +wharf was filled with spectators and +those interested in the embarkation of +the Expeditionists. It is stated that +nearly four hundred through passage +tickets were sold before the appointed +sailing hour, but, as will be seen, various +circumstances compelled the agent of +the line to postpone the steamer’s departure +until four o’clock <span class='fss'>P. M.</span> Officers +were stationed in every part of the vessel, +with positive orders to allow no one on +board unless provided with a passage +ticket. There seemed to be no disposition +to infringe this order, and everything +went on quietly until about noon, +when it was discovered that some of the +passengers were in possession of arms +belonging to the ‘San Francisco Blues’ +military corps. A search-warrant was +immediately procured, and twenty-nine +muskets, identified by members of the +company named, were recovered. The +warrant was executed by a single officer +of the police, who received no molestation, +but was permitted to make a +thorough search of every quarter of the +vessel. During this investigation two +large crockery crates, full of arms, were +discovered, but as the officer had no +authority to seize upon these, they were +left undisturbed, although information +of the fact was immediately given to the +Quartermaster, General Kibbe of the +State militia, who soon after ascertained, +by means of the telegraph wires, that the +armoury of the Sacramento rifle company +had been entirely divested of every weapon +and round of ammunition. General +Kibbe at once commenced suit in the +Twelfth District Court to recover the +arms belonging to the State, on board the +Uncle Sam. The business of the suit +was despatched with all possible haste; +but before the necessary documents +could be procured and placed in the +hands of the sheriff, the hour had arrived +for the sailing of the steamer. As the +lines holding the vessel to the wharf were +cast adrift, there was some indication of +trouble between the officers of the vessel +and those on the wharf anxious to obtain +passage. The wharf was densely packed +with men, and at the first move of the +steamer’s paddles, a general rush was +made to board her. The officers of the +boat resisted, and the body of the crowd +was driven back, at the imminent risk of +their being crushed between the vessel +and the wharf, or launched overboard. +The scene was frightful, indeed; but +fortunately, and singularly enough, no +one sustained serious injury, as far as +could be ascertained. About fifteen or +twenty succeeded in getting on board, +and the vessel shot out into the stream, +where she came to, evidently with the +view of compelling those to return on +shore who had succeeded in boarding the +vessel by force. By this time the expeditionists, +to the number of three hundred, +had chartered a large schooner lying +convenient to the wharf. This movement +was seen on board the steamer, +and as the schooner spread her canvass, +the steamer’s paddles were again put in +motion; but she had not proceeded far +when she again lay-to. The schooner +was now under full headway with a fine +breeze, and tacking quickly, she came up +under the lee of the steamer, when she +was ordered to keep off, and at the same +time the steamer commenced moving +ahead. It was now beyond the power of +the schooner to work up to the position +of the steamer until the latter would +have sufficient time to send the intruders +ashore and get under way again. Still +the schooner persevered, and stood off +for another tack. In the meantime a +posse of Sheriff’s officers, headed by Mr +Dowdigan, with the writ of restitution, +had procured a rowboat for the purpose +of boarding the steamer. This they were +unable to accomplish, as the steamer got +under way just as the Sheriff’s boat +reached her side. The schooner was at +this time within a few cables’ length of +the steamer, but, coming up under the +lee of Telegraph Hill, the breeze died +away, and all thought of boarding was at +once abandoned, as the steamer was by +this time under a full head of steam, +with her bows directed seaward. The +schooner landed the disappointed expeditionists +at Jackson Street wharf; and +a large number of ships’ launches and +other small craft filled with men who +evidently intended to take the first opportunity +to board the steamer, put back +to the shore. It would be useless to attempt +a description of the scenes along +the wharves. From Jackson Street to +North Point, every place of observation +was crowded with eager spectators of the +movements of the two vessels. It seemed +to be the universal impression that the +schooner load would be permitted to +board, as it was rumoured that they had +obtained passage tickets by some means +just as the steamer left the wharf. No +foundation for this rumour could be ascertained, +and it was undoubtedly erroneous. +The city Marshal, with several +policemen, remained on the steamer until +she was fully under way. Among the +number who attempted to board in small +boats, was a man named Henry Gray, +who strenuously persisted in his endeavours +to board the steamer, although +forcibly resisted by officer Connelly. At +last Gray drew a revolver and pointed it +at the officer, who also drew his pistol, +when the boatmen in the boat with Gray +covered his person with their own. Gray +was subsequently arrested by the police +and placed in confinement. It is generally +believed that the Uncle Sam carried +away about three hundred stand of arms +for the use of Walker’s army. It is known +that a large quantity of arms and ammunition +had been purchased in this city to +be sent to San Juan by this steamer. +Just previous to the sailing of the steamer +it was ascertained that a number of percussion +lock muskets, belonging to the +Manhattan Fire Company of this city, +were taken from the engine-house during +the night. The rifles taken from the Sacramento +military company are said to be +excellent weapons, and they will, undoubtedly, +be a valuable acquisition to +the armament of the Nicaragua republican +troops. Many of those who failed +to procure passage on the steamer yesterday +had placed their baggage on board. +This baggage will unquestionably be +landed at San Juan, and kept for them +by their more fortunate comrades until +such time as they shall be successful in +their endeavours to join Walker.”—<cite>San +Francisco Herald</cite>, Oct. 6.</p> + +<p class='c009'>This is the way they do things in +California, affording a striking contrast +to the very imposing demonstration +made in New York about two +months ago in support of the neutrality +laws.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Shortly after the formation of the +Walker government in Granada, a +decree was issued, granting two hundred +and fifty acres of land to +every emigrant who would come and +settle on and improve his grant; and +in consequence of advertisements to +that effect, inserted by the Nicaraguan +government in the New York papers, +great numbers of men intended sailing +for that country in the regular +steamer of the Nicaragua Transit +Company.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Proclamations were issued by President +Pierce, warning the citizens not +to violate the neutrality laws; and +when the steamer was on the point of +leaving the wharf, the government +officers made an attempt to arrest her. +The captain, however, disregarded +them, and got under way, but was +brought up, while steaming down +the harbour, by two or three shots +from a man-of-war. The steamer +was searched, but no evidence of +the violation of the laws was found +on board of her. The company, however, +requested the assistance of the +government officers in putting ashore +about two hundred men who had not +paid their passage. This was done, +and the steamer went on her way, +carrying two or three officers of government +to see whether, on using up +the coal, some cannon might not be +found at the bottom of the coal-bunkers.</p> + +<p class='c009'>At this time, also, Colonel French, +who had resigned his seat in the +Walker cabinet as minister of the +Hacienda, presented himself at Washington +as minister-plenipotentiary +from the State of Nicaragua; but the +American Government refused to receive +him. Colonel Wheeler, the +American minister in Nicaragua, had +already formally acknowledged the +Walker government immediately on +its formation, and as he visited Washington +in the month of July, it is +hardly to be supposed that he returned +to his duties in Nicaragua, without +acquainting himself with the +views of his Government on the +course to be pursued in event of the +success of the Americans in that State. +But Colonel Walker had already so +firmly established himself in Nicaragua +that any want of countenance +from the American government could +not weaken his position; the President’s +message also was soon about +to appear, and too cordial an acknowledgment +of the Americans in Nicaragua +would not have been consistent +with the tone observed in that document +in regard to the enforcement of +the Clayton-Bulwer treaty.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The Mosquito protectorate question +is being practically settled by +the Mosquitians themselves. Mosquitia +is a strip of land on the Atlantic +coast, part of which has always been +claimed by Nicaragua, and which, +from its geographical position, seems +naturally to belong to her. Since the +establishment of peace in that +country, the government have sent +commissioners among the Mosquito +Indians in the neighbouring parts of +Mosquitia. The natives are reported +to have expressed great dissatisfaction +at the exactions of the king, and +to have declared their readiness to +come under Nicaragua. So the Mosquito +kingdom seems likely to revert +to Nicaragua, the State to which it +originally belonged.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The success which has attended +Walker’s enterprise offers a strong +contrast to the failure of that which, +for the attainment of a similar end, +was originated in New York towards +the end of the year 1854.</p> + +<p class='c009'>A company was started under the +name of the Central American Land +Colonisation Company, or some such +name. The ostensible object was the +colonisation and cultivation of the +Mosquito territory, more especially +a certain portion known as the +“Sheppard Grant,” a large tract of +land acquired by a Mr Sheppard +from the King of Mosquitia. A +certain Colonel Kinney took a prominent +part in the organisation of +the Company, which was supported +by many capitalists in New York and +other cities of the Union. The government +also professed to be favourable +to the scheme, and preparations +were commenced on a large scale for +carrying it out. A great deal was +said about the promotion of agriculture +on the Mosquito coast; but it +was pretty generally understood by +the public, that the real object in +view was to filibuster the State of +Nicaragua, or at all events to establish +a depôt in that part of the world, +from which, when all should be ready, +a descent upon Cuba might be conveniently +made.</p> + +<p class='c009'>At the remonstrances of the Nicaraguan +minister in Washington, the +administration were compelled to +open their eyes to the true nature of +the expedition.</p> + +<p class='c009'>A great fuss was then made; proclamations +were issued, warning the +people not to take part in the hostile +invasion of a friendly State; a large +steamer, chartered by Colonel Kinney, +and all ready to take down several +hundred agriculturists to cultivate +the pestiferous swamps of the King +of Mosquitia, was seized by the +authorities; several men of war were +stationed in New York harbour to +watch her, and Colonel Kinney himself +was arrested and held to bail.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Many of the supporters of the enterprise +now withdrew; but Kinney +was not to be deterred; and as he +could not go in his steamer with +several hundred followers, he modestly +started, about the month of +May, in a small schooner, with a +couple of dozen men. He was wrecked +somewhere about the West Indies, +and was finally brought into Greytown, +his original destination, by an +English brig, which had picked him +and his party off the rocks.</p> + +<p class='c009'>About this time the Accessory +Transit Company of Nicaragua raised +a little army in New York, on their +own account, of fifty men, principally +French and German. These they +sent down in one of their steamers +to Nicaragua, and stationed at +Castillo, on the San Juan River, +there to stop the advance of foreign +invaders. This is the French legion +referred to in the treaty of +peace.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It was given out that Kinney and +his small party were only the pioneers; +that reinforcements were coming +from New Orleans and other ports, +but they have never yet made their +appearance; and Kinney and his +men still remain in Greytown, where, +with the exception of starting a +newspaper, they have as yet done +nothing.</p> + +<p class='c009'>This Walker business in Nicaragua +has been much more cleverly managed. +The Americans in that country +appear in the light of men who +have gone there at the request of a +party which constituted the majority +of the people. They became citizens +of the State, fought for it, and have +risen to power.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The United States have themselves +been to a certain extent filibustered +in the same way. The Irish party +has of late become so formidable, that +the native Americans have had to +form a league to counteract the Irish +influence; and even if the American +Government were opposed to the present +movement in Nicaragua, they +cannot prevent individual citizens +from emigrating to, and becoming +citizens of, that State.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It cannot be doubted that the advantages +to Nicaragua, in consequence +of the introduction of American influence, +will be very great.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The constant fear of revolution +being removed, the people will have +more confidence in carrying on agricultural +and commercial undertakings. +The Americans will do away +with all the antiquated absurdities +of Spanish law, and amend a ridiculous +old tariff, whereby many of the +commonest articles of civilised life +have been virtually prohibited; +foreign capital will be freely employed +in the cultivation of sugar, +rice, tobacco, indigo, and other +valuable crops, in the production of +which Nicaragua can compete with +any country in the world; and the +resources of the mining districts will +be developed by energetic and experienced +miners from California.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span> + <h2 class='c002'>THE SCOTTISH FISHERIES.<a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c007'><sup>[14]</sup></a></h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The Fisheries of Scotland constitute +her most valuable and important +interests, and form, in some of their +features, the only really <i>national</i> +undertaking in which our people are +engaged. Of the benefits arising +from agriculture and manufactures, +we have, of course, our share; although +our colder climate, and less +affluent natural resources, make our +merit all the greater in reaping in +both of those departments such redundant +harvests. But what is +often wanting on the surface of our +sterile land, is compensated by the +products of the exhaustless deep. A +hardy and athletic race is thus maintained +in useful independence—a race +for whom, but for this so frequent +occupation in the great waters, nothing +would now remain save expatriation +or the poor’s-roll.</p> + +<p class='c009'>When mention is made of the vast +importance of our fisheries, and of +their increasing prosperity, it must, +however, be in no spirit of boastfulness, +nor with any very buoyant +feelings of continuous and assured +success. The fisherman’s vocation +is at the best one not only of perpetual +toil, but of frequent peril; +and truly, while engaged in it, no +man knows what even an hour may +bring forth. The brightest day, with +its calmly glittering sea, and sky +as clear in its cerulean depth as ever +fondly brooded over the “cloudless +Parthenope,” may be followed by the +thick darkness of a night of storm +and terror; and instead of another +gladsome sunrise, with hopeful mothers +and happy children scattered +in expectant groups along some sheltered +semicircular shore, the wild +waves are coursing tumultuously over +the lifeless forms of many whose +places will henceforward know them +no more for ever. Let any kindly and +considerate person pass even an hour +or two in one of our fishing-villages, +and converse with the inhabitants, +whether old or young. Strong stalwart +men of iron mould, enduring +and unbending as the gnarled oak, +and in no way given to that sickly +sentimentalism which we sometimes +meet with elsewhere, become softened +and subdued when the dark remembrance +of some great bereavement +comes back in bitterness upon +them,—in earlier life the loss of fathers +and elder brothers,—in later +years that of sons and helpmates, +fellow-workmen in the world of +waters. How many hearths are +cold or cheerless, how many homes desolate, +or the forlorn dwellings of the +widow and the fatherless! Women +may be seen seemingly intent upon +the preparation of hooks and lines; +but there is not one among them +that cannot tell some heart-rending +tale of sudden and unlooked-for +death; and as they cast their melancholy +eyes over the then gently +heaving sea, they never cease to feel, +because they too sadly know, how +wrathful and ruthless is the power of +that dread destroyer.</p> + +<p class='c009'>A seafaring people are proverbially +subject to calamities of the most +fatal and almost irremediable kind, +such as no exercise of skill or caution +on their own part can possibly +provide against, and which befall no +class of artisans or agricultural labourers. +The sea, like the land, has +also its barren and unproductive +places; and even its richer fields are +not seldom those of death and desolation. +Therefore, whatever tends to +ameliorate the condition of such of +our people as are engaged in the +fisheries should be carefully encouraged, +and any sudden, especially if +doubtful, changes in their relationship +to the rest of the world, considered +with the greater caution, +even although certain existing conditions +should not altogether conform +to those general principles of +political economy which it might +otherwise be prudent to apply.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The weary ploughman plods his homeward way,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>but seldom fails to find it. The</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Swinked hedger at his supper sits,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>and soft is the mossy bank beneath +him, and sweet the air around, +redolent with the balmy breath of +flowers, and filled with the melody +of birds singing their evening hymn. +How rarely does the extinction of +life from other than natural causes +overtake these dwellers on the land, +compared with the frequent fate of +those who do business in the great +waters! How astounded would be +the natives of our inland vales, and +the shepherds on a thousand hills, +if ever and anon their hitherto steadfast +and enduring boundaries were +rent by earthquakes, and, literally +“adding field to field,” one fine piece +of pasture was lifted up and laid +upon another, entombing for ever +alike the corn and its cultivators, +the shepherds and their sheep. No +very pleasant greetings in the market-place +would ensue among the grain-merchants, +wool-growers, and cattle-dealers, +when the morning’s news +might chance to be—that the Lammermoors +had subsided 1500 feet, +and were entirely under water; that +“Eildon’s triple height” had been +turned over, peaks downmost; that +the debris of Penicuik was scattered +over the vestiges of Peebles; and +that the good town of Dalkeith was +lying (its fine body of militiamen +fast fossilising) at the bottom of a +coal-pit. Yet equally disastrous, +though not quite similar, calamities +not unfrequently befall those whose +precarious lot it is to cultivate the sea.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The formation of more commodious +harbours, and of substantial and efficient +piers, and whatever other accommodation +may be most required, +along our rock-bound shores, may +therefore surely be regarded as emphatically +a work both of necessity +and mercy, without which the bountiful +gifts of nature are either useless, +or obtained at such fatal sacrifice of +life and property as it would be painful +to contemplate. It has been +sometimes said, that as the coast +proprietors are benefited by an increased +success of the fisheries, the +duty of erecting harbours or other +shore-works is chiefly incumbent +upon themselves. It is true that, +when a proprietor builds a farm-steading +or a porter’s lodge, he is +bound to pay for it, as he may be +presumed to reap the chief advantage, +and, at all events, is entitled to +debar others from any participation +of profits. But a building which +abuts into the region of the sea-shore +is so far public property, is under +certain Admiralty supervision and +control, and cannot be used exclusively +for individual interests, although +a reasonable power of regulation, +in the way of imposing harbour-dues, +may very properly be agreed +upon as between proprietors and the +public. The existence or non-existence +of such works is often as the +difference betwixt life and death to +those who seek some shelter from the +sea. Their construction is a great +and indispensable public benefit, +and therefore necessity; and a proprietor +need no more be grudged +the individual advantage which undoubtedly, +and we think fortunately, +accrues to him, than he can be +grudged the corresponding advantage +(which he shares with the general +community) of those public roads +and bridges which intersect or span +the more inland portions of his property. +It is, therefore, a very narrow +and unpatriotic view which would +saddle the expense of sea-works, of +whatever kind, upon the immediate +local owners of the land. Let them +bear their share, as they are assuredly +much benefited by the increase +of fishing or other commercial +intercourse, both as direct advantages, +and as almost necessarily leading +to the improvement of property +and a rise of rents; but considering +the wild and unstable nature of the +elements with which we have to +deal, and the almost incalculable +general benefits which result from all +such works, when skilfully planned +and substantially executed, let the +public also largely and ungrudgingly +join in the required expenditure.</p> + +<p class='c009'>As Captain Washington has well +observed, it is not one or more great +harbours of refuge on our north-eastern +shores that is now required. The +Bay of Cromarty, the <i>Portus Salutis</i> +of the ancients, one of the finest and +most secure harbours in the known +world, lies not more than fifty miles +to the southward of Wick, while the +safe anchorage of Long Hope, in the +Orkneys, is only twenty miles to the +northward of that great fishing capital +of Caithness. These are accessible +at all times to every kind of shipping. +But it is not so much shelter for the +general trade, as security for fishing-boats, +and coasting vessels connected +with the fisheries, that is so imperatively +needed. In proof of this we +shall here briefly record the great catastrophe +which befell a portion of our +fishing population of the north-east +coast of Scotland in the autumn of +1848. It is known that at this time +upwards of 800 boats, manned by +3500 men, were engaged in the fishery +from the Wick district alone. On +the afternoon of Friday the 18th of +August of that year, the majority of +these fishing-boats (all open ones) left +Pulteneytown harbour soon after +high water, and remained in the Bay +of Wick. Towards evening they +stood out to sea, and when about ten +miles off the land, as usual, shot their +nets. The afternoon was fine, though +the evening had somewhat of a +threatening aspect, yet not such as +to deter a fisherman from the pursuit +of his accustomed calling. At midnight, +much wind and sea having +risen, many of the boats ran for the +harbour, and got safely in about high +water, which occurred at half-past +one o’clock. By three in the morning +the wind had increased to a gale +from the south-east, with heavy rain. +Most of the remaining boats then +bore up for the Bay, which they +reached between four and five o’clock; +but by this time the tide had fallen +one-half, and therefore there was not +more than five feet depth of water at +the entrance of the harbour, so that, +with such a sea running, no loaded +boat could enter. Some, however, +made the attempt, and were either +thrown up at the back of the north +quay, or wrecked on the south pier, +or swamped upon the bar. In this +disastrous way 25 men perished, besides +12 others whose boats were +swamped at sea; thus, in the brief +period of about three hours, occasioning +a loss of 37 men drowned, leaving +17 widows and 60 children utterly destitute. +There was a destruction of property +in boats and nets of about £1600.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Dunbeath lies some sixteen or +eighteen miles to the south-west of +Wick. It is a favourite fishing-station, +and much resorted to, having +about 106 boats and 410 men. Its +creek is slightly protected on the east +by a promontory, and some detached +rocks, which partially throw off the +sea, and direct it into the west side +of the bay; but it is much exposed to +the south-west and southerly winds, +and the fishermen have twice built up +a breakwater of loose stones on the +south side, near the burn-mouth. +Not only is the violence of the waves +to be dreaded, but after much rain in +the interior, heavy fresh-water <i>spates</i> +descend suddenly, and cause great +destruction among such boats as have +not been hauled up to a place of safety. +Thus in the storm referred to, 18 +boats were drifted out of the harbour +by the river flood, and were smashed +upon the beach. Still more unfortunately, +a Lybster boat, while making +for the harbour, was upset, and +three men drowned.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Helmsdale, in Sutherlandshire, is +fifteen miles farther to the south-west. +It has made wonderful progress +within comparatively recent +years—is in a very thriving condition, +and possesses some of the best +curing establishments in all Scotland. +But there is great want of accommodation +both for men and boats, and the +crowded state of the river is disadvantageous. +There is also a bar at +its mouth, and the harbourage, moreover, +suffers much from the inland +spates. During the autumn of 1848 +there were 177 boats fishing from +Helmsdale. Of these, 130 put to sea +on the evening of the 18th of August. +In the disastrous gale of the ensuing +morning, two boats were upset while +running over the bar for the harbour, +and four men were drowned. Two +other boats were either run down or +foundered at sea, when 5 men perished, +and another man was washed +overboard while endeavouring to haul +his nets,—making a loss of 10 lives.</p> + +<p class='c009'>On the southern side of the Moray +Firth, Buckie is known as a most +important, though exposed and almost +shelterless station. It puts +out about 160 boats, and its fishermen +are noted as among the most daring +as well as industrious on our coasts. +They pursue the deep-sea fishing, and +so labour not during the herring harvest +alone, but all the year round. In +the gale of the 19th of August, 12 of +its boats were wrecked off Peterhead, +8 were sorely damaged, and their +nets carried away, while 11 men were +drowned. Port Gordon, Portessie, and +Findochtie belong to the same quarter. +They lost among them 5 boats wrecked, +and 10 men drowned—making a +total loss, for that limited district, of +17 boats and 21 men.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Peterhead occupies a commanding +and well-known position on a projecting +and very exposed portion of +our coast, and the stations included +as in the same district, extend southwards +as far as Aberdeen. It has +about 60 boats of its own, while those +of the entire district amount to 262, +with 920 men and boys. But while +these are the numbers belonging to +the district, the actual amount at +work within it, during the season of +1848, was 437 boats, employing 2185 +men. Peterhead has the advantage +of both a north and south harbour, +each of considerable extent. The +south harbour is dry at low water, +but the outer portion of the northern +has from six to seven feet at low +water of spring-tides, and eighteen +feet at high water. During the gale +of the 18th and 19th of August, the +boats began to run for shelter about +eleven o’clock at night, and continued +to do so until half-past three o’clock +in the morning, at which time it was +high water. But while endeavouring +to make the harbour, 30 boats were +totally lost, 33 were damaged and +stranded, and 31 men were drowned.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Stonehaven is the principal station +of the next and more southern district, +which extends for about fifty-five +miles from Girdleness to Broughty +Ferry on the Tay. This district furnishes +306 boats, manned by 1160 +fishermen. Of its 23 fishing stations +17 have no piers. Findon, so celebrated +for its smoked haddocks, +has 14 boats, but no pier. Portlethen, +somewhat sheltered by a +ledge of rocks, has 20 boats, but no +pier. Cowie, under a similar precarious +shelter, has 18 boats, but no +pier. Auchmithie, with 37 boats, +and Johnshaven with 10, have nothing +like a pier. In many of these +places the shore is steep and rough, +with loose though heavy shingle. +The boats, when they get in safely, +must often be hauled well up for a +continuance of protection. This, +with relaunching, is most laborious +and exhausting work. The women +labour in and out of water, whether +deep or shallow, as well as, sometimes +even more assiduously than, +the men. They carry the wet nets +up the steep banks to be spread and +dried, and they are not seldom seen +bearing the wearied men out of the +boats upon their backs, and landing +them, high and dry, upon the beach. +But these are savage customs, and +lead to or perpetuate an uncouth +and indurated, if not savage life. +Yet before we can “excavate the +heathens,” and ameliorate their manners, +we must excavate their beach, +and build them substantial piers of +stone and lime. On the miserable +morning of the 19th of August, 6 +boats belonging to this district were +totally lost, and 19 men drowned.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The following is a brief summary of +the loss of life and property which was +suffered in the course of a very few +hours during this disastrous gale:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <th class='btt bbt blt c015'>District.</th> + <th class='btt bbt blt c015'>Number of boats lost or damaged.</th> + <th class='btt bbt blt c015'>Value of boats and nets lost.</th> + <th class='btt bbt blt brt c015'>Number of men drowned.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c016'>Wick,</td> + <td class='blt c017'>41</td> + <td class='blt c017'>£1621</td> + <td class='blt brt c017'>37</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c016'>Lybster,</td> + <td class='blt c017'> </td> + <td class='blt c017'>320</td> + <td class='blt brt c017'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c016'>Helmsdale,</td> + <td class='blt c017'>24</td> + <td class='blt c017'>800</td> + <td class='blt brt c017'>13</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c016'>Peterhead,</td> + <td class='blt c017'>51</td> + <td class='blt c017'>3820</td> + <td class='blt brt c017'>31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt blt c016'>Stonehaven,</td> + <td class='bbt blt c017'>8</td> + <td class='bbt blt c017'>450</td> + <td class='bbt blt brt c017'>19</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt blt c015'>Total loss,<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c007'><sup>[15]</sup></a></td> + <td class='bbt blt c017'>124</td> + <td class='bbt blt c017'>£7011</td> + <td class='bbt blt brt c017'>100</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c009'>A calamity so great and sudden +forcibly drew the public attention to +the subject, and the Lords of the Admiralty +were induced ere long to depute +Captain Washington to inquire +into and report regarding it. His report +was printed by order of the House +of Commons, and contains many +most valuable observations and suggestions.<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c007'><sup>[16]</sup></a> +We cannot here enter +into technical details, but may quote +one of his concluding paragraphs.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“In reviewing the evidence adduced +on the present inquiry, it cannot fail to +strike the most cursory reader that the +want of good harbours, accessible at all +times, is the grand cause of the loss of +life and property, and the increased risk +connected with our fisheries. It is not +the construction of two or more large +central harbours (as has been suggested) +that is wanted, but a general deepening +and improvement of all the existing +harbours and rivers along the whole +eastern coast of Scotland. Nor would +the improvement of these harbours be +attended with any very considerable +outlay. <i>It is scarcely credible that the +small sum of £2500 a-year, which Parliament +has devoted</i> [through the Board +of Fisheries] <i>to building harbours and +piers in Scotland for the last few years, +should have given so great a stimulus to +important local improvements as those +grants are found to have done.</i> But they +are quite inadequate to grapple in +earnest with the want which exists: +four times their amount, or £10,000 +a-year for a few years, steadily laid out +on piers and harbours, would do much +to remedy the want, and to place the +fishermen of the east of Scotland on a +par with those of more favoured coasts. +It would be an act of mercy to a race +of hardy, industrious, frugal men—to +10,000 fishermen of one of the poorest +and most unproductive districts of Scotland, +who are not at sea as occasional +passers-by, but are constantly hovering +off the coast in pursuit of their calling +for three months together, exposed to +the suddenness and violence of north-east +gales—such as that of August 1845, +and again in August 1848—without the +common shelter that all mariners are +entitled to look for in the hour of +need.”—<cite>Report</cite>, p. xvii.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Here we seem to have a distinct +statement of what is most required,—an +equally distinct recognition of +the great benefits which have already +resulted from small means,—and a +strong recommendation of a large increase +of those means, to be administered, +we may presume, through the +same medium and machinery as heretofore +employed, and of which Captain +Washington so much approves.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The harbour of Lybster lies in a +sheltered situation, about half-way +between Wick and Helmsdale. The +best localities for the herring fishery +are only a few miles off; and it had +thus risen from a creek, scarcely +navigable by small boats, to a fishing-station +of very considerable importance. +More than twenty years ago, +Mr Sinclair, the proprietor, erected a +pier on the west side of the harbour, +at an expense of about £7000. +Above 100 herring-boats were in +use to frequent it during the season; +many coasting vessels entered in; +the quay-dues produced a revenue of +£130, and a large and thriving +village became established. All this +time the harbour accommodation was +limited and incommodious, consisting +only of the channel of the river; +and its increase of trade cannot be +explained in any other way than +by the safety experienced by boats +in consequence of the entrance being +well protected from the worst and +most prevailing winds. Such being +the case, Capt. Washington thought +it highly desirable to profit by the +advantages which nature had bestowed +upon this creek; “or rather,” +he observes, “it becomes an imperative +duty to do so, when we consider +the number of lives endangered, and +the value of the property at stake, +on the sudden springing up of an +easterly gale, such as that of August +1845, and again in August 1848, +which strewed the coast of Caithness +with wrecks.” We may add, that +the Lybster district comprises also +Occumster, Clyth, Latheronwheel, +Forse, &c., and that these places +yielded, during the few weeks’ continuance +of the fishing of 1854, as +many as 41,550 barrels of herrings. +In consequence of Captain Washington’s +recommendation, and other +patriotic influences, the Treasury +advised a grant of £6000 for the +improvement of the harbour of +Lybster. The sum was voted by +Parliament, and has since been successfully +administered under the +superintendence of the Board of +Fisheries. The advantageous effects +of this well-managed grant are +manifest from the following facts. +The number of boats that fished +from the old harbour of Lybster +in 1850 was 97, but the number +that has fished from it since the +basin was enlarged, is 174 boats +in 1853, and 171 boats in 1854. But +the difference in mere numbers of +these two years, as compared with +1850, does not exhibit the actual +alteration and improvement; for +since the disastrous gale of 1848, the +boats have almost every year been +of larger build—so much so, that +the fishermen consider that the old +harbour would not have held above +80 boats of the existing size, and +that 180 of these boats are now +harboured in greater safety than 80 +could have formerly been. The +amount of fishermen employed in +1848 was 418; during the past +season (1855) it was 920. Had this +increased accommodation existed in +1848, there is no saying what saving +of life and property might have been +accomplished. During the gale so +frequently referred to, of the 34 +boats which fished from Forse, +9 were totally lost, with all their +nets, and 11 were severely damaged. +Some of those Forse boats did, however, +run for Lybster, and were +saved; and all would have done so, +but from the fear of want of room. +It was this fear, unfortunately, that +induced one of the Lybster boats, as +already mentioned, to run for Dunbeath, +where she was totally wrecked, +and three of her crew drowned.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Our notices have hitherto been of +a very casual kind, drawn out by the +sympathy which cannot but be felt +for the disastrous death of intrepid +men and the destruction of property, +which inevitably leads to such severe +and long-continued suffering on the +part of the survivors, haply but little +thought of during the first wild wailings +of the widow and the fatherless. +But poverty sorely embitters grief; +and the amount of prolonged misery +involved by destitution so often consequent +on death, can be in no way +conveyed by the mere recital of the +facts, however harrowing these may +be. But it is cheering to know that +the occasional disbursement of sums, +which, to the greatest maritime nation +that ever existed on earth, or +made its undisputed home upon the +deep, are only as a few grains of +sand to the shores of the immeasurable +sea, may produce the most obvious, +immediate, and permanent advantage, +and actually go far to convert +a life of danger and difficulty +into one of comparative security and +ease. In reference to this view of +the subject Captain Washington has +well observed:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Besides the invaluable boon on this +(the Caithness) coast of a harbour that +might be fearlessly run for at all times +of tide, and within which the fisherman +might land his cargo immediately on his +arrival, and rest quietly at his home until +the moment of sailing arrives (instead +of the anxious hours now often spent off +a harbour’s mouth, waiting for the rise of +tide), such a harbour would probably +lead to a larger and safer class of fishing-boats +(those now in use being adapted to +a shallow dry harbour), and induce the +fishermen to follow the deep-sea fishing +all the year round, instead of merely the +herring fishery for the season; and thus +cultivate habits of steady industry and +occupation, which could not but be beneficial +to himself, his family, and the +community.”—<cite>Report</cite>, p. viii.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Nor could such an outlay,” he afterwards +adds, “be considered in any other +light than as sound economy. By the +exertions of the British Fisheries Society, +and of individuals, a vast public interest +has been created on this coast within +the last half-century. A fishing village +has been raised into a comparatively opulent +town, wealth has been diffused, and +civilisation has followed in its wake. +The example here set has had a most +beneficial influence on a large portion of +the Highlands and islands of Scotland, +and habits of industry and the best +mode of fishing have been taught to +the Highlander. The large amount of +126,000 barrels of herrings, or one-fifth +of the whole produce of the Scottish +fisheries, was cured at Wick during the +past year, in addition to 12,000 barrels +otherwise consumed.<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c007'><sup>[17]</sup></a> The total value +of the boats, nets, and lines employed +exceeded £61,000, while the catching +and curing the fish occupied 5600 persons; +and the carrying of salt, and the +export of the fish to Ireland and the +European markets, gave occupation to +16,700 tons of shipping. <i>These are great +public interests, which are entitled to be +considered.</i> They are the results of +spirited enterprise that may fairly claim +to be encouraged, not by bounties and +protection duties, but by placing these +industrious and hardy Caithness fishermen, +as far as possible, on a level with +those of more favoured coasts, by the +construction of a low-water harbour, to +which they may confidently resort in the +hour of need.”—Ibid. p. ix.</p> + +<p class='c009'>There can be no doubt that the +formation of a capacious, easily accessible, +and well-sheltered low-water +harbour, in a central portion of the +great fishing district of the north-east +of Scotland would be of infinite +advantage; but it is equally certain +(and Captain Washington, as we +have already shown, is likewise of +that opinion) that the improvement +and increase of the smaller, even the +creek harbours, and the precarious +piers of such as have any such erections, +would be of incalculable service. +It is a well-known fact, and +one worthy of being held in remembrance, +that during the lamentable +gale of the 19th of August 1848, thirty +boats ran for Keiss Bay, where there +is a harbourage built or enlarged by +the Board of Fisheries, and were +saved. We may here add, what is +well known, that where there are no +harbours, the boats must be drawn +up and beached in creeks and bays. +Their size, therefore, in these cases, +corresponds not to the wilderness of +waves which they have to encounter, +but to the nature of the situation on +which they can be drawn up and +placed in safety. We thus frequently +find a great contrast between the +size of boats where harbours or other +sheltering fabrics have been built, +and those frequenting places where +there are none. It is also well known +that the boats engaged in the cod +and ling fisheries, &c., now require +to proceed farther out to sea than +formerly; and as they are necessarily +constructed of a larger size, and so +draw more water, they also need +deeper harbourage than of old.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We may now briefly notice the +commercial value of our fisheries. +The capital embarked in the trade is +not less than <i>two millions seven hundred +and thirty thousand pounds</i>. +It is chiefly distributed among a +people inhabiting wild and barren +districts of the country, where the +climate is cold and moist, employment +precarious, labour poorly paid, +and all creature-comforts few and far +between. Their real resources lie in +the sea, the products of which, unlike +the <i>cereals</i>, are fortunately not very +materially affected by a somewhat +cloudy and uncomfortable climate. +Many years ago, views of this kind +were propounded by a Scotchman, +Mr David Loch, the father, we believe, +of the late lamented M.P. for +the Wick burghs. He writes rather +critically regarding the natives of the +<i>Western</i> Highlands:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“I am sorry to observe that the fishing +is greatly neglected at this and the +harvest seasons, as most of the people are +farmers as well as fishermen; so that +their time being divided between the +two branches, the great object, fishing, +has not that time and attention paid to +it which is absolutely necessary. It is +true that the country is not unfavourable +to the breeding of sheep, not only on +account of the pasture in general, but +also as the snow never remains long on +the ground; and as the farmers, very +judiciously, use no tar, they sell their +wool at 14s. the stone. The fisheries, +however, should be their first care; and +I declare, from my own knowledge, +that a few boats’ crews of our east-country +fishers would make rich here, +and realise more money than half the +farmers in this quarter. What a pity +it is the inhabitants should be so blind +to their own interest, and neglect to +avail themselves of the advantages which +their local situation offers to them! +A boat’s crew of six men would make +more money in one month than any farmer +here can off the produce of a hundred +acres of his best arable land, after +deducting the value of the seed and +the expenses attending its culture; and +the former could, from the proceeds of +their fish, furnish themselves with meal, +flour, malt, barley, and vivers of every +kind, on easier and much better terms +than the latter can possibly raise and +supply themselves with from their own +farms. <i>Fish</i> is the natural produce of their +seas, with which they abound, and to which +they are contiguous; and <i>grass</i>, for pasturing +sheep and black cattle, the natural +produce of their lands. Nature, in denying +them the means (of grain culture), +has given them the fisheries, which is +their natural staple, and is more than an +equivalent for the deprivation of the +other.”<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c007'><sup>[18]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>A higher and more recent authority, +Sir John M‘Neill, G.C.B., Chief +Commissioner of the Poor Law Board +for Scotland, has borne corresponding +testimony to the value of our fisheries, +and their great advance during our +own days. In reference to the county +of Caithness, he observes:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Nearly the whole sea-coast of the +county, including the towns of Thurso +and Wick, is inhabited by persons more or +less directly dependent upon the fisheries. +In the rural parts, the fishermen have +generally attached to their dwellings small +farms or lots as they are called, varying +in extent from two to ten acres of arable +land. These, however, do not afford +them the chief part of their subsistence. +They rely upon the fisheries, and regard +the cultivation of their lots as a +secondary and comparatively unimportant +part of their business.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“At the end of the last century, the +value of the cured fish annually exported +from Caithness did not exceed £13,000, +and it then consisted almost exclusively +of salmon. The cured herring, cod, and +ling, exported from Wick and Lybster +for the last ten years, gives an average +annual value of not less than £130,000, +according to the Returns of the Board of +Fisheries. The annual value of the +whole land in the county was returned +in 1843 at £66,000. The population in +1841 was 36,343.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The Caithness fisheries have thus +not only become a source of prosperity +to the county, but have also become an +object of national importance; and their +further extension appears to be in a +great measure dependent upon the increase +of suitable harbour accommodation +for the boats engaged in them. +Harbours, more or less secure, have been +formed from time to time at different +creeks along the coast, from Wick southward, +and the number of boats appears +to have increased in the ratio of the accommodation +provided for them. There +is no reason to believe that the limit has +yet been reached, or that, if the harbour +accommodation were increased, the fisheries, +more especially of herring, would +not receive a corresponding development. +But even now the population of the +county is not nearly sufficient to supply +the demand for hands during the fishing +season, and some thousands of men from +the west coast, find in Caithness, during +that season, employment and wages, +without which they could not subsist. +The increase of harbour accommodation +in Caithness, besides increasing the general +amount of production, would thus +afford additional employment to the inhabitants +of the West Coast and Islands +of Inverness, Ross, and Sutherland, who +frequent the east coast fisheries because +they cannot find sufficient employment +at home.”<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c007'><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>We may add in connection with the +above, that about 10,000 Highlanders +pass across from west to east during +the continuance of the autumnal +fishery, in which they find, for the +time being, their sole refuge from +destitution. It is estimated that +from 7000 to 10,000 Highland women +of the poorest class, and otherwise +most forlorn condition, are likewise +beneficially employed in gutting +and packing herrings.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Great improvement and increased +activity have been manifested in the +fisheries of late years, and the facilities +afforded by steam-navigation +and the formation of railways have +no doubt given a decided impulse to +that department, as to so many other +branches of commercial occupation. +The value of our <i>materials</i> alone, in +the way of boats, netting, and lines, +now amounts to upwards of £580,000, +minutely portioned out as the property, +we need scarcely say in many +cases the sole property, of a very poor +though industrious part of the population.<a id='r20'></a><a href='#f20' class='c007'><sup>[20]</sup></a> +There are nearly 11,000 +boats employed in the Scotch fisheries +(including a few hundred from +the Isle of Man), giving permanent +employment to about 40,000 fishermen, +besides occupying, as coopers, +gutters, and labourers, towards 30,000 +other persons. Of the higher class of +merchants or fish-curers, there are +considerably above 1100 engaged in +the trade.<a id='r21'></a><a href='#f21' class='c007'><sup>[21]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>In estimating the money-value of +the products of the Scotch fisheries, +each barrel of cured herrings may be +regarded as equivalent to £1, 1s. The +price is sometimes higher, as in 1854, +when it often reached to £1, 4s.; but +it is also occasionally lower, when +there is a large stock in hand, and the +foreign markets are sluggish. The +fishing trade is more than most others +liable to fluctuations,—the supply +itself varying from glut to scarcity. +Thus the average profits are probably +very moderate to all concerned. But +taking the sum first mentioned as a +fair price, it has been ascertained, +that, upon the most moderate computation, +the herring fishery of 1855 +will produce—</p> + +<table class='table2'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Of cured herrings,</td> + <td class='c004'>£700,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Of fresh herrings,</td> + <td class='c004'>150,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'>£850,000</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c009'>The price, however, of cured fish +being actually up, and as the returns +of fresh fish are always much below +the mark, we are informed, on the +best authority, that the real value of +the preceding season’s capture will +exceed <i>one million</i> sterling. This is +a great thing for so poor a country, +and especially for the poorer classes +of that country. That our wealthier +neighbours over the Border are made +large partakers in our scaly spoils, is +obvious from what appears to us to +be a remarkable though distinctly +ascertained fact, that in the course of +a few weeks of last season, <i>5053 +tons of fresh herrings</i> were transmitted, +chiefly southwards, from the Dunbar +district, by the North British +Railway alone. The <i>take</i> of herrings +in 1849, for Scotland and the Isle of +Man, was 942,617 barrels. The season +of 1853 was also very productive, +yielding, exclusive of the English +stations, 908,800 barrels.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Of the cured fish a very considerable +portion is exported to Ireland +and the Continental kingdoms. Thus +during the immediately preceding +season (fishing of 1855), it is estimated +that out of a total cure of +705,109 barrels, 100,000 barrels were +sent to Ireland, and 338,360 barrels +to the Continent. To Stettin alone +we have this year exported close upon +155,000 barrels, almost all guaranteed +as in prime condition, and skilfully +cured, by means of the Fishery +crown brand impressed by burning +on the staves. This process of branding +is regarded as of great importance +by the foreign merchants, more especially +by such as have afterwards +occasion to consign their stock to +others for inland transportation. The +crown brand is our Government official +mark, and testifies that the contents +have been carefully examined +and approved of by the appointed +Fishery officer of the district where +the fish were caught and cured; and +so great is the confidence now placed +in the skill and integrity of these experienced +and faithful functionaries, +that barrels so marked pass from +hand to hand, without examination, +into the very heart of Europe, and +onwards to the shores of the Black +Sea. We need scarcely say how deteriorated +the contents would be if +the barrels were opened and the fish +inspected, as they passed from country +to country, or from one purchaser +to another. By the present practice +this loss is avoided, and great advantage +gained.</p> + +<p class='c009'>A single sentence may suffice for +cod and ling. Stornoway in Lewis, +and the Orkney and Shetland Islands, +are the chief stations for these fine +fish. In 1854 the amount cured at +these and the other places in the +north was 115,850 <i>hundredweight</i>. +Besides these, there were caught and +disposed of <i>fresh</i>, 58,042 hundredweight. +The quantity of individual +fish of the cod and ling kind, killed in +the north of Scotland during the season +of 1854, was <i>three million five +hundred and twenty-three thousand +two hundred and sixty-nine</i>. Of +these, 1,385,699 were caught off the +Shetland Islands. What a boon to a +people who can scarcely grow grain, +and cannot live on grass!</p> + +<p class='c009'>The preceding facts seem, on the +whole, to indicate a rather pleasant +and prosperous condition of affairs, +for which we ought to be unfeignedly +thankful, and with which it might +not be deemed advisable to intermeddle, +at least in the way of sudden +and unsought-for change.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Our fishery affairs, we may now +observe, are at present managed, so +far as legal rules and regulations are +concerned, by a certain number of +Commissioners, who constitute the +“Board of Fisheries.”<a id='r22'></a><a href='#f22' class='c007'><sup>[22]</sup></a> The functions +of that Board are chiefly as follows: +To obtain for Parliament accurate +statistical returns of the cod +and herring fisheries,—of the seafaring +and other persons employed in +those occupations,—of the number, +computed tonnage, value, &c., of the +boats and other vessels engaged, and +to give clearances for the same. In +the herring fishery, to see that the +measures for the delivery of fresh +herrings, as between purchaser and +seller, are of the legal standard size; +and when the fish are cured, to ascertain +that the barrels in which they +are packed are of the full dimensions, +and not fraudulently made, and to +apply the official mark, called the +Crown Brand, to whatever barrels +contain herrings so cured and packed, +and of such superior quality as to +entitle them to receive it; to enforce +the fishery convention between Great +Britain and foreign countries, and +guard the coast of Scotland against +the intrusion of foreigners during the +fishing season; to act likewise as a +home police among the multitudinous +masses of fishermen and other natives +collected for the herring fishery +along the coast, or in the numerous +narrow firths and sea-lochs of our +country, where there is often scarcely +room to hold them; and to see that +the boats in all such cases take up +their proper stations, so as to prevent +fouling of gear, and unseemly, sometimes +dangerous, brawls; finally, +to erect piers and quays, and to make +and maintain harbours on the coasts +with aid from the proprietors and +fishermen, with whom the Commissioners +are in frequent communication, +and to protect the boats and +property in those harbours.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Of course these important and multifarious +duties cannot be performed +but at some expense; yet when we +consider the deep interests involved, +the vast capital embarked, the steady +and increasing occupation of a remunerative +kind afforded to so great a +mass of our poorer population, and +the difficulties and dangers which +naturally beset this adventurous calling, +we think the sum is very small +compared with the advantages which +its expenditure insures. The police +department, especially on the western +shores and islands, is chiefly maintained +by the Princess Royal cutter, +of about 103 tons burden, and a +crew of 20 men and boys, including +an experienced commander, and +mate. This vessel is under the exclusive +control of the Board. During +the height of the fishing season, one +or more small steam-vessels are +placed by the Admiralty under the +direction of the Board, and one +of these vessels is usually continued +in the Firth of Forth, for the protection +of the winter fishing, so frequent +there. The entire coast is divided +into districts amounting, with the +Orkney and Shetland Islands, to 22 +in number, managed by a general +Inspector, and 25 resident officers, +whose sole occupation consists in +the direction and encouragement of +whatever may tend to the improvement +and increase of the fisheries, +and their products. It is imperative +that these men should themselves +have served for three years +in the practical performance of the +cooper’s art. They are selected on +account of their probity, sobriety, +assiduity, and intelligence, and +they are not raised to be the responsible +officers of a district till +they have acquired the requisite +knowledge, and given proof of their +capability, as assistants and nominees, +for the higher situations. They reside +among, and habitually mingle with +the people of the fishing stations, and +keep up a friendly and uninterrupted +intercourse with them. That they +skilfully and faithfully fulfil their +functions, may be inferred from the +very few instances in which, during +a long continuous course of years, +and almost countless series of transactions, +any complaint of defective +cure in any barrel bearing the brand +has ever been presented to the Board.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The mere bestowal of the brand +is, however, by no means the sole, +though it is the final act of those +officials. They are on the alert wherever +fish are landed from the exhaustless +deep. They encourage and +hasten the immediate application of +the most approved modes of handling, +assorting, gutting, rousing, salting, +re-pickling, packing, filling up +after sinking, and so on, and are thus +actively engaged among all the various +classes of people, whether of the +sea or shore, explaining what is right, +and checking what is wrong, from +the first moment that the fish are +landed from the boats, like glittering +and gorgeous heaps of silver, till the +full barrels are finally fixed down, +and the brand applied. They also +ascertain that the measures used as +between the fishermen and the curers, +and between the curers and the public, +are properly constructed, and of +just dimensions. To do this effectively, +in a station such as that of +Wick, where many hundred large +boats are discharging their almost +living freight nearly at the same +time, it is obvious that energy, activity, +and considerable sharp-sightedness, +are indispensable to see that +all is open and above board among +such an innumerable and multifarious +crew from all quarters,—counting +among them, no doubt, as in all +other trades, those who are not so +scrupulous as to debar their being +somewhat greedy of gain. We have +been told, from the highest source, +of how many evils that fatal though +frequent passion is the root.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The expenses of the Board, as above +constituted, are the following. There +is a special grant of £3000 (by Act +of Parliament) for the erection of +piers and quays, or other harbour-work. +There is a further sum granted, +by the annual votes of supply, of +£11,000 for the general expenses of +the Board, their head office in Edinburgh, +their establishment of district +officers throughout the country, the +general superintendence of the fisheries, +and the maintenance of the +cutter and her crew. The Commissioners +of the Board act gratuitously. +We presume that the functionaries +last alluded to, although unpaid, +assiduously perform the duties required +of them, and to which they +are pledged. The following is Mr +John Shaw Lefevre’s testimony in +their favour, as well as in advocation +of the continuance both of the +brand and Board:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Having arrived at the conviction of +the necessity of maintaining at present +the system of branding herrings, it appears +to me that this would of itself require +the continuance of the Fishery +Board, independently of the question of +the general utility of that establishment. +I conceive that the superintendence of +that system, and of the officers conducting +it, could not be better or more satisfactorily +executed than by that Board, +which is thoroughly conversant with +the subject, as respects the Scotch fisheries, +to which the branding system is +practically limited, and far more conveniently +situated than any Central +Board in London.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Having had the opportunity of inspecting +the correspondence and proceedings +of this Board, it would be unjust +not to take this opportunity of adverting +to the important services which +the Commissioners, acting themselves +gratuitously, and with a moderate establishment, +have rendered to the public in +assisting for a long period of years in the +development of this branch of national +industry, and of expressing my belief, +that, in the present condition of the +poorer classes in Scotland, the question +of the continuance of the Board of Fisheries +is not merely to be regarded in reference +to measures of economy,—that +it is impossible to doubt the social and +moral advantages which may and do result +to this class of the population, from +the attention bestowed upon their welfare +by a body of eminent persons, distinguished +by their rank, position, and +knowledge, and who are constantly endeavouring +to obtain and disseminate information +useful to those employed in +the fisheries, to encourage their enterprise, +to stimulate their industry, and +to promote their physical and moral +welfare.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>We quite agree with Mr Lefevre in +the opinion expressed above, and especially +in his belief that a Scotch +Board, necessarily conversant with +the subject of the Scotch fisheries, will +exercise a more effective and satisfactory +superintendence, and perform +its functions much more conveniently +and economically, than could any +board in London, so far removed from +the scene of action.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The general importance of our present +subject is too obvious and admitted +to be argumentatively insisted +on. If we have writ our annals true, +it cannot be doubted that the British +fisheries, as the great nursery for seamen +of habitual hardihood, and fearless +of “the lightning, the fierce +winds, the trampling waves,” are altogether +invaluable, and, in a national +point of view, far transcend the mere +direct pecuniary advantages, however +great, which may so easily be shown +to spring from them. It is long since +Sir Henry Wotton maintained that +there was something even in the capture +of fish, viewed simply as a trade, +which tended to improve the moral, +if not the intellectual character of +men, and to bring them up for the +most part a humane as well as hardy +race; and more recently, Baron Cuvier, +so well acquainted with both +man and beast, and every other thing +that dwells on this terraqueous globe, +has recorded his opinion, that all nations +possessed of any sea-coast where +the herring occurs, have given great +encouragement to its capture, wisely +regarding that occupation as the +most natural nursery for the bringing +up of robust men, intrepid sailors, and +skilful navigators, and so of the highest +importance in the establishment +of maritime greatness. Lacepede +goes so far as to regard the herring as +“<span lang="fr">une de ces productions dont l’emploi +décide de la destinée des empires.</span>” +We know that during the +palmiest days of the States-General, +out of a population of 2,400,000 persons, +450,000 were either fishermen, +or connected with the building and +equipment of ships and boats pertaining +to the fisheries; and so the Pensionary +De Witt was not far wrong +when he stated that every fifth man +in Holland earned his subsistence by +the sea, and that the herring fishery +might be regarded as the right hand +of the republic. Indeed, the Dutch +nation, so wary, considerate, and persevering, +have always admitted that +their wealth and strength resulted +from the sea; and hence the old saying +still in use among them, that the +“foundation of Amsterdam was laid +on herring-bones.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Seeing, then, that we are surrounded +by so great a mass of witnesses, testifying +to the importance of this trade, +and knowing to what height, after so +many years of toil and trouble, we +have now attained, ought we to put +in peril our present most advantageous +position, by venturing upon any +fanciful alteration of that familiar +machinery which has hitherto worked +so well?</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is, however, rumoured that Government +proposes, we presume by +way of mending these matters, to +abolish the Board of Fisheries, collect +the statistics, and exercise the superintendence, +after some other fashion, +cast the brand into oblivion, withdraw +the grant for the building of +piers and quays, and so dispense, <i>in +toto</i>, with the advice, assistance, or +intervention of the old and experienced +authorities. This proposal, of course, +proceeds upon the assumption that +the brand may now be advantageously +done away with, and the principle +adopted which has so long been +applied to the linen and woollen manufactures, +which are not now stamped +officially, but depend for preference +on the character and merits of each +particular maker. We understand it +to be alleged, that this so-called +sounder system should be applied to +the Scotch fisheries, with a view to +assimilate them, so far, to those of +Ireland. We shall now consider this +proposal, which, we need scarcely say, +has sorely perplexed and alarmed the +people of our coasts. They almost +feel as if the fate foretold by the Prophet +Isaiah was now in store for them, +and that the time is at hand, when +“the fishers also shall mourn, ... +and they that spread nets upon the +waters shall languish.”—Isa. xix. 8.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We shall now, as briefly as we can, +take up the subject under the different +heads into which it naturally +divides itself.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In the first place, we can bear testimony, +from personal knowledge, to +the fact, that great importance is +attached by our fishing population to +the existence of the Board. They +view it as a body to whom they can +have easy access, through the resident +Fishery officers at the various stations. +Their impression is that their +interests are cared for by it, and +hence their willingness, in cases of +difference or dispute, to be regulated +by the friendly interposition of the +official superintendents. Innumerable +cases might be cited of aid afforded +by the captain and crew of the +Princess Royal fishery cutter, as +well as by the effective influence and +authority of the naval superintendent, +with his Queen’s ship. But the great +advantage of the former vessel is, +that she is under the entire control of +the Board for the whole year, whereas +the war-steamer is only given for a +time, and is of course always under +Admiralty orders. There is also additional +benefit found to flow to the +Highland population of our insular +and other western shores, from the +easy intercourse they can have with +the Gaelic-speaking boats’ crew of the +cutter, compared with the utter and +irremediable absence of all intelligible +intercourse, which not unfrequently +occurs, between that population and +the unalloyed Saxons of a steamship +from the south.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We doubt not that the Board of +Fisheries believes itself, and on good +ground, to be, from the very nature of +its constitution, in a more favourable +position than any other body of men +can be, to ascertain and judge of the +local requirements of parties applying +for additional accommodation in the +way of piers and quays. Their accurate +statistical returns enable them +to know whether a given station is +on the increase or otherwise, and their +local officers having necessarily an +intimate acquaintance with the character +of the fishing population of each +district, can testify to their activity +and success. They can thus give +information which it would be extremely +difficult to obtain in any other +way, but without which the propriety +of erecting, or repairing and extending, +any of these shore-works, could +not be so satisfactorily determined.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In respect to the proposal to assimilate +the Scotch to the <i>Irish</i> fisheries, +we believe the fact to be, that the +Irish <i>Herring</i> Fishery has actually +no existence as a national undertaking. +Let any one read over the <cite>Reports</cite> +of the Irish Commissioners, and +he will perceive at once that their +functions are confined almost exclusively +to the regulation and improvement +of the <i>Inland Fisheries</i>; that is, +those of salmon and white trout. +Any mention of herrings is, in truth, +of the most casual and unimportant +kind. There is, no doubt, a somewhat +regular herring fishery off a +portion of the eastern coast of Ireland, +the boats sailing, for the time being, +to and from the harbour of Howth. +But it is very well known to every person +in any way conversant with the subject, +that these boats consist of about +140 from St Ives, in Cornwall, of towards +100 from the Isle of Man, and +of some 20 from Campbeltown in +the west of Scotland. Scarcely any +native Irish boats frequent that +fishery. We believe that a few come +off from Arklow,—we presume very +few, as they are not enumerated by +the Irish Commissioners. These Commissioners, +however, state, that of all +the boats above mentioned, the Scotch +“are invariably the most successful,” +owing to the superior nature of their +nets, and no doubt more skilful mode +of management. So backward, in +truth, is the condition of the Irish +herring fishery, and those connected +with it, compared with the Scotch +and its conductors, that a very few +seasons ago a set of cooper’s tools for +the manufacture of barrels could not +be found at any curing-station in all +Ireland, and there had to be sent over +from Scotland, at the request of Mr +Ffennel, one of the Irish Inspecting +Commissioners, a few skilled artisans, +with the necessary implements, to instruct +the establishments of the sister +isle, and aid those concerned in their +pursuit of knowledge under difficulties. +Now, we should certainly be +very sorry to be assimilated to anything +of that kind, although we can +easily conceive that the assimilation +of the Irish fisheries to those of Scotland +would be of great advantage to +the former.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We are willing to make every allowance +for the difference in the character +and disposition of the Scotch and Irish +(although the majority of the one, so +far as <i>fishers</i> are concerned, are as +<i>Celtic</i> as the other), and for many disturbing +elements in the Green Isle +which do not so deeply and fatally +pervade the social state of our own +people; but still, where we find, on +the one hand, a most important branch +of commerce long established and +maintained in security, and now on +the increase from year to year, and on +the other a desponding if not decreasing +condition of affairs, carried on +with little energy and no success,—there +seems nothing unreasonable in +the supposition, that management +and methodical regulation, a long-continued +course of instruction, an unceasing +supervision, and encouragement +both by precept and example, +to work up and attain to a higher +standard of excellence than heretofore, +may have produced the most beneficial +effect in the former case; while +the absence of such ameliorating +causes, and of all counteractions of +apathy and ignorance, may have been +injurious in the latter. The Scotch +fishermen and fish-curers have experienced, +and still enjoy, the advantages +referred to,—the Irish have not +been deprived of them, because they +never had them in possession. The +Scotch herring fishery is by far the +greatest and most successful in the +world,—the Irish is unfortunately the +smallest and least prosperous on the +waters of the known earth; and why +should we seek to assimilate the two +by adding much to nothing, rather +than by endeavouring to create something +out of nothing, and thus increasing +the previously existing stores +of national wealth? Of course, we +know not with certainty what effect +would follow the formation along the +still unproductive Irish shores of a +machinery in accordance with the +system which has proved so signally +successful along the wild coasts of +much more barren and ungenial Scotland; +but we think it would surely be +a wiser and more generous policy to +try the experiment of assimilation, +rather by endeavouring to raise up +Ireland to what it ought to be, than +run the risk of bringing the two +countries into somewhat similar condition, +by sacrificing any of the few advantages +which Scotland now enjoys.</p> + +<p class='c009'>If the accurate ascertainment of +the statistics of the land is now +deemed of such vital importance, +surely that of the sea, to this great +maritime and commercial nation, is +no way less so. This brings us to +the consideration of the performance +of another important duty of the +Board, the advantages of which we +should of course lose on its abolition. +Our marine and fishery statistics +have been hitherto collected with +great fulness and accuracy by the +officers of the Board, and annually +reported to Parliament. On the demolition +of the Board, who are to +perform the same functions in time +to come? If the coast-guard is to be +so employed, as it is in Ireland, let +us briefly inquire into the well-doing +of that system there.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In reference to the marine statistics +of the sister isle, as collected and +transmitted by the coast-guard, the +Irish Fishery Commissioners report +as follows:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The doubts which we have expressed +in former reports of the accuracy of the +tabular returns, which are founded upon +information furnished by the coast-guard +department, are, we regret to state, undiminished. +Several cases in which we +have endeavoured to test their correctness, +have convinced us that <i>not even an +approximate estimate</i> can be formed of +the actual extent and state of the fishing +establishment on the coast. From any +sources within our reach, unaided by +anything like a responsible staff, <i>we are +unable to obtain the necessary information</i>, +or to effect that perfect organisation of +the coast which would tend to the promotion +of the fisheries and the preservation +of order—an object of vital importance +to the well-working of the fisheries, +as well as to the peace of the country.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“We have in our department but one +clerk, whose duties are sometimes necessarily +extended to visiting distant stations +for the promulgation of by-laws, +or for other purposes; and on such occasions +we have required of him to furnish +us with a statement of his progress. +His reports prove how exceedingly valuable +the services of qualified persons +would be, instead of the desultory and +unsatisfactory information which we are +enabled to procure from irresponsible +persons, who are bound to make our +business quite subordinate to their more +important duties. We subjoin a copy +of the circular and queries which we +issue annually to the coast-guard department; +and in most cases we find that +five out of the seven questions asked are +either not answered at all, or in a manner +not calculated to afford much information.”<a id='r23'></a><a href='#f23' class='c007'><sup>[23]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>In a subsequent report the Inspecting +Commissioners state, in relation +to the Belmullet district, which extends +from Duna Head to Butter +Point, that the diminution in the +number of boats and hands is so +great as to seem quite incredible. +They attribute this not so much to +the actual decrease, as to the erroneous +and exaggerated information +formerly received. “There are no +first-class boats, and only 190 second +class, with 676 men and boys, instead +of the former establishment, which +was stated to have been 962 vessels, +with 3376 men and boys. This +clearly proves the great inaccuracy +of former returns.”<a id='r24'></a><a href='#f24' class='c007'><sup>[24]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>In the most recent report of the +Irish Commissioners the following is +the conclusion come to:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“We cannot conclude this report on +the coast fisheries of Ireland without +expressing our deep regret that we are +not furnished with data which would +enable us to supply accurate statistical +information as to the physical resources +which may be found upon our shores for +purposes of national defence. The encouragement +of our coast fisheries used +in former times to be considered the +most effectual and legitimate means of +providing for our navy.... In +France we are told that the whole commercial +navy—masters, mates, sailors, +and shipboys—are under the eye and +jurisdiction of the Minister of Marine;—nay, +every fisherman, waterman, ferryman, +oyster-dredger, and boat-builder +is registered. We very much wish that +we had been enabled to establish even a +less perfect system of organisation, but +we find ourselves more deficient in +means of obtaining accurate information +every succeeding year; and we entertain +little hopes that, until the present plan +of registry is much improved, we can +ever attempt to present returns the accuracy +of which we could vouch for.”<a id='r25'></a><a href='#f25' class='c007'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>We do not think that the preceding +extracts are encouraging, or hold +out any great inducement to assimilate +our established mode of marine +statistical collection to that of Ireland. +Far better to abide as we are, +and “let well alone.” It may also +be borne in mind, that so far as the +north-west portions of Scotland, with +their numerous and deeply-indented +fishing-bays, are concerned, there is +actually no coast-guard in existence.</p> + +<p class='c009'>A single paragraph may suffice in +regard to the general marine superintendence, +or police duties, as exercised +by the Board of Fisheries. +These duties are chiefly performed +by boats’ crews from the Princess +Royal fishery cutter. We may refer +to the fact that the Chamber of +Commerce of Wick apply each season +to the Board for a boat’s crew to be +stationed at Wick, for the purpose of +preserving order in the fleet of fishing-boats +assembled in that overcrowded +mart; and that the results +are invariably so successful and satisfactory, +that no complaints of brawling +or contention are ever made. +On the contrary, the Chamber of +Commerce seems annually to express +and record its grateful acknowledgments +to the Board for its efficient +services in this particular matter of +the preservation of the peace. The +following, however, is of a somewhat +different complexion, in the last Report +of the Irish Commissioners, +regarding the state of matters in the +Green Isle:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The fishers and buyers complain +greatly of the absence of some regulations +for the preservation of order among +the multitude of boats and people that +are often assembled; and still more of +the absence of any summary jurisdiction +for enforcing regulations and settling +disputes between the boatmen themselves, +and between them and the purchasers; +and have agreed upon a memorial +to the Lord-Lieutenant upon the +subject, which, doubtless, will come before +the Board in due time.”<a id='r26'></a><a href='#f26' class='c007'><sup>[26]</sup></a> “The +inspecting commander at Donaghadee +complains that the people do not conform +to the laws with regard to the size +of the meshes; and that with poke nets, +used in Lough Strangford, great quantities +of fry of cod, whiting, pollock, +blocken, sythes, salmon-trout, turbot, +golpens, and smelts, from two to three +inches long, are destroyed.”<a id='r27'></a><a href='#f27' class='c007'><sup>[27]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>We may now say a few words regarding +the somewhat disputed subject +of the <i>brand</i>. Many of our +readers are, no doubt, so innocent as +not to know very precisely what this +mysterious symbol indicates. The +mark called the <i>Full crown Brand</i> +merely means, that the herrings contained +in the barrel which bears it +have been regularly selected and assorted +from the first, as of full size, +good quality, and fresh condition; +that they have been gutted and salted +immediately after capture; have gone +through various intermediate curative +processes not needful to be here detailed; +have lain at least ten days in +pickle since their first presentment +in the market-place; and having been +then carefully inspected by the fishery +officer of the station, and found +in every way excellent and in sound +order, have had the heads and girdings +of their barrels firmly and +finally fixed down by the cooper, and +so being entitled to the Government +Brand, have accordingly had that +distinction impressed upon them by +means of a hot iron which “the +likeness of a queenly crown has on.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Now, it has been argued by some, +who, like Campbell’s sable chieftain +of the Indian forest,—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Scorning to wield the hatchet for a bribe,</div> + <div class='line'>’Gainst Brand himself have gone in battle forth,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>that this is an interference with the +freedom of trade, which should be +left open to all competitors, without +fear or favour. They maintain that +although it may be convenient and +advantageous to dealers, it practically +tends to confine improvement in the +mode of cure within the limits just +necessary to secure the brand, and +that there is thus no inducement held +out to a fish-curer to surpass his fellows,—the +Government brand, as it +were, equalising the value of the article, +although one set of barrels may +be much better than another. It is +also asserted that the brand creates +an artificial system inconsistent with +proper and prevailing principles, and +that the sounder system now applied +to the linen and woollen trade (from +both of which the Government mark +has been for some time removed), and +all along to the fisheries of Ireland, +should be put in force.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In reply to these objections, it may +be mentioned that herrings are of a +very different nature from linen or +woollen fabrics, and after being packed +for exportation, cannot have their +character and condition ascertained +by either touch or eye-sight, without +injury to their future state. The +brand is <i>not compulsory</i>, and can +scarcely present any barrier to improvement +in the cure of herrings, +because if any curer, more skilful +than his neighbours, can find out and +put in practice any better method +than that now in use, he is entirely +free to do so, and may thus establish +his name, and trust to it, independent +of the brand. Moreover, whatever +may be the philosophical value of the +principle in political economy pointed +out as deserving of a preference in +the abstract, it must practically +(and the gutting and curing of +herrings are very practical operations +in their way) be borne in mind, +that our fisheries have grown up +rapidly under the present system, +which was found necessary to enable +us to compete with the Dutch, whom +we have thereby driven out of whatever +markets are open to us without +disadvantageous differential duties, +and that our now prosperous practice +is sunk into the very foundations of our +foreign trade, affecting the wellbeing +of almost countless thousands, from the +forlorn fisherman to the wealthiest +capitalist, or most aspiring speculator.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is assuredly a strong fact, that +the foreign merchants themselves are +unanimous in favour of the continuance +of the present system, as +enabling them to transmit their barrels, +on the faith of the brand, into +far inland countries, where the names +of our native curers, however familiar +to many of ourselves, are necessarily +quite unknown, but where the acknowledged +<i>crown brand</i>, by its simplicity +and certainty, suffices for +every purpose of an agreed-on guarantee. +Great derangement of the +foreign trade, and consequent disadvantage, +are naturally apprehended +from any sudden departure from the +existing long-established system. The +trouble and expense which, in absence +of the brand, necessarily follow the +practice of <i>braken</i> (that is, inspection +by opening) would inevitably decrease +the profits of both the fishermen and +curers in our own country; because as +each party through whose hands the +fish pass from their first capture to +their final consumption must reap +some share of profit, whatever increases +the difficulties of the intermediate +stages, tends to lower prices +in this country. The duties paid +abroad, both of import and transit, +and other unavoidable charges, prevent +the exaction of any higher prices +in the foreign market, because any +considerable increase would be tantamount +to prohibition, and would thus +debar any sales whatever. As the +price, then, must remain the same, or +nearly so, to the foreign consumer, a +large proportion of the loss occasioned +by increased expense would unavoidably +fall upon our own people. Now, +it is well known that, in consequence +of the perilous and uncertain nature +of a fisherman’s vocation, and the peculiarities +of the curing trade, the +profits to those concerned can in no +way stand reduction, however much +they may require increase.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The opinion of the foreign merchants +on this matter has been manifested +many times. On the 7th of +March 1844, Messrs Robinow & +Sons, and Hudtwalcker & Co., of +Hamburg, write as follows:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“We believe ourselves entitled to +state that we are not merely expressing +our own individual sentiments, but, at +the same time, those of the public in +general interested in the herring trade +of the Continent. The official interference +of the Board will prove a great +benefit to the Scotch herring trade. It +will, on the one hand, prove to the +buyers on the Continent that the Board +of Fisheries is desirous to do all in its +power to justify the renowned fame of +its brands, and in this way give more confidence +to the trade. On the other hand, +the curers of Scotland will be influenced +by such steps to pay as much attention +to the curing and packing as possible, +and thus increasing confidence on the +part of consumers, and increasing vigilance, +with a view to improve the cure, +on the part of the curers and officers, +will conjointly contribute to increase +the consumption of Scotch herrings on +the Continent, and consequently to increase +the exportation.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Mr Wellmann, of Stettin, a very +extensive foreign purchaser of the +Caithness branded herrings, in a +letter to Mr George Traill, M.P. for +the county, wrote thus on the 8th +of February 1851:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“Scotch herrings are only sold in +small quantities in this market and the +neighbourhood; they are chiefly sent +great distances of from a hundred to +eight hundred miles English, into the +interior of Germany and Poland, either +by orders or offers, without the assistance +of commission merchants, for the +great expense of forwarding them does +not permit any commission to a third +party. The great distance prevents, +likewise, dealers from inspecting the +herrings on the spot here, who therefore +make their purchases solely on their +trust in the official brand, knowing that +the fish must be selected well, and properly +cured,—that the barrels be of +legal size,—and that they require to be +well and tightly made before the brand +can be affixed. These herrings are generally +forwarded by crafts, which are often +six or eight weeks on their passage, and +it frequently happens that a great fall in +the market takes place during that time; +and should the official brand be removed, +dealers in the interior might easily take +advantage of such falls, for it would not +be difficult to find complaints—such, for +instance, that the fish were not properly +selected or well cured—that they +had too much or too little salt—or that +the barrels were of a smaller size (for no +one can there say of what size the +barrels require to be); and as most herrings +are sold on credit, they would consequently +be often stored at the risk and +the expense of the shipper, and perhaps +in markets where the person who purchased +them was the only dealer.... +The cheapness and the improved cure +have increased the importation of Scotch +herrings into our port to a great extent, +for there is no port to which more +Scotch herrings are shipped than Stettin, +whilst the importation of Dutch and +Norwegian fish has diminished.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>A body of Hamburg merchants, +too numerous to be here named, +stated, on the 4th of October 1852, +that it is by the careful observance +of the regulations established and +enforced by the Board of Fisheries, +that the Scotch herring trade has +attained to its present magnitude:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“It is by the crown full brand,” they +observe, “that we enter into contracts, +make sales and deliveries, without examination. +Such herrings pass current +from hand to hand here, and into the +interior, some of them reaching the empire +of Austria. The many thousand +barrels of full crown branded herrings +arrived this season have given entire +satisfaction to us and our constituents; +but the sale of unbranded herrings is +frequently the subject of complaint, and +threats made by customers to return the +herrings. We are, therefore, compelled +to make abatements in the price.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>The partners of four merchant +firms of Berlin expressed themselves +thus, on the 7th of October 1852:—“We +hereby represent our entire confidence +in the official brand applied +to the Scotch herrings by the officers +of the Board of Fisheries, which is +our only guarantee for the large +capital we embark in this business.” +And the heads of six mercantile +houses of Magdeburg state, within +a few days of that time, in respect to +a rumour which had reached them +regarding the possible abolition of +the brand: “An alteration in this +respect would put us to the greatest +inconvenience, and compel us to +adopt another plan of payment, which +in the end would not be agreeable +to your merchants and curers.... +The opinion of a body of merchants, +importing annually 50,000 to 60,000 +barrels of Scotch herrings, will be +worth some consideration, particularly +as the object concerns the interests +of both parties.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Mr Thalberg, another Prussian +merchant, has recently (in 1855) +written as under:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“In order to show how the Scotch +herrings had risen in the Dantzic market, +while in 1841 only from 3000 to +4000 barrels were imported, last year +there were 35,000, and Scotch herrings +were gradually more and more taken +into the interior, while Norwegian herrings +have correspondingly decreased. +The same was the fact at Königsberg. +This he attributed to the brand. Some +of the herrings were actually sent to the +Black Sea, being bought at Dantzic on +the faith of the brand, which was so essential +to a continuance and spread of +the trade, that he did not believe purchasers +from the interior would come +such a distance and examine the barrels +for themselves, were the brand abolished. +Norwegian herrings were sent in small +yachts, and each parcel was examined +with the greatest minuteness before +being purchased.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>These are the opinions of foreign +merchants on this important point. +The following may be taken as expressing +the sentiments of those at +home. Mr James Methuen, of Leith, +a skilful curer, extensively known as +of great experience, and very largely +embarked in the export trade, very +recently wrote as follows:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“It is impossible to see each herring +in a barrel, therefore inspection of them +at the time of curing and packing enables +an officer to brand with knowledge +of the article, and gives confidence to +the purchaser.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“The official brand has proved the +means of exchange by bill of lading from +hand to hand, and from dealer to dealer, +in Scotland,—afloat in the middle of the +North Sea,—in the Baltic, or in the +rivers of Germany in their river craft, +and up the interior of Germany for +hundreds of miles,—and been passed +and paid for as a good bill of exchange—in +some cases through half-a-dozen +purchasers.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“I ask those who differ, would it be +wise of Parliament to peril the industry +of so many thousands of our seafaring +and industrious population, for want of +the supervision that has wrought so well +as to displace the demand for Norwegian +and Dutch cured herrings on the continent +of Europe, and enhanced the value +of the Scotch crown branded herrings, +so that they are now bought and sold +without inspection by parties who never, +and cannot, see them.”<a id='r28'></a><a href='#f28' class='c007'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>The important fact previously +stated by Mr Wellmann, in regard to +the increasing consumption of Scotch +herrings in the Baltic, and the consequently +decreased importation from +other quarters, is well shown by the +following table:—</p> + +<table class='table2'> + <tr> + <td class='c018'>In 1834,</td> + <td class='c018'>barrels</td> + <td class='c019'>of Dutch herrings</td> + <td class='c018'>received at</td> + <td class='c018'>Stettin,</td> + <td class='c004'>4,546</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c019'>of Norwegian do.,</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c004'>53,981</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c019'>of Scotch do.,</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c004'>19,960</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c019'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'>In 1850,</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c019'>of Dutch do.,</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c004'>568</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c019'>of Norwegian do.,</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c004'>12,507</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c019'>of Scotch do.,</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c004'>116,538</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c012'>In the year 1849, our exportation to +Stettin amounted to 147,103 barrels. +That season is well known to have +been the most productive of herrings +of any ever “recorded in history,” +and so gave us the power, while +Prussia afforded the opportunity, of +this most beneficial exportation. It +gives us sincere pleasure to add, that +the immediately preceding season of +1855, although by no means the +greatest in respect of capture, has +exceeded all its predecessors in exportation +to the Prussian markets—154,961 +barrels having been transmitted +to Stettin during the year now +closed. Almost the whole of that +vast consignment was ordered in consequence +of the certain guarantee +afforded by the crown brand. Now +that peace is ere long, as we trust, +about to be proclaimed, it is pleasant +to anticipate the fresh impulse which +may be given to the consumption of +our native produce in many inland +countries of the Continent. The +disastrous, though, from the cruel +necessities of war, advisable destruction +of the great Russian fisheries, +will no doubt, for a time, cause additional +recourse to our marine resources; +but the absence of the well-known +and long-trusted brand from +our barrels exported to the Baltic, +would assuredly tend to check, or +render less likely, that desirable +increase.<a id='r29'></a><a href='#f29' class='c007'><sup>[29]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>It is thought by many considerate +and well-instructed people, by bankers +and men of business, whether +merchants or otherwise, that the +power of obtaining the brand is of +great advantage to young men of +small means, and not yet established +commercial reputation, who desire to +enter into the export herring trade. +By attending carefully to the cure of, +it may be, only a few hundred barrels, +they obtain the brand, and can +ship their small stock with as good a +prospect of a fair proportional profit +as the most wealthy and best-known +exporter. This opens a door to rising +integrity and intelligence which might +otherwise be closed, and it lessens +the occasional evils of those engrossing +monopolies which the large command +of capital or credit is apt to +produce, to the disadvantage of the +poorer though not less trustworthy +trader.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In reference to the next head of +our discourse—the small annual grant +of £3000 for the erection or enlargement +of harbours, piers, and quays,—we +think it cannot be doubted that +its administration by the Board of +Fisheries is necessarily attended by +numerous and great advantages. Correspondence +and inquiry take place +in each particular instance of application +for aid; one of the first practical +steps being an accurate survey by +the Board’s engineers, with a report +on the practicability and probable +expense of the proposed work. The +cost of this preliminary investigation +is shared, half and half, between the +applicant and the Board. The Board, +being by this time in possession of all +particulars necessary to be known, +determines the proportion which the +proprietor or fishermen (or both, as +the case may be) should be made to +bear of the ultimate outlay, while the +latter parties also take into consideration +how far they are able to make the +required contribution; and so the +agreement is either completed, or does +not take place. Of course, the Board +may either reject or entertain an application, +while a proprietor (committed +to nothing more than his +share of the previous survey) may on +his part accept or refuse to pledge +himself to the payment of his fixed +proportion, according to what he +knows of his own ways and means. +It is not till these preliminaries have +been adjusted that the actual work +is mutually agreed upon, and put in +operation. We know that many of +these undertakings, which on their +first proposal seemed almost hopeless +of execution, have, by the encouragement +and exertion of the Board, been +brought to a successful issue, and are +not only now in themselves of unspeakable +advantage to our fishing +population, but, by affording a successful +example of the benefits which +occur from comparatively small sums +judiciously expended, have been the +means of conducing directly to the +erection of similar undertakings elsewhere, +of equal benefit, but not previously +taken into contemplation. A +great deal more is done by these +quiet and considerate means than +can possibly be here detailed; but it +is self-evident that the constant and +unconstrained communication which +now and has so long existed between +the Commissioners, the great majority +of whom are resident in Edinburgh, +and the proprietors as well as +people of the coast districts, where an +increase of boat accommodation is so +much required, cannot be otherwise +than advantageous.<a id='r30'></a><a href='#f30' class='c007'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c009'>Now, if the Board of Fisheries be +abolished, how and by whom are +these friendly and encouraging communications +to be carried on, and +who are to pay the preliminary expenses? +Through what agency are +matters to be put in shape for acceptance +by the Treasury, and the +recommendation of a special grant +by Parliament, in favour of any particular +pier, or other work, that may +be wanted? These preliminary but +unavoidable expenses would in many +cases fall upon a body of poor fishermen, +who, without any warning voice +on the one hand, or word of encouragement +on the other, must proceed +in doubt and darkness as to the +chances of ultimate success with +Government; while that Government +could not proceed to action in the +proposed matter without ordering +some inquiry of their own, with a +view to confirm or confute the opinion +of the applicant, and thus causing, +whatever might be the result, <i>additional +if not double expenditure</i>,—while +the object of the abolition of +the Board is <i>to save expense</i>! A detailed +explanation to Parliament regarding +the special requirements of +each particular case, though safe and +salutary in the instance of great +public harbour-works, would prove +inconvenient, if not inoperative, in +the administration of the numerous +smaller fishing-pier grants for Scotland, +hitherto contributed and administered +by the Board. In what +way the local though important circumstances +connected with the expenditure +of a few hundred pounds +for the erection of a slip at the far +end of Lewis, at Sandseir in Shetland, +or Eday in Orkney, can form +the subject of an immediate and judicious +parliamentary inquiry, we +cannot well conceive. Probably few +proprietors would desire to take advantage +of a grant for some small +but desirable improvement in those +wild regions, were all the private and +preliminary negotiations subjected to +so cumbrous and uncertain a course +as a consideration by the House of +Commons. The communications now +made to the Board of Fisheries by +many Highland and other proprietors, +are no doubt often to a certain +extent of a confidential nature, involving +the exposition of pecuniary +affairs in connection with the proportional +sums which particular proprietors +may or may not have it in +their power to pay. But when the +main point is proved, to the satisfaction +of the Board—to wit, that a great +and general advantage will assuredly +accrue to the people, whether a +closely congregated mass, or the forlorn +and far-scattered remnants of +some dim and distant island of the +sea,—then is the grant agreed to, and +every effort, consistent with enduring +efficiency, made to economise its administration, +while every exertion +has been previously put forth to obtain +the utmost possible aid from +proprietors and fishermen. It is obvious, +from the annual reports made +to Parliament, how much is frequently +effected by the Board in +this way. Let the following examples +suffice for the exposition +of this portion of our subject. The +harbours after-named have not been +built by wealthy proprietors, but +by contributions to the Board by +working fishermen, out of the hard-earned +savings of their precarious +life of labour.</p> + +<table class='table2'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>For the harbour of Cellar-dyke there was lately paid by fishermen,</td> + <td class='c020'>£705</td> + <td class='c020'>18</td> + <td class='c004'>4</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Do. Buckhaven, do.,</td> + <td class='c020'>3,116</td> + <td class='c020'>19</td> + <td class='c004'>9</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Do. Coldingham, do.,</td> + <td class='c020'>571</td> + <td class='c020'>8</td> + <td class='c004'>0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c009'>The grant to the Board commenced +in 1828, but was only £2500 per annum +for many years, and often greatly +less, the practice appearing to have +long been to require from the Treasury +only the sum actually wanted +for each work; and, from some absence +of knowledge among both proprietors +and fishermen, and probably +inexperience on the part of the Commissioners +of the Board, the grant in +certain seasons was not obtained at +all. It never seems to have reached +a regular annual payment of £2500 +until the year 1838, nor £3000 until +the year 1850. Yet since its institution +it has, by means of the negotiations +of the Board, drawn out from +private parties, for the erection of +harbours, the sum of</p> + +<table class='table2'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'>£27,455</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Of itself, the Board has paid in grants.</td> + <td class='c004'>59,399</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Making a total of</td> + <td class='c004'>£86,854</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c012'>expended on the improvement of our +coasts. It ought, moreover, to be +borne in mind, that although, by the +Act of Parliament, not less than one-fourth +must be contributed by the +private promoters of these shore-works, +yet, through the influential +management of the Board, this required +proportion has in a great +many cases been raised to one-third, +and in some to one-half, of the estimated +sum. So greatly, indeed, have +the benefits of these ameliorations +attracted the attention of the poor +fishermen themselves, that they have +not seldom of late come forward with +offers of contributions much beyond +what could have been anticipated +from men of their class. When we +consider the other advantages necessarily +flowing from the increased +prudential habits which must precede +this social or domestic saving,—the +diminution in the consumption +of ardent spirits, and abstinence from +other sensuous enjoyments,—it seems +impossible to overrate the importance +of any existing and well-established +condition of affairs, admitted +to be directly influential in the production +of so beneficial, we may say +so blessed, a result.</p> + +<p class='c009'>On the most mature and deliberate +consideration of the whole matter +now before us, and with large practical +experience of the history and +habits of our fishermen, and other +coast population, we desire to protest +against the unpatriotic rumour +which has reached our ears, that the +Board of Fisheries is about to be +abolished, and its beneficial functions +performed by—we know not whom.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We have now no longer any space +for special observations on the two +works of which the titles are given +at the foot of the first page of this +article. Like all its predecessors, the +<cite>Report</cite> by the Commissioners of the +Board of Fisheries, for 1854, contains +a great deal of valuable statistical +and other information, which, if we +seek for elsewhere, we shall fail to +find. The author of the treatise on +“Fisheries,” in the current edition of +the <cite>Encyclopædia Britannica</cite>, has +presented us with an ample and +accurate exposition of his subject, +with which he is no doubt well acquainted. +He appears to us to be +rather long-winded on the history +and habits of the salmon and its +smolts, whether one year old or two; +but this is probably one of his hobbies, +and as it may be also a favourite +topic with a numerous class of curious +and inquiring readers, and has +recently assumed additional importance +in connection with the artificial +breeding of the finest of our fresh-water +fishes, our ingenious author’s +time and labour have probably been +by no means misbestowed in its +elucidation.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span> + <h2 class='c002'>SYDNEY SMITH.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The art of criticism is a branch +of literature peculiar and separate, +rigidly marked out from all the other +branches of this gentle craft. An +author, like a mother, throws all his +personal prestige, all his hope, and all +his riches, into that frail rich-freighted +argosy, the book, which is doubtless +<i>his</i>, but yet a separate entity, and by +no means <i>him</i>; and almost in proportion +to the power of his genius, and +the elevation of his aim, his book +outshines and overtops its maker, +and becomes of the two the more +real and tangible existence. It is +indeed the inevitable tendency of art, +in all its loftier labours, to glorify the +work rather than the worker. The +man perforce moves in a limited +circle, the book goes everywhere. +It is true that we are all much in +the habit of saying that the author +is better than the book; but this is +an extremely questionable proposition, +and one which experience constantly +controverts. Also we all +make comments—and on what subject +have we been so unanimously eloquent?—on +the wide reception given +to the productions, and the small +amount of public acknowledgment +bestowed, on the persons, of English +men of literature. Yes, they may do +those things better in France; but it +is not all our English conventionalism, +nor is the “stony British stare” +with which the man of land petrifies +the man of letters in these realms +by any means a primary or even a +secondary cause of that want of social +rank and estimation of which we all +complain. Instead of that, it is the +normal position of authorhood, the +<i>bonâ fide</i> and genuine condition of a +man who has voluntarily transferred +his wealth, his aspirations, and his +power, to another existence, even +though that existence is a creation of +his own. The writer of a great book +is an abdicated monarch; out of his +cloister, discrowned, but triumphant, +he watches the other king whom he +has made, going forth gloriously, a +youth and a bridegroom, to take the +world by storm. There are other +modes of fame for him who has a +mind to enjoy it in his own person; +but it is scarcely to be disputed, to +our thinking, that the very first principle +of art is to glorify the book, +the picture, or the image, over the +mind that brought them forth.</p> + +<p class='c009'>But criticism does what literature +proper does not pretend to do. Happy +the man who first hit upon the +brilliant expedient of reviewing! The +works of the critic are of their nature +fugitive and ephemeral; but the same +nature gives them innumerable advantages—immediate +influence, instant +superiority, a dazzling and +unlaborious reputation. The works +are almost nothing in many cases, +but the men have leaped upon the +popular platform, and mastered the +reins of the popular vehicle in the +twinkling of an eye. From whence +it comes that the greater critics of +modern literature are all known to +us rather as persons than as writers. +The younger generation, to whom the +birth-hour of the <cite>Edinburgh</cite>, that +Pallas Athene, in her buff and blue, +is a remote historic epoch, have +known all their lives the names of +Jeffrey and of Sydney Smith; but we +venture to say that this knowledge, +so far from being based upon the +actual productions of these distinguished +and brilliant writers, +would suffer diminution rather than +increase from the most careful study +of their several books. It is an entire +mistake to send back these versatile +and animated personages into the +obscure of authorship; their reputation +stands out a world above and +beyond the volumes that bear their +names. <i>They</i> have made no act of +abdication in favour of a book; they +are orators, impassioned, eager, partial; +they are men, each in his own +person, storming at us with individual +opinions, laughter, indignation, +contemptuousness, making splendid +blunders, brilliant successes, and +leaving echoes of their own undaunted +voices in the common din +of every day. Their reputation is immediate, +sudden, personal—not the +fame of a book, but the renown of a +man.</p> + +<p class='c009'>And to this cause we may attribute +the very evident fact, that some +of the most notable men of the last +generation have left little behind +them to justify the extraordinary reputation +bestowed on them by their +contemporaries. Even our own St +Christopher, the genial giant of Maga, +is not sufficiently represented in the +world of books—and his brilliant +rivals of the opposite party have none +of them left a <i>Noctes</i>. These men +entirely eclipse the published works +that bear their name. We know +what their opinions were, much more +by the primitive vehicle of oral tradition, +than by the aid of print or +publisher. Their position was that +of speakers, not of writers; their periodical +address to the public was a +personal and direct address, out of a +natural pulpit, where the audience +saw the orator, as well as the orator +saw the audience, and the immediate +response was marvellous. But +there is compensation in all things; +the author “had up” before this +bench of judges, and gloriously cut to +pieces to the triumph and admiration +of all beholders, has his quiet revenge +over his old castigators. The critic, +like Dives, has all his good things in +his lifetime; it is the nature of his +fame to decrease, and fade into a recollection. +The man dies; the book +lives on.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The writer of the work before us,<a id='r31'></a><a href='#f31' class='c007'><sup>[31]</sup></a> +brief and modest as is her execution +of her labour of love, is diffident of +the reception which it may meet with +at the hands of the public. Lady +Holland’s doubts on this question +have been, doubtless, set at rest long +ere now; and we are after date in +offering her the comfort of our opinion, +so far as that may go. Yet we +cannot help saying, that with such a +man as Sydney Smith, a biography +was a necessity—a right belonging to +him, and a duty owed to us. During +his own time he was—not a moral +essayist, though all the world crowded +to his lectures—not an Edinburgh +Reviewer, though he himself was the +Jove from whose brain that armed +Minerva sprang—nor, last and least, +a Canon of St Paul’s. He was Sydney +Smith—it was enough distinction—official +character would not +stick to so manful and mirthful a +personage; it was not possible to +seize upon one part of his sunshiny +and genial nature, and make of it a +supposititious man. There was no +catching him even in profile; wherever +he went, he went with his whole +breadth in full array of errors and +excellences, ampler than his canonicals. +It is folly to say that such a +life was uneventful, or that such a +person was not a fit subject for +biography. In fact, he was the fittest +of subjects; and as the world never +before knew him so well, it is safe to +say that, not even in the sudden triumph +of his first great enterprise, not +in the excitement of the times of +Plymley, nor in the fury of American +repudiation, was the name of Sydney +Smith so distinguished or so popular +as now.</p> + +<p class='c009'>This is the doing of his daughter +and his wife. Honour to the love +which would not be discouraged! +The mother has not been permitted +to see how thoroughly and cordially +the world appreciates that honest +and noble Englishman, of whose fame +she was the loyal conservator; but +to have carried out so well her mother’s +purpose, and to have seen how +completely the public mind adopts +and justifies their own loving estimate +of the head of their household, +must be, to Lady Holland, sufficient +reward.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Sydney Smith was the son of a +gentleman, clever enough and rich +enough to be a somewhat remarkable +and “picturesque” personage, but +not, so far as appears, a very influential +one, either as regarded the character +or fortune of his sons. The +boys were clever beyond precedent; +so clever, that their schoolfellows +made solemn protest against the injustice +of being compelled to strive +for prizes with “the Smiths,” who +were always sure to win. Sydney, +the most distinguished of the brotherhood, +was captain of the school at +Winchester, and, in Oxford, a Fellow +of New College. If popular report +speaks true, such learned celibates +are always lovers of good cheer; and +in those days, according to Lady Holland, +port wine was the prevailing +Helicon; for medievalism had not +then come into fashion, and learned +leisure hung heavy upon the colleges. +In the thronged world of youth and +intelligence, within and around these +ancient walls, it is easy to suppose +how great an influence, had he sought +it, must have fallen to such a man as +Sydney Smith—not to say that society +was his natural element, and +conversation his special and remarkable +gift. Under these circumstances—at +an age in which every one loves +to excel, and in a place where he had +unusual opportunities of distinguishing +himself—the young Fellow, seeking +neither pleasure nor influence, +stoutly turned his back upon temptation, +and lived, like a brave man as +he was, upon his hundred pounds +a-year. Sydney was of other mettle +than those hapless men of genius +whose “light from heaven” is a +light which leads astray; and it is +singular to observe that the prevailing +characteristic of this famous wit and +man of society, at this most perilous +portion of his life, was steadfast, honest, +self-denying independence. Such +an example is rare; and no one who +wishes to form a true estimate of the +hero of this story, should omit to note +this triumph of his youth.</p> + +<p class='c009'>From New College, by an abrupt +transition, the young man falls into +his fate. Why the most brilliant of +Mr Robert Smith’s four sons should +be the sacrifice of the family we are +not told; but the elder is destined +for the bar, and the younger for +India, and to Sydney remains only +the Church. He does not feel, nor +pretend to feel, that this is his natural +vocation; but he feels it “his duty +to yield to his father’s wishes, and +sacrifice his own.” Indeed, to take +him within his own limited standing-ground, +the life of Sydney Smith +seems nearly a perfect one—duty, +frankly accepted and honestly fulfilled, +is in every period and change +of his history; and so long as we +take it for granted that it is only one +of the learned professions which this +good son enters in obedience to his +father’s wishes, we cannot sufficiently +admire the fortitude with which he +takes up his lot. However, we warn +our readers, who may entertain +notions, old-fashioned or newfangled, +that a clergyman should be something +more than a professional man, +to discharge all such fancies from +their mind while they discuss this +history. Sydney Smith is only to be +dealt with on his own platform, and +by the light of his own motives. For +ourselves, we confess that this most +honest, kind-hearted, and benevolent +divine, is not by any means our <i>beau +ideal</i> of a clergyman. Granting all +his admirable qualities, and with due +regard for the “calm dignity of his +eye, mien, and voice,” his “deep earnest +tones,” and “solemn impressive +manner,” and also for the unfailing +benevolence and kindliness of his +dealings with his parishioners—in all +which we perfectly believe—we still +cannot help feeling that the least +satisfactory view which we can have +of Sydney Smith is that of his clerical +position. He does not belong to +it, nor it to him; he is a wit, a +scholar, a man of letters, a man of +politics, but in no sense, except in +the merely arbitrary matter-of-fact +one, is he a clergyman. Without +entering into the religious question, +or throwing any stigma whatever +upon a man, in his own way, so +honest and so admirable, we are +obliged to hold by our opinion,—the +common motives of honesty and propriety +which govern men in the commonest +of occupations, are all that are +necessary in his profession of clergyman +for a true judgment of Sydney +Smith. It is his duty to look after +the morals and comforts of his +parishioners, and he does his duty; +but to require of him the entire devotion +of an evangelist, would be to require +what he does not pretend to, +and indeed disapproves of. To judge +him as we judge the primitive +apostles of our faith, or even to +judge him as we judge an Evangelical +incumbent or a Puseyite rector—men +who, after their different fashions, live +for this laborious business of theirs, +and put their whole heart in it—would +be idle and useless. He must +be looked on in the light of his own +motives and his own principles, and +not according to any special view of +ours.</p> + +<p class='c009'>And in this aspect we can admire +the sacrifice which a young man, +conscious of his own great powers, +and no doubt conscious that in this +sphere, of all others, were they least +likely to do him service, made “to +his father’s wishes.” He was soon +put to a severe practical trial, and +with equal fortitude seems to have +endured his banishment to the dreary +solitude of his first curacy. It was +a cruel experiment. “Sydney Smith +a curate in the midst of Salisbury +Plain!” exclaims his biographer; +and certainly the position was dismal +enough. “The village consisted but +of a few scattered cottages and +farms”—“once a-week a butcher’s +cart came over from Salisbury”—and +“his only relaxation, not being able +to keep a horse, was long walks over +these interminable plains.” Under +these circumstances one may suppose +that a little of the fervour of that +Methodism, at which in after days +he aimed his least successful arrow, +might have been the best amelioration +possible to this melancholy state +of things; and very sad it is indeed +to send a man, with no apostolic +vocation whatever, to a place which +nothing but the vocation of an +apostle could render bearable. Nevertheless +Sydney, honest, brave, and +manful, did his duty. He remained +at his post, though he did not love +it, and did what was required of him, +if not like an apostle, at least like an +honest man.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Let us pause to say that this seems +to us the really distinct and predominant +feature in the character of +Sydney Smith. He is everywhere a +full-developed Englishman, making +greater account of the manly virtues +than of the ethereal ones—disposed +to take the plain path before him, +and to tread it sturdily—given to +discussing everything that comes +under his notice, in its actual and +practicable reality rather than its +remoter essential principles—a man +given to <i>doing</i> more than to <i>speculating</i>—a +mind not matter-of-fact, but +actual—a soul of hearty and thorough +honesty. Honesty is one of the most +definite principles of our nature—it +leaves no misty debatable land between +the false and the true; and a +man who says nothing but what he +believes true, and does nothing but +what he believes right, may be many +a time wrong, as human creatures +are, yet must always be an estimable +man. Sydney Smith is never quixotic—never +goes positively out of his +way to seek a duty which does not +specially call upon him. As long as +the bishop is propitious, he is quite +content to leave Foston among the +Yorkshire clay, without a parish-priest; +but as soon as the duty places +itself broad and distinct before him, +he is down upon it without a moment’s +pause, builds the ugly vicarage, +takes possession of the unattractive +parish, does whatever his hand +findeth to do. In this lies the charm +and force of his character; in spite +of all we say ourselves, and all that +other people are pleased to say concerning +the sombre and foggy mood +of our national mind, we, for our own +part, cannot help regarding Sydney +Smith as a very type and impersonation +of that virtue which has the +especial admiration of these islands. +For we like tangible worthiness, we +British people—we like something to +look at, as well as to hear tell of, and +rejoice with our whole hearts over the +man who “goes in” at his foes, and +overcomes them—who makes light of +the infinite “bothers” of life, and +bears its serious calamities like a +man, and who carries his good cheer +and his cordial heart unclouded over +all. This is the national standard +and type of excellence, let them speak +of vapours and moroseness who will.</p> + +<p class='c009'>From the dreary probation of this +first charge, Sydney was elevated to a +tutorship, and ushered into a new +and eventful life. With his pupil, the +son of a Squire, to whom belongs the +honour of finding out that this +curate of Netherhaven was no ordinary +personage, the young tutor, by +a happy chance, found his way to +Edinburgh. War broke out; Germany +fell into trouble—well for Sydney!—and +so the Jove came to Athens that +the Minerva might be born. Does +anybody remember how it was in +those old, old days? Dearest reader, +there was no Maga! there were <i>Gentleman’s +Magazines</i>, and <i>Scots Magazines</i>, +and other <i>outré</i> and antiquated +productions. The broad and comprehensive +survey of general events to +which we are now accustomed, the +universal criticism of everything and +every person which is common to us +all, and the perfect dauntlessness of +modern journalism, were unknown +to those times. And those were the +days when our great men were young—when +Youth was abroad in the +world, with all his daring and all his +eagerness. There is no particular star +of youth in the horizon of this second +half of the nineteenth century, but this +brilliant planet was in the ascendant +as the old eighteenth ended its old-fashioned +career of dulness. There +was Jeffrey, sharp, sparkling, and +versatile; there was Brougham, vehement +and impetuous; there was +Sydney, in his English breadth and +all-embracing mirthfulness; and +there were others, all young—young, +clever, daring, exuberant, +full of that youthful joyous courage +which defies the world. They met, +they talked, they argued: strange +enough, though there are published +<cite>Lives</cite> of most of them, we have no +clear account of those conversations—no +<i>Dies</i> or <i>Noctes</i>, disclosing the +eager discussions, the boundless animadversions, +the satire, the fun, and +the laughter of this brilliant fraternity +in the high and airy habitations +which suited their beginning fortune; +but the result we are all very well +acquainted with. Something came +of the concussion of these young and +eager intellects; they were all armed +and ready for a grand tilt at things +in general—a jubilant attack upon +precedent and authority, after the +manner of youth. Yes, some of them +remain, ancient men—others of them +have passed away in ripe old age; yet +there they stand, the Revolutionists +of Nature, the universal challengers, +the fiery Crusaders of youth. It +was not Whiggery, good our reader, +though Pallas Athene <i>is</i> buff and +blue—it was the genuine natural impulse, +common to all young humankind, +of pulling down the old and +setting up the new.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Perhaps it is because we are better +accustomed to good writing and clever +speculation in these days—perhaps +because there is now a wider freedom +of speech and opinion than there +used to be; but there is a most distinct +and woeful difference, beyond +dispute, between the beginning of +literary enterprises in this time, and +in that brilliant and eventful period +when Maga was born and the <cite>Edinburgh</cite> +was young. Quarterly Reviews +spring up everywhere in these days—grow +into little comfortable private +circulations—belong to particular +“interests”—are read, and influential +in their sphere; but who takes +note of the day or hour of their appearing, +or hails the advent of the +new luminary? Then, the young +periodical took the world by storm—now, +nobody wots of it. The difference +is notable; and perhaps, after +all, we may be justly doubtful whether +it really is better to have a great +many people to do a thing indifferently, +than to have one or two who +can do it well.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Yes, we were enemies at our outset; +we wrestled manfully, sometimes +for fame, sometimes for principle, +sometimes “for love;” yet, being +foes, let us rejoice over them, worthy +rivals in an honourable field. Jeffrey +and Sydney Smith have gone +upon the last journey—Christopher +North is gathered to his fathers—alas +and alas! genius and fame and +power are things of a day, as we are; +yet it is hard to believe in their decline +and decadence, when we look +back upon these days of their youth.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The first idea of the <cite>Edinburgh +Review</cite> originated with Sydney Smith. +His proposal, as he says himself, was +received “with acclamation;” and +indeed it is easy to understand the +exultation with which these daring +young men must have anticipated +possessing an organ of their own. +He himself edited the first number; +and though his name is not so entirely +identified with this brilliant and +successful enterprise as some of his +colleagues, to him belongs the glory +of the beginning. But his biographer +does little justice to this interesting +period of his life. We have glimpses +of his history in Edinburgh only by +means of sundry sensible and candid +letters written to the father and +mother of his pupil, in which, as +might be expected, the said pupil, a +respectable and mediocre Michael +Beach, appears at greater length than +his instructor. There is nothing remarkable +in these letters, except the +good sense and frankness with which +the character of this pupil is exhibited; +and this is as creditable to +the young man’s parents as it is to +Sydney: but save for two or three +domestic incidents, we see nothing +more of the man, nor how he lived +during this period which had so important +an influence upon all his after +life. Even Sydney Smith could not +make everywhere such a brilliant little +nucleus of society as that which he +brightened and cheered in Edinburgh. +We would gladly have seen more of +the five years of his northern residence, +and are much disposed to +grudge that Lady Holland should +take this time of all others to tell us +about his writings, and to make a +survey of all the future succession of +his articles in the <cite>Edinburgh</cite>. These +we can find out for ourselves; but +we might surely have had a more +articulate sketch of how our hero appeared +among his equals at this beginning +of his life.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Shortly after the first appearance of +the Review, Sydney Smith left Edinburgh, +whence, having “finished” his +pupil, and finding it necessary to +make some more permanent provision +for his family, he removed to London, +where he seems—no disparagement to +his manly and independent character—to +have lived for some time +upon his wits, making strenuous efforts +to improve his condition, and +bearing what he could not mend with +the gayest and most light-hearted +philosophy. During this time he delivered +his famous lectures upon +moral philosophy—about the earliest +example, we suppose, of literary lecturings; +a course of popular instruction +which found immense favour in +the eyes of a curious and discerning +public. Audiences, crowded, fashionable, +and clever, listened with eagerness +to his exposition of the doctrines +and history of metaphysics. Into +this Scotchest of sciences, Sydney, +who was no metaphysician, made a +rapid and daring leap. We do not +pause to inquire whether his style +was the perfect English which some +of his friends assert it to be—at least +it was luminous, clear, and flowing, +full of good sense, and bright with +lively sparkles of wit and high intelligence. +To these lectures “everybody” +went; and very creditable it +seems to everybody, that this unbeneficed +and unaristocratic clergyman, +known solely by his great and fearless +talents, and as far removed from +a courtier of fashion as it is possible +to conceive, should have congregated +together so large and so enthusiastic +an audience. The manner in which +the lecturer himself speaks of this +popular course of philosophy, and the +reputation he acquired by it, is amusing +enough. Writing to Jeffrey, he +says:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“My lectures are just now at such an +absurd pitch of celebrity, that I must +lose a good deal of reputation before +the public settles into a just equilibrium +respecting them. I am most heartily +ashamed of my own fame, because I am +conscious I do not deserve it; and that +the moment men of sense are provoked +by the clamour to look into my claims, +it will be at an end.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>This prediction has not been fulfilled—nor +are the lectures themselves +of the brilliant, faulty, and +dashing description, which from this +account one might suppose them to +be. They are, in fact, as honest and +truthful as everything else which +belongs to their author. When we +read them <i>now</i>, we cannot quite +account for the sensation they made +<i>then</i>; yet we do not throw them into +the list of undeserved or fallacious +successes. They merited much though +not all of their fame; and the social +success and reputation of their +author seems to have grown and +progressed from this time. He was +a universal favourite in that mystical +region called “Society,” at least in +every quarter of it to which his political +opinions gave him access; and +this public appearance made him +henceforth a recognisable personage +to the universal public eye. He was +still poor and struggling with many +difficulties; but he was surrounded +with fit companions, and full of exuberant +spirits—an admirable example, +though unfortunately a rare +one, of how well a heart at ease can +hold its place against all the cares +of life.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Out of this brief but brilliant +season of triumph, poverty, and happiness, +it was at last the fortune of +Sydney Smith to find preferment—which +means, in other words, he got +a living—an unobtrusive comfortable +living, which permitted its incumbent +to remain quietly in town, and, +having no parsonage to lodge him in, +considerately gave him no manner +of trouble. But this state of things +was much too good to last, and the +unfortunate Rector, a year or two +after his appointment, was summoned +not only to his post, but to the +less obvious duty of making that +post tenable. We cannot, we are +afraid, perceive much hardship in +the necessity of residence, even +though the parish was a parish of +clay, in Yorkshire, and out of the +world; but the building of the parsonage +was certainly quite a different +matter, and a grievous burden +upon a man whose hands already +were full enough. Yet the story of +this settlement at Foston is the +pleasantest of stories—the cheeriest, +brightest, prettiest picture imaginable +of a Crusoe family-scene. For +ourselves, we turn from all the other +triumphs of his life—and all his +triumphs, so joyfully achieved, are +exhilarating to hear of—to dwell +upon this delightful conquest of little +ills and vulgar difficulties, of brick +and timber, architecture and carpentry, +slow village minds, and unaccommodating +circumstances. Sydney +Smith never met his foes +vicariously, but with shout and +sound of triumph went forth against +them, an host in his own person, +taking everything at first hand, and +trusting to no deputy. The result +was, that his work was <i>done</i>—briskly, +well, and with satisfaction to everybody; +though, supposing Sydney’s +successor in this clayey parish to be +a medieval man, to whom gables +are a point of doctrine, and Gothic +porches a necessity, we fear this +square box, ugly and comfortable, +must have been the good priest’s +death. It was a home of the brightest +to its builder and his family. +We will not quote the quaint history, +because everybody has quoted it; +but of this we are very sure, that +the ugly house at Foston, with all +its odd contrivances—its Immortal, +its Jack Robinson, its feminine +butler twelve years old, its good +cheer, its comfort, its fun, and all +the hospitalities of “the Rector’s +Head”—are pleasanter and more lasting +memorabilia than scores of Plymley +letters. We know no tale of +honest, simple, kindly human interest +which has attracted us more.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The visitors at “the Rector’s +Head” were illustrious people—noble +Greys, Carlisles, and Hollands, +and a flood of philosophers and +literary folk as notable in their way. +In this book, however, there are but +slender traces of this memorable +“run upon the road.” We can perceive +the visitor’s carriage floundering +in the ploughed field, but we do +not come to any very distinct perception +of the visitor. Let us not +grumble; the noble Whigs and the +philosophic heroes are misty and illegible; +but the setting-out of the +family chariot, its freight, harness, +and history, is as quaint and clear as +anything in the <cite>Vicar of Wakefield</cite>—and, +to tell you the truth, by no +means unlike the same.</p> + +<p class='c009'>From Foston our hero, now the +author of <cite>Peter Plymley’s Letters</cite>, +comes to greater preferment, and is +advanced to Combe Florey, his vale +of flowers—strange type of human +successes!—at a time when grievous +trouble had come upon this happy-hearted +man—the loss of his eldest +son;—and from this period his +course is all prosperous. He does +not, it is true, get his bishopric, but +he is Canon of St Paul’s—is able to +spend a good deal of time in his beloved +London—keeps up his high reputation +in the world of wit and intelligence—and +finally grows rich as +he grows an old man. Sorrowful is +this period of old age; and even the +wit of Sydney Smith cannot veil the +sadness of that mournful time, when +death after death breaks up the +original circle—when children are +gone out of the parental house, and +friends vanish out of the social +world. Strangest of all human desires +is that universal desire to live +long. How melancholy is the ending +of every record of a lengthened life! +It is grievous to linger upon the tale +of weaknesses and sorrows. Surely +this art of biography ought to be one +of the weightiest of moral teachers; +for even such a joyous heart as this, +though everywhere it finds relief and +compensation, does not escape from +that lengthened sojourn in the valley +of the shadow. Earl Grey, his +old political leader, was upon <i>his</i> +last sick-bed when Sydney Smith, +too weak to bear even the thanks of +a grateful man whom he was not too +weak to serve, made an end of his +benevolent and upright days; and +messages of mutual sympathy and +good wishes passed between these +two, who had wished each other well +in other and more exciting warfares. +So, after a long day of manly work +and honest exertion, one of the +cheeriest and most courageous of +lives came to its conclusion. His +contemporaries had been falling +around him for years—his brother +died immediately after—his friend +Jeffrey did not long survive him. +They are now almost all gone, these +old men, who were once such eloquent +and daring leaders of the impetuous +genius of youth. The +<cite>Edinburgh Review</cite> has fallen into +respectable matronhood, and no +longer shivers a sparkling lance upon +the powers that be. So wears the +world away.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We cannot venture to stray into +those painful and elaborate definitions +of wit, which so many people seem constrained +to enter upon at the very +name of Sydney Smith. To our humble +thinking, there is an undiscriminated +region of <i>fun</i>, a lesser and lower +world than that in which Wit and +Humour contend for the kingship, to +which many of his triumphs belong. +We do not disparage his claims as a +wit; we do not deny to him that +more tender and delicate touch +of sentiment and kindness which +seems to us the distinguishing characteristic +of the humourist; we +acknowledge the acute edge of his +satire, and the sweeter power of that +joyous ridicule which did not aim at +giving pain, but dealt with its victim +as old Izaak dealt with his frog, +“as if he loved it.” But the general +atmosphere through which this occasional +flash breaks out so brilliantly, +is an atmosphere of genial +and spontaneous mirth, a universal +suffusion of fun and high spirits, +bright and natural and unoppressive. +After all, many of Sydney +Smith’s recorded witticisms are not +particularly witty; yet it is perfectly +easy to understand how, from his +own lips, and in the general current +of his own joyous talk, they must +once have been irresistible. These +felicitous absurdities will not be +judged by the rule and line of criticism; +they by no means fit into the +regulated proportions of orthodox +humour. They are not born of a distinct +intellectual faculty, nor do they +aim at the perfectness of individual +and separate productions. Instead +of that, they are the mere natural +overflowings of natural character, +gaiety, and high spirits. We call +them wit because we recognise their +author as a man from whom wit is +to be expected. But who does not +know that wide happy atmosphere +of <i>fun</i> which brightens many a +household circle where nobody pretends +to be witty?—who does not +know how contagious and irresistible +is this humbler influence, and how it +catches up and inspires the common +talk of all our pleasant meetings, +giving to almost every family a little +fund of odd or merry sayings—not +witty, yet the source of unfailing +mirthfulness? An acknowledged wit +is a man to be pitied; and there is +no more woeful position in society +than that of one who, when he opens +his lips, be it to speak the most +commonplace, sees everybody around +him preparing for laughter. We can +perceive a little of this dire necessity +even in Sydney Smith. No doubt, it +was whimsical and odd and pleasant +to hear a merry voice giving such a +quaint order as that to “glorify the +room”—yet we are afraid, by-and-by, +when people came to hear it +every morning, that some indifferent +member of the family circle must +have been disposed to shout forth the +commonplace injunction, “Draw up +the blinds!” to the forestalment of +Sydney. But the broad lower atmosphere +of fun was full about this +genial and gifted man. He speaks +nonsense with the most admirable +success. Nonsense is a very important +ingredient in the conversation of +all circles which are, or have a right +to be, called brilliant. It is often +an appropriate surrounding medium, +through which wit may flash and +play; but it is not wit, let us +name it ever so arbitrarily; and +for our own part, we frankly confess +that an hour of common and simple +fun, with one morsel of genuine wit in +it—an unexpected sparkle—is much +more pleasant in our eyes than an +hour hard pressed with sharp and +brilliant witticisms, be they the very +perfection of the article—the best +that can be made. But we distinctly +object to confound together these +two separate and differing things. +We say this, not in depreciation of +the acknowledged wit of our hero, +but because his biographer pauses +gravely at several periods of this +Memoir, to give examples of the +“slow perception of humour” evidenced +by various people, who did +not understand the happy extravagances +of Sydney. We do not always +agree with Lady Holland in her +estimate of her father’s witticisms +Here is one of her instances:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Miss —— the other day, walking +round the grounds at Combe Florey, +exclaimed, ‘Oh! why do you chain +up that fine Newfoundland dog, Mr +Smith?’ ‘Because it has a passion +for breakfasting on parish boys.’ +‘Parish boys!’ she exclaimed; +‘does he really eat boys, Mr Smith?’ +‘Yes, he devours them, buttons and +all.’ Her face of horror made me +die of laughing.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>Now this is very funny, but everybody +must perceive at a glance that +it is neither wit nor humour, properly +so called; it is pure nonsense, gay +and extravagant, and in reality requires +a dull understanding, receiving +it in the mere literal meaning of the +words, to bring out and heighten +its effect. The “sayings” of this +book, indeed, are by no means up to +the reputation of the speaker; they +are often heavily told, and sometimes +in themselves far from striking. But +it does not appear that the wit of +Sydney Smith was of a kind to evaporate +in sayings; it was not so +much a thing as an atmosphere—an +envelopment of mirth and sunshine, +in which the whole man +moved and spoke.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is not easy to mark out and +discriminate the intellectual character +of a man like this; for there +are few men so undividable—few with +whom the ordinary separation of +mental and physical is so complete +an impossibility. He is one whole +individual person, honest and genuine +in all his appearances, and entirely +transcending as a man, in natural +force and influence, anything that +can be said of him in any special +character as author, politician, or +wit. To our own thinking, Sydney +Smith is a complete impersonation +of English breadth, manliness, and +reality. He is no diver into things +unseen, nor has he a strong wing +skyward; but he walks upon the resounding +earth with a sturdy tread, +and has the clearest and most healthful +perception of all the actual duties +and common principles of life. This +strong realisation of good and evil, +according to the ordinary conditions +of humanity—actual, present, visible +benefit or disadvantage—seems the +most marked feature of at least his political +writings. The Plymley Letters, +for instance, never touch upon the soul +of the question they discuss. So far +as they go, they are admirably clear +and pointed—a distinct and powerful +exposition of all the phases of expediency; +but there they pause, and +go no farther. The argument touches +only things external, inducements +and consequences. These are stated +so forcibly and clearly that we do +not wonder at their immediate effect +and popularity; for the common mind +is easily swayed by reasoning of this +practical and tangible description, +and it is impossible to misunderstand +so undeniable a statement of advantage +and disadvantage. But the +grand principles on either side of the +question—the old lofty notion of a +Christian nation, and the duty it +owed to God, on the one hand, and +the rights of conscience and individual +belief upon the other—find no +place in the plea. Our native Scottish +tendency to consider things “in the +abstract” was a favourite subject of +Sydney’s gleeful and kindly ridicule. +It is the last temptation in the world +to which he himself was like to +yield; and indeed it is remarkable +to note his entire want of this northern +foible—his strong English bias +to the practical and evident. He +has no idea of throwing the whole +weight of his cause upon a mere +theoretic right and wrong. His first +step is to intrench and fortify his +position—to build himself round with +a Torres Vedras of realities, distinct +to touch and vision; and while a +preacher of another mind solemnly +denounces what is <i>wrong</i>, it is his +business to show you what is foolish—to +point out the spot where +your enemy can have you at disadvantage—to +appeal to your common +experience, your knowledge of men +and of the world. The strain of his +argument throughout hangs upon the +external and palpable—the principles +of general truth are not in his +way. He takes for granted the first +elements of the controversy, and hurries +on to the practical results of it. +Peter Plymley has not much to say +upon the Catholic Question; but he +has a great deal to say upon the +chronic disaffection of Ireland, and +the uncomfortable chances of an invasion +on a coast which discontented +Catholics were not likely to make +great efforts to defend. With this +view of the subject he is armed and +eloquent. But this is not the highest +view of the subject, though it may +be a popular and telling one. In his +own life, Sydney Smith held a +nobler creed, and pursued his way +with unfailing firmness, though it led +him entirely beyond the warm and +wealthy regions of ecclesiastical preferment; +but in his argument the +balance which he makes is always a +balance of things positive. Perhaps +something of the force and manliness +of his style is owing to this practical +species of reasoning. We give him +credit for his “way of putting a +thing”—so at least do Dr Doyle and +Lady Holland, without perceiving +that the weight and obviousness is in +the <i>thing</i> rather than the <i>way</i>. We +are tempted to quote the conversation +between the Rev. Romanist and +the Rev. Anglican, in illustration of +this irresistible style of argument +common to Sydney Smith:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>He proposed that Government +should pay the Catholic priests. +“They would not take it,” said Dr +Doyle. “Do you mean to say, that +if every priest in Ireland received to-morrow +morning a Government letter +with a hundred pounds, first +quarter of their year’s income, that +they would refuse it?” “Ah, Mr +Smith,” said Dr Doyle, “you’ve such +a way of putting things!”</p> + +<p class='c009'>This is a very good example of his +prevailing tendency. The <i>argumentum +ad hominem</i> is the soul of Sydney’s +philosophy. You are sure of a +home-thrust, positive and unevadable, +when you enter into discussion +with this most practical of understandings. +Perhaps you do not agree +with him; very probably to your +thinking there are principles involved +of more importance than these obvious +safeties or dangers; but the +nature of his implements gives him +force and precision; he never strikes +vaguely; his sword is no visionary +sword, but a most English and most +evident weapon—sheer steel.</p> + +<p class='c009'>This habit of reasoning had a singular +effect upon his papers on religious +subjects—we mean especially +those articles on Methodism and Missions +which appeared many years +ago in the <cite>Edinburgh Review</cite>. These +extraordinary productions are already +altogether out of date, as indeed they +must have been behind the time +in which they were written, and of +right belonged to a less enlightened +generation; but it is marvellous to +perceive how far so acute and reasonable +a man could go in this grand +blunder, applying his ordinary and +limited rule to the immeasurable +principles of truth. It is odd, and it +is melancholy; for we confess it +gives us little pleasure to prove over +again the old truth that the schemes +of Christianity are often foolishness +to the wise and to the prudent. The +paper on Missions is the most wonderful +instance of weak argument +and inappropriate reasoning. That +so clear an eye did not see the +wretched logic and poor expediences, +the complete begging of the question +and strange unworthiness of the argument, +is a standing marvel. On +any other subject, Sydney Smith +could not have gone so far astray. +His favourite mode of treatment, +however effective in other regions, +has no legitimate place in this. We +may allow, in spite of our dread of +Popery, and conscientious objection +to share the powers of government +with so absolute and unscrupulous +an agency, that an emancipated Catholic +is more likely to make a cheerful +and patriotic citizen, than a Catholic +bound down under penal laws +could possibly be. But we are staggered +to think of restraining the +efforts of the evangelist, in order that +we may better secure our supremacy +in India over tribes of pagan weaklings, +to whom, for our empire’s sake, +freedom and the Gospel must remain +unknown. This is a startling conclusion +when plainly stated; but it is +the obvious and unmistakable end of +all that this very able writer, a clergyman +and a man of enlightened principles, +has to say upon so difficult +and intricate a question. Had any +of his political opponents said it, and +had it been Sydney’s part to explode +the fallacious reasoning, what a flood +of ridicule he would have poured upon +these self-same sentiments! how +triumphantly he must have exposed +the tame and unprofitable argument! +how clearly proved that the policy of +doing nothing was a policy as old as +human nature, and needed no advocacy! +To leave paganism alone, because +caste is the most effectual means +which could be invented for keeping +a race in bondage—to put an end to +all injudicious eagerness for conversions, +because these happy idolators +are very comfortable as they are, and +our benevolence is thrown away,—if +Sydney had not made the argument—had +it only by good luck come +from the other side—how Sydney +could have scattered it in pieces!</p> + +<p class='c009'>Perhaps the happiest hit he ever +made was that which covered the +unhappy State of Pennsylvania with +the shame it was worthy of. No one +else could have done this so well. His +indignation and vehemence—his grief +at the disgrace thus brought upon a +country where his own opinions were +supreme—are pointed, and brought +home, by the keen touch of ridicule, +with a characteristic force and pungency. +He is grieved; but still he +has a satisfaction in pulling the stray +American to pieces, and making over +his jewellery to afflicted bondholders. +He is angry; but still he can laugh +at his proposed uniform, the S. S. for +Solvent States, which he would have +the New Yorkers wear upon their +collars. We have all a wicked enjoyment +of other people’s castigation; +and we are afraid the public in general—those +of them who hold no Pennsylvanian +bonds—were amply consoled +by Sydney Smith’s letters for +the sins of their brethren. Lady +Holland tells us that the excitement +in America was extraordinary, and +that shoals of letters, and occasional +homely presents, poured upon her +father from all quarters. It was a +fair blow, downright and unanswerable; +and no one could have a better +right to assault in full force a public +dishonesty than such a man as this, +honest to the bottom of his heart.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We cannot undertake to predict +whether or not the reputation of Sydney +Smith will be a lasting reputation. +His published works are not +very remarkable, and they refer so +entirely—saving the sketches of philosophy—to +current books and current +events—events and books which, +to use his own phrase, have blown +over—that it seems very doubtful if +they can last over two or three generations. +Admirable good sense, good +English, and good morality, even with +the zest of wit to heighten them, do +not make a man immortal. They +have already done their part, and +earned their triumph; the future is +in other hands. Herein lies the compensating +principle of literature. The +critic (and there have been critics +more brilliant than Sydney) has his +day. Yes, there he stands over +all our heads, bowling us down like +so many ninepins—small matter to +him that in this book lies somebody’s +hopes, and heart, and fortune. +Little cares he for the stifled +edition, the turned tide of popular +favour. He goes about it coolly: it +is his business—practising his deathstroke +upon palpitating young poets +and unhappy novel-writers, as the +German executioner practised upon +cabbages. We die by the score under +this literary Attila. Our poor bits of +laurel, our myrtle-sprigs and leaves of +bay, are crushed to dust beneath his +ruthless footsteps. With a barbarous +triumph he rides over us, extinguishes +our poor pretensions, puts us down. +Never mind, humiliated brother! The +critic has his day. By-and-by there +will only be a distant <i>sough</i> of him +in the curious byways of historic lore. +But the Book, oh patient Lazarus!—the +Book will live out a century of +reviewers, and be as young a hundred +years hence as it is to-day.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Wherefore we seriously opine that +a lasting reputation as a writer is not +to be expected for Sydney Smith. As +long as the children’s children of his +contemporaries remain to tell and to +remember what they heard in the +days of their youth, so long his influence +as a man will live among us. +Had this biography been less a work +of love, and more a work of art, it +might have added a longer recollection +to this natural memory; for its +hero is so true an example of the kind +of man whom British men delight to +honour, that he might well have been +singled out for a popular canonisation. +As it is, this simple presentment +of Sydney Smith is enough to +place him upon his true standing-ground, +and recommend him, far above +all differences of opinion, or strifes of +politics, to the affectionate estimation +of every reader. A man honest, +courageous, and truthful, struggling +bravely through the ordinary trials of +everyday existence, bearing poverty +and neglect, bearing flattery and favour, +coming forth unharmed through +more than one fiery ordeal, and with +the lightest heart and kindest temper, +skilled in that art of ruling himself +which is greater than taking a city. +A little more sentiment, or a little +less practical vigour, might have +broken the charm. In his own person, +as he lived, he is the very hero of +social success and prosperity—for +under no circumstances could he +have appeared an unappreciated genius +or a disappointed man. We are +somewhat scornful in these days of +the qualities of success. Indeed, it +seems a general opinion, that the +higher a man’s gifts are, the less are +his chances. But many a youth of +genius would do well to note the +teachings of such a cordial and manly +life as this, and mark how the gayest +heart, and the most brilliant intelligence, +are honoured and exalted by +such homely virtues as self-restraint +and self-denial. Sydney Smith in Oxford, +living upon his hundred pounds +a-year; Sydney Smith in Netherhaven, +honestly enduring his curacy; +taking no excuse from his wit; yielding +nothing to his natural love of that +society in which he shone; undisheartened +by a profession which he +did not love, and duties for which he +had no distinct vocation; honestly, +under all circumstances, maintaining +his honour, his independence, and his +purity, is a better moral lesson than +all the lecturings of all the societies +in the world.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We cannot perceive any closer resemblance, +for our own part, much as +they are named together, between +Swift and Sydney Smith, than the +merely evident and external one—that +both were famous wits, and both +somewhat unclerical clergymen. Sydney +has the mightiest advantage in +moral sunshine and sweetness over +the redoubtable Dean. The Canon of +St Paul’s broke no hearts and injured +no reputations. There is not a cloud +upon his open and bright horizon, +except the passing clouds of Providence, +and bitterness was not in his +kind and generous heart. There is +only one grand blunder in his life, +and that is his profession. In such a +matter the dutifullest of sons is not +excusable in “yielding to his father’s +wishes.” We can appreciate the sacrifice, +but we cannot approve it. It +was filial, but it was wrong. Sydney +Smith is an honest man, a truthful +man, and in ordinary life unblamable. +We have no right to criticise +the piety or religiousness of such a +person in any private position, but +with a clergyman the circumstances +are different—and the veriest sinner +requires something more than professional +propriety as the motive and +inspiration of the teachers of the faith.</p> + +<p class='c009'>So strong and usual is this feeling, +that we do not doubt this book must +have been an entire revelation to a +great majority of its readers. We +knew his great reputation; we knew +his wit, and the general tenor of his +opinions; yet we were shy of a man +whose position and fame seemed almost +antagonistic, and set up in our +own mind a natural opposition between +the sermons of the preacher +and the <i>bon mots</i> of the wit. This +biography resolves the puzzle. Full of +mirth, spontaneous and unlaboured, +full of honest consistency and good-will, +we accept Sydney Smith as he +was, and judge of him by his own +principles and actions—his own standard +of perfection. Who does not +lack some crowning charm to add a +fuller and a sweeter excellence to all +the lesser virtues? This man was +distinguished in all social qualities—virtuous, +conscientious, incorruptible, +doing bravely every duty which he +perceived in his way; and we can point +to no truer type of an upright and +open-hearted Englishman, than the +bright portrait of this modest volume, +the true monument and effigies of +Sydney Smith.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span> + <h2 class='c002'>PEERAGES FOR LIFE.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>[We rarely have two articles upon one subject in the same Number of the +Magazine, but we have no hesitation in publishing the two following short +papers upon the unhappy and singularly ill-timed attempt to destroy the +hereditary character of one branch of the Legislature. The first paper is by +an English, and the second by a Scotch lawyer.]</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is not, we hope, from any party +feeling (though party feelings are, as +our readers know, entitled, in our +view of things, to grave and deep +consideration), that we enter our protest +against the measure of creating +peers for life,—a measure which its +authors, unless they are the most +shortsighted men that ever presumed +to meddle with great questions, must +know will end by changing the character +of the House of Lords, and +which we really believe to be an +attempt as rash as it is uncalled for, +and as little likely to conciliate the +favour of any but those who dislike +a government by King, Lords, and +Commons, as it is to produce any one +solid or permanent advantage. To +those who think that the English +constitution—a constitution which +has floated like an ark over the +waves which have swallowed up so +many of those baseless fabrics that +were hailed by sciolists as the proudest +efforts of legislation—should be, +we do not say repaired, and improved, +and fortified, but <i>overthrown</i>, +to make room for “some gay creature +of the element” to people the +sunbeam for a moment and then to +disappear—we do not address ourselves; +for we could not hope to produce +any effect by reasoning upon +those on whom the evidence of their +senses is thrown away. But we +would ask such of our readers as do +not belong to the class we have just +mentioned, calmly and dispassionately +to examine with us this important +question—premising only +that the Reform Bill was by no +means so serious and menacing a +change in the constitution of the +Lower, as the creation of peers for +life (if that disastrous measure is +really to be accomplished), will +produce in the Upper House of +Parliament. The Reform Bill shuffled +the cards; this measure will +change the pack. It is at once exotic +and obsolete.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The question may be considered in +two ways. First, Has the Crown +the power to make such a creation? +Secondly, Supposing it to +possess the power, is such an exercise +of it constitutional? With regard +to the first question, it is, even +on the showing of its supporters, an +extremely doubtful one. “<span lang="la">Rectissime +illud receptum est, ut leges non +solum suffragio legislatoris sed etiam +tacito consensu omnium per desuetudinem +abrogantur</span>,” is a maxim +embodied in the works of those masters +of jurisprudence, to whom alone, +to use the words of one of their most +illustrious scholars, reason seems to +have unveiled her mysteries. Nor is +the principle unknown to our municipal +jurisprudence. It was a law +that every member of a city or +borough should be chosen from among +the inhabitants of the place which he +was selected to represent. This law +was abrogated by desuetude only. +Many similar instances might probably +be found by any one who would +examine our ancient statutes. That +custom is the best interpreter of +written law is an axiom of jurisprudence; +and how much more forcibly +does the argument apply to unwritten +law, to an obsolete prerogative raked +from the dust and cobwebs of feudal +barbarity, and dragged forth “in +luce asiæ” into the meridian blaze of +civilisation, to act upon the destinies +of living men. The revival of obsolete +prerogatives was one great and +just complaint against the Government +of Charles I. Lord Clarendon, +his ablest advocate, bewails the injudicious +and violent measures that unhappy +monarch took in reviving the +Forest Laws, and obliging gentlemen +of certain incomes to compound for +knighthood. Had he attempted to +strip the peerage of its hereditary +character, the outcry would have +been louder and more reasonable; +for of course our argument applies +only to the case of conferring, by a +peerage for life, a voice or seat in +Parliament. “The common law of +England,” says a great lawyer and a +great thinker, “is nothing else but +the common custom of the realm, +and a custom which has obtained the +force of a law is always said to be +‘Jus non scriptum.’ ... Being +only matter of fact, and consisting in +use and practice, it can be <span class='fss'>RECORDED +AND REGISTERED NOWHERE BUT IN +THE MEMORY OF THE PEOPLE</span>.” +Again the same eloquent writer says:—“A +custom takes beginning, and +grows to perfection in this manner: +When a reasonable act once done is +found to be good and beneficial to +the people, and agreeable to their +nature and disposition, then do they +use and practise it again and again—and +so, by often iteration and multiplication +of the act it becomes a custom; +and being continued without +interruption time out of mind, it obtains +the force of a law.” This is exactly +the basis on which the “rerum +perpetuo similiter judicatarum auctoritas” +must rest, and exactly the +reverse of that prerogative, by the +sudden exertion of which, after a +lapse of four centuries, it is proposed +to give to any minister the power of +swamping the House of Peers. What +would be said now if any one were +to attempt to put on “the statute of +uses” the meaning which those by +whom it was enacted undoubtedly +meant that it should have, and which +was frustrated by the narrow decision, +as Mr Hallam calls it, of the +Judges? If any man were insane +enough to attempt such an argument, +would he not be silenced at once, and +forfeit, for the remainder of his life, all +claim to the character of a rational +being? Would he not be told that, +after the current of precedent had +run for centuries in one direction, +after all the Estates in England had +been settled and disposed of on the +faith of those precedents, it was mere +mischievous pedantry to question the +validity of the original interpretation? +Now, the last time when the +Crown gave the right of voting in +the House of Lords to any one who +would not transmit the same right to +his children, to any one whose blood +was not ennobled, was long before the +period when the statute of uses passed +into a law. The four or five cases cited +to justify such a stretch of authority +are taken from times when the boundaries +of the constitution fluctuated +incessantly,—when sometimes the +king oppressed the barons, and sometimes +the barons destroyed the king,—when +one encroached upon the +other, as he or they were uppermost +in a series of victories and defeats +equally oppressive to the people, and +equally inconsistent with all regular +government,—when the soil of England +was drenched with the blood of +the yeoman, and the axe of the executioner +was red with the blood of +the noble,—“in stormy and tempestuous +times,” to use the language of a +great and upright magistrate, Chief-Justice +Crew, “when the government +was unsettled, and the kingdom in +competition,”—when Bohun, and +Mowbray, and Mortimer passed +away—nay, when Plantagenet himself +became a shadow and a dream. +Will any man say that this was a +period when our constitution was +understood? that this is the time when +its parts were adjusted to each other?—when, +though the noble outline of it +might be discernible, its lineaments +were complete? At that time the +Crown granted or withheld writs to +boroughs at its pleasure, and so +moulded the House of Commons. +It summoned a man to take his seat +in one Parliament and not in another, +and so modelled the House of Lords. +But even of these cases, drawn from +those times of turbulence and confusion, +while the elements of our constitution +were at war with each +other, predominating or subsiding +with every capricious turn of fortune, +one only has any bearing on the +question. For, as has been said before, +the question is not one of compliment +or precedence; it does not +relate to the power of the sovereign +to gratify a morbid and spurious +appetite for vulgar notoriety by +a mongrel title, or to reward vice +by flattering the abject vanity of +some frivolous prostitute; it relates +to his power of giving a share in the +legislation of England without that +guarantee for independence which, +during four hundred years, has been +thought essential to its exercise. +Now, in the case of Sir John Cornewall, +who was created Lord Fauchope +for life, the prerogative was +exercised with the assent of the House +of Lords. There remains, therefore, +the solitary case of Lord Berners, in +the reign of Henry VI.—a case that is +extremely doubtful—to justify this +exercise of the prerogative in the +year of grace 1856. If, then, law is +to be controlled or modified by +usage—if the “<span lang="la">lex et consuetudo Parliamenti</span>” +are not to be put aside—it +must be admitted that, even in the +absence of any negative argument, +the right of the Crown is extremely +questionable, in spite of the dictum +of Lord Coke, and of the writers by +whom he has been copied. Lord +Coke, it may be remembered, has +fallen into acknowledged errors. He +was wrong in asserting that a justice +of peace had no power of holding a +person accused of felony to bail. He +was wrong in asserting that common +law ought to prevail against the +express words of an Act of Parliament. +But there <i>are</i> strong negative arguments. +In Lord Purbeck’s case, which +was argued before the celebrated +Lord Shaftesbury, who was certainly +not ignorant of the principles of the +constitution, it was stated by the +Attorney-general that the king could +create a peer for life. This doctrine +was at once questioned by Lord +Shaftesbury; and in that opinion +Lord Nottingham, the creator of +equity, though differing with him as +to the case immediately before him, +acquiesced.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is difficult for any one who +weighs these arguments to resist the +conclusion at which Lord Lyndhurst +and Lord Campbell, Lord St Leonard’s +and Lord Brougham—laying +by on an occasion of such vast importance +all party differences and political +hostility—have arrived, that an +instrument made four hundred years +ago, before the constitution had been +made, before the disposition, occasions, +circumstances, the moral, civil, +and social habits to which that noble +fabric owes its existence had disclosed +themselves, cannot in the eye +of reason justify a violent change in +the long-established, the peculiar, +and the distinguishing character of +the House of Lords.</p> + +<p class='c009'>There is (<cite>Parl. Hist.</cite>, vol. i. page +890) a remarkable case which has +never been cited, we believe, and +which shows that the House of Lords +exercised the right of excluding an +unworthy member from its deliberations. +It is the case of Lord De la +Ware in the reign of Edward VI. +“He had attempted to poison his +uncle, and was by an <i>order of Parliament</i> +excluded from any estate or +honour that might come to him after +his uncle’s death.” The precedent in +favour of the Crown dates from a +period far more remote than this. If +the Crown quote the fifteenth century, +why may not the House of +Lords quote the sixteenth? And it +should be remarked that this is a +prerogative which there must have +been constant motives for using, and +the non-exertion of which, therefore, +furnishes a very cogent argument +against its existence. Harrington, +in his <cite>Oceana</cite>, particularly censures +Richard II. under the name of Adoxus, +for creating peers “who had hands to +dip in the royal purse, but no +shoulders to support the throne.” +We know what became of that prince +and his newly-made Caryatides. Our +peers are not to perform the functions +Virgil assigned to our fathers—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<span lang="la">Purpurea intexti tollant aulæa Britanni.</span>”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c009'>They are not to be courtiers, or geologists, +or engineers, or builders of +crystal palaces, or presidents of councils +of art, or even judges, but <i>legislators</i>, +mediators between the Crown +and the people—an office that may +dignify the greatest abilities, and +satisfy the most generous ambition.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We come now to the second branch +of the question, how far such a measure +can be considered constitutional,—meaning +by that, how far it is in +conformity with the spirit and genius +of that form of government to which +we owe, during so many ages, and +during so many vicissitudes, the +tranquil possession of political freedom. +Certainly the time chosen to +cut one of the strands of the cable +of our anchor is a singular one. Freedom, +with the exception of the countries +governed by the King of Sardinia, +has been overthrown or undermined +in every part of the continent +of Europe. Nobody can doubt that +a main cause to which the present +condition of France is to be attributed, +is the want of a body of hereditary +legislators; the want, that is, of +a powerful aristocracy,—in other +words, of a House of Lords. Nobody +can doubt that the forlorn troop of +servile beggars distinguished throughout +Germany by the titles of Earl, +and Baron, and Freihern, is a main +reason why all attempts to establish +constitutional freedom in that country +have only served to illustrate the +most ludicrous ignorance of human +affairs, coupled with the most abject +tergiversation, and to drag to light +projects, compared with which the +principles by which the Caffres are +governed may be considered luminous, +and the whims of the politicians +of Laputa may pass for reasonable. +We object to any scheme for Germanising +England. We should be +sorry to see the influence of the +Court, where we now see other +hopes and objects. We should be +sorry to see the varied elements of +our social state crushed into one +undistinguished mass of servitude. +Our universities have been tampered +with; the next attempt is on the +House of Lords. It is the fashion to +speak lightly of representative government. +“A weak man doth not well +consider this, and a fool doth not understand +it.” The disgust and contempt +felt throughout France for the +corruption and time-serving of the +mongrel House of Peers, consisting of +misplaced men of letters, venal courtiers, +affected artists, hireling writers +in the daily press, shallow coxcombs, +and a few besides of illustrious names—the +last scattered like the nails in +a wall over a wide blank surface—account +for the sympathy with which +all reasonable men hailed its annihilation. +Such an institution as our +House of Lords may be destroyed, +but cannot be created; and with +these examples staring us in the +face, and loudly forbidding the attempt, +in defiance of reason and of +experience, in contradiction to the +sound feelings of the nation, an old +prerogative that has, “like unscoured +armour, hung by the wall so long,” +that the announcement of its existence +may furnish a question perhaps +for the amusement of antiquaries +of much leisure and little +thought, but which, to all real purposes, +has become as obsolete as +writing pure English—is made the +instrument of changing, at the will of +the Sovereign, a fundamental part of +our constitution. This is done, too, +during a war, when great political +alterations are usually suspended, +as if it were the merest trifle, not +worth attention or debate, amounting +to nothing more than, and quite as +much of course as, the appointment of +some commission to recommend the +maintenance of all the wretched chicane +by which the course of justice +in England has been so long impeded. +Some knowledge of the constitution +which he proposes so presumptuously +to violate, some little +acquaintance with the great writers +who have dwelt upon its excellences, +and held them up to the gratitude of +posterity, would be a useful ingredient +in the composition of a +Chancellor. Some knowledge of history +(we mean of course English +history) might, on the eve of so perilous +an undertaking, be found serviceable +to the lawyer who (whatever +be the mysterious influence under +which he acts, and no doubt in perfect +unconsciousness) sets himself to +work to pull down in cold blood, +and with the blandest countenance, +one of the safeguards of our liberties. +For, with deference to such authority, +we look upon the privileges of the +Peers as conferred upon them for the +public good. To suppose them given +or kept for any other purpose, would +be a narrow and unworthy view. +If they are inconsistent with that +object, they cannot be swept away +too soon. If they contribute to it, +they cannot be too religiously preserved. +For four hundred years, +during which the parts of our balanced +government have been made to +harmonise with and give mutual aid +to each other, the deliberate opinion +of ages and generations in this +country has been in favour of their +existence. It is a fair inference that +all these writers, historians, and +statesmen, have not been wholly +destitute of political sagacity, or in a +conspiracy to promote abuse. It is +a fair inference that a measure which +Lord Grey repudiated, which Mr +Pitt would not hear of, which Mr +Fox would have scouted with every +expression of scorn that his vehement +nature could have found in his +copious vocabulary, is a rash and unconstitutional +experiment. But we +know what the class (unfortunately +it is a numerous one) is who “rush +in where angels fear to tread;” we +know, too, that the gloom which enveloped +these great statesmen has +been dissipated by the light which +has flashed with such marvellous +lustre upon my Lord Cranworth. +It is hard upon this land that admitted +mediocrity should be no safeguard +against reckless extravagance. +If, in the days when the wild hurricane +of Reform was sweeping over us, +some man of an irregular but powerful +intellect had, in a moment of irritation +and disappointment, suggested +such a measure, we should have consoled +ourselves by reflecting that +inundations atone for the mischief +they inflict by the fertility they occasion. +We should have accepted the +benefit, and been on our guard against +the evil. But when a grave commonplace +sober gentleman, decent to a +fault, by no means of an ardent or +romantic disposition, misled by no +passions, carried astray by no impetuosity, +not intoxicated by learning, carefully +and effectually guarded by provident +nature against the dangers to +which genius is exposed when such +a person reverses the famous line, and +in a paroxysm of impotence, raging +without strength, and overflowing +without fulness—“precipitately dull” +and dispassionately mischievous—mimics +the freaks and caprices for +which inspiration only can atone, +Heraclitus might laugh at his distempered +activity, and Democritus +weep for the fate of the country in +which he legislates. The line—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<span lang="la">Ut lethargicus hic, cum fit pugil et medicum urget</span>,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>describes him. There is no hope, +says an acute writer, for the lover of +an ugly woman. There is as little +for those who suffer by the absurdities +of a commonplace man. “Whenever +you commit an error, Mr Foresight,” +says the wit in <cite>Love for Love</cite>, +“you do it with a great deal of prudence +and discretion, and consideration.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>It should be recollected that there +are many prerogatives of the Crown +which, if exercised injudiciously—that +is, unconstitutionally—would +soon become intolerable. The Crown +has the undoubted power of making +peace or war; but if Ministers were to +agree that York should be occupied +by a Russian garrison for ten years, +or that we should pay a tribute to +Russia for that time, would it be any +argument in favour of such clauses +that the Crown had only exercised its +undoubted prerogative? The Crown +has the power of pardoning offenders; +would that justify the pardon of +every offender as soon as he is convicted? +Many persons think that +the Crown has never lost the power +which it once most unquestionably +possessed, of raising the denomination +of the coin; is there any maniac, +even among the worshippers of Ruskin, +who would counsel such an experiment? +The prerogatives of the +Crown, even when most unquestionable, +must be exercised in conformity +with the spirit of the constitution. It +is the peculiar character of our constitution +that it contains within it +the three great principles of monarchy, +aristocracy, and democracy, +blended together so intimately, yet +perhaps so inexplicably, that the +Crown has no strength, except in connection +with the aristocracy and the +people: the aristocracy is nothing +when opposed to the Crown and the +people; and the people have little +power, if abandoned by the aristocracy +and the Crown. Fortunate indeed +have been the circumstances +which enabled our fathers to complete +this mysterious union. The +strength of our system is its harmony. +Take away the beauty of its proportions, +and its energies are at an end. +That amazing system, the work not +of giddy choice and tumultuous violence, +but of the “author of authors,” +Time, with enough military vigour for +war, with enough civil influence to +make military power in time of peace +impracticable, with the checks apparently +so hostile, in reality so much +in unison, as to make it the most perfect +moral machine that ever was contrived +to perpetuate freedom among +a people—would be violated and destroyed +by any such organic innovation.</p> + +<p class='c009'>What promises can exceed its performance? +And it is this which, for +the sake of putting a special pleader +among the Law Lords, or of satisfying +the vulgar ambition of a +few discontented men, ignorant of +their proper sphere, we are about to +put in jeopardy. Does any man +think that the power of the Crown +is too little in the House of Lords? +Is not the reverse notoriously the +truth? Is not the influence of the +Crown over the Bishops, who are not +Peers but Lords of Parliament, matter +of just complaint? Would not +the power of the Crown be increased +by creating Peers for life? Would +it not, especially in a country where +a vulgar appetite for technical rank +is but too conspicuous, increase the +number of those who would gain by +subserviency to the Crown in that +assembly? If you suddenly shift the +ballast, your vessel will soon be +under water—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<span lang="la">Quamvis pontica pinus</span></div> + <div class='line'><span lang="la">Sylvæ, filia nobilis</span></div> + <div class='line'><span lang="la">Jactes et genus et nomen inutile.</span>”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c009'>On the other hand, if the creation +of life-peers would give too much influence +to the Crown, beyond all +doubt it would give a most invidious +distinction to those already ennobled +families, among whom the +son of the mechanic may now hope +to take his place. It would tend to +make them a separate caste, cut off +(we speak of what must happen in +less than a century) from the sympathies +of their fellow-citizens. Such +a state of things could not long continue.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is but too deeply rooted in the +nature of man to press social distinctions +too far, and insist on them too +much. And could anything be devised +to swell the pride of a hereditary +Peer more effectually than the +sight of upstart counterfeits, bearing +the same title with himself, but distinguished, +nevertheless, by an everlasting +badge of inferiority? The +classes and professions from which +such peers were taken would share +in their degradation, and in the hostility +which it would inspire—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c011'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in6'>“Touch them with several fortunes,</div> + <div class='line'>The greater scorns the lesser....</div> + <div class='line'>Raise me this beggar, and deny’t that lord—</div> + <div class='line'>The senator shall bear <i>contempt hereditary</i>.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c009'>Much, no doubt, may be said about +the dangers and evils of unworthy +successors to great names. Taken separately, +such arguments are powerful; +taken with reference to a collective +body, they are weak. The +question is—on which side does the +balance of good preponderate? Along +with many evils, and great tendencies +to abuse, there are many advantages +in hereditary honour. A true +natural aristocracy is an essential +part of any large body rightly constituted. +“It is formed out of a +class of legitimate presumptions, +which, taken as generalities, must be +admitted for actual truths. To be +bred in a place of estimation; to see +nothing low or sordid from one’s infancy; +to be taught to respect one’s +self; to be habituated to the censorial +inspection of the public eye; to +look early to public opinion; to +stand upon such elevated ground as +to be enabled to take a large view of +the widespread and infinitely diversified +combinations of men and affairs +in a large society; to have +leisure to read, to reflect, to converse; +to be enabled to draw the +court and attention of the wise and +learned wherever they are to be +found; to be habituated in armies +to command and obey; to be taught +to despise danger in pursuit of honour +and of duty; to be formed to +the greater degree of vigilance, foresight, +and circumspection in a state +of things where no fault is committed +with impunity, and the slightest +mistakes draw on the most ruinous +consequences; to be led to a guarded +and regulated conduct from a +sense that you are considered an instructor +of your fellow-citizens in +their highest concerns; to be employed +as an administrator of law +and justice, and to be thereby among +the first benefactors, to mankind;”—such +is Mr Burke’s argument in +favour of a hereditary aristocracy. +As a sole or even a predominating +element, it degenerates into an insolent +domination; as an ingredient, +tempered, controlled, and subdued +by others, it has, in our opinion, a +dignified and refining influence. And +here we may remark, that almost +the sole barrier to despotic power in +France for many years was the firmness +and integrity of its parliaments, +which were in fact, though not in +name, an hereditary aristocracy. Let +any one compare the proceedings of +that body with those of Louis Philippe’s +peers, and then say on which +side the balance of good predominates. +The cautious and traditional +wisdom of those great bodies interposed +often between the people and +their oppressors. Machiavelli speaks +of them with admiration and respect; +and their functions were well expressed +by a First President of the parliament +of Provence, when he said to +the king, whom he resisted—“<span lang="fr">Souffrez, +sire, qu’ avec peine, haine, et +envie nous défendions votre autorité.</span>” +One of the worst acts of a +bad reign was to substitute for this +great aristocracy, which, with all its +faults, had done great services to its +country—holding the mean “inter +abruptam contumaciam et deforme +obsequium” with singular judgment—a +set of political adventurers, called +the Parliament Maupeou, many +of them the mere creatures of the +court and Madame Dubarri, and +nevertheless welcomed to their new +office by the approbation of the shallow +conceited writers of the day. +The pretext was a better administration +of justice—“<span lang="fr">Le préambule +s’exprimait dans un langage que n’eussent +pas désavoué les philosophes +sur la nécessité de <i>réformer les abus +dans l’administration de la justice</i>.</span>” +“<span lang="la">Absit omen!</span>” Then purity of justice +was the pretext of a tyrant; +now it is that of a few sottish and +purblind democrats. The result in +France is known to every one who +has read Beaumarchais, who in his +celebrated Mémoires branded the turpitude +and gross corruption of this +newly constituted body with ineffaceable +infamy. Then France began to +see the difference between the minions +of a court and a hereditary +assembly, between the d’Aguesseaus, +and the Goezmans, who were in their +place; and in spite of Voltaire, they +agreed with Mabli, that the old parliament +was better than the “Parlement +Postiche.” To this fact we +will add the prophetic remark of +Montesquieu, “<span lang="fr">Le pouvoir intermédiaire +subordonné le plus naturel est +celui de la noblesse; elle entre en +quelque façon dans l’essence de la +monarchie, dont la maxime fondamentale +est, Point de monarque, point +de noblesse—point de noblesse, point +de monarque—<i>mais on a un despote</i>!</span>” +Is there no danger that, if +the House of Lords is lowered, the +House of Commons may ruin itself +by its own excessive power?</p> + +<p class='c009'>The question, however, now is, not +whether you will establish a hereditary +peerage, but whether you will +take away from it its stability?—it is +not, whether you will abolish the +House of Lords, but whether you +will run the risk of polluting it by +time-servers? Have there been no +times in our history when the exercise +of such a prerogative as is now +claimed for the Crown would have +been most dangerous? If James II. +had imagined that such authority +belonged to him, can any man doubt +that he would have filled the House +of Lords, as he did the bench of justice, +with his Roman Catholic dependants? +Is there not reason to +believe that, as each party predominates, +it will flood the House of +Lords with these creatures of a day, to +confirm its own ascendancy? Would +the minister who created at once +twelve peers to ratify the Peace of +Utrecht have been satisfied with so +limited a number, if so convenient a +method as has now been discovered +had presented itself to him? If peerage +for life had been created, or even +if the Lords had been menaced with +such a measure, the motion for taking +the Address into consideration, on +the 23d Nov. 1685, would never have +been carried without a division; nor +would the dignified and manly language +held in that House have +offered so striking a contrast to the +pitiful and abject tone and demeanour +of the subservient House of Commons. +As it was, Lord Sunderland +is reported to have said that, to carry +the measures of the Court, he would +make Lord Churchill’s troop of +guards peers. But he recoiled, base +as he was, from such an attempt; +and are we to legislate on the conviction +that we shall never again +have a bad king and an unscrupulous +ministry, and that the firmness +and independence of the House of +Lords can never again be of any service +to the constitution? Can we +foretell that there may not be other +battles to be fought, and other victories +to be won? The attempt to make +the hereditary peers a caste by another +Lord Sunderland, was baffled +in the reign of George the First; +we trust that an attempt, which +must have the same effect if it +succeeds, and which must, moreover, +strengthen the influence of +the Crown, among a body where it +needs no strengthening, will not prosper +in the reign of Queen Victoria. +To change the relations of the several +parts of the constitution to each +other, is to make the lessons of history, +purchased as they have been +with the best blood of our fathers, +unavailing. The character of the +House of Lords is, that the honours +of those who sit and vote in it are +hereditary. It is so described by +Whigs and Tories, by lawyers and +historians. It is in consequence of +that character that it has filled a +wide space in history, and that it is +supported by a thousand time-hallowed +associations. Fill it with the nominees +of a minister, it will no longer +serve to interpose any obstacle to the +inconsiderate legislation which an +impetuous democracy is sometimes +rash enough to insist upon. It may +serve to gratify the vanity of women, +or of men as little fitted as women to +control the destinies of nations; it +may provoke hostility by distinctions, +invidious when they are manifestly +useless; it may even register the +edicts which it will be unable to +dispute: but its genuine functions +will be gone for ever; and if ever the +time should come when its energies +are required to serve either Crown or +people, they will be of as little account +as those of the French Chamber +of Peers in the hour of trial, and of +as little benefit to themselves and to +their country.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Why, then, should we unhinge the +state, ruin the House of Lords, and +pursue confusion, to guard against an +evil which, if it exists at all, may be +encountered by a far more specific +and appropriate remedy? Wise, indeed, +should he be who should endeavour +to recast a constitution which +has defended us alike from the unjust +aggression of power, and the capricious +tyranny of the multitude. But +if our rulers are weak, and our councils +infatuated, in the words of an old +writer, we can only pray that the +Lord will enable us to suffer, what +He by miracle only can prevent.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span> + <h2 class='c002'>THE WENSLEYDALE CREATION.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>At a time when the attention of +the nation is almost exclusively directed +to the colossal struggle in +which Great Britain has taken so +conspicuous a part—when the deepest +anxiety is felt regarding the issue +of the conferences at Paris, which +must have the effect either of restoring +peace to Europe, or of rendering +the contest more desperate in its +character than before—we were +surely entitled to expect that no attempts +would be made, at least by +Her Majesty’s advisers, to alter or innovate +any acknowledged part of the +fundamental constitution of the realm. +It is with great pain that we feel +ourselves called upon to denounce +such an attempt, which appears to us +not the less dangerous because furtively +made, and seemingly insignificant +of its kind. All permanent innovations, +all great changes and revolutions, +may be traced to a very +trifling source. The whole constitution +of a country may be overthrown +in consequence of some narrow departure +from its fundamental rules—a +departure which possibly may +appear at the time too trivial to +demand remonstrance, but which, being +drawn into a precedent, may, in +the course of years, be the means of +producing the most serious and disastrous +effects. The tree that could +have withstood the blast of the wildest +hurricane, will become rotten at +the core, if the rain can penetrate to +its bole, even through a miserable +crevice. The dykes of Holland, +which defy the winter storms, have, +ere now, yielded to the mining of +that stealthy engineer, the rat, and +provinces have been inundated in +consequence. And, therefore, it well +becomes us to be jealous of any attempt, +however trivial, or however +specious—for plausible reasons can +always be adduced on behalf of any +kind of innovation—to alter the recognised +principles of our constitution, +or to introduce a totally new +element into its framework.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We allude, of course, to the attempt +which Her Majesty’s advisers have +thought proper to make, at altering +the hereditary constitution of the +House of Lords, by the introduction +of Life-Peers into that body. The +question is now being tried in the +case of Mr Baron Parke, who has +been created Baron Wensleydale, +without remainder to heirs; and it is +impossible, looking to the attendant +circumstances, to avoid the conclusion +that this creation has been deliberately +made, for the purpose of establishing +a precedent for opening the +doors of the highest deliberative assembly +to a new order of nobles, who +are not to have the privilege of transmitting +their rank and titles to posterity. +For, if the only object had +been, as is alleged, to recruit the +numbers of life Lords upon whom +the task of hearing and deciding appeals +from the inferior courts of the +country must devolve, there was obviously +no necessity, nor even reason +in this instance, for departing from +the usual conditions of the peerage. +Lord Wensleydale (for so we are +bound to call him, in virtue of his +patent of nobility from the Queen) +is a man of advanced years, and has +no son. In all human probability, +therefore, the title, even though it +had been destined to heirs-male, as is +the common form, would become extinct +at his death. Want of fortune, +as the means of sustaining, in the +future time, the social position which +a peer ought to occupy, has often +been alleged, and with reason, as a +sufficient obstacle in the way of the +elevation of commoners, distinguished +for their acquirements and genius, to +the Peerage. It has been said, and +with great truth, that the present and +fleeting gain is more than counterbalanced +by the future and permanent +disadvantage. For the acquirements +and genius of the man so +elevated are but personal, and perish +with him—the heirs remain as pauper +peers, no ornament to their order, +and may, for a seemingly inadequate +consideration, be willing to surrender +their independence, and use their +legislative powers at the bidding of +an unscrupulous minister. But, in +the present case, where the chance of +succession was so small, there could +be little room for such an objection; +perhaps there was none, for the fortune +of Lord Wensleydale may be, for +anything we know to the contrary, +quite adequate to the maintenance of +a peerage; therefore we must hold +that this case was selected purposely +to try the question. Indeed, supposing +that Her Majesty’s advisers +were justified in making the attempt +to alter the constitution of the House +of Lords by the introduction of Peers +for life, they could hardly have selected +a better instance. For, if it +should be decided or declared that +there is a limit to the prerogative of +the Crown, and that the creation of a +peer for life, like Lord Wensleydale, is +simply a personal honour, but does not +carry along with it the privilege of a +seat in the House of Lords, all unseemly +questions of precedency will +be avoided. In that case it is not +likely that the experiment will be +renewed; for we may safely conclude +that the object of Her Majesty’s advisers +in issuing this singular patent +was not to gratify Lord Wensleydale +by the gift of a barren honour, but +to make him a member of the House +of Peers, entitled to speak and to +vote; and thereby to establish a precedent +for the future creation of a +non-hereditary peerage.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Before entering into the questions +of privilege and prerogative, it may +be as well to consider the reasons +founded on expediency which have +been advanced in behalf of the creation +of peerages for life. Such of her +Majesty’s ministers as have spoken +upon the subject have been exceedingly +cautious and guarded in their +language. None of them have ventured +to assert an opinion that, for +the future, it would be advisable to +multiply this kind of peerages. Their +arguments go little beyond this—that +whereas the appellate jurisdiction of +the House of Peers renders it necessary +that at all times there should be +among that body persons intimately +acquainted with the law, and qualified +to act as judges, it is for the advantage +of the country that such +creations should be not permanent +but temporary, not hereditary but +personal. In this there is not only +some, but much plausibility. It is of +the utmost importance to the country +that the highest legal talent should +be engaged for the last Court of Appeal; +and we are not of the number +of those who consider that a court of +appeal might be dispensed with. We +believe that the consciousness that +there exists a tribunal which has the +power of reversing or altering their +judgments, has conduced more than +anything else to stimulate the zeal, +activity, and attention of the judges +in the ordinary courts of law; and it +would be a very hazardous experiment +to give an irresponsible character +to their decisions. We think +also, and we make this admission +freely, that some decided steps should +be taken for the better regulation of +the ultimate Court of Appeal. The +House of Peers, as a body, has long +since abdicated its right of sitting +in judgment, except in some cases +peculiar to the peerage. The judicial +duties are now invariably devolved +upon judicial Peers, that is to say, +upon those who have either occupied +or occupy the highest judicial offices; +and although the form of putting the +question to the House, after the opinion +of the legal Peers has been delivered, +is still observed, no instance +of any attempt on the part of other +peers to vote, has taken place for a +long series of years. Thus the appellate +jurisdiction of the House has +been confided to a small and fluctuating +committee, on whom attendance +at the hearing of causes is not +compulsory; and although hitherto, +as we verily believe to be the case, +the judgments have been such as to +give general satisfaction, there is no +security for the continuance of a sufficiently +qualified number of adequate +Judges. We think that some other arrangement +for establishing and securing +a permanent tribunal of appeals +should be adopted; but we demur greatly +to the plan now proposed of creating +life-peerages for the purpose of keeping +the jurisdiction within the House +of Lords. Very wisely, we think, +has it been provided that Judges +shall not be eligible to sit in the +House of Commons. Their functions +being of the utmost importance to +the wellbeing and safety of the community, +it is above all things desirable +that they should not be allowed to +mingle actively in that strife of parties, +which must, to a certain extent, +in very many cases, warp the judgment, +or at least give a strong political +bias. The judicial atmosphere +ought to be not only pure but calm, +for so constituted are the human +frame and mind, that excitement of +any kind is apt to disturb the equilibrium +of the judgment, and often +suggests hasty views, which will not +bear the test of severe and dispassionate +investigation. Neither should +the attention of a Judge be too much +directed to objects alien to his function. +Undoubtedly there are minds +so active and capacious that they +rebel against any restriction of their +powers, and go beyond their proper +sphere, led away by a craving for intellectual +exercise, or under the influence +of overpowering ambition. +But these constitute the exception, +not the rule; and we humbly venture +to think that the best judges are +to be found among the men who deviate +least from the tenor of their +way, and who do not devote themselves +ardently to other occupations +or pursuits. Therefore we have great +doubts as to the propriety of the system +which would necessarily, to some +extent, expose the judge to the influences +of the politician, or, at any +rate, distract his attention from what +is or ought to be the main object and +purpose of his life. Besides this, it +is not convenient or decorous that +there should be anywhere an unpaid +tribunal upon which such serious responsibilities +devolve. Judges receive +salaries in order that they may +be compelled to do their work, and +overcome that tendency towards indolence +from which very few of the +human race are altogether free. The +salaried Judge must act: he must attend +to every case which is brought +before him, unless he can allege occasional +failure of health, or unless he +declines on account of interest or affinity. +But a voluntary and unpaid +Judge may absent himself at pleasure, +and without responsibility—a +very serious matter to suitors, and, +as we think, inconsistent with the +proper administration of justice. For +many reasons, therefore, it appears to +us that the time has arrived when the +supreme appeal court of the realm +should be placed upon a footing different +from that which has hitherto +existed, and that it should be so remodelled +as to give it a permanent +and responsible character. We have +already observed that, as regards the +great body of the Peers, their appellate +jurisdiction and power is merely +a name; and surely it is not worth +retaining the shadow when the substance +has passed away. There are +evidently many deficiencies in the +present system. The bulk of appeals +are from the Scottish courts; and as +the Scotch law differs materially from +that of England, being based altogether +upon a separate foundation, it +is important that at least one Judge, +intimately acquainted with the system, +and trained to its technicalities, +should be a member of the court of +last resort. Looking to the present +state of the Scottish bar and bench, +we must confess that we entertain +grave doubts whether any competent +lawyer could be found to undertake +such a duty for the unsubstantial +reward of a life peerage; and we +apprehend that no satisfactory or +thoroughly efficient arrangement for +the determination of appeals from +the courts of England, Scotland, and +Ireland can be effected, unless based +upon the principle of delegating the +appellate jurisdiction of the House +of Peers to a court, holding its sittings +in London, comprising the highest +legal talent which can be drawn +from the three kingdoms, but not +necessarily, in so far as its members +are concerned, directly connected +with the peerage. Of course, the +Judges in such a court of appeal +should be, like all other Judges, the +paid servants of the State; and we +are confident that such a measure, +the details of which would be matter +of grave consideration, could not fail +to be acceptable, and must prove +highly beneficial to the country at +large. Indeed, it is manifest that +some such alteration of the law is +now peremptorily required; as it is +upon the inconvenience and insecurity +of the working of the present +system of appellate jurisdiction, as +vested nominally in the whole body +of the House of Peers, that the main +arguments in favour of what we +must consider as a dangerous attempt +to destroy the hereditary constitution +of the Upper House have been +founded.</p> + +<p class='c009'>These observations of ours have +not been made at random. We know +that many of the highest and best +legal authorities of our time have +regarded the uncertain state of the +constitution of the last court of +appeal with considerable misgivings +as to the future, and that they have +entertained a deep anxiety as to the +possible result, if no definite arrangement +should be made. The establishment +of a responsible tribunal, +such as we have hinted at, would, in +any case, have deprived the inventors +and advocates of the creation of +life-peerages of their only plausible +plea; because, as we have already +remarked, none of them have ventured +to express their unqualified approval +of the institution of life-peers, as giving +new blood to the Legislature—they +merely take their stand upon the +judicial advantages which might result +from the new method of creation. +But if the same advantages, +or, as it appears to us, advantages +much more important and even precious +to the public interest, could be +derived from the institution of a new +court, framed in accordance and consonance +with the legal practice of the +realm, and calculated to give universal +satisfaction and security, we apprehend +that the House of Lords +would lose nothing if it renounced +what, to the great bulk of its members, +is a pure fiction of authority. +The pretext—for it is nothing more—for +the introduction of life-peerages, +has been rested upon a very narrow +ground; namely, the necessity of providing +for the adequate discharge of +the appellate jurisdiction of the House. +By consent of Queen, Lords, and +Commons, to the erection of an independent +and responsible tribunal of +appeal, of which the Law Lords of +Parliament might be members, the +difficulty could be obviated at once; +and then—if it should still be proposed +to make a radical change in +the constitution of the Upper House—the +question may be argued upon +broad and general grounds. If in +any quarter—we care not how high +it be—it is deemed advisable, or expedient, +or creditable, or conducive +to the maintenance of the present +constitution of the realm, that life-peerages +should hereafter be copiously +introduced, let the subject be ventilated +and discussed with all imaginable +freedom and latitude. But this +back-blow—this poor attempt, as we +must needs think it to be, of endeavouring +to gain a precedent and an +example by insidious means, without +the co-operation of Parliament—strikes +us as peculiarly shabby; and +is anything but wise, inasmuch as it +indicates a desire to push the prerogative +of the Crown beyond the point +which has been held as constitutional +since the union of the three kingdoms. +In a matter such as this is, we need +hardly repeat the words of Lord +Lyndhurst, that we do not speak of +the Sovereign personally, but of the +advisers of the Sovereign.</p> + +<p class='c009'>All that we have hitherto said relates +to the <i>expediency</i> of creating +life-peerages for the purpose of supplying +possible deficiencies in the +number of Law Lords who now exercise +the whole appellate jurisdiction of +the House of Peers. But the greater +question is behind; and although we +approach the subject with considerable +diffidence, we are constrained to +express our opinion that, in the case +of Lord Wensleydale, the prerogative +of the Crown has been stretched beyond +its proper limit. We do not +mean as to the title. The Crown is the +fountain of honour; and there seems +to be little doubt that the Crown +may create titles at pleasure, without +any violation of the constitution. The +old orders of Thanes and Vavasors +may be resuscitated, or new orders +of knighthood, with extraordinary +rank of precedence, may be formed. +All that, and even more than that, +lies within the power of the Sovereign. +But the institution of a new +estate, or a new order, or a new tenure +of nobility, which shall have the +effect of augmenting or decreasing +the power of either of the two other +recognised and established estates of +the realm, the Lords or the Commons, +is an assumption or exercise of +power beyond the prerogative of the +Crown; and we, who certainly do +not lean to the side of democracy, +must oppose any such innovation, as +strongly and strenuously as we would +do were the true privileges of the +Crown assailed. We deny not the +right of the Queen to bestow honours +and titles, and to give rank and precedence; +but the case is very different +when we find the Queen—or, to speak +more accurately and properly, the +Queen’s advisers—attempting to alter +the recognised hereditary character +of one of the legislative chambers.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Let us then consider what is the +constitution of the House of Lords. +Diligent search has been made for +precedents to show that, at an early +period of English history, the Crown +was in the use of granting peerages +for life only; and we are bound to +allow that sufficient evidence has +been brought to establish the fact +that, in the reign of Richard II., at +least one peerage of that nature was +created. But those who will take +the trouble to peruse the elaborate +reports upon the dignity of the +Peerage, issued in 1820, 1822, and +1825, will find that in those early times +the Crown assumed and exercised +most arbitrary powers. Peers were +summoned or not summoned to Parliament +according to the will of the +sovereign, and the right to exclude +from Parliament a peer who had +once taken his seat, was exercised by +the Crown in repeated instances. +If precedents drawn from the early +history of England are to be accepted +as rules for interpreting the existing +measure of the prerogative of the +Crown, we must necessarily conclude +that the Crown has the power, without +trial or forfeiture, to suspend or +take away the privileges of any peer, +and that this can be done simply by +withholding a writ at the time when +Parliament is summoned. We doubt +greatly whether even the strongest +stickler for prerogative would maintain +that such a course would be +justifiable at the present day. But +in truth we set very little value upon +such precedents, beyond what attaches +to them as mere antiquarian +inquiries; and for this reason, that +the ancient usage of England in +regard to peerages is of no value +in determining the rights, privileges, +or position of members of the present +House of Lords. It seems to be +forgotten that there is now no +English House, nor are there any +Peers of England. The unions with +Scotland and Ireland entirely altered +the character of the existing Peerage. +To borrow the language of the Third +Report upon the Dignity;—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“When the union of England and +Scotland was accomplished in the reign +of Queen Anne, all the adult peers of +the realm of England were entitled to +writs of summons in the characters of +temporal Lords of the Parliament of +England, as that Parliament was then +constituted; <i>but there are now no longer +any peers of the realm of England</i>. By +the union with Scotland, England as +well as Scotland ceased to be distinct +realms; and all the peers of the realm +of England, and all the peers of the +realm of Scotland, became, by the terms +of the Treaty of Union, <i>peers of the new +kingdom of Great Britain</i>.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>In like manner the union of Great +Britain and Ireland produced a change +in the character of the Peerage:—</p> + +<p class='c010'>“All the peers of Ireland, and all the +Peers of Great Britain, and all the peers +of the United Kingdom since created, +form, in some degree, the second estate +of the realm of the United Kingdom, +qualified by the power given to the +peers of Ireland to divest themselves of +their privileges as such, under certain +circumstances; but twenty-eight only of +the peers of Ireland are Lords of Parliament, +being elected to represent the +rest of the peers of Ireland in Parliament, +and their election being for life. +A power is also reserved to the Crown +to create new peers of Ireland, under +certain circumstances; and the peers +so created become also part of the whole +body of peers of the United Kingdom, +though not by their creation Lords of +Parliament, and though, by the terms of +their creation, made peers of Ireland +only.</p> + +<p class='c010'>“It seems manifest, therefore, that +not only the peers of the realm of the +United Kingdom of Great Britain and +Ireland at the present day, but all the +members of the legislative assemblies of +the United Kingdom, both as bodies, and +as individual members of different bodies, +and in their several different and respective +rights and capacities, bear little resemblance +to any of the members of the +legislative assemblies of the realm of +England from the Conquest, before and +to the reign of John; and the peers of +the realm of the United Kingdom, both +as a body and individually, are very different +from the peers of the realm of +England, before the Union of England +and Scotland in the reign of Queen +Anne, <i>and especially as many of them are +not Lords of Parliament</i>; and such of +them as are elected to represent the +peers of Scotland, and such of them as +are elected to represent the peers of +Ireland, are Lords of Parliament by +election, and not by virtue of their respective +dignities, though the possession +of those dignities is a necessary qualification +to warrant their election.”—<cite>Third +Report on the Dignity of the Peerage</cite>, +pp. 34, 35.</p> + +<p class='c009'>It is manifest, therefore, that such +a question as this, affecting the status +and privileges of the Peerage of the +United Kingdom, cannot be settled +by reference to early English precedents. +There is no longer an English +peerage, neither is there an English +Sovereign. The Acts of Union have +quite altered the character of the +Peerage, for they have established a +clear and intelligible distinction between +Peers of the United Kingdom +and Lords of Parliament. The mere +possession of the dignity by no means +implies the right to sit in the House +of Lords. With the exception of +sixteen who are elected to serve in +each Parliament, the whole body of +what were the peers of Scotland, +but who now are peers of the United +Kingdom, are excluded from the +House of Lords, unless qualified to +sit in virtue of a new patent; and +that portion of the Peerage of the +United Kingdom whose ancestors +were peers of Ireland, are represented +in Parliament by twenty-eight of +their number. It is important that +this distinction should be borne in +mind; the more especially because, +by a loose and inaccurate mode of +expression, many people are led to +think that the descendants of the old +Scottish and Irish peers are not +peers of the United Kingdom. Yet +such unquestionably is their character; +but though peers of the United +Kingdom, they are not necessarily +members of the House of Lords.</p> + +<p class='c009'>If, therefore, precedent is to be regarded +as affording any rule for ascertaining +the extent of the Sovereign’s +prerogative, it humbly appears +to us that no instance from the +history of England previous to the +unions with Scotland and Ireland, +can be accepted as satisfactory. The +laws of England, as a province or +component part of the realm, may +have remained intact; but the character +of the Peerage was entirely +altered. The question is not now, +What were the powers or extent of +the prerogative of the monarchs +of England? It is simply this, +What are the powers, and what is the +prerogative of the Sovereign of the +United Kingdom of Great Britain +and Ireland? For otherwise, be it +observed, the search for precedents +must be extended both to Scotland +and Ireland, and we apprehend that +investigation so directed might lead +to some curious results. We know +that King James, who succeeded to +the throne of England, had such an +exalted notion of his prerogative, that +in his progress southward he actually +tried in person, and condemned +to death, an unfortunate footpad, +who in all probability would have +received a milder sentence from a less +august tribunal. As to creations of +the peerage in Scotland, take the +case of the Barony of Rutherford. +That peerage was created by Charles +II., in 1661; a much more recent +authority than Richard II.; and the +destination was to Andrew Rutherford, +and the heirs-male of his body, +“<span lang="la">quibus deficientibus, quamcumque +aliam personam seu personas quas +sibi quoad vixerit, quinetiam in articulo +mortis, ad ei succedendum, ac +fore ejus hæredes talliæ et provisionis +in eadem dignitate, nominare et designare +placuerit, secundum nominationem +et designationem manu ejus +subscribendam, subque provisionibus +restrictionibus et conditionibus a +dicto Andrea, pro ejus arbitrio, in +dicta designatione experimendis</span>.” In +short, if the first Lord Rutherford +had no heirs-male, he was entitled by +this patent to assign the dignity, even +on death-bed, to any person whom he +might choose to name; and there was +nothing to prevent him, if so disposed, +from having nominated his footman +to succeed him in the peerage! Here +is a precedent to which we respectfully +request the attention of those +who are bent upon asserting the unlimited +nature of the royal prerogative; +and we should like to know +whether they are prepared to maintain +that such a patent, if granted +now, would be regarded as constitutional, +and would be held sufficient to +entitle <i>the assignee</i>, not the heir, of +the originally created peer to sit in +the House of Lords? Certainly we +are entitled to demand, if this case of +Lord Wensleydale is to be decided +upon precedents, a distinct answer to +the foregoing question. For, as we +have already shown—we trust distinctly, +and we know incontrovertibly—the +interest now at stake concerns +not the Peerage of England, +which has long since ceased to exist, +but the interest of the Peerage of the +United Kingdom; and therefore precedents +drawn from the history of +England can have no more weight +than precedents drawn from the histories +or records of Scotland or of +Ireland.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We think that no weight whatever +is to be given to such precedents. No +sovereign of the United Kingdom of +Great Britain and Ireland has, till +now, attempted to alter the hereditary +character of the Peerage. This +is the very first instance of a peerage +for life granted in the monarchy under +which we live, and it cannot be +considered otherwise than as an innovation. +We use that term in its most +innocuous sense; not meaning thereby +to challenge the right of the Crown +to confer a new description of dignity, +but simply marking the fact that the +dignity, as granted, is new. But the +creation of such a dignity by no means +carries with it the right to a seat in +the House of Lords. As we have +already shown, many of the Peers +of the United Kingdom, all of whom +are hereditary, are expressly excluded +from that House, not by will of the +Sovereign alone, but by express statute, +bearing the authority of the +Three Estates of the realm. If there +be any meaning whatever in the +phrase that this is a “limited monarchy,” +it must be held to signify +that the Crown cannot, <i>ex proprio +motu</i>, interfere with the constitution +of the other two Estates. It cannot, +we know well, interfere arbitrarily +with the constitution of the House +of Commons; but is it not an interference +with the constitution of the +House of Lords, when we find a new +kind of peerage created, for the purpose +of giving the party so created a +voice in the Legislature? Is that not +directly contrary to constitutional +usage—to the “<span lang="la">lex et consuetudo +Parliamenti</span>,” which has been justly +held as the great bulwark of our +national freedom? On this point we +invite consideration; and the more +deeply it is considered, the stronger, +we are assured, will be the conviction +that the present attempt, if +successful, would be highly dangerous +to the liberties of the country.</p> + +<p class='c009'>All must agree with us that it is +of the most vital importance that +the independence of the two national +chambers should be maintained. The +House of Commons cannot be otherwise +than independent, because it +is strictly electoral. All proposals +which have hitherto been made to +place a certain number of seats at +the disposal of ministers, or rather +to allow ministers to sit and vote +without representing a constituency, +have been scouted; and although +very plausible arguments have from +time to time been advanced to +prove the expediency of such an arrangement, +these have failed to convince +the people of this country that +it would be safe to depart, in any +case, from the electoral system of return. +The House of Peers hitherto +has been independent, because, +though the Crown has the right of +creating new peers, that right has +only been exercised according to the +existing and understood conditions; +and the hereditary constitution of +the House renders it impossible to +suppose that any undue or exorbitant +exercise of the power of the +Crown, in creating new peers, can +permanently affect its independence. +It by no means follows that the successor +of the original peer is to be +swayed by the same motives which +affected his father, or that he will +tread implicitly in his footsteps; +and therefore, even in times of great +excitement, the power of creation +has been exercised within limits by +the advisers of the Crown. Lord +Brougham, who, in the days of the +Reform Bill, was not very scrupulous, +intended, as he tells us himself, +to advise his sovereign, William IV., +to exercise his prerogative to an extent +which never had been attempted +before, and which, we devoutly trust, +will never be attempted again. He +says, “When I went to Windsor +with Lord Grey, I had a list of +<span class='fss'>EIGHTY</span> creations, framed upon the +principle of making the least possible +permanent addition to our House, +and to the aristocracy, by calling up +peers’ eldest sons—by choosing men +without families—by taking Scotch +and Irish peers.” It is of no avail +now to revert to the past, or to enter +into any discussion whether or not +the proposed measure was justifiable; +more especially as Lord Brougham +adds, “But such was my deep sense +of the dreadful consequences of the +act, that I much question whether I +should not have preferred running +the risk of confusion that attended +the loss of the bill as it then stood.” +Under the present hereditary system, +there is little danger that the House +of Peers will lose its independent +character; nor could it be so affected, +even for a short period, save by some +such exorbitant exercise of the power +of the Crown, by creating simultaneously +an undue and unconstitutional +number of peers. But the +case would be widely different +if life-peerages were to be allowed, +and recognised as conferring a right +to sit in the House of Lords. Peerages +in the ordinary course of succession +become rapidly extinct. In 1707, +when the Union Roll of Scotland was +made up, the number of the Peerage +amounted to 154; and since then six, +having proved their claims, have been +added, thus swelling the number to +160. At present there are only 82 +members of that Peerage, showing a +diminution of nearly <i>one-half</i> in the +course of 150 years. If, then, the +lapse of hereditary peerages is to be +supplied—as no doubt it will be supplied, +should the claim of Lord Wensleydale +to take his seat in the House +of Peers be allowed—by peers created +for life only, who can fail to see that, +in the course of time, the independence +of the Upper House must be +entirely extinguished? In the natural +course of events, that Chamber must +become an appanage of the Crown, +very much indeed in the condition of +the old English Chamber of Peers, +when the Crown exercised its discretion +in issuing or withholding writs +of summons to Parliament. Therein, +we conclude, lies the real danger. We +speak of “the constitution of the +country,” and men regard the term +as vague because so much is implied. +But it is different when we consider +separately the constitution of each +branch of the Legislature. Then we +are dealing, not with generalities, but +with facts; and we appeal, not only +to the antiquarian and the genealogist, +but to the understanding of all +educated men, whether, until now, +they ever conceived the possibility of +a non-hereditary House of Lords? +Surely, in 1832, when a design for +swamping that House was seriously +entertained, the legality of creating +peerages for life must have occurred +to some of the men of acute and daring +intellect who were willing to peril +so much for the success of their favourite +measure, and yet no proposal +of the kind was put forward. It is +in the “ennoblement of the blood” +which, once bestowed, the sovereign +cannot recall, that the essential privilege +and pre-eminence of the Peerage +lies. Take that away, and the whole +character of the dignity is altered.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Some kind of argument has been +attempted to be drawn in favour of +life-peerages, from the patent fact that +bishops have seats in the House of +Lords. To that we answer that the +“Spiritual Lords,” as they are termed, +sit there partly by consuetude, and +partly by statute; and Blackstone +thus explains the reason of their sitting: +“These” (<i>i.e.</i> the Spiritual +Lords) “hold, or are supposed to hold, +certain ancient baronies under the +Queen; for William the Conqueror +thought proper to change the spiritual +tenure of frankalmoign, or free +alms, under which the bishops held +their lands during the Saxon government, +into the feodal or Norman tenure +by barony, which subjected their +estates to all civil charges and assessments, +from which they were before +exempt; and in right of succession to +those baronies which were unalienable +from their respective dignities, +the bishops and abbots were allowed +their seats in the House of Lords.” +And let it be specially remarked, that +the Crown has no power to call a +newly-created bishop, in virtue of his +bishopric, to sit in the House of Lords. +This is distinctly asserted by the statute +10 and 11 Vict. cap. 108, which +provides that the number of English +Lords Spiritual shall not be increased +by the creation of any new bishopric. +So here is a precedent, if precedents +are to be sought for, limiting the +power of the Crown as to new dignities, +and debarring it from interfering +with the constituted rights of another +estate of the realm.</p> + +<p class='c009'>In the course of this discussion +upon a subject not only interesting, +but of the highest importance, we +have studiously avoided mixing up +the question of the right of the Crown +to confer titles of honour at pleasure, +with that of the exercise of the prerogative +to create, contrary to consuetude, +a new kind of nobility to sit +in the House of Lords. They are +indeed totally separate questions, and +must so be considered in order to +arrive at a proper understanding of +the point at issue. We submit that +this much is clear and evident—1st, +That the right of sitting in the House +of Lords is not the necessary consequence +of the possession of a British +peerage; 2d, That, with the exception +of the Bishops or Lords Spiritual, +who sit in the character of holders of +ancient baronies under the Queen, all +the members of the House of Lords +are hereditary peers; 3d, That since +the union of England and Scotland, +which merged the two ancient kingdoms +into one monarchy under the +name of Great Britain, and made all +the existing peers, without any exception, +peers of Great Britain, there has +been no instance of any attempt on +the part of the Crown to create peerages +without remainder; 4th, That +the same observation applies to the +United Kingdom of Great Britain and +Ireland, which was established by the +Act of Union with Ireland, and which +made all existing peers, peers of the +United Kingdom.</p> + +<p class='c009'>The present is the first instance in +which a title of nobility, without remainder, +has been conferred by patent, +and the mere title, as a personal honour, +may be unimpeachable. But it is +a very different thing when it is attempted +to give the holder of that title +a seat in the House of Lords, which, we +humbly venture to think, is beyond +the power of the Crown, because it is +contrary to the acknowledged constitution +and hereditary character of +the House of Lords. That there must +be some limit to the exercise of the +prerogative is certain; and we shall +put a case for the solution of those +who take the opposite view. It is +this: Would the Crown be entitled +to issue a writ of summons to any +peer of the United Kingdom, who is +such in virtue of his representing an +old Scottish or Irish peerage; and +would such peer be entitled, in respect +of that writ, to take his seat in +the House of Lords? We apprehend +that there can be but one answer to +that. Such an attempt would be +directly contrary to and in violation +of the terms of the Acts of Union. +No man surely will maintain that +Queen Anne could have evaded the +express conditions of the Treaty of +Union, by creating all the former +peers of Scotland who became peers +of Great Britain (with the exception +of the sixteen representatives), peers +for life, without remainder, and so +have effected an absolute revolution +in the character of the then existing +House of Lords. It was not until +the year 1782, seventy years after the +Union, that a writ of summons was +allowed to be issued to Douglas Duke +of Hamilton, in the character of Duke +of Brandon, a dignity which had been +given to his ancestor in 1711. Previous +to that decision, it seems to +have been maintained that no subsequent +patent to a peer, who originally +was a peer of Scotland, could entitle +him to a writ of summons to sit in +the House of Lords; and the point +was twice adjudicated upon in the +House of Lords: first in the case of +the Duke of Hamilton, already mentioned; +and, secondly, in that of the +Duke of Queensberry, who, 1719, +asserted his right to a writ of summons +in his character of Duke of +Dover. In both instances the decision +was hostile to the claim; but the +point was finally set at rest by the +admission of the Duke of Hamilton +to sit as Duke of Brandon under that +patent.</p> + +<p class='c009'>If the Crown can now create a peer +for life, so as to entitle him to a seat +in Parliament, it must necessarily +have possessed that power 150 years +ago; and, if so, every one of the Scottish +peers might have been called to +the Upper House by the simple expedient +of giving them new patents +for life. Such an attempt would undoubtedly +have been considered illegal, +unconstitutional, and utterly subversive +of the Union; and yet we +cannot see wherein such an attempt +would have differed in principle from +that which is now made to introduce +Lord Wensleydale to the House of +Lords. It is only by the consent of +Queen, Lords, and Commons, that +the fundamental character of any of +the three great Estates of the realm +can be altered; and the attempt to +destroy or impair the independence +of one of them is ominous for the stability +of the others.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c021'> + <div><i>Printed by William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh.</i></div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class='c022'> +<div class='footnote' id='f1'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. <cite>A History of Rome from the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire.</cite> +By <span class='sc'>Henry G. Liddell</span>, D.D., Dean of Christchurch, Oxford, late Head Master of +Westminster School.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f2'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. This was a law, passed after the battle of Cannæ, at the instance of the tribune +Oppius, “by which it was forbidden that any woman should wear a gay-coloured +dress, or have more than half an ounce of gold to ornament her person, and that +none should approach within a mile of any city or town in a car drawn by horses.”—Vol. +i. p. 363.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f3'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. He had caused a fugitive and suppliant Gaul to be assassinated in his own +tent, where he was feasting with a favourite youth, in order that the dying agonies +of the man might afford an amusement to his unworthy minion.—Vol. ii. p. 61.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f4'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. <span lang="fr"><cite>Histoire des Français des Divers Etats.</cite> Victor Lecou, Libraire. Paris, 1853.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f5'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. One curious example of this kind of thing we remember to have seen in the +preface to the new edition of a work of some reputation. The devout author, +alluding to the success of his performance, offers his grateful thanks to Providence +and the Periodical Press.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f6'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Like some people nearer home, each of them (and many another besides them) +avers that his paper has the largest circulation of any journal not only in America, +but <i>in the world</i>. Of all statistics, the least credible are those of newspaper proprietors.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f7'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. We are fully prepared to find Mr Bennett attributing our unfavourable remarks +to a great “conspiracy” among the “aristocratic cliques” of England against American +institutions in general, and the <cite>New York Herald</cite> in particular. This is an +old trick, but the American public is too sensible any longer to be taken in by such +nonsense. Mr Bennett’s pretensions to represent the general sentiments of the +United States, have nowhere been more indignantly repudiated than in New York. +If we imagined that any American whose opinion is worth considering, would interpret +our criticism as implying any unkindly feeling to his country, these pages +should never have seen the light. The objects of our criticism are individual men.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f8'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. The <cite>North American Review</cite> thanks Mr Parton warmly for his brave—his +noble book. Was the orthodox Grannie dozing when she read it?</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f9'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. The meaning of the words “Whig,” “Democrat,” &c., and the combination in the +same individuals of Whig and Protectionist, Conservative and Democrat, are somewhat +puzzling to those who have not studied the complicated subject of American +politics.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f10'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. Of the printing-office and editorial rooms Mr Parton gives a minute account, +not failing to give us the names and describe the personal attractions of all the +leading officials, including the distinguished foreman, Mr T. Rooker, who warns +“<i>gentlemen</i> desiring to wash and soak their distributing matter,” to use the +“metal galleys” he has cast for that purpose! “It took the world,” says Mr P., +“an unknown number of thousand years to arrive at that word <span class='sc'>Gentlemen</span>.” +What a pity that some smart man does not write a little book on “The Flunkeyism +of Democracy.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f11'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. On this subject the biography maintains, with one or two exceptions, a prudent +reserve. One pathetic description is attempted of the old sinner, “as he stood in +his editorial rooms in Nassau Street, <i>while from his head was washed the blood that +incarnadined the snows of fifty winters</i>.” After the washing of his headpiece, the +invincible editor coolly sat down to narrate the “assassination” in his own choice +style for the benefit of his readers. The following may pass as a specimen of +his manner. “James Watson Webb,” editor of the <cite>Courier and Enquirer</cite>, was an +old comrade of the writer’s.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“As I was leisurely pursuing my business yesterday, in Wall Street, collecting +the information which is daily disseminated in the <cite>Herald</cite>, James Watson Webb +came up to me on the northern side of the street—said something which I could +not hear distinctly, then pushed me down the stone steps leading to one of the +broker’s offices, and commenced fighting with a species of brutal and demoniac +desperation characteristic of a fury.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“My damage is a scratch, about three-quarters of an inch in length, on the third +finger of the left hand, which I received from the iron railing I was forced against, +and three buttons torn from my vest, which any tailor will reinstate for a sixpence. +His loss is a rent from top to bottom of a very beautiful black coat, which cost +the ruffian 40 dollars, and a blow in the face, which may have knocked down his +throat some of his infernal teeth for anything I know. Balance in my favour, +39 dollars, 94 cents.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f12'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. Mr Bennett, it would appear, is not indeed utterly free from the human +feeling of “love of approbation”—the approbation, however, of “peculiar” characters. +Mr O’Connell insulted him at a great Repeal gathering in Dublin, by saying, +when his card was presented, “We don’t want him here. He is one of the conductors +of one of the vilest Gazettes ever published by infamous publishers.” Poor +Bennett was “ill for some days in Scotland”—probably, thinks the tender biographer, +in consequence of this unexpected repulse from a brother demagogue.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f13'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Gibbon.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f14'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. <cite>Report by the Commissioners for the British Fisheries of their Proceedings in the +Year ended 31st December 1854; being Fishing 1854.</cite> Edinburgh, 1855.</p> + +<p class='c009'>Article “<span class='sc'>Fisheries</span>” in the current edition of the <cite>Encyclopædia Britannica</cite>, +vol. ix. Edinburgh, 1855.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f15'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. This fearful loss, it may be borne in mind, fell not upon fishermen and merchants, +but upon the poor fishermen alone—most of the survivors being thereby +rendered destitute. “Of those who perished at Wick, 17 left widows +and 60 children; at Helmsdale, the 13 drowned have left 9 widows and 25 children; +of the 26 men belonging to Port Gordon and Buckie, who perished at +Peterhead, 8 have left widows and 22 children; and, including the 13 widows and +54 children of the 19 men lost belonging to Stonehaven and Johnshaven, there +will be left 47 widows and 161 children totally unprovided for—a calamity without +precedent in the annals of the British fisheries.”—<span class='sc'>Captain Washington’s</span> <cite>Report</cite>, +p. xvii.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f16'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. <cite>Report—Fishing Boats</cite> (Scotland). Ordered by the House of Commons to be +printed, 28th July 1849.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f17'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. The year above referred to was that of 1848. Still larger captures and comparative +increase in the quantity cured have since occurred. Thus, in 1849, there +were cured at Wick 140,505 barrels.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f18'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. <cite>Essays on the Trade, Commerce, Manufactures, and Fisheries of Scotland</cite>, +vol. iii. p. 197. Edinburgh, 1778.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f19'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. <cite>Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Supervision for the Relief of the Poor in +Scotland.</cite> Edinburgh, 1853.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f20'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. </p> +<table class='table2'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Value of boats</td> + <td class='c018'>employed</td> + <td class='c018'>in the fisheries,</td> + <td class='c004'>£225,830</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Do. of nets</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c004'>303,666</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Do. of lines</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c018'>„</td> + <td class='c004'>57,924</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c018'>Total (for 1854),</td> + <td class='c004'>£587,420</td> + </tr> +</table> + +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f21'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. The above numbers are exclusive of between <i>four and five thousand men</i> engaged +in the <i>export</i> fishing trade.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f22'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. The following is the present constitution of the Board: <i>Commissioners</i>—Lord +Murray; Earl of Caithness; George Traill, M.P.; James Wilson; Rear-Admiral +Henry Dundas; Andrew Coventry; James T. Gibson-Craig; Professor Traill; +William Mitchell Innes; Lord Elcho, M.P.; Sir James Matheson, M.P.; John +Thomson Gordon; George Loch; with Lord Advocate Moncreiff, and Solicitor-General +Maitland, <i>Ex officiis</i>.—Secretary, Hon. B. F. Primrose.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f23'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. <cite>Twentieth Report from the Board of Public Works, Ireland</cite>, p. 236. London, +1852.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f24'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. <cite>Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries, Ireland, for 1853.</cite> Dublin, 1854.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f25'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. Ibid. 1854. Dublin, 1855.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f26'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. <cite>Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries, Ireland, for 1854</cite>, p. 12. The above +quotation refers to the herring fishery carried on at Howth. We think it right to +state that the schedules appended to the report bear testimony “to the peaceable +and orderly habits of the fishermen, and to the total absence of any conflicts or disturbance +of any kind.” It is, unfortunately, added, that “it is much to be deplored +that nearly all agree in describing an unexampled state of depression as extending +to all parts of the coast.”—<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 6.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f27'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 6. As the law now stands, there is no regulation in respect to the +size of the mesh of nets used in Ireland for the capture of fish other than of the +salmon species.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f28'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. Letter from Mr Methuen to the Lord Advocate; <cite>Edinburgh Evening Courant</cite>, +February 6, 1856.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f29'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. We have recently received the <cite>Commercial Circular</cite> of Messrs Plüddeman and +Kirstein of Stettin, of date the 20th January 1856. Referring to the increased +consumption of our herrings in the Continental markets during the last season, +they attributed it chiefly to the high prices of all descriptions of <i>meat</i>, as a consequence +of the high value of rye, and all other grains, caused by the blockade of the +Russian ports, and the failure of the Continental crops. The following is their +summary of the importation of Scotch herrings, into their own and neighbouring +districts, during the last four years:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <th class='btt bbt blt brt c015'>Years.</th> + <th class='btt bbt brt c015'>Stettin.</th> + <th class='btt bbt brt c015'>Harburg.</th> + <th class='btt bbt brt c015'>Hamburg.</th> + <th class='btt bbt brt c015'>Dantzic.</th> + <th class='btt bbt brt c015'>Königsberg.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='blt brt c017'></th> + <th class='brt c015'>Barrels.</th> + <th class='brt c015'>Barrels.</th> + <th class='brt c015'>Barrels.</th> + <th class='brt c015'>Barrels.</th> + <th class='brt c015'>Barrels.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt brt c017'>1852</td> + <td class='brt c017'>121,290</td> + <td class='brt c017'>10,000</td> + <td class='brt c017'>44,000</td> + <td class='brt c017'>22,146</td> + <td class='brt c017'>about 4000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt brt c017'>1853</td> + <td class='brt c017'>123,537</td> + <td class='brt c017'>26,000</td> + <td class='brt c017'>22,000</td> + <td class='brt c017'>44,272</td> + <td class='brt c017'>about 5000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt brt c017'>1854</td> + <td class='brt c017'>118,800</td> + <td class='brt c017'>52,400</td> + <td class='brt c017'>25,550</td> + <td class='brt c017'>28,009</td> + <td class='brt c017'>2758</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt blt brt c017'>1855</td> + <td class='bbt brt c017'>154,961</td> + <td class='bbt brt c017'>59,769</td> + <td class='bbt brt c017'>26,500</td> + <td class='bbt brt c017'>66,122</td> + <td class='bbt brt c017'>15,070</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c009'>The above transmissions for 1855 give a total of 322,422 barrels of Scotch +herrings, of which the price to our curers, for such as were full crown branded, +varied from L.1, 1s. to L.1, 4s. each, producing, with such as were of a somewhat +inferior quality and price, an enormous aggregate of income from the Prussian +ports alone.</p> + +<p class='c009'>We may here add, that there is an immediate prospect of the duty on our herrings +being greatly reduced in Belgium. It is at present 13 francs (or about 11s.) +per barrel—a tax which quite prohibits importation. When the great cities of +Brussels, Ghent, Liège, Louvain, Antwerp, Bruges, Mons, Namur, Malines, &c., +are open to our produce, what may we not hope for from the appetites of a Catholic +and therefore fish-eating population?</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f30'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. We have reason to believe that petitions to the Treasury for the maintenance +of the Board of Fisheries and its official brand, have been presented or are in +course of transmission from the following twenty-one ports in this country, viz.:—Wick +Town-Council, Wick Chamber of Commerce, Helmsdale, Burghhead, Lossiemouth, +Macduff, Banff, Gardenstown, Whitehills, Portsoy, Fraserburgh, Peterhead, +Montrose, Anstruther, Leith Chamber of Commerce, Eyemouth, Burnmouth, +Coldingham, Berwick-upon-Tweed, &c., Glasgow, Greenock, Bute. The following +places on the Continent have sent in corresponding petitions, viz.:—Stettin, +Königsberg, Dantzic, Berlin, Breslau, Dresden, Magdeburg, Harburg, Hamburg.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f31'> +<p class='c009'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. <cite>Memoir of the Rev. Sydney Smith.</cite> By his Daughter, <span class='sc'>Lady Holland</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c005'> +</div> +<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c006'> + <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + + <ul class='ul_1 c021'> + <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + + </li> + <li>Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76980 ***</div> + </body> + <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57e (with regex) on 2025-09-12 23:05:27 GMT --> +</html> + |