Update for 76978HEADmain

403 files changed, 38202 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/76978-0.txt b/76978-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a79dd0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18074 @@
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76978 ***
+
+
+
+[Illustration: TEOCALLI OF THE SUN, PALENQUE, YUCATAN
+
+  Discovered about 1750; 28 × 38 feet on the ground, about 25 feet
+  high without the “roof-comb,” a feature of the Palenque buildings
+  here particularly well preserved. Like all the structures of the
+  group, this crowns a mound of considerable height. The construction
+  is stone; ornamentation, stucco. Charnay calls attention to the
+  resemblance to a Japanese temple. On pages 210, 235, and 237
+  constructive features are shown, on page 185 is a reproduction of
+  a tablet from it, and on page 238, second figure, is the ground
+  plan. Page 404 gives another of the group, and page 436 shows
+  geographical location.
+
+  From a photograph by Maudsley
+]
+
+
+
+
+                           The North-Americans
+                              of Yesterday
+
+            A Comparative Study of North-American Indian Life
+                 Customs, and Products, on the Theory of
+                      the Ethnic Unity of the Race
+
+                                   By
+
+                        Frederick S. Dellenbaugh
+
+            “But their name is on your waters,
+               Ye may not wash it out.”—_Mrs. Sigourney._
+
+                             [Illustration]
+
+   With over 350 Illustrations. And an Appendix giving list of stocks,
+                          sub-stocks and tribes
+
+                           G. P. Putnam’s Sons
+                           New York and London
+                         The Knickerbocker Press
+
+
+
+
+                            +Copyright+, 1900
+                                   BY
+                        FREDERICK S. DELLENBAUGH
+
+                             Fourth Printing
+
+
+                    The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+                                   To
+                              MAJOR POWELL
+                    WHOSE COURAGE SOLVED THE PROBLEM
+                                 OF THE
+                             COLORADO RIVER
+                     AND WHOSE FORESIGHT ESTABLISHED
+                    THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+                                THIS BOOK
+                       IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
+                            IN MEMORY OF DAYS
+                            AFLOAT AND AFIELD
+
+
+
+
+                                  NOTE
+
+The author suggests the reading in conjunction with this volume of the
+first four chapters of his _Breaking the Wilderness_: Also the article
+in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for March 1906, by Charles M. Harvey: _The
+Red Man’s Last Roll Call_.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: MOKI DRAWINGS OF STARS]
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+The basis of this volume is eight lectures given before the Lowell
+Institute in Boston in 1894. They have been expanded by the addition of
+further matter relating to the various subjects, but even with these
+additions there is but a brief _résumé_ of the vast store of material
+extant.
+
+The “Indian” has never seemed to me an abnormal factor, but rather a
+natural part of our society, for it is now nearly thirty years since
+I first associated with him in the Far West, and before that the
+Iroquois were familiar to me as a small boy. When I first went among
+the Western tribes, it was with the second Colorado River expedition
+of that gallant explorer and foremost student of Amerindian affairs,
+John Wesley Powell. His own works and the reports of the United
+States Bureau of Ethnology, of which he has so long been the head,
+and where he has gathered together so many eminent ethnologists and
+archæologists, have furnished me with much material. These reports
+form a fine library on Amerindian matters, and reflect great honour
+on Professor Powell who conceived the idea, and on Congress which
+has ungrudgingly supported it. A great and timely work has become
+established, which to private enterprise would have been next to
+impossible. Add to these the invaluable reports of the Smithsonian
+Institution and the memoirs and reports of the Peabody Museum and
+American Museum, and the student has before him a large fund of
+material without seeking farther. Then there are the brilliant works
+of Parkman, Brinton, Winsor, Bandelier, Putnam, Morgan, Schoolcraft,
+Prescott, Maudsley, Goodman, Wilson, Keane, and many others, with the
+huge production of H. H. Bancroft filling an important place. To all of
+these and to others I owe much, and I have intended in every case to
+give credit and references. Where these, in some cases, may not have
+been properly awarded, it is due to oversight and not to intention. My
+especial thanks are due to the Bureau of Ethnology for copies of all
+the reports, and for permission to utilise the illustrations contained
+in them, and to the American Museum, Archæological Institute, Field
+Columbian Museum, Peabody Museum, and Smithsonian Institution for
+similar generosity. I take pleasure also in acknowledging favours
+from Professor Putnam, Professor Powell, Professor Mason, Dr. McGee,
+Mr. Saville, Professor Seymour, Professor Langley, Mr. Bancroft,
+Professor Holmes, Dr. Baum, and others, and from Mr. E. H. Harriman the
+opportunity of visiting Alaska under the most favourable circumstances.
+
+The title, _The North Americans of Yesterday_, seems to me appropriate,
+because while there are still some Amerinds extant, and a few are even
+yet apparently leading the old-time life, nevertheless they are merely
+remnants of a people whose sun has set, and who therefore properly
+belong to yesterday. For this reason I have mainly treated them as a
+bygone race. Between the so-called “Red Indian” of the United States
+and northern regions and the so-called “Civilised Tribes” of Mexico
+and southern regions I have made no race differentiation, because the
+differences, whatever they may be, are discovered to be not of kind,
+but of degree. Confusion was formerly caused by misconceptions and by
+romantic ideas which have been dispelled by the more scientific methods
+of later days. Some confusion has been caused also by the persistent
+efforts to classify the progress of mankind as a whole into distinct
+world-epochs or time periods. It seems to me that no such universal
+epochs of even progress could have existed in past time any more than
+in present time. Tribes of men are differentiated now, always will be,
+and, I believe, always have been. Common world-planes of culture in
+time periods are an impossibility. Such schedules as Morgan’s may apply
+to tribes and stocks as indicating their special, individual advance,
+but not to the whole world, except in a very general way. That is,
+they may be _culture_ but never _time_ classifications. The closer we
+approach the beginnings of man’s existence, the less marked, perhaps,
+the differences in tribes, but differences certainly began at the
+moment when one group of men left another group of men to live apart.
+The environment and necessities of each group would cause differences
+and varying rates of progress. One group would gain the bow a thousand
+years before another.
+
+Long before the beginning of the glacial period, therefore, some groups
+must have been far ahead of others, and in the manufacture of stone
+implements some tribes excelled others; some making ruder ones than
+others, and some perhaps making well-finished, polished tools. There
+are a good many arrow- and spear-head shapes, and it is possible that
+each form originated at a different time or in a different locality.
+And in our present state of knowledge of these matters, no time
+position can be assigned to many American stone tools, polished or
+not. They may have been used over and over again by various tribes
+for centuries, or for a thousand years, or they may have been made
+by tribes of our own day. Some of these tribes made no smoothed or
+polished implements, though otherwise of advanced type, and polished
+implements have been found that may be many thousand years old. This
+is no indication that tribes do not change, but that development
+began and continues unevenly, and that tribes existed ten thousand or
+more years ago that were in advance of some that are extant to-day.
+Nobody can say whether the stone implements, rough or smooth, that
+have been found in Chiriqui belong to comparatively modern or to very
+ancient times. The whole subject of stone implements appears to be
+in a chaotic state, mummified and petrified by a slavish respect and
+devotion to European patterns. It is a case of cart before the horse.
+It will be apparent that I do not consider the finish of stone tools,
+in the present state of our understanding of them, any guide for a
+world-classification of peoples in a time-scale, especially in North
+America. This has been admitted by others back to a certain point, but
+beyond that point they have continued to play follow-the-leader with
+their world-classifications of “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic,” two of
+the most confusing, misleading, and useless terms ever invented. Below
+the limit of the ice action there is nothing to fix the age of stone
+tools when found on the surface or near it. “Paleoliths” and “neoliths”
+might therefore be picked up side by side, and the paleolith might
+not be as old as the neolith, or both might be of the same age. And
+if a well-made tool, or one resembling some of to-day, is found in an
+ancient gravel, it does not necessarily mean an intrusion, but that
+men lived in that far past who were more skilful than some of their
+neighbours, and more skilful than we have heretofore been willing to
+admit. That very ancient men made very rude tools is doubtless true,
+but that _all_ ancient men made rough tools of the same style down to
+a certain fixed time, and then all began on an improved or a smoothed
+type, is undoubtedly wrong.
+
+How the Amerinds came here I explain by a theory that there was before,
+or perhaps during the early part of the glacial period, a wider
+distribution of land surfaces on latitudinal lines, which invited
+latitudinal migrations.[1] These land surfaces may have been no more
+than groups of larger or smaller islands which have been since wholly
+submerged or have left only their highest parts above the sea. Before
+the beginning of the glacial cold, a mild climate extended to the North
+Pole, facilitating migrations also in that region. Changes in the
+ocean’s bottom were probably greater in pre-glacial time than now, but
+they have not altogether ceased. It is little more than fifteen years
+since a new island appeared off the Aleutian chain, and I think it is
+doubtful if any of that group existed above water six or eight hundred
+years ago. I am also of the opinion that no human life was in Alaska or
+in Northeast Siberia five hundred years back.
+
+Races not being all of an even grade of culture before the beginning
+of the cold period any more than now, the tribes that found themselves
+isolated on this continent by changes in the land levels and by the
+southward extension of the glaciation, were unevenly developed, some
+being in advance of others in various ways, though none, of course,
+had passed beyond the use of stone tools, a condition in which they
+practically continued down to the Discovery. In this respect the term,
+“Stone Age,” as indicating a condition, is applicable, but it would
+not be possible to differentiate it into “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic”
+periods. The cold pushed them all southward, whether they came by
+northlands or by latitudinal lands, or both, towards the narrow
+funnel-like part of the continent, and also to the lower levels,
+as there was no chance for latitudinal expansion as in the Eastern
+Hemisphere, the most advanced tribes being the most southerly, if not
+from original position, because they were able to choose. Eventually
+communication with Asia and Europe by the north was by the glaciation
+severed completely, as it had previously been latitudinally by the
+disappearance of favourable land surfaces, and communication by the
+north remained closed till within three or four hundred years. The most
+crowded tribes developed most rapidly, because such development was
+imperative for self-preservation, and their culture filtered through
+in diminishing ratio, according to distance, to the less crowded
+regions—that is, to the climatically less favourable regions; but all
+who were closely crowded into the “funnel” progressed along similar
+lines and in much the same degree, _without regard to relationships_,
+so that we find in the narrow part of the continent, where the
+largest number found refuge from the cold, many different stocks in
+almost parallel stages of culture. There were no isolated “areas of
+characterisation” as in the latitudinally broader lands of the Eastern
+Hemisphere, though in some cases there were slight barriers tending to
+produce or maintain slight variations. The long longitudinal chain of
+the Sierra Nevada abounding in glaciers to a late date, and to a less
+extent that of the Rocky Mountains, brought about a partial isolation
+of the stocks in the great north-and-south migrations, maintaining
+previous differences and originating others, so that now we distinguish
+differences between what is called the Atlantic and what is called the
+Pacific group, while they are yet practically the same.[2] The tribes
+farthest advanced at the beginning of the isolation on this continent
+would not necessarily continue at the front of progress, for a change
+of conditions that might cripple such tribes might at the same time
+be beneficial to others previously inferior. For instance, as the
+heat gradually returned, the highly developed lowland tribes began to
+find themselves at a disadvantage, which grew with the intensity of
+the heat, while others, inured to harsher conditions, found warmth
+stimulating, and they began to develop germs received from the superior
+but now declining stocks. “The American Indians,” says Brinton, “cannot
+bear the heat of the tropics even as well as the European.” The heat,
+which at first seems to have been intense in the daytime, then caused
+a decline of the highest stocks, and a corresponding progression of
+lower stocks existing on, or migrating to, higher levels. The Yucatec
+tribes declined, while the Nahuatls, at higher altitudes, began to
+develop. The finest monuments of North American antiquity, for these
+reasons, are generally found on comparatively low levels and below a
+certain latitude, where conditions during the greatest cold were most
+favourable; conditions that may have continued fairly favourable down
+to within, say, a thousand years.
+
+Long before the dawn of the Columbian era, therefore, the Amerind
+peoples had become, through the influences indicated, a world-race by
+themselves, existing in various stages of the same general culture,
+and with a rising and a declining of tribes and stocks directed by
+environment and circumstances. The great stocks surviving at the
+beginning of the Columbian era may be approximately traced by their
+languages, in layers, from Panama northward, about as they expanded
+mainly eastward of the Sierra Nevada in response to the gradual relief
+from the pressure of the cold. The Yucatec tribes had held the region
+south of the Tehuantepec isthmus, and owing to this slight barrier,
+and perhaps to another barrier of a strait through the land about
+on the line of the proposed Nicaragua canal, had developed somewhat
+differently from tribes to the north, and may also have preserved
+more of their original character. Thence stretching north far into
+the United States was the great composite Shoshone, or Uto-Aztecan
+family, in all its variations, with what appears to be an “island” of
+Athapascans or Boreal men preserved in its midst by glacial conditions
+lingering in the high regions near the Mexico-United States line;
+then follows the Siouan; then the widespread Algonquian stock; next
+the Athapascan; and finally the Eskimauan, which had always been held
+against the edge of the glaciers by the back pressure of the southern
+stocks, and being most remote was less affected by filtration from
+the development centre, and thus remains to-day a more differentiated
+stock than any other.[3] The western arm of these stocks was generally
+farther north than the eastern because the climate was and is milder
+in the west, the trend of the ice front being now, and apparently
+always having been, N.W. to S.E. Distribution of skill in pottery
+follows about the same lines, “petering” out with stocks farthest
+from the Yucatec centre. The Algonquins crowded the Athapascans off
+to the N.W., and together they crowded the Eskimo to the limits of
+human subsistence. In California many stocks found refuge in a climate
+kept comparatively mild by the ocean currents, where they secured
+subsistence on fish, and went no farther south. Along the Gulf coast
+were other tribes resting somewhat aside from the great continental ebb
+and flow, while in Florida and in the islands of the Caribbean region
+there was sufficient separation to produce a slight differentiation
+from the surging continental stocks. Remnants of other stocks were
+scattered here and there through the regions below the glaciated
+area. Mingled with all these developments there were probably certain
+traits and “tinges” derived from earlier ancestry, and these, with the
+similarity of development of all races under like conditions prevailing
+wherever human beings can live, fully account for resemblances to
+other-world tribes and peoples that have caused so much speculation.
+
+There has been an error, I believe, in considering the glacial
+period as of the remote past. It does not seem to have yet closed.
+It influences our climate now, and probably a thousand years ago
+its meteorological effects were marked as far south as Yucatan. The
+glaciers of the Northern Hemisphere everywhere appear to be slowly
+disappearing, and not so slowly either, if the Muir can be taken as a
+gauge, for it has been for twenty years receding at the rate of 500
+feet per annum, and probably at the same rate before that. However
+this may be, it is probably less than 5000 years since the ice front
+was at Lake Erie. Eminent geologists have estimated it at less than
+7000, based on the erosion at Niagara; but as the erosion immediately
+following the disappearance of the ice is extremely rapid, it seems
+safe to cut down the estimate. The subtleties of meteorology are far
+from being understood also, and the theories as to the causes of the
+cold seem mere guesses. Considerable heat there must have been during
+the glacial period, or there would have been no glaciers.
+
+On the theory of the ethnic unity of the Amerind people, I have
+briefly brought together in chapters notes on their chief habits,
+products, languages, etc., so that the reader may be able to compare.
+In collecting material that is now obtainable, but which will shortly
+be gone forever, much remains to be done, and to be done quickly. If
+this book helps to arouse a deeper public interest in the gathering of
+this material, and in the general study of the subject, I shall feel it
+needs no apology.
+
+                                                     +F. S. Dellenbaugh+
+
++New York+, January 31, 1900.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI DRAWINGS OF THE SUN]
+
+[Illustration: TERRA-COTTA FUNERAL URNS FROM A MOUND, VALLEY OF
+  OAXACA, MEXICO.
+
+  Average height, 15 inches. This is a complete series preserved
+  in the order in which they were found. The usual number of these
+  urns in a series was five. Nothing was put in them and they were
+  not placed inside the burial chambers but in front of the door, on
+  the roof, fastened into the façade, or in niches over the door.
+  See _Funeral Urns from Oaxaca_, Marshall H. Saville, _American
+  Museum Journal_, vol. iv. pp. 49–60, and _Explorations in Zapotecan
+  Tombs_; same author, _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i.
+  April, 1899.
+]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: MOKI DRAWINGS OF SQUASH-BLOSSOMS]
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+       +Preface+                                                     iii
+
+     I—+Introductory+                                                  1
+
+    II—+Languages and Dialects+                                       17
+
+   III—+Picture Writing, Sign-Language, Wampum, Cupped-Stones+        39
+
+    IV—+The Mexican and Central-American Writing, Inscriptions,
+          and Books+                                                  68
+
+     V—+Basketry and Pottery+                                         88
+
+    VI—+Weaving and Costume+                                         123
+
+   VII—+Carving, Modelling, and Sculpture+                           161
+
+  VIII—+Shelters, Dwellings, and Architecture+                       194
+
+    IX—+Weapons, Armour, Implements, and Transportation+             248
+
+     X—+Mining, Metallurgy, and Science+                             285
+
+    XI—+Musical Instruments, Music, Amusements, and Games+           308
+
+   XII—+Works and Agriculture+                                       332
+
+  XIII—+Customs and Ceremonies+                                      352
+
+   XIV—+Myths, Traditions, and Legends+                              390
+
+    XV—+Organisation and Government+                                 410
+
+   XVI—+Origin, Migrations, and History+                             428
+
+       +Appendix—Containing a List of North-American Stocks,
+          Sub-Stocks, and Tribes+                                    461
+
+
+                                  NOTE
+
+  Particular attention is called to the appendix by means of which
+  the linguistic stock to which a tribe belongs may be readily
+  found. First refer to the _list of tribes_ where the abbreviation
+  following the tribal name, will indicate the family or stock to
+  which that tribe belongs in the _list of stocks_. Example: “Navajo.
+  _Ath._” refers to “_Ath._ +Athapascan+,” in the stock list,
+  Athapascan being the linguistic family to which the Navajo belong.
+  The geographical range of the stock follows.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI DRAWINGS OF RAIN CLOUDS AND LIGHTNING]
+
+
+
+
+                          LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  +Teocalli of the Sun, Palenque, Yucatan+                  Frontispiece
+
+  +Moki Drawings of Stars+                                           iii
+
+  +Moki Drawings of the Sun+                                          ix
+
+  † +Gargoyle—Serpent Head+                                            1
+      [From débris of temple, Copan]
+
+  * +South Portion of the Tewa Pueblo of Taos, New Mexico.
+      Adobé Construction+                                              3
+
+  † +Seated Figure Carved in Trachyte+                                 5
+      [From débris of hieroglyphic steps, Copan. Slightly larger
+          than life size]
+
+  * +Kicking Bear, Sioux+                                              7
+
+  +A Corner of a Mitla Ruin, Mexico+                                   9
+      [From Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_, published by the
+          Archæological Institute of America]
+
+  † +Sculpture from Terrace East of the Great Plaza, Copan+           11
+
+  * +A Kieskabi, or Covered Passage, at Walpi, Arizona+               13
+
+  * +Moki Mask of Pawikkatcina+                                       15
+
+  † +Specimen of Sculpture on Hieroglyphic Stairway, Copan+           16
+
+  * +Eskimo Jade Adze+                                                17
+      [Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]
+
+  † +“Singing-Girl” Sculptured in Trachyte+                           19
+      [From débris of Temple 22, Copan. Slightly larger than life]
+
+  * +Terra-Cotta Stool, Chiriqui+                                     20
+
+  +Altar Q, Copan, Honduras+                                          21
+      [From photograph by M. H. Saville. American Museum]
+
+  +South-West Corner of the Temple of Xochicalco, State of Morelos,
+     Mexico+                                                          23
+      [Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of.
+          Natural History]
+
+  * +Polished Black Ware, Santa Clara, New Mexico+                    27
+
+  +Eastern Façade of the Temple of Xochicalco, State of
+    Morelos, Mexico+                                                  31
+      [Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of
+          Natural History]
+
+  +Amerind Linguistic Map of North America+                           33
+      [After the one prepared by the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology]
+
+  * +Fac-Simile of a Cherokee Manuscript+                             35
+
+  [Written in Sequoyah’s Syllabary]
+
+  * +Petroglyphs near Wrangell, Alaska, probably Tlinkit+             37
+
+  * +Human Forms, Moki+                                               38
+
+  * +Omaha War Club+                                                  39
+
+  * +Painted Petroglyphs, Santa Barbara County, California+           40
+
+  * +Petroglyphs in Brown’s Cave, Wisconsin+                          41
+
+  * +Painted Petroglyphs, Southern Utah+                              42
+
+  * +Petroglyph at Millsboro, Pennsylvania+                           43
+
+  * +Petroglyphs in Georgia+                                          44
+
+  +Runic Inscription on Stone Found at Igalikko, Greenland+           45
+
+  * +Dighton Rock, Massachusetts+                                     45
+
+  +Illustration of the “Walam Olum” of the Lenapé+                    46
+      [From Brinton]
+
+  +Katcinas in the Somaikoli Ceremony, Cichumovi, Arizona,
+    November, 1884+                                                   47
+      [Photograph by the Author]
+
+  * +Killed Two Arikarees+                                            48
+
+  * +Petroglyphs on Paint Rock, North Carolina+                       49
+
+  +Landa’s Maya Alphabet, after Brasseur+                             50
+      [From Bancroft’s _Native Races_]
+
+  * +Fac-Simile of the Lord’s Prayer in Micmac Hieroglyphs+           51
+
+  [From Le Clercq]
+
+  * +Sequoyah’s Cherokee Syllabary+                                   52
+
+  * +Lean Wolf’s Map, Hidatsa+                                        54
+
+  * +The “Penn” Wampum Belt+; * +Strings of Wampum+                   55
+
+  * +Orca or Killer-Whale Decoration, Haida+                          56
+
+  * +Haida Tattooing+                                                 57
+
+  * +Eskimo Drawing—“The Man in the Moon Comes Down”+                 58
+
+  * +Eskimo Picture-Writing+                                          59
+
+  * +Specimens of the Dakota Winter Counts+                           60
+
+  * +Killing a Bison+                                                 61
+
+  * +Shell Disc, Tennessee+                                           62
+
+  * +Shell Gorget, Tennessee+                                         64
+      [Actual size]
+
+  +Cup Markings+                                                      65
+
+  * +Cup from Chiriqui+                                               67
+
+  * +Terra-Cotta from Chiriqui+                                       68
+
+  +Page from an Aztec Book+                                           70
+      [From a copy in the possession of M. H. Saville]
+
+  +Mexican Writing of Name of Montezuma+                              71
+      [From Brinton]
+
+  * +Part of Plate 65, Dresden Codex+                                 72
+      [Maya]
+
+  † +Vase from Labna, Yucatan, with Peculiar Markings+                74
+
+  * +Convex Discoidal Stone, North Carolina+                          75
+
+  † +Female Head in Trachyte+                                         79
+
+  +Usual Type of Sculptured “Yokes,” Central America+                 81
+
+  [Field Columbian Museum]
+
+  +A Suggestion of the possible Scheme of Maya Numerals. Wholly
+    Tentative+                                                        86
+      [From drawing by the Author]
+
+  * +Omaha Calumet+                                                   87
+
+  * +Omaha War Club+                                                  88
+
+  * +North-West Coast Feather Ornamentation on Baskets+               89
+
+  * +Eskimo Bag-Basket+                                               89
+
+  * +Moki Wicker Water-Jug+                                           89
+
+  * +Havasupai Clay-Lined Roasting Tray+                              90
+
+  * +Iroquois Birchbark Vessel+; * +North-West Coast Basket+          91
+
+  * +McCloud River Basket, California+                                92
+
+  * +Moki Food Basket+; * +Klamath Basket+                            93
+
+  * +Moki Food Tray+; * +Moki Floor Mat+                              95
+
+  * +Eskimo Whalebone Dish+; * +Clallam Basket, Washington+           96
+
+  * +Amerind Wicker-Work—Apache Basket; Pai Ute Water-Jug;
+    Moki Food Tray; Klamath Basket+                                   97
+
+  * +Modelling an Olla at Hano+                                      100
+      [Photograph by the Author]
+
+  * +Clay Nucleus+                                                   100
+
+  * +Method of Building up Coil+                                     100
+
+  * +Ware from Moki Region, Arizona+                                 102
+
+  * +Cup from Arizona+                                               103
+
+  * +Vase from Arkansas, Showing Lines Made with a Sharp
+    Point before Firing+                                             103
+
+  * +Bottle-Shaped Vase, Arkansas+                                   105
+
+  * +Earthenware Burial Casket, Tennessee+                           106
+
+  * +Death-Mask Vase, Tennessee+                                     107
+
+  * +Fluted Vase, Arkansas+                                          109
+
+  * +Impression of Parts of Basket Mould on Pottery+                 109
+
+  * +Vase from Chiriqui. Decorated in Black, Red, and Purple+        111
+
+  +An Ancient Figure of Terra Cotta from the Valley of Mexico+       113
+      [From photograph by American Museum of Natural History]
+
+  * +Coil Indented for Decoration+                                   114
+
+  +Zapotecan Terra-Cotta Funeral Urns Found on Cement Floor in
+    Front of Tomb 1, Mound 7, Xoxo, Oaxaca, Mexico+                  115
+      [Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of
+          Natural History]
+
+  * +Pot Showing Diagonal Grooves across the Lines of the Coil
+    Made by the Hand in Smoothing up. Mancos Canyon, Colorado+       116
+
+  +Zapotecan Terra-Cotta Tubing Found Leading down into a Field
+    from the Centre of Mound 7, Xoxo, Oaxaca, Mexico+                117
+      [Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of
+        Natural History]
+
+  * +Pueblo Pot. Pattern Produced by Obliterating Pinch Marks+       118
+
+  * +Pinch-Marked Coil+                                              119
+
+  * +Engraved Ware, Arkansas+                                        120
+
+  * +Engraved Ware, Arkansas+                                        121
+
+  +Black Cup, Chiriqui+                                              122
+
+  * +Woven Moccasin from Kentucky Cave+                              123
+
+  * +Menominee Beaded Garters+                                       125
+
+  * +Navajo Woman at the Loom+                                       127
+
+  +Part of the Somaikoli Ceremony at Cichumovi, November, 1884,
+    Showing a Sacred Blanket on Figure in Foreground+                129
+      [From photograph by the Author]
+
+  * +Details of Navajo Loom Construction+                            131
+
+  * +A Puebloan of San Juan, New Mexico+                             135
+
+  * +Method of Making Feather-Work+                                  137
+
+  * +Chilkat Ceremonial Shirt+                                       139
+
+  * +Chilkat Ceremonial Blanket+                                     142
+
+  * +Moki Wall Decoration. Pink on a White Ground. Mishongnuvi,
+    Arizona+                                                         144
+
+  * +Bellacoolas+                                                    145
+
+  * +Top View of Conical North-West Coast Hat+                       146
+
+  +Wonsivu, a Pai Ute Girl+                                          147
+      [Posed by Thomas Moran]
+
+  +A Navajo Leader in Native Costume+                                148
+      [Figure from photograph by the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology]
+
+  * +Interior of a Moki House, Arizona+                              149
+
+  * +Pueblo Head Mat+                                                151
+
+  * +Navajos+                                                        152
+
+  * +Seminole Man’s and Woman’s Costume+                             154
+
+  * +Ear-Perforating and Hair-Dressing of Seminoles+                 155
+
+  * +The Ghost-Shirt, Simple Form+                                   157
+
+  * +Eskimo Boots+                                                   158
+      [Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]
+
+  * +Rain Hat, Haida+                                                160
+
+  * +Toucan of Squier and Davis, Really a Crow+                      161
+
+  +Deserted Village near Cape Fox, Alaska+                           162
+      [Photographed by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]
+
+  +Interior House-Column+                                            162
+      [Sketch by Author from post at Cape Fox Village, Alaska]
+
+  +Major Part of Interior House-Post from Cape Fox Village, S. E.
+    Alaska+                                                          163
+
+  +Totem Pole with Bear on the Top, Wrangell+                        164
+      [Sketch by the Author]
+
+  * +Terra-Cotta Statuette, Chiriqui+                                165
+
+  * +The Bear-Mother, Haida, N. W. Coast+                            165
+
+  * +Wooden Masks, N. W. Coast+                                      166
+
+  * +Kwakiutl Carving, N. W. Coast+                                  167
+
+  * +Eskimo Carved Ivory Drum-Handles+                               168
+
+  * +Specimen of Moundbuilder Sculptural Skill with Human Figure+    170
+
+  * +Stone Pipe from North Carolina Mound+                           171
+
+  * +So-Called Elephant Pipe, Iowa+                                  172
+
+  * +Toucan of Squier and Davis, possibly Meant for a Young
+    Eagle+                                                           172
+
+  * +Tripod Vase, Chiriqui. Legs Modelled to Imitate Fish+           173
+
+  * +Shell Gorget, Missouri+                                         175
+
+  * +Bird-Shaped Earthen Bowl, Arkansas+                             176
+
+  * +Shell Mask, Virginia+                                           177
+
+  +Moki Sculptural Skill with the Human Figure+                      178
+
+  +The Alosaka (Moki)+                                               179
+      [After drawing by A. M. Stephen]
+
+  * +Sculptural Art of Chiriqui+                                     179
+
+  * +Shell Gorget, Tennessee+                                        180
+
+  +The Aztec “Calendar” Stone+                                       182
+      [From Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_]
+
+  +Aztec Sculpture, the Indio Triste+                                183
+      [From Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_]
+
+  +Sanctuary Tablet Temple (Teocalli) of the Sun, Palenque+          185
+      [Field Columbian Museum]
+
+  † +“Altar” in Front of Stela D, Copan+                             186
+
+  † +Stela No. 6, Copan; Back of Stela No. 6+                        187
+
+  * +Puma-Shaped Stool of Grey Andesite, Chiriqui+                   188
+
+  † +Head Sculptured in Stone. Chultunes of Labna, Yucatan+          189
+
+  +Large Built-up Head at Izamal+                                    191
+      [From Stephens]
+
+  * +Stool of Grey Basalt, Chiriqui+                                 192
+
+  * +Copper Bell from Tennessee+                                     193
+
+  * +Pueblo Mealing Stones+                                          194
+
+  +Pai Ute Wikiups, Northern Arizona+                                195
+      [From photograph by Colorado River Expedition, 1872]
+
+  * +Moki Kisi Construction+                                         196
+
+  * +Primitive Amerind Ladders+                                      197
+
+  * +A Navajo House+                                                 198
+
+  * +A Sweat House+                                                  199
+
+  * +An Omaha Tipi+                                                  201
+
+  * +A Seminole Dwelling+                                            203
+
+  * +Mississippi Valley Method of Using Jacal Construction,
+    according to Thomas+                                             206
+
+  * +Cliff Outlook, Canyon del Muerto, Arizona+                      207
+
+  +Hall of Columns, Mitla+                                           209
+      [Field Columbian Museum]
+
+  +Transverse Section (somewhat Generalised) Showing Construction
+    of Palenque Buildings, Yucatan+                                  210
+      [Field Columbian Museum]
+
+  * +Some Details of Pueblo House Architecture—A Triangular
+    Sipapu or Sacred Kiva Orifice; Moki Doorway with Transom;.
+    Pueblo Roof Construction; Some Moki Roof Drains+                 211
+
+  * +Moki Notched Doorway, so Made that Large Bundles could be
+    Taken in+                                                        213
+
+  +A Zuñi Chimney, Moki the Same+                                    215
+
+  +One Form of Moki Chimney Hood+                                    215
+
+  * +Ground Plan of Eskimo Snow Iglu+                                217
+
+  * +Section of Snow Iglu+                                           218
+
+  * +An Alaska Eskimo Winter House, Point Barrow+                    219
+
+  * +Interior Ground Plan of a Moki House+                           220
+
+  * +An Alaska Eskimo Winter House of Wood and Earth, Point
+    Barrow+                                                          221
+
+  * +Interior of Wood and Earth Iglu+                                221
+
+  * +Stone Steps at Oraibi+                                          222
+
+  * +Cliff-Dwelling, Eastern Cove of Mummy Cave, Canyon de
+    Chelly, Arizona+                                                 223
+
+  +Houses in Walpi, One of the Moki Towns, Arizona+                  224
+      [Photograph by U. S. Geological Survey]
+
+  * +General View of a Group of Cavate Lodges, Arizona+              225
+
+  * +Plan and Sections of a Cavate Lodge+                            227
+
+  * +Diagram Showing Pocket at Back of some Cavate Lodges+           228
+
+  ‡ +Theoretic Roof Construction of Mitla+                           230
+
+  * +Ground Plan of a Kiva and Ceiling Plan of Another+              231
+
+  +Chaco Ruins Masonry; Chaco Ruins, Ground Plans+                   232
+      [From _Report_ of Hayden Expedition]
+
+  * +Ruin Called Casa Grande, Arizona+                               233
+
+  ‡ +Transverse Section of an Ordinary Yucatec Building+             235
+
+  ‡ +Forms of the Maya Corbel Vault+                                 237
+
+  ‡ +Ground Plans of Yucatec Buildings+                              238
+
+  ¶ +Kwakiutl House Front+                                           239
+
+  ¶ +North-West Coast Houses and Totem Poles+                        241
+
+  ‡ +Ruin of East Façade and Iglesia, “Palace,” Chichen-Itza,
+    Yucatan+                                                         243
+
+  ¶ +Elevation of Kwakiutl House+                                    244
+
+  * +View in the Moki Town of Mishongnavi, Arizona+                  245
+
+  * +Eskimo Horn Dipper+                                             247
+
+  [Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]
+
+  * +Horn Arrow Straightener+                                        248
+
+  * +Modern Iron Arrow-Heads of the Omahas+                          248
+
+  * +Forms of the Bow+                                               249
+
+  +Pai Ute Palm-Drill+                                               250
+      [Drawn by the Author]
+
+  ¶ +The Palm-Drill (Fire-Making); The Pump-Drill (Fire-Making)+     251
+
+  * +Eskimo String-Drill (For Fire-Making with Mouthpiece)+          251
+
+  * +Pueblo Pump-Drill (For Boring)+                                 251
+
+  * +Drill-Point of Chipped Flint+                                   251
+
+  ¶ +Set of Fire-Making Tools, Bristol Bay Eskimo, Alaska+           253
+
+  * +Eskimo Bow-Drill+                                               254
+
+  ¶ +Modern Rod Armour of the Klamaths, Oregon+                      255
+
+  ¶ +Hupa Rod Armour, California+                                    255
+
+  ¶ +Eskimo Plate Armour, Diomede Island, Bering Strait+             257
+
+  ¶ +Tlinkit Skin Armour, Alaska+                                    258
+
+  ¶ +Prehistoric Aleutian Rod Armour+                                259
+
+  * +Chipped Flint; Chipped Flint Blunt Arrow-Head, Georgia;
+    Chipped Flint Implement, Tennessee; Specimen “Cores,” or
+    Blocks of Flint; Specimen of Chipped Flint Discs, called
+    “Turtleback,” Mississippi Valley; Grooved Stone Axe,
+    Tennessee (Ground)+                                              261
+      [Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]
+
+  * +Diagram Explaining Terms to be Used in Describing Stone
+    Weapons+                                                         263
+
+  ¶ +Tlinkit Slat-and-Rod Armour, Alaska, Front View+                265
+
+  * +Apache War-Bonnet+                                              266
+      [Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]
+
+  * +Eskimo Throwing-Boards for Darts+                               268
+
+  * +Eskimo Bird Bolas+                                              268
+
+  * +Amerindian Knives+                                              269
+
+  * +Moki Throwing-Stick, or Putchkohu; Pueblo Planting Stick;
+    Zuñi Wooden Spade+                                               270
+
+  +A Moki Throwing the Putchkohu+                                    271
+      [From a drawing by the Author]
+
+  * +Shell Spoon, Mississippi Valley+                                273
+
+  * +Pueblo Mountain Sheep-Horn Spoon+                               274
+
+  * +Menominee Wooden Mortar and Pestle+                             274
+
+  * +Stone House-Lamp, Point Barrow, Alaska+                         275
+
+  * +Eskimo Sledges+                                                 277
+
+  * +Central Eskimo Dog Harness+                                     278
+
+  ¶ +Enclosed Canadian Toboggan or Travelling Sled+                  279
+
+  * +Eskimo Snow-Shoe, Point Barrow, Alaska+                         280
+
+  ¶ +Canoes of the North-West Coast+                                 281
+
+  * +Umiak of the Central Eskimo+                                    282
+
+  * +Eskimo Kayaks+                                                  283
+
+  * +Method of Attaching Oars to Umiak+                              284
+
+  * +Method of Tying Frame of Kayak+                                 284
+
+  * +Thin Plate of Copper Wrought by Repoussé Method, Illinois
+    Mound+                                                           285
+
+  * +Amerindian Method of Mining Steatite for Utensils+              287
+
+  * +Chipped Spade+                                                  289
+      [Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]
+
+  * +Eskimo Stone Maul+                                              290
+      [Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]
+
+  * +Small Figure of Frog in Base Metal, Plated with Gold,
+    Chiriqui+                                                        292
+
+  +Coppers from the North-West Coast; Painted Design in Black
+    Representing a Sea Monster with Bear’s Head; Painted Design
+    Representing a Hawk+                                             293
+      [U. S. National Museum]
+
+  * +Hollow Silver Beads of Navajo Make, Arizona+                    294
+
+  * +Navajo Silver Work, Arizona; Engraved Button; Bracelet+         295
+
+  ¶ +Kwakiutl Chief Holding his Copper, North-West Coast+            297
+
+  * +Triple Bell or Rattle of Gold from near Panama+                 302
+
+  * +Bronze Mexican Bell+                                            302
+
+  * +Bronze Bells, Plated or Washed with Gold, Chiriqui+             304
+
+  * +Small Metal Figure, Chiriqui+                                   306
+
+  * +Silver Plate with Spanish Coat of Arms+                         307
+
+  * +Moki Rattle of Animal Hoofs+                                    308
+
+  * +Amerindian Rattles; Gourd, ; Earthenware Rattlee from
+    Chiriqui; Tin, Ojibwa+                                           309
+
+  * +Omaha Large Flute+                                              310
+
+  * +Drum of Terra-Cotta, Chiriqui+                                  312
+
+  * +Menominee Tambourine Drum+                                      313
+
+  * +Omaha Box Drum+                                                 314
+
+  ¶ +Set of Playing Sticks+                                          315
+
+  * +Pueblo Rattles—Turtle Shell with Hoofs of Goats or Sheep,
+    Fastened to the Rear of the Right Leg near the Knee in
+    Dancing; Painted Gourd with Wood Handle+                         317
+
+  * +Zuñi Dance Ornament+; * +Moki Notched Stick+; ¶ +Kwakiutl
+    Double Whistle, with Four Voices+                                319
+
+  ¶ +The Awl Game+                                                   320
+
+  ¶ +Amerind Gambling Tools—Set of Bone Dice, Arapaho; Set of
+    Counting Sticks, Blackfeet; Set of Plum Stones, Arikaree+        322
+
+  * +Terra-Cotta Rattle from Chiriqui+                               325
+
+  * +Cat-Shaped Whistle of Terra-Cotta, Chiriqui+                    327
+
+  ¶ +Mandan Game of Tchungkee+                                       328
+
+  * +Double Whistle in Terra-Cotta from Chiriqui+                    330
+
+  ¶ +Set of Staves for Game+                                         331
+
+  * +“Banner-Stone,” Tennessee+                                      332
+
+  * +So-Called Elephant Mound, Wisconsin+                            334
+
+  * +Ancient Fabric Design, from Impression on Pottery, Utah+        335
+
+  * +Ancient Fabric, Preserved by Copper Celt, Iowa+                 336
+
+  * +Large Mound of the Etowah Group, Georgia+                       337
+
+  +A Votive Adz of Jadite from Mexico, Showing Front and Side+       339
+      [American Museum, Kunz Collection]
+
+  +Back of Votive Adz+                                               341
+      [American Museum]
+
+  * +Patterns of Ancient Fabrics from Pottery; from New York;
+    from Illinois; from Tennessee+                                   344
+
+  * +Eskimo Mechanical Toy+                                          345
+
+  ¶ +Máhtotóhpa (The Four Bears), a Mandan Chief+                    347
+
+  +An Onyx Jar from Mexico in Process of Manufacture+                349
+      [American Museum]
+
+  ¶ +Wooden Food Bowl, Haida+                                        351
+
+  * +Dancing Mask of the Makahs, Washington+                         352
+
+  ¶ +Moki Wicker Cradle with Awning; Carrying Basket of the
+    Arikarees+                                                       353
+
+  ¶ +Tlinkit Man and Woman Thirty Years Ago, or about 1870+          355
+
+  +A Pawnee in Battle Array+                                         357
+      [Photographed by J. K. Hillers, U. S. Geological Survey]
+
+  ¶ +The Kwakiutl Wolf Dance, called Wālasaxa, North-West Coast+     359
+
+  ¶ +Ute Woman Carrying Child+                                       361
+
+  ¶ +Keokuk, a Sauk Chief+                                           362
+
+  ¶ +Shrine of the War-Gods, Twin Mountain, Pueblo of Zuñi, New
+    Mexico+                                                          365
+
+  ¶ +A Costume of a Hāmatsa in the Kwakiutl Cannibalistic
+  Ceremony, where Slaves and Corpses were Formerly Devoured+         367
+
+  ¶ +Mexican Operating the Palm Drill for Fire+                      368
+
+  ¶ +Zuñi Woman Carrying Water+                                      369
+
+  ¶ +Ute Cradle, Frame of Rods Covered with Buckskin+                372
+
+  ¶ +Eskimo Woman of Point Barrow Carrying Child+; * +Apache
+    Woman Carrying Child+                                            374
+
+  * +Moki “Snake dance” at Walpi+                                    376
+
+  * +Amerindian Picture-Writing+                                     377
+
+  * +Beginning of the Moki “Snake Dance” at Walpi+                   378
+
+  ¶ +Horned Rattlesnake, Crotalus Cerastes+                          380
+
+  ¶ +The Okeepa Ceremony of the Mandans, Lasting Four Days+          382
+
+  * +The Sacred Pole of the Omaha+                                   383
+
+  +Cruciform Stone Tomb, Oaxaca+                                     384
+      [American Museum]
+
+  +Ground Plan of Cruciform Tomb, Oaxaca+                            385
+
+  * +Amerindian Art+                                                 387
+
+  +Moki Earthen Canteen, Arizona+                                    388
+
+  ¶ +Modern Laced Sandal of Leather from Colima, Mexico+             389
+
+  * +Eskimo Pipe with Stone Bowl+                                    390
+
+  +Teocalli (Temple) of Tepoztlan, State of Morelos, Mexico+         391
+
+  [Monumental Records]
+
+  ¶ +Kwakiutl Wood-Carving of the Sīsul North-West Coast+            392
+
+  ¶ +Rushing Eagle, 1872+                                            394
+
+  * +Fine Cloth Preserved by Copper Beads+                           395
+
+  * +Ancient Fabric-Marked Potsherds, with Clay Casts by Holmes+     398
+
+  ¶ +Ehtohkpahshepeeshah, the Black Moccasin, Chief of the
+    Minatarees, over One Hundred Years Old+                          400
+
+  +Lacandon (Mayan) Amerind from Chocolhao, Yucatan+                 402
+      [Photographed by M. H. Saville]
+
+  +One of the Buildings of the Palenque Group+                       404
+      [Photographed by M. H. Saville]
+
+  ¶ +Costume Worn in the Kwakiutl Festivals, called Laōlaxa,
+    North-West Coast+                                                406
+
+  +God-Houses of the Huichols at Teakáta, near Santa Catarina,
+    State of Jalisco, Mexico+                                        409
+      [American Museum]
+
+  * +Eskimo Mask of Wood, Prince William Sound, Alaska+              410
+
+  +Plenty-Horses, a Cheyenne+                                        413
+
+  [U. S. Geological Survey]
+
+  ¶ +North-West Coast Basketry Hats+                                 415
+
+  ¶ +North-West Coast Mortuary and Commemorative Columns+            417
+
+  ¶ +Ancient Puebloan Moccasins of Fibre, Arizona+                   422
+
+  ¶ +Chimmesyan Head-dress Representing the White Owl+               426
+
+  ¶ +Wooden “Seal” Dish, Haida+                                      428
+
+  +Tlinkit Summer Camp+                                              429
+      [Photographed by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]
+
+  +Eskimo Summer Camp, Port Clarence+                                431
+      [Photographed by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]
+
+  *  +Wooden Snow Goggles of the Central Eskimo+                     433
+
+  +Principal Known Ruins of Central America+                         436
+      [American Museum]
+
+  * +Necklace of Dried Human Fingers Obtained on Battlefield of
+    Wounded Knee by Captain Bourke+                                  437
+
+  +Principal Known Ruins of Mexico+                                  438
+      [American Museum]
+
+  +Probable Aspect of Alaska Summer Landscape some Six Hundred
+    Years Ago+                                                       440
+      [Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]
+
+  * +A Puebloan Warrior of Nambé, New Mexico, in Battle Array+       442
+
+  ¶ +Apache Woman Carrying Water in a Wicker Bottle+                 444
+
+  +Group of Eskimo, Port Clarence, Alaska+                           446
+
+  [Photographed by the Harriman Expedition, 1899]
+
+  * +Shell Spider Gorgets+                                           447
+
+  ¶ +Black Hawk+                                                     448
+
+  +Portion of the So-Called “Palace” of Labna, Yucatan+              450
+      [American Museum]
+
+  +Musical Bow of the Southern Tepehuanes and the Aztecs,
+    Mexico+                                                          451
+
+  [American Museum]
+    ¶ +General Type of Chimmesyan, Haida, and Tlinkit Chief’s
+    Costume, North-West Coast+                                       452
+
+  * +Perforated Discoidal Stone, Illinois+                           453
+
+  +Hobobo, the Fire Katcina, in the Somaikoli Ceremony, Cichumovi,
+    1884+                                                            454
+      [From a drawing by the author]
+
+  +Circle of Dancers in the Intervals between the Appearances of
+    the Various Katcinas in the Moki Somaikoli Ceremony,
+    Cichumovi, Arizona, 1884+                                        455
+      [Photographed by the author]
+
+  +Front of the House of Columns, Mitla, Oaxaca+                     457
+      [American Museum]
+
+  +A Costumed Human Figure from Tampico, Washington+                 459
+
+  +Entrance of a Tomb at Culapa, Mexico+                             460
+
+  * +Stick Used in the Awl Game+                                     461
+
+  ¶ +Wooden Seal-Dish, Haida, North-West Coast+                      478
+
+  ¶ +The Swastika+                                                   488
+
+
+      *  U. S. Bureau of Ethnology.
+
+      †  Peabody Museum.
+
+      ‡  Field Columbian Museum.
+
+      ¶  U. S. National Museum.
+
+
+
+
+                                  NOTE
+
+The cover, designed and drawn by the author, has for its central
+feature a sketch of a stone animal head removed from one of the
+buildings at Copan and brought to the Peabody Museum by Saville. The
+sacred butterfly of the Mokis fills the four corners of the space
+around this, and above and below an arrangement of Puebloan scrollwork
+completes the composition. On the back is a figure representing the
+terra-cotta statue shown more exactly on page 113, with a further
+arrangement of scrollwork and some minor Moki symbols.
+
+
+
+
+                         THE NORTH-AMERICANS OF
+                                YESTERDAY
+
+[Illustration: TERRA-COTTA FUNERAL URN FOUND IN FRONT OF A TOMB AT
+  CUILAPA, MEXICO
+
+  Height: 2 feet 3¾ inches. Shows traces of four colours: white,
+  yellow, red, and blue
+
+  Marshall H. Saville
+]
+
+
+
+
+                  [Illustration:GARGOYLE—SERPENT HEAD
+
+                     From débris of temple, Copan]
+
+
+                                   THE
+                      NORTH-AMERICANS OF YESTERDAY
+
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+                              INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+When those rapacious enthusiasts, the Spaniards of the sixteenth
+century, had unfolded some of the mysteries of the great half-world
+that the resolution and daring of Columbus had opened to them, they
+found it everywhere already peopled, though often sparsely, by a race
+strange to the other half, with totally different ideas and customs,
+existing in various degrees of sylvan felicity, or in the budding
+promise of a civilisation. They also found imposing ruins that told of
+the long previous departure of some of the occupants of this land into
+the vaster unknown, and indeed evidences of still earlier hosts that
+had travelled the dim pathway through the outer darkness. These new
+lands were believed to be some part of India, and because of this first
+error the inappropriate title of “Indians” was bestowed on the natives,
+and this name continued to cling after the mistake was discovered,
+growing more and more confusing as intercourse increased with the real
+Indians, till now in our day it is exceedingly troublesome, and we
+are compelled to differentiate, when accuracy is desirable, by saying
+“East Indian,” “Red Indian,” or “American Indian,” etc. To add further
+to this confusion, many persons persist in considering the Algonquin
+and Iroquois as the type specimens of “Indians,” and exclude all who
+do not accord with this limited and erroneous standard. The natives of
+the Western Hemisphere appear all to have been of one race, for there
+are only minor differences, which will be shown in following pages, and
+there is therefore a necessity for a broad designation for all these
+people. When these words were first written I had determined to adopt
+the term “Redskin” for use in this book, but learning that Amerind,
+compounded of the first syllables of American and Indian, had been
+suggested by the Anthropological Society of Washington, I gave it the
+preference over Redskin, and on full examination was convinced that it
+is a satisfactory and useful substitute for “Indian,” and, in order to
+avoid the latter, have used it exclusively in these pages, except where
+another writer is quoted.
+
+This Amerind people were indeed more remarkable than has been popularly
+appreciated.[4] They possessed, as a rule, strong personality, great
+physical vigour, quick intelligence, and dauntless courage. Their
+brain power was of a high order and the cerebral quality extremely
+fine; capable through the processes of time of a development second to
+none. They had their trials, their wars, their sicknesses, and their
+various tribulations before the Europeans fell down upon them; but had
+the cargo of misery, disease, and death for them which freighted the
+bold caravels of Columbus possessed tangible weight in proportion to
+its magnitude, those vessels would have plunged to the depths of the
+unknown sea. But Destiny had traced another course for events, and
+thus the gay banners, glowing on one side with Hope for one race and
+black on the reverse with Despair for another, flaunted at length their
+ominous folds in the sunshine of the Amerind continent. Great good
+fortune it was for the Europeans, especially for the Spaniards, but the
+latter failed to read their star aright. Upon the conquered tribes, an
+easy prey before the superior weapons of the invaders, they lavished a
+cruelty which eclipsed that of savages, and settled like a blight over
+the country, to finally stifle by just retribution the haughty power of
+Spain herself, and wrench forever from her the last foot of the domain
+which the unfaltering courage of the Adelantados had bequeathed to her.
+To attempt to gloss over the oppression of the Spanish rule of the
+Amerind people would be fruitless. There is no excuse for it. Fresh
+from the methods of the Inquisition, the Spaniards themselves perhaps
+were not wholly aware of the horror of their acts. Unfortunately, they
+do not stand alone as sinners in this respect, and the contemplation of
+the early intercourse of Europeans and Amerinds is not likely to give
+a candid person an agreeable sensation, as it is frequently difficult,
+if not impossible, to decide which race is the one to whom rightfully
+belongs the description, “treacherous, bloodthirsty, and savage.”
+Certain it is that the Amerinds from the very beginning had numerous
+vivid lessons from the whites in murder, treachery, and kindred
+crimes.[5] They were frequently slain without cause or mercy; they
+were enslaved when possible; their records were destroyed; and, most
+terrible of all, they were burned alive at the stake. But this latter
+diversion had been practised in Europe, where St. Ferdinand with his
+own hands heaped the fagots on the blazing pile. The Conquistadores of
+the sixteenth century were versed in as much cruelty as the Amerinds
+had ever dreamed of; yet in the midst of it all there were men like Las
+Casas and Viceroy Mendoza, who had no sympathy with the barbarities
+practised, and whose characters bring relief in the broad and hideous
+blackness. Ship-loads of slaves were carried off each year, and the
+system of _repartimientos_ placed every Amerind in bondage.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH PORTION OF THE TEWA PUEBLO OF TAOS, NEW MEXICO
+
+  Adobé construction
+]
+
+Opposition was punished in the most terrible ways possible to devise.
+In one instance the offenders, seventeen or eighteen caciques, were
+strangled and mangled by dogs kept for the purpose, the execution
+taking place in the public square, so that the struggles of the
+unfortunates might make a spectacle. Again the Spaniards invited some
+chiefs to a conference, as told by Brinton, in a large wooden building,
+which was then burned up with the chiefs in it. But it is not necessary
+to go back so far for examples of the treacherous brutality with which
+the whites have treated the Amerinds. Were it so, the cruelty and
+injustice might perhaps be regarded as merely circumstances of the
+period, but Beckwourth, in his _Narrative_,[6] relates an incident,
+also referred to by Washington Irving, quite as horrible as any that
+occurred in the sixteenth century. Beckwourth came upon some white
+trappers who had captured two Amerinds from a party of Arikarees who
+had stolen their horses. The Arikarees offered to return some, but not
+all, of the horses in exchange for the prisoners, but the trappers
+declared they would burn their captives alive if all the horses were
+not returned. The threat was disregarded. Thereupon the logs on the top
+of a huge fire were separated, the two helpless, chain-bound prisoners
+were dropped into the red furnace, and the flaming logs replaced.
+“There was a terrible struggle for a moment,” says Beckwourth, “then
+all was still.” And thus was another lesson of the mercy and justice of
+the White rendered unto the Red.
+
+[Illustration: SEATED FIGURE CARVED IN TRACHYTE
+
+  From débris of hieroglyphic steps, Copan. Slightly larger than life
+  size
+]
+
+Nearer to us than this we have an incident even more diabolical,
+because without the provocation the trappers had. Horse stealing down
+to recent times in the West has always been liable to punishment by
+death, so the trappers might be somewhat excused on that ground in
+the minds of some, but in the year 1898, in the Indian Territory,
+two Amerinds were burned alive at the stake by a mob of whites. The
+accusation, too, was a mere suspicion, and it was later established
+that the Amerinds were perfectly innocent. After such deeds we may well
+pause when our inclination is to vaunt the superiority of the white men
+over the red.
+
+Notwithstanding the popular idea that the Amerinds were devils
+incarnate, many tribes when first encountered were kindly, and trusted
+the newcomers till the moment came, as it soon did, when they were
+basely deceived. That all tribes were trusting is not claimed, but it
+is well known that many explorers found the Amerinds ready to receive
+them fairly and honestly. Neither Cartier nor Roberval met with
+hostility from natives, and the success of the straightforwardness
+of Penn in his dealings with them is unquestioned.[7] It has been
+stated that the European is no more than a whitewashed savage, and
+his intercourse with the Amerind people bears out this description.
+There was often provocation on both sides, augmented by the complete
+ignorance of each other’s ways and customs. Actions which were correct
+according to the manners of the Amerinds were offensive to the whites,
+and _vice versa_, and, to add to the ever-increasing hostility, the
+whites resented upon all Amerinds the crime or indiscretion of one
+or a few members of a particular tribe. If an Amerind committed a
+crime, the next one met with suffered for it. When Walker, in 1833,
+treacherously abandoned the line of work Bonneville had laid out for
+him and struck down the Humboldt for California, one of the men had his
+traps carried off by some of the Shoshokoes. He swore to kill the first
+one he should meet, and so their trail was one of blood. At one place
+they murdered no less than twenty-five unsuspecting red people without
+provocation. This was the manner in which these pioneers exhibited
+their superiority. There have always, too, been certain whites, more
+or less outlawed, like one Rose, who have struck up a friendship with
+the worst tribes for the purpose of inciting them against the whites to
+advance their own profit.
+
+[Illustration: KICKING BEAR, SIOUX]
+
+Previous to the European invasion the Amerind was not always at war,
+though many seem to think that he was. His territorial lines were
+generally well defined, and, as a rule, he stayed within them. Their
+villages, for the Amerind was always a village dweller, were far apart
+north of Mexico, and as long as there was no contention over property
+or water rights, things went smoothly, and even during hostilities
+intercourse was not always entirely broken off. So that there was
+frequently a large measure of security and periods of uninterrupted
+peace. He _worked_ at hunting, fishing, and, in all the tribes east
+of the Mississippi, in Mexico, and many tribes west, at agriculture.
+The arrival and the westward movement of the Europeans crowded back
+the tribes across boundaries and upon lands they had no right to, and
+frequent wars were the inevitable result. Finally the acquisition of
+the horse gave facility of movement never before possessed, and made
+quick journeys and night attacks feasible, while the desire to secure
+as many of the valuable animals as possible added a new and great
+incentive to theft and consequent warfare. The Amerind began to change,
+in fact, the moment he acquired the horse and the gun, adapting both
+to his needs and using them with consummate skill. The whites did not
+try to understand him, nor were they superior to him in the matter of
+patience or forgiveness. One thing was well understood by the whites,
+however, and continues to this day, and that was that an Amerind has
+no rights that a white man is bound to respect, or even to consider.
+The natives north of the Aztec country were regarded as vagabonds
+and vagrants who had no right to anything, while those of Mexico,
+whom the Spaniards had meanwhile reduced everywhere to abject slaves,
+were believed to be a different race, with former qualities that were
+greatly exaggerated by the Europeans. And then, later, in the effort
+to counteract the extravagant notions entertained of the Aztecs, their
+remarkable growth, and that of the Mayas, was by some writers reduced
+to the level of that of the Pueblo tribes of New Mexico and Arizona,
+which is undoubtedly a serious error in the other direction. Montezuma
+was probably not a king nor an emperor as those terms are understood
+by us, but it is difficult to accept him as little more than a Moki
+war-chief, especially as one can readily see that a few steps farther,
+even in the line of Moki development, might have produced a form of
+government partaking of the monarchical, but different from anything
+that we know about.[8] Ever since I saw one of our Arizona Pai Ute
+guides, a chief of his band, command a follower to take off his shoes
+as he reclined by the fire, I have suspected the existence among the
+Amerinds of a latent germ of aristocracy.
+
+[Illustration: A CORNER OF A MITLA RUIN, MEXICO
+
+  From Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_, published by the
+  Archæological Institute of America
+]
+
+In the first flush of the discovery of America, Europe was wild
+with the romance of it, and mystery was the order of the day. More
+wonderful things still were expected. Fables that had done good service
+for centuries were transported to the new lands, and there blazed up
+with the mysterious uncertainty of the _ignis fatuus_, luring and
+deceiving, till the gold-thirsting Europeans struggled in the pursuit
+of such phantoms as the “Seven Cities.” The most extraordinary tales
+appeared tame in that atmosphere of dazzling imagination. Exaggeration
+of one kind or another has ever since been the inheritance of the
+Amerind people, and it is only within a comparatively few years that
+these “Americans of Yesterday” have been scientifically studied and
+their real character and attainments given proper places. The whole
+matter of American ethnology and archæology is new; so new that it is
+impossible to speak with decision on a great many points. In the United
+States we have usually regarded the Amerind as the incarnation of evil;
+a treacherous demon with a bloody knife in one hand and a scalp-lock in
+the other, and we have generally refused to consider the finer traits
+of his character. So callous have we become to his good points that
+Cooper is ridiculed for his delineation of Amerinds that have instincts
+or principles above the brute, and yet Cooper’s chief models were the
+Iroquois who established a remarkable political organisation.
+
+It is not necessary to be what has been scornfully called “an Indian
+lover” to be interested in this extraordinarily homogeneous race that
+was scattered from Alaska to Patagonia. Such interest should be a
+matter apart from sentiment. We are interested in the primitive man of
+Europe; few would have been pleased to live with him. So the question
+whether we “like” the Amerind people and would enjoy social intercourse
+with them is not to the point. It is a matter of education; a matter,
+in fact, of the study of ourselves as others saw us some thousands
+of years ago, for the Amerind people were passing through phases of
+human existence which, in all probability, our remote ancestors also
+passed through; so that by examining this kind of life we are holding
+up the mirror to ourselves. Till recently the apathy shown on this
+subject was surprising. People generally were not aware that there
+were differences in “Indians,” or that they spoke different languages.
+The idea that there was any profit in studying them was popularly
+considered ridiculous. He was a “good-for-nothing,” and that was all
+that there was about it. But we can no more find fault with the Amerind
+for not being a European than we can with a stage-coach for not being
+a locomotive. We must accept him as he was, and as he is, and wherever
+possible study him and write him down so minutely that generations
+of ethnologists to come will shower blessings on our heads. We must
+constantly remember that the Amerind point of view is different from
+ours, and that we too are only in a transitional stage.
+
+[Illustration: SCULPTURES FROM TERRACE EAST OF THE GREAT PLAZA, COPAN]
+
+The Amerind people, like ourselves, represent merely a stage of human
+progress. Our stage is in advance of theirs, but it is by no means
+perfection. We do not scalp, but the revolver is quite as active as
+their scalping-knife, and we require a great number of policemen to
+keep us civilised. As for war, the European race has certainly not
+been backward in that respect. In Europe to-day vast bodies of men
+are withdrawn from every other service and trained for war with a
+completeness that the Amerind never dreamed of; and in the United
+States we have probably already killed more men in wars than ever
+at one time peopled it in aboriginal days. For in those days the
+various groups of Amerinds were separated by tracts of unoccupied
+territory; unoccupied except as the hunters roamed over it in search
+of their food, and the population outside of the Aztec country and
+Central America was generally sparse. Nor was the distribution of this
+population always the same as it was revealed to us by the Discovery.
+Tribes developed, rose to power, declined and passed away, leaving
+little, where their art development was slight, to indicate their
+former presence, no matter what may have been the degrees of their
+political attainments. Had not our own history come in to rescue the
+confederacy of the Iroquois, their remains, assuming them to have
+declined without further art development, would have conveyed no
+suspicion of their political organisation.
+
+Back and forth the Amerind race moved, up and down, across the face
+of the American continent through the forgotten ages in ever shifting
+waves impelled, in the main, by climatic conditions and food quest,
+some leaving behind no record, others bequeathing to the future
+monuments and edifices that astonished the world and gave birth to
+elaborate and far-fetched theories to account for a development that
+seems to have required no more than time and the circumstances which
+existed. All the remains on this continent appear to be palpably
+American; the work of the Amerinds in their various degrees of
+progress. Whether they came from one source or several, they have been
+long enough here to become homogeneous from one end of the hemisphere
+to the other, and this, it is evident, would require a great stretch
+of time.[9] They clearly separated from the other inhabitants of the
+world, in any case, at a period before those inhabitants had developed
+present characteristics. From the time the human race was born, whether
+as an ape or as it now stands, there was differentiation of habits,
+customs, and knowledge which has never ceased and which never will
+cease. But as light, air, and natural conditions are similar or the
+same the world round, and as cerebral matter seems to be practically
+the same in all peoples, humanity has passed everywhere through about
+the same stages of development, and each stock or tribe in time has
+arrived at about the same place on the road of progress because they
+could not help it. Conditions might force one people ahead while
+other conditions might be retarding another, but whatever progression
+there has ever been was made on practically the same lines. The same
+race, however, does not throughout always develop evenly. Sir John
+Lubbock has said that “different races in similar stages of development
+often present more features of resemblance to one another than the same
+race does to itself in different stages of its history,” and to-day in
+Arizona there exist near to each other two branches of the widespread
+Shoshonean[10] stock, the Pai Utes and the Mokis, who exhibit the most
+marked differences of customs, the latter living in substantial houses
+of stone while the former occupy the rudest kind of brush wikiups.
+
+[Illustration: A KIESKABI, OR COVERED PASSAGE, AT WALPI, ARIZONA]
+
+The Amerind people were living in various stages of progress at the
+time of the Discovery. The Mexicans, according to Lewis Morgan, were
+“one stage higher than the Mohawks and one stage lower than the
+warriors of the _Iliad_.” Accepting this as correct, we would be able
+to trace human development back of the Greeks through the Amerinds of
+North America. Morgan suggested the classification of mankind in three
+broad ethnic stages: Savagery, Barbarism, and Civilisation,[11] the
+first ending with the acquisition of the bow and arrow, represented
+here by the Pai Utes; the second ending with the smelting of iron
+ore, represented by the early Greeks; and the third beginning with a
+phonetic alphabet, and represented by ourselves. In this scheme the
+Mexicans would fall in the middle period of Barbarism. This is a fairly
+good working basis, but, like all generalisations, it is only general.
+It must not be rigidly adhered to. The conditions on this continent
+were quite different from those in Europe, and consequently the line
+of development could not be precisely the same. There seems to be no
+good argument yet advanced and no archæological data yet exhibited
+that compel us to seek an outside derivation for the Amerind race; and
+this being so, it is about as reasonable to search this continent for
+the original home of the yellow race as to go to Asia for that of the
+red. That they may have come from there is possible, and so also it is
+possible that they came from Europe. Nor should we at present exclude
+even the lost Atlantis,[12] for the geography of the world was not
+always as it is now, and the elevation and subsidence of lands are
+still in progress. This, of course, is admitted, as also that there was
+a land connection across the Atlantic before man appeared in the world;
+but man may have appeared earlier than we suspect, and this lost land
+may have been in sunshine later than we believe.[13]
+
+[Illustration: MOKI MASK OF PAWIKKATCINA]
+
+The Amerinds of North America were practically a people of stone
+culture, because while some had developed an ability to employ copper
+to a limited extent, they used stone tools for most of their work;
+their highest government appears to have been the confederacy, with in
+some cases perhaps a monarchical tendency; they were without domestic
+animals; without beasts of burden; without fireplaces or chimneys;
+without inside stairs; and without wheeled vehicles. There was no
+mystery about them. They ranged the continent, as has been noted,
+impelled by food quest and climate. They lived bravely and they died
+without fear. The following chapters will tell some of the things they
+did, with the hope that readers may arrive at a better understanding of
+the people that so long had a half-world to themselves.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF SCULPTURE ON HIEROGLYPHIC STAIRWAY, COPAN]
+
+
+
+
+                    [Illustration: ESKIMO JADE ADZE]
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+                         LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS
+
+
+There were many tribes and many tribe-groups, or, as the latter are
+usually designated, “stocks,” among the Amerinds. These various stocks
+differed considerably from each other in manners, customs, possibly in
+origin, and in languages, the last often being widely different.[14]
+Yet there was a homogeneity binding them all together as one distinct
+race while at the same time separating them completely from other races
+of the world as now constituted. The subdivisions of the Amerind stocks
+were not always contiguously distributed on the continent, but, as
+in the case of the Navajo-Apache branch of the Athapascan, sometimes
+separated from their kindred by wide stretches of territory peopled
+by other stocks, and also, as in the case of the Navajos, somewhat
+altered by absorption of people of another stock. Various methods of
+arranging the distribution and classification of these stocks have
+been attempted, but the basis of language appears to offer the most
+advantages and the greatest accuracy. There are some who dispute the
+correctness of the present analysis of the Amerind languages, and
+deprecate the classifications obtained by this means,[15] but foremost
+students, like Brinton, Gatschet, Powell, Steinthal, and others, have
+pronounced unequivocally in favour of its value when applied with
+judgment.
+
+“Nothing is so indelible as speech,” wrote George Bancroft; “sounds
+that in ages of unknown antiquity were spoken among the nations of
+Hindostan still live in their significancy in the language which we
+daily utter.” And this fact has been the corner-stone of the modern
+science of linguistics, which maintains accordingly that the possession
+of similar _language roots_ and grammatical construction by two
+otherwise distinct tribes proves a relationship or a common descent.
+In this way, as is well understood, the Indo-Germanic—that is, our
+European stock—has been traced back toward its origin. The accuracy
+of this has been questioned, but it doubtless affords the best method
+attainable.[16] The same principle is applicable to the American
+languages, which afford an immense field for linguistic study in their
+great diversity. This diversity is not popularly understood, the
+majority of our people believing that if a person can speak “Indian” he
+could converse with every tribe on the continent. Yet within a limited
+area in Arizona he would find useless in four different tribes the
+language he had learned, say, in California; and in California itself
+some twenty or thirty tribes would listen to his words, as well as to
+those of each other, without a gleam of understanding. And not one of
+the languages of any of these tribes would serve him in the Mississippi
+or in the Atlantic region any better than English, for the Iroquois
+and the Algonquin and other Eastern tongues are as widely different
+from those of California as they are from each other, while every
+one contains numerous dialects, or what may be called sub-languages,
+also exhibiting great variations. The early missionaries were slow to
+discover these facts, and it was a source of discouragement for them to
+learn that, after long study to acquire a language, it was spoken by
+only a single group of the natives, while adjacent to them dwelt others
+who spoke a totally different one.[17]
+
+[Illustration: “SINGING-GIRL” SCULPTURED IN TRACHYTE
+
+  From débris of Temple 22, Copan. Slightly larger than life
+]
+
+Even where a group of Amerinds speak related languages, or dialects,
+there are, and were, such wide variations that the one is not
+understood by those speaking the other. Therefore we have in North
+America not only a large number of distinct languages, but within these
+separate languages an immense number of dialects or sub-languages,
+sometimes as many as twenty in one stock varying from each other as
+much as, say, English and German. At least sixty-five of the separate
+stock languages are distinguished in North America which appear so
+radically separated from each other that it is believed impossible
+that they ever should have sprung from the same parent, unless it may
+have been at a time so remote as to be beyond the scope of present
+investigation. In the classification according to these languages it
+has been necessary to have a general designation for each stock, and in
+selecting the names to be thus used, Powell and others have observed
+the law of priority of mention, as far as possible, and have derived
+the stock name from the author first mentioning it in print since 1836,
+the date of Gallatin’s great work, which is taken as the foundation.
+The termination “an,” or “ian,” is added to distinguish the family or
+stock name from a tribal name, for often a tribe bears the name given
+to the whole stock. As examples, Algonquian may be mentioned as a stock
+name taken from the tribal name of Algonquin, and Mayan from the tribal
+name, Maya. This is not always strictly adhered to outside of the
+Bureau of Ethnology because of its frequent inconvenience, and in the
+case of Mayan the term Maya is preferably used by some investigators
+and writers as being simpler, and Brinton gives it as the stock
+name.[18] Following the distribution of tribes as closely as possible
+at the time of the first contact with white men, Powell and his able
+associates of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology in Washington have produced
+a map, based on Gallatin’s.[19] The separate stocks north of Mexico
+are each represented by a different colour, every colour standing for
+a variation in language as great as that between Hebrew and English,
+not related as English and Spanish. Fifty-eight are thus shown, but
+south of the Mexican border are perhaps a dozen more. Continuous study
+may succeed in bringing some of the stocks into relationship or in
+dividing them still further. In their beginning, languages probably
+changed rapidly; memory was deficient, intercourse slight, and
+comparatively short separations of tribes speaking originally the same
+tongue were sufficient to establish entire new sets of words. These
+separations were apt to occur frequently when methods of subsistence
+were crude and difficult, migrations frequent, and population sparse.
+As races developed memory grew to better proportions, and after the
+introduction among the Amerinds of mnemonic records and other memory
+devices their languages became more crystallised, till within the later
+centuries changes have come about slowly. That many more languages
+once existed on the American continents than we have any trace of is,
+therefore, probable. By intercourse, by intermingling, by the crossing
+and absorbing of stocks was finally produced what we find to-day, or
+did find yesterday, a reduced number of different stocks, but still
+so many that the archæologist views the field with amazement, and the
+layman looks upon it with incredulity.
+
+[Illustration: TERRA COTTA STOOL, CHIRIQUI]
+
+[Illustration: ALTAR Q, COPAN, HONDURAS
+
+  From photograph by M. H. Saville, Museum of Natural History
+]
+
+And these Amerind languages are as remarkable for their separation in
+a body from the Old World languages as they are in their separation
+from each other. This in itself seems to bestow upon the Amerind people
+a vast antiquity in their isolation from other peoples, and adding
+to it the testimony of their art works, their implements, and their
+pictographs and hieroglyphs, there seems to be no escape from granting
+them to be a division of mankind by themselves.
+
+Not only does the differentiation of the stock languages indicate
+antiquity, but that of the dialects adds strong testimony. Brinton
+cites Dr. Stohl’s opinion that “the difference which is presented
+between the Cakchiquel and the Maya dialects could not have arisen in
+less than 2000 years.”[20]
+
+It may be urged that the Amerind languages are loose and shifting
+and that a few centuries would be sufficient to bring about on this
+continent a complete and total difference in a language from its mother
+tongue in, we will say, Siberia; but the more closely the matter is
+studied the more apparent is the tenacity with which each stock retains
+its special form. Of this tenacity a modern example exists in the
+village of Tewa (or Hano) now forming one of the seven villages of the
+Moki, and situated on what is known as the “First or East Mesa.” The
+people of this village are not Hopi (Moki) stock, Hopi being the Moki
+name for themselves,[21] but belong to a Rio Grande stock, the Tañoan
+of Powell, and the Tehua of Brinton, having come from the Rio Grande
+country to their present location somewhere about 1680. The Moki, who
+are believed to belong to the Shoshonean stock (though they are
+probably composite), permitted them to repair and occupy old houses
+which stood on the site of the present village and there they have
+lived amicably ever since, to all appearances completely amalgamated
+with the Moki. The ordinary observer sees little to distinguish them
+from the other Amerinds of the locality, and they speak the Moki
+language like Mokis, but within their own village and by their own
+firesides they largely use the speech of their forefathers, and to all
+appearances will go on speaking it till the end. Here, then, is this
+little community separated for a long period and by many miles from
+their immediate kindred, mingling daily with people of another stock
+and another language, yet preserving their own language intact.[22]
+And if this has happened once within historical times it may have
+happened before any number of times, and goes to prove that these
+various languages have in them elements of stability greater than
+has heretofore been admitted. Powell says that in his long study of
+savage tongues he has everywhere been “impressed with the fact that
+they are singularly persistent, and that a language which is dependent
+for its existence upon oral tradition is not easily modified.” On the
+other hand John Fiske expresses the opinion that “barbaric languages
+are neither widespread nor durable. In the course of two or three
+generations a dialect gets so strangely altered as virtually to lose
+its identity.” The Algonquian languages were spread over an immense
+area, and the Shoshonean had an even greater range.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH-WEST CORNER OF THE TEMPLE OF XOCHICALCO, STATE OF
+  MORELOS, MEXICO
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of Natural
+  History
+]
+
+Brinton contradicts the assertion of Waldeck “that the language (of
+the Mayas) has undergone such extensive changes that what was written
+a century ago is unintelligible to a native of to-day. So far is this
+from the truth that, except for a few obsolete words, the narrative of
+the Conquest, written more than three hundred years ago by the chief,
+Pech, could be read without difficulty by any educated native.” Thus
+it seems probable that the Amerind languages extant have been spoken
+nearly as we know them to-day for a great many centuries, and that
+modifications crept in slowly; so slowly that the language roots and
+grammatical construction of the various stocks are so distinct that
+they form the safest guide now available in the classification of the
+various branches of the Amerind race; and furthermore that, judged by
+these tests, these languages have no relationship to any other group.
+Powell places more reliance, as a test, in the lexical elements,—that
+is, in the _language roots_,—than in the grammatical structure, as the
+latter is constantly changing. “The roots of a language,” he maintains,
+“are its most permanent characteristics, and while the words which
+are formed from them may change so as to obscure their elements or
+in some cases even to lose them, it seems that they are never lost
+from all, but can be recovered in large part.” If there should be
+advanced the criticism that these Amerind languages had little or no
+literature, and therefore are not equal to languages so recorded, as a
+test of affinity, it may be noted that the largest number of languages
+throughout the world have produced no literature. Max Müller says:
+“It is a mere accident that languages should ever have been reduced
+to writing.” However this may be, such an accident appears to be in
+the line of regular human development, and when a people arrive at the
+right point in their mental evolution they invent a means of recording
+their thought. It seems, therefore, to be rather a state of mind than
+an accident. The Mayas of this continent had reached the point for
+speech recording and, following the natural order, they invented a
+system and made books of record.
+
+Because of certain similarities of physique, of words, or of myths,
+or of customs, however slight, the Amerinds have been identified with
+almost every people under the sun.[23] These similarities are only such
+as might occur where similar organisms are continuously subjected to
+similar conditions, and the really remarkable fact is that there are
+not more and even closer resemblances. Some of the arguments advanced
+to uphold the so-called identifications are extraordinary. In language
+the Amerinds have been found to speak—or at least have been claimed
+to speak—Irish, Welsh, Norse, Chinese, and many other independent
+or interrelated tongues, yet with the exception of the Basque, the
+structure of all the Old World languages has little in common with the
+Amerind. Brinton has shown[24] that a number of Maya words resemble
+our English words of the same meanings, as, bateel and battle, hol and
+hole, hun and one, lum and loam, pol and poll (head), potum and pot,
+pul and pull, and so on, but nobody has yet ventured to deduce from
+this that the Mayas are first cousins of the English.[25] The Maya
+language certainly does differ from almost all others on the continent
+in its construction. Before Gallatin’s time, the wildest statements
+flourished because the few linguists who had paid attention to Amerind
+languages had worked in rather a desultory manner and had made no
+determined effort to systematise them and group them under their stock
+names. Gallatin was the first to bring order out of what appeared
+to be an almost hopeless tangle, and Powell, Brinton, and others,
+supplementing and developing these labours of Gallatin, have been able
+to present the subject in definite shape with a promise of greater
+accuracy in the near future. Many languages which are known to have
+existed at the beginning of European acquaintance with America have
+disappeared with the tribes which used them. Some of these were spoken
+by mere handfuls of people, while others were wider spread.
+
+With so many distinct languages on the continent, and with many
+tribes totally ignorant of the speech of their neighbours, there
+became necessary a means for the interchange of ideas which should
+not entirely rely on spoken words, and this means was found in a
+“sign-language” assisted by a few words of each spoken language which
+were simple and commonly known, or by words which belonged to no spoken
+language but which through accident were attributed by each side to the
+other. This sign-language was of extensive development and existed not
+only among the Amerinds but all over the world, and bore a resemblance
+to the sign-language now used in some of our deaf-mute schools. This
+peculiar sign-language possessed varieties like spoken language
+corresponding to dialects. For a time its existence was disputed, but
+the work of Mallery and others has established it beyond question.
+
+Besides the gesture language, tribes not understanding each other’s
+speech had recourse to a medley of corrupted words from each language,
+from other languages, and from no language at all but springing into
+being through misunderstandings and necessities. When white men came
+upon the scene they often thought they were talking “Indian,” while
+the Amerinds thought it was the white man’s tongue, and neither
+was talking the language of the other at all or of any other people
+in existence. It was a jargon. If the whites had previously learned
+something of another Amerind tongue, for example Algonquin, and they
+were trying to talk to Dakotas, they would use Algonquin terms,
+supposing them to be intelligible to the Dakotas, and the latter would
+suppose them to be English words. These would gradually accumulate
+through usage, together with nondescript terms, until a working jargon
+was formed. In this may perhaps be discovered one of the causes
+that led to the former belief that Amerind languages were loose and
+changeable.
+
+[Illustration: POLISHED BLACK WARE, SANTA CLARA, NEW MEXICO]
+
+One of the most important and most interesting of the jargon languages
+is that known as the Chinook,[26] in the north-western United States,
+along the Columbia River, which grew into such proportions that it
+formed at length the principal language in a wide district. It is made
+up of words from Chinook, Chehali, Selish, Nootka, English, French, and
+other languages, with a large number of words that belong nowhere else.
+This same process in earlier times going on between several different
+tribes doubtless gave birth to permanent languages, which in their turn
+were again modified. Even in our own every-day English we use hundreds
+of borrowed words and also some that, like “skedaddle,” “mugwump,”
+etc., were coined for special occasions. We hardly give a thought to
+the origin of these words which are seen side by side with others that
+have come to us through a thousand years and still others that were
+only yesterday the gift of the Amerind. How few realise when they
+say chocolate, squash, mush, hominy, pone, succotash, or other terms
+equally familiar from Amerind sources, that they are talking “Indian”!
+Tobacco, of course, all understand came from the native language, but
+it is generally supposed to have been the name of the plant, when in
+reality it was the name of the roll of leaves from the plant, which was
+called “a tobacco,” as we now call it a cigar.
+
+Sometimes words appear similar when they have no shadow of
+relationship, the resemblance being purely accidental. Powell cites
+the word “tia,” meaning deer in some of the Shoshonean languages. This
+was at first supposed to be an attempt on the part of the Shoshones to
+pronounce our own word “deer,” but further investigation has shown it
+to be the original Shoshone name for deer, and that in some dialects it
+was called “tiats” and in others “tiav.” Brinton, as already mentioned,
+calls attention to similar resemblances between Maya and English words.
+
+A tribe would often possess two languages, one known only to the
+priesthood and the other the language of the people, the priest
+language being the older, just as to-day we find the priests of the
+Roman Catholic Church using a dead language in their sacred functions
+while the parishioners use the ordinary one. Bourke believed that
+the Zuñis and the Mokis each have a language of this kind,[27] and it
+is thought that the Central-American tribes also had. Such hieratic
+languages would necessarily be far older than the languages in common
+use, therefore if the latter tend to indicate a great antiquity for the
+Amerind race, we should be carried still farther back by the hieratic
+languages. Occasionally tribes have spoken two languages, both familiar
+to the common people, as in the case of the Tewas speaking Moki as well
+as their own language, already referred to. The Tubares of Mexico,
+nearly extinct, are said to have spoken two different languages among
+themselves, one a dialect of the Nahuatl.[28]
+
+Gatschet, the eminent student of Amerind languages, declares that “the
+majority suppose that an Indian language is simply a gibberish not
+worth bothering about, but languages that can preserve identity for
+centuries are certainly something more than gibberish.” He further
+points out that while “the Indian neglects to express with accuracy
+some relations which seem of permanent importance to us, as tense and
+sex, his language is largely superior to ours in the variety of its
+personal pronouns, in many forms expressing the mode of action, or
+the idea of property and possession, and the relations of the persons
+addressed to the subject of the sentence.”
+
+Again it is said by some persons, “Why study languages which have no
+literature, and dialects that are known only to savages?” but Max
+Müller insists that “dialects which never produced any literature at
+all, the jargons of savage tribes, the clicks of Hottentots, and the
+vocal modulations of the Indo-Chinese, are as important, nay, for the
+solution of some of our problems, more important, than the poetry of
+Homer or the prose of Cicero. We do not want to know languages; we want
+to know language, what language is, how it can form a vehicle or organ
+of thought; we want to know its origin, its nature, its laws.”
+
+Here in North America exists a splendid field for this study, but until
+recently it has been sadly neglected. This neglect has been largely
+due to the attitude of the people at large, an attitude of apathy and
+contempt for anything “Indian.” Opportunities that can never come
+again have been allowed to pass heedlessly away. We have not half
+realised the importance of collecting the linguistic treasures that
+are scattered across the length and breadth of the country, partly
+because of the foolish and narrow estimate of the Amerind which for so
+long a time dominated the public mind. We have despised his languages
+because we thought he did not bathe with sufficient frequency! “To
+draw conclusions from the exterior appearance of a people on their
+language,” exclaims Gatschet, “and to suppose that a man not worth
+looking at cannot speak a language worth studying, would be the acme of
+superficiality.” Remnants of tribes have died out and their language
+unrecorded has died with them even within a comparatively few years.[29]
+
+As an example of the necessity for prompt investigation, an incident
+mentioned by Putnam may be cited. In a conversation with a gentleman
+whom he had recently met, he learned of Mrs. Oliver’s acquaintance with
+the Karankawas of Texas, and her knowledge of their language. Now it
+happened that Gatschet had made a fruitless search in Texas for some
+trustworthy information regarding the language of this extinct tribe,
+and when Putnam sent him Mrs. Oliver’s vocabulary he was delighted and
+immediately paid a visit to the old lady, obtaining much additional
+information about these Amerinds, among whom Mrs. Oliver had spent her
+early life. Within three months afterward she died.
+
+That the Amerind has no literature is true if by literature we mean
+only written books, for outside of Yucatan and Mexico there were no
+native books, and the Spaniards burned all they could find of these,
+but if we accept the enormous number of legends, myths, songs, and
+ceremonial lore mnemonically recorded, as literature, and they surely
+become literature when we write them down, then the Amerind is not so
+poor in this respect as has been generally considered.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN FAÇADE OF THE TEMPLE OF XOCHICALCO, STATE OF
+  MORELOS, MEXICO
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of Natural
+  History
+]
+
+In North America, as in other parts of the world, the various language
+stocks occupy areas differing enormously in proportions. Some are
+confined to small tracts, while others, as mentioned above, are spread
+over wide territory. The Algonquian stock, for instance, occupied
+an immense area while the Zuñian is a mere spot in the expanse of New
+Mexico. More than thirty of the stocks lie within the Pacific region,
+six on the banks of the Klamath River alone.
+
+The Amerind languages, with the exception of the Maya and possibly
+one or two others, are polysynthetic, and no other languages of the
+world have exactly this construction, though, as has previously been
+stated, that of the Basques has a construction somewhat similar. By
+polysynthetic is meant a language that permits the incorporation
+of a great many words in one sentence, till all are fused into one
+“bunch-word” of from ten to fifteen or more syllables. Examples are
+often quoted from Eskimo[30] which in our eyes appear ridiculous in
+their cumbersome length, but they are as intelligible and valuable
+to the Eskimo as our words are to us. While the Basque more nearly
+resembles the Amerind languages than does any other Old World tongue,
+it stops short of the incorporating power of that of the Amerinds. In
+Basque this is restricted to the verb and some pronominal elements,
+but in the Amerind it embraces all parts of speech. It is specially
+interesting to note also that Basque in the Old World is an isolated
+language, the only one there of its kind. The Amerinds who look
+alike are not always the ones who speak the same language. Quite
+different-looking Amerinds will sometimes speak the same tongue, while
+others who look the same will speak different ones. The Pueblos of
+New Mexico and Arizona, while apparently of one race, speak several
+different stock languages, while some of the natives of Labrador, who
+are of apparently different stocks, speak dialects of one language.
+Nor, as has been mentioned, is the area occupied by one stock always
+continuous.[31] The Athapascan, next to the Eskimo, is the most
+northerly stock, yet three small branches are found south, on the
+Pacific coast of the United States, while two large branches, the
+Navajos and the Apaches, extend through Arizona and New Mexico, the
+latter far into the country of Mexico proper. In the same way the
+Siouan[32] lies in the middle region of the United States, but a
+small band still lingered, at the beginning of the Columbian era,
+on the Gulf coast in Mexico, and another smaller band in eastern
+North Carolina, having for a near neighbour still another, which
+spread itself over three States. These detached bands indicate great
+movements on the part of the various stocks. One Amerind language,
+the Eskimo, has been traced across Bering Strait into Asia, but
+thus far no language has been traced from Asia into America. When
+the Asiatic and North-west Coast investigations instituted by the
+American Museum of Natural History, under the auspices of Mr. Jesup,
+are completed, something more definite will be known on the subject
+of possible affinities. In addition to the great difference in their
+formation, some of the Amerind languages do not possess sounds common
+to European languages, and on the other hand they sometimes have
+sounds rarely heard elsewhere. The Pai Utes have no “f,” and when they
+try to pronounce “fire” they can only say “piah.” The Moki cannot
+say “s” before “k” or hard “c.” In trying to pronounce “school” they
+say “cool.” There is no “r” in Huron, Mexican, Otomi, and some other
+languages, and several have no “i.” The Iroquois have no labials, and
+do not articulate with their lips. Cherokee has the same peculiarity,
+as it is an Iroquoian language. The Karankawa contains sounds rarely
+heard in European languages, while other sounds common to the latter
+are absent altogether from the Karankawa, so that in this language is
+found not only a complete difference from European tongues in grammatic
+structure and lexical elements, but a complete difference in phonetics
+as well, and in the last respect it differs also from other Amerind
+languages. Altogether the Karankawa shows many peculiarities, and it is
+unfortunate that the authentic material relating to it is so limited.
+In the Navajo there is a common combination of “tl” with a peculiar
+explosive click.[33] The tongue is placed with the tip against the roof
+of the mouth and pressure as for “t” made against it, the “l” sound
+immediately following by an explosion at the side. It is a peculiar
+sound, and the Navajo language is filled with it.[34]
+
+[Illustration: AMERIND LINGUISTIC MAP OF NORTH AMERICA, AFTER THE ONE
+  PREPARED BY THE U. S. BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY]
+
+In recording these Amerind languages and their peculiar sounds, no
+definite system was employed till recently. Travellers wrote the
+Amerind words down with ordinary letters as they understood them, thus
+producing great diversity in method and results. Differences are due
+sometimes to a lack of perception on the part of the recorder, and
+also sometimes to a difference in pronunciation on the part of the
+Amerinds themselves, and again to differences of methods of recording.
+To catch the exact sounds of a new language requires a musical ear.
+I do not mean a knowledge of music, but an ear that follows a tune
+easily. Without such an ear a person is not fit to record language
+sounds that are novel no matter how good a linguist he may be.
+Investigators ought to have their ears tested for sound-perception as
+the eyes of locomotive engineers are tested for colour.
+
+[Illustration: FAC-SIMILE OF A CHEROKEE MANUSCRIPT
+
+  Written in Sequoyah’s Syllabary. See cut on page 52.]
+
+Recognising the importance of a system in the recording of the Amerind
+languages—the importance of systematising the orthography of these
+languages—the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology published an _Introduction to
+the Study of Indian Languages_, in which an alphabet was advocated that
+was adapted to recording harmoniously the Amerind languages. In this
+over sixty separate sounds are given by signs following as closely as
+possible our own alphabet. This is complicated and many investigators
+use their own systems and translate afterwards into the more general
+one. The great difference in the Amerind sounds necessitates many
+different characters and inverted letters standing for peculiar sounds.
+
+Of all the Amerind languages of North America, that of the Eskimo is
+probably the most homogeneous. Its dialects are alike from one side of
+the continent to the other, following similarity in other respects.
+Dall states there is a saying “that a man understanding thoroughly
+the dialect of either extreme, could pass from village to village,
+from Greenland to Labrador, from Labrador to Bering Strait, and thence
+southward to the Copper River, staying five days in each halting place,
+and that in all that journey he would encounter no greater differences
+of speech and customs than he could master in the few days devoted
+to each settlement. Probably there is no other race in the world
+distributed over an equal territory, which exhibits such solidarity.”
+They do not take to new languages. Though the Eskimo of Alaska have
+had long intercourse with English-speaking men, their English is very
+limited. Like most of the Amerinds, they prefer to invent their own
+terms for articles that are new to them. The Aleutian Islanders are of
+Eskimo stock, but their language is different from the main body of the
+family, and would not be understood by them.
+
+The writings of the Cherokees in the syllabary of Sequoyah are
+of sacred formulas. These were written out by the shamans and are
+thoroughly Amerind. “They are not disjointed fragments,” says Mooney,
+who made a careful study of the subject, “of a system long since
+extinct, but are the revelation of a living faith which still has its
+priests and devoted adherents.” The language used is full of archaic
+forms and figurative expressions, some of which even the shamans
+cannot now understand. Some of these are highly poetical, especially
+the prayers “used to win the love of a woman or to destroy the life of
+an enemy, in which we find such expressions as: ‘Now your soul fades
+away—your spirit shall grow less and dwindle away never to reappear.’
+‘Let her be completely veiled in loneliness,—O Black Spider, may
+you hold her soul in your web, so that it may never get through the
+meshes!’ ‘Your soul has come into the very centre of my soul, never to
+turn away.’”[35]
+
+[Illustration: PETROGLYPHS NEAR WRANGELL, ALASKA, PROBABLY TLINKIT]
+
+In nearly all the Amerind languages there was a poetical touch. But
+what seems to be poetry to us arose partly from the inability of
+the Amerind to express himself in a spiritual way. As his religion
+was chiefly zoötheistic, and the heavenly bodies and natural forces
+were personified as animals, his comparisons and references were not
+intended for metaphor, but were merely the ordinary workings of his
+mind on the material at his command.
+
+
+                                  NOTE
+
+  As it is sometimes useful to have at hand an orderly geographical
+  and cultural classification of tribes, this one used by Livingston
+  Farrand is here given: I, Eskimo; II, North Pacific; III, Mackenzie
+  Basin and High Plateaus; IV, Columbia River and California; V,
+  Plains; VI, Eastern Woodlands; VII, The South-west and Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: HUMAN FORMS, MOKI]
+
+
+
+
+                     [Illustration: OMAHA WAR CLUB]
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+         PICTURE-WRITING—SIGN-LANGUAGE—WAMPUM—CUPPED-STONES[36]
+
+
+Our pre-columbian knowledge of the Amerind people is at present meagre.
+The majority of the different stocks had not arrived at the point where
+they understood how to record their thoughts and their doings. Outside
+of the Maya and Nahuatl stocks, and others in that region, there is
+nothing but rude picture-writing to refer to besides an abundance of
+traditions, legends, and other oral matter. All the Amerind languages
+are capable of being readily written, being possessed of grammars
+and of copious vocabularies, but none of the tribes north of Mexico
+had made the discovery that marks can represent sounds. We trace our
+alphabet back to the Romans, still farther to the Greeks, and yet
+farther back to the Phœnicians, and then another stage back to even
+ruder characters connecting the chain of its development with the end
+links of such writing as that of the Mayas, and exhibiting writing in
+all stages, from rock scratching or picture-writing, through all phases
+down to the work of the writing and printing machines of to-day.
+
+Mankind are all alike, merely exhibiting different degrees of culture.
+As the rills in the mountains born of the rains and the snows are
+all the same and reach the ocean by various devious and complicated
+courses, so the races of men, emerging from the darkness of the past,
+follow, because of the immutability of natural law, practically the
+same lines of development through savagery, barbarism, civilisation,
+toward a common goal of unification and enlightenment. The progress
+of humanity from earliest times to now appears to be divided, in each
+race evolution, into several epochs by certain great inventions or
+discoveries which seemed to spread themselves over the world either
+from one centre or from several. Of these the most important are,
+first, fire; second, the bow; third, smelting; fourth, phonetic
+writing; and fifth, printing. This progression is not even, but a
+people may stand still for a long time and then suddenly become
+active in one particular line, or in many lines.[37] Ours is the age
+of mechanical development; the Greeks made a stride in art. When
+development reaches a certain point and conditions are favourable for
+an invention, it springs into being not in one individual alone but
+usually in several widely separated ones, as if the seed of it had
+been sprinkled over the earth. It may have germinated before when
+conditions were not ripe, but it then died before even sprouting.
+Environment cultivates the mind, and the mind feeds on environment.
+Only a small portion of those to whom an idea occurs endeavour to carry
+it out, and often other subsequent inventions are necessary to success.
+
+[Illustration: PAINTED PETROGLYPHS, SANTA BARBARA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA]
+
+[Illustration: PETROGLYPHS IN BROWN’S CAVE, WISCONSIN]
+
+On the Amerind continent before the advent of the European the various
+stocks and tribes were rising and falling under the influence of the
+moulding conditions, and rising again or giving place to more highly
+vitalised stock which might succeed in fertilising in the brain of a
+Hiawatha or a Quetzalcohuatl great ideas that should lift them onward.
+
+In the matter of writing, these races were moving toward success, and
+had their isolation been maintained they would in time have come to
+the full measure. As it was, the Mayas[38] had reached a considerable
+degree of efficiency, and the Aztecs were following close. The more
+northern stocks, however, had not passed beyond the elementary
+stage. In the sense in which artists now use the word “drawing,”
+it hardly existed anywhere on this continent; that is, there was
+little exactness and delicacy of delineation, but it was mainly an
+offhand representation of objects in a barbaric fashion. There was
+considerable merit in some of the work executed by the sculptors,
+but it was nevertheless as a whole aboriginal and primitive. In the
+middle region the drawings and rock peckings[39] have no artistic
+merit whatever, and are like the work of little children; nor are the
+Eskimo efforts much better. The Eastern States do not afford the same
+abundance of characters pecked and scratched, and sometimes painted on
+the rocks, that exists in the Rocky Mountain region, and particularly
+in the South-west, where they are found everywhere.[40] This may be
+due to the more verdant nature of the eastern part of the country,
+and also to the fact that the broad, smooth surfaces of sandstone
+exposed so universally in the South-west are generally absent in the
+East. Another reason may be that the Amerinds of the various Pueblo
+stocks and allied tribes were more given to inscribing the rocks in
+this manner. Certain it is that wherever evidences exist of the former
+occupation of a locality by Amerinds of the Pueblo kind, there rocks
+will be found covered with markings and paintings. These people went
+everywhere in their region, and they generally left some record on the
+rocks, as they do to-day. If one thinks he has found a place where
+they did not arrive in that vast land of cliffs and canyons, he is
+sure soon to be undeceived. Once I reached a little platform on the
+face of a cliff in Arizona by hard scrambling, part of the way through
+a narrow crevice, and as I stood viewing the valley a thousand feet
+below, I thought, “Now, at last, I am on a spot where the Shinumo[41]
+never stood.” As I turned to make my way down again I was confronted
+by a lot of pictographs spread across the whole of the smooth wall
+behind. Thus it was almost everywhere: in the deep gorges of the
+Colorado River, in its side canyons, in the cliffs above and around,
+and all along Green River, at least as far north as the lower end of
+Split-Mountain canyon, these pictures occur. The climate is dry, and
+there is little change from one century’s end to another.[42] Some are
+comparatively recent, while others, even some of the painted ones,
+are old; how old it is impossible to estimate, but many of them are
+found in regions where no Amerinds of the Pueblo type[43] have lived
+within historical times, or within the memory of those Amerinds who
+now occupy the region. Some of the painted figures in sheltered places
+appeared fresh, but they must have been at least a century or two
+old. The other Amerinds, while they also executed picture-writings of
+various kinds, did not so often decorate rock surfaces with them. They
+were more inclined to drawing and painting on buffalo robes and other
+skins, on bark, on trees, shell, pottery; even the human form in some
+regions not being exempt. The Puebloans, while utilising most of these
+methods, also used the rocks a great deal, the country they occupied
+abounding in broad, smooth faces attractive for this purpose. In the
+settled East the perishable substances have long ago disappeared,
+except those fortunately preserved in museums or private collections.
+Comparatively few rock inscriptions are found there, and these have
+created considerable discussion and the usual number of theories. The
+markings, undoubtedly Algonquian, on the now widely known Dighton Rock
+in Massachusetts were for a long time ascribed to the Northmen, and
+were copied in a great many different ways.[44] The trouble arose from
+the same reason that has led to so many mistaken theories regarding
+the Amerind race—that is, an underestimate of their intellectual side,
+so far as those north of Mexico are concerned, and an overestimate of
+those in the latter region. Brinton asserts that the Algonquins had
+developed the picture-writing _farther than any other stock north of
+the Aztecs_. “It had passed,” he says, “from the representative to the
+symbolic stage, and was extensively employed to preserve the national
+history and rites of the secret societies. The figures were scratched
+or painted on pieces of bark or slabs of wood, and as the colour of the
+paint was red, these were sometimes called ‘red sticks.’” Some of these
+slabs, or “red sticks,” like the _Walam Olum_ (_walam_ = painted, and
+_olum_ = scores or notches on a stick) of the Lenapés,[45] have been
+preserved. Many of the figures executed by the Amerinds, not excepting
+the Aztecs and the Mayas, were grotesque, and even childish. Their
+strangeness is frequently due to our unfamiliarity with the originals,
+figures with queer hair-dressing, masks, or complete ceremonial
+costume, which, if we could see them to-day, would resemble nothing we
+had ever imagined or viewed before. The extraordinary make-up of these
+people for their ceremonials is beyond anything our race can imagine.
+Those who have witnessed Pueblo ceremonials will understand how unlike
+any human being the wearer of the strange costumes can become. The
+_katcina_[46] is fearfully and wonderfully made, and, especially
+if represented with the half-skill of the Amerind, would baffle
+classification by anyone not familiar with the actual object. Among the
+early tribes there were undoubtedly many of these ceremonial dresses
+and costumes that we can now have no conception of, and where we see
+them represented in sculpture or drawing they have a most uncanny and
+diabolical appearance. Even to-day were we to see a representation
+in their crude way of a simple little Moki girl, with the singular
+arrangement of her hair in flat, circular puffs, like huge wheels, one
+on each side of the head, and had never seen or heard of this fashion
+of hair-dressing, we should be puzzled as to what it meant.
+
+[Illustration: PAINTED PETROGLYPHS, SOUTHERN UTAH]
+
+[Illustration: PETROGLYPH AT MILLSBORO, PENNSYLVANIA]
+
+[Illustration: PETROGLYPHS IN GEORGIA]
+
+[Illustration: RUNIC INSCRIPTION ON STONE FOUND AT IGALIKKO, GREENLAND.
+
+  Introduced here to show contrast to the Amerind writings or
+  pictographs.
+
+  Translation: “Vigdis, Mars’ daughter, rests here. May God gladden
+  her soul.”
+]
+
+[Illustration: DIGHTON ROCK, MASSACHUSETTS]
+
+[Illustration: ILLUSTRATION OF THE “WALAM OLUM” OF THE LENAPÉ, FROM
+  BRINTON
+
+  1. Sayewitalli wemiguma wokgetaki.—At first, in that place, at all
+  times, above the earth.
+
+  2. Hackung kwelik owanaku wak yutali kitanitowitessop.—On the earth
+  (was) an extended fog, and there the great Manito was.
+
+  3. Sayewis hallemiwis nolemiwi elemamik, kitanitowitessop.—At
+  first, forever, lost in space, everywhere, the great Manito was.
+
+  4. Sohalawak kwelik hakik owak awasagamak.—He made the extended
+  land and the sky.
+
+  5. Sohalawak gishuk nipahum alankwak.—He made the sun, the moon,
+  and the stars.
+
+  6. Wemi-sohalawak yulik yuchaan.—He made them all to move evenly.
+
+  7. Wich-owagan kshakan moshakwat kwelik kshipe helep.—Then the wind
+  blew violently, and it cleared, and the water flowed off far and
+  strong.
+
+  8. Opeleken mani-menak delsin-epit.—And groups of islands grew
+  newly, and there remained.
+
+  10.—Owiniwak angelatawiwak chichankwak wemiwak.—To beings, mortals,
+  souls and all (spoke the Manito).
+
+  There are sixty of these figures painted on the sticks. Each one
+  recalls to the memory of those who have become acquainted with the
+  associated idea, that special idea, and as an example nine of the
+  signs are given here in connection with the associated idea, and
+  also with the translation into English.
+
+  There is seen here at once the resemblance to Genesis, and it is
+  difficult to believe that this portion of the _Walam Olum_ was not
+  inspired by the teachings of the missionaries. But Brinton says:
+  “This similarity is due wholly to the identity of psychological
+  action, the same ideas and fancies arising from similar impressions
+  in New as well as Old World tribes.
+]
+
+[Illustration: KATCINAS IN THE SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY, CICHUMOVI, ARIZONA,
+  NOVEMBER, 1884
+
+  Photograph by the author
+]
+
+[Illustration: KILLED TWO ARIKAREES]
+
+Some of the ordinary rock pictures may have been carved for simple
+amusement, but the majority were made with a purpose, and this was
+usually the communication or record of an idea. The Amerind records
+may be divided into two and perhaps three general classes: first, the
+mnemonic; second, the ideographic; and, third, the phonetic. Brinton
+suggests for the writings of the Aztecs, which were partly ideographic
+and partly phonetic, the term _ikonomatic_,[47] and used it in his own
+works. The ideographic class are those which represent an idea, as
+a man striking another, like the accompanying illustration from the
+autobiography of Running Antelope, who thus records his killing of two
+Arikarees. The mnemonic class do not represent an idea, but simply are
+memory helps, like a string tied around one’s finger, a good example
+being any numeral, say the figure “9.” The phonetic class represent
+sounds, like the letters of our alphabet, say the letter “e.” It is
+believed that the Maya writings were largely phonetic, but the phonetic
+quality is not well established.
+
+[Illustration: PETROGLYPHS ON PAINT ROCK, NORTH CAROLINA]
+
+It is supposed that the mnemonic symbols originated in sign-language.
+One of the most striking examples of the universality of the
+sign-language is the case, cited by Mallery, of a professor in a
+deaf-mute college, who, visiting several wild tribes, was able to
+communicate freely with them though he knew nothing of their spoken
+languages. It was a natural thing that races should attempt to record
+these signs, and some early hieroglyphs in Egyptian can clearly be
+traced to them. These same efforts occurred amongst the Amerind
+stocks in varying degree. Picture-writing, the world over, as well as
+particularly in North America, probably grew out of sign-language,
+giving, as the first stage in the development, sign-language, second
+pictographs, third alphabet. These merge into each other, as there
+was not a series of jumps, but a slow and gradual progression. Many
+pictographs are merely representations of natural objects and had
+no special significance, others were guide marks to springs, others
+recorded visits to certain localities. Mallery states a particularly
+interesting fact, that within “each particular system ... every
+Indian draws in precisely the same manner.” Therefore, if a perfect
+understanding of each tribal system is obtained, the various rock
+markings and other pictographs can be classified. Sometimes frauds[48]
+have been attempted by white men, one well-known case being where
+an Illinois blacksmith copied on six copper plates designs from a
+Chinese tea-box, and then claimed that the plates had been found in
+a mound. Recently a most ingenious counterfeiter of stone implements
+was discovered in Dane County, Wis. He had been selling the spurious
+implements for years. They are usually of bizarre patterns.[49]
+Bandelier says that “it is certain that some of them [pictographs in
+Mexico] were manufactured after the Conquest, not with the intention
+of fraud, but with a view to a compromise between the new method
+of recording and the old one, which the new teachers were loath to
+comprehend and which they refused to adopt.” Powell classifies all
+the picture-writings as: (1) Mnemonic—songs, traditions, treaties,
+war, and time; (2) Notification—departure, direction, condition,
+warning, guidance, geographic features, claim or demand messages, and
+communications and record of expeditions; (3) Totemic—tribal, gentile,
+clan, and personal designations, insignia, tokens of authority,
+personal names, property marks, status of individuals, signs of
+particular achievements; (4) Religious—mythic personages, shamanism,
+dances, ceremonies, mortuary practices, grave-posts, charms, fetiches;
+(5) Customs, habits; (6) Tribal history; (7) Biographic.
+
+[Illustration: LANDA’S MAYA ALPHABET AFTER BRASSEUR
+
+  From Bancroft’s _Native Races_
+]
+
+On this continent no true alphabet, so far as now known, was produced,
+unless we accept that recorded by Bishop Landa, and ascribed to the
+Mayas. Landa was the second bishop of Yucatan, and he did his best to
+destroy the Maya records and everything else that in his estimation
+linked them with the devil. But he did construct an alphabet after
+theirs, for the purpose, no doubt, of putting before them the Holy
+Gospel, and it is this alphabet that has been preserved. It has been
+the basis of many vain attempts to decipher the few ancient Maya
+documents that are known, and the failure of these attempts has caused
+some investigators to consider the alphabet a pure fabrication, but the
+identity of the characters with many of those in the ancient writing
+completely disproves this charge. Besides the alphabet, Landa left
+some other information concerning the Mayas, and Goodman thus presents
+his respects to his memory[50]: “It is a signal instance of the irony
+of fate that this bigoted destroyer of the fruits of Maya science and
+art—the pietist whose zeal rendered him avid of the obliteration of
+every vestige of their impious learning—should have been the only one
+to leave a clue by which the mysterious codices and inscriptions will
+yet be deciphered. Nevertheless he left such a clue—slight and vague,
+it is true; but, when carefully followed up, it broadens and leads into
+an open way where everything will presently become self-evident.” The
+alphabet was probably modified by a desire to make it conform to the
+Spanish, and it is this foreign element possibly that has led to the
+unfavourable opinion expressed in some quarters concerning it.
+
+[Illustration: FAC-SIMILE OF THE LORD’S PRAYER IN MICMAC HIEROGLYPHS
+
+  From Le Clercq
+]
+
+[Illustration: SEQUOYAH’S CHEROKEE SYLLABARY]
+
+North of the Mexican country certain alphabets were invented by the
+European priests for the purpose of furthering the introduction
+of Christianity among the Amerinds. Of these the Micmac is a good
+example.[51] They were not drawn from pictographs, and were used only
+for teaching the Bible. In that field they did not serve to preserve
+Amerind history, traditions, and legends. After long contact with
+Europeans there was invented but one alphabet, and he who accomplished
+this was a half-breed. In 1821, George Gist (or Guess), whose native
+name was Sequoyah, a Cherokee, who spoke little if any English, but
+whose father was a Dutch peddler and whose mother was of mixed blood,
+produced an alphabet, or, more correctly speaking, a syllabary, which
+was immediately adopted by his tribe, and enabled them to record their
+traditions, sacred formulæ, prayers, etc., which to-day form a valuable
+portion of the information we possess of these Amerind people. Many of
+the symbols were adapted from our alphabet, an old spelling-book having
+found its way into Sequoyah’s hands, but it was the forms which were
+utilised, the sounds they represented being usually different. By means
+of this syllabary the members of the Cherokee tribe were able to learn
+in a few hours to write words, and the system is used to this day.
+
+The endeavour to prove the descent of the Amerinds from one of the
+numerous foreign sources that have from time to time been advocated
+has at least resulted sometimes in the accumulation or reproduction
+of some interesting material. Lord Kingsborough became so infatuated
+with the idea that the Amerinds were the Lost Tribes of Israel that
+he attempted to prove it in a number of splendid volumes, which also
+contain admirable fac-similes of some old Amerind manuscripts.[52] He
+spent his fortune on this work, and through a business dispute with
+the merchants who furnished the paper he was thrown into Dublin Jail,
+where, unfortunately, he died.
+
+To explain the methods employed in the ruder attempts at recording,
+the map made by Lean Wolf, a Hidatsa, who once made a trip from Fort
+Berthold to Fort Buford, Dakota, with the ambition of stealing a horse,
+is a good example. In the illustration the returning horse-tracks
+indicate that he was successful and rode home. 1 is Lean Wolf himself;
+2, the Hidatsa lodges; 3, Lean Wolfs tracks on his outward course; 4,
+government buildings at Fort Buford; 5, several Hidatsa lodges whose
+occupants intermarried with Dakotas; 6, Dakota tipis; 7, small square,
+a white man’s home, with a cross indicating that he had married a
+Dakota woman; 8, horse-tracks; 9, the Missouri River and tributaries.
+
+[Illustration: LEAN WOLF’S MAP, HIDATSA]
+
+Frequently the marks on the rocks merely record the visit of someone
+to the place, exactly as when we visit the birthplace of Shakespeare
+we write our names in a large book kept there for that purpose; or,
+perhaps, as some persons carve their names on public buildings and in
+other conspicuous places. Gilbert found a number of such records at
+Oakley Springs, Arizona, and old Tuba, a Moki, explained them to him.
+Tuba said that the Mokis go to a place in the canyon of the Little
+Colorado for salt, and they stop on the return trip at this spring,
+where each draws his totem mark, or crest, on the record rocks once,
+and once only, for each trip. There are many repetitions of the same
+sign, showing that the owner of that particular sign, or totem, had
+made that many journeys to the salt mine. Tuba gave the name of the
+totems, and they were all animals.
+
+One cannot be too careful in taking statements from Amerinds, for,
+like some of their white brethren, many of them will lie for the fun of
+it, or just to experiment as to the probable result. Sometimes, too,
+when they are telling the truth they tell only part of it. This is
+particularly the case with regard to springs, sacred rites, and other
+matters which are specially cherished. Some objects in the custody of
+the heads of the secret orders are never shown in public, or are only
+shown on special occasions. Pictographs representing them, therefore,
+should any happen to be made, would not be intelligible to any persons
+but the initiated.
+
+[Illustration: THE “PENN” WAMPUM BELT]
+
+[Illustration: STRINGS OF WAMPUM]
+
+Another class of symbols was worked out in wampum. The popular idea
+of wampum seems to be that it was a kind of Amerind money, but the
+money function was only one of its uses. There was another, a mnemonic
+use, of more importance—that is, it was a means of recording and
+of communicating mnemonically among the tribes of the North-east.
+The Iroquois used it chiefly in the form of belts. The beads were
+generally white, and were used in strings as well as belts, other
+colours being mingled with the white, as purple and white, or black and
+white. These strings had important functions in summoning officers,
+in representing persons, and in conferring authority. But all wampum
+had a meaning only to those who remembered the particular association
+of particular forms of it, and the knowledge once entirely forgotten
+could never be regained. Consequently the ideas with which the belts,
+etc., were associated had to be regularly brought to mind. Once a year,
+therefore, they were exhibited in public, and the story connected
+with each carefully rehearsed so that it should not be lost through
+forgetfulness. This custom is still kept up among the remnants of the
+wampum-using tribes. In other tribes, formulæ and drawings were often
+preserved by certain orders who rehearsed them in the privacy of the
+kiva. The wampum beads were generally ⅛ inch by ¼ inch diameter—that
+is, flat discs of shell. They were sometimes also ¼ to ½ inch thick,
+with the same diameter. When the white men discovered the valuation the
+Amerinds placed on these beads an attempt was made to introduce some
+of European manufacture, but it met with only partial success.[53] The
+average width of a belt is three inches and the length three feet.
+
+[Illustration: ORCA OR KILLER-WHALE DECORATION, HAIDA]
+
+By some tribes the human body was also used as a surface for the
+display of pictographs. Among all primitive people the body has been
+often decorated to a greater or less extent by means of pigments or
+by tattooing, and even to-day the practice lingers among civilised
+races, in their sailors and soldiers especially. The primitive totem or
+tattoo marks are frequently highly elaborate, but the work is not all
+accomplished at one time. Years sometimes pass before the drawings
+are complete. The Haidas of the North-west coast are specially given
+to this form of decoration, and their bodies bear carefully prepared
+symbols. They are heraldic signs, or the family totem, of the clan to
+which the person belongs.
+
+[Illustration: HAIDA TATTOOING]
+
+Pottery was also a medium, and some of the designs contained upon
+earthenware unfold a whole legend to the knowing eye of the native. The
+designs that are woven into blankets, baskets, and scarfs of Amerind
+manufacture are also, to a certain extent, symbolic. The Navajos, who
+weave a superior kind of blanket, put into it a variety of designs,
+that are carried entirely in their memory. It is asserted that the
+majority of these designs are Pueblo. The Navajos no doubt absorbed
+many of the Pueblos, who must have been in the country they now occupy
+when they arrived. There is some intermarriage of Navajos and Mokis in
+these latter days.[54]
+
+Everything the Amerind does pertains to his religious belief, and these
+symbols, totems, and pictures play an important part in his life. Some
+sign or token occurs on almost every article of his manufacture.
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO DRAWING—“THE MAN IN THE MOON COMES DOWN”]
+
+Excellent examples of Algonquin mnemonic records are found in the songs
+of the Midē society, which have been preserved for many generations
+by means of their picture-writing, and some of the records are
+exceedingly elaborate. The method is to associate certain devices with
+songs or with parts of songs to recall the words to the memory of the
+singer when he beholds the pictures, and in this way they have been
+handed along through the centuries. There is reason to believe that
+almost all important legends are recorded in this mnemonic way among
+the tribes of North America. Of course the memory is likely to fail in
+some details and so the songs become more or less changed as time goes
+on, but it is not probable that the changes are of much importance, for
+where the memory is trained in this way it grows remarkably accurate.
+There was much practising of the various songs at each particular
+season, under the guidance of some veteran singer.
+
+The Eskimo, in their picture-writing, seem now to be rather a class
+by themselves. Whether the suggestion of perspective found in some
+pictures was a result of contact with the whites I am unable to state,
+but it seems probable. In the above illustration the suggestion of
+perspective is clear. There is a landscape with houses, with the moon
+in the sky, and with a perfectly evident effort to make the foreground
+and middle and background take their proper places. Such a thing is not
+to be found throughout all the other Amerind stocks.
+
+From Alaska come some good examples of the ideographic, by way of
+San Francisco, where one Naumoff, an Alaskan native, made them. They
+are written on strips of wood and placed in conspicuous places as
+notifications.
+
+[Illustration: The irregular line indicates the contour of the country.
+  The traveller is seen starting out at the left. He presently leaves
+  a stick with a bunch of grass to show direction, and stops with a
+  friend at night—the division of days represented by a line upright.
+  Next morning, on the second hill, he discovers game, etc.
+]
+
+Some tribes have a system of enumerating the members of it and keeping
+a kind of clan roll. Chief Big Road, a Dakota, was one day brought
+to the agency and required to give an account of his followers. He
+submitted a roster, made on common foolscap paper with black and
+coloured pencils. The names, represented by pictures, were Big Bear,
+Bear-looking-behind, Brings-back-Plenty, White Buffalo, and so on.
+This is also an example of the ideographic. Red Cloud had a similar
+census of his warriors. It was prepared under his supervision at the
+Pine Ridge Agency. Owing to some disagreement, the agent had refused
+to recognise Red Cloud’s leadership and named another man as chief.
+Thereupon the adherents of Red Cloud prepared this document, and
+sent it to Washington to establish his claim. The names pictorially
+represented are Shield-Bear, Sees-the-Enemy, Biting-Bear, Cut-through,
+Red Owl, etc.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF THE DAKOTA WINTER COUNTS
+
+  Dates determined by counting back from great events The left:
+  1788–89. Very severe winter. Crows were frozen to death.
+  “Many-crows-died-winter” Middle: 1789–90. Two Mandans killed by the
+  Minneconjous Right: 1790–91. “All-the-Indians-see-the-flag-winter”
+]
+
+In this same line are the Dakota winter counts collected by Dr.
+Corbusier. The years are counted by winters, as the winter among the
+Dakotas makes the deepest impression. These records have been kept for
+many years and are used in computing time and to aid the memory in
+recalling names and events of different years. The enumeration is begun
+at the winter last recorded and carried backward. There are at least
+five of these counts kept among the Oglalas and Brules by different
+men.[55]
+
+From the manuscript drawing-book of an Amerind prisoner at St.
+Augustine we have a “conversation” about the lassooing, shooting, and
+final killing of a bison which had wandered into camp. “The dotted
+lines indicate footprints. The Indian drawn under the animal having
+secured it by the forefeet, so informs his companions, as indicated by
+the line drawn from his mouth to the object mentioned. The left-hand
+figure, having secured the buffalo by the horns, gives his nearest
+comrade an opportunity to strike it with an axe, which he no doubt
+announces that he will do, as the line from his mouth to the head of
+the animal indicates. The Indian in the upper left-hand corner is told
+by a squaw to take an arrow and join his companions, when he turns his
+head to inform her that he has one already, which fact he demonstrates
+by holding up the weapon.”[56]
+
+[Illustration: KILLING A BISON]
+
+The Navajos have a singular kind of picture-writing which has been
+called “dry-painting.” These dry-paintings are made on the ground with
+dry sand of various colours.[57] All the designs are made with the
+utmost care and precision, being drawn according to an exact system,
+except in minor points, where the artist is left to his imagination.
+So far as known this system is not recorded in any way, but depends
+entirely on the memory of those in charge. Changes must therefore occur
+in the course of time. The sand is trailed out of the hand between the
+thumb and forefinger, and when a mistake is made it is corrected by
+renewing at that point the surface of the sand which forms the general
+ground for the work. No less than seventeen ceremonies are illustrated
+by drawings of this kind. Sand enters into some of the kiva ceremonies
+of the Moki, but in a different way. It is used more to maintain in
+position certain objects that belong to the ritual.
+
+[Illustration: SHELL DISC, TENNESSEE
+
+  Diameter, 4.4 inches
+
+  After Dr. Jones
+]
+
+The mounds of the Mississippi valley have yielded antiquities of great
+interest, but thus far nothing that is beyond the ability of the
+ordinary Amerind to execute. Some shell discs, which Holmes suggests
+may have been time symbols, attract special attention. There are
+generally thirteen small outer circles on the discs, and thirteen is
+a number that occurs frequently in Amerind chronology. On other discs
+various objects are drawn, the one first to fix the attention of the
+white race being the figure of the cross because of its connection
+with the Christian religion. But it had no similar significance with
+the Christian cross. Crosses were found among almost all the tribes of
+North America, because a cross is an easy and a most natural figure to
+construct. Another emblem found throughout the world, and next to the
+cross the simplest figure to make, is that called the swastika, merely
+a cross 卐 with the arms broken at right angles. The Mormons firmly
+believe, along with Kingsborough, that the Amerinds are the Lost Tribes
+of Israel, and one of their elders has succeeded in translating some
+picture-writing thus: “_I, Mahanti, the 2nd king of the Lamanites in
+five valleys in the mountains, make this record in the twelve hundredth
+year since we came out of Jerusalem. And I have three sons gone to the
+south country to live by hunting antelope and deer._” Like the power to
+divine the future, the power to translate picture-writings is rare.
+
+In some of the Moundbuilder work there is a suggestion of a position
+for the makers intermediate between, say, the Algonquin and the Nahuatl
+or Aztec tribes. Their serpent symbols strongly resemble those of more
+southern tribes, and also some of the figures in shell and copper.
+
+The fact that the serpent was a prominent object with them as with
+the Nahuatl tribes tends to link the tribes who made these symbols
+with the Nahuatl tribes. The serpent symbol, especially the feathered
+kind,[58] belongs mainly to the tribes of the Mexican region, where the
+rattlesnake exists in its greatest variety. The rattlesnake was highly
+venerated, and tribes as far north as the Moki country in the West,
+and perhaps as the Ohio in the East, might be correctly called the
+Snake people. There is nothing improbable in supposing that some of the
+tribes of the Mississippi valley, if they were not of the same stock as
+the Aztecs, were in tolerably close communication with them, or with
+tribes intermediate between the two.
+
+[Illustration: SHELL GORGET, TENNESSEE]
+
+Sometimes there occur markings on the rocks in the South-west that
+would be a puzzle to us did we not know, through the Mokis, who are
+still making them, just what they are. There is therefore no room
+for the imagination; the long scratchings are only grooves made in
+sandstone by the Moki farmer sharpening his planting stick.
+
+[Illustration: CUP MARKINGS]
+
+Another kind of rock markings, the so-called cupped-stones or cup
+markings, about which there has been a vast amount of discussion, may
+be considered here because they have generally been thought to have
+symbolic significance. That some of them may have had such significance
+is admitted below, but the bulk of those on this continent it seems
+possible to explain without resort to symbolism. An explanation which
+I offer, for what it may be worth, I have never seen suggested, though
+the idea may not be new. It is well known that the common form of
+fire-drill in use from one end of this continent to the other was that
+in which the end of a straight stick is made to rotate back and forth
+in a rounded cavity in another stick of softer wood called the hearth.
+In order that the operation should be speedily successful in producing
+fire, it was necessary to have the end of the drill convex, so that
+it would immediately bear as nearly as possible on the whole surface
+of the hearth cavity. In order to produce this convexity, the Amerind
+pecked a small cavity on a slab or rock of sandstone, and when he had
+it in the proper condition, he could bring his drill very quickly
+to the desired convexity, and also give it a roughness of surface
+that would contribute to the friction. As the fire-drill was long in
+constant use, many cavities were necessary, for a cavity would grow too
+deep, or for some other cause would not be adequate. A new hole would
+then be made, and thus in the course of time there would be numbers of
+the cavities on a rock or slab, which was convenient or had been found
+to possess the right texture for the purpose. My opinion, therefore,
+is that these so-called “cup markings” or “cupped” stones were in
+America the result of the sharpening of fire-drills, just as the long
+grooves seen at the Moki towns to-day are the result of the sharpening
+of planting sticks. Gerard Fowke describes the cupped-stones in the
+Bureau of Ethnology collection,[59] as follows, and it will be noticed
+that thin pieces have cups on both sides, while the large blocks have
+them only on one. This was because it was convenient to turn the small
+stones over. In some cases where a cup had worn too large, another
+was started in the bottom of it, perhaps because the rock at that
+particular spot suited the fancy of the individual. Fowke says: “The
+cupped-stones in the Bureau are almost invariably of reddish sandstone,
+of varying texture, from a few ounces to thirty pounds in weight. The
+holes are from one to twenty-five in number, of various sizes, even in
+the same stone, and follow the natural contour of the surface even when
+that is quite irregular; the stone is never flattened or dressed to
+bring the cups on a level; none show any marks of work, but are rough
+blocks or slabs in their natural state. Many of the holes are roughly
+pecked in, but the larger ones are usually smooth, as if ground out,
+and almost complete hemispheres. They range from a pit only started or
+going scarcely beyond the surface to one two inches in diameter. The
+smaller ones with one cup pass into the pitted stones. Occasionally
+at the bottom of a large cup there is a small secondary hole as though
+made by a flint drill. Slabs or thin pieces nearly always have cups on
+both sides, while blocks or thick slabs have them on one side only.”
+
+In the case of the cup markings of the Eastern Hemisphere, their
+frequent peculiar arrangement accompanied by grooves and circles may
+have pertained to some ceremony connected with the drill-dressing. It
+may have been thought that the fire would come quicker, be better, or
+last longer when the drill was dressed in holes of a certain type; or
+special stones and holes of peculiar arrangement may have been required
+for dressing the drill-end that was to be used by the priest in the
+sacred ceremony of producing the “new-fire.” In this manner a primitive
+custom might become sacred and be surrounded with symbolism exemplified
+in cup markings the world over.
+
+[Illustration: CUP FROM CHIRIQUI]
+
+
+
+
+               [Illustration: TERRA COTTA FROM CHIRIQUI]
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+   THE MEXICAN AND CENTRAL-AMERICAN WRITING, INSCRIPTIONS, AND BOOKS
+
+
+While there are found in the mounds of the central Mississippi
+region, and also among the living natives of the North-west coast,
+resemblances to the art work of the Aztecs, Mayas, and other tribes of
+the Central-American region, there is no evidence that there was any
+approach, in these localities or elsewhere, to any kind of record to be
+compared with the proficiency of the South. What there may once have
+been in the way of writings on bark or wood we can only conjecture. The
+Davenport tablet has been pronounced, on good authority, to be within
+the powers of the Dakota tribes. Other tablets and inscriptions of the
+Eastern region are surrounded with doubt.
+
+The Mexican, that is, the Aztec, writing was more pictorial than
+that of the Mayas. It was cruder in every way, and comparing the
+two in the pages of Kingsborough and later reproductions, it is
+easy to distinguish a superior culture indicated by the writing of
+the Maya. We are more fortunate in the number of Aztec manuscripts
+preserved. The Spanish priests did what they could to obliterate the
+books existing when they came into the country, and Bishop Zumarraga
+made a fine bonfire out of a lot of them. But some escaped. Some
+priests sent copies or originals back home as curiosities, thinking,
+doubtless, that this took them out of the sight of the natives quite
+as effectually as the burning, and the natives themselves succeeded
+in preserving in secret some of the ancient documents. None of the
+oldest, however, have been found, but in time the number known to us
+may be considerably increased. One by one they turn up unexpectedly.
+That called the Codex Borgia was in use as a plaything of children
+of the Gustiniani family, till rescued by Cardinal Borgia, and only
+recently another one has been found dating from the year 1545,[60]
+wherein there are pictorial combinations never before seen. Thus
+gradually our data are increasing, and with the awakening interest in
+Amerindian archæology that seems to have come in these latter days of
+the nineteenth century, a century that has let slip much valuable data
+never to be recovered, further finds may be expected from time to time.
+The style of the Aztec documents is different from that of the Maya and
+Brinton believes them to be independent developments. It is possible,
+however, that both were derived from the same source and developed
+independently.[61] The Aztec writing is of a “rebus” character, and
+Brinton has applied to it the term _ikonomatic_, which he explains
+as follows in his _Essays of an Americanist_[62]: “All methods of
+recording ideas have been divided into two classes—Thought Writing and
+Sound Writing. The first, simplest and oldest, is Thought Writing.
+This in turn is subdivided into two forms—Ikonographic and Symbolic
+Writing. The former is also known as Imitative, Representative, or
+Picture Writing. The object to be held in memory is represented by its
+picture drawn with such skill, or lack of skill, as the writer may
+possess. In Symbolic Writing, a single characteristic part or trait
+serves to represent the whole object; thus the track of an animal
+will stand for the animal itself.... It will be observed that Thought
+Writing has no reference to spoken language; neither the picture of
+a wolf nor the representation of his footprint conveys the slightest
+notion of the sound of the word _wolf_. How was the enormous leap made
+from the thought to the sound—in other words, from an ideographic to
+a phonetic method of writing? This question has received considerable
+attention from scholars with reference to the development of the two
+most important alphabets in the world, the Egyptian and the Chinese.
+Both these began as simple picture writing, and both progressed to
+almost complete phoneticism. In both cases, however, the earliest steps
+are lost, and can be retraced only by indications remaining after a
+high degree of phonetic power had been reached. On the other hand, in
+the Mexican and probably in the Maya hieroglyphics, we find a method
+of writing which is intermediate between the two great classes I have
+mentioned, and which illustrates in a striking manner the phases
+through which both the Egyptian and the Semitic alphabets passed
+somewhat before the dawn of history. To this method, which stands
+midway between the ikonographic and the alphabetic methods of writing,
+I have given the name _ikonomatic_, derived from the Greek εικων-ονος,
+an image, a figure; ονομα-ατος, a name.... It is this plan on which
+those familiar puzzles are constructed which are called rebuses and
+none other than this which served to bridge over the wide gap between
+Thought and Sound Writing. It is, however, not correct to say that it
+is a writing by _things_, rebus; but it is by the _names_ of things,
+and hence I have coined the work ikonomatic to express this clearly.”
+The position of the signs often had important significance, just as it
+has in some of our puzzles, like the following:
+
+                                  WOOD
+                                  JOHN
+                                  MASS
+
+which is said to have been the address on a letter that found its
+destination in John Underwood, Andover, Massachusetts. It might be
+supposed that, having acquired a knowledge of the method of the Aztec
+writing, the general principles of which, according to Brinton, were
+known many years ago, we would now be able to translate the Mexican
+documents with little difficulty. The trouble lies, however, in the
+lack of exact knowledge of the Nahuatl language itself, and till
+that is acquired small progress will be made. It will be necessary
+to understand this language before its modern additions and changes
+came in, in order to connect it with the picture-writing, or rather
+the ikonomatic writing, of the fifteenth and previous centuries. It
+has been doubted whether there is any phonetic element in either the
+Aztec or the Maya hieroglyphics, but the evidence seems to indicate
+that there is a phonetic element, notwithstanding that there has been a
+following in many cases of rather slender threads of evidence.
+
+[Illustration: PAGE FROM AN AZTEC BOOK (from a copy in the possession
+  of M. H. Saville)
+
+  Plate 67 of the Nahuan precolumbian Vatican Codex, No. 3773, Loubat
+  edition. This is the 19th page of the Tonalamatl, the sacred
+  astrological calendar of the Aztecs. The seated figure is the
+  goddess Xochiquetzal, and on the left is the god Tezcatlipoca. The
+  book is in size about 5 × 6 inches.
+]
+
+[Illustration: MEXICAN WRITING OF NAME OF MONTEZUMA
+
+  From Brinton
+]
+
+Brinton gives the accompanying illustration of the character of the
+Aztec writing, this being the name of Montezuma, but really reading
+Moquahzoma. As most writers spell this name to suit themselves, judging
+from the great variety of spellings, we may as well accept Moquahzoma
+too. Indeed, as this seems to be supported by the evidence of the
+writing, it is more likely to be correct than the others. The picture
+at the right is of a mouse-trap, _montli_ in Nahuatl, “with a phonetic
+value of _mo_ or _mon_; the head of the eagle has the value _quauh_,
+from _quauhtli_; it is transfixed with a lancet _zo_ and surmounted
+with a hand _maitl_, whose phonetic value is _ma_, and these values
+combined give _Moquahzoma_.”
+
+[Illustration: PART OF PLATE 65, DRESDEN CODEX
+
+  Maya
+]
+
+When Mendoza was viceroy of New Spain, he caused a specimen of Aztec
+writing and book-making to be prepared and sent to Charles V., with
+an explanation in Spanish. Copies of this exist to-day; one in the
+Bodleian Library, Oxford, and another, which Prescott thought was the
+original, though Bancroft believed it to be a copy, in the Escurial
+Library. This Codex Mendoza was in three parts: 1st, historical; 2d,
+tribute rolls; 3d, descriptive of the domestic life and manners of the
+people. Besides this and the Borgia, there are the Codex Vaticanus,
+in the Vatican Library, another in the same place written on skin;
+the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, in the Bibliothèque National, Paris;
+the Codex Bologna, in the library of the Scientific Institute, and
+a number of others in divers places.[63] The remnants of the native
+Tezcucan archives were inherited by Ixtlilxochitl, lineal descendant of
+the last “king” of Tezcuco, who used them in preparing his historical
+writings. The collection afterwards disappeared.
+
+Many of the manuscripts were merely chronological, but there were also
+tribute rolls, law codes, court records, historical records, and all
+the varied writings that belong to an active and intelligent people.
+The priests executed and held in their possession the important books,
+and seem to have been the leaders of whatever learning existed. “These
+writings,” says Bancroft, “were a sealed book to the masses, and even
+to the educated classes who looked with superstitious reverence on the
+priestly writers and their magic scrolls.”
+
+The paper used was usually made from the leaves of the maguey. It is
+probable that the Aztecs learned to make it from the Mayas or from
+some intervening tribe who had learned from the Mayas. Sometimes the
+books were long strips of cotton cloth, or even a kind of parchment.
+They were either rolled up or folded like a screen, and frequently had
+covers of wood. A great deal of ingenuity and skill were bestowed on
+the preparation of these books and the writing they contained.
+
+The appropriate name of “calculiform”[64] has been given to the Maya
+hieroglyphics because of their resemblance to pebble forms. Besides
+the inscriptions carved on stone from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to
+the northern border of Honduras, there are some on wood and in stucco,
+but there exist, so far as known, but very few of the numerous records
+and books of perishable material which the pious zeal of the Spanish
+priests hastened to gather together and purify of heresy and wickedness
+in the fires of bigotry. Bishop Landa says: “As they contained nothing
+that did not savour of superstition and lies of the devil, we burnt
+them all, at which the natives grieved most keenly and were greatly
+pained.” The practice of the Mayas, it is said, was to bury the books
+with the priest who had written them, in which case large numbers of
+the writings must have been disposed of before the Spaniards took a
+hand. Doubtless, however, only certain books were thus buried with the
+authors, and perhaps copies of these may have been preserved. At any
+rate, unless some of the books have been protected in an absolutely
+dry place, tomb or what not, or there were also writings on tablets of
+clay or stone, we are not likely to have our present scanty knowledge
+of the ancient Mayas much increased through this channel. There are
+possibilities of discovery in many ways, even amongst the papers in
+forgotten archives.
+
+[Illustration: VASE FROM LABNA, YUCATAN, WITH PECULIAR MARKINGS
+
+  Diameter at top, 5 inches; diameter at bottom, 4 inches; height, 4½
+  inches
+]
+
+In the Peabody Museum at Cambridge I saw a small vase from Labna
+that fixed my attention at once, and I understand there are others
+in existence of a similar character. It bears certain marks in the
+clay that suggested to my mind an alphabetic system. The marks are in
+groups, each group contained in a space that apparently corresponds
+to the calculiform inscriptions of the monuments. It seems possible,
+therefore, that this may be a development out of the calculiform.
+Afterwards I found a reference apparently to this same vase in
+Brinton’s _Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics_. He says: “There is some
+reason to suppose, however, that in this part of the Mayan territory
+there had been a development of this writing until it had become
+conventionalized into a series of lines and small circles enclosed in
+the usual square or oval of the katun. I have seen several examples of
+this remarkable script, and give one, Fig. 79, part of an inscription
+on a vase from Labna, Yucatan, now in the Peabody Museum.” If these
+marks should turn out to be alphabetic, then we may expect to find
+slabs and tablets similarly inscribed.
+
+[Illustration: CONVEX DISCOIDAL STONE, NORTH CAROLINA]
+
+We are but at the beginning of our investigation of the Amerind field.
+Only recently Saville discovered an entirely new form of hieroglyphic
+in Oaxaca in a tomb believed to be Zapotecan. Organised and exhaustive
+exploration will yield fine results. “Such organised and exhaustive
+exploration is the more to be desired,” says Goodman, “for the reason
+that all the inscriptions so far brought to light are of a purely
+chronological character, destitute of any real historical importance.
+They are merely public calendars, as it were, showing that at specified
+dates certain periods of their scheme would begin or end, or that a
+correspondence would occur between two or more of their different
+plans for computing time. Aside from the circumstance that the initial
+date in most instances undoubtedly marks the time at which the temple,
+stela, or altar to which it belongs was erected, I do not believe there
+is the record of a single historical event in all the inscriptions at
+present in our possession. That a people as cultured as they should
+have had no historical records at all, would be a presumption too
+absurd for credence, even without the testimony of the early Spanish
+authorities to the contrary. The actual question is whether any of
+them will ever be discovered. If they were inscribed upon paper or
+parchment and buried with their priestly owners, as we are told, there
+is very little hope that any vestige of them remains, unless there may
+have been some instance of almost miraculous preservation. Still that
+remote chance is worth a vast amount of research. But a better hope
+... is that in crypts or tombs or other unexplored receptacles may be
+collected historical tablets of durable material—stone, stucco, baked
+clay, or even metal—which patient excavation will yet unearth.” Chance
+has played the chief part in the preservation of the few documents that
+have come down to us. In the Bibliothèque National at Paris the Maya
+one now known as the Codex Peresianus had been neglected amongst a lot
+of old papers where De Rosny happened to discover it. It has generally
+been assumed that because there was found one form of writing on the
+monuments and a similar form in the few documents preserved there was
+but the one method. This, however, does not necessarily follow. The
+monumental records and the chronological books may have been written
+by the priests in the archaic style while the ordinary and common
+style was something quite different.[65] Pio Perez has been followed
+with great faith, but Goodman thrusts him aside in the following
+paragraph: “The man who led everybody astray ... was Don Pio Perez....
+In the absence of any regularly ordained authority, he was at once
+accepted on his own bare assumption as a leader and lawgiver, and then
+began that journey through the wilderness which has lasted more than
+forty years.... I ran in the ruck for seven seasons.... Then I turned
+and went back to Landa—to whom all desirous of reliable information
+concerning Maya chronology must go at last.”[66] The trouble with
+following Landa has been the inaccuracy of the translation by the Abbé
+Brasseur as well as a certain confusion existing within the original
+manuscript.[67]
+
+Brinton says: “The Mayas were naturally a literary people. Had they
+been offered the slightest chance for the cultivation of their
+intellects, they would have become a nation of readers and writers.”
+Instead of having this chance they were crushed by the Spaniards and
+never rose again. But the decline of the Mayas cannot be altogether
+laid at the door of Spain. The remnant of the stock encountered by
+the Spaniards was already on the down road and had been for a long
+period.[68] That the Mayas had long passed the zenith of their progress
+is generally admitted, and we are not entirely sure that the people we
+know as Mayas were the original stock or only a mixture of the original
+and an inferior, wilder stock which mingled with them in the days of
+their decline. When a stock declined or became extinct, other stocks
+from contiguous territory or from farther off were likely to come in
+and possess themselves of whatever they found that was valuable and
+also become permanent residents of the country, just as the Navajos
+took up their home in a land that was formerly the residence of a
+different, house-building stock of whom the Navajos preserve, so far
+as I am aware, barely a reminiscence. Berendt thus describes the
+neighbourhood of Cintla: “Not a single tradition, not a single native
+name survives to cast any light upon these ruins. The whole of this
+coast was depopulated in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries owing
+to the slave-hunting incursions of the filibusters and man-hunters.
+The Indians who are now found in the neighbourhood have removed there
+from the interior since the beginning of the present century, and are
+absolutely ignorant of the origin or builders of this city.”
+
+Not until we are in possession of historical data from the Mayas
+themselves, if that happy time ever arrives, can we be absolutely
+certain as to the present descendants.
+
+“In Yucatan,” says Brinton, “the books of the Mayas consisted of a
+kind of paper made by macerating and beating together leaves of maguey
+and afterwards sizing the surface with a durable white varnish. The
+sheet was folded like a screen, forming pages about nine by five
+inches. Both sides were covered with figures and characters painted
+in various brilliant colours. On the outer pages boards were fastened
+for protection, so the completed volume had the appearance of a bound
+book of large octavo size. Parchment was sometimes used instead of
+paper. It was made of deerskin cured and smoked. Twenty-seven rolls
+of such parchments covered with hieroglyphics were among the articles
+burned by Bishop Landa at Mani in 1562.” “None of them, however,”
+remarks Goodman of the Maya books that have been found, “can be of
+much assistance in solving Maya historical problems, as they are all
+merely text-books explaining the meaning of signs, the elementary
+principles of their respective calendars and certain phases of lunar,
+solar, and in a few places, bissextile and chronological reckoning. I
+believe the figures usually supposed to represent deities to be only
+personifications of different periods or phases of time, and that most
+of the glyphs are merely numerals or symbols used for the occasion in
+their numerative sense only.”
+
+It is plain, therefore, that much of the supposed interpretation of
+the Maya inscriptions has had little solid foundation, has in fact
+been little better than guesswork. There was one sanguine translator
+who was discovered to have begun at the _wrong end_ of the book!
+The readings of the Maya inscriptions sometimes suggest that other
+mysterious operation of certain brilliant scholars of our time, the
+discovery and reading of the Shakespeare-Baconian cipher. The lack
+of real understanding of the Maya subject is pretty well indicated
+by the various estimates of the value of Landa’s legacy. One author,
+Holden, states that it was a positive misfortune, while Goodman, after
+following other lines for a time, returns to Landa as the only real
+foundation for accurate study. There is even yet difference of opinion
+as to the proper directions, left to right or up and down, etc., in
+which the works are to be read when they are read. Apparently the first
+sensible thing to be done is to gather together all that Landa wrote
+and reduce it to a shape that will place it before the greatest number
+of students, in connection with specimens of every kind of a mark or
+picture that by any possibility might have alphabetic significance. A
+striking peculiarity of the Maya remains is that there are not found
+any preliminary or originating forms of the glyphs. “We are compelled
+therefore to admit,” says Thomas, “that the origin of this writing is a
+mystery we are unable to fully penetrate.”[69] It may be that the forms
+from which it was derived were recorded on skins, on wood, or on bark,
+and in that case they probably disappeared before the beginning of the
+Maya decline. “A difference, it is true,” says Thomas,[70] “in the
+forms and ornamentation, and, to a certain degree, an advance toward
+a more perfect type, can be traced, but no examples, so far as the
+writer is aware, of the first rude beginnings or the original forms
+have been found. Some comparatively rude are found painted on pottery,
+scratched on shells or other soft material, but these belong to what
+may be termed demotic writing and are not primitive forms. Comparing
+the characters of the various inscriptions which have been discovered
+and those found in the few remaining pre-Columbian manuscripts, the
+result is as follows: _First_, it is apparent that the characters in
+the manuscripts have been adapted from those of the inscriptions. In
+other words, inscriptions preceded the manuscripts; hence we must look
+to the former for the older forms. What appear to the writer to be the
+oldest forms of the glyphs yet discovered are seen in those of Palenque
+and some of the inscriptions found by Charnay at Menche (Lorillard
+City), though others discovered by him at this same place belong to
+the later and more ornamental type, discovered in the Peten region,
+that is those carved in wood discovered by Bernouilli at Tikal, a type
+also found at Copan and Chichen Itza, but in none of the inscriptions
+at Palenque.” For my part, I cannot see that Thomas has exactly proved
+that the manuscripts were later than the stone-carved inscriptions, but
+his knowledge of the subject is so great and his methods so cautious
+that I am glad to give his statement in this connection.
+
+[Illustration: FEMALE HEAD IN TRACHYTE
+
+  From slope north of Temple 22—Copan.
+]
+
+The Maya glyphs probably developed out of something like the Mexican or
+Aztec writing; and the step was not a very long one from writing of the
+character of the Lenapé _Walam Olum_ to that of the Aztec, and again
+it was not a long step from the ordinary picture-writing to the _Walam
+Olum_, so that it would seem that in these various writings we have
+an interesting series of steps from the crudest attempts at records,
+nearly, if not quite, to the highest, for it must be borne in mind that
+the step from the Maya glyphs to a true phonetic alphabet would be even
+shorter than any of the others. It is not impossible that something
+of the kind may yet be discovered. While the Mayas had made little
+progress in mechanical inventions, their progress in architecture,
+art, writing, and in astronomy is a proof that they were a thinking
+people, and, had conditions continued favourable to their progress, the
+Spaniards would have found them not easy to vanquish. The prominent
+and striking quality of the calculiform style has had a tendency to
+obscure the point that there may have been another system in vogue,
+more simple, more modern, in short purely phonetic. Perfected phonetic
+characters are simple characters and are likely not to attract notice,
+especially when attention has been fixed on other forms.
+
+So far as now understood, there is no relationship between any kind
+of Amerindian writing and that of other races. Like everything else
+pertaining to the Amerind people, the development appears to have been
+purely indigenous. Le Plongeon, however, asserts that “abundant proofs
+of the intimate communications of the ancient Mayas with the civilised
+nations of Asia, Africa, and Europe are to be found among the remains
+of their ruined cities.”[71] The grounds accepted for this statement
+do not seem to be sufficient to satisfy other investigators. Certainly
+if there was any inter-communication, it was before the acquirement of
+iron-working in other countries, as so far no prehistoric iron has been
+found in the ruins of Yucatan.
+
+[Illustration: USUAL TYPE OF SCULPTURED “YOKES,” CENTRAL AMERICA
+
+  15½ inches long; 14½ inches wide; thickness, 3½ × 4½ inches
+
+  Substance: Dark, greenish grey, very compact, chlorite; surface well
+  polished. Carving of a frog or toad
+
+  W. H. Holmes
+]
+
+After the coming of the Spaniards, some of the Mayas soon learned their
+alphabet and the missionaries added, says Brinton, “a sufficient number
+of signs to it to express with tolerable accuracy the phonetics of the
+Maya tongue. Relying on their memories, and, no doubt, aided by some
+manuscripts secretly preserved, many natives set to work to write out
+in this new alphabet the contents of their ancient records. Much was
+added which had been brought in by the Europeans, and much omitted
+which had become unintelligible or obsolete since the Conquest, while
+of course the different writers varying in skill and knowledge produced
+works of very various merit. Nevertheless each of these books bore the
+same name. In whatever village it was written, or by whatever hand, it
+always was, and to-day still is, called ‘_The Book of Chilan Balam_.’
+To distinguish them apart, the name of the village where a copy was
+found or written is added. Probably in the last century almost every
+village had one, which was treasured with superstitious veneration.”
+Sixteen of these curious books are known to exist, but there has never
+been a complete translation of any of them. The following specimen is
+from _The Book of Chilan Balam_ of the town of Mani, and is taken from
+Brinton’s _Chronicles of the Maya_.[72]
+
+“_Lai u tzolan katun lukci ti cab ti yotoch Nonoual cante anilo
+Tutulxiu ti chikin Zuiua u luumil u talelob Tulapan chiconahthan._”
+
+Translation: “This is the arrangement of the katuns since the departure
+was made from the land, from the house Nonoual, where were the four
+Tutulxiu, from Zuiva at the West: they came from the land Tulapan,
+having formed a league.”
+
+The strange title of these books is derived from that of the priests
+or shamans, who were believed to have divine powers. They date from
+1595. The Maya books at present known are three, one in two parts, with
+these titles: 1. _Codex Tro_ or _Troano_, 70 pages, found by the Abbé
+Brasseur at Madrid; 2. _Codex Cortesianus_,[73] so named because of a
+belief that it was brought to Europe by Cortes, also at Madrid, and
+believed to be a part of the Troano; 3. _Dresden Codex_, 74 pages, in
+the Royal Library, Dresden; 4. _Codex Peresianus_, 22 pages, the one
+discovered in the Paris Bibliothèque National by De Rosny, and given
+its title from the name “Perez,” written on the outer wrapper. Besides
+these it has been supposed that there are several in private hands. The
+Quiches, of Mayan stock, had a sacred book called the _Popol Vuh_,[74]
+and the allied Cakchiquels had their _Records of Tecpan Atitlan_.
+Other tribes or stocks of the Mexican region undoubtedly had books and
+records also, but in the present state of knowledge nothing definite
+can be said about them. But there was a general high development of
+all, or at least, the majority, of the stocks occupying Mexico and
+Central America in the fifteenth century and before, so that it is
+entirely reasonable to expect a considerable corresponding development
+in the line of picture-writing, hieroglyphs or alphabets. These, in
+some cases, will come to our knowledge, just as the new hieroglyph
+attributed to the Zapotecs recently rewarded the investigations of
+Saville.
+
+The numeral systems of these people were well developed, and they were
+able to make exact calculations in astronomical, and in all other
+matters. The Aztecs used dots from one to ten, or twenty, and then
+symbols. The Mayas used dots only to four, and then dots and lines
+to nineteen, beyond which little is known of their method. Like all
+the rest of the Maya subject, there is in this line of investigation
+considerable confusion and great uncertainty. The table herewith given
+is a suggestion of a possible line of study. It seems to me to be the
+_method_ that was followed, though my arrangement or even the figures
+are not correct. I introduce it here, before bestowing upon it further
+study, because it may contain an idea that will start someone else
+on a right track. It has been generally accepted that one dot • is
+one, two dots •• two, and so on to four ••••, after which five was a
+straight line, [symbol]. Here arises a question. Did the dots and lines
+mean the same when horizontal as when vertical? They occur both ways
+in the inscriptions and in the manuscripts, and Goodman takes them to
+be the same. Vertical and horizontal occur together frequently, thus:
+[symbol] from Pl. 51, Dresden Codex. A doubt fills my mind, however,
+on this point. It is possible that when vertical the dots and lines
+had a different meaning. On this assumption, the two, three, etc.,
+horizontally placed would mean either one, two, three, etc., or some
+higher figures, leaving the vertically placed ones to take their place
+as one, two, three, etc. I assume that the vertical ones were the
+beginning. The Maya system was a vigesimal one, that is, a counting by
+twenties. Every new twenty, therefore, would be represented by a new
+symbol. Referring to the table, it will be seen that the dots and lines
+vertically placed and combined carry the table easily to nineteen,
+that is, a dot beside the five line gives six, two five lines give
+ten, three, fifteen, while the addition of the dots carries the count
+quite naturally to the nineteen. It is now necessary to adopt a sign
+for twenty, and there have been adopted by various authors as many
+various signs, with several variants in each lot. Once settle on a
+symbol for twenty, and the road is easy to twenty-nine by placing the
+dots and lines horizontally. Thomas gives this figure [symbol] for
+twenty,[75] but I do not believe it is twenty, and for convenience will
+adopt this [symbol]. Then to get twenty-one it would be simple for the
+Maya to put a little cross on each side of the dot, that is above and
+below, [symbol]. This figure is frequent, and it is varied sometimes
+by this [symbol], and by this [symbol], which Brinton assumes all to
+be variants of twenty. I take it they are variants of twenty-one and
+twenty-two, or of one and two. Running down to twenty-nine by means of
+the dots and lines, we arrive at the necessity for a new symbol for
+forty, and I take a common symbol in the inscriptions, [symbol]. To
+follow precisely the method indicated by progress thus far, we would
+put a dot inside of this for forty-one, but the Maya does not seem to
+have done this, but made a slight change, perhaps to avoid confusion,
+and he put the dot outside and to the left, [symbol]. Four of these
+dots make forty-four, and then forty-five is represented by a straight
+line vertically within. Dots now outside as before carry to forty-nine,
+when a vertical line replacing the dots gives fifty. Adding dots again
+as before leads to fifty-four, while doubling the lines with the dots
+produces all figures up to fifty-nine, [symbol]. Then once more a new
+character is needed to go on, and one is chosen that is very common
+in the Dresden Codex, occurring in a number of different forms. It
+is this [symbol] in its simple form. Thomas takes it in this form
+[symbol] for naught, and Försteman for the same numeral in this form
+[symbol]. The difference between these two is immediately apparent,
+and it seems that both these able investigators have made a mistake in
+this respect. It is as if some future investigator should give as our
+naught the figure 6 and the figure 9. The simple form is possibly one
+of the chief Maya numerals and the enclosed lines give it the necessary
+differentiation. Some change occurs again here, in the system I have
+attempted to outline. There are used lines instead of dots, though dots
+also were used, and the horizontal line does not appear to have been
+doubled; at least I have been unable to find an example of it, though,
+as the number of manuscripts is limited, I could hardly expect to find
+examples of all the figures in them. The carved inscriptions being, as
+is believed, older than the manuscripts, there would be a difference
+between the numerals in them and in the books. But we will take the
+simple character [symbol] for, say, sixty. It may be mentioned again
+that these selections and their order are merely tentative. Only by
+long study might the matter be determined. Adding lines transversely
+as found in the Dresden Codex, we arrive easily at sixty-four.
+Following the previous system, a horizontal line with an upward curve
+then gives [symbol] sixty-five, and transverse lines again take us
+to sixty-nine. A horizontal line with a down curve produces seventy
+[symbol]. Seventy-four would then be [symbol], and as the horizontal
+line seems not to have been doubled we are forced to choose another
+character for seventy-five [symbol]. A down curved horizontal line
+then gives seventy-six [symbol], while for seventy-seven an entirely
+new form is used. The reversal of seventy-five and seventy-six carries
+to seventy-nine. The cross lines in some cases appear to have been
+used up to sixty-seven. There are so many different figures of this
+kind that it is possible they were used interchangeably in some cases.
+For eighty a new figure is required, and I have selected one that
+occurs frequently in the Dresden book, in shape something like a bow,
+[symbol]. A series of dots readily carries to eighty-four, and then the
+substitution of a line like a bow-string gives eighty-five [symbol].
+The next step at ninety would be to double this bow-string, but this
+seems not to have been done, as I can find no example of it. But I do
+find a differentiation in another way, probably because in this figure
+doubling the string would be clumsy. The difference is made by a rider
+on the string, and there are two kinds of rider, one a point or
+triangle, and the other a double square. Taking one of these riders for
+ninety, and then the dots beside it, we find ourselves at ninety-four
+[symbol]. Then with the other rider on the string for ninety-five we
+arrive by means of the dots at ninety-nine [symbol]. Then comes a
+demand for a character for one hundred, and this appears to have been
+merely a circle. A dot beside it would give 101, and so on by adding,
+out or in, the various symbols 199 is reached. To get to 299 it is only
+necessary to add another circle. For 500 some other symbol must be
+adopted, and the apparent one is a sort of circle with a kind of scarf
+knot at the top, or perhaps it can be described as a knotted scarf,
+[symbol]. Taking this as 500 we can easily arrive [symbol] at 599.
+An extra circle within will then carry to [symbol] 699, and so on by
+adding circles up to 1000. Thomas in one of his admirable discussions
+of Maya writing[76] is puzzled by what he terms ornamental loops around
+some of the numerals, but if the line I have indicated here has any
+sense in it these ornamental loops would be 602, 604, etc., or some
+other numbers depending on the proper place for this symbol in the
+general scheme. The series of “loops” mentioned by Thomas is this:
+
+                             [Illustration]
+
+Something might be determined by a comparison of these symbols with the
+known names of numbers. The Mayas counted into the millions, so they
+must have had a perfected system.
+
+[Illustration: A SUGGESTION OF THE POSSIBLE SCHEME OF MAYA NUMERALS.
+  WHOLLY TENTATIVE
+
+  Founded on figures in the codices and on tablets
+
+  From drawing by the author
+]
+
+[Illustration OMAHA CALUMET]
+
+
+
+
+                     [Illustration: OMAHA WAR CLUB]
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                          BASKETRY AND POTTERY
+
+
+Almost every tribe the world round seems to have acquired at a very
+early stage in its progress a knowledge of plaiting rushes, strips
+of bark, or other simple substances, for use as beds, covering of
+shelters, etc., and in this knowledge may be discovered the beginnings
+of several arts of the first importance to man: basketry, weaving,
+and pottery. Basketry and pottery are mother and daughter. Plaiting
+together straws or rushes was a simple operation and must have occurred
+to the most primitive tribes spontaneously as the need for some such
+thing arose. Having produced a mat and used it for various purposes,
+the turning up of the sides, or edges, for the purpose of retaining
+things upon it, thereby producing a shallow basket or tray, was an
+easy step, and by such stages did basketry grow to perfection.[77] The
+Amerinds excelled particularly in this art, and there were few tribes
+without ability to make baskets and other wicker-work, the character
+and excellence of which depended to a considerable extent on the
+material available.
+
+Wicker jugs, rendered water-tight by means of pitch, were invented and
+used for cookery, hot stones being introduced through the wide mouth,
+to bring the contents to the required temperature, and it was the
+effort to protect the basketry used in the various culinary operations
+from the effects of the heat that led to coatings of mud or clay,
+which being hardened by the fire, disclosed the great secret. There
+is still in use among some of the more primitive tribes of America a
+“boiling-basket,” that is, a wicker jug rendered waterproof, and in
+which food is cooked as indicated. In Zuñi this basket was known as a
+“coiled cooking basket,” and the corrugated earthen pot used to this
+day is called a “coiled earthenware cooking basket.” And the Navajos
+still call earthenware pots, “kle-it-tsa” or mud-basket. In these
+terms is seen a clear indication of the origin of pottery among the
+Amerinds in basketry. Cushing found these boiling-baskets in use a few
+years ago among the Havasupai, who live an isolated life in northern
+Arizona, and I saw similar jugs among the Amerinds of Utah twenty years
+ago, and some more recently among the Moki, the latter, however, not
+using them for boiling purposes, and perhaps not being the makers of
+them. They are bottle-shaped, but with wide mouths, and provided near
+their rims with a sort of cord or strap for a handle attached to two
+loops or eyes. In some of the pots derived from this form these loops
+are represented by little knobs of clay, or by an ornament.
+
+[Illustration: NORTH-WEST COAST FEATHER ORNAMENTATION ON BASKETS]
+
+[Illustration: TINNÉ WORK-BASKET]
+
+[Illustration: MOKI WICKER WATER-JUG ]
+
+[Illustration: HAVASUPAI CLAY-LINED ROASTING TRAY]
+
+Cushing describes the Havasupai in Arizona as using a wicker tray lined
+with clay for the purpose of roasting or parching seeds, and this
+was probably used by all primitive peoples. The seeds were placed on
+the clay-lined tray and agitated with live coals. Naturally the clay
+is hardened by the heat of the coals, and would be sure to suggest
+the making of utensils from it by means of fire. The turning up of
+the edges would follow the use of the first trays made of clay, in
+imitation of wicker bowls, and so would other forms of basketry be
+imitated, as well as forms in horn, wood or shell. Perhaps the wicker
+jugs may have been coated with clay on the outside for protection, and
+eventually the heat not only baked the clay but destroyed the wicker
+framework that had supported it. Thus jugs of clay may have been made
+by burning away the framework every time, just as Lamb’s discoverer of
+roast pig could find no other way of securing his toothsome morsel than
+that of burning down the house. Or the jar may have been modelled on
+the inside and then the wicker burned off. When we speak contemptuously
+of primitive peoples it is well to remember that they were inventors as
+well as ourselves.
+
+[Illustration: IROQUOIS BIRCHBARK VESSEL
+
+  NORTH-WEST COAST BASKET
+]
+
+When the art of pottery was discovered basketry remained in use, for
+pottery could not take its place in many uses then any more than it can
+to-day. The environment and habits of a tribe controlled the amount,
+the quality, the character, of both basketry and pottery. A tribe
+possessing plenty of good clay would make more and better pottery than
+one finding clay difficult to acquire, provided both had reached the
+same degree of proficiency in this art, but mere abundance of good
+clay would not necessarily make skilful potters; that is, the degree
+of progress in culture of a tribe and other factors of environment
+than the presence or absence of good clay in quantity had much to do
+with pottery-making. For example, the Pueblos and the Navajos occupy
+the same kind of a region, or rather the same region, with plenty of
+clay and a similar abundance of yucca, willows, etc., for basketry,
+yet the Pueblos carried pottery-making to a high degree of excellence,
+while the Navajos produced only a limited amount of inferior ware. Nor
+is this a matter of intelligence, for the Navajos are as intelligent
+as any Amerinds living, and besides, as has been mentioned, probably
+have a strong infusion of Pueblo blood. While the Navajos have gone
+farther in silver- and iron-smithing, they have lagged behind in
+pottery and house-building. So it is also with basketry. While the
+Pueblos no longer make boiling-baskets or jugs, or at least, if they
+do occasionally make them, they do not use them for cooking purposes,
+yet they produce some fine trays and bowls.[78] Inclination and fancy,
+as well as necessity, have much to do with the development of the
+arts. Tribes might attain a wonderful development politically, like
+the Iroquois, and yet possess hardly any proficiency in any art, while
+others, like the Navajos, with scarcely any political development,
+possess high artistic skill in weaving and metal-working, but none in
+pottery. Great in war and government the Iroquois certainly were, but
+they had not reached the border line of artistic development. Neither
+weavers, potters, nor builders were they (though Bandelier maintains
+that their long-house was as difficult of construction as any house
+the Pueblos build), and, outside of the idea of the league, their
+government was not much superior to that of the Pueblos. Their pottery,
+limited in quantity, was very inferior to that of many other Amerinds.
+It is probable that following the line of race development they would
+eventually have produced excellent ware, but the iron pot made its
+appearance and progress in pottery was doomed. On the North-west coast
+little or no pottery is found. Quality and quantity increase as we
+approach Yucatan.
+
+[Illustration: MᶜCLOUD RIVER BASKET, CALIFORNIA]
+
+Tribes with unfavourable environment would find it next to impossible
+to acquire skill in pottery. The Eskimo, with a temperature for the
+greater part of the year near or below freezing, and a scarcity
+of fuel, would find moulding forms out of wet clay about the last
+occupation to think of. The Eskimo, therefore, made almost nothing of
+clay except occasionally a lamp.[79] The Kutchins of the Yukon country
+make pots and cups of clay, but in the main the Far Northern people
+rely on basketry, soapstone, and on metallic vessels obtained from the
+whites. Nor is the North land entirely favourable to basketry, yet
+the Aleut basket-work is exceedingly fine in texture, some of their
+productions being almost a cloth. This is specially true of baskets
+made on the island of Attu of the Aleutian chain. These are usually
+cylindrical, sometimes fitted with a cover of the same material. So
+soft and pliable are they that they can barely sustain an upright
+position. This fine texture is a characteristic of all the basketry of
+the North-west coast, but there is not much variety in form and the
+artistic shapes so common with the Amerinds southward of the Columbia
+are absent. The decorations are similar to those of other Amerinds and
+are woven in with quills, grasses, feathers, bits of silk, or worsteds,
+appropriately coloured. In the interior of the Northern lands, the
+Kniks and others make a substitute for baskets out of thin boards
+steamed and bent around a flat bottom piece which fits into a groove
+in the board. It is fastened in place with split roots or skin thongs.
+Among the Eskimo sealskin cups and buckets are used, and some made of
+whalebone, but they also make a basket out of coiled grasses, which is
+artistic and has a variety of interesting forms. East of Point Barrow
+baskets are rare. Birchbark vessels of various kinds were used by many
+tribes as substitutes for baskets, and doubtless some forms in pottery
+were derived from these vessels as well as from baskets. Some tribes
+made pottery and then, as circumstances changed, they abandoned its use
+and finally forgot how to make it. Dorsey states that “pottery has not
+been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The art of making it
+has been forgotten by the tribe.”[80]
+
+[Illustration: MOKI FOOD BASKET.]
+
+[Illustration: KLAMATH BASKET.]
+
+Various conditions might cause a tribe to cease making pottery, if
+it were not a sedentary tribe. One constantly on the move would
+either never learn to make pottery, or if, during some sedentary
+period, it had acquired this art it would soon drop it, because in
+primitive travel basketry and gourds are lighter and more serviceable
+than the crude pottery they could produce. Thus if a tribe living a
+comparatively quiet life and developing the potter’s art came into
+possession of the horse, the pottery might be abandoned because it
+could not readily be transported. This would apply only to tribes
+making rude pottery, for where a people had attained great proficiency
+in this direction they would not give it up, except, as in the case
+of Taos, they could purchase nearby a sufficient supply. Proficiency
+would only accompany a sedentary life, so that great skill in pottery
+would be a rather sure index of the character and progress of a
+people in other directions. While a people might achieve progress
+without doing much in pottery, if they did excel in pottery it
+would be an indication of excellence in other lines. Pottery is
+well-nigh imperishable, and therefore it is often the chief record
+that a departed people has left behind. Where almost every other
+distinguishing vestige has completely disappeared, we may frequently
+still discover scattered on the surface fragments of pottery, or buried
+in the soil complete specimens, which by their form, texture, or
+decorative treatment tell what manner of people these were who lived
+their lives and passed away; tell the limits of their distribution,
+and also to what other tribes or people they were related. Pottery
+therefore, next to actual records and inscriptions, is probably the
+most valuable as well as often the only kind of remains, that a race
+has left.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI FOOD TRAY.]
+
+[Illustration: MOKI FLOOR MAT.]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO WHALEBONE DISH]
+
+[Illustration: CLALLAM BASKET, WASHINGTON.]
+
+[Illustration: AMERIND WICKER-WORK
+
+  APACHE BASKET.
+
+  PAI UTE WATER-JUG.
+
+  MOKI FOOD TRAY.
+
+  KLAMATH BASKET.
+
+  For an excellent review of this subject, see “Basket-work of the
+  North American Aborigines,” by Otis T. Mason, _Report of the U.
+  S. National Museum, Part II of the Report of the Smithsonian
+  Institution for 1884_.
+]
+
+European pottery has long received close attention from archæologists,
+but it is only within recent years that it has been thought worth
+while to study that of the Western continent. Like the other remains
+of the Amerinds, their pottery was not considered of much importance
+by archæologists, and while American money and talent were being
+bestowed upon the well-worked European field, our Amerind pottery was
+abandoned to the curiosity hunter. The artistic qualities of the Old
+World pottery fascinated the student, and this, together with a natural
+deep interest in peoples closely associated with our own past, served
+to obscure the real value of an investigation of the Amerind field for
+the information that might be disclosed concerning the character and
+distribution of Amerind tribes, for its bearing on the history of the
+ceramic art in general, as well as for its story of primitive effort
+and invention. Pottery is said to have been invented 2698 years +B.C.+
+by the Chinese emperor Hoang-ti, but of course it was made by some
+tribes long before this. Like every other art, it existed among some
+tribes, while other tribes had no knowledge of it. There was never
+a time, and there never will be a time, when all people possess an
+equal degree of information or skill, so that when something has been
+invented or discovered by one tribe or people it may have been in use
+for a long period by another. At the beginning of the Columbian era,
+most of the Amerinds knew how to make some kind of earthenware. Various
+methods were used in various places to produce the pottery. Some was
+modelled in baskets or on basket forms, right side up or up side down
+as happened to be necessary, some was modelled in a hole in the ground,
+or in the lap, and still other groups were produced by coiling round
+and round slender ropes of clay, which were afterwards smoothed off or
+not as suited the knowledge or desire of the potter. The progression
+in a general way was probably about this: 1. Made on the inside of
+a wicker form—confined chiefly to bowls; 2. Made on a netting in a
+mould hole; 3. Coil-made; 4. Free-hand modelling; 5. Wheel-made, which
+Amerinds appear never to have attained. There was doubtless no sharp
+line of separation between these various processes, but they merged
+into each other. The coil process was about the highest development of
+the Amerind potter’s skill, and it was in use all over the continent.
+As Holmes points out in his admirable paper,[81] the Pueblos are the
+only people who used the coil as a means of decoration as well as
+construction, so far as now known. All the other potters smoothed the
+coils off so that no trace eventually was left of them, and this is
+the practice of the modern Moki potters. They work by no special rule.
+According to my own observation, the making of pottery is a desultory
+occupation and is done by the women. Sometimes I saw a woman toiling
+alone with her ropes of clay, out-of-doors, and again several women
+would form a gay, laughing party in the sunlight. When the work is
+dry the painting and decorating are done by means of a little, long,
+string-like brush made of yucca fibre. This brush is like a piece of
+coarse twine, about three inches long, without a handle, very limber,
+and apparently entirely inadequate, yet they easily accomplished all
+they desired to do with it. In order to turn the work while in process
+of manufacture, and not injure it or destroy its shape, it is generally
+built upon a wicker tray. In this way it can be readily swung round and
+round, as the potter pays out the clay rope and adjusts it in place.
+This is the nearest approach to the potter’s wheel that seems ever to
+have been known on the American continent. While many shapes are based
+on some form in basketry, or wood, or horn, or shell, or bark, a great
+many are pure inventions, the result of fancy or inclination.
+
+In preparing the clay, sand or pulverised potsherds were mixed with it
+to temper it and prevent cracking. This was sometimes so coarse and
+abundant in the old pottery that in the fragments picked up one can
+frequently see large grains of sand.
+
+[Illustration: MODELLING AN OLLA AT HANO
+
+  The potter was not aware of being photographed
+
+  From photo by the author, 1884
+]
+
+[Illustration: CLAY NUCLEUS]
+
+[Illustration: METHOD OF BUILDING UP COIL]
+
+All pottery of primitive races belongs to the class known as _soft_
+pottery, as distinguished from what we call stoneware or _hard_
+pottery in its different forms. The Amerinds were no exception, and all
+their pottery is soft unglazed ware.[82] The reason for this lies in
+the fact that the making of hard pottery requires not only an extensive
+knowledge of the properties of clay, but, what is more, a temperature
+for firing of about 4000° Fahrenheit,—a temperature which can be
+obtained only in a furnace or retort, of which Amerinds were apparently
+ignorant, their pottery being burned, in historic and prehistoric
+times, in the open air. The common modern method among the Pueblos is
+to burn with sheep dung, but they are said to have used in ancient
+times deadwood, common wood, and coal. The method was usually the same
+in all cases; the ware was piled up and then covered with the fuel in
+such a manner that there would be as little as possible direct contact.
+They also sometimes baked the ware in hot ashes with a fire above, and
+sometimes they dug a pit which they lined with the fuel. A rich shiny
+black ware was obtained in some localities by allowing the ware to
+come in contact with the fuel and, at a certain period in the burning,
+smothering the fire. This produced an apparent glaze as well, an effect
+obtained also by rubbing and polishing before the firing. But there is
+no true glazing in any Amerind ware, at least not north of Mexico. Even
+had they known the process they would have been baffled in attempting
+to put it in practice, for glazing requires a temperature of at least
+1300° Fahrenheit, and they apparently had no means of securing it.[83]
+All of their ware can be scratched with a knife, which is a test of
+soft ware, and while some of it seems to have lustre, it is the lustre
+of polish, not of glaze. Some ware, however, recently found in the
+Central-American region appears to have a true glaze. Some tribes make
+a variety of kinds of ware, while others confine themselves to some
+special kind, and still others, as mentioned in the case of Taos, buy
+all they use and make none. The Pueblos to-day are extensive potters,
+especially the Zuñis and the Mokis, and produce large quantities of
+varied ware, which, while similar in many respects to that of the
+ancients of the region, is not so fine nor so well formed. At the
+Chaco ruins Pepper found a number of tube-shaped vases, about four
+inches diameter and a foot high, with four small perforated handles.
+In the course of time enormous quantities must have been made in the
+South-west, for the ground is everywhere strewn with fragments of it.
+This would indicate either a dense population or a very long occupation
+by a comparatively sparse one, and thus far the evidence is in favour
+of the latter hypothesis. In such a dry climate as exists in the
+South-west, even soft pottery is almost indestructible when not exposed
+to river or ice action. In such cases it would soon be destroyed.
+Though the Colorado River runs through the length of the ancient Pueblo
+country, and receives many branches whose valleys, like its own, reveal
+myriads of fragments, I never found a specimen in the river gravels.
+If this is the case, how could we expect to find remains of pottery in
+glacial drift?
+
+Another kind of pottery has lately been found by Lumholtz at
+Teuchitlan, State of Jalisco, Mexico. It is a sort of cloisonné,
+apparently made by firing the plain ware and then applying a thick
+slip which, when dry, was engraved with a pattern down to the baked
+surface. The parts cut away were then smoothly filled in with a white
+paste and with paste of other colours, producing some excellent
+effects. Another firing then fixed the superimposed paste.
+
+[Illustration: WARE FROM MOKI REGION, ARIZONA.]
+
+[Illustration: WARE FROM MOKI REGION, ARIZONA.]
+
+There are numerous specimens in the American Museum.
+
+[Illustration: CUP FROM ARIZONA.]
+
+[Illustration: VASE FROM ARKANSAS, SHOWING LINES MADE WITH A SHARP
+  POINT BEFORE FIRING.]
+
+The valley of the Mississippi is as prolific in its yield of pottery
+as the South-west, though most of it is found in mounds. It has
+therefore been attributed to a departed and mysterious race which has
+been called “Moundbuilder.” These mounds, however, were clearly the
+work of different tribes and were erected for different purposes, and
+there is no evidence to show that the builders were not Amerinds,
+similar to tribes that were encountered by our people. True, some of
+these tribes or stocks may have become extinct before whites entered
+the region, for tribes rose to power, dwindled, and disappeared, but
+that does not prove that they were anything but Amerinds, even though
+they may have developed qualities and arts not practised by Amerinds
+we have known. That there are some marked differences between some
+of the so-called Moundbuilder ware and some other Amerind pottery
+is freely admitted, but why this should indicate that there was any
+mystery about the former is not intelligible, for there are many
+differences in the products of existing tribes and stocks.[84] As has
+been mentioned, the Pueblos are extremely good potters, while their
+neighbours the Navajos practically are no potters at all. Had the
+Pueblos become extinct before the appearance of the European, what a
+fine chance this would have been to speculate on who these mysterious
+and departed people were who built superior houses of stone and made
+splendid pottery! Oh no, they could never have been common “Indians,”
+they must have been a migration from China, or Japan! Unfortunately for
+writers of the romantic school, the Pueblo is still there, and he is an
+ordinary Amerind, in some ways hardly as intelligent as his neighbour
+who makes no pottery and builds no houses. There is no reason, then,
+for assuming that there was anything extraordinary about any of the
+former occupants of the Mississippi valley. They were, at least some of
+them were, skilful potters, and some had sense enough to dig out copper
+and hammer it into shapes; but what is there in this that should lead
+us to exalt them above other Amerinds? Progress in the arts may vary
+among associated stocks, and also among different branches of the same
+stock. In the Mississippi-valley pottery there was a tendency toward
+upright bottle-shaped vessels with long necks, while the tendency of
+the Pueblo ware is in the direction of the bowl. There are also long
+tray-like vessels in the Mississippi valley, which do not occur at all
+amongst the Pueblo ware, and there are more animal shapes, birds, etc.
+A series of the Mississippi-valley forms suggests a knowledge of the
+wheel, but it is not likely that they had it, though it is possible.
+Anyone who has watched the progress of a common jug turning on one
+of our potter’s wheels, must be struck by the series of fine shapes
+the lump of clay passes through before assuming its last form. Such
+a progression appears in the Mississippi valley ware, but these jars
+were all probably made by the “coil” process, which was still in use in
+the Mississippi valley after the advent of our people. Holmes states
+positively: “The wheel or lathe has not been used.”[85] The pottery
+of Chiriqui, a province near Panama, is remarkable for perfection of
+finish and execution and a similar suggestion of mechanical aids. In
+this case Holmes says: “Notwithstanding the fact that only primitive
+methods were known, The high-necked Moundbuilder bottle is rarely
+found in other parts of the United States, but it occurs in Mexico and
+in South America. Ladles, common in Pueblo ware, are of rare occurrence
+in that of the Moundbuilders, while rectangular box-like vessels are
+found, which, though rare, are of wide distribution. One remarkable
+object found in Tennessee is an earthenware burial casket formed of two
+parts, a body and a lid, and it still bears marks of the baking. It
+contains the remains of a small child, reduced to dust, except portions
+of the skull and limbs; and two or three dozen small shell beads. It
+weighs altogether 12¼ pounds. Another peculiar vessel was shaped like a
+shallow trough, with a flat lip or projection at each end. While there
+was undoubtedly in all tribes a certain progression of forms based on
+those of basketry, etc., as before noted, it must not be forgotten that
+there is a parallelism with wheel-made ware that cannot but strike the
+student with amazement. So great is the symmetry and so graceful are
+the shapes that one is led to suspect the employment of mechanical
+devices of a high order.”[86]
+
+[Illustration: BOTTLE-SHAPED VASE, ARKANSAS.]
+
+The high-necked Moundbuilder bottle is rarely found in other parts
+of the United States, but it occurs in Mexico and in South America.
+Ladles, common in Pueblo ware, are of rare occurrence in that of the
+Moundbuilders, while rectangular box-like vessels are found, which,
+though rare, are of wide distribution. One remarkable object found
+in Tennessee is an earthenware burial casket formed of two parts, a
+body and a lid, and it still bears marks of the baking. It contains
+the remains of a small child, reduced to dust, except portions of the
+skull and limbs; and two or three dozen small shell beads. It weighs
+altogether 12¼ pounds. Another peculiar vessel was shaped like a
+shallow trough, with a flat lip or projection at each end. While there
+was undoubtedly in all tribes a certain progression of forms based on
+those of basketry, etc., as before noted, it must not be forgotten that
+the Amerind, like all other human beings, did some things from pure
+inspiration or invention and with no previous model of any kind.
+
+[Illustration: EARTHEN WARE BURIAL CASKET, TENNESSEE.]
+
+The Mississippi valley, according to Holmes, may be divided into three
+districts as far as the pottery is concerned: the upper, the middle,
+and the lower districts. This would seem to indicate as many different
+tribes or stocks, or even different periods of occupancy by either the
+same stock or by different stocks. The most northerly examples are
+the rudest and most different from the others. Some of the pottery
+that is advanced as showing a skill in sculpture not possessed by
+Amerinds of the North can be explained in another way than by assuming
+that the makers were different from other Amerinds of the Mississippi
+valley as we have known them. As I pointed out elsewhere,[87] these
+head-shaped vases are death-masks.[88] It does not require a second
+look at the illustration below to see that the features are those of
+death reproduced in a manner that no aboriginal potter could possibly
+accomplish by free-hand method. “Here we look on a face perfect in its
+proportions, accurately modelled, and, above all, depicting death with
+a master-hand; yes, more, presenting to the spectator death itself as
+it seized this personage in the long-forgotten past. Here is death
+present with us as plainly as it is in the well-preserved features of
+an Egyptian mummy.... Soft clay was pressed upon the dead features, and
+when sufficiently dry it was removed and other soft clay thinly pressed
+into the mould obtained. The mask thus made was built upon till the
+jar before us was completed.... The interior of the wall follows the
+exterior closely except in projecting features. The potter, finding
+it difficult as well as unnecessary, to work the clay evenly into the
+projections of the mould, filled them up more or less solidly.” This
+vase is five inches in height and five inches wide from ear to ear.
+It is open at the top, and has a perforated knob over the middle of
+the forehead, perhaps for attaching a head-dress, and the ears are
+perforated. These holes also would permit cords to be attached, by
+which the jar could be hung, probably in a dead-house where the body of
+the deceased original was laid. It has been stated that the features
+exhibited in this vase are not “Indian,” but there seems to be no
+ground for such a statement. The features are apparently those of an
+Amerind boy fourteen or sixteen years of age.
+
+[Illustration: DEATH-MASK VASE, TENNESSEE.]
+
+Of the basketry of the Mississippi valley there are, of course, no
+ancient specimens. Wicker-work would not last long in that climate;
+but there must have been baskets and plaited implements of various
+kinds, because people do not make pottery without passing through the
+basketry stage. The Amerinds of that region also made good baskets when
+first met with, and we know that they did some fairly good weaving both
+in ancient and modern times. Some of the ancient fabrics have been
+preserved in the mounds by contact with copper, by being charred, and
+in other ways, and the ingenuity of Holmes has given us fac-similes of
+some of the old netting.[89] He noticed curious markings on certain
+fragments of pottery, and took clay casts of them, thus producing
+positive from negative, and revealing the fact that the peculiar
+markings were the impressions of fabrics. He believes these fabrics
+were impressed on the ware for purposes of ornament, and while this may
+in some instances have been the reason, in my opinion, the chief object
+of the netting that made the impression was to lift the freshly made
+jar out of a hole or a wicker form where it had been modelled. Very
+early pottery was doubtless built on or in wicker-work—that is, early
+in the practice of any particular tribe. This was specially the case
+with the Amerinds of the Atlantic coast, as is plainly indicated in the
+casts made by Holmes from fragments of pottery from that region. “The
+earlier potters probably used baskets that came up to the curved-in
+part of the jar, which was continued above the basket by deft handling,
+or, if a basket of the same form was followed, the basket was destroyed
+in the firing process. This would seem to the modern mind a great
+waste of time and material, but it must be remembered that the Indian
+potter had not learned modern haste, and besides could turn up a coarse
+basket in a very short time. Therefore it does not seem improbable that
+he may, in the early stages, have modelled his jar on the _inside_
+of a basket frame of similar form and then allowed the basket to be
+consumed in the baking process when it could not be separated from the
+vessel. Even when he developed to a point beyond and modelled the upper
+portions with a free hand, he would find great trouble in separating
+his jar from its framework. What, therefore, would be the following
+step? It seems to me it would have been the placing between the clay
+and the mould of a piece of netting, which would permit him to lift
+out his jar easily and intact, and transport it to the drying place.
+He would then speedily discover that his basket was not necessary—was
+not so serviceable, in fact, as a hole in the ground, for the sides of
+the hole could be plastered with a layer of very sandy clay, and thus
+would all sticking of the vessel to its mould be avoided. The netting,
+or fabric, having been spread as evenly as possible over the inside
+surface of the mould hole, the upper edges were allowed to lie out upon
+the ground. The soft clay being now pressed evenly upon the fabric to
+the required thickness, the sandy surface of the mould hole easily gave
+it shape, and gave the potter no anxiety about the outside surface.
+Indeed, he had but one surface to watch till he came to the in-curve,
+if his vessel was to have a narrow mouth. Then, I surmise, he built
+up roughly a clay mould, well sanded, pressing what was left of his
+fabric into the inside of this mould as he built his vessel upward.
+Frequently, doubtless, the fabric was not sufficient to go to the
+top, which explains why sometimes only a part of a jar shows the cord
+markings.... The distorting and overlapping of the meshes observed by
+Holmes were probably due to the gathering in to fit the interior of the
+mould, for it must be borne in mind that the fabric was not shaped in
+any way to fit the mould, but was doubtless a fragment of some squarely
+woven article. Thus gathering and overlapping were necessary to make it
+conform to the inside surface of the mould....”
+
+[Illustration: FLUTED VASE, ARKANSAS.]
+
+[Illustration: IMPRESSION OF PARTS OF BASKET MOULD ON POTTERY]
+
+“When coarse basketry was used for a mould that was intended to
+be removed before firing, the interstices of the basket work were
+probably rubbed full of a mixture of sand and clay to prevent the
+finished vessel from sticking or catching, which explains, I think,
+the peculiarity of design in some cases, for only the more prominent
+features of the basket work would impress the vessel.... In some kinds
+of basketry more filling was necessary than in others, which explains
+the frequent greater separation and irregularity of the markings.”[90]
+
+It seems, then, that the pottery of the Atlantic region was very rude
+and was modelled chiefly on wicker moulds, and was not abundant[91];
+that the lower Mississippi valley and the South-west were the
+regions within the United States where pottery attained its highest
+development; that as one proceeds northward pottery diminishes in
+quantity and in quality till it disappears; and that in a southerly
+direction it increases in abundance and in excellence of manufacture
+and artistic design. The pottery area is fan-shaped, with Central
+America for a handle. This would all appear to indicate that the
+pottery wave rolled up from the Far South, and that the Moundbuilders
+and the Pueblos acquired their art from that direction, or brought
+it north as they came on the retreat of the cold. Attempts have been
+made to connect the Pueblos with the Moundbuilders, and both with the
+Aztecs, but there is no good evidence now known which substantiates
+any such claim. Even if they did come from the South, it does not
+make a mystery nor does it necessarily prove any direct relationship
+between these branches of the Amerind race. Those nearest the great
+culture centre acquired most culture, hence the farther north the less
+pottery. The homogeneity of the Amerinds was due to causes operating
+on this continent at a very early period, and the same causes may
+explain why the Moundbuilder, the Pueblo, and the Southern stocks were
+good potters, while the Algonquins, the Dakotas, the Athapascans, and
+other Northern stocks were so inferior in this respect, while not being
+inferior in others.[92]
+
+[Illustration: VASE FROM CHIRIQUI. DECORATED IN BLACK, RED, AND PURPLE]
+
+The Aztecs, Zapotecs, Mayas, and other people of the Mexican region
+were expert potters; and it was in this region that working in clay,
+like everything else, was carried to the highest degree of perfection
+on this continent, and where evidence is found of seemingly true glaze.
+Not only ordinary pottery of beautiful shapes and excellent texture
+was made, but large funeral vases of elaborate form, terra-cotta
+water-pipes, and terra-cotta figures, some of them of almost or
+quite life size. Saville recently found some of these funeral jars
+and terra-cotta figures in the Zapotec country, south of the city of
+Mexico, in the province of Oaxaca, and there are specimens in the
+Museum of Natural History in New York. The principal terra-cotta figure
+he found is thus described by Saville[93]: “Another trench was started
+at the eastern side of this mound, and after working down to the level
+of the surrounding fields near the centre of the mound just back of the
+tomb, there were found the scattered fragments of what will be, when
+restored, the largest specimen of terra cotta ever found in America,
+and I do not know of so large a specimen ever having been found
+elsewhere. It represented a warrior, and the different pieces of the
+figure were scattered over a space of about fifteen feet. The central
+fragment was the head, upper torso, and right arm, lying face upward;
+the open mouth revealed the teeth painted white and filed, as in the
+case of the funeral urns. The eyes were well modelled and painted white
+and red; the head was covered with a turban of feathers, somewhat
+resembling the head-dress of Chac Mol, found by Dr. Le Plongeon in
+Yucatan. A closely cropped beard covered the lower portion of the face,
+the upper part being pitted as though marked by smallpox. The ears had
+curious circular ornaments pendent by a string passed through holes
+pierced in the lobes. The nose was ornamented with a long cylindrical
+bead attached by a string fastened at the top and bottom through
+the septum. The breast was painted red and white and additionally
+ornamented with curious designs made by circular indentations. The
+legs, which lay quite separated from the body, were bare, and the feet
+were covered with sandals having beautiful heel-pieces. Around each
+ankle was a line of bells. Both the toe- and the finger-nails were
+painted white; the right arm, bent at an angle, grasped a pole or staff
+of which about a foot remained. These fragments are now in the Museo
+Nacional, City of Mexico. The entire length of the figure, according
+to measurements made of the detached pieces, was nearly, if not quite,
+six feet.”
+
+[Illustration: AN ANCIENT FIGURE OF TERRA COTTA FROM THE VALLEY OF
+  MEXICO
+
+  The height of this figure is 150.9 cm. Breadth of shoulders, 46.0 cm.
+
+  From photograph by American Museum of Natural History
+]
+
+[Illustration: COIL INDENTED FOR DECORATION]
+
+The specimen now in the New York Museum, page 113, is about five feet
+in height, and while, artistically, it is crude, it exhibits great
+skill in the potter’s art. The walls are thin and it must have taken
+much labour to build the figure and successfully file it. It is in
+three parts. There are also in the Museum several of the funeral urns
+found in this locality. They are about fifteen or twenty inches high
+and skilfully made. These urns were found “in series of five in front
+of tombs, on the roof, or fastened into the façade.” They are usually
+of grotesque design like most of the Amerind figures, and evidently
+represent personages arrayed in the regalia of certain orders or
+societies, or possibly the same personage in his various offices, or
+attended by representations of other officers of some society to which
+he belonged. Saville says of one group: “Resting directly on the cement
+floor at the centre of the mound were five large funeral urns, page
+115, representing seated figures, placed in a row facing west. The
+urn in the centre has a remarkably well-modelled face, undoubtedly a
+portrait of some ancient Zapotecan personage. The two on either side
+are of the same general size and character, with the exception of the
+face, which is covered with a mask in the form of a grotesque face,
+possibly the conventionalised serpent, as the bifurcated tongue is
+one of the most prominent characteristics.”[94] These are some of the
+most important terra-cotta productions ever found on this continent.
+Some terra-cotta tubing also found at this place is unique. Saville
+says: “No such terra-cotta tubing has ever been discovered elsewhere
+in Mexico, and a new problem is therefore presented.” One end of this
+tubing was three feet below the surface in a field, while the other
+was in the mound excavated. “It was laid in short sections, of varying
+length, one end being smaller than the other, the small end of one
+tube being fitted into the large end of the next, page 117. Several
+of the joints still preserved the cement with which they were made
+tight. The exploration did not reveal the use of the pipe.” The fact,
+however, that the tubes were so carefully fitted into each other with,
+apparently, the joinings all on the down slope, that is, connected
+in such a way that water would flow continuously without waste, and
+that the joints were made tight with cement, is good evidence that
+these pipes were laid for conducting water. It seems probable that
+this tubing was a part of some water-supply or irrigating scheme,
+which had been abandoned before the mound covering a part of it was
+constructed. As the valley where these interesting finds were made, as
+well as neighbouring valleys, contain many more mounds, it is probable
+that the future exploration of them will produce much more material
+of value. If the terra-cotta tubing had a mythological significance
+it will be found in other mounds, and if it belonged to an irrigating
+scheme, or water-works, it will be explained by other finds. Effigy
+jars were not confined to Mexico, for they are found in various parts
+of the United States, especially in Tennessee, but they are nowhere
+anything like those described from the Zapotec country. The Tennessee
+specimens artistically and mechanically are exceedingly crude, as are
+all attempts to delineate the human figure by the northerly Amerinds.
+Some of the most elaborate and at the same time artistic forms in
+Amerind pottery are found in Chiriqui,[95] a province just below
+Costa Rica. The old occupants of this region seem to have excelled in
+metal-working, stone-carving, and pottery, and probably in other arts
+the products of which are of a more destructible nature. As the line of
+demarkation between the North- and South-American cultures runs along
+the southern side of Nicaragua, practically on the line of the proposed
+Nicaragua Canal, the consideration of the Chiriqui products should
+belong perhaps with the South-American division, but being above the
+isthmus, they may be mentioned here for the sake of comparison. “The
+casual observer,” says Holmes, “would at once arrive at the conclusion
+that the wheel or moulds had been used, but it is impossible to detect
+the use of any such appliances.” And further: “On the exposed surfaces
+of certain groups of ware the polish is in many cases so perfect that
+casual observers and inexperienced persons take it for a glaze.”[96]
+There was extraordinary variety in this ware. There are whistles,
+drums, rattles, round vases with necks and without necks; vases of
+simple and vases of complex form; vases and jars with elaborate
+handles; vases with annular bases or feet; and vases with short or
+long legs, three in number generally. This field is so rich that it is
+practicable to give here only a suggestion of what it affords, and the
+reader is referred to the admirable paper by Holmes.[96]
+
+[Illustration: ZAPOTECAN TERRA-COTTA FUNERAL URNS FOUND ON CEMENT
+  FLOOR IN FRONT OF TOMB 1, MOUND 7, XOXO, OAXACA, MEXICO
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of Natural
+  History
+
+  From the _American Anthropologist_
+]
+
+[Illustration: POT SHOWING DIAGONAL GROOVES ACROSS THE LINES OF THE
+  COIL MADE BY THE HAND IN SMOOTHING UP. MANCOS CANYON, COLORADO]
+
+[Illustration: ZAPOTECAN TERRA-COTTA TUBING FOUND LEADING DOWN INTO A
+  FIELD FROM THE CENTRE OF MOUND 7, XOXO, OAXACA, MEXICO
+
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of Natural
+  History
+
+  From the _American Anthropologist_
+]
+
+[Illustration: PUEBLO POT. PATTERN PRODUCED BY OBLITERATING PINCH
+  MARKS.]
+
+[Illustration: PINCH-MARKED COIL]
+
+[Illustration: ENGRAVED WARE, ARKANSAS.]
+
+In the matter of decoration there is found a general similarity of
+methods in the different regions. Apparently the first decorations
+were the unavoidable result of methods of manufacture, whether moulded
+or coil-made. In the first instance the meshes of the wicker mould,
+or such part of them as could not easily be covered up with a sandy
+paste to prevent adhesion, impressed themselves upon the soft clay;
+or the fabric that was employed to remove the work from a mould made
+impressions upon the ware. If coil-made, the pinching of the clay rope
+into position left marks of the finger-tips and the finger-nails with
+a regularity that doubtless came to be admired and then modified to
+conform to fancy, and finally finger markings and other markings and
+indentations grew, especially in our South-west, into a regular system
+of decoration. The irregularity due to pinching the rope in place is
+less with the expert than it was with the primitive potters, and it
+is now smoothed off entirely with a “rib,” the left hand being placed
+opposite the pressure applied with the right.[97] In the earlier forms
+the fingers of the right hand held stiffly downward seem to have been
+used to even up the irregularity of the coils to some extent, as may be
+discerned in figure page 116, where there are diagonal grooves across
+the lines of the coil, evidently made, the left hand being inside the
+jar, by drawing the fingers of the right, or rather the forefinger
+braced against the others, diagonally upward upon the outer surface.
+The operation would be almost identical with the modern practice except
+that the fingers were used instead of a “rib.” Indentations were also
+made with a sharp instrument in a pattern, and another method seems
+to have been to smooth off all the pinch marks, except in certain
+areas that when left would form a pattern. Thus in the latter case the
+pattern was produced by a system of obliteration. In figure on page
+118, a vase from the Moki country, of the ancient Pueblo manufacture,
+shows this method of making a pattern by smoothing down pinch marks.
+To do this the pinch marks would intentionally be made with some
+regularity.
+
+[Illustration: ENGRAVED WARE, ARKANSAS.]
+
+[Illustration: BLACK CUP, CHIRIQUI.]
+
+Another method of ornamentation was that of scratching or engraving
+the ware after it had been fired. This is seen in figures on pages
+120 and 121, from Arkansas. Still another method of ornamentation was
+produced after the ware was smoothed to its finish, whether coil-made
+or not, by drawing on it with a point. An example of this is seen on
+page 103, also from Arkansas. The method that was most employed by the
+ancient Amerinds, and is used by those of to-day, as well as by most
+potters the world round, is colour. A slip or wash of fine clay was
+given to the ware, and polished and decorated in colours before firing.
+In this way many beautiful results were obtained in all the regions of
+North America. Almost every colour was used, but white, black, red,
+and yellow are most common. These pigments were laid on in a single
+wash, or were applied in more or less elaborate patterns. The Pueblos,
+ancient and modern, have produced an astonishing variety of designs,
+and the same may be said of the Mexicans, Mayas, Zapotecs, Chiriquis,
+and other stocks of the South. A large volume could barely do justice
+to this subject, but enough has been given here to show the nature,
+distribution, and trend of pottery making by the Amerindian Tribes.[98]
+
+
+
+
+           [Illustration: WOVEN MOCCASIN FROM KENTUCKY CAVE]
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+                          WEAVING AND COSTUME
+
+
+The first article of dress of primitive people was not a woven stuff,
+but nevertheless weaving, like pottery, begins in plaiting and
+basketry, and is an ancient art. The first clothing, a necessity of
+climate, was made of skins of animals where they could be obtained, and
+where they could not primitive man walked in a state of nature. His
+desire for clothing was one purely of comfort; modesty, as we define
+it, was unknown. Modesty, so far as it relates to concealment of the
+body, is the child of climate and fashion. A Breton peasant girl does
+not mind if her legs are seen, but she is shocked if caught with her
+hair down or without her cap; one of our own ladies thinks nothing of
+exhibiting her bare shoulders and bosom at the opera under gaslight,
+but she would not do it in daylight. On the beach it would also be
+improper, but there she is not troubled if her lower extremities are
+seen. In some of the milder climates to-day clothing is scanty, while
+with the Eskimo in the Far North it is composed of warm furs. Cold was
+responsible for the first clothing, and is to-day responsible for a
+good deal of it. The idea of utilising feathers and broad leaves as
+well as skins would soon occur to a people, especially if they found it
+difficult to secure the skins, and with these some kind of a string was
+necessary to hold them together, and if no sinew or thong was at hand
+the want would be supplied by twisted grass or bark, and this twisted
+grass or bark then came itself to be combined in the form of mats for
+sleeping on or covering sticks to produce a shelter. This was plaiting,
+and it is the first step to basketry and weaving. Many of the simpler
+arts are native in the brain of man, and the expression of them at the
+proper time is as easy and natural as it is for a birdling to fly, a
+kitten to catch a mouse, or a baby to walk for the first time. It is,
+like sight, or thought, or articulate speech, a direct and unconscious
+result of the innate composition of mankind. It is impossible to tell
+why a spider builds a web of even proportions instead of one that
+is irregular, or when it acquired the skill to perform its feat of
+engineering, or why it builds a web at all, and does not, like a cat
+and some species of spiders, rely on springing upon its prey. The
+spider does this the world round because it is a spider, and because
+its prey also has, the world round, its own habits. So with man.
+Everywhere he learned to plait mats, make wicker-work and pottery, and
+a thousand other things simply because he was everywhere _the same
+man_. If you examine articles of primitive manufacture from various
+parts of the globe, you will find them all practically alike, because
+the men who made them were practically alike and their wants and
+surroundings were practically alike. They plaited together strips of
+bark or twisted grasses, or rushes, because they had to have them, and
+they went on finding out the properties of the materials that compose
+the world just as they are doing to-day, till they made cloth and made
+it on a machine. Primitive fabrics were everywhere about the same,
+and when the loom was invented it was and is, where still used in its
+primitive form, very much the same. That in use to-day by the Navajos
+is much like that used by the Orientals. The Navajos are probably not
+the inventors of it, but borrowed the idea from the Pueblos, or at
+least derived it through a mixture of Pueblo blood. Their cousins, the
+Apaches, do not weave, and they are probably better representatives of
+the original Athapascan stock than the Navajos.
+
+The Mexican loom was similar to that of the Navajos, and it is probable
+that some of the tribes of the Mississippi valley were acquainted with
+one built on a like pattern. The product of these primitive looms was
+also much alike in its character; some of the Oriental rugs that we see
+now strongly resemble the blankets of the Mexicans or Navajos.
+
+[Illustration: MENOMINEE BEADED GARTERS]
+
+This is because weaving is a simple art; and until the invention of the
+Jacquard principle complex patterns were produced only by great labour,
+as all the different colours had to be adjusted by hand, which is still
+the case in many fine products like the Turkish rugs or the shawls of
+Cashmere.
+
+The primitive products of the loom were square in shape, and when used
+as garments they were not cut to a pattern or altered, but were worn
+as they came from the loom. To make a dress, it was only necessary to
+fasten two of these mats or blankets together, just as the Moki women
+do now. This combination was then slipped over the head, with one
+corner on the right shoulder and one under the left, and a belt around
+the waist. This was the costume complete. There was no fitting the
+fabric to the body.
+
+Thread, cord, twine, and rope were made by the Menominees chiefly
+out of the “inner bark of the young sprouts of basswood. The bark is
+removed in sheets and boiled in water to which a large quantity of lye
+from wood ashes has been added. This softens the fibre and permits
+the worker to manipulate it without breaking. The shoulder-blade of
+a deer or other large animal is then nailed or otherwise fastened
+to an upright post, and through it a hole about an inch in diameter
+is drilled; through this hole bunches of the boiled bark are pulled
+backward and forward, from right to left, to remove from it all
+splinters or other hard fragments. After the fibre has become soft and
+pliable, bunches of it are hung up in hanks, to be twisted as desired.
+The manner of making cord or twine, such as is used in weaving mats and
+for almost all household purposes, is by holding in the left hand the
+fibre as it is pulled from the hank, and separating it into two parts,
+which are laid across the thigh. The palm of the right hand is then
+rolled forward over both so as to tightly twist the pair of strands,
+when they are permitted to unite and twist into a cord. The twisted
+end being pushed a little to the right, the next continuous portions
+of the united strands also are twisted to form a single cord. The same
+process is followed in all fibre-twisting, even to the finest nettle
+thread.”[99] In the matter of thread some fine results were obtained
+by various Amerinds. Holmes says: “The finest threads with which I
+am acquainted are perhaps not as fine as our number ten ordinary
+spool-cotton thread, but we are not justified in assuming that more
+refined work was not done.”[100] Sage-brush, yucca, and other plants
+were used for making thread and cord.
+
+[Illustration: NAVAJO WOMAN AT THE LOOM]
+
+In order to weave, it is first necessary to reduce your fibre, or
+wool, or cotton, to more or less even threads or yarn. The Amerind
+way of doing this was the same, practically, wherever spinning and
+weaving were attempted, from Central America northward. The spindle is
+a round, slender, pointed stick, a foot to about fifteen inches long,
+put through a disc, generally of flat, hard wood, four to six inches in
+diameter, which acts as a flywheel to keep up the momentum. It is the
+simplest form of top. The operator holds the wool or cotton, previously
+prepared, in his or her lap, and attaching one end of it to the top
+arm of the spindle, above the disc, gives the spindle a twirl, either
+by the thumb and forefinger or by a dexterous sweep of the palm of the
+hand along the thigh. The fibre, or wool, that was attached to the arm
+of it winds round till it reaches the tip, where it clings and takes
+on the rotary motion of the stick to which it is fast, being twisted
+thereby into yarn. It continues to spin with the spindle for some
+seconds, about fifteen or twenty, and when the momentum slackens below
+the necessary speed, the yarn thus far made is wound on the spindle
+and it is started afresh, with more wool paid out to the twisting. The
+operation is repeated over and over till the spindle is full, and it
+is surprising to see how rapidly it can be done. I have only seen this
+performed amongst the Moki, but the descriptions from other places
+show it to be done in about the same way everywhere. In the Mexican
+region the spindle-discs were made of pottery. In Nicaragua both wood
+and terra cotta were employed, and it is likely that wood was also
+used by some part of the people in Mexico and other places where the
+terra-cotta discs are now found.
+
+Weaving was not confined to the Pueblo and Mexican country when the
+whites first came to the continent, but was in vogue amongst many
+different tribes, who used various substances in the manufacture of
+rugs and blankets. Cotton amongst Southern and South-western tribes
+was a favourite material, and in other places hemp, and the hair of
+animals, and birds’ feathers were used. The Kwakiutls of the North-west
+coast “made blankets of mountain-goat wool, dog’s hair, feathers, or a
+mixture of both.”[101] And the tribes of Puget Sound and the Straits
+of Fuca “attained considerable skill in manufacturing a species of
+blanket from a mixture of the wool of the mountain sheep and the hair
+of a particular kind of dog, though in this art they never equalled
+the more northern tribes.”[102] It is extremely probable that some
+of the Pueblos, before the introduction of the sheep of Europe, used
+the hair or wool of a mountain sheep or goat for weaving, and it is
+possible that they had to some extent domesticated that animal or some
+similar one; at least they may have kept it imprisoned for its wool in
+much the same way that they now keep eagles for their feathers. Fray
+Marcos relates that one of the natives he met with in 1540 told him
+that the people of Totonteac made cloth, much like the garment he had
+on, from the hair of certain small animals. These animals have usually
+been supposed to have been dogs, but as the Northern Amerinds used
+mountain-goat’s wool, it is possible that the Pueblos, who were in
+advance of them in all that pertains to weaving, had not only succeeded
+in weaving such hair or wool garments, but had conceived the idea of
+holding the animals in captivity. It has been supposed by some that
+they had an animal of the vicuna kind. Terra-cotta images have been
+found in the Salado ruins of Arizona that are difficult to identify,
+and are believed by some zoölogists who have seen them to represent “a
+creature allied to the South-American Camellidæ.”[103]
+
+[Illustration: PART OF THE SOMAÍKOLI CEREMONY AT CICHUMOVI, NOVEMBER,
+  1884, SHOWING A SACRED BLANKET ON FIGURE IN FOREGROUND
+
+  From photograph by the author
+]
+
+“It has been surmised that such animals continued to be domesticated
+by the sedentary Indians of Arizona and New Mexico down to historic
+days and became extinct only when the more serviceable European sheep
+was introduced by the Spaniards.... Fossil bones of an animal of this
+family have been found in the South-west; but its bones were not
+identified in the Salado ruins.”[103]
+
+The Pai Utes made a garment of rabbit-skins which was very warm. The
+skins were twisted and attached one to another end and end, making a
+sort of fur rope, and this rope was tied in parallel lines, forming
+a kind of large cloak which was most serviceable in winter. Flax, or
+a plant closely allied to it, also grew wild all over Arizona and
+New Mexico, and was used for garments. The bark of the sagebrush was
+used to make cord and mats. Yucca also furnished a supply of valuable
+fibre. Cotton was grown by many of the Pueblos and is still cultivated
+by the Mokis, who manufacture a sacred blanket from it that is sought
+after at good prices by the Pueblos of other districts. It is a finely
+woven white blanket, with a broad red stripe transversely at each end.
+It is worn by women in the ceremonials. The Mokis are good weavers,
+using a loom similar to that employed by the Navajos. The Moki loom
+is generally set up in the kiva[104] where often there are permanent
+attachments for it, and there the men, who do all the weaving among
+this tribe, patiently execute their plans. Most of the Moki blankets
+are of low colours and simple design, dark blue being, with black, the
+favourite tint. The usual material is the wool of the European sheep,
+which has flourished among the Pueblos ever since it was introduced by
+the Spaniards. The sheep are herded on the plains during the day and at
+night are driven up the talus of the cliffs to corrals that lie just
+below the plateau on which the villages are built. The Navajos living
+in the surrounding country have far larger flocks than those of the
+Moki, and weave only wool. In fact, there are amongst the Navajos more
+than a million and a half head of sheep and goats. Most of the wool
+from these they usually sell to dealers at four or five cents a pound
+and then purchase for their blanket-work at high prices Germantown
+wools of brilliant colours, which colours they cannot obtain with their
+own dyes, though the colours they do secure are far more artistic.
+Formerly, to get the brilliant red of which they are so fond, they
+would buy a Mexican cloth, called _bayeta_, a sort of flannel, and
+ravel it, to reweave it in their blankets. The women do most of the
+weaving amongst the Navajos. The colours are usually bright, though
+the every-day serviceable blanket is of dark blue and white or black
+and white, or of the natural grey of the wool. The greater gaudiness
+of much of the Navajo work has given it a reputation of superiority
+to that of the Pueblo, which, in my opinion, is not wholly correct.
+Washington Matthews,[105] who has so carefully studied the subject,
+states that there is a constant deterioration in Pueblo weaving, which
+may be true in general, but hardly applies to the Moki. I have a sample
+of Moki work which, so far as weaving skill is concerned, is as fine
+as any Navajo work I have ever seen. The Moki do not turn out as much
+as the Navajo, because they are a far smaller tribe; and their product
+is dark, as a rule, in colour, as they use their own dyes, but its
+texture, and especially the texture of the sacred cotton blankets, is
+extremely fine, even finer and better as an example of weaving skill
+than many Navajo blankets. “In some Pueblos,” says Matthews, “the skill
+of the loom has been almost forgotten.”
+
+[Illustration: DETAILS OF NAVAJO LOOM CONSTRUCTION]
+
+The Navajo loom is set up anywhere and a shelter of boughs built over
+it. As the rainfall is light in the Navajo country, it is not necessary
+to provide permanent shelters. The loom is worth a careful description,
+and as I do not know of any better, or indeed so good as that given by
+Matthews, it is here quoted entire: “Two posts, a a, are set firmly
+in the ground; to these are lashed two cross pieces or braces, b c,
+the whole forming the frame of the loom. Sometimes two slender trees,
+growing at a convenient distance from one another, are made to answer
+for the posts, d is a horizontal pole, which I call the supplementary
+yarn-beam, attached to the upper brace, b, by means of a rope, e e,
+spirally applied, f is the upper beam of the loom. As it is analogous
+to the yarn-beam of our looms, I will call it by this name, although
+once only have I seen the warp wound around it. It lies parallel to
+the pole, d, about two or three inches below it, and is attached to
+the latter by a number of loops, g g. A spiral cord wound around the
+yarn-beam holds the upper border cord, h h, which, in turn, secures
+the upper end of the warp, i i. The lower beam of the loom is shown
+at k. I will call this the cloth beam, although the finished web is
+never wound around it; it is tied firmly to the lower brace, c, of the
+frame, and to it is secured the lower border cord of the blanket. The
+original distance between the two beams is the length of the blanket.
+Lying between the threads of the warp is depicted a broad, thin, oaken
+stick, l, which I will call the batten. A set of healds attached to a
+heald-rod, m, are shown above the batten. These healds are made of cord
+or yarn; they include alternate threads of the warp, and serve when
+drawn forward to open the lower shed. The upper shed is kept patent by
+a stout rod, n (having no healds attached), which I name the shed-rod.
+Their substitute for the reed of our looms is a wooden fork, which will
+be designated as the reed-fork.”[106]
+
+All the Navajo and Pueblo weaving is the same on both sides. Most of
+it is straight weaving, but there is a good deal of diagonal work.
+This is true also of the Moki. The diagonal weaving produces a diamond
+figure that is very pretty, but I have never seen it used in any of the
+finest Navajo work. As to the designs, Matthews says that “in the finer
+blankets of intricate pattern, out of thousands which I have examined,
+I do not remember to have ever seen two exactly alike.”[106] Doubtless
+while some of these designs, or even many, are drawn from Pueblo
+sources as noticed, the weaver introduces original features and often
+invents new patterns. The blankets are woven, as a rule, in two ways,
+the tight method for protection against rain, and the loose method for
+protection against cold. The loose, soft blanket is worn under one of
+the harder ones in wet or windy weather.[107] The Navajos also weave
+garters and long sashes. The garters are similar to the sashes, only
+smaller. They are used to hold leggings in place. Small blankets are
+made to put under the saddle, and these are often very fine in texture
+as well as in pattern. Similar ones are made for children.
+
+“Previously to the seventeenth century,” says Bandelier, “the
+aboriginal dress consisted largely of cotton sheets, or rather simple
+wrappers, tied either around the neck or on the shoulder, or converted
+into sleeveless jackets.” Of the fibre of the yucca, the Zuñi Indians
+made skirts and kilts; of rabbit-skins very heavy blankets were made.
+The northern Puebloans, of New Mexico, nearer to a game region, dressed
+in buckskin in preference to anything else. But still, even when cotton
+was unobtainable for whole garments, they sought to secure cotton
+scarfs and girdles woven in bright colours, which were used for belts
+as well as for garters, etc. The dress was more simple than that of
+to-day. Leggings of buckskin were worn in winter only, and then mostly
+by the northern Pueblos. The moccasin, or _tegua_, protected the feet.
+It is explicitly stated that while the uppers of this shoe without heel
+were of deerskin, the soles were frequently of buffalo hide.”[108] The
+moccasin of the South-west is generally soled with rawhide of some
+kind, the sole being slightly turned up all round.
+
+Another material for garments was feathers. These were utilised all
+over the continent, to a greater or less degree, by various tribes, but
+it was the Mexicans who carried the work in this line to perfection.
+“Nothing could be more picturesque,” says Prescott, “than the aspect of
+these Indian battalions with the naked bodies of the common soldiers
+gaudily painted, the fantastic helmets of the chiefs glittering with
+gold and precious stones, and the glowing panoplies of feather-work,
+which decorated their persons.... The common file wore no covering
+except a girdle round the loins. Their bodies were painted with
+appropriate colours of the chieftain whose banner they followed. The
+feather-mail of the higher class of warriors exhibited also a similar
+selection of colours for the like object, in the same manner as the
+colour of the tartan indicates the peculiar clan of the Highlander.
+The caciques and principal warriors were clothed in a quilted cotton
+tunic, two inches thick, which, fitting close to the body, protected
+also the thighs and the shoulders. Over this the wealthier Indians
+wore cuirasses of thin gold plate or silver. Their legs were defended
+by leathern boots or sandals, trimmed with gold. But the most
+brilliant part of their costume was a rich mantle of the _plumaje_,
+or feather-work, embroidered with curious art, and furnishing some
+resemblance to the gorgeous surcoat worn by the European knight over
+his armour in the Middle Ages. This graceful and picturesque dress
+was surmounted by a fantastic head-piece made of wood or leather,
+representing the head of some wild animal, and frequently displaying
+a formidable array of teeth. With this covering the warrior’s head
+was enveloped, producing a most grotesque and hideous effect. From
+the crown floated a splendid _panache_ of the richly variegated
+plumage of the tropics, indicating, by its form and colours, the
+rank and family of the wearer. To complete their defensive armour,
+they carried shields or targets, made sometimes of wood covered with
+leather, but more usually of a light frame of reeds quilted with
+cotton, which were preferred as tougher and less liable to fracture
+than the former. They had other bucklers, in which the cotton was
+covered with an elastic substance, enabling them to be shut up in a
+more compact form, like a fan or umbrella. These shields were decorated
+with showy ornaments, according to the taste or wealth of the wearer,
+and fringed with a beautiful pendant of feather-work.... Such was the
+costume of the Tlascalan warrior, and, indeed, of that great family of
+nations generally who occupied the plateau of Anahuac.[109]... They
+were particularly struck with the costume of the higher classes, who
+wore fine embroidered mantles, resembling the graceful _albornoz_, or
+Moorish cloak, in their texture and fashion.[110]... Here they were
+met by several hundred Aztec chiefs, who came out to announce the
+approach of Montezuma, and to welcome the Spaniards to his capital.
+They were dressed in the fanciful gala costume of the country, with
+the _maxtlatl_, or cotton sash, around their loins, and a broad mantle
+of the same material, or of the brilliant feather-embroidery, flowing
+gracefully down their shoulders. On their necks and arms they displayed
+collars and bracelets of turquoise mosaic, with which delicate plumage
+was curiously mingled, while their ears, under-lips, and occasionally
+their noses, were garnished with pendants formed of precious stones,
+or crescents of fine gold[111].... Montezuma wore the girdle and ample
+square cloak, _tilmatli_,[112] of his nation. It was made of the
+finest cotton, with the embroidered ends gathered in a knot around
+his neck. His feet were defended by sandals having soles of gold, and
+the leathern thongs which bound them to his ankles were embossed with
+the same metal. Both the cloak and sandals were sprinkled with pearls
+and precious stones, among which the emerald and the _chalchivitl_—a
+green stone of higher estimation than any other among the Aztecs—were
+conspicuous. On his head he wore no other ornament than a _panache_ of
+plumes of the royal green which floated down his back, the badge of
+military, rather than of regal rank.”[113]
+
+[Illustration: A PUEBLOAN OF SAN JUAN, NEW MEXICO]
+
+These quotations from Prescott will give an idea of the costume of the
+Mexicans, and of the beautiful feather-work which formed so important
+a part of it. Though the language of Prescott may somewhat exaggerate
+the quality and beauty of the Mexican garments, we know from what
+the Mexicans and Pueblos manufactured afterward that much skill must
+have been displayed in these various fabrics. The cloak of cotton was
+probably no more a cloak or mantle than the blankets woven by the
+Pueblos and Navajos to-day; that is, it was a square of cloth worn
+about the shoulders. If one should describe the Pueblo in Prescott’s
+delightful language, we should think him and his houses and garments
+far finer than they really are. To describe a breech-cloth as a girdle
+round the loins; to speak of blankets as mantles and robes; moccasins
+as sandals, and otherwise gild description, makes pleasant reading, but
+is liable to convey erroneous impressions. Prescott’s lack of general
+knowledge of Amerind customs gave him a free rein and his poetical
+temperament finished the picture.
+
+[Illustration: METHOD OF MAKING FEATHER-WORK]
+
+Montezuma wore on his head “a _panache_ of plumes, ... the badge
+of military, rather than of regal rank.” And this is exactly what
+Montezuma was, a war-chief. But Prescott drew his material from the
+Spaniards, and where he describes what they saw, he is not, in all
+probability, far from the mark, although his language may be sometimes
+rather flowery. The feather-work was one of the remarkable products
+of the Aztecs. In an ornamental way it is still practised in Mexico,
+and the birds and other objects made from feathers exhibit a wonderful
+skill. Mantles of fur are mentioned as being used by the Aztecs,
+but these were probably constructed in much the same manner as the
+rabbit-skin robes of the Moki and the Pai Ute, that is, by twisting
+the skins into ropes and then tying them together. The cotton weaving
+was done on a loom similar to that now in use by the Navajos and the
+Pueblos. The feather-work was probably made in much the same way as
+that of Peru, specimens of which have been preserved in the tombs. The
+figure on page 137 shows the way the Peruvians attached the feathers
+to the cloth underground, but in many cases the feathers were woven
+in with the warp and woof, instead of being attached to the surface
+in this way. This use of feathers was not confined to any particular
+locality, but, like almost all the arts in use on the continent, was
+widely distributed. Turkey feathers were used in Virginia for this
+work, and in Louisiana the same bird was called upon. “The feather
+mantles,” writes Du Pratz in his history of Louisiana, “are made on
+a frame similar to that on which the peruke makers work hair; they
+spread the feathers in the same manner and fasten them on old fish-nets
+or old mantles of mulberry bark. They are placed, spread in this
+manner, one over the other and on both sides; for this purpose small
+turkey feathers are used; women who have feathers of swans or India
+ducks, which are white, make these feather mantles for women of high
+rank.”[114] Feather mantles of fine quality were also made by the
+Lenapé.
+
+Almost every Amerind tribe could make thread, cord, nets, mats, and
+some kind of woven stuff. The Mexicans, Mayas, and other tribes of the
+Central region excelled in these things, but the Pueblos, and Navajos,
+as we have seen, execute in modern times some admirable fabrics, which
+the Pueblos also constructed before the advent of the whites.
+
+“The Mexicans had also,” says Prescott, “the art of spinning a fine
+thread of the hair of the rabbit and other animals, which they wove
+into a delicate web that took a permanent dye.... The women, as in
+other parts of the country, seemed to go about as freely as the men.
+They wore several skirts or petticoats of different lengths, with
+highly ornamented borders, and sometimes over them loose flowing
+robes, which reached to the ankles. These, also, were made of cotton;
+for the wealthier classes, of a fine texture, prettily embroidered.
+No veils were worn here (Mexico) as in some other parts of Anahuac,
+where they were made of the aloe thread, or of the light web of hair
+above noticed.”[115] Biart[116] says the women wore “a piece of cloth
+_cueitl_, which they wrapped around their bodies, and which descended
+a little below the knee; over this skirt they wore a sleeveless chemise
+called _huepilli_.”
+
+[Illustration: CHILKAT CEREMONIAL SHIRT]
+
+The Mayas and other Amerinds of the Central region used woven cloths
+similar to those of the Aztecs. Of the dress of the modern Amerinds
+of Nicaragua, Squier says: “It is exceedingly simple. On ordinary
+occasions the women wear only a white or flowered skirt fastened round
+the waist, leaving the upper part of the person entirely exposed, or
+but partially covered by a handkerchief fastened around the neck.
+In Masaya and some other places, a square piece of cloth of native
+manufacture, and precisely the same style and pattern with that used
+for the same purpose before the Discovery, supplies the place of a
+skirt. It is fastened in some incomprehensible way without aid of
+strings or pins and falls from the hips a little below the knees....
+The men wear a kind of cotton drawers, fastened above the hips, but
+frequently reaching no lower than the knees. Sandals supply the place
+of shoes, but for the most part both sexes go with bare feet.”[117]
+The costume of the women of Louisiana as depicted by Du Pratz in an
+illustration in his history, is almost, if not quite identical with the
+costume of the women of Nicaragua.
+
+Fine dressing was not confined to the Mexicans. Other Amerinds gave
+some attention to their personal appearance as well as the tribes of
+Mexico. In the following description by a Miss Powell, who visited an
+Iroquois council on Buffalo Creek, in 1785, of Captain David, if the
+worthy Captain had been described as a “lord,” and Miss Powell had been
+less skeptical about his ablutions, he might easily have ranked with
+some of the “lords” of Anahuac who are so conspicuous in the charming
+works of Prescott. Miss Powell declared, “that the Prince of Wales
+did not bow with more grace than ‘Captain David.’ He spoke English
+with propriety. His person was as tall and fine as it was possible to
+imagine; his features handsome and regular, with a countenance of much
+softness; his complexion not disagreeably dark, and, said Miss Powell,
+‘I really believe he washes his face.’... His hair was shaved off,
+except a little on top of his head, which, with his ears, was painted
+a glowing red. Around his head was a fillet of silver from which two
+strips of black velvet, covered with silver beads and brooches, hung
+over the left temple. A ‘foxtail feather’ in his scalp-lock and a black
+one behind each ear waved and nodded as he walked, while a pair of
+immense silver ear-rings hung down to his shoulders. He wore a calico
+shirt, the neck and shoulders thickly covered with silver brooches, the
+sleeves confined above the elbows with broad silver bracelets engraved
+with the arms of England, while four smaller ones adorned his wrists.
+Around his waist was a dark scarf lined with scarlet which hung to his
+feet, while his costume was completed by neatly fitting blue cloth
+leggins, fastened with an ornamental garter below the knee.”[118] This
+elegant gentleman belonged to no vanished or mysterious race; he was
+a modern Iroquois. Undoubtedly his ancestors had, many of them, with
+the means at their command, dressed with equal splendour, and we may
+wonder what kind of a description of them we would have had from the
+romantic Spaniards if they had happened to meet with them. Even this
+well-balanced American lady was considerably overcome, for she says:
+“Captain David made the finest appearance I ever saw in my life.” About
+this same time, or to be accurate, in 1776, Father Escalante met with
+Amerinds in Utah whose dress was very different. “Their dress,” he
+says, “manifests great poverty; the most decent which they wear is a
+coat or shirt of deerskin, and big moccasins of the same in winter;
+they have dresses made of hare and rabbit skin.”[119] In the latter we
+recognise the same twisted skin garments that are still used, or were
+a few years ago, by the Pai Utes and the Mokis. In central Georgia in
+Soto’s time the women wore a kind of shawl, “for covering, wearing one
+about the body from the waist downward, and another over the shoulder
+with the right arm left free.”[120] Spinning and weaving were long
+supposed, by those who had not investigated, to be practised only by
+the Mexican and Pueblo tribes, and by the Navajos, but the Pimas and
+Maricopas of Arizona were adepts in these arts in 1857. The government
+agent reports at that time: “They also spin and weave their cotton, by
+hand, into blankets of a beautiful texture, an art not acquired from
+the Spaniards, but found among them more than three hundred years ago,
+when the Spaniards first penetrated the country.”[121] The Algonquins
+of Connecticut dressed in skins “cured so as to be soft and pliable,
+and sometimes ornamented with paint and with beads manufactured from
+shells. Occasionally they decked themselves in mantles made of feathers
+overlapping each other as on the back of the fowl, and presenting an
+appearance of fantastic gayety which, no doubt, prodigiously delighted
+the wearers. The dress of the women consisted usually of two articles:
+a leather skirt, or under garment, ornamented with fringe; and a skirt
+of the same material, fastened round the waist with a belt and reaching
+nearly to the feet.... Their hair they dressed in a thick heavy
+plait which fell down upon the neck; and they sometimes ornamented
+their heads with bands of wampum or with a small cap. The men went
+bare-headed, with their hair fantastically trimmed, each according to
+his fancy. One warrior would have it shaved on one side of the head
+and long on the other. Another might be seen with his scalp completely
+bare, except a strip two or three inches in width running from the
+forehead over to the nape of the neck. This was kept short, and so
+thoroughly stiffened with paint and bear’s grease as to stand straight
+after the fashion of a cock’s comb, or the crest of a warrior’s
+helmet. The legs were covered with leggins of dressed deerskin, and
+the lower part of the body was protected by the breech-cloth, usually
+called by the early settlers, Indian breeches. Moccasins, that is,
+light shoes of soft dressed leather, were common to both sexes;
+and like other portions of the attire, were many times tastefully
+ornamented with embroidery of wampum. The men often dispensed with
+their leggins, especially in summer; while in winter they protected
+themselves against the bleak air by adding to their garments a mantle
+of skins. The male children ran about in a state of nature until they
+were ten or twelve years old; the girls were provided with an apron,
+though of very economical dimensions.... The women ... used the paint
+as an ornament, while the men seldom applied it, except when they
+went to war and wished to appear very terrible in the sight of their
+enemies. Sachems and great men had caps and aprons heavily wrought with
+different-coloured beads. Belts were also worn of the same material,
+some of which contained so great a quantity of wampum as to be valued
+by the English colonists at eight and ten pounds sterling.”[122]
+
+[Illustration: CHILKAT CEREMONIAL BLANKET]
+
+Here we discover the same desire for distinction of individuals by
+dress that exists in all races, and the same desire to dress richly
+on the part of those possessing wealth or station, for it must be
+understood that wealth and station have their degrees amongst the
+rudest Amerinds as well as amongst the highest and amongst the
+Europeans. The dress in the summer always differs considerably from
+that of winter. In many tribes little is worn by the men in summer but
+the breech-cloth, and sometimes not even that. I recall one morning
+when I was living in the Moki village of Tewa, in Arizona, one of
+the dignitaries came to call upon me, as was a common custom, and he
+had wrapped about him a native blanket. When he temporarily let this
+covering drop away from his person, I noticed that there was not even
+a breech-cloth beneath. The small children of both sexes played about
+in a state of nature, though some wore a shirt, and the women appeared
+to have on only the one garment, made of two small black blankets sewed
+together on their side edges and caught over the right shoulder and
+under the left. The Moki women wear moccasins only in the ceremonials,
+or on some state occasion, or when travelling. They rarely travel.
+
+Catlin gave a great deal of attention to the costumes of the Amerinds
+he travelled amongst and painted, and a reference to his works opens
+up a world of detail that cannot be presented here. Some of his most
+interesting work was amongst the Mandans, of Dakota stock, in the year
+1832.[123] I will quote from him some general remarks on the Mandan
+costume. “The Mandans, in many instances, dress very neatly, and some
+of them splendidly. As they are in their native state, their dresses
+are all of their own manufacture, and, of course, altogether made
+of skins of different animals belonging to those regions. There is,
+certainly, a reigning and striking similarity of costume amongst most
+of the North-western tribes, and I cannot say that the dress of the
+Mandans is decidedly distinct from that of the Crows or the Blackfeet,
+the Assiniboins, or the Sioux[124]; yet there are modes of stitching
+or embroidering in every tribe which may at once enable the traveller
+who is familiar with their modes to detect or distinguish the dress
+of any tribe. These differences consist generally in the fashions of
+constructing the head-dress, or of garnishing their dresses with the
+porcupine quills, which they use in great profusion.... The tunic,
+or shirt, of the Mandan men is very similar in shape to that of the
+Blackfeet—made of two skins of deer, or mountain-sheep, strung with
+scalp-locks, beads, and ermine. The leggings, like those of the other
+tribes of which I have spoken, are made of deerskins and shaped to fit
+the leg, embroidered with porcupine quills, and fringed with scalps
+from their enemies’ heads. Their moccasins are made of buckskin, and
+neatly ornamented with porcupine quills. Over their shoulders (or, in
+other words, over one shoulder and passing under the other) they very
+gracefully wear a robe from a young buffalo’s back, oftentimes cut
+down to about half of its original size, to make it handy and easy
+for use. Many of these are also fringed on one side with scalp-locks,
+and the flesh side of the skin curiously ornamented with pictured
+representations of the creditable events and battles of their lives.
+Their head-dresses are of various sorts, and many of them exceedingly
+picturesque and handsome, generally made of war-eagles’ or ravens’
+quills and ermine. These are the most costly part of an Indian’s dress
+in all this county, owing to the difficulty of procuring the quills and
+the fur; the war-eagle being the _rara avis_, and the ermine the rarest
+animal that is found in the country.” Catlin gave two horses for one of
+the head-dresses. This specimen came down to the wearer’s feet. These
+are now called “war-bonnets,” and are still in use among the Sioux and
+other tribes. “There is occasionally,” continues Catlin, “a chief or a
+warrior of so extraordinary renown that he is allowed to wear horns on
+his head-dress, which give to his aspect a strange and majestic effect.
+These are made of about a third part of the horn of a buffalo bull, the
+horn having been split from end to end, and a third part of it taken
+and shaved thin and light and highly polished. These are attached to
+the top of the head-dress on each side in the same place that they rise
+and stand on the head of a buffalo, rising out of a mat of ermine skins
+and tails, which hang over the top of the head-dress somewhat in the
+form that the large and profuse locks of hair hang and fall over the
+head of a buffalo bull.” This head-dress with horns “is used only on
+certain occasions, and they are very seldom.”[125]
+
+[Illustration: MOKI WALL DECORATION. PINK ON A WHITE GROUND.
+
+  MISHONGNUVI, ARIZONA]
+
+[Illustration: BELLACOOLAS]
+
+[Illustration: TOP VIEW OF CONICAL NORTH-WEST COAST HAT
+
+  Made of spruce roots, ornamented in red and black paint, with
+  totemic device of a raven
+
+  See figure page 160
+]
+
+Among the Omahas, also of Dakota stock, garments, Dorsey says, “were
+usually made by the women, while men made their weapons.... There is no
+distinction between the attire of dignitaries and that of the common
+people.”[126]
+
+[Illustration: WONSIVU, A PAI UTE GIRL
+
+  Posed by Thomas Moran
+
+  From photograph by the Colorado River Survey, 1874
+]
+
+The Makahs of the North-west region (U. S.) manufacture a kind of cloth
+out of cedar bark. “The inner bark is selected, boiled, or macerated,
+and then pounded and hatcheled out. The bark is made to form the warp,
+the woof being made of grass thread. This stuff is pliable, and makes a
+convenient outer garment. Very pretty capes, edged with sea-otter skin,
+are made of it. This tribe also are the principal manufacturers of the
+cedar mats which are used on the Sound. These are entirely of bark,
+formed into narrow strips, and woven on the floor. They are thin and
+perfectly even in texture.”[127] Among the tribes of the North-west:
+“The women universally wore a breech-clout of strands gathered around
+the waist and falling usually to the knees.... With the men no idea of
+modesty existed.”[128] They sometimes wear a bearskin with the hair
+out tied around the throat. “Their hats, when they wear any, are of
+the conical form common along the coast.”[129] A conical wicker hat
+similar to the Japanese shape is found among the Tlinkits (Koluschan)
+and Chimmesyan up on the Alaskan coast. I saw several at Sitka in the
+summer of 1899, but not in use. The head covering of various tribes
+differs considerably. The skull-cap, woven like a basket, was never
+found, so far as I know, in the Mississippi region. The Pai Utes
+formerly wore caps, or at least some of them did, the men wearing a
+little buckskin affair tied under the chin with strings. The remainder
+of their costume often consisted of a string around the waist from
+which was suspended front and rear a cloth of buckskin reaching half
+way to the ground. Others wore fine buckskin suits; a fringed shirt
+and fringed leggings reaching, like those of the Dakota, to the waist.
+The southern Utah women wore conical caps of wicker-work, like a bowl
+upside down, except that they had a little point at the top.[130] The
+women’s garment was of buckskin, attached at the neck and hanging down
+before and behind to below the knee, open at the sides, and bound
+around the waist by a buckskin sash. There was a plentiful adornment of
+buckskin fringe also. The feet were bare except in cold weather, when
+moccasins were worn. The younger women wore a narrow band around the
+brow composed of two buckskin strings, covered with porcupine quills,
+which were interwoven to hold the strings together, and the men
+often wore a head-dress of feathers, which stood straight up around
+the crown. In both men and women the hair was allowed to hang down,
+brushed back from the face without braids of any kind. The Navajo men
+wear a sort of turban; a piece of red cloth or a bandana twisted around
+the brow, the hair being done up in a kind of Greek knot behind. Their
+clothes consist of a shirt or jacket of cotton goods, and trousers
+of the same stuff reaching to just below the knee and slashed up on
+the outside for about eight inches. They sometimes wear close-fitting
+breeches with leggings. This garment is generally held at the waist
+by a belt, which is often richly decorated by discs of silver about
+two by four inches elaborately engraved in their native style. The
+trousers are sometimes bound inside the leggings. Their leggings are
+of buckskin, red or black, frequently fastened on the outside by a row
+of silver half-globe buttons of their own make and woven garters, some
+three feet long, twisted around above the calf. The leggings are also
+applied without any buttons when they are held by the garters. The
+moccasin is one finely made, red or black, or the natural tan colour,
+with a rawhide sole turned up all round, and, like the leggings, often
+fastened by several silver buttons. The Navajos are extremely fond
+of black. The hair of the women is parted and tied in a knot behind
+very much the same as that of the men. Their dress is now very like
+that of Moki women, that is, a garment that is attached over the right
+shoulder, under the left, and falls about half way between the knees
+and the ground, usually caught in at the waist by a sash or belt.
+Also like the Moki women they wear a kind of combined moccasin and
+legging, on certain occasions. This is a rawhide-soled moccasin with
+a long narrow top-piece which is wound round and round the leg after
+the moccasin is put on, and gives an almost straight line from the
+knee down, almost exactly the same as the Moki custom. In fact, so far
+as garments are concerned, it might often be difficult to tell Navajo
+and Moki women apart. The Moki women wear their hair differently; the
+married ones making two cues of it which hang down on each side of the
+face, usually in front of the shoulders, while the unmarried ones have
+theirs done up in two extraordinary wheels or discs standing parallel
+with the side of the face or head, and attached to it by a sort of axle
+wound round with string. This effect is obtained by first dividing the
+hair into two equal parts, drawing each part to its side of the head
+and winding it with string just above the ear, and a little behind
+it. Each division is then again divided, horizontally, into two equal
+parts, and these parts are carefully brushed around a curved stick,
+like a letter U, held with the opening sidewise, the upper one down
+and around and the lower one up and around, till they are completely
+wound over the U and spread out as much as possible at the same time.
+Then they are tied in the middle with a string, that is, between the
+arms of the U, and finally, before withdrawing the U, the two portions
+are fully spread, till when the U is taken out, and they are further
+arranged, they almost meet and form a perfect wheel or circle. In
+ordinary practice they do not meet, but resemble a well tied bow-knot
+of broad ribbon; but when a girl has a fine head of hair that has been
+well cared for, and her mother takes a pride in dressing her hair for
+any ceremony or feast day, the wheel is almost perfect. This peculiar
+method of hair-dressing is now found nowhere else in the world, except
+among the unmarried women of the Coyotero Apaches, who are said to wear
+a coil something like it.
+
+[Illustration: A NAVAJO LEADER IN NATIVE COSTUME
+
+  Figure from photograph by the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology
+]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A MOKI HOUSE, ARIZONA
+
+  Unmarried women grinding corn; married women baking _piki_, or
+  “paper” bread. From a model in the National Museum
+]
+
+[Illustration: PUEBLO HEAD MAT]
+
+Some of the Pueblo women tie their hair in a knot behind like the
+Navajo women; in fact, both Navajo women and men closely resemble the
+Pueblo in their dress, the reason in my opinion being that advanced
+before: namely, the incorporation of Pueblo stock. The Moki men also
+sometimes wear their hair like Navajos, but full-blood Navajos have
+taken up their residence with the Moki, so it may be confined to these
+and their children. The regular Moki method of dressing a man’s hair
+is to “bang” it across the eyebrows, cut the side locks straight back
+on the lower line of the ear, and gather the remainder into a knot
+behind.[131] The brush used is composed of a bunch of stiff grass tied
+round the middle with a string. Both Navajo and Moki men as well as
+those of other tribes now wear white men’s trousers when obtainable.
+The costumes worn in the various ceremonials of the Navajos, Pueblos,
+Iroquois, and other Amerinds are so numerous and so varied that there
+is no space in a chapter like this for a description of them.
+
+[Illustration: NAVAJOS]
+
+In the line of embroidery comes the beadwork, see p. 125, the
+ornamentation with quills, and embroidery with yarns. I will only
+mention the embroidery of the Mokis, which is done on the ends of broad
+cotton sashes, with coloured yarns. This is the only form in which I
+have seen it. The pattern is elaborate, and often a foot or more at
+each end of a sash will be thus ornamented. The Pueblo women wore a
+roll on the head on which a water-jar was balanced. Coronado mentions
+this thus: “I also send two rolls, such as the women usually wear on
+their heads when they bring water from the spring, the same way that
+they do in Spain. One of these Indian women, with one of these rolls
+on her head, will carry a jar of water up a ladder without touching it
+with her hands.”[132] Some of the Pueblo women still use rings to carry
+water-jars on their heads. See figure on page 151.
+
+Jaramillo speaks of the natives of the first village of “Cibola” as
+having clothing of “deerskins, very carefully tanned, and they also
+prepare some tanned cowhides, with which they cover themselves, which
+are like shawls and a great protection. They have square cloaks of
+cotton, some larger than others, about a yard and a half long. The
+Indians wear them thrown over the shoulder like a gypsy and fastened
+with one end over the other, with a girdle, also of cotton.”[133]
+Other Pueblos of New Mexico he describes as having “some long robes of
+feathers which they braid, joining the feathers with a sort of thread;
+and they also make them of a sort of plain weaving with which they
+make the cloaks with which they protect themselves.” In the _Relación
+Postrera_, the Cibola dress is described also, and I add it here
+because these accounts show so conclusively that the art of weaving was
+in full practice in this northern country before the Europeans entered
+it. “Some of these people wear cloaks of cotton and of the maguey (or
+Mexican aloe) and of tanned deerskin, and they wear shoes made of these
+skins, reaching up to the knees. They also make cloaks of the skins of
+hares and rabbits, with which they cover themselves. The women wear
+cloaks of the maguey, reaching down to the feet, with girdles; they
+wear their hair gathered about the ears like little wheels.”[134] I
+would specially call attention to the similarity to the costume of
+the present Moki, even to the hair-dressing. The Seminole men had a
+singular way of wearing their hair. It was cut “close to the head,
+except a strip about an inch wide, running over the front of the scalp
+from temple to temple, and another strip, of about the same width,
+perpendicular to the former, crossing the crown of the head to the
+nape of the neck. At each temple a heavy tuft was allowed to hang to
+the bottom of the lobe of the ear. The long hair of the strip crossing
+to the neck is generally gathered and braided into two ornamental
+queues.”[135] The mustache is worn among the Seminole, Navajo,
+Tlinkit, Eskimo, and other tribes. Some Eskimo shave a round place on
+the crown of the head. Some Amerinds also wear a small beard.
+
+[Illustration: SEMINOLE MAN’S AND WOMAN’S COSTUME]
+
+Many Amerinds, especially the men, wore, as before mentioned, nothing
+whatever in mild weather, and even in winter the dress of some,
+especially in the more southerly regions, was far from elaborate. I
+remember one February, in the mountains of Arizona, visiting a camp of
+Shevwits to have a talk with the chief. Proceeding toward his wikiup, I
+found him near it lying naked, basking in the sun, only partly covered
+by a rabbit-skin robe. He seemed to be warm and happy, the spot being
+a sheltered one in a canyon, and the rays of the sun being comfortably
+warm. In a _Journal of a Voyage to New York in 1679–80_, the authors,
+speaking of the natives near Sandy Hook, said: “They wear something in
+front, over the thighs, and a piece of duffels, like a blanket, around
+the body, and this is all the clothing they have. Their hair hangs down
+from their head in strings, well smeared with fat, and sometimes with
+quantities of little beads twisted in it out of pride.”[136]
+
+[Illustration: EAR-PERFORATING AND HAIR-DRESSING OF SEMINOLES]
+
+In war the body was generally naked in many tribes.[137] The Navajo
+warrior wore absolutely nothing but the breech-cloth, and I am not sure
+that he wore even that. In some tribes the warriors wore a head-dress,
+either a kind of turban or a feather head-dress. The Dakotas wore their
+long trailing war-bonnets of feathers, or not possessing one, certain
+feathers in their hair, according to their standing as warriors; and
+sometimes their leggings. Of course each carried bow, quiver, shield,
+and such weapons of his tribe as were in vogue. On the North-west coast
+a protective armour was employed, and such a practice obtained in other
+regions, notably among the Aztecs and other Mexicans, who made a thick
+quilted cotton armour, as was noted in the quotations from Prescott.
+The subject of armour, however, belongs to another chapter. The wearing
+of rings in the nose and ears, and the perforation of the ears, while
+a part of costume, more properly belongs to customs. In the “ghost”
+excitement of a few years ago, special shirts were donned, and in the
+battles resulting from this craze, these shirts were worn because they
+were thought to be proof against bullets and all other weapons. “During
+the dance,” says Mooney, “it was worn as an outside garment, but was
+said to be worn at other times under the ordinary dress. Although the
+shape, fringing, and feather adornment were practically the same in
+every case, considerable variation existed in regard to the painting,
+the designs on some being very simple, while the others were fairly
+covered with representations of sun, moon, and stars, the sacred
+things of their mythology, and the visions of the trance. The feathers
+attached to the garment were always those of the eagle, and the thread
+used in the sewing was always the old-time sinew.”[138] The approved
+material of the “ghost-shirt” was buckskin, but where this could not be
+had the shirt was made of cotton cloth.
+
+In the Far North, clothing is imperative all the year round, and about
+every minute of the time, out-of-doors. Yet the garments of the Eskimo
+often do not quite meet around the waist, so that in bending over the
+bare back is exposed to the cold. In their houses, too, they often wear
+very little; nothing more than a kind of deerskin drawers. The material
+of their clothing is entirely fur-skins; though the Hudson Bay Eskimo
+sometimes wear trousers of jean, or denim, obtained in trade. Up to a
+certain age the children of both sexes are dressed much alike, and the
+smaller ones scrabbling about the bottom of a _umiak_, or skin boat,
+can hardly be distinguished at first glance from some kind of a bear
+cub. At Plover Bay, Siberia, where the natives resemble the Eskimo, I
+saw one small child in arms, that seemed to be completely sewed up in
+skins with the hair side in, its arms and legs looking like the stumps
+left after a surgical operation. Of the skin of the child nothing was
+to be seen except its face, its head, too, being entirely enveloped.
+This was in the middle of July, when the far-away Moki children would
+be scurrying about without a thread to disguise them. The children
+of the Eskimo proper, on our side of Bering Strait, were clothed, as
+mentioned, in skins with the fur side out. Reindeer, otter, fox, and
+seal seem to furnish the bulk of their furs, but a number of other
+skins and furs are used when they can get them. Murdoch, Boas, and
+Turner have given such careful detailed accounts of the Eskimo in the
+various regions they visited,[139] that I refer the reader to them for
+full information, presenting here only sufficient to convey a general
+idea of the clothing. “The chief material (at Point Barrow) is the skin
+of the reindeer (caribou),” says Murdoch, “which is used in various
+stages of pelage. Fine, short-haired summer skins, especially those of
+does and fawns, are used for making dress garments and underclothes.
+The heavier skins are used for every-day working clothes, while the
+heaviest winter skins furnish extra warm jackets for cold weather, warm
+winter stockings and mittens.... The man’s dress consists of the usual
+loose hooded frock, without opening except at the neck and wrists.
+This reaches just over the hips, rarely about to mid-thigh, where it
+is cut off square, and is usually confined by a girdle at the waist.
+Under this garment is worn a similar one, usually of lighter skin and
+sometimes without a hood. The thighs are clad in one or two pairs
+of tight-fitting knee-breeches, confined round the hips by a girdle
+and usually secured by a drawstring below the knee, which ties over
+the tops of the boots. On the legs and feet are worn, first, a pair
+of long, deerskin stockings with the hair inside; then slippers of
+tanned sealskin, in the bottom of which is spread a layer of whalebone
+shavings, and outside a pair of close-fitting boots, held in place
+round the ankle, usually reaching above the knee, and ending by a
+string with a rough edge, which is covered by the breeches.... The
+boots are of reindeer skin, with white sealskin soles for winter and
+dry weather, but in summer waterproof boots of black sealskin with
+soles of white whaleskin, etc., are worn.”[140]
+
+[Illustration: THE GHOST-SHIRT, SIMPLE FORM]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO BOOTS]
+
+The woman’s frock is much like the man’s, in the Point Barrow region,
+only it has tails, or aprons, front and rear, rounded at the bottom. In
+the Hudson Bay region, this garment is shaped more at the waist, and
+the tails are lance-shaped and narrower, while the front one is much
+shorter than the back. At Point Barrow there is also worn by the men a
+cloak or mantle of deerskin, in extremely cold weather. These cloaks
+are put on over the head, and fall down all round, being fastened
+at the throat by strings. They are not of one piece. The men’s leg
+coverings come only to the knee, but the women’s are long enough to
+reach from the feet to the waist, and the moccasin is attached to the
+bottom. The edge of the moccasin sole is crimped to make it smaller at
+the top, and this is the case with the soles of the boots made. This
+crimping is done by the teeth. The wet-weather boots are waterproof
+and light, but there is a disagreeable odour about them. This odour is
+more pronounced in some of the hastily made stockings which are worn
+inside the boots. I bought a pair of the common sealskin stockings
+made with hair side in at Port Clarence, but their smell was something
+unbearable. For a waterproof garment they take the entrails of the
+seal and, splitting them longitudinally, sew together the strips thus
+obtained in the desired shape. Coats made in this way are durable and
+light, and answer the purpose admirably. Dr. Kane mentions a dress
+he saw where a man wore “booted trousers of white bearskin, which
+at the end of the foot were made to terminate with the claws of the
+animal.”[141]
+
+In the middle and upper Mississippi region, according to Hunter, there
+were tribes who made blankets of the wool of the buffalo, notably the
+Osages, who were of Siouan stock. Their method of procedure seems to
+have been very like that of the Navajos and Mokis, to whom they are
+not related, except that they belong to the Amerind race. Hunter says:
+“The hair of the buffalo and other animals is sometimes manufactured
+into blankets; the hair is first twisted by hand and wound into balls.
+The warp is then laid of a length to answer the size of the intended
+blanket, crossed by three small smooth rods alternately beneath the
+threads, and secured at each end to stronger rods supported on forks,
+at a short distance above the ground. Thus prepared the woof is filled
+in, thread by thread, and pressed closely together, by means of a long
+flattened wooden needle. When the weaving is finished, the ends of
+the warp and woof are tied into knots, and the blanket is ready for
+use.”[142]
+
+[Illustration: RAIN HAT, HAIDA
+
+  See figure page 146
+]
+
+
+
+
+       [Illustration: TOUCAN OF SQUIER AND DAVIS, REALLY A CROW]
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+                     CARVING, MODELLING, SCULPTURE
+
+
+The shaping of objects in clay, wood, or stone, or other material,
+known as carving, modelling, etc., constitutes sculpture. Some form of
+these methods was in use in very primitive times for the production
+of weapons or tools of wood, bone, or stone. But the greatest schools
+of sculpture were basketry and pottery, for in the practice of these
+arts a sense of form and proportion could not be dispensed with.
+Thus sculpture finds its birth in several arts, but particularly in
+basketry, stone-shaping, and pottery. Taken all in all, the Mayas of
+Yucatan seem to have been the greatest artists and sculptors, and as
+we travel northward from there the skill in art gradually diminishes
+till, on passing the old Aztec realm, it drops off rapidly. Far to
+the northward the “Moundbuilders” exhibited a moderate skill and in
+some objects a similarity to Mexican work, and still farther to the
+north-westward the Haidas, Kwakiutls, etc., in their totem poles,
+canoes, etc., show not only a singular proficiency in carving in wood,
+but also similarities to some of the Mexican work.
+
+Masks, pipes, rattles, and other ceremonial paraphernalia gave the
+Amerind sculptor much to do. It must not be supposed, though, that
+all members of a tribe possessed the sculptor’s power. There was as
+much variation as we now find among ourselves. It is not everyone of
+our people who can model a statue, or even carve the rudest shape
+imitating man. So it was with the Amerind. He had his arrow-makers,
+his skilful potters, his great carvers, who were employed by the less
+skilful to do their work. To-day, among the Amerinds of the North-west
+coast, there are specialists who carve the totem poles, and obtain high
+prices. The totem poles and house-posts are often elaborate, being
+covered almost from top to bottom with figures of totemic animals. The
+carving is often on a large scale, as the totem poles are frequently
+more than fifty feet in height. They are planted several feet in the
+ground, then there are several feet plain, and from that on to near the
+top they may be covered with carving, while surmounting the whole is a
+figure—bird, fish, or bear, or other animal—of large proportions. These
+poles stand in front of the house,[143] and are an indication of the
+clan or clans to which the person or persons who erected it belong. The
+Haidas and the Tlinkits specially excel in totem poles. The execution
+of the figures is often extremely good in a barbaric way. Besides the
+carved poles there are often the carved columns or posts inside the
+houses. These posts serve to support the two great rafters on which
+the jack-rafters rest, and are often elaborate. At a deserted village
+in south-east Alaska (Cape Fox), I saw two of these columns, each
+representing a huge bird, the wings being split out of cedar, quite
+thin, and attached to the post with a diagonally forward direction,
+the rest of the bird being erect and facing the room, the posts being
+within about six feet of the rear of the structure. Its tail was carved
+out of the post in a sort of bas-relief the remainder of the post being
+squared up both below and above, and on the sides of the figure, except
+where the head was. The latter had a huge beak, of the carnivorous
+type. On the breast was a singular round face. The whole was brightly
+painted in reds, yellows, and blacks. The accompanying figure
+represents another of the house-posts of this village which is now at
+Michigan University. It was similarly painted. The carving of these
+tribes is done almost entirely in wood, so that had they disappeared a
+century or so before our coming there would have been found scarcely
+a trace of their work. In like manner the work of the tribes of the
+Mississippi valley may have disappeared—that is, supposing that they
+carved in wood, which is probable. There is a great similarity between
+the carving of the Haida and the Tlinkit totem poles, yet these tribes
+are of different stocks. An animal resembling a frog seems to be very
+common as a totem in both stocks. Human figures are also carved on the
+poles, and strange heads are frequent.
+
+[Illustration: DESERTED VILLAGE NEAR CAPE FOX, ALASKA
+
+  Showing arrangement of totem poles and houses along the shore
+
+  Photograph by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899
+]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR HOUSE-COLUMN
+
+  Sketch by author from post at Cape Fox Village, Alaska
+]
+
+[Illustration: MAJOR PART OF INTERIOR HOUSE-POST FROM CAPE FOX VILLAGE,
+  S. E. ALASKA
+
+  Presented to University of Michigan by E. H. Harriman. Height, 11
+  ft. 2 in.; width, 3 ft.; thickness, 12 to 15 in.; one piece of
+  spruce. Painted in several colours. Photograph by Professor Cole,
+  University of Michigan
+]
+
+[Illustration: TOTEM POLE WITH BEAR ON THE TOP WRANGELL
+
+  Sketch by the author
+]
+
+The Haidas have become famous for their gigantic canoes carved from
+single logs and elaborately decorated.[144] The other Amerinds of
+this region also dig out fine boats from the huge logs they obtain
+so easily in the forest, but there are none equal to those of the
+Haida, who, indeed, require specially good boats for navigating the
+waters around their island, Queen Charlotte’s. They are the best
+carvers of all the tribes now living north of Mexico. Their work is
+grotesque, corresponding with the singular mythology of the artists and
+their inability to render accurately the forms they see about them.
+Combinations of human and animal forms are often seen, such as the
+panther-man found by Swan in this region—a crouching figure with an
+attempt at a panther’s head and forelegs, with the hind legs human. One
+of the most remarkable of all the Haida works from an artistic point of
+view is the group called the “Bear-mother,”[145] now in the National
+Museum at Washington, and made by _Skaowskeav_, one of the tribe. It
+apparently shows European influence. The lines are more flowing and
+soft than the ordinary Amerind method of execution, and the conception
+is more in range with European ideas. This may be accidental, however,
+and merely in the line of the sculptor’s development. The material is
+slate. The subject is a child at the breast of the “Bear-mother.” The
+story of the bear-mother, as told by J. G. Swan, is that “a number of
+Indian squaws were in the woods gathering berries when one of them,
+the daughter of a chief, spoke in terms of ridicule of the whole bear
+species. The bears descended on them and killed all but the chief’s
+daughter, whom the king of the bears took to wife. She bore him a
+child, half human and half bear. The carving represents the agony of
+the mother in suckling this rough and uncouth offspring.” From an
+art standpoint, one failure in the execution of this conception is
+that the child does not suggest sufficiently its half-bear character.
+Nevertheless, it is an extraordinary work for an Amerind.
+
+[Illustration: TERRA-COTTA STATUETTE, CHIRIQUI.]
+
+[Illustration: THE BEAR-MOTHER, HAIDA, N. W. COAST]
+
+All the Amerinds of the North-west coast carve wooden masks, but here
+again, the Haidas excel, though the Tlinkits are not far behind. It is
+the same with the other work, boxes, rattles, etc. Some of the bowls,
+hollowed from a single piece of wood, and carved on the exterior with
+their strange figures, and polished, have a decided artistic merit. The
+Innuit also make wooden masks, but they are crude when compared with
+those of Queen Charlotte Island, or the mainland in that vicinity. One
+feature of all these North-west masks, specially noted by Dall,[146]
+which resembles Mexican carvings, is the protruding tongue touching an
+animal. The protruding tongue is an index of life if firmly held forth,
+according to Squier, while if it is loose and dangling at one side it
+signifies death or captivity. Dall concludes that the touch of the
+tongue symbolises the “transmission of spiritual qualities or powers.”
+In the totem poles this protruding tongue touching an animal is common,
+while frequently the tongue protrudes without touching any other person
+or thing. A totem represents the guardian spirit of the individual or
+clan, and therefore the closer the association with it the better;
+hence the idea of placing the tongue upon it.
+
+[Illustration: WOODEN MASKS, N. W. COAST]
+
+“A person,” says Boas, “may have the general crest of his clan and,
+besides, use as his personal crest such guardian spirits as he
+has acquired. This accounts partly for the great multiplicity of
+combinations of crests which we observe on the carvings of these
+people.... The crest is used for ornamenting objects belonging to a
+member of the clan; they are carved on columns intended to perpetuate
+the memory of a deceased relative, painted on the house front or carved
+on a column which is placed in front of the house, and are also shown
+as masks in festivals of the clan.”[147] Some of the grave monuments
+of the Kwakiutls, the Chimmesyans, the Tlinkits, and others of the
+region are ambitious carvings and represent considerable labour on the
+part of the sculptor. One grave I saw at Cape Fox was presided over by
+two huge wooden bears, the whole sheltered by a neat roof on posts and
+surrounded by a balustrade. The animals must have been at least four
+and a half feet high. Boas describes a grave-monument bird carved out
+of cedar bark, which is six feet high and about twelve feet from tip
+to tip of the extended wings. This bird is upright like the one carved
+on the house-post mentioned above, and, like that, has on its stomach
+the carved representation of a face. This bird’s wings were originally
+painted black to represent feathers, but this decoration has worn off.
+It is now in the American Museum. The Kwakiutls also have carved some
+statues in wood representing chiefs in a state of nature. These are
+extremely crude, but are superior to much of the Moundbuilder work as
+shown in the pipes and other carvings that have been preserved, and
+not greatly behind the Mexican. Double-headed birds and animals figure
+prominently among the carvings and drawings of the North-west coast
+tribes, such as the double-headed “thunder-bird,” the double-headed
+snake, etc. Boas obtained one of the latter among the Kwakiutls which
+he describes as having a head at each end and a human head in the
+middle. It is forty-two inches in length and about six inches wide.
+It is “worn in front of the stomach and secured with cords passing
+around the waist.” The fabulous animal this affair represents has “the
+power to assume the shape of a fish. To eat it and even to touch or to
+see it is sure death, as all the joints of the unfortunate one become
+dislocated, the head being turned backward. But to those who enjoy
+supernatural help it may bring power.”[148] These North-west tribes
+seem to love to carve, and decorate almost everything that will admit
+of it in this manner. In the vicinity of Fort Rupert there are on the
+beach a number of rock carvings. These represent faces of sea monsters,
+and also some of them human faces.
+
+[Illustration: KWAKIUTL CARVING, N. W. COAST]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO CARVED IVORY DRUM-HANDLES.]
+
+Amongst the Eskimos carving is limited, generally, to a sort of
+engraving on bone and ivory, except in the matter of masks, which
+are rudely shaped out of wood without any of the elaborate finish
+that is observed in the work of Amerinds farther south. The wood they
+have had to work with is not the kind that promotes carving, and
+ivory is a rather difficult material to shape. Nevertheless, they
+occasionally, form some attractive little heads from it, to adorn
+the end of a harpoon line or something of that sort. They also shape
+their drill bows and other implements to some extent and decorate them
+with neat engraving. Some of these decorations are very pleasing, and
+exhibit the same taste for symmetrical ornamentation that is found
+throughout the continent. When they attempt to represent form they are
+generally successful in giving it the proper character with less of
+the childish grotesqueness that is seen in most Amerind work. How much
+the long intercourse with Europeans on whalers has modified the art
+efforts of the Eskimo it is not possible to judge. Murdoch[149] gives
+illustrations of seals and whales shaped by the Point Barrow Eskimo,
+but aside from the _character_ of the animal being generally fairly
+well rendered, there is little that is artistically interesting in the
+work. What I mean by character is that you can generally tell what is
+intended by an Eskimo carving, which is not always the case with the
+sculptured efforts of other Amerinds, though the finish may be better.
+Boas gives illustrations of the carved work of the Central Eskimo,[150]
+which show the same characteristics as the Western.
+
+The Far Northern tribes, as a rule, are inferior to the other
+Amerinds, in sculptural work, yet the Eskimo, mechanically, were, in
+many respects, apparently in advance of all others. They possessed
+the lamp, the only stock on the continent who did, but, after all,
+this shows only the adaptability that saved them from destruction. In
+a world without fuel and with plenty of seal oil, they would never
+have survived if they had not invented a way to secure heat from the
+oil. The Amerind of the forested regions had no need for a lamp. The
+possession of the lamp, therefore, is no indication of higher mental
+powers, but of a more severe environment. Nor, on the other hand, is
+the limited amount of their carving an indication on their part of
+inferior mental endowment. It is, again, the result of circumstances,
+as pointed out above. In a region without suitable material or climate
+for extensive carving, they did not carve, that is all. Place them for
+a few generations in the region of the Haidas, and they would begin to
+develop many different habits and traits.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF MOUNDBUILDER SCULPTURAL SKILL WITH HUMAN
+  FIGURE
+
+  _Height of jar, 10½ in.; width of shoulders, 8 in._
+]
+
+On the Atlantic coast, few specimens of sculpture have, thus far, been
+found, nor has any carving of consequence been disclosed. In New Jersey
+some rude heads in stone have come to light, but such finds are rare.
+As the bounds of the Mississippi valley are entered, however, the art
+remains immediately increase in importance, but not to the exaggerated
+extent claimed by many writers. The carvings and sculptures of the
+Mississippi valley are, like all Amerind products in this line, crude,
+and there is no warrant for the claims that the occupants of the region
+were not “Indians,” so far as these remains testify. The most striking
+work found up to the present is that of the head-shaped vases from
+Pecan Point, Arkansas, but as I have pointed out before,[151] these
+vases were not modelled free-hand, but were the result of a process,
+are in fact death-masks, built into the vases. While it was a clever
+thing to accomplish these in that way, yet it is a mechanical method,
+and has little to do with artistic skill. Thomas Wilson says of these
+vases that they “divide themselves into two distinct groups. The
+specimens forming the first group are death-masks, as becomes more
+and more evident the more the objects are studied; the other group,
+while of the same general form as the first, the human head being
+represented, has the face and features wrought upon it free-hand, as in
+sculpturing, without the aid of mould or cast.”[152] It may be added
+that the second group is far inferior to the first, and is quite in
+line with the rest of the remains of this district.
+
+The tobacco pipes of the region were lauded as perfect examples of
+the sculptor’s art, but if one gives them critical examination, it is
+at once plain that they are not out of the Amerind line, and, what is
+more, that as specimens of sculpture they are pretty bad, because it
+is difficult to decide just what they represent. Even the Eskimo give
+their work character enough to distinguish it, yet the Moundbuilder did
+much of his carving so poorly that there has been frequent diversity
+of opinion as to what it was intended to depict. Henshaw took up the
+matter, and has shown that the degree of excellence of representation
+in the carving of the Moundbuilder pipes, so long extolled, has been
+overrated.
+
+[Illustration: STONE PIPE FROM NORTH CAROLINA MOUND]
+
+The tobacco pipe, bearing, as it did, a peculiar relation to the sacred
+paraphernalia and ceremonies of the Amerinds, received much attention
+from them and was frequently elaborate, from the Amerind standpoint,
+in its details. The earliest form of pipe was a straight tube seen in
+Mexican carvings and also found in various parts of North America.
+In the Eastern United States one is found which is designated as the
+“Monitor.” I suppose this name came from a resemblance to the famous
+first turret man-of-war, the United States ship _Monitor_. The base of
+these pipes was slightly curved downwards, the bowl rising from about
+the centre of the platform, on the convex side. Many of these show
+marks of steel tools.[153] Squier and Davis, who published their work
+in 1848, discerned wonderful artistic skill in the Moundbuilder pipes,
+and they discovered an intimate acquaintance between the Moundbuilder
+artists and far-off tropical birds and animals, probably because in
+those days it was thought that an “Indian” was absolutely incapable
+of producing anything. Especially was great stress laid by Squier and
+Davis upon certain pipes said to delineate the manatee. Theories of
+origin and migration were founded on this supposed knowledge, and other
+writers accepting these deductions founded yet other theories upon
+them; and they were _all_ wrong. The trouble seems to lie in the fact
+that the archæologists of some years ago not only were not naturalists,
+but they were not accurate and drew their conclusions from insufficient
+data. The attitude of the archæologist of to-day is exceedingly
+cautious, and before pronouncing a pipe carving a manatee, or any other
+animal, he would surely institute cautious and careful comparisons.
+This Messrs. Squier and Davis seem not to have done, nor did any of
+their followers or successors, being content, as Henshaw points out,
+to accept Squier and Davis’s statement as absolute. Henshaw demolishes
+their claims and shows that no manatee is represented and that all the
+pipe carvings are of birds and animals that had their range in the
+country of the Moundbuilders or not far from its borders. What they
+called a toucan he identifies as a crow, or raven, and in this decision
+several other ornithologists fully agree. The nasal features are
+plainly shown, and the “general contour of the bill is truly corvine.”
+See figure page 161. Thus is this supposed tropical acquaintance easily
+disposed of and the crow, certainly not a rare bird in that locality,
+substituted. A turkey buzzard is shown to be a hawk, and other foreign
+types claimed by Squier and Davis are disproved with ease. Out of
+forty-five carvings on pipes figured by them only five, by Henshaw’s
+tests, are correctly named. Some carvings, which they were unable to
+identify, Henshaw places without any effort. As for the so-called
+manatees, he believes they were intended for otter. The manatee is an
+earless animal with many peculiar features which do not appear in the
+Moundbuilder carvings, while ears do appear. This is what I mean by not
+giving “character” to carvings. It is a matter, largely, of perception.
+The Eskimo appears to have this perception developed to a considerable
+degree, and when he delineates an animal he knows he marks strongly its
+peculiar features, whatever else he may do. The element of imagination
+also comes in, for Amerinds often produce drawings or carvings of
+animals they think they have seen, or as they appeared to them in a
+sudden and fleeting glimpse, or vision.
+
+[Illustration: SO-CALLED ELEPHANT PIPE, IOWA
+
+  Only two of the “elephant” pipes have been found and both by the
+  same person. There is a doubt as to their genuineness. Even if
+  genuine they are far from depicting the mastodon
+]
+
+[Illustration: TOUCAN OF SQUIER AND DAVIS, POSSIBLY MEANT FOR A YOUNG
+  EAGLE]
+
+[Illustration: TRIPOD VASE, CHIRIQUI. ⅓. LEGS MODELLED TO IMITATE FISH]
+
+It was a lack of ability to reproduce accurately the lines and
+character of _any_ object which caused some of the Moundbuilder pipes
+intended to represent the common otter to look like something else.
+As a matter of fact, these Moundbuilder pipe carvings, about which so
+much that is unwarranted has been written, are not superior to the
+carvings of the Haidas, or other stocks, and indeed, if anything, are
+not equal to them. They certainly do not compare for a moment with
+most of the work of the Mexican tribes. A further important conclusion
+of Henshaw’s is that “there is no reason for believing that the masks
+and sculptures of human faces are more correct likenesses than are the
+animal carvings,”[154] which is exactly in accord with my own opinion,
+not only as concerns the work of the Moundbuilders, but of every other
+Amerind tribe. They were not sculptors of a kind that could reproduce a
+likeness to an individual. Their work was always _general_; they seldom
+drew or painted _from the object_, as an artist or sculptor of our race
+does, but they accomplished their result by memory, imagination, and
+“rule of thumb.” The surprise of the Europeans at finding anything at
+all in the art line, coupled with a wide ignorance on art matters, has
+awarded all the Amerind carvings and sculptures, as is well illustrated
+in the Moundbuilder case, a false degree of excellence. The Amerinds
+of the Mississippi valley probably also carved wood, but their work
+in this material has, of course, long ago decayed. They worked other
+things, like shell, and some of the shell carvings are strikingly
+like Aztec drawings. In this shellwork there are a great many discs
+and gorgets, engraved with figures of spiders, rattlesnakes, birds,
+geometrical designs, and representations of the human figure. There
+are also rude shell masks of the human face, but these are primitive
+in the extreme. It must be borne in mind that this region was occupied
+for long ages, and _by many different tribes_, so that the work found
+is probably from different sources, though all Amerind. A class of
+singularly shaped stones is found in the Mississippi valley and
+northward, mainly north of the Ohio, to which the name “bird-stones”
+has been applied because of their resemblance to avian forms. No
+satisfactory explanation of their use has been advanced.[155]
+
+[Illustration: SHELL GORGET, MISSOURI.]
+
+A number of stone statues of the human figure have been unearthed from
+Georgia to Tennessee, varying in height from three or four inches
+to something over twenty. They are all of the crudest description,
+and so far as any resemblance to the type of man who made them is
+concerned are absolutely valueless. They are undoubtedly human forms,
+that is all; not another characteristic, except sex, indicated by
+breasts, is presented. They are mostly in a squatting posture and on
+one or two there seems to be a suggestion of the hair dressed behind.
+Effigy bottles of earthenware from Tennessee are similarly crude and
+primitive. There is little, therefore, in the whole Mississippi valley
+or on the Atlantic coast, in the line of carving or sculpture, that
+could not have been executed by Amerinds that have been known to our
+race, many of them living in the same localities where the art remains
+have been found. The superlative rank awarded Moundbuilder art is
+unwarranted.
+
+[Illustration: BIRD-SHAPED EARTHEN BOWL, ARKANSAS.]
+
+Directing our attention now to still another region, we find in the
+South-west a vast deal that is absorbingly interesting. Fortunately
+the people were, many of them, still there when the first Spaniards
+came into the country in 1540, so that we have data to prevent the
+attributing the works found there to some mysterious race. It has been
+attempted in the case of the “Cliff-dwellers,” but the investigations
+of competent ethnologists have effectually settled that matter, and
+checked the romantic tendency except in the case of a few who will not
+learn. The ethnographic condition of the South-west since we have known
+it probably represents also what prevailed in the Mississippi region,
+that is, _a number of different stocks existing in different stages of
+culture_, distributed in patches, not uniformly.
+
+[Illustration: SHELL MASK, VIRGINIA.]
+
+All of them pitched their camps or built their houses as expediency
+dictated, and when cause arose to render them dissatisfied with their
+site, whether cliff-house, village, or camp, they moved to a more
+desirable place, leaving behind what they could not easily carry,
+as well as their houses. Thus in the course of a long time the area
+presented the appearance from the numerous remains of having a
+larger population than was really the case; though I may add that
+I believe the population was at one time somewhat greater than has
+usually been admitted by the best ethnologists. These various stocks
+carried on their daily avocations, and when the results were in some
+indestructible material, many of them were preserved to us, which,
+taken in connection with the productions of the modern tribes, give an
+excellent and correct impression of the life and occupations of the
+inhabitants extending far back into the past.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI SCULPTURAL SKILL WITH THE HUMAN FIGURE
+
+  Terra cotta
+
+  Wood
+
+ Terra cotta
+]
+
+The Shoshonean is one of the stocks still extant in that and more
+northerly regions, and spreads far south to the lakes of Mexico. It
+exists to-day in several stages, the Mexican or Nahuatl, the Moki or
+Hopi, and the numerous bands of Utes.[156] Other stocks probably had
+equal variation in culture within their ranks, this variation being
+sometimes due to the absorption, as in the case of the Navajos, of
+a more cultured tribe. Many of these tribes did no carving whatever,
+and the region of our South-west is poor in this sort of remains. The
+Pueblos, while possessing other artistic talents of a high order, do
+not seem to have done much in the line of carving. They execute the
+ordinary fetiches with little or no shape, and they also produce a kind
+of small doll for the children and some that are used in ceremonies,
+figure page 178, but all these, and all the masks in ceremonies, are
+fearful things to look upon, bearing little or no resemblance to
+anything human; shapeless, botched up masses of hideousness, usually
+not carved or modelled, but built up out of various stuffs. Some of
+them model effigies in earthenware, but these attempts do not amount
+to much. I have never seen any wood carving, from this region, worth
+mentioning. A. M. Stephen made a sketch of two figures in wood with
+small knots or horns called the Alosaka, which I copied, but they are
+primitive to the last degree. These figures were about four feet high,
+and were of cottonwood, apparently very old. Figures above. They were
+discovered by accident in a cave near the ruins of Awatuwi and removed.
+When the loss was learned by the Moki they requested the return of the
+images, which was granted, and they have not been seen since, nor does
+anyone outside of the custodians, or at least no white man, know where
+they are. Around the Moki towns I saw not a single attempt at rock
+carving, nor do I remember in extensive journeys over the South-western
+region ever seeing any relief carving whatever. Rock scratchings,
+erroneously termed “etchings” by many writers on these subjects, I
+have seen in great abundance, but not an attempt at sculpture worth
+noticing. There may, however, in some of the villages, be carvings
+nevertheless. Governor Prince found at a ruin near Cochiti a number
+of rudely formed stone figures of human shape. Nearby there are two
+panthers carved life size in the tufa which forms the surface rock of
+the locality. They “lie side by side,” says Bandelier, “representing
+the animals as crouching with tails extended, and their heads pointing
+to the east.”[157] Their length is six feet, one third of this being
+tail. The height is two feet and the breadth across the shoulders
+fourteen inches, and across the rump seventeen inches. They are about
+twenty-two inches apart. Around them is an irregular pentagonal
+enclosure, “made of large blocks, flags, and slabs of volcanic rock,
+some of which are set in the ground like posts, while the majority
+are piled on each other so as to connect the upright pillars.... When
+I last saw the monument it looked like a diminutive and dilapidated
+Stonehenge.”[158] Another pair of similar panthers occurs at not a
+great distance off at a place now called the _Potrero de los Idolos_.
+The size is about the same as the others. “One of them is completely
+destroyed by treasure hunters, who loosened both from the rock by a
+blast of powder, and then heaved the ponderous blocks out by means of
+crowbars. After breaking one of the figures to pieces they satisfied
+themselves that nothing was buried underneath.... The imperfections of
+the sculpture are very apparent; were it not for the statements of the
+Indians, who positively assert that the intention of the makers was to
+represent a puma, it would be considered to be a gigantic lizard.”[159]
+
+[Illustration: THE ALOSAKA (MOKI)
+
+  After drawing by A. M. Stephen
+]
+
+[Illustration: SCULPTURAL ART OF CHIRIQUI
+
+  Fragmentary figure in grey basaltic rock.
+]
+
+[Illustration: SHELL GORGET, TENNESSEE.
+
+  Apparently a human figure, with face in profile to the left of the
+  circle near the top. The nose is cut away by a perforation
+]
+
+The metates or mealing stones, abundant in modern and ancient villages,
+and which in the Far South are elaborately carved oftentimes, are, in
+the South-west, so far as I have observed in the field and in reports
+of investigators, never decorated in the faintest degree. Articles,
+also, of various kinds that among the Haidas or Tlinkits would be
+covered with carving, have here not a vestige of it. Nor is there any
+carving about the house timbers or the stones that enter into the
+wall construction, places where the Aztecs, and especially the Mayas,
+lavished their skill. The Mokis make little clay images which they fire
+for the children, but they are without merit. Nor do the Navajo, the
+Pima, the Apache, Yuma, or any of the other stocks attempt anything
+in the direction of carving, so that it seems safe to say that the
+South-west has not produced any carving worthy of note, either in
+modern or ancient times. The ruins so far as known are as barren of
+carved articles as the modern occupied houses.
+
+Proceeding southward, however, when we approach the vicinity of the
+City of Mexico, examples of carving appear, and it is quickly evident
+that the Aztecs gave great attention to this form of art. One of the
+most remarkable specimens is the so-called Calendar Stone dug up under
+the present city, and now in the Mexican National Museum. It has been
+called a sacrificial stone, but Bandelier thinks it may have served
+rather as the base for another stone, holding the rope of a captive
+doomed to the “gladiatorial” sacrifice. For my part I incline to the
+opinion that it is an astronomical affair. The date carved on the
+top is the 13th Acatl or +A.D.+ 1479 of our time, according to the
+accepted calculations. In the centre is a head, supposed to represent
+the sun, and around it are twenty figures, standing for the twenty days
+of the Mexican month. Then come eight divisions by what appear to be
+arrow-heads, four being extended farther toward the centre than the
+others and also curled up at the ends or flukes, and one of these four
+ending in an elaborate sort of bow-knot ornament which covers a wide
+space at what is now the lower edge as it stands. Each of the eight
+divisions is again divided by a kind of crown which is smaller than the
+smaller arrow-heads, and then there is a still further subdivision
+made by a dot, on a line with the base of the crown. This gives
+thirty-two points, or exactly the number of points on our mariner’s
+compass card, so that this carving can be “boxed” as any compass card
+can be. The N., E., and W., are more prominent than any other points
+but the S., which has the decoration referred to. Then come the N.E.,
+S.E., S.W., and N.W., with each set of intermediate points diminishing
+in importance.[160] It looks as if our ancient Aztecs had found a
+mariner’s compass washed ashore and perpetuated it by thus carving
+it with mythological significance.[161] Stranger things than this
+have occurred among Amerinds. But I prefer to believe that the Aztec
+astronomer worked out the points of the compass for himself, for these
+directions exist of course in every land independent of the compass,
+and the moment the Amerind began to work in astronomy he was forced
+to recognise the thirty-two natural directions that were open to him.
+No doubt the Mayan and Mexican observatories were somewhat similar to
+that of the Shah Jahan at Jeypore in India, where circular stones of
+different sizes formed a part of the observing apparatus. The Mayan and
+Mexican astronomical knowledge was probably equal to any extant in the
+fourteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: THE AZTEC “CALENDAR” STONE
+
+  From Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_, published by the
+  Archæological Institute of America
+]
+
+[Illustration: AZTEC SCULPTURE, THE INDIO TRISTE
+
+  From Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_, published by the
+  Archæological Institute of America
+]
+
+Another type of Mexican carving is seen in the statue of Teoyaomiqui,
+the god of war and death, of which the two faces are different.
+Bandelier believes this to be a statue of the war-god Huitzilopochtli.
+
+Another remarkable statue given mention by Bandelier is the “Indio
+Triste.” This is a squatting figure of an Amerind executed with more
+simplicity than is usual with Amerind work in this region. Bandelier
+considers it a torch-bearer, a supposition borne out by evidence he
+advances, and also by the arrangement of the hands and arms, which
+are brought out forward of the chest as if clasping something in the
+empty space between the fingers. This statue is forty inches high and
+two feet wide. A comparatively small number of Aztec sculptures have
+been found. Almost all were destroyed or buried by the zeal of the
+early priests. Under the City of Mexico and in other places there are
+probably many lying intact, and some day they may come to the light.
+“The art of sculpture in aboriginal Mexico,” says Bandelier, “while
+considerably above that of the Northern Village-Indians, is still not
+superior to the remarkable carvings on ivory and wood of the tribes of
+the North-west Coast and often bears a marked resemblance to them.”[162]
+
+Proceeding on southward, the next great group of carvings is that
+ascribed to the Mayas, and extending, in a general way, from the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the borders of Honduras and somewhat beyond.
+The people formerly occupying this area were extremely active in the
+line of carving, and there are preserved to us tablets, figures in
+bass-relief, statues, monoliths, and other stone- and wood-work that,
+taken together, easily bring this people in the very front place among
+Amerind artists. Their buildings were most elaborately ornamented with
+carving in stone, or wood, and with modelling in stucco, and there
+were many tablets bearing carved inscriptions. One of the most famous
+of these tablets adorned a beautiful building called in modern times
+“The Temple of the Cross.”[163] It stands at Palenque. The tablet was
+affixed to the rear wall of an inner chamber, termed by Europeans
+the “Adoratorio,” and was in three sections, the total dimensions of
+which were ten feet eight inches wide, by six feet four inches high.
+One section of this tablet remained in place at the time of Charnay’s
+last visit, one was in Las Playas, and the other, the third, is in the
+Smithsonian Institution. At each extreme end of the whole composition
+was a mass of the calculiform writing; next came two figures separated
+by a peculiar design in the centre, which somewhat resembles a cross,
+and it was this design that gave the name to the tablet. While the
+execution is remarkable it is nevertheless primitive, and similar to
+other Amerind art in quality and conception. It is a high development
+of Amerindian sculptural ideas. Another similar tablet exists in the
+so-called “Temple of the Sun.” A cast of this was made by Charnay and a
+photograph from this cast is given in figure on page 185.[164]
+
+[Illustration: SANCTUARY TABLET, TEMPLE (TEOCALLI) OF THE SUN,
+  PALENQUE]
+
+[Illustration: “ALTAR” IN FRONT OF STELA D, COPAN]
+
+At Copan twenty-three stelæ, or monolithic monuments, elaborately
+carved with human figures and hieroglyphs, have been found. Each had
+in front a sculptured block designated as an altar. Their average
+height is twelve feet, and their breadth and their thickness each
+about three feet. Stelæ and so called idols have been exhumed around
+Lake Nicaragua, but all remains grow less important towards the south
+except in Chiriqui, as well as towards the north. Indeed, here in
+Yucatan seems to have sprung the living fountain that watered all the
+desolation of the Western world.
+
+[Illustration: STELA NO. 6, COPAN]
+
+[Illustration: BACK OF STELA NO. 6]
+
+[Illustration: PUMA-SHAPED STOOL OF GREY ANDESITE, CHIRIQUI.]
+
+The stelæ at Copan are some of the most artistic and altogether
+remarkable sculptures found on the continent. They are highly
+decorative, and the execution of the intricate designs with the poor
+stone tools at their command is extraordinary. But all the productions
+of the Mayas pass easily beyond those of any other stock on this
+continent. Some of the conventionalised animal heads used as gargoyles
+are exceedingly well done and so also are several works called
+“singing-girls” (see figures pages 19 and 79). There are no geometric
+patterns at Copan, and the designs and execution are of a high order,
+yet at the same time thoroughly Amerindian. The rattlesnake enters into
+many of the designs and is represented by itself frequently. It was
+an animal of great importance to all Amerinds from the thirty-eighth
+parallel down. Charnay gives an illustration of what he calls votive
+stones, that are apparently the representation of the rattle of the
+revered reptile. The segments are clearly indicated and altogether the
+design seems to me unmistakable. The region of the South-west and
+Mexico is also the richest in species of any part of America, no less
+than “eight out of a total of seventeen species occurring at or near
+the boundary between the United States and the Mexican Republic.” In
+southern Arizona seven different species are found. “Their centre of
+distribution appears to be the tableland of Mexico with its extension
+northward into the south-western United States.”[165]
+
+[Illustration: HEAD SCULPTURED IN STONE, CHULTUNES OF LABNA, YUCATAN]
+
+One of the “Temples of the Cross” at Palenque is flanked at the
+entrance by two well-constructed figures, one on either side, supposed
+to represent the Mayan war and rain gods.[166] These figures are in low
+relief, covered with the customary Amerind trappings and head-dresses
+of this region. On each tablet there are some calculiform characters.
+Many of the ruined buildings still exhibit a wealth of ornamentation
+either carved in stone, modelled in stucco, or constructed out of
+rubble and stucco. Some of the carvings, notably certain heads at
+Uxmal, have formed the basis for much discussion. The latter were
+supposed by Waldeck to be representations of elephants’ trunks, but
+there is no foundation for this supposition. They more likely represent
+ceremonial masks with long noses. Something similar, though lacking
+the curve, is seen in some of the remarkable funeral urns found in the
+Zapotecan tombs.
+
+The statue of Chac-Mool, found at Chichen Itza by Le Plongeon, is
+an example of what was accomplished when the figure was attempted
+without any of the accessories of masks, draperies, etc.[167] It is
+a large reclining figure, crude and primitive. Some of the work at
+other places is more symmetrical, as, for instance, the Lacandon idol
+described by Charnay. “This idol is very beautiful and unique of its
+kind, for nothing like it has been found either in Tabasco or Yucatan.
+It represents a figure sitting cross-legged, the hands resting on the
+knees ... the face now mutilated is crowned by an enormous head-dress
+of a peculiar style, presenting a fantastic head with a diadem and
+medallions, topped by huge feathers, like those on the columns at Tula
+and Chichen-Itza.”[168] This idol was found at Menché, where there is
+a lot of excellent work in the line of carving, some of the wooden
+lintels being particularly interesting. It is impossible in a brief
+chapter to convey more than a slight impression of all this elaborate
+carving. The reader who desires to obtain a full comprehension of the
+work should study Maudsley’s text and illustrations in the _Biologia
+Centrali Americana_.
+
+Where modelling was accomplished by the building-up process with stones
+and mortar the results were sometimes gigantic. Stephens found an
+enormous head made in this way at Izamal at the base of the palace of
+Hunpictok. He described it as being seven feet eight inches high. “The
+features,” he says, “were first rudely formed by small rough stones,
+fixed in the side of the mound by means of mortar, and afterwards
+perfected with stucco so hard that it has resisted the action of air
+and water for centuries.” The stone composing the chin alone measures
+one foot and six inches. The face had an extremely large mustache. This
+singular specimen of the Yucatan Amerinds’ modelling skill has, since
+the visit of Stephens, completely disappeared. At the same place is
+another, however, still intact.
+
+[Illustration: LARGE BUILT-UP HEAD AT IZAMAL
+
+  From Stephens
+]
+
+This one is thirteen feet high and is constructed in the same manner as
+the one that is gone.
+
+Everywhere throughout Yucatan and the contiguous region the
+architecture is overloaded with ornamentation which many large volumes
+would barely be sufficient to describe. In Nicaragua, as well as in
+Honduras, there are found many carvings and sculptures, statues, stelæ,
+etc., but they are rarely equal to those found in the Maya ruins. It
+must be said, however, that the examination of these states has been
+even less thorough than that of the Maya region. Tribes of Nahuatl
+stock built and laboured in the country below the Maya, and in Costa
+Rica there are indications that the remains belong to Amerinds who
+differed from both Maya and Nahuatl.
+
+Some of the supposed metates or mealing stones found in Nicaragua are
+carved with legs and artistically decorated. One figured by Squier is
+a particularly beautiful specimen. It is a thin curved slab, concave
+side up, and has four legs. One end projects considerably beyond the
+legs, apparently forming the head or end where the operator sat or
+kneeled, and is carved in a wide band all the way across. In Chiriqui
+there are similar stones. Another class of carved remains found in
+Chiriqui is apparently a sort of metate, but it differs from the latter
+in being round, and Holmes designates them as stools, for want of a
+more exact term.[169] Some wooden stools have recently been obtained in
+Central America which are so nearly like the affair described by Squier
+as a metate, that it is probable the latter was also a stool. The
+figure on page 188 illustrates this class. They have a depressed upper
+surface and are carved basalt in one piece. An example of the round is
+given above. To carve an object like this from solid basalt must have
+been a work of great duration. It is in their metal- and claywork,
+however, that the Chiriqui Amerinds specially excelled.
+
+[Illustration: STOOL OF GREY BASALT, CHIRIQUI.]
+
+All works are dominated by the customs and religious ideas of the
+Amerind race, which were practically the same everywhere in different
+stages of development. Nowhere do we find a touch of idealism, which
+is such a marked characteristic of the work of the European race.
+The highest of it marks a development in art below the Egyptian. As
+in picture-writing we trace the growth of letters, so by the aid of
+the Amerind sculpture and carving we have a line of art progress from
+infancy to the present time.
+
+[Illustration: COPPER BELL FROM TENNESSEE]
+
+
+
+
+                 [Illustration: PUEBLO MEALING STONES]
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+                 SHELTERS, DWELLINGS, AND ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+The Amerind of North America has generally been considered a shiftless
+and indolent being, but the preceding pages have shown, I think, that
+this estimate is an error, and the following chapters, together with
+the present one, will even more conclusively demolish that false
+assumption. The Amerind to be sure was not a white man, but it must
+not be forgotten that the constant holding of the white man’s nose to
+the grindstone is not so commendable as it is often said to be, for it
+is not choice with him but necessity born of his ways of living and
+his great numbers. Put him in comparatively small numbers on a vast
+continent rich and fertile and abounding in game, and it is not likely
+that he would shut himself up in a factory or in an office, where he
+is only a counting machine. The Amerind was as industrious as his
+environment demanded. Doubtless had his development not been interfered
+with by the Discovery, he might have arrived in time at the same
+condition of pressure that compels us to labour incessantly.
+
+Almost everywhere on this continent are discovered numerous evidences
+of Amerind industry and toil. From the brush shelter of the Pai
+Ute of Arizona to the vast stone structures, richly ornamented, of
+Yucatan, is an immense range, and within these limits are to be
+found about every kind of a refuge from the elements that mankind
+has been able to devise. Mud, boughs caves, wood, adobe, stone,
+ice, snow, wicker-work, wattling, skins, in fact, every material and
+every possible hole, existing in nature, have been utilised by the
+Amerind, and the materials have been given every variety of shape. In
+nothing, perhaps, has his struggle with environment, and the moulding
+effects of the environment, been more clearly exhibited than in the
+forms and materials of the dwellings he has been compelled to invent.
+Other evidences of his perseverance and exertion are discerned in
+great aqueducts, in long irrigating canals, in reservoirs, in huge
+earthworks, and enormous mounds that sometimes rival in magnitude the
+giant constructions of Egypt.
+
+The Amerind dwellings may be divided into three general
+classes,—temporary, portable, and fixed. The two classes, temporary and
+fixed, only are usually recognised by ethnologists, but it has seemed
+to me proper to add the third class, because of the wide use of the
+portable tipi, and other forms of tent. The temporary houses, those
+abandoned on moving camp and seldom occupied again, may be represented
+by the Pai Ute wikiup; the portable, carried from place to place for
+years, by the tipi of the Dakotas; the fixed, or those which are
+occupied either for an extended period or periodically, by the stone or
+adobe house of the Pueblos, or the wood house of the Iroquois, or the
+wood and earth house of the Eskimo.[170]
+
+[Illustration: PAI UTE WIKIUPS, NORTHERN ARIZONA
+
+  From photograph by the Colorado River Expedition, 1872
+]
+
+Outside of a natural cave or rock shelter, the wikiup of the Pai Ute
+exhibits about the lowest type of house used by man. It is said the
+chimpanzee makes a rude hut of boughs and branches, but even that could
+scarcely be less simple than the Arizona wikiup. This is composed
+merely of several branches arranged in a semi-circle, or rather more
+than a semi-circle, eight or ten feet in height, their tops together,
+and covered with boughs of cedar or pine or any other convenient
+brush. About one third of the circumference is open to the south, and
+opposite this side the fire is built a few feet away. The Pai Ute is
+surrounded by remains of excellent stone dwellings constructed long ago
+by Amerinds who are believed to be of the same general stock, but he
+has never tried to improve his wikiup of his own accord. The Utes, his
+kindred on the north, live in good tipis, but the Pai Ute appears never
+to have noticed the fact. The Mokis, also allied to him, live not far
+to southward in excellent houses, yet he has never attempted to emulate
+them.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI KISI CONSTRUCTION]
+
+In the kisi construction of the Mokis we may perhaps see the beginning
+of even the wikiup. The kisi is a sort of windbreak and sun-shelter
+lightly constructed of boughs and made in two ways, one called kishoni,
+being simply poles stuck in the ground in the arc of a circle with
+the concave side towards the north, and interlaced with twigs and
+branches to form a shade. The other kind is built by planting several
+posts with crotches at their tops in the ground in the form of a
+parallelogram and laying other posts or poles across from crotch to
+crotch and covering these with poles to form a platform or roof.
+Against the whole, on the south side, poles and branches are erected
+to form a shade. These affairs are put up in the fields to protect the
+crop tenders when there is no convenient cliff or ledge whereon to
+erect a better structure of stone. Doubtless out of these shelters,
+now seen in the field structures, originally grew the firm adobe and
+stone house, by one step or improvement after another, and probably all
+house construction had some such simple beginning. In a forested area,
+however, the easy construction of a comfortable house out of poles and
+bark would delay any development of a durable stone or adobe structure;
+the adobe, indeed, would not be durable in a humid climate. Protection
+and subsistence dictated the region a tribe or a stock should occupy,
+and the region usually determined the character of the house or
+shelter. House building, in its beginnings, is largely a result of
+environment, and was developed or modified accordingly. The tribes that
+were compelled to live in a sterile, dry country, where game and wood
+were both scarce, were forced to provide themselves with different
+food and different shelter from those which occupied a well-wooded
+country abounding in game. A few skins and poles, in the latter case,
+would quickly produce a house. In the arid region, however, man was
+not provided with such convenient material. His shelter from the sun
+cost him much labour and he was obliged to transport his necessary wood
+long distances. Additions to the shade to make it more comfortable were
+therefore obtained by piling up stones or scraping together the mud
+after a rain, and these operations being repeated, a development of
+skill was the inevitable result; skill which eventually produced a wall
+all round the sun-shelter, with the beams of the latter resting upon
+them instead of upon posts.
+
+[Illustration: PRIMITIVE AMERIND LADDERS]
+
+[Illustration: A NAVAJO HOUSE]
+
+It seems, therefore, altogether probable that stone and mud house
+building originated in arid regions; but in a region treeless, like
+our great plains, the inevitable outcome in the line of a shelter was
+the portable tipi (teepee), because there bison hides were at hand for
+covering, but poles of the proper sort were difficult to secure and
+were carried along. In the forest, neither portable tents nor stone
+houses were necessary. It would only be when population was dense
+enough to destroy the game and timber, or when a people were forced to
+an arid region, that the stone house would develop. The Iroquois was
+a forest Amerind, and he built a house of wood that was excellent in
+construction and answered his purpose admirably. The Navajo occupying
+an arid region has been content with a rude shelter of boughs and
+branches or with boughs or poles covered with mud. They have never
+profited by the example of their Moki neighbours, and built substantial
+houses,—one reason, and the chief one, being that their habit of never
+occupying again any shelter where death has occurred has precluded it,
+for they do not care to bestow great labour on a structure that they
+may be called upon any time to abandon. There are then other causes
+besides ability, or inability, to build substantially that determine
+the character of the Amerind house.
+
+[Illustration: A SWEAT HOUSE]
+
+Bandelier states that the Pimas “dwelt in scattered hamlets, the houses
+of which combine to-day the mud roof of a typical New Mexican pueblo
+with the temporary framework of frail branches characteristic of the
+roaming savage.”[171] The roof is dome-shaped, but it is similar in
+material to the Pueblo mud roof, so that there we have a sort of a
+cross between the Moki field shelter, already mentioned, and the Navajo
+hut or hogan. The stock from which the present Pimas descended are
+supposed to have built the remarkable structure in Arizona known as
+_Casa Grande_, found in ruins by the first explorers. Tribes alter
+their methods of building, either from summer to winter or at different
+epochs. The Omahas at one time made lodges of wood, at another of
+earth, and at still another time they dwelt in tipis of skin. If a
+stone-house-building tribe should migrate to a region where neither
+loose flat stones nor adobe clay could be readily obtained, they would
+be forced to use timber.[172] The Zuñi languages and traditions point
+to the occupancy by the Pueblos in early times of brush houses like
+those of the Pai Utes. The Mohaves live in low huts of branches covered
+with mud.
+
+The communal principle of living pervaded America and largely
+determined the size and character of the dwellings. A number of
+families usually lived together, in the same house, or in a group of
+rooms or houses. The “long-house” of the Iroquois, called by them
+_hodénosote_, and the clustered fortress-houses of the Pueblos, are
+good examples of the results of the practice of the communal principles
+adhered to by most of the Amerinds. It is also believed by some of the
+best authorities, like Bandelier and Morgan, that the Mexican and Mayan
+houses were largely due to the same cause.
+
+Among the Omahas the tipis were usually grouped according to
+gentes.[173] Tipi and wigwam are frequently used by us as synonymous,
+and in some dictionaries a picture of a tipi is made to represent a
+wigwam.[174] This is an error due to unfamiliarity with different forms
+of Amerind dwellings. The tipi is generally a portable structure while
+the wigwam is always fixed, and the latter is also of a different
+shape. Tipi is a Dakota term and wigwam is Algonquin. Tipi is really
+the plural for “house,” the singular being “ti,” and “pi” a termination
+indicating plurality.[175] It is constructed by arranging a number,
+sometimes as many as twenty or thirty, long poles, previously tied
+together near their tops, in a circle of about ten or fifteen feet
+diameter. This conical frame is then covered with bison hides sewed
+together in one sheet, or in modern days with canvas, shaped properly
+and laced or pinned together along the middle third of the junction of
+the covering mantle. The upper third is left loose, and its pointed
+ends are extended up and out by means of outside poles stuck into
+pockets in their extreme upper corners, according to the direction of
+the wind, to let the smoke escape from the fire built in the middle
+of the interior. If the wind blows straight at these flaps they are
+brought close together. Sometimes an extra skin is adjusted at the top
+so that it can be placed on any side to accomplish this object. The
+lower third is left open for a doorway, another skin being adjusted
+before it with a stick to spread it near its upper end, which end is
+attached to the tent. The bottom of the tent cover is held down by
+stakes or pins driven into the ground. In case of high winds, stones or
+other weights are placed on the bottom edge of the skins to keep them
+down. In summer the Omahas, and other tribes of the Dakotas, erected,
+when convenient, an elliptical lodge covered with bark, the roof being
+rounded and the construction being generally similar to the Algonquin
+elliptical wigwam. It was not more than seven feet high, while the
+tipi is twelve to twenty or more. These tribes also sometimes built
+earth lodges, chiefly for summer use, the roofs of which resembled in
+construction those of the Pueblo houses, though they were conical. A
+number of posts were set up in the ground to support in their crotches
+the transverse beams upon which numerous slender poles, about two
+inches in diameter, were laid to reach almost to the top where a hole
+for the exit of smoke was left. Against the outer series of posts
+all around slabs of wood were set up and the whole was then covered
+with earth a foot or two thick after matting and a layer of grass, or
+grass alone, was placed on the rafters or roof poles. This lodge was
+circular, the roof being conical, and it was entered through a covered
+way about ten feet long and five feet wide, the outer opening of which
+was protected by hanging bison hides. The supporting poles or posts
+were arranged in two concentric circles, in large lodges, the inner set
+being higher than the outer. Compartments within opening toward the
+fire were formed of willow matting, or skins.
+
+[Illustration: AN OMAHA TIPI]
+
+The regular tipi was decorated in accordance with tribal customs.
+Dorsey has published some careful notes on this as on other matters
+connected with the tribes of the Dakota stock, and Catlin has also
+given descriptions. The decorations were often the result of a vision.
+If a man had a vision of the aurora he depicted it on his robes and
+tent, the latter having a band of paint around the bottom, above which
+was a zigzag border from which, on one side, three stripes were drawn
+to the top of the tent, four on the other, and one in the rear. If he
+had a vision of the night or of some other “superterrestrial object,
+he blackened the upper part of his tent and a small portion on each
+side of the entrance.” Sometimes a star was also indicated, and night
+was represented by a black band above the middle or at the bottom. A
+tent similar to the Dakota tipi is in wide use among the Amerinds.
+Morgan states that the Dakotas were living in bark-covered houses when
+first discovered, in villages, in the present state of Minnesota,
+and that when they were driven “upon the plains by an advancing
+white population, but after they had become possessed of horses,
+they invented a skin tent eminently adapted to their present nomadic
+condition. It is superior to any other in use among the American
+aborigines from its roominess, its portable character, and the facility
+with which it can be erected and struck.”[176] While this is probably
+accurate as concerns the Dakotas, it is likely that other tribes
+invented a similar tent for themselves, before the appearance of the
+Dakotas on the plains.[177] Three tipis among the Omahas were sacred,
+and sheltered three sacred objects, the Sacred Pole, the Sacred White
+Buffalo-Cow Skin, and the Sacred Bag. These are all now in the Peabody
+Museum at Cambridge. They were built like the common tipi.
+
+[Illustration: A SEMINOLE DWELLING]
+
+The wigwam of the Algonquins was built in two general ways, using bark
+or mats for covering. One form is made by planting elastic poles in the
+ground and bringing their tops together, and binding the whole with
+horizontal poles. It is unlike the tipi, because it is not portable,
+because the poles are flexible, and because the sides curve out from
+bottom to top instead of being straight lines. It is covered with
+birchbark. It is from ten to sixteen feet in diameter on the ground,
+and from six to ten feet high. The fire was built, as in the tipi, in
+the middle of the floor in a slight depression, and the usual outlet
+for smoke was left at the top. “Such a lodge,” says Morgan, “would
+accommodate, in the aboriginal plan of living, two and sometimes three
+married pairs with their children.”[178] The Menominee-Algonquin form
+of wigwam was made by planting in the ground about three feet apart,
+approximating the form of an ellipse, strong saplings some two inches
+in diameter, leaving at each end an opening for a doorway. The poles
+are then bent over toward each other and tied in an arch with strips of
+bark. Horizontal poles are tied on to the upright ones for stiffening,
+and the frame is then covered with bark or mats overlapping each other
+like shingles. The usual smoke outlet is left in the top. A mat curtain
+takes the place of a door. There were seldom, or never, regular doors
+in any Amerind houses on the continent before the Discovery, the
+opening being closed by curtains or mats. Another Menominee shelter,
+described by Hoffman, was made by “putting five or six saplings on each
+side of a parallelogram; the ends are left open, and the top of each
+sapling on a given side is then bound down over its opposite fellow to
+form a roof somewhat resembling a wagon-top. Horizontal saplings are
+then bound around the framework to make the structure secure, and over
+all are laid, longitudinally, a series of long strips of pine bark the
+upper pieces overlapping those below, while a large piece is placed
+over the highest part of the roof, which thus sheds the rain or melting
+snow.... The bedding is spread on the ground and usually covers the
+entire floor.”[179]
+
+The eastern portion of the continent below Labrador, being
+well-forested, the Amerind houses there appear to have been entirely of
+wood, or sometimes of wood and mud combined. For this reason nothing
+of any of them, except occasional earth rings, is to be found and,
+so far as remains of houses are concerned, our wonderful, surpassing
+Moundbuilders appear to have had no houses. Turning to other Amerinds,
+however, who occupied the country when the whites arrived, we glean a
+fair idea of what the houses of the Mississippi valley may have been
+at their best. They varied in design in the same locality, of course,
+according to the tribe, in the same way that I have mentioned that in
+the South-west we find to-day Amerinds living in the most primitive
+form of dwelling not many miles away from others living in high types.
+
+Some of the Mississippi valley houses were doubtless excellent
+structures though built of wood, or of wattling plastered with
+mud. Many of the mounds, squares, and circles were connected with
+buildings, generally forming the foundations for dwellings or other
+structures as in other parts of the continent.[180] In other words,
+they were often platforms for houses. The reasons for building a house
+on a platform raised above the surrounding lands might be many; one
+simple one was a desire to keep the floor dry in wet weather. The floor
+was earth, and earth on a level during long rains got uncomfortably
+damp if not wet. It would be natural in building, after such lessons,
+to elevate the floor of the house, which was done by rearing a platform
+of earth. This gave good drainage, and besides in a malarial region
+would be more healthful, and furthermore added to the defensive
+qualities. The habitations being built upon platforms, it would not
+do to build sacred structures on low ground. Man seldom looks down
+upon his spiritual constructions. Hence the higher the sacred building
+could be placed, the more sacred it seemed, and the huge flat-topped
+mounds of the Mississippi valley and Mexico were the result. Some of
+the Florida Amerinds were still living in dwellings reared on platforms
+of this kind, and so were others in the Southern United States, at the
+time of the first visits of the whites. The mounds, as a rule, are on
+the bottom lands along river courses, though in places where there are
+higher terraces these have frequently been chosen. Thomas quotes the
+following passage from Garcilasso: “The town and the houses of the
+cacique Ossachile are like those of other caciques in Florida.... The
+Indians try to place their villages on elevated sites; but inasmuch
+as in Florida there are not many sites of this kind where they can
+conveniently build, they erect elevations themselves in the following
+manner: They select the spot and carry there a quantity of earth, which
+they form into a kind of platform two or three pikes in height, the
+summit of which is large enough to give room for twelve, fifteen, or
+twenty houses, to lodge the cacique and his attendants. At the foot
+of this elevation they mark out a square place, according to the size
+of the village, around which the leading men have their houses....
+To ascend the elevation they have a straight passageway from bottom
+to top, fifteen or twenty feet wide. Here steps are made by massive
+beams, and others are planted firmly in the ground to serve as walls.
+On all other sides of the platform the sides are cut steep.”[181]
+Thomas quotes further from Garcilasso: “The chief, whose name was also
+Guaxule, came out with five hundred men to meet him and took him in the
+village (pueblo) in which were three hundred houses, and lodged him in
+his own. This house stood on a high mound (cerro) similar to others we
+have already mentioned. Round about was a roadway sufficiently broad
+for six men to walk abreast.”[182] Again he quotes Le Page Du Pratz,
+who visited the Natchez in 1720: “As I was an intimate friend of the
+sovereign of the Natchez he showed me their temple, which is about
+thirty feet square, and stands on an artificial mount about eight feet
+high, by the side of a small river.”[183] There was also still another
+reason for building on mounds or elevated platforms; the reason, or
+at least one great reason, why the Mayas and Mexicans built on them,
+namely the desire to protect the foundations. In Louisiana the Taensas,
+in the time of La Salle, built of “sun-baked mud mixed with straw,
+arched over with a dome-shaped roof.”[184] Now a structure of this
+kind if reared on ordinary ground would soon be destroyed by the rains
+and moisture sapping its foundations, but by placing it on an elevated
+platform, where its footing would be comparatively dry, it would endure
+a long time. A sacred house would be likely to be so placed, if not
+others.
+
+[Illustration: MISSISSIPPI VALLEY METHOD OF USING JACAL CONSTRUCTION,
+  ACCORDING TO THOMAS]
+
+[Illustration: CLIFF OUTLOOK, CANYON DEL MUERTO, ARIZONA]
+
+Every tribe had some kind of a sacred structure, the Omahas carrying
+from place to place the three sacred tents referred to. The sacred
+structures, too, were generally of the same style as the house of the
+chief. Each village of the Natchez had a house devoted to the dead,
+besides others dedicated to different sacred objects. The death-house
+was oval, “having a circumference of one hundred feet—a simple hut
+without a window, and with a low and narrow opening on the side for
+the only door.”[185] Here were “garnered the choicest fetiches of the
+tribe, of which some were moulded from clay and baked in the sun.
+There, too, were gathered the bones of the dead; there an undying fire
+was kept burning by appointed guardians as if to warm and light and
+cheer the departed.”[185] “Hard by the temple, on an artificial mound
+of earth, stood the hut of the Great Sun; around it were grouped the
+cabins of the tribe.”[185]
+
+It seems unnecessary to give any further space to show that the mounds
+that have aroused so much discussion and romantic writing were, many of
+them, the foundations for various structures reared by Amerinds as we
+know them.
+
+Morgan advanced a theory that the hollow square earthworks were the
+foundations for long buildings, at one and the same time dwellings
+and a part of the defences, the interior area being used for a work
+place, children’s playground, etc. Many Algonquin houses were made
+of a parallelogram shape, with straight sides about eight feet high
+and a rounded roof. These houses were fifty or more feet long, and
+the matting with which they were covered could be readily removed
+to let in the sun and air. As a rule the villages were surrounded by
+palisades. The Iroquois, as well as most other Amerinds, lived in
+permanent villages, which were at first stockaded. They used three
+kinds of houses; a triangular lodge made of poles with bark for a
+covering, used in hunting, and the _ganosote_ or smaller bark house
+constructed in the same way as the third kind, the _hodénosote_ or
+“long-house,” which was built to accommodate a number of families.
+This was sometimes a hundred feet long, and from it came the name
+_Hodenosaunee_ by which the great League of the Five (Six) Nations was
+known to the world and to themselves. It was made by planting poles in
+the ground and binding others across them to make a strong frame of
+the shape of a parallelogram, upon which a roof of triangular pattern
+was built out of poles covered with bark. Sometimes the roof was round
+like that of many Algonquin tribes, and that of the ganosote was very
+frequently round. The height of the sides was about ten feet. The
+ganosote was about fifteen by twenty feet and fifteen feet high, with
+inside a kind of double berth built against the longer walls like the
+berths in a ship. It would accommodate eight persons. The entrance
+was closed by skins or by bark hung on wooden hinges. The covering
+was bark held in place by an outer set of poles tied through to the
+inside ones. The long-house was divided into a number of chambers
+six or eight feet wide with a passageway through all from end to end
+where the doors were. “Between each four apartments, two on a side,
+was a fire-pit in the center of the hall, used in common by their
+occupants.... Raised bunks were constructed around the walls of each
+apartment for beds.”[186] These structures constituted the village
+which was surrounded by a palisade, sometimes a double or triple row.
+The houses were placed without arrangement; and when the league grew
+powerful the palisade was dispensed with. The Lenapé “constructed small
+wattled huts with rounded tops thatched with the leaves of the Indian
+corn or with sweetflags.... In summer light brush tents took the place
+of these.”[187]
+
+[Illustration: HALL OF COLUMNS, MITLA
+
+  Holmes’s Archæological Studies in Mexico
+
+  Photograph by A. V. Armour
+]
+
+[Illustration: TRANSVERSE SECTION (SOMEWHAT GENERALISED) SHOWING
+  CONSTRUCTION OF PALENQUE BUILDINGS, YUCATAN
+
+  _f_, trefoil opening through medial wall; _g_, _h_, two principal
+  varieties of roof comb
+
+  W. H. Holmes
+]
+
+[Illustration: SOME DETAILS OF PUEBLO HOUSE ARCHITECTURE
+
+  A TRIANGULAR SIPAPU OR SACRED KIVA ORIFICE
+
+  PUEBLO ROOF CONSTRUCTION
+
+  SOME MOKI ROOF DRAINS
+]
+
+On the North-west coast the native houses are usually built of cedar
+slabs. These slabs are split out of the wide trees[188] and the walls
+are obtained by securing them in an upright position to a frame about
+ten feet high. On this rests the roof of split shakes, bark, or boards,
+laid on rafters which are supported in the middle by two long, heavy
+beams, running the entire length of the house, and themselves borne up
+by four huge posts, often carved with totemic emblems. The general
+outward appearance of these houses is much like an ordinary low
+one-story house or barn of our own, except that in the middle of the
+roof there is a large square hole for a smoke outlet, the fire being
+made on a patch of sand or earth that forms a square about nine by ten
+feet in the middle of the room, the size depending on the dimensions
+of the house. They are usually about thirty or forty feet square,[189]
+the interior forming one large room, sometimes having a platform on
+one or two sides or all the way round about six feet wide and two feet
+high. This is divided by thin partitions into small compartments,
+which are covered about six feet above the floor with a ceiling of
+thin boards. A curtain in front makes a room of it. These houses vary
+somewhat in the different localities, but the type is about the same
+from the Puget Sound region to Yakutat Bay. Some of the Sound Amerinds
+give but one pitch to the roof. Many of the natives now build a house
+of sawed materials and roof it with shingles so that their modern
+villages, like the one at Sitka, present outwardly few Amerind signs,
+as they usually have chimneys, too, instead of smoke holes. Where
+they have the latter, boards are stuck up above the ridge to form a
+windbreak, or a more perfect arrangement for preventing back draught is
+applied in the shape of a large solid shutter so pivoted in the middle
+line that it can be tilted from one side of the ridge to the other.
+Among some tribes there are several smoke holes with adjustable boards
+that can be worked from below with a pole. The entire front gable of
+a chief’s house or an assembly house is often ornamented with a huge
+totemic design, painted on smooth boards that fill the whole space.
+In front of the house stood the tall pole bearing the totems of the
+inmates carved, one above another, with a full relief totem adorning
+the top. Small houses were built to hold the boxes containing the ashes
+of the dead, and the roof was sometimes surmounted with a totem carved
+in wood, or the totem was erected on a small pole nearby, or placed
+under the roof.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI NOTCHED DOORWAY, SO MADE THAT LARGE BUNDLES COULD
+  BE TAKEN IN
+
+  The transom was probably at first a smoke outlet
+]
+
+In all the constructions of the Amerinds of the North-west coast we
+perceive the powerful influence of surroundings on a primitive people.
+The region abounds in superb cedars with a grain so fine and straight
+that the logs can be readily split into slabs a couple of inches thick,
+that are admirable material for building purposes. Then there are
+plenty of young straight hemlocks, firs, and cedars for rafters and
+framework, so that these Amerinds, like those of the cliff region of
+the South-west, had their building material almost ready made. Being
+largely fishermen, they were not well supplied with skins, so that it
+was not easy to make pole lodges covered with them, as was the case
+with many Amerinds of the interior, where trees were absent or hard to
+split and where skins were plenty.
+
+[Illustration: A ZUÑI CHIMNEY, MOKI THE SAME]
+
+[Illustration: ONE FORM OF MOKI CHIMNEY HOOD]
+
+In California a variety of houses was built, as there are many
+different stocks and conditions. The Yokuts made them of tule mats in
+the shape of an “A” tent with a door at the front. A half dozen or more
+of these were placed in a row and above them a flat sun-shelter of
+branches laid on a platform of poles supported by crotched posts set in
+the ground. Others build a hut of slabs or bark brought to a point and
+open on one side, like a tipi cut in two. Others again live in wikiups
+made by covering a square framework with boughs, leaving one side open.
+When the side of an Amerind hut is left open in this way, the opening
+always faces the south, except in hot weather, when it generally faces
+the other way. Another California tribe lives in earth lodges entered
+from the top through a hole or hatch with steps on the outside. This
+lodge was made by excavating a couple of feet and putting this earth
+on the covering framework, for a roof. In the mountains where wood was
+plenty they frequently used no earth at all, showing how quickly they
+adapted themselves to circumstances. The Modoc “excavates a circular
+space from two to four feet deep, then erects over it a rounded
+structure of poles and puncheons, strongly braced up with timbers,
+sometimes hewn and squared. The whole is warmly covered with earth, and
+an aperture left atop, reached by a centre pole. Before the coming of
+the whites secured them against the constant assaults and incursions
+of their enemies, their dwellings were slighter, consisting generally
+of a frame of willow poles, with tule matting overspread.”[190] Another
+tribe of the Pacific Slope, the Makhelchel, build cabins “of slender
+willow poles set upright in the ground, with others crossing them
+horizontally, forming a square lattice-work.”[191] The Yokaya have a
+lodge or dwelling composed of a “huge framework of willow poles covered
+with thatch, and resembling a large flattish haystack.” The Karok
+“excavate a round cellar, four or five feet deep and twelve or fifteen
+feet in diameter. Over this they build a square cabin of split poles
+or puncheons, planted erect in the ground and covered with a flattish
+puncheon roof. They eat and sleep in the cellar ... and store their
+supplies on the bank above next to the walls of the cabin.”[192] The
+Maidu make a hut of slabs placed together in something the shape of a
+tipi, with a low, square projection for an entrance.
+
+Passing northward to the Aleuts, we find “houses built with the floor
+somewhat below the level of the outside soil, the walls of whale-ribs,
+sticks of wood, or upright stone walls, covered outside with mats,
+straw and finally turf.... The roof was formed by arching whale-ribs,
+or long sticks of driftwood, matted, thatched, and turfed like the
+sides, with a central aperture. A platform, somewhat raised, around the
+sides of the house afforded a place for sitting and sleeping. Later
+each village had a large house or _kashim_, which served as a common
+work-shop, and a lodging for strangers, as well as for a town-hall
+for their discussions and festivals.... Still later, in a period not
+greatly antedating the historic, the Aleuts began to build large
+communistic dwellings with features peculiar to themselves, without
+doors, and entered by the hole in the roof, the inmates descending
+on a notched log placed upright. These large yourts were divided,
+by partitions of wood, stone, or matting, into small rooms like the
+state-rooms of a steamer, but without doors; open toward the center of
+the yourt, and each accommodating one family.”[193]
+
+It will be noted that we have again changed materials of construction;
+and why? Because the Aleutian Islands are devoid of timber, devoid of
+good building stone that an Amerind could get at, and he resorted
+therefore to what there was—driftwood, whale-ribs, turf, etc.[194] The
+house called by the Russians _barabára_ seems to have been originally
+made of turf even to the roof, and I saw examples in the summer of 1899
+at Unalaska and on St. Paul Island. The turf or sod was cut into slabs
+and laid up like stones.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF ESKIMO SNOW IGLU]
+
+Continuing northward we reach the vast treeless arctic regions, where
+cold is the great enemy, and the reader wonders what man can do here in
+the way of architecture. He has done considerable; amongst other things
+he devised the only true arch found on the continent, and constructed
+one of the most admirable and unique dwellings in the world. This he
+built out of the snow which fell about him and prevented him from
+securing other material. The invention of the snow house by the Eskimo,
+or Innuit, as they call themselves, was one of the greatest triumphs
+over environment man has ever accomplished. I refer, of course, to the
+perfected snow house, the dome-shaped _iglugeak_, commonly called by
+us _igloo_ or _iglu_. _Iglu_ is the Innuit generic term for “house,”
+the distinctive name for snow house being _iglugeak_. This snow house
+is begun by selecting a suitable deep drift that is compact enough to
+permit homogeneous blocks to be taken from it, with the snow-knife,
+which is a bone tool shaped like a short sword. Latterly steel saws are
+employed when they have them. In the pit formed by removal of blocks
+of snow the builder works at his walls, the bottom of the excavation
+finally forming the floor of the house. The first block is bevelled
+down to a wedge shape with the point toward the beginning, and the
+worker goes on round his circle, and when he comes again to the wedge
+his wall rises upon the first portion and continues thus in a spiral
+fashion to the top, constantly narrowing till at last one block fills
+the opening. It takes two to adjust this, though one may build a
+small house successfully to that last point. By building spirally and
+therefore continuously, there is always support on two sides for the
+last block laid. The edges are slanted at the same time to bring the
+tiers gradually toward the centre. Joints and holes are filled with
+snow, though a small hole is left at the top for ventilation. As the
+heating of this house is done with lamps there is little smoke. For
+camping purposes a small snow house is built, seven feet diameter and
+five feet high, in about two hours. When made for permanent use the
+house is about twelve feet high and fifteen feet diameter. Plenty of
+light comes through the snow, but a window of ice or seal intestine
+is often placed over the entrance, which is reached by a more or less
+extended passage, with vaults for storage, by the way.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF SNOW IGLU]
+
+But though this house is so cleverly built, and is warm, and proof
+against everything but mild weather, the Innuit, if he can, will build
+a permanent winter house of drift wood, stones, earth, and sod and
+whale-ribs. These from the outside look like mounds of earth, and as
+soon as warm weather comes are nothing but wet cellars, which the
+inhabitants quickly abandon for the time, erecting with their walrus
+and seal skins a summer tent, called a _tupek_ or _topek_. The Point
+Barrow tupek is something like a tipi, without a smoke hole, as the
+fire is built outside when they can secure wood to build one. All the
+Alaska Innuit now use canvas tents of the “wall” pattern, when they can
+procure them.
+
+The Amerind of the interior of the northland, where timber grows,
+utilises it and the skins of the animals he kills. The Nenenot about
+Hudson Bay occupy, all the year round, a tent almost identical with the
+Dakota tipi.
+
+[Illustration: AN ALASKA ESKIMO WINTER HOUSE, POINT BARROW
+
+  Interior and sections p. 221
+]
+
+No construction on the continent shows more skill than the Innuit
+snow iglu. The winter houses, of snow or other material, are usually
+occupied by two or more families. Many interiors of snow houses are
+lined with the summer tent covering to prevent the drip of the walls
+from falling on the occupants.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR GROUND PLAN OF A MOKI HOUSE]
+
+As the polar regions developed the snow-house; forest regions, bark
+and mat houses; barren plains, portable tents; so arid regions, where
+disintegrating cliffs furnished an abundance of flat slabs of stone,
+evolved stone houses, and broad dry valleys or plains lacking cliffs,
+timber, or large game, but yielding good clay soil, produced houses
+of mud or adobe; or, according to conditions, such combinations of
+these materials as were easiest and most practicable. It is next in
+order to review the houses of the arid regions constructed of stone,
+adobe, jacal, cajon, pisé,[195] etc., and the cavate lodges. To do
+full justice to the subject of houses would require a separate volume,
+but enough may be given here to present a general view. The occupied
+villages of the South-western United States are similar to the ruins
+found throughout that region, and the cliff-dwellings, which some
+writers would clothe with mystery, as has been mentioned, were no more
+mysterious than the occupied dwellings of the Moki; or any other Pueblo
+village, which, fortunately, remains inhabited by the builders.[196]
+The cliff-dwellings were constructed in cliffs simply because it was
+expedient to build them there and not because the builders were a race
+apart from other Amerinds. The canyons where the cliff-dwellings occur
+have bottom lands that are fertile and easily irrigated, both by stream
+water, and after the Pueblo fashion, by guiding shower waters with hoes
+amongst the corn. This in itself was a sufficient object for building
+in the canyons, and the huge, natural conchoidal alcoves that occur
+in the faces of the prevailing formation were attractive places to
+build in for several reasons, one of which may have been protection
+from assault and the weather, and another the frequent presence of
+springs at the back of these cavities. These springs have almost
+vanished, in many cases have entirely disappeared, owing to slightly
+drier conditions now prevailing. But I have frequently noticed at the
+back part of many of the cavities that had no ruins, or few ruins, to
+cover it up, a moisture that might at times increase to a dripping, or
+even flowing, that would furnish enough water for the daily supply of
+a considerable Amerind village. The construction is the same as other
+Pueblo houses of stone.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF WOOD AND EARTH IGLU]
+
+[Illustration: AN ALASKA ESKIMO WINTER HOUSE OF WOOD AND EARTH, POINT
+  BARROW]
+
+[Illustration: STONE STEPS AT ORAIBI]
+
+The inhabited pueblos, like the ruins, usually consist of a number of
+rooms built adjoining or on top of each other, like a lot of square
+boxes placed in rows or in a pyramidal pile, or like a series of steps,
+with the total height at the back often straight down. One or two
+single-room houses are first built, and then additions are made from
+time to time till the pile grows to a considerable height; three or
+four stories.[197] Groups of these groups built near each other form
+courts between. The lower tier of rooms, in olden times, was not
+entered from the ground, but from the roof through a hatchway, a ladder
+leading up on the outside and down on the inside. The upper rooms, or
+houses, were entered from the roofs of the lower ones; that is, the
+roofs of the lower rooms formed the floors of the upper ones, and also
+balconies in front of the rooms. I occupied for a time one of these
+upper rooms in Tewa, on the “East Mesa” at the Moki towns, and I found
+the roof in front of my door a delightful place, commanding a view of
+the whole mesa and a hundred miles beyond. I could also reach the top
+of my house easily, by a sort of stairway formed on the edge of the
+prolonged wall that separated me from my neighbour, and as this was the
+summit of the village my view was superb. Such stairways are common in
+all the villages. The ladders by which the various roofs are reached
+are now much like our own, but rudely made, and the upper ends are
+often very long, extending in many cases far above the house-top. The
+walls, about a foot thick, are of stone slabs laid in adobe mortar,
+and are generally built up by the women, who take their own time to
+the work, adding a few stones whenever they feel like it. Beams of
+small tree-trunks, six to eight inches in diameter, form the basis of
+the flat roof.[198] They are laid across the top of the walls and the
+ends, if too long, usually allowed to project beyond. These are covered
+with smaller poles laid about a foot apart, and on these are spread
+slender willows or reeds, with a layer of grass or twigs next, on which
+a layer of adobe mortar is laid and earth trodden down on top till it
+is firm, when a finish is made with another coat of adobe mortar. A
+slight pitch is given to the roof. No plumb-line, level, or square was
+used by the Amerinds anywhere on the continent so far as is now known.
+Sometimes the floors are paved with irregular flat sandstone slabs, but
+in most houses the floor is formed by a coat of adobe mortar which is
+patched and renewed as needed. Moccasined feet are not hard on such a
+surface, but my heavy soled shoes were the despair of the owner of my
+habitation. The hand is used as a trowel. The chimney is usually at one
+corner, and did not exist in America previous to the sixteenth century.
+A hood is built down from the roof to within about three or four feet
+of the floor, to catch the smoke, and outside the chimney is built
+up about three feet, sometimes with stones, but more frequently with
+large earthen pots with the bottoms knocked out. The hood is formed
+of sticks plastered with adobe mortar. Doorways were formerly of the
+notched variety[199] closed by a curtain, and the hatchways were closed
+by a mat of reeds. In later times the doorways have become like our
+own, and doors, too, have been made out of sawed boards. My door at
+Tewa was hung on hinges and had a latch and string. Glazed windows have
+also been adopted in many houses. The Rio Grande pueblos are built
+of adobe bricks, and so, largely, is Zuñi, but there is little adobe
+in the Moki towns, except in the form of plaster and mortar. The Rio
+Grande pueblos were largely constructed of adobe when first visited in
+1540. The Pueblo Amerind frequently abandoned his village for one cause
+or another and built a new one elsewhere, so while his village may be
+called a permanent one it was not much more so than villages of the
+Algonquins and Iroquois.
+
+[Illustration: CLIFF-DWELLING, EASTERN COVE OF MUMMY CAVE, CANYON DE
+  CHELLY, ARIZONA]
+
+[Illustration: HOUSES IN WALPI, ONE OF THE MOKI TOWNS, ARIZONA
+
+  In this are well seen the plastered and unplastered walls of stone,
+  the ladders of ascent, the “end wall” steps, the notched doorway,
+  with transom, the projecting roof beams, a rabbit-skin robe hanging
+  on the wall above the right-hand ladder, and also on the left the
+  entrance to a passageway through to another court
+
+  Photograph by U. S. Geological Survey
+]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF A GROUP OF CAVATE LODGES, ARIZONA]
+
+[Illustration: PLAN AND SECTIONS OF A CAVATE LODGE]
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING POCKET AT BACK OF SOME CAVATE LODGES
+
+  It was probably a receptacle for water which dripped slowly from
+  the rock in wet seasons
+]
+
+Besides houses, some of the Amerinds of the South-west dwelt in
+shelters excavated wholly or in part in the face of a cliff or
+mountain, or hill. There are four localities where these cavate lodges
+occur in numbers, the northern Rio Grande valley, the San Juan River
+valley, the San Francisco mountain region, and the Rio Verde valley
+in Arizona. There are in these places thousands of cavate lodges.
+They average in size two or three rooms, sometimes communicating
+by a ledge, sometimes, often, in fact, with excavated connections.
+Some of the Verde group[200] are cut back a long distance into the
+rock—forty or fifty feet. The rooms are both oblong and circular, about
+seven feet high and ten by seventeen feet in size, or eight or ten
+feet diameter, according to the shape. There were no chimneys, the
+fire-pits being near the entrances. Nor were there any windows, the
+doorway being the only opening to the outside. Floors were levelled by
+filling depressions with adobe clay and low ridges were built up of
+the same material, probably to keep the inmates off the bottom, which
+must have sometimes been damp. Poles or willows laid across the ridges
+with skins on them would have made a flooring. Depressions at the back
+walls appear to have been made to hold water, and doubtless at times
+there was a “seepage” of considerable amount, as I have suggested
+regarding the open conchoidal caves occupied by the Cliff-dwellers.
+What appear to be stepping-stones are found in some entrances, as
+if water at times flowed out. The Verde group are in a soft grey
+sandstone, the Rio Grande in tufa, the San Francisco in cinder hills.
+These cavate dwellings are simply another form of Amerind residence
+due to necessity or expedience.[201] In other places there are some
+that were undoubtedly merely farming outlooks, occupied only during
+the crop season, just as there are cliff houses for this purpose, and
+also houses erected singly in open valleys. But many cavate lodges were
+actual residences for a period of years, owing to circumstances of
+one kind or another. The Cliff-dwellers may still be found among the
+Tarahumaris of northern Mexico. Schwatka describes some who “had walled
+up the outward face of a cave nearly to the top, leaving the latter for
+ventilation.” Many small cliff-dwellings in other places were so made
+to allow the smoke to escape. That is, the wall along the outer edge
+of the cavity was not carried quite up to the rock above, so that the
+smoke could drift out. There was, therefore, no roof over the dwelling,
+but it was sheltered by the overhanging rock. Many more examples of
+this adaptation of the dwelling to circumstances might be added.
+
+There are ruins scattered all over the South-west, many of which were
+built by the same set of Amerinds, and do not represent a vanished
+population. Still, I believe that the population was at one time much
+greater than it was when our acquaintance with it began. Internecine
+wars resulting from a diminution of water-supply; diseases introduced
+by the whites; and also the attacks and absorption of tribes by the
+wilder Amerinds, being some of the causes of the diminution. It would
+not be possible to describe even all the prominent ruins here, but
+I will mention several. Beginning easterly of the Rio Grande, we
+find the Pecos Ruins first of importance. There are also remains of a
+large adobe Catholic church and a convent here, not finally and fully
+abandoned till about 1840. The ruins consist of two chief buildings
+on a low table, surrounded by an artificial wall. The buildings were
+in the form of rectangles, with courts within, one 55 by 440 feet,
+and the other 170 by 350 feet. In places, they were three or four
+stories high, terraced, Pueblo fashion. The construction was slightly
+different from the ordinary, as the upper floor and roof beams rested
+mainly on heavy upright posts set into the walls, and not directly
+on the walls themselves. The whole framework was thus independent of
+the enclosing walls, very much as our modern steel frame buildings
+are. The walls were of sandstone slabs, and were from one to two feet
+thick. Another group of important ruins, and about the finest specimens
+of the stone buildings of the ancient Pueblos, is that of the Chaco,
+in north-western New Mexico.[202] There are eleven chief ruins, and
+many smaller ones. The principal ruins were once houses three, four,
+or perhaps five stories high, all built of sandstone slabs and blocks
+obtained from the débris of the cliffs. Some of the walls are still
+standing to the height of thirty or forty feet. All are not uniform in
+the way the stones are laid, the variation being due to building at
+different times, and to a variation of the available supply of slabs.
+The stones were usually laid so closely, and so carefully chinked with
+spalls, that the outside of the walls resembles a smooth mosaic; though
+adobe mortar and rubble were freely used in the interior. Lintels,
+as was generally the case throughout America, were of wood. The date
+of the abandonment of these buildings is not known. They were first
+mentioned by Gregg, in 1844.[203]
+
+[Illustration: THEORETIC ROOF CONSTRUCTION OF MITLA
+
+  W. H. Holmes
+]
+
+[Illustration: CEILING OR ROOF PLAN
+
+  GROUND PLAN OF A KIVA AND CEILING PLAN OF ANOTHER
+
+  The entrance is by ladder through the hole in the ceiling, which is
+  also the smoke outlet. The floor is paved with slabs of stone, and
+  is about 12 inches higher at the right-hand end. There are places
+  on each side for the looms, blankets being woven in the kivas. The
+  fireplace is the black square. At the left is the plank containing
+  the sacred orifice called the sipapu. The foot of the ladder rests
+  on the edge of the raised portion of the floor
+]
+
+[Illustration: CHACO RUINS MASONRY
+
+  From _Report_ of Hayden Expedition; 2 and 3 not found in modern
+  Pueblo architecture
+]
+
+[Illustration: From Hayden _Report_]
+
+There were many round towers of stone in the South-west, also the work
+of the Pueblos. Some stand alone but most of them are near other ruins.
+Often they were built with two or three concentric walls from two to
+five feet apart. A double-walled tower on the Mancos had an outer
+diameter of forty-three feet. Some of them may have been watch-towers,
+but those connected with other buildings were perhaps religious
+structures, or were used somewhat as the kiva[204] is to-day. The kiva
+is a room now usually square, in part, or wholly, below the general
+surface of the locality, used as a kind of club-house, council-house,
+lounging place, and meeting place for members of the society to which
+it belongs; and also a lodging place for the men; women are generally
+excluded. In Zuñi, the kivas are rooms on the ground floor. Many
+ancient kivas were round.
+
+[Illustration: RUIN CALLED CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA]
+
+Adobe brick and adobe clay in various forms were largely employed by
+the South-western and Mexican Amerinds, and there are evidences that
+some tribes in the Mississippi valley also used it. In the Rio Grande
+valley the adobe is made into large bricks, sun-dried and laid up with
+a mortar of the same material. Otherwise the villages are much the
+same as those described. One of the best modern examples of the adobe
+construction is the village of Taos in north-eastern New Mexico. (See
+illustration page 3.) Another method of employing adobe is seen in the
+famous ruin called _Casa Grande_, near Florence, Arizona, which our
+government recently repaired so that it will endure for a considerable
+time. This was made by the cajon method; that is, the adobe mud was
+rammed into large chests or boxes of wicker, without top or bottom, and
+when the material was sufficiently dried to hold its shape the frame
+was removed and the operation repeated till the wall was finished. The
+ruin referred to is only one of a number that were still standing in
+an area of about sixty-five acres in 1744, when Father Sedelmair saw
+them. He described the present ruin as having four stories, but only
+three are now distinguishable at the highest part. Its age is unknown.
+Its builders are supposed to have been the ancestors of the present
+Pimas, though probably there was considerable difference in the matter
+of culture. Father Kino, in 1694, was the first European to see the
+place and it was a ruin then. It was doubtless a communal dwelling like
+all the other large structures of the Amerinds of this region. Its size
+on the ground is forty-three by fifty-nine feet. Partitions three or
+four feet thick divide the interior into five rooms, the middle one
+having higher walls than the rest. The adobe blocks are two feet high,
+three to five long, and three or four across, and are almost as hard
+as sandstone while dry. There may have been upper stories of plastered
+wattled posts. Another famous ruin similar to this is the _Casas
+Grandes_ in Chihuahua, Mexico. It is built in much the same way as
+_Casa Grande_, and there are more buildings there standing. Probably
+there were at one time a great many structures of this kind in that
+region, and there may be others still standing in less explored parts.
+In the Salt River valley many of the buildings were of a somewhat
+different type again, as concerns their wall construction.[205] The
+Hemenway Expedition excavated a great many sites and found that the
+walls were often adobe rammed in between two series of posts wattled
+with reeds and cross-braced with sticks, the outer part of the wattled
+frames being plastered with adobe mortar. The thinner walls were
+constructed with only one line of wattled posts plastered on both
+sides, after the manner of the Mexican construction known as jacal,
+which is a set of poles fixed in the ground and then plastered on one
+or both sides with mud. The upper stories of some of the Rio Grande
+structures in the early times were made of wood probably plastered
+this way, which explains why in the southern part of New Mexico there
+are not now found higher standing walls of ruins or evidences of
+several stories.[206] Examples also have been seen in South-western
+Colorado, where a kind of wicker-work was built on the top of a wall
+and plastered on both sides. In the Salt River ruins the existence of
+the wood-work was indicated by the cavities left by its decay. There
+were also other structures built without the wattled frames. The
+cajon and pisé construction are very much alike, one being a Spanish
+and the other a French term, except that any pounded or rammed earth
+construction might be pisé, while the cajon is distinctly made by
+ramming earth into a box.[207] Therefore the _Casa Grande_ would be
+a clear example of cajon, while the Salt River construction of adobe
+rammed between the wattled frames would be pisé; and the plastered
+wicker-work would be jacal. The pisé and cajon method is very old all
+over the world. It is still to be found in France and England. In
+France the pisé box is about three yards long, one yard high, and about
+half a yard wide. The readiness with which the Amerind took advantage
+of his resources in the architectural line is again apparent in these
+great adobe structures of the Amerinds of northern Mexico and the
+South-western United States. It is not sensible, therefore, when some
+style of construction is discovered differing from that which we have
+been accustomed to see, to ascribe it to some mysterious race.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSVERSE SECTION OF AN ORDINARY YUCATEC BUILDING
+
+  _f_, capstones of corbel vault; _l_, roof crest or comb. Such a
+  building stood on the top of a mound
+
+  W. H. Holmes
+]
+
+[Illustration: W. H. Holmes
+
+  FORMS OF THE MAYA CORBEL VAULT]
+
+In southern Mexico they erected extensive cities or pueblos because
+there they were more crowded together than anywhere to the northward,
+but these cities were essentially the same as the more simple towns in
+the northern country. At Tlascala “the houses were built, for the most
+part, of mud or earth; the better sort of stone and lime, or bricks
+dried in the sun. They were unprovided with doors or windows, but in
+the apertures for the former hung mats fringed with pieces of copper,
+or something which by its tinkling sound would give notice of anyone’s
+entrance. The streets were narrow and dark.”[208] This extract from
+Prescott might picture a New Mexican pueblo instead of one of the towns
+encountered by Cortez which have been often so romantically described.
+The copper on the mats was probably more for Amerind ornament than
+for the purpose stated by Prescott. While in some respects the Aztec
+towns may have been more elaborate than the New Mexican towns, there
+was probably not much difference in their method of construction. “The
+principal buildings and temples of the city were covered with a hard
+white stucco which glistened like enamel in the ... morning sun.”[209]
+This was perhaps a wash of gypsiferous clay similar to that used by the
+Mokis, or it may have been similar to the zahcab of the Mayas, which
+was a singular and abundant white earth used by them as a stucco. It
+was found in pockets.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLANS OF YUCATEC BUILDINGS
+
+  W. H. Holmes
+]
+
+“The dwellings of the common people were also placed on foundations
+of stone which rose to the height of a few feet, and were then
+succeeded by courses of unbaked bricks, crossed occasionally by wooden
+rafters.”[210] These rafters were the projecting ends of the poles,
+as in the Pueblo country. The adobe houses in Mexico are now often
+built on stone foundations, for it is the foundation that is sapped
+and undermined by the rains. The upper walls of adobe stand well in a
+climate of that sort. Prescott says of the houses of the “dignitaries”
+and of the “principal nobles” that “They were low, indeed; seldom of
+more than one floor, never exceeding two. But they were spread over
+a wide extent of ground; were arranged in a quadrangular form, with
+a court in the centre,”[211] all of which sounds suspiciously like
+a communal dwelling, as Morgan maintains the Aztec houses were. The
+Aztecs were crowded around the lake of Mexico, and also built out
+over the water on piles. Houses raised above the water or ground were
+nothing unusual in America. Some of the North-west coast Amerinds
+built dwellings which were “raised and supported near thirty feet from
+the ground by perpendicular spars of very large size” with “access
+formed by a long tree in an inclined position from the platform to the
+ground, with notches cut in it by way of steps about a foot and a half
+asunder.”[212]
+
+[Illustration: KWAKIUTL HOUSE FRONT
+
+  The thunder-bird lifting a whale. The beak was carved and fastened
+  on
+
+  Construction: wood—split cedar planks, tree trunks, and poles. Site:
+  edge of the sea
+]
+
+So far as the Aztec houses are concerned, “None of the Spanish
+descriptions,” asserts Morgan, “enable us to realise the exact form
+and structure.... But for the pueblos, occupied or in ruins, in New
+Mexico, and the more remarkable pueblos in ruins in Yucatan and Central
+America, we would know very little concerning the house architecture of
+the Sedentary Village Indians.”[213]
+
+Morgan believes all were joint tenements, but in this he may be
+mistaken, for the life of the Aztecs seems to have passed to a point
+somewhat higher than that of the New Mexican Amerinds, and a further
+development of Aztec life certainly included a further development of
+their house-life also.
+
+Within a day’s journey of the City of Mexico, Saville investigated some
+interesting ruins of an old “temple” erected, according to a tablet
+found there, in 1502, the signs on the tablet representing a rabbit and
+ten dots, or ten _tochtli_, corresponding to this date. It was built
+of rubble stone covered in many places inside with stone carving that
+had been painted.[214] There were also ornaments in stucco. The outer
+walls are nearly six feet thick. It is on the top of a high, cliff-like
+mountain difficult of access, near the Mexican town of Tepoztlan.
+Another splendid ruin near this is the Temple of Xochicalco. See
+illustrations, pages 23 and 31.
+
+[Illustration: NORTH-WEST COAST HOUSES AND TOTEM POLES
+
+  Haida House
+
+  _p o p_ shifting wind break over smoke hole
+
+  End left open to show construction.
+
+  Dotted lines give section of floor.
+
+  _m_, totem pole; _c c_, bench; _b_, fireplace; _k_, smoke hole;
+  _g g_, house posts
+]
+
+The greatest group of architectural remains on this continent is that
+of the Maya region, mainly in Yucatan. For a full description of many
+of these buildings the reader is referred again to the admirable work
+of Maudsley. The Mayas were the greatest architects as well as the
+greatest artists and greatest in almost everything of all the Amerinds,
+and if Goodman is correct in his rendering of some of their chronology
+they occupied the region more than ten thousand years.[215] Mound-like
+foundations supported the buildings, which generally rose as from a
+terrace, though sometimes the mound was very high and very steep, with
+small space around the building crowning it. At Copan,[216] which was
+in ruins before the Spaniards arrived, there is a great main terrace
+from which mounds rise, the latter bearing the buildings. The casing
+of the mound and the walls of buildings are of nicely dressed oblong
+stones usually without mortar. The joints were not broken here, nor in
+other Maya work. The mound slopes were terraced at five-foot intervals
+and the steps were about five feet high. The so-called “triangular
+arch” probably existed here as it did at the other Maya ruins. It
+was made by advancing the courses, several feet above the base of an
+opening, gradually toward each other till they met above, where a large
+slab was usually laid across to bind the whole together. The ceilings
+or roofs of many rooms in Maya ruins were wholly made this way. It has
+also been called a corbel arch, though it is, in fact, not an arch at
+all. See illustrations, pages 210, 235, and 237. There was no arch
+in Amerindian architecture besides the one the Eskimo constructed in
+his snow hut. The rooms are generally long and narrow in all the Maya
+structures and no windows existed. The Maya inability to span wide
+spaces was the cause of the narrow rooms and buildings. At Uxmal the
+two main rooms of the so-called Governor’s Palace are sixty feet long
+and only eleven to thirteen feet wide. The walls of all the structures
+are very thick, though certain walls, as the rear ones, are usually
+thicker than the others and have no openings, the latter, as a rule,
+being along one, two, or three sides. This was a probable survival of
+earlier defensive constructions similar to the communal fortresses of
+the Puebloan type as particularly exemplified in the ruins of the Chaco
+in New Mexico, where there were no rear openings. See ground plans,
+page 232. At Palenque are some fine examples of the Maya construction.
+The largest is called the palace and is 180 feet wide, 228 feet long,
+and 25 feet high, with fourteen doorways on the side and eleven at the
+ends. It was one story in height, as were all Maya buildings. There is
+a vast amount of carving and stucco modelling around them. One of the
+most unique constructions is that called the “Temple of the Cross,”
+number one, or two, or three, by different explorers, there being two
+structures much alike. See note 2, page 184. This is on top of a high
+mound, and is fifty feet front, thirty-one feet deep, and about forty
+feet high. The roof was something like our gambrel type, being the
+same all around without gables, with a level platform about three feet
+wide along the ridge, from which arose a peculiar stone and stucco,
+latticed, superstructure in two stories, the first about seven and the
+second about eight feet high. See illustrations, pages 210 and 235.
+There was abundant stucco ornamentation over the exterior, and on each
+side of the entrance was one of the figures referred to in the last
+chapter.
+
+[Illustration: RUIN OF EAST FAÇADE AND IGLESIA, “PALACE” CHICHEN-ITZA,
+  YUCATAN
+
+  Holmes’s _Archæological Studies in Mexico_
+]
+
+[Illustration: ELEVATION OF KWAKIUTL HOUSE]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW IN THE MOKI TOWN OF MISHONGNAVI, ARIZONA
+
+  Construction: stone slabs laid in adobe mortar. Site: barren summit
+  of a mesa. The ladders were pulled up in time of danger
+]
+
+The mortar used is said to have been a cement made of one part slaked
+lime to two parts of zahcab. This was used by all the ancient Mayas
+and is used still in that country. It is, however, doubtful if slaked
+lime was known to the ancients. There is no evidence of it. At Mitla
+is yet another type of house ascribed to the Zapotecs.[217] It is in
+the Mexican State of Oaxaca. The human figures and animal carvings and
+forms seen in the Yucatan ruins are absent. The rooms are the same,
+long and narrow, with no openings except the doors. One of the most
+unusual features is a great hall 12 by 121 feet, with six round stone
+columns standing at intervals of about fifteen feet down the middle.
+See illustrations, pages 9 and 209. These average about twelve feet
+high and nine feet in circumference. The walls are forty-eight inches
+thick, of roughly broken stones laid in courses in plenty of adobe
+mortar, the outer parts of all the buildings being faced by slabs of
+stone containing the ornamentation, which is wholly geometrical. Some
+adobe brick walls are forty-six inches thick. The columns are out of
+the common because they are single stones, but built up piers are often
+used in Pueblo architecture, and the North-west coast Amerinds use the
+column in wood very frequently to support their large longitudinal
+rafters. One of these which I sketched in an Alaskan house at Cape Fox
+is given in the illustration, page 162. The roofs at Mitla were wooden
+beams covered with earth and stone slabs. See illustration, page 230.
+There are other ruins all through Honduras and Nicaragua and the rest
+of Central America. Squier says: “In Honduras, as also in San Salvador,
+I heard of remains and monuments equal to those of Copan in extent and
+interest.”
+
+At the time the Spaniards came into Yucatan the Amerinds, according to
+Herrera, were dwelling in timber huts thatched with grass or something
+similar. The dense unexplored forests of the Yucatan region are
+filled with ruins which have never been seen by white men, at least
+that is the supposition of archæologists like Saville and Charnay.
+The Maya house was divided, according to Landa, from side to side by
+a wall with doors, the back part being sleeping quarters. The front
+portion was whitewashed or painted in designs and was open the whole
+length, with low sheltering eaves. In the rear there was a doorway
+leading from that part. A lengthwise division into two main parts was
+a characteristic of almost all the Maya buildings now found in ruins.
+The structures were generally wide and shallow, and subdivided into a
+great many rooms. It is more in the ornamentation of the buildings and
+the stone roofs than in anything else that they differ from structures
+farther north. The interior masonry is frequently a rubble, with
+the dressed and carved stones on the outside as a facing. Bandelier
+thinks that some of the stone walls in New Mexico are quite as well
+constructed as some in Mexico proper. But however this may be, there
+is nothing north of the City of Mexico that compares in architectural
+excellence with the Yucatan structures, albeit in some respects there
+is a strong resemblance between the latter in plan and conception, and
+the Pecos and other northern ruins.
+
+The communal principle of living had much to do almost everywhere with
+the size and character of the Amerind houses. Situation was determined
+by expedience and necessity; material of construction by environment.
+Throughout the continent the Amerind was a village dweller, and except
+in the Far North and on the northern Californian and North-west
+coasts he was generally a tiller of the soil, growing, often in large
+quantities, maize, beans, squashes, cotton, and some other products
+according to locality. His large communal buildings were in part
+fortresses to protect the families against marauding Amerinds of a less
+prosperous and cultivated type, and against the occupants of other
+towns, for in general it may be said that there was little political
+cohesion in the various tribes, though the Aztecs and Iroquois are
+examples of exceptions that arose from time to time.
+
+There is nothing in any of the remains, so far developed, that
+indicates foreign influence, prior to the Discovery. Every
+architectural work on the continent is purely Amerindian or modified by
+contact with other races subsequent to 1492.
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO HORN DIPPER]
+
+
+
+
+                [Illustration: HORN ARROW STRAIGHTENER]
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+            WEAPONS, ARMOUR, IMPLEMENTS, AND TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+[Illustration: MODERN IRON ARROW-HEADS OF THE OMAHAS
+
+  War Arrow
+
+  War Arrow
+
+  Hunting Arrow
+]
+
+The Amerinds were practically all in the so-called Stone Age of
+culture; that is, they were unacquainted with the _common use_ of
+metals. Some tribes worked silver, gold, and copper, to a limited
+extent and in an ornamental way, and a high authority asserts that the
+Eskimo have known iron for nine hundred years. Those Eskimo who came
+in contact with the Northmen on the North-east coasts very likely saw
+specimens of manufactured iron, and possessed some, nearly a thousand
+years ago, but it was a bare acquaintance, and this and the limited
+working of the other metals do not affect the general statement that
+the Amerinds were practically a Stone-Age people. Even the Maya, with
+all their varied skill and knowledge superior to any other Amerinds,
+still used stone tools for carving in stone. They had no way of
+sufficiently hardening the metals they could secure and their stone
+tools were far more serviceable. So the tools, weapons, and implements
+throughout the continent were chiefly wood, bone, and stone, with a
+few exceptions in Mexico, Central America, and the Mississippi valley.
+In the last region there was some working of copper obtained from the
+rich deposits of native metal in northern Michigan,[218] but the main
+thing they could do with it was to beat and grind it into shape with
+stones. Arrow-heads, spear-heads, chisels, and knife-blades of copper
+have been found in the Mississippi and Atlantic regions, but there
+is no certainty that all of them were made by the Amerinds.[219] The
+Spaniards and other Europeans were speedily engaged in a considerable
+traffic with the Amerinds in which copper was an important medium
+of exchange. Large quantities were therefore early brought into the
+country from Europe, and we do not always know in what form. It is
+certain that the traders would try to give it the most attractive
+shape, and if arrow-heads were found to be good, it would not take long
+to manufacture them. This is not to say that the Amerind could not have
+made the implements or copper articles thus far found, but only to
+question whether he did make all of them.
+
+[Illustration: FORMS OF THE BOW]
+
+The chief weapon of all Amerinds was the bow and arrow.[220] The bow
+was made in a number of ways and of various kinds of wood, and of horn,
+reinforced as a rule by a backing of sinew. The arrow-shaft was most
+frequently of service-berry wood when it could be had, and also of reed
+with a tip of some solid wood. The heads were of chipped stone, or
+bone, or latterly of bottle-glass, or often, for small-bird shooting,
+without any head whatever. A few heads were of copper, and in modern
+times hoop iron is used. Amongst all the Amerind bows that I have ever
+seen, one made from the horns of a mountain sheep, with a portion of
+the skull as the central part, was the finest and most graceful. It was
+exactly the shape of the typical bow wielded by the little god Cupid,
+and I have always regretted that I did not purchase it at the time, for
+I have never seen one since. I saw it in southern Utah in 1875.[221]
+
+I have sometimes thought that the bow and arrow were a development from
+the primitive fire-drill, through the bow-drill and spear. Some day by
+accident or design perhaps the drill stick sprung from the tightened
+string, the idea of substituting the spear for the drill stick was
+suggested, and the greatest invention in its effect on humanity man has
+yet seen was born.
+
+[Illustration: PAI UTE PALM-DRILL
+
+  Drawn by the author from a specimen obtained by him in Arizona,
+  1875. Lower part of shaft of greasewood about 5 in. long and ⅜ in.
+  diameter. Hearth of cedar (Juniper). Upper part of drill shaft is
+  omitted.
+]
+
+There are three or four forms of fire-drill, but the palm-drill—that
+is, the kind that was rotated between the palms of the hands—was the
+earliest, most widespread, and most compact and portable of all. It
+consisted of a shaft of wood, or reed with a piece of some harder
+wood attached to it; or, where the hard wood was not long enough, it
+was spliced on to another piece of wood. The illustration above shows
+a drill and hearth I obtained from the Pai Utes of Arizona in 1875.
+These Amerinds were using such drills for fire-making at that lime.
+The other portion of the apparatus, the hearth, is made of cedar, or
+any soft and suitable wood. It has cavities cut into it to receive the
+rounded, blunt end of the shaft, and on the sides of these cavities a
+little notch is cut to allow the air to get at the superheated wood
+dust and to permit the dust to be quickly thrust into the tinder which
+is placed beside and beneath the hearth. This hearth, which is an inch
+or so in width and about a quarter of an inch thick, is held securely
+down by the foot or knee, and the drill stick rapidly revolved back
+and forth in an upright position, with the lower end in one of the
+cavities. The revolving motion is secured by the palms of the hands,
+which are allowed to slide down the shaft to gain downward pressure,
+each time being brought quickly back to the top for a repetition of
+the motion, so that it is practically continuous. A pinch of sand is
+sometimes added to increase the friction and create dust more speedily.
+The superheated dust, or spark, is skilfully flung into the tinder of
+moss or rubbed-up bark and a few puffs of breath bring a flame. All
+the materials are kept very dry, and an expert will secure a fire in
+a few seconds under favourable conditions.[222] This was the common
+form of fire-drill throughout the continent. The “_new-fire_” of the
+Aztecs,[223] produced at the termination of their fifty-two-year
+cycle, when all fires were permitted to die out, was obtained with a
+fire-drill similar to the one described. Even when a tribe had better
+means of obtaining fire, it would preserve the primitive method in its
+religious ceremonies. Before the invention of the fire-drill it was of
+the greatest importance to guard and preserve the fire that had perhaps
+been procured from a great distance or from some forest conflagration
+which had passed away. Hence it assumed a sacred character, and those
+who were entrusted with its preservation were high priests. Eternal
+fires, or undying fires, were the result at first of the necessity of
+preserving fire, and later, when the friction-drill was discovered,
+those who possessed the knowledge of it were correspondingly endowed
+with power over the remainder.
+
+[Illustration: THE PALM-DRILL (FIRE-MAKING)]
+
+[Illustration: THE PUMP-DRILL (FIRE-MAKING)]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO STRING-DRILL.
+
+  (FOR FIRE-MAKING WITH MOUTHPIECE)
+]
+
+[Illustration: PUEBLO PUMP-DRILL.
+
+  (FOR BORING)]
+
+[Illustration: DRILL-POINT OF CHIPPED FLINT]
+
+After the palm-drill comes the string-drill, wherein the drill is
+operated by means of a cord twisted about it, the ends being pulled
+back and forth, and the top of the stick being held firm by insertion
+in a socket, the latter being grasped in one hand or, when there was
+only one operator, taken in the mouth. The old Eskimo drill is of this
+description, produced probably because the surroundings compelled
+swifter and harder revolutions of the stick to obtain the desired
+results. A further development is the bow-drill, used by the Eskimo and
+others, where instead of pulling the ends of the string a bent piece
+of wood, or bow, is attached to them, the movement of which back and
+forth rotates the stick. This is used with a mouthpiece for a socket.
+Another form, but one seldom used for fire-getting, is the pump-drill,
+where the stick connected with the ends of the cord runs across the
+drill stock, and sometimes has the stock passing through it, the string
+being so adjusted around the stock that an up-and-down motion of the
+crossbar imparts a rotary, reciprocating movement to the stock. This
+is the form used by the Pueblos for stone drilling, etc.[224] The
+fire-drill entered into the religious ceremonies of most tribes, and,
+conventionalised in the so-called cross of the Palenque tablet, which
+is a development, according to Bandelier, of the fire-drill through
+ornamentation, it puzzled the Europeans, causing them for a time to
+imagine that Christianity had preceded Columbus to the New World.
+
+[Illustration: SET OF FIRE-MAKING TOOLS, BRISTOL BAY ESKIMO, ALASKA
+
+  Showing stepped hearth. Mouthpiece is set with a socket-bearing of
+  black stone
+
+  String
+
+  Hearth
+
+  Mouthpiece
+
+  Drill
+]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO BOW-DRILL]
+
+To return to the bow again, the length of it varies in different
+localities. In a densely wooded country, a long bow would often be
+in the way, and this and other reasons would make it shorter. The
+average length is about forty inches. The string is made of sinew,
+well twisted and, at the ends, braided. Arrows are of different kinds
+in the same tribe: some blunt or with wood points sharpened for bird
+shooting, or for other small animals; arrows adapted for deer; for
+large fowl; and others still for heavy game like bison or bear. The
+head of the game arrow was set in the plane of the string—that is, the
+notch was quite or nearly in line with the head, and, when adjusted
+to the bowstring, stood at a slight angle, the bow always being held
+diagonally across the shooter’s body. The head would thus strike
+between an animal’s ribs. War arrows, on the other hand, had their
+notches so placed that the head of the arrow went from the bow in a
+horizontal position, because the ribs of a man lie that way.[225] It
+will be seen that the head was not at right angles to the notch, for in
+that case it would not have been projected horizontally. The adjustment
+of the notch to produce the desired position would always be regulated
+by the habit of holding the bow. Since the rifle came into use, little
+attention probably has been given to this point. The arrow-shaft is
+round, about a quarter inch in diameter, and from twenty to thirty
+inches long, though some are longer.[226] Long ones are usually made
+of reed with a hardwood tip, upon which the head is mounted; this, as
+noted above, now being of hoop iron. Stone heads formerly were the
+chief method of tipping the shaft. In 1875 I purchased a number of
+these from an old arrow-maker of the Pai Ute tribe. The other end of
+the shaft is feathered. This is done by attaching split feathers to
+it with the web cut narrow, for the purpose of giving it guidance.
+This feathering is a distinguishing feature, and an expert can place
+the maker of an arrow by the style of feathering. Feathers of birds
+of prey are almost invariably employed. The number is sometimes two,
+but generally three. They are attached by strands of moist sinew
+wound around the ends and when the sinew is dry it becomes a smooth
+firm band. Three zigzag grooves are scratched down the shaft, some
+say not, as popularly believed, for the purpose of aiding the flow of
+blood, but because this is the lightning symbol, and is intended to
+endow the arrow with speed and certainty. But Dorsey says the Omahas
+told him their object was to increase flow of blood from the wound.
+Poisoned arrows were made by dipping the points into rotting liver or
+rattlesnake venom, etc. These were used for war. The arrow-shaft when
+first made is by no means always straight, but the Amerind invented a
+piece of horn or stone with perforations through which the heated shaft
+is drawn till it is straight. See illustration at head of this chapter.
+Quivers are all very similar in plan also, usually comprising a case
+for the bow, one for the arrows, and in some tribes a pouch containing
+arrow-making tools. The Eskimo make their quivers of sealskin, other
+tribes use cat, deer, panther, otter, etc. The spear doubtless preceded
+the bow and arrow. It is little used by the interior tribes, but in the
+form of the harpoon, as well as the regular spear form, is common among
+the Eskimo and other coast Amerinds.[227]
+
+[Illustration: MODERN ROD ARMOUR OF THE KLAMATHS, OREGON
+
+  Made up of 44 oval rods of pine wood. The cord is of native hemp
+  and cords made of sisal, the latter probably derived from ropes of
+  white make. Cords are coloured red and yellow. Bound with buckskin
+  painted red; shoulder-straps of buckskin; tying straps at the
+  sides. Width, 38 in.; height, 21 in.
+]
+
+[Illustration: HUPA ROD ARMOUR, CALIFORNIA
+
+  “Made of 118 peeled rods, woven together with native twine,
+  bound with buckskin on upper and lower edges and arm-holes.
+  Shoulder-straps of leather; six horizontal stripes of red cord
+  cross the front. The red lines denote the number of enemies slain
+  or captives taken; also the rank of the wearer. This class of
+  armour was in common use among the Natanos and Kennucks before the
+  introduction of firearms; but it is now obsolete, nearly.” Width,
+  41 in.; height, 21 in.
+]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO PLATE ARMOUR, DIOMEDE ISLAND, BERING STRAIT
+
+  “Made of five imbricating rows of plates of walrus ivory of unequal
+  size in the different rows, pierced with from 6 to 13 holes, lashed
+  with sealskin thongs.” 164 plates in all. In form, lashing and
+  adjustment of plates it is identical with certain types of Japanese
+  armour. Width, extended, 49 in.; height, 24 in.
+]
+
+In armour, the Amerind was inventive, as in everything else, and he
+devised some excellent means for defence for the body[228]; and
+borrowed one form, according to Hough, from Asia. His shields were made
+of wood, basketry, cotton, and rawhide, and were usually circular. The
+commonest material was rawhide, which was often contracted and hardened
+by fire, and then covered with buckskin. It was variously ornamented,
+and the decoration was the outcome of many a religious ceremony
+conducted according to long-established rules. It was “invariably held
+on the left arm, usually by a simple thong of buckskin attached to the
+interior.” Many shields have two covers, each held on by a gathering
+string. In New Mexico and Mexico some tribes used one that could be
+shut up like a fan, and the Navajos had one that was made of cedar rods
+tied together with cords.
+
+[Illustration: TLINKIT SKIN ARMOUR, ALASKA
+
+  “Made of tanned hide; two thicknesses; sewed along the upper
+  edge. The ‘swallow-tail’ portion is reinforced with two extra
+  thicknesses, making four in all. The coat is very heavy. The sewing
+  is done with sinew. Width, 25 in.; height, 33 in.”
+]
+
+[Illustration: PREHISTORIC ALEUTIAN ROD ARMOUR
+
+  “The small rods composing it are about ¾ in. diameter, painted
+  red. Width, 40 in.; height, 25 in. Position as on the body. It was
+  fastened behind with two loops of sinew, into which wooden buttons
+  were inserted”
+]
+
+The body armour was made of rows of overlapping plates, lashed
+together, of slats, of rods, of skins, and of cotton padded. The plate
+armour is the one that was borrowed from Asia; a migration apparently
+across Bering Strait. The cotton-padded armour was confined to the
+Amerinds of Mexico and Central America, but the other varieties were
+distributed over the whole area. In the plate armour, “small, flat,
+oblong plates of ivory or bone pierced near the edges with from four
+to six or more holes,” were lashed in series with rawhide thongs.
+The coat, made in this way of a number of rows, was tied at the back
+with thongs, or had a toggle fastening. Some of these plates in iron
+and in copper have been dug up at Cape Prince of Wales and on St.
+Lawrence Island. This armour is very similar to that of the Japanese,
+and if it was wholly an imported idea, it was probably a comparatively
+recent one. The Tlinkits used the slat armour and also a rod armour,
+the former being made of very hard wood fastened with cords of sinew.
+A Tlinkit greave has also been found among the collections in the
+National Museum, so that it is probable that the North-west coast
+Amerinds protected arms and legs as well as body. The Iroquois are also
+reported to have used armour of rods both on their limbs and their
+vital parts. The rod armour was formed by sewing or lacing together
+with native twine a series of straight slender rods sufficient to
+pass around the body and tie in front, with places for the arms,
+and straps over the shoulders. The skin armour was simply a sort of
+heavy, sleeveless shirt made of thick hide, doubled and reinforced
+and otherwise rendered as nearly as possible proof against arrow or
+spear. In Mexico, where the padded cotton armour was chiefly worn,
+a breastplate of the same material was put on under it. The common
+Aztec soldiers wore armour of “reeds, grass, and hides, or ’nequen
+cloth, coated with India-rubber.”[229] Veytia says the “private
+soldiers painted the upper part of the body to represent armour, but
+from the waist to the thighs they wore short drawers, and over them
+fastened around the waist a kind of kilt that reached to the knee, and
+availed them somewhat for defence. Across the body was a sash made of
+feathers that passed from the right shoulder to the left side of the
+waist.”[230] Many Amerinds also wore in conjunction with the various
+kinds of armour, a helmet, ranging from the feathered war-bonnet to
+a heavy mask-helmet of wood. The Tarascos of Mexico, according to
+Brinton, specially excelled in defensive armour, which “consisted of
+helmet, body pieces, and greaves for the legs and arms, all of wood
+covered neatly with copper or gold plates, so well done that the
+pieces looked as if they were of solid metal.”[231] The Mayas wore
+cotton armour similar to that of the Mexicans, and bore a shield also.
+Breastplates of copper have been found in the Atlantic region, and many
+of the Amerinds there used body armour of wood, skins, and bark.
+
+[Illustration: CHIPPED FLINT]
+
+[Illustration: CHIPPED FLINT BLUNT ARROW-HEAD, GEORGIA]
+
+[Illustration: CHIPPED FLINT IMPLEMENT, TENNESSEE]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN “CORES,” OR BLOCKS OF FLINT
+
+  From which flakes were struck off for making arrow-heads, etc.
+  Usually about 3 in. long in the U. S., but longer elsewhere
+]
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF CHIPPED FLINT DISCS, CALLED “TURTLEBACK,”
+  MISSISSIPPI VALLEY]
+
+[Illustration: GROOVED STONE AXE, TENNESSEE (GROUND)]
+
+Another kind of defensive armour, though its qualities were purely
+imaginary, is the so-called “ghost-shirt” (see illustration, page
+157) made of cloth or skin, and resembling the ordinary war-shirt of
+the Dakota. This shirt came into notice during the “Ghost Dance”[232]
+excitement that began about 1890 and lasted for six or eight years.
+It was worn by all men, women, and children who accepted the “Ghost”
+doctrine, either as an outside or under garment, and it was implicitly
+believed that no bullet or other weapon could penetrate its sacred
+material.[233] As already remarked in another chapter, the Amerinds
+in modern times, of at least the United States region, usually went
+into battle naked. The only defensive armour was, as Mooney records,
+“his protecting medicine,” which consisted of “a feather, a tiny bag
+of some sacred powder, the claw of an animal, the head of a bird, or
+some other small object, which could be readily twisted into his hair
+or hidden between the covers of his shield.... Its virtue depended
+entirely on the ceremony of the consecration, and not on size or
+texture. The war-paint had the same magic power of protection.... The
+so-called ‘war-shirt’ was worn chiefly in ceremonial dress parades and
+only rarely on the warpath.”[234] Just when the armour which protected
+by its intrinsic strength was abandoned for the protection of the
+“medicine” is not, so far as I am aware, at present known. At one time,
+it seems quite certain, the material protection of armour was almost
+universal over the whole of North America, while in our latter day no
+one ever saw an Amerind fight with armour on. The idea of going into
+battle nude was that the warrior’s movements were unincumbered, while
+his “medicine” afforded him ample protection. A Navajo who posed for
+me for a picture in Arizona described the Navajo manner of going to
+battle, but never mentioned armour, or any kind of protection. He said
+they always went naked, with even their hair untied from its customary
+knot and falling loose on the shoulders.
+
+Stone arrow- and spear-heads are found in all parts of the continent,
+but they are almost always chipped, seldom ground. Maguire, who has
+made a special study of this subject, declares chipping to be one of
+the most difficult of arts. “On examination,” he says, “it is found
+that every rock has been worked in the best and most economical method
+which its texture admits.” The usual way of making arrow-heads was to
+place the bit of stone previously flaked from a nodule or fragment and
+brought near the shape by percussion, on the palm of the left hand,
+which is protected by a glove or a piece of buckskin, and hold it there
+by the fingers of that hand while the right brings a down pressure to
+bear on the edges by the point of a slender piece of horn or bone. The
+chips spring off and the operation is continued till the desired shape
+is attained. I tried this method once on a flake of chalcedony I had
+picked up, and had no difficulty in bringing it to an arrow-head shape.
+Maguire has made a great many successfully. Chisels, axes, and mauls
+were made the same way or were ground into shape, a groove being made
+in the axes across the sides to receive a split stick that was bound
+on for a handle. It is almost unnecessary to say, perhaps, that there
+never could have been a time when all tribes were equally proficient
+in the art of stone working, some being skilful when others could make
+nothing.[235]
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM EXPLAINING TERMS TO BE USED IN DESCRIBING STONE
+  WEAPONS
+
+  _a_, point; _b_, edge; _c_, face; _d_, bevel; _e_, blade; _f_, tang;
+  _g_, stem; _h_, base; _i_, notch; _k_, neck; _m_, barb, or shoulder
+]
+
+In this country we know so well the origin of the stone implements
+found in the fields that we smile when we read of people in Europe
+treating them as charms and talismans. “When kept in a house they
+protect it from lightning; the water in which a celt has been boiled
+is a remedy against rheumatism; and sick cattle are cured by drinking
+water in which a celt has been placed.” The Amerinds frequently treat
+them as medicine.[236]
+
+Some tools were produced in the rough at various sites, or workshops,
+located at the quarries. Those in Ohio described by Moorehead are
+probably the most extensive in North America, except the obsidian
+mines of Hidalgo, Mexico. “The magnitude of the deposit is such,”
+he says, “that it has given to the locality the distinctive name of
+Flint Ridge.” It occupies an area about eight miles long by three
+wide. Here thousands of cubic yards of earth had been removed to reach
+the flint beneath. “Acre after acre has been so thoroughly excavated
+that scarcely a single foot of earth and stone retains its original
+position. Hundreds of wagon loads of spalls cover the ground.” One
+of the pits formed in this extremely hard stone is almost a hundred
+feet in diameter and more than eighteen feet deep. The method employed
+was to build a fire on the rock and then throw cold water on the spot
+till the edge was broken through and they could knock flakes off of
+the under side with stone hammers. These were put roughly into shape
+at some nearby spot and then perhaps taken far away to be finished.
+This flint formed better tools than that found on the surface.[237]
+Many of the blades were often piled together for some unknown reason.
+In sinking a well in a corner of a mound in Illinois, eighteen large
+flint spades were found a few feet below the surface, closely packed
+together, and Moorehead found in Ohio the largest “cache” ever brought
+to light. This formed a mound in the Hopewell group, six feet high and
+sixty feet in diameter at the base, and contained over seven thousand
+flint discs about the size of a man’s hand.[238]
+
+Some spear-points found are more than a foot long and three inches
+wide, and they vary from this down to what may be termed large
+arrow-heads. Some writers claim that only the very small smallest
+heads were from arrows, but this would vary according to the tribe
+and the game hunted, just as we have various bores to our rifles. The
+stone arrow-heads of the Pai Utes twenty-five years ago were small,
+but the smallest were often attached to the longest arrows. The method
+of securing the head to the shaft was generally similar everywhere. A
+notch being cut in the end of the stick, a small quantity of pitch,
+asphaltum, fish, or animal glue, or cement, was placed in it,
+warmed, and the stone head squeezed into position, where it was held
+by wrappings of wet sinew thread which, drying, gave it a firm grip,
+and yet when moistened by blood would allow the head to come off in
+a wound. The sinew was variously applied, according to the shape of
+the head. The triangular head was held on by passing the sinew over
+the outer edges, while in that with a tang, which went well down into
+the shaft, the sinew was wound round and round the shaft and over the
+tang at the same time. All iron heads were made and mounted in the
+latter way. In the leaf-shaped head with deep notches, the wrapping
+was thoroughly protected by the depth of the notches through which
+it passed. The hafting of knives was much like that of arrows and
+spears, the ordinary stone knife looking much like a spear-head, and
+probably some implements that are classed as spear-heads were knives
+instead. Many were double-edged, while others were single. Some of the
+diminutive stone implements resembling arrow-heads were drill-heads
+or awls, and also heads for the children’s play-arrows.[239] There is
+also a great range in the size of the stone axes and hammers, from mere
+toys to those so large as to be unwieldy. Grooved stone axes are found
+all over the continent, except in the mounds of Ohio. Like other stone
+implements, they have often been used successively by various tribes.
+Those used to-day by the Mokis and Zuñis are some they have found, and
+they use them as pounders and pestles. Many of the axes and hammers
+were weapons of war.
+
+[Illustration: TLINKIT SLAT-AND-ROD ARMOUR, ALASKA, FRONT VIEW
+
+  “Made of slats and rods of hard wood, 1¼ to 1½ in. wide, ⁵⁄₁₆ in.
+  thick, woven together by means of fine sinew cord so as to admit
+  of considerable flexibility. The rods and slats are pared down to
+  form channels for the reception of the cord weaving. The front and
+  back portions are woven separately. The neck portions are made up
+  of short slats, and sewed on by means of a strip of rawhide 1½ in.
+  wide. The shoulder supports are of very thick elkhide, the one
+  on the right being fastened by a slash and toggle. Width of rear
+  portion, 24 in.; height, 20 in.; width of front portion, 18 in.;
+  height, 19 in.”
+]
+
+[Illustration: APACHE WAR-BONNET]
+
+The Amerinds were so skilful in the use of stone tools that it is
+related that in the early days of the West they would skin and dress
+a deer with a stone almost as quickly as a white man could do it with
+a hunting-knife. For this purpose they would pick up a thin stone and
+with a few sharp blows from another stone bring it to a cutting edge.
+Skins were dressed by scrapers of bone or stone to remove superfluous
+flesh. Pins were used for stretching them on the ground.
+
+Among the Eskimo the harpoon reached a high state of perfection, and
+many of their weapons are beautifully made. Bone, wood, and ivory were
+utilised for the shaft, and a specially unique one was made from the
+single horn of the narwhal. Spears or lances were also used for land
+animals before they had firearms. They are now pretty well supplied
+with the latest Winchester rifles. The harpoon to-day has a blade of
+thin iron or steel set into an ivory or bone piece which has a hole
+through it that retains in place a sealskin thong to which a line
+is attached. The bottom of the ivory piece has a socket in it that
+fits on to the lance shaft. When the harpoon strikes an animal’s body
+the head of it then hangs there on the end of the line, coming loose
+from the shaft. There are various forms of the harpoon for different
+animals, and they are also of different sizes according to the weight
+and strength of the owner. Formerly the blades were of slate, jade,
+or flint. Floats of sealskin inflated are used to mark the place
+of a capture, so that carcass and harpoon can be easily recovered.
+The Eskimo had a wolf-killer that was ingenious. A stout piece of
+whalebone, about a foot long and half an inch broad, was sharpened at
+the ends and then frozen in a piece of blubber in a Z shape. The wolf
+swallowing it, its own heat released the whalebone, which penetrated
+the sides of the stomach and killed the animal. Each tribe had a varied
+assortment of implements according to locality and occupation, and it
+would not be possible even to mention them all in a single chapter, so
+I shall give only the most important. The bird spear of the Eskimo is a
+singular weapon. The shaft is laid on a short board fifteen to eighteen
+inches long, which has a groove to receive the shaft, a handle, and a
+hole for the first finger. A spike in the shaft prevents slipping, and
+when the board is hurled forward by a strong wrist motion, the fingers
+let go the shaft, which, leaving the board, flies forward to the mark
+with considerable force. These spears are also used by the Aleuts.
+The Eskimo also use for bird killing six or seven ivory balls, each
+attached to a string about thirty inches long, the ends of the strings
+being supplied with tufts of feathers. The balls spread apart in flying
+through the air and cover a wide space. For war all tribes had clubs
+and tomahawks. The Mexicans used some with blades of obsidian set in
+both edges.
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO THROWING-BOARDS FOR DARTS.]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO BIRD BOLAS.]
+
+In the line of throwing weapons is the _pūtchkohu_ of the Mokis, a
+first cousin to the Australian boomerang. It is effective at thirty
+or forty yards, but does not return. It is a flat piece of curved oak,
+sawed out of a bend of a limb, about twenty inches long, one quarter to
+one half inch thick, and two inches wide, with a small handle at one
+end. It is thrown with the concave side forward.
+
+[Illustration: AMERINDIAN KNIVES
+
+  Ute stone knife. Handle of wood and blade set in a dark cement
+
+  Eskimo slate knives. Handles of wood
+]
+
+Nets were used for fishing and for hunting. The Pai Utes made a good
+net of cord, from milkweed or sagebrush bark, about as thick as
+telegraph wire. It was about fifty feet long and three feet broad, and
+was propped up on the ground on a number of slender rods, one net being
+joined to another’s end until a large semi-circle was formed into which
+rabbits from a large area were frightened by noises. Caught in the
+meshes, they were soon despatched by their pursuers. Many Amerinds used
+nets for fishing, and the Eskimo make a fine, strong one of sealskin,
+with which they catch the seal itself as it rushes after prey in the
+waters near some beach where the net is stretched. I obtained one that
+is fifty feet long and about six feet wide, with meshes seven inches
+square.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI THROWING-STICK, OR PUTCHKOHU.]
+
+[Illustration: PUEBLO PLANTING STICK.]
+
+[Illustration: ZUÑI WOODEN SPADE.
+
+  Used for shovelling snow from roofs and for taking bread from ovens
+]
+
+For agricultural operations the Amerinds had various tools, which,
+though primitive, answered the requirements. Of the plough, or
+anything approaching it, they had no knowledge, the hoe being their
+chief implement. This was made of flint, the shoulder-blade of a deer
+or other animal, a turtle shell or some similar object. Spades were
+also made, often of wood, and in the Mississippi region of flint, but
+these are seldom found in the Atlantic division. In the Moki country
+corn is still planted with a dibble, a stick sharpened at one end and
+having on one side a projection to receive the foot, which pressed it
+into the soil. Having cultivated a crop of maize, the grain had to be
+reduced to meal before it would serve for winter use, and for this
+purpose mortars of wood and stone were used, and also the _metates_,
+or mealing stones. Other substances besides corn were also ground in
+the mortars, as seeds of grass, dried fish, nuts, grasshoppers, paint,
+etc. Sometimes natural depressions in rocks were utilised, but oftener
+small bowlders were worked into the desired shape and stone pestles
+were wrought out to accompany them. The cavity was of various depths.
+Those tribes growing little corn made mortars neither large nor deep,
+and some, like the Pai Utes, growing no corn at all, ground their grass
+seeds on a flat stone, while those relying chiefly on corn for food,
+like the Pueblos and the Mexicans, in the early days made large oblong
+mortars, of hard basalt cut out to a depth of six or eight inches, with
+sides not more than an inch and a half or two inches thick. While these
+were really mortars, the grain was not pounded in them, but crushed
+and rubbed into meal by means of another stone, flat and oblong, about
+four and a half inches wide and some ten inches long and an inch or
+two thick. When the Pueblos and Mexicans settled in permanent houses
+they departed from the old way of hollowing out these stones, and used
+instead a flat slab, set up at an angle of about thirty-five degrees in
+a frame of slabs of stone, or of wood, about six or eight inches deep.
+Several of these slabs were fixed in a row, usually three, and were
+each made to produce different degrees of fineness by the girls behind
+till at the last stone, or metate,[240] as they are usually called, the
+meal was of the required condition. See page 194. The Eastern Amerinds
+usually pounded their corn with stone pestles in wooden mortars. Some
+Western tribes used the same method. Diminutive mortars were used for
+preparing face paints, while others were children’s toys. The so-called
+cupped-stones have sometimes been supposed to be paint mortars, but, as
+pointed out in a previous chapter (p. 66), they may have been mostly
+used for roughing and shaping the ends of fire-drills.
+
+[Illustration: A MOKI THROWING THE PUTCHKOHU
+
+  The “East Mesa” is seen in the right distance whereon are the three
+  villages of—left to right—Walpi, Cichumovi, Tewa. The dressing of
+  the hair is Navajo, as well as the turban, the model’s uncle being
+  Navajo but a Moki citizen
+
+  From a drawing by the author Permission of the Century Co.
+]
+
+The Navajos carve moulds for their silver casting in sandstone, and it
+seems likely that some of the so-called stone tablets, inscribed with
+figures that are not clearly defined, may have been nothing more than
+moulds, in those regions, at least, where it is known that copper or
+other metals were worked.[241]
+
+The spindle and loom, which belong among the implements and tools
+enumerated here, have already been described in connection with weaving
+and they will now be passed by. The tools used in metal working will be
+mentioned in a following chapter.
+
+[Illustration: SHELL SPOON, MISSISSIPPI VALLEY]
+
+Household utensils were made of various materials, of which
+earthenware, as noted in the chapter on Pottery, was one of the chief.
+There were also trays, boxes, buckets, and cups of wood. Others were of
+whalebone, sealskin, soapstone, and ivory. Spoons were made from the
+horns of the mountain sheep, from those of goats, and from bison horns.
+Some of these spoons, made of horn by the North-west coast Amerinds,
+are elaborately carved and polished. Clam, oyster, conch, and turtle
+shells also served for ladles and spoons. Drinking cups, dippers,
+water-bottles, and other vessels were made of gourds. Metallic cups
+or pots have not been found antedating the arrival of the Spaniards.
+Soapstone vessels, as well as earthenware, were made and used in the
+Atlantic region; soapstone by the Eskimo. Quarries exist where the
+material was obtained, especially in the Chesapeake-Potomac tidewater
+region. Special pick-like stone tools were made for cutting out these
+pots and masses. The Eskimo, who once ranged down as far as the mouth
+of the Hudson and possibly farther, may have originally opened up some
+of these quarries.
+
+[Illustration: PUEBLO MOUNTAIN SHEEP-HORN SPOON.]
+
+[Illustration: MENOMINEE WOODEN MORTAR AND PESTLE]
+
+In the line of utensils, the Eskimo lamp, is, perhaps, one of the
+most important and unique.[242] No other Amerinds had anything of
+the kind. It was a necessity with the Eskimo, while tribes living in
+wooded regions would have no use for it. They could obtain light from
+camp-fires, especially with the addition of pitch pine. But the Eskimo
+lamp is primarily a heating apparatus. What need then for Amerinds,
+who had wood, to bother with a lamp, for which oil must be prepared?
+Besides this consideration was the one of cleanliness, for the lamp is
+very dirty, and even Amerinds have standards. “Far more remarkable than
+being the unique possessors of the lamp in the Western Hemisphere,”
+says Hough, “the Eskimo present the spectacle of a people depending
+for their very existence upon this household belonging. Indeed, it is
+a startling conclusion that the lamp has determined the occupancy of
+an otherwise uninhabitable region by the Eskimo, or, in other words,
+the distribution of a race.”[243] When fuel can be obtained, which is
+the case often in summer, fires are used instead of the lamp. This
+fuel is peat, grass, driftwood, or shrubs. The lamp is generally of
+soapstone, though some have been made of clay, earthenware, bone, or
+wood. The usual shape is something like a clam shell, though they are
+sometimes oval or pear-shaped, or round. They are modified in form
+according to the use required of them, the traveller’s lamp being much
+smaller necessarily than the ordinary lamp of the iglu. The lamps vary
+in length from two or three inches to about two feet, and in width from
+one half inch to nine or ten inches, while the height is from less
+than an inch to four or five. The smallest specimens are toy lamps of
+the children, and the next in size the traveller’s lamp. Small lamps
+are often balanced but the large ones are not, but are supported by
+a wooden block or by pegs of wood or bone stuck into the snow. The
+shallow hollow of the lamp is filled with seal oil, which is obtained
+in winter by freezing the blubber, when the oil can easily be extracted
+by beating; in summer often by chewing it out. The wick is of moss
+and is arranged along the wide side of the lamp. It has to be trimmed
+frequently, but when kept in good order gives a bright illumination
+which Schwatka declared to be “certainly equal to the light from three
+or four kerosene lamps.” The oil is kept in sealskins, which are made
+into bottles by sewing, and the comfort and cheerfulness of the iglu
+during the long night depend on the stock of oil which the family has
+been able to secure. The farther north, the larger the lamp, because
+the darkness is longer and the cold greater. _Vice versa_, southward it
+finally disappears.
+
+[Illustration: STONE HOUSE-LAMP, POINT BARROW, ALASKA.
+
+  3 in. to 2 ft. in length
+]
+
+In transportation facilities the Amerinds were extremely deficient, the
+Eskimo excelling all others in this direction. This was the result of
+environment and does not indicate superiority of the Eskimo over other
+stocks. They had vast treeless plains and ice sheets to traverse, and
+the sledge was a necessity. Dogs all Amerinds had, and some of them
+used them, to a certain extent, for beasts of burden, so that there
+was not a great deal of invention required to attach one or several
+to the sledge. On the other hand, most Amerinds were not so situated
+that they could utilise the dog in this way, and the continent offered
+them no substitute for it unless, as has been suspected, some of the
+South-western tribes may have had an animal resembling the vicuna,
+which they kept for its wool and presumably for transportation purposes
+also. But there is as yet no trustworthy evidence of this, and it may
+be said that the Amerinds of North America as a race possessed no beast
+of burden but the dog. In time, had the bison not been exterminated,
+and provided also that the whites had not come, it is possible that
+this animal might have been domesticated for milk, for meat, and for
+draught purposes. But the bison, after all, was ill adapted to work,
+for he is clumsy, so that the Amerind really had only the dog that
+was practicable, and this he utilised as far as possible, or at least
+as far as necessity directed. The Amerinds encountered on the plains
+of Texas in 1540 by Coronado were using the dog,[244] just as they
+afterward used the horse, for transporting tents and tent poles. A
+great many different forms of sledge are in use among the Eskimo, and
+besides the regular sledges, walrus skins, rolls of sealskins, and
+even packs of salmon are sometimes used for the purpose. When skins
+are used they are soaked with fresh water and sewed in a bag which is
+given the desired shape and then allowed to freeze solid, in which
+condition it remains till the return of warm weather. The Eskimo is
+never troubled with a “January thaw.” Sometimes sledges are made out of
+slabs of fresh-water ice frozen together; or blocks of ice are hollowed
+out. The runners of the ordinary sledge are usually made of driftwood
+and are from five to fifteen feet long and twenty inches to two and a
+half feet apart. The runners are connected by crossbars of wood or bone
+and are shod with whalebone, ivory, jawbone of whale, and sometimes
+with frozen fish. The shoe is either tied or riveted in place, and the
+parts are generally tied together, though now iron nails are sometimes
+used. When there is a back to the sledge it is made, in the Central
+regions, of wood or of deer or caribou antlers. Very small sleds are
+used for running boats out of water, and their runners are often single
+walrus tusks, the rest being of any wood obtainable. “The dog harness
+consists of a broad band or strap of stout rawhide, with three parallel
+loops at one end.... The head is passed through the middle loop, and a
+foreleg through each of the side loops, bringing the main part of the
+thong over the back.”[245] This is the trace, and by means of a toggle
+it is fastened to a long line that runs back to the sledge and connects
+all the dogs with it. The Central Eskimo make two bights passing under
+the forelegs, joined by two straps across the neck and breast. The
+dogs are not driven in Alaska,[246] but they are in the Central and
+Eastern regions, and Boas asserts that silence must be maintained
+during the journey, for the dogs will stop, turn around, sit down, and
+listen to any conversation that is carried on. The dogs are wolf-like
+in appearance, but are not given to barking. Indeed, they seem to pay
+little attention to a stranger. A long whip is used for touching them
+up when on the sledge. Steering is done by the legs of the driver. In
+the late spring, when there are sharp ice needles, a sort of leather
+boot, with holes for the nails, is tied to the dogs’ feet to keep them
+from getting sore. In summer-time they have an easy life of it. The
+Alaska sledge has no back, but has a rail on each side.
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO SLEDGES]
+
+[Illustration: CENTRAL ESKIMO DOG HARNESS]
+
+[Illustration: ENCLOSED CANADIAN TOBOGGAN OR TRAVELLING SLED
+
+  From Porcupine River, Alaska. Length about 8 ft.; width, 14 in.;
+  height of body, 18 in.
+]
+
+“The sleds of the Chippewayan,” says Mason, “are formed of thin slips
+of board, turned up in front, and are highly polished.”[247] This is
+the toboggan, or Amerind sled without runners, developed and used in
+the region lying between that occupied by the Eskimo and about the
+northern limit of the United States. Dogs were attached to the toboggan
+by some tribes, as the Tinne, who also used the dogs in summer as pack
+animals. The toboggan, however, was usually pulled by men, and its
+object was the transportation of a load which would otherwise need to
+be carried. It was made of a single thin plank, or of two, fastened
+together on the upper surface with battens, and having the forward
+end turned up and over like a letter C and fixed in this position
+by rawhide cords attached properly to the first cross batten, and
+sometimes a rawhide line is also carried back to the last batten to
+give additional strength. The toboggan is now in common use among the
+whites of America, especially the Canadians.
+
+In pulling the toboggan over the snow the traveller would sink deep
+and become tired with only ordinary foot covering, so the Amerind
+invented a shoe expressly for snow travel. This is familiar to almost
+everybody, but a brief description will be added for the sake of those
+who may not have seen it. There are two kinds of snow-shoe; those
+represented by the Norwegian ski, made of wood, long and slender, and
+not used in America before their introduction from Europe. The only
+wooden shoe recorded is an Eskimo one made in the same shape as their
+others. The other kind of snow-shoe[248] is the Amerind one made by
+bending to an oval shape a slender piece of wood for a frame, and
+filling the interval with rawhide netting; and it was in use all over
+North America, where snow remained for any length of time. Among some
+tribes these shoes were “rights and lefts,” but as a rule they were
+interchangeable. They are generally the shape of a long, pointed oval,
+but some are almost round. There are two crossbars to hold the frame in
+shape, and also to form supports for the toe and heel. Some shoes were
+four or five feet long and seven or eight inches wide, and turned up
+at the forward end, while others were short and broad and not turned
+up, the interval between being filled by a series in great variety. The
+foot is held in position by suitable thongs or straps. These shoes are
+now in common use by the whites.
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO SNOW-SHOE, POINT BARROW, ALASKA.]
+
+[Illustration: CANOES OF THE NORTH-WEST COAST
+
+  Models of the family or transportation type. Hunting and fishing
+  canoes are similar. All these boats are hollowed from single cedar
+  logs, and then somewhat widened by spreading. They often carry a
+  great number of persons
+]
+
+In summer the means of travel, before the horse came with the European,
+were, on land, nothing more than a good pair of legs, but, on the
+water, it was different. There, many of the Amerinds were at home,
+for they had some of the most admirable small boats ever devised.
+Chief of these, for lightness and grace, is the birchbark canoe,[249]
+though the Eskimo kayak is not far behind it. The birchbark canoe is
+made in various sizes and in different tribes has variations, but the
+type is the same everywhere. There is a slender, well-made frame of
+wood, consisting of ribs, gunwales, and stiffening strips, over which
+the bark, which has previously been sewed together, is stretched. The
+bow is a trifle broader across the beam than the stern, but both are
+pointed. The bark covering is rendered water-tight, where there are
+holes or seams, with pine gum. The paddle is similar to the paddle
+in use everywhere by the Amerinds, having a sort of T-shaped top to
+the handle, and being about five feet long and four to six inches
+wide. This kind of canoe was made wherever there was birchbark and
+water to float it. Another form of boat which was universal was the
+dugout canoe. This varied in size and shape according to locality,
+and was always hollowed out of a single tree, by fire and by gouging.
+When completed it was spread open wider, so that one of these boats
+has the appearance of being from a larger tree than is the case. The
+finest dugout canoes are those of the North-west coast, where they are
+constructed from cedar trees of huge proportions. One of these canoes,
+made by the Haidas, now in the American Museum in New York, is almost
+a ship and could be navigated in stormy waters. The Haida canoes are
+often elaborately carved. Farther up the coast the Tlinkits are experts
+likewise in canoe building and in the management of them. Their canoes
+are also hollowed from single logs. Many of them are small, being
+barely large enough for two persons. Some have a peculiar projection,
+a point sticking out from the lower part in line with the place where
+the keel would be if they had one, and also another at the top, rather
+square; that is, the wedge-like end is hollowed out in the middle.
+Either end is sent forward, but the prong end usually first. It seemed
+as if this projection might be intended to ward off ice, for it is in
+the regions of Yakutat and Glacier bays that it is the dominant type;
+and there ice is always floating from the glaciers. At Prince William
+Sound the _baidarka_,[250] or kayak, comes into use. This is certainly
+the perfection of a canoe. The frame is admirably made, being tied
+together and covered with walrus hide, or sealskin, and the boat rests
+on the sea seeming scarcely to sink into it. The umiak is the boat for
+travelling and general transportation. In it the whole family, or even
+two or three families, with all their trappings, journey about—dogs,
+children, packages, and adults all combined. In the sunlight its rich,
+translucent yellow colour is beautiful, and when filled with the
+good-natured, ruddy-cheeked Eskimo, clad in soft and elegant furs, the
+picture formed is one that is remembered ever after. In the Eastern
+regions it is termed the woman’s boat. They are usually about thirty
+feet long, five or six wide, and thirty inches deep. The ends are both
+rather pointed, and the bottom is flat. Sometimes there will be fifteen
+or twenty persons in one of the umiaks at the same time. The frame is
+on the same general principle as all other boats—that is, a combination
+of certain ribs, thwarts, braces, etc. All these pieces are lashed
+together, and when the skin covering is on, the umiak is a staunch and
+excellent craft, albeit it is entirely open. The cover is laced on,
+and in winter it is removed and stored away till the waters are open
+once more, when it is soaked in the sea to render it soft and again
+stretched in place.
+
+[Illustration: UMIAK OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO
+
+  The Alaska umiak has no oars and is more pointed
+]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO KAYAKS
+
+  The framework is tied together and covered with walrus or other
+  hide. Sometimes, as in the Aleut kayaks, there are two or three
+  hatch-holes
+]
+
+The umiak[251] has a sail of the square sort, made in these days out of
+cotton, though formerly of seal intestine, which is attached to a yard.
+The mast is some twelve feet high. The paddles are about five feet long
+and six inches wide, though there are smaller ones also. Sometimes oars
+are used as well as the paddles in navigating the umiak. The kayak
+is made in the same way by stretching skins over a wood frame tied
+together most dexterously. The navigator sits in a hatchway, as the
+kayak is entirely covered, and a sort of apron tied around his waist
+and around the coaming renders the boat water-tight. It is said some
+of the Alaskans will turn a somersault in the water, coming up on the
+opposite side.
+
+[Illustration: METHOD OF ATTACHING OARS TO UMIAK]
+
+[Illustration: METHOD OF TYING FRAME OF KAYAK]
+
+Besides the boats mentioned there were others on the continent made in
+different ways,[252] but these are the chief ones and serve to show
+that the Amerind was ready to adapt himself to water when occasion
+demanded. Taken all in all, his weapons, armour, implements, and
+his transportation methods show, as other things do, that he was a
+progressing, thinking being, with a good brain directing his operations.
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: THIN PLATE OF COPPER WROUGHT BY REPOUSSÉ METHOD,
+                            ILLINOIS MOUND]
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+                    MINING, METALLURGY, AND SCIENCE
+
+
+Mining operations were carried on in different parts of the continent,
+but in a primitive, limited way. Some of the most extensive was the
+mining for flint with which to make stone implements, mentioned before.
+The mining was done by means of fire and cold water alternately
+applied, and this was the method used in all mining operations on the
+continent, so far as is now known, except in the steatite or soapstone
+mining. But, even in Europe, until the invention of gunpowder, the fire
+method was employed, and in one or two localities where fuel is plenty
+it is said to be still considered an economical manner of extracting
+ore. In the Far West, where the rocks and ledges were more exposed,
+veins were discovered where the calcedony, or jasper, or other stone
+desired for stone implements could be easily knocked out. It was then
+carried away to some comfortable site and wrought into shapes. Along
+Western rivers one occasionally comes upon a spot where the ground is
+littered with “chips,” rejects, broken arrow-heads, and also perfect
+ones, the latter probably having been dropped and lost; or possibly in
+some way not being satisfactory to the arrow-makers.
+
+In working out soapstone vessels of the larger kind, the mining and
+rough shaping were frequently, if not always, accomplished at one and
+the same time.[253] Holmes describes the methods employed as follows:
+“When a sufficient area of the solid stone had been uncovered, the
+workmen proceeded with pick and chisel to detach such portions as
+were desired. If this surface happened to be uneven, the projections
+or convexities were utilized, and the cutting was not difficult; if
+the rock was massive and the surface flat, a circular groove was cut,
+outlining the mass to be removed, and the cutting was continued until
+a depth was reached corresponding to the height of the utensil to be
+made; then, by undercutting, the nucleus was detached or so far severed
+that it could be broken off by means of sledges or levers. If the
+stone happened to be laminated, a circular groove was cut through at
+right angles to the bedding, and the discoid mass was removed without
+the need of undercutting.... A notable feature of the cutting out of
+these masses of stone is the attendant shaping of the mass which was
+rudely sculptured as the work went on, the contour of the vessel being
+approximately developed. Although I have seen no good examples of this
+class, it is confidently stated by others that rude nodes were carved
+at opposite ends of the mass as incipient handles, and that excavation
+of the bowl was begun, so that when severed from the stem the vessel
+was already well under way.”[254] These vessels were usually, in their
+largest size, about two feet long, one foot or more in width, and about
+seven or eight inches deep. Some are nearly circular. The tools used
+were of stone, wood, bone, and horn, but chiefly of stone in the form
+of chisels and picks. Some of the trenches formed in cutting out this
+material were twenty-five feet wide, sixteen feet deep, and seventy
+feet long. One described by Fowke near Culpeper, Va., is one hundred
+and fifty feet in diameter and of considerable depth, being filled with
+water and débris. Pits of varying depth and size from which steatite,
+jasper, rhyolite, and other materials have been extracted by the
+Amerinds are found in different parts of the continent. In Yucatan
+there are numerous well-like holes in the ground that were “pockets”
+of zahcab, and when this valued material was taken out the cavity
+was either left or transformed into the strange, well-like affairs,
+carefully walled up and covered over, called chultunes, the object of
+which is often a mystery.[255]
+
+[Illustration: AMERINDIAN METHOD OF MINING STEATITE FOR UTENSILS]
+
+Native metals, when discovered by the Amerinds, were mined in much the
+same way as the flint, the largest workings known being those at the
+Lake Superior copper mines, where copper of remarkable purity continues
+to furnish this continent and the world with an abundant supply.
+Doubtless most of the copper used on the North American continent
+prior to the Discovery was derived from these mines and distributed
+through the channels of Amerind trade. Bowlders or nuggets of this
+pure copper were treasured in the homes of the tribes of the northern
+lake region when first encountered by the whites, and the location
+of the outcrops, both on the mainland and on the islands, appears to
+have been well known to the Amerinds of that time. An Algonquin chief
+presented Champlain with a piece of copper a foot long and told him
+there were “large quantities” where he had obtained this. He also said
+“that they gathered it in lumps, and, having melted it, spread it in
+sheets, smoothing it with stones.”[256] The mining operations in the
+Michigan-Minnesota copper region were evidently carried on for a very
+long period in the laborious Amerind way, and in consequence at the
+time they were first noticed had the appearance of extensive operations
+by a few miners, leading to the erroneous supposition that they had
+been worked by some other race.
+
+[Illustration: CHIPPED SPADE]
+
+It must not be forgotten that before the arrival of white men, and even
+to this day in certain localities, copper appeared about as valuable
+as gold. If the Lake Superior mines had been gold instead of copper it
+would not greatly have enhanced the value of the product in the opinion
+of the Amerinds of the locality and their customers. They worked their
+way down into the rock which carried native copper and broke off
+nodules and fragments as they proceeded. Some of the pits were eighteen
+or twenty feet deep, and in one case a huge bowlder of copper was found
+lying on oak supports several feet from the bottom. This mass had
+been denuded of every projection, and the supposition generally has
+been that it was being elevated to the surface by means of the wood
+underpinning. This may have been the case, but it is possible that the
+underpinning was inserted as the miners went down on the vein, because
+the bowlder was too large to cut or handle. They therefore _left it
+where found_ and proceeded to mine under and around for the smaller
+pieces. The large one was ten feet long, three feet wide, nearly two
+feet thick, and weighed over six tons. Other bowlders of greater weight
+have been found, moved, as is supposed, a considerable distance from
+the original bed, but the same hypothesis might apply to these that is
+suggested above. The famous Ontonagon bowlder,[257] which was found
+on the river of that name, is a copper mass weighing somewhere near
+five tons and has been the cause of much speculation as to how it
+came there. The probability is that it was left by glacial action on
+the surface, not far from, if not on, the spot where found. It is not
+likely that the Amerinds would take the trouble to move so large a mass
+far. If they had possessed the power of cutting it up, they would have
+done it near its source, and the same remark applies to the bowlders
+of copper that it has been supposed they were trying to lift to the
+surface. Furthermore, if the Ontonagon bowlder were transported by them
+to its position, and if the large bowlders in the mines were destined
+for the surface and transportation in bulk, we ought to find somewhere
+else records or evidences of the presence of great bowlders, but
+nothing of the kind has been found; no such large copper mass has been
+discovered in any ruined Amerind town, or on any Amerind village or
+town site. It seems that the Ontonagon bowlder was a natural deposit.
+These huge masses of copper were troublesome to modern miners with the
+most approved machinery.
+
+It must not be supposed that all the Amerinds of that region were
+miners, any more than that all the Amerinds of any other region were
+equally developed or skilful, or all did the same things. The Navajos
+of the South-west are some of them expert silver-workers, yet their
+neighbours, for the most part, can do little or nothing in that line.
+But that is no reason for supposing the Navajos to be a race distinct
+and apart from the rest. No more were the workers of the Lake Superior
+copper mines any different from their neighbours in general. They had a
+knack of working the native copper out of the ground, and they worked
+it just as others mined for flint. When they ceased it was probably
+because they had worked out all the easy places they could find, or
+that their trade fell off owing to the introduction by the Europeans of
+manufactured articles of copper and iron.
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO STONE MAUL.]
+
+In one of the ancient pits a hemlock with 395 annular rings was
+growing, and this has led to the supposition that the mines were worked
+before the time of Columbus. The excavations undoubtedly extended over
+a long period; from before Columbus to after Champlain. But it was over
+three hundred years after Columbus before the first explorations of the
+Lake Superior region were made by General Cass, and hence the tree had
+time to grow since that date. On the whole, there seems to be no reason
+for supposing that anyone but Amerinds worked these mines; Amerinds
+lastly of Algonquin stock, though other stocks probably worked them
+also.
+
+The method of utilising this copper in the Northern regions, that is,
+north of Mexico, was as primitive as the method of extracting it from
+the ground. It seems often, perhaps generally, to have been hammered
+into shape cold and then finished by grinding. Doubtless they knew how
+to melt it out of the rock on a small scale, allowing it to drop or run
+into a mould scraped into the surface of a flat stone, somewhat the
+shape of the article to be made, which would afterward be finished with
+hammering and grinding.
+
+The objects found in the Mississippi valley, formed of copper, which
+are probably the unaided work of the Amerinds, are chisels, arrow-
+and spear-heads, knives, and perhaps certain thin plates wrought with
+designs in the repoussé method. No camp utensils or other objects
+have been found demanding a knowledge of the properties of the metal
+sufficient to work it into articles requiring a quantity of copper to
+be manipulated at once. Cushing maintains[258] that the production of
+thin plates was an easy matter and he shows how the Zuñis made them,
+but admitting that the Amerinds of the Mississippi valley could make
+these plates, it does not prove that they did, for as copper in various
+forms was very early an article of trade, it is possible that they used
+the imported article. Cushing explains how the Zuñis, by a process of
+alternate hammering and annealing and then grinding, produced thin
+plates, which being pressed with a sharp tool would receive a design.
+This pressed-out portion could be ground down with a flat slab to sever
+it from the ragged edges of the sheet, and also to make any desired
+perforations. The resulting turned-up edges could be hammered flat and
+they then would be as if cut by a shear.
+
+Cushing explains how in the South-west ore was quarried and roasted in
+an open fire, and then smelted in a sort of oven, the copper or other
+metal appearing finally at the bottom. Primitive furnaces of this kind
+he found in the Salt River valley. The singular thing about it is the
+almost total absence of metal objects in the ruins of the South-west.
+Aside from several small copper “hawk” bells found in the Salado and
+other Arizona ruins, I have not heard of any metal object that was not
+positively European being found in any mound or ruin of the South-west,
+with one exception.[259] In 1875 a man in my employ in southern Utah
+told me that several years before that time his uncle either had found
+in a mound in southern Nevada or northern Arizona, or had obtained from
+some natives who found it, a small gold image, which he had melted
+down for the value of the metal it contained. At the time I thought
+this tale belonged with that of the “lost mine,” but I am now inclined
+to see a fact in it. It is quite within bounds that one of the small
+Mexican or Chiriquian figures may have found its way up into this
+region.
+
+[Illustration: SMALL FIGURE OF A FROG IN BASE METAL, PLATED WITH GOLD,
+  CHIRIQUI]
+
+If there had been a wide knowledge of copper and other metal-working in
+the South-west in the olden time, there ought to be signs of it in the
+ruins other than an oven, and even the latter has been rarely found.
+Coronado and his chroniclers, Espejo, and all the list of early writers
+on that region, never, so far as I have been able to note, mention
+copper or any other metal articles. In fact, from the testimony of
+literature, history, and actual excavation among the ruins so far as
+carried at present, we should conclude that none of the people of that
+region knew about metals or the manner of working them before the year
+1540.[260]
+
+New Jersey also furnished the Amerinds some copper and those living in
+the Atlantic region had ornaments, arrow-heads, and pipes supposed to
+have been made from it or from Lake Superior copper. Brinton attributes
+the scarcity of specimens in our collections to “its being bought up
+and melted by the whites, rather than to its limited employment.”[261]
+A few examples have been found, but if they had been plentiful there
+should be discovered many implements antedating the arrival of the
+whites. On Brinton’s hypothesis it would be necessary to assume that
+there were few made before the coming of the whites or they could not
+have been so easily bought up. As a matter of fact, the finds in copper
+articles compared with the area occupied are astonishingly few, if
+the natives turned off the amount of work some writers would have us
+believe.
+
+[Illustration: COPPERS FROM THE NORTH-WEST COAST.
+
+  These are made of thin sheets of copper, and grow valuable by sale
+  or exchange, according to peculiar customs. Some rise as high as
+  $5000 or $6000
+
+  Painted design in black, representing a sea monster with bear’s head
+
+  Painted design representing a hawk
+]
+
+On the North-west coast an article of great importance and value is
+the “copper.” In former days these coppers were made of native metal
+obtained from the mines of that region, and they must have been made
+by cold hammering in the way that Cushing describes. To-day they are
+made of metal obtained from the whites. The coppers are thin plates
+of a peculiar shape; the nearest common thing that they resemble is a
+gauntleted glove with the fingers cut off and with the gauntlet the
+top. Across the wrist runs a ridge from one side to the other, and
+from the middle of this another ridge extends downward to the bottom,
+thus making with the first the shape of a letter T below the flaring
+part. “The top is called the face,” says Boas in his valuable and
+interesting account of the Kwakiutls, “the lower part the hind end.
+The front of the copper is covered with black lead, in which a face
+representing the crest animal (totem) of the owner is graven. These
+coppers have the same function which bank notes of high denominations
+have with us. The actual value of the piece of copper is small but it
+is made to represent a large number of blankets, and can always be sold
+for blankets. A white blanket at fifty cents is the unit. The value
+is not arbitrarily set but depends upon the amount of property given
+away in the festival at which the copper is sold. The oftener a copper
+is sold the higher its value.”[262] Every copper has its own special
+name, representing its peerless quality, or an animal; as, the killer
+whale, the bear face, beaver face, etc. As ability to destroy valuable
+property amongst these people distinguishes the great and wealthy,
+these valuable coppers are demolished piecemeal till only the portion
+with the T upon it remains. Sometimes all the fragments are bought up
+by another person, who rivets them together and the copper then has a
+greater price than ever. A broken copper is a more important piece of
+property than a whole one, because the possession of it shows that its
+owner is rich enough to destroy property. These plates are in use from
+Yakutat to Comox. Sometimes a copper is cast into the sea.
+
+[Illustration: HOLLOW SILVER BEADS OF NAVAJO MAKE, ARIZONA]
+
+In the South-west it is not the house-building Pueblo who is the
+metal-worker _par excellence_ but the semi-pastoral Navajo, who,
+besides his flocks and herds, possesses a wealth of silver ornaments
+that runs up into the thousands. Silver and copper ornaments are turned
+out by the native silversmith not only for his own people but for
+whites also, and a considerable trade exists between the Navajos and
+other Amerinds in this native jewelry as well as in blankets. If you
+desire to have an article made, you give the silver it is to contain,
+usually in dollar pieces, and an equal quantity as wages. The objects
+manufactured are globular and semi-globular buttons; bracelets like
+a letter C in form and shape, buckles, rings, plate for the bridle,
+tobacco canisters, flat buttons, beads, and various discs, and other
+ornamental objects. These are often engraved quite artistically, and
+sometimes elaborately. Copper seems to be a valued metal for ornaments,
+and I have seen copper bracelets on a Navajo woman made exactly the
+same as silver ones. The Navajo silversmith is up to a trick or two
+as well as his white neighbour. At Manuelito there was a white trader
+who often sold Navajo bracelets to passengers from the railway trains
+that ran within a hundred feet or less of his door, and he was a man
+who prided himself on “square” dealing. One day a gentleman who had
+purchased several silver bracelets rushed in full of ire, demanding
+the return of his money for the worthless bracelets which he threw
+upon the counter. They were copper. The trader took down a string
+containing a number, from which the returned ones had been originally
+taken, and which he had purchased for silver, and found that every one
+was copper. They had been thinly washed over by the Navajo smith with
+silver.
+
+[Illustration: NAVAJO SILVER WORK, ARIZONA
+
+  Engraved button
+
+  Bracelet
+  Usually about 2½ inches long
+]
+
+It has sometimes been suggested that the Navajos learned their
+metal-working from the Pueblos, but if so it was a lesson obtained
+in quite modern times, for the Pueblos themselves, as has been
+mentioned, appear to have known nothing about the working of metals
+before the arrival of the Spaniards. The art of metal-working both
+among the Navajos and the Pueblos is probably a modern acquisition.
+Washington Matthews, writing about 1883, says: “Old white residents of
+the Navajo country tell me that the art has improved greatly within
+their recollection.”[263] It is likely that the Navajos, having a keen
+perception of mechanical matters, had wrought copper to a limited
+degree and that through their intercourse with, and absorption of,
+Pueblo tribes, this tendency was developed by a certain amount of
+knowledge in this line which the Pueblos acquired from Mexicans who
+followed in the train of the early Spanish explorers; but this skill
+was not given a real impetus till after the South-west fell into our
+possession, when tools and trade rapidly developed.[264]
+
+When in 1871 I encountered Navajos for the first time, on their way to
+trade with the Mormons, I do not remember seeing them have any silver
+ornaments. This was so soon after their liberation from government
+confinement following their war with us that they were, naturally,
+very poor. But if they had before possessed much silver they would
+have concealed it, and by the time I saw the ones referred to they
+would again have been wearing it and trying to trade it for horses,
+which they sadly needed. The Navajo silver-work is distinguished by
+an extremely artistic quality. Their tools and appliances are very
+rude and simple. As their method of operation is probably similar
+to that of Amerinds who have not been observed as closely, I will
+condense here some of the important details as given by Washington
+Matthews.[265] Only a few have attained a degree of proficiency that
+enables them to make large hollow articles, like flasks and the like,
+but there are many who can turn out bracelets, buttons, buckles, etc.
+Their appliances consist “of a forge, a bellows, an anvil, crucibles,
+moulds, tongs, scissors, pliers, files, awls, cold chisels, matrix and
+die for moulding buttons, wooden implements used in grinding buttons,
+wooden stake, basin, charcoal, tools and materials for soldering
+(blow-pipe, braid of cotton rags soaked in grease, wire, and borax),
+materials for polishing (sandpaper, emery paper, powdered sandstone,
+sand, ashes, and solid stone), and materials for whitening (a native
+mineral substance—almogen—salt and water).” The forge is built up with
+several old boards, an old box, or, when these cannot be procured, of
+sticks. The nozzle of the bellows, being wood, is kept back from the
+fire several inches and a continuation built in the mud with which the
+fire-bed is constructed. The bellows is a tube of goatskin, a foot long
+and ten inches in diameter, distended by two or three wooden hoops. The
+back of it is a disc of wood with a valve in it. The nozzle is of four
+pieces of wood tied together and having a hole an inch square through
+the centre, the outside being dressed off till it is approximately
+round. Any old piece of iron, like the king-bolt of a wagon, driven
+into a log serves for an anvil, though in the absence of this a hard
+stone is sufficient. They make their own crucibles of clay, generally
+three-cornered, about two inches in every dimension, and baked hard.
+“The moulds in which they cast their ingots, cut in soft sandstone with
+a home-made chisel, are so easily formed that the smith leaves them
+behind when he moves his residence.” “Metallic hemispheres for beads
+and buttons are made in a concave matrix by means of a round-pointed
+bolt.” Several matrices are made on a single bar of iron and a bolt
+that will fit the smallest is sufficient to work all. They prepare
+charcoal by building a large fire, and when it is “reduced to a mass of
+glowing coals they smother it well with earth and leave it to cool.”
+Blowpipes are made by themselves out of brass wire hammered flat and
+then bent into a tube. The engraving and chasing of the objects made
+are done with the sharpened end of a file, or any other suitable sharp
+piece of steel. It will be seen from the foregoing that the Navajo
+silversmith is dependent to a very great extent on materials and tools
+obtained from the whites, and without these the practice of his art
+would be difficult. Schools for mechanical processes like dyeing,
+metal-working, etc., would accomplish much good among these people.
+They could readily be taught to use the lathe and other tools, and
+would become good metal-workers.
+
+[Illustration: KWAKIUTL CHIEF HOLDING HIS COPPER, NORTH-WEST COAST
+
+  The value of a copper is expressed in white single blankets of
+  American make at 50 cents each. It is rated according to the amount
+  of property given away at the festival where the copper is sold,
+  and each sale adds to its value proportionally. He who can break a
+  copper and cast away the fragment is considered great.
+]
+
+Prescott says of the Mexicans: “They were as well acquainted with the
+mineral as with the vegetable treasures of their kingdom. Silver, lead,
+and tin they drew from the mines of Tasco; copper from the mountains
+of Zacotollan. These were taken, not only from the crude masses on
+the surface, but from veins wrought in the solid rock, into which
+they opened extensive galleries.... Gold, found on the surface, or
+gleaned from the beds of rivers, was cast into bars, or, in the form
+of dust, made part of the regular tribute of the southern provinces
+of the empire.”[266] Their mining was doubtless carried on by the
+fire-and-water process used by the Northern people, while gold from
+the river beds was possibly obtained in much the same manner as I have
+been told the Amerinds of Peru get it. Selecting a river that was known
+to be rich in the metal, a series of stone “riffles” would be arranged
+in the best place at the very lowest stage of the water. Then when the
+freshets came and swept the gravel across these rude affairs the gold
+would remain lodged there and on the subsidence of the stream could be
+readily taken out. There was undoubtedly a vast quantity of gold in
+the possession of the Mexicans and Central Americans, but this fact
+does not signify that they conducted mining operations on a large or
+continuous scale, for the metal had been accumulating, in the shape of
+idols and ornaments, for centuries. There was little lost or worn away,
+as they did not use it as a general medium of exchange. Their plumes
+in their head-dresses were often set in gold; rings of gold were worn
+in their ears and on their arms, and the same metal was wrought into a
+great many forms of ornament.
+
+Cortes ordered, says Valentini, eight thousand arrow-heads of
+copper and they were “made ready for delivery in a single week.” It
+seems, therefore, the Aztecs were accustomed to handling copper in
+considerable quantities. It is said they made a mixture of copper and
+tin which they used for tools, and certain implements and objects are
+found with a percentage of tin in them, but nevertheless their keenest
+weapons and their most serviceable tools were made of obsidian, which
+was also the case with the Mayas. Their hardened copper was useful
+for some purposes, but they were unable to harden it sufficiently to
+sustain an edge. For cutting stone in two they used, as the Eskimo
+does to-day, a thin blade and sand. In their case the blade was copper
+tempered with tin, and in the Eskimo’s case it was formerly probably a
+thin blade of bone, while now it is an old steel saw. Silver as well
+as gold and copper was known to the tribes of the Central regions of
+America, and lead also was one of their metals, though little was done
+with it. There is a tendency to exaggerate the mechanical as well as
+the art skill displayed in objects that were made on this continent,
+before the whites came, or that were not discovered till recently.
+The reason for this seems to be that we love mystery and it is too
+tame to refer the finds to the ordinary “Indian,” who in the popular
+mind has no ability in any direction, so they are ascribed to that
+“mysterious” race that we have tried in vain to find some evidence of
+besides mystery. Daniel Wilson gives an example of how this mystery
+bubble bursts on the slightest accurate investigation. Some tools
+were found in the neighbourhood of Brockville, Canada, of which Dr.
+Reynolds, who exhibited them, stated: “There is also a curious fact,
+which these relics appear to confirm, that the Indians possessed the
+art of hardening and tempering copper, so as to give it as good an edge
+as iron or steel. This ancient Indian art is now entirely lost.”[267]
+When these Brockville relics were submitted to careful examination it
+appeared that they were not “different in any material respect from
+the native copper of Lake Superior.”[268] This was all very well, but
+Wilson was not satisfied with Reynolds’s ascribing these relics to the
+“present Indian race” and goes on to say: “The evidences of antique
+sepulture, however, are unmistakable; and other proofs suggest a
+different origin,” and he proceeds to call in Squier’s aid and ascribes
+them forthwith to our fabulous friends, the “Moundbuilders.” One of
+his proofs was a terra-cotta mask found with the articles, in which
+he saw a skill beyond that of the “Indians,” but which in reality,
+judging by the illustration he gives of it, is nothing remarkable. Yet
+Wilson continues: “It cannot admit of doubt that in them [the mining
+operations] we look on the traces of an imperfectly developed yet
+highly interesting native civilisation, pertaining to centuries long
+anterior to the discovery of America in the fifteenth century,”[269]
+etc. This conclusion he is assisted to by certain quotations from
+some of the old natives and from Claude Allouez. These convince him;
+but a little later on he quotes Alexander Henry’s mention of his visit
+to the Ontonagon, who says: “I found this river chiefly remarkable
+for the abundance of virgin copper which is on its banks and in its
+neighbourhood. The copper presented itself to the eye in masses of
+various weight. The Indians showed me one of twenty pounds. They
+were used to manufacture this metal into spoons and bracelets for
+themselves.”[270] If they made bracelets and spoons, they probably
+made other articles, “melting the lumps and spreading it in sheets” to
+smooth it with stones, as the chief described to Champlain.
+
+The Chiriquians seem to have possessed a skill in metallurgical
+operations unsurpassed by any other people on the continent. Whether
+they used gold dust in quills, and T shapes of tin or copper for
+currency as did the Mexicans, does not appear, but they were skilled
+in metal-working. They understood smelting, alloying, and plating,
+and apparently were extremely skilful at casting. As before noted, no
+weapons or implements have been found of metal, all the metal objects
+being ornaments, and “almost exclusively,” says Holmes, “pendent
+ornaments.” “They were, for the most part, cast in moulds, and in nine
+cases out of ten represent animal forms. A few bells are found, all of
+which are bronze. Pieces formed of alloyed metal are usually washed
+or plated with gold.”[271] Many of these valuable relics of the past
+have been disposed of for their money value and duly melted up to be
+made into something modern. The gold is usually alloyed with copper
+in varying proportions, though pure metals were also used. From the
+fact that the alloy is so variable it would seem that the combination
+already existed before it came into the Chiriquian hands; that is, it
+was perhaps a natural combination.
+
+Holmes believes almost all these metal objects were cast in moulds,
+as noted, but he mentions other processes by which they may have
+been made. They have the appearance of having been modelled in some
+plastic material, and then coated with clay, when by the action of
+heat the wax runs away, leaving the hollow clay as a mould to receive
+the metal. This is the _cire perdue_ process. Small figures of
+resin, in all respects modelled like those found in metal, have been
+discovered in the graves. This seems to add to the probability of a
+Chiriqui acquaintance with the _cire perdue_ process. Another method
+suggested is that the various metallic parts of a figure were enclosed
+in a clay matrix and then heated till the parts melted and joined,
+but this appears to be too uncertain and difficult to have warranted
+its practice. Still another method advanced is the coating of a wax
+figure with sheet gold and melting the wax, when a hollow gold figure
+would be the result. This is possible but not probable. Yet one more
+suggestion is that the gold was reduced to an amalgam with mercury,
+and thus modelled, when the mercury being driven off by heat the gold
+figure would remain. One difficulty with this theory seems to be that
+there is no evidence that the Chiriquians knew mercury. As many of the
+objects are washed or plated with pure gold, it would seem that the
+pure gold was the most difficult to obtain, and that, as before stated,
+the gold-copper alloy was a natural one. There is neither engraving nor
+carving on these objects; and the objects themselves are the same crude
+productions that are indicative of pure Amerind art everywhere on the
+continent. Some are more crude than others, but all Amerind sculpture,
+modelling, and carving are essentially rude and primitive. In the form
+and artistic execution of the Chiriqui objects of gold and copper we
+may be positive that there is no European influence, whatever there
+may be in the method of production. It is probable that the objects
+are entirely native, and they offer another lesson that the tribes of
+North America were everywhere working and inventing, and gradually
+conquering the secrets of nature just as our ancestors did and just as
+we are still doing to-day; some doing more, others less; some being
+quick, and others clumsy, ignorant, and dull. The bells are usually of
+bronze, having the shape of our common sleigh-bell, and are frequently
+gold-plated. The bells found in Arizona are of this description but not
+plated.
+
+[Illustration: TRIPLE BELL OR RATTLE OF GOLD FROM NEAR PANAMA]
+
+[Illustration: BRONZE MEXICAN BELL]
+
+Besides their sciences of mining and metallurgy, the Amerinds
+understood some others, like the manufacture of glue and cement, the
+production of paints and dyes, and astronomical reckonings. True, some
+of these are more properly classed as arts, but requiring knowledge
+that may be called scientific, they may be considered under that head.
+Paints were usually obtained from clays and ochres. I once traced to
+its source the red paint formerly used by the Amerinds of southern Utah
+and found it in the second great bend of the Colorado River, about
+three thousand feet below the surface and about two thousand feet above
+the river, as the canyon is there about five thousand feet deep. The
+paint was in a cave the mouth of which opened on a little gulch, and
+the entrance was so small and narrow, and in such hard rock, that we
+could barely wriggle our way on our bellies, along the eighteen feet
+of passage, before we reached the cavern, thirty feet long, fifteen
+wide, and high enough for a man to stand erect in. There were several
+side passages leading farther, but this seemed to be the main cave, and
+all over the walls were the marks of the sharp sticks with which the
+Amerinds cut out the ochre. Our guide stated that it was customary to
+send in the boys and squaws after the paint. The ochre was of a rich
+red, but no match for the red lead and vermilion obtained by trade with
+the whites. The remote and difficult position of this cave and its
+narrow and repelling entrance show how eager the natives were to secure
+paint. At the time of our visit, however, the mouth was considerably
+overgrown with small brush, proving that for several years no visit
+had been made. In every region there were special places for obtaining
+paints, and Brinton states that in New Castle County, Delaware, the
+vicinity of streams now known as White Clay and Red Clay creeks
+furnished red, white, and blue clays in such abundance that they were
+called by the natives _Walamink_, or Place of Paint.[272] Charcoal was
+used for black.
+
+Of dyes they had a fair assortment, but they were not able to obtain
+the brilliant hues they now secure by means of the “Diamond” and other
+aniline dyes. A black dye was made by the Navajos from the twigs and
+leaves of the aromatic sumac, a native yellow ochre, and the gum of
+the piñon.[273] These same Amerinds have three different processes for
+dyeing yellow. The first produces a lemon yellow, the second an old
+gold, and the third still a different shade.
+
+[Illustration: BRONZE BELLS, PLATED OR WASHED WITH GOLD, CHIRIQUI
+
+  These were cast in moulds. The largest is 1¼ in. high and ¾ in.
+  diameter
+]
+
+Red dyes are also made by the Navajos; and the Mokis possess the
+skill to produce several colours, one being a deep, rich blue.
+These processes are all too long to admit of description here.[274]
+The Lenapé and other Eastern Amerinds used the juice of the wild,
+sweet-scented crab apple to fix the dyes, while among the Mokis the
+liquid generally used is urine. It must have required long and careful
+experiment before these people acquired their knowledge of dyeing, for
+some of the preparations are rather intricately compounded, but here
+is evidence once more that the Amerind was by no means a vagabond, but
+was constantly at work devising and inventing. Glue they made from
+fish in some localities, and in others by boiling down the skin from
+the head of the bison or elk, or the hoofs of animals. Cement for
+attaching arrow-heads and for other purposes was made by combining
+pine gum with other substances. In all these mixtures and combinations
+the proportions were either guessed at or measured, never weighed, for
+there was no scale or balance in use, so far as now known, in North
+America, though certain round stones from Mexico in Madrid have been
+supposed to be weights.
+
+Remarkable progress had been made in many tribes in the matter of
+calculating time, and the Mayas and Mexicans had advanced so far that
+they were able to calculate the length of the year with accuracy.
+What implements they employed is not known, but they were probably of
+wood and stone, the latter of the form of the calendar stone, before
+mentioned. Other tribes farther north made their calculations in a less
+perfect way, yet they did and do keep time records. The Sun priests
+of the Mokis use “what may be called a calendar stick,” says Fewkes.
+“These sticks are about a foot and a half long, and are divided into
+two parts, one section being round, the other flattened on one side.
+The round section is girt by fifteen shallow parallel grooves, and
+occupies about a third of the whole length of the stick. The remaining
+two-thirds of the stick have a number of parallel grooves or notches
+cut upon the flattened surface. Five of the latter grooves, which are
+situated at equal distances, are deeper than the remaining, and between
+each pair there are four smaller parallel grooves arranged at equal
+distances. The space in which these grooves are cut occupies about
+one-half of the flat portion of the stick. The remaining half, or that
+more distant from the round section, is divided into two parts, which
+are separated by a rectangular space, in the centre of which there is
+a depression called the _nā-tā-l-tci_. On one side of the depression
+there are three notches, on the other seven.”[275] The Eastern Amerinds
+computed time in their own several ways, some computing twelve, others
+thirteen moons to the year, usually reckoning from one planting time to
+another. The Dakotas, Chipeways, and others reckoned by winters.
+
+In the Zuñi country, still existed a few years ago, if it does not
+to-day, a primitive astronomical station. It is a rude little structure
+containing an erect slab of sandstone adorned with the circular face of
+the sun, and it is used, as it was long ago, for determining the Zuñi
+chronology.
+
+The Aztec year had eighteen months of twenty days each and that of the
+Mayas was the same. The Maya week had thirteen days, and the days were
+counted from one to thirteen continuously throughout the year—that
+is, each month did not begin with 1 but with whatever number happened
+to fall on that day; it might be 2 or 5 or 8 or 13 or in fact any
+number up to 13. The eighteen months gave them only 360 days, but
+they intercalated at the end of each year the five days necessary to
+round it out. At least so the early Spanish writers state, though
+Thomas, who has given close attention to this subject, has said that
+he felt doubtful on that point.[276] Prescott states without question,
+concerning the Aztecs: “Five complementary days, as in Egypt, were
+added, to make up the full number of three hundred and sixty-five. They
+belonged to no month and were regarded as peculiarly unlucky. A month
+was divided into four weeks of five days each.”[277]
+
+[Illustration: SMALL METAL FIGURE, CHIRIQUI
+
+  Copper-gold alloy
+]
+
+The six hours over the 365 days which we make up in our leap year the
+Aztecs allowed to run to the end of their fifty-two year cycle, when
+they intercalated it all at one time, the actual period being twelve
+and one half days. This brought them “within an almost inappreciable
+fraction,” says Prescott, “to the exact length of the tropical year, as
+established by the most accurate observations.”[278] The Aztecs had
+a second calendar used by the priests for keeping their own records
+and making their own calculations, and doubtless the Maya had the same
+practice.
+
+The Cakchiquel year consisted of 366 days. That of the Maya was 365.
+The former, therefore, says Goodman, “could have no fixed date for its
+beginning, relative to solar or terrestrial phenomena, but must revolve
+regularly through the seasons.... The year might begin at the summer
+or the winter solstice, at the vernal or the autumnal equinox, or any
+other period.”[279]
+
+A great Maya event, which Goodman cites, was “the observance of the
+280,800th year of their era.... Nearly all the other dates in the
+inscriptions of Copan and Quirigua either lead up to or recede from
+it. It was the beginning of the last quarter of their grand era,
+the completion of which, it is perhaps needless to say, they did
+not, as a nation, live to see.”[279] But when we touch this subject
+of chronology it at once opens up a vast and complicated field of
+investigation. Goodman goes on to say: “How account then for such an
+immense period?... The most reasonable answer that suggests itself is
+that they had a juster appreciation of the antiquity of the earth than
+most nations have had, and that they began their chronology with the
+supposed date of its creation.... I look upon the Maya chronological
+scheme as ranking among the most marvellous creations of the human
+intellect.”[279]
+
+[Illustration: SILVER PLATE WITH SPANISH COAT OF ARMS,
+
+  from a mound in Mississippi
+]
+
+
+
+
+              [Illustration: MOKI RATTLE OF ANIMAL HOOFS.]
+
+                               CHAPTER XI
+
+           MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, MUSIC, AMUSEMENTS, AND GAMES
+
+
+The popular conception that there is no fun in red men is erroneous.
+All of them, far from being taciturn, silent, morose, and lacking
+desire for amusement other than scalping or torturing captives, are
+full of humour and are fond of fun. To strangers, however, they are
+often silent. In every village there is a great deal of amusement, and
+while the race is deficient in musical instruments, and the music they
+produce, if it can be designated by that term, is usually apart of some
+ceremonial, they do sing and the singing is accompanied by rattles
+and drums. These instruments, with a sort of flute or flageolet and
+bells and whistles, make the sum-total of their musical apparatus. No
+stringed instrument, it was believed, was known on the North American
+continent before the Discovery, though recently Lumholtz has found a
+primitive musical bow among the Huichols in Mexico that seems to show
+no outside influence. Their drums were usually made out of a hollow
+log and were of various sizes, though some tribes also used a sort of
+tambourine-drum formed by stretching a piece of hide over a hoop. In
+the case of the Mokis, the large drum was made by stretching hide over
+the ends of a hollow log by means of strings on the outside running
+from the edge of one skin to that of the other, zig-zag. These drums
+are about twenty inches in diameter by some three feet long, and the
+ones I have seen had an appearance of age that seemed to indicate a
+remote origin. Rattles are frequently made from deer hoofs, or from
+hoofs of similar animals, and also from turtle shells, and garments
+are trimmed with hoofs so that the movements of the wearer cause them
+to strike together with a musical sound. Sometimes the hoofs are
+attached in groups of three or more to the ends of a short stick which
+is shaken to produce the desired sound. This is a form specially in
+vogue among the Tlinkits, and these rattles are one of the articles of
+trade with the tourists in the North-west. Another form is a gourd or
+clay globe containing pebbles or something similar. Rattles of this
+kind are common in the ceremonials of the Mokis. Bells, as we have
+seen in the preceding chapter, were made by tribes of the Central
+American region of copper in the so-called “hawk’s-bell” shape, but it
+is not absolutely certain that this form of bell was not derived from
+European contact.[280] No other form of bell was known to any of the
+natives.
+
+[Illustration: AMERINDIAN RATTLES
+
+  Gourd, Ojibwa
+
+  Earthenware rattle from Chiriqui.
+
+  Tin, Ojibwa
+]
+
+Whistles were made of pottery and wood and of human and other
+bones,[281] and were similar to our common whistles with one or more
+holes in the tube for changing the note. The flute was of wood,
+generally of cedar, which is considered a sacred wood. It was eighteen
+or twenty inches long and was often ornamented with carving and tufts
+of feathers, etc. In Mexico, some were made of terra cotta.
+
+[Illustration: OMAHA LARGE FLUTE
+
+  Made of red cedar. Flutes were also made of eagle wing bones and of
+  reed
+]
+
+It is certain that the sounds produced on these various instruments
+would in no way suggest or resemble what is understood by music among
+people of European origin, and it is also probable that our music when
+first heard by Amerinds seems to them more like wailing and lamentation
+than sounds of pleasure. I remember an evening long ago, in Arizona,
+when we had the interesting companionship of several intelligent Navajo
+chiefs, who entertained us by singing, accompanying themselves by
+drumming on the bottom of one of our camp kettles. At length someone
+of our party exclaimed, “Now let’s give them _Home, Sweet Home_,” and
+this song was accordingly rendered in a way that should have moved the
+savage to tears, but, though the firelight was brilliant, I failed to
+detect any; indeed their expression appeared to resemble that which
+a professional musician of our own race might have exhibited. They
+were perfectly satisfied with a single selection, and they politely
+said _Buéno_. The Navajos have a peculiar drum, the basket drum,
+described by Washington Matthews.[282] It is a bowl-shaped basket made
+according to special rules and rites, and inverted is used as a drum
+in certain ceremonials, being beaten by a stick, also manufactured
+in a special way, and according to long-established religious rites.
+Whenever a ceremony is completed this stick is always pulled apart
+during an appropriate song, and its fragments “deposited, with prayer
+and ceremony, in the fork of a cedar tree or other secure place.” It is
+made from yucca leaves, four being the prescribed number, and every one
+of these must be absolutely free from blemish. One from each cardinal
+point of the compass is necessary, and the making of the drumstick from
+them is a serious matter, even the rejected fragments being disposed of
+in some safe place with a benediction:
+
+    “Thus will it be beautiful.
+     Thus walk in beauty, my grandchild.”
+
+“In none of the ancient Navajo rites is a regular drum or tom-tom
+employed,” says Matthews. “The inverted basket serves the purpose of
+one.”
+
+“The musical instruments,” says Bandelier, “which, while still in use
+in Mexico, are known to antedate the Conquest, are but three in number,
+one of which is already falling into oblivion. It is the _tozacatl_
+(sounding-cane), described to me as a long cane, bent round like an
+Alpine horn. I never saw one, but its sound is said to be a sonorous
+bellowing. The other is the _chirimia_. It is made of dark brown
+wood, called _tepehuaje_, brought to Cholula from Matamoras-Yzucar,
+or near Atlixco. Its length is 0.46 metre (about 18 inches) and its
+width at the mouth is 0.06 metre (about 3 inches). It has eleven
+holes irregularly arranged, and the mouthpiece is a thin plate of
+horn on a stem of brass. The noise produced by this instrument is a
+fit accompaniment to the shrill Indian voices, being horrible beyond
+all description.... The big drum, the _tlapan-huehuetl_, was formerly
+made out of the trunk of a tree properly hollowed, over which, at
+one end, a deerskin or some other dried hide was stretched. All the
+older authors make more or less mention of this instrument, but more
+particularly Bernal Diez de Castillo, who says, when describing the
+upper platform of the principal mounds of worship of Mexico: ‘And there
+they had an exceedingly large drum, which, when beaten, gave a sound as
+if from the infernal regions, which was heard at more than two leagues
+off, and they said that the skin was that of large snakes.’”[283] The
+_teponaztli_ was a wooden instrument with two tongues that were beaten
+with a stick. Conch shells were also used as musical instruments. Some
+of these were of very great size.
+
+[Illustration: DRUM OF TERRA COTTA, CHIRIQUI]
+
+The Eskimo drum is like a tambourine, a skin stretched over a hoop.
+Some of the Chiriqui whistles were shaped like a top, while others
+were straight with finger holes. These various types were distributed
+over the whole area of the continent, the drum and the rattle always
+predominating.
+
+The Amerind singing at first seems extremely monotonous to our ears and
+the impression is that all tribes sing alike, but each stock has its
+own methods and peculiarities. A foundation principle with all in the
+men’s singing seems to be an explosive quality of vocalisation—that
+is, violent explosive tones instead of, as with us, tones long drawn
+out. The Moki seems generally to sing nothing but “ho, ho, ho, ho, he,
+he, he, he, hay, hay, hay,” etc., and he has quite a different rhythm
+from the Ute, while the singing of the Navajo, when the singer opens
+out all the stops, is more like the voice of a cat in the back yard
+than any other sound in civilisation that I can think of. Farther north
+the sounds change again: the Tlinkit vocalisation suggests death by
+strangulation.
+
+[Illustration: MENOMINEE TAMBOURINE DRUM
+
+  A common form with many tribes
+]
+
+[Illustration: OMAHA BOX DRUM
+
+  A common form with most tribes. Originally made from a hollow log
+]
+
+Fillmore states that the Navajo songs were the most primitive of any
+he studied. “They form in fact the connecting link between excited
+howling and excited singing. The quality of tone is indescribable,
+being more like a yelp than anything else; but the intervals yelped
+are unmistakably those of the major chord or of the minor chord.
+The tone-quality is that of shouting, or even of howling, but the
+pitch-relations into which they tend to fall are those of the major
+chord.... Some of the Navaho songs are illustrations of melody so
+primitive as to bring us very near to the beginning of music-making....
+I started my investigations with the impression that there might be
+essential differences in structure between the Indian music and our
+own. I studied the Indian music for ten years with the utmost care
+and thoroughness of which I was capable. I have failed to find one
+single interval in Indian music which we do not use. It is true,
+I have often heard Indians sing these intervals out of tune; but
+this is a phenomenon by no means confined to savage or uncivilised
+races. In every such case, when I was singing with Indians and was
+able to get at their real intentions, I have found that they meant
+to sing exactly the interval we should sing in their place.... I
+have also found that increase of power is almost always accompanied
+with increased elevation of pitch, and diminution of intensity with
+a lowering of pitch, seemingly without the Indian being aware of
+it.... The evidence of the essential unity of all music, from the
+most primitive to the most advanced, is cumulative. The Navaho howls
+his song to the war gods directly along the line of the major chord;
+Beethoven makes the first theme of his great ‘Eroica’ symphony out of
+precisely the same material. The Tigua makes his ‘Dance of the Wheel’
+out of a major chord, and its relative minor; Wagner makes Lohengrin
+sing ‘Mein lieber schwan’ to a melody composed of exactly the same
+ingredients. In short there is only one kind of music in the world.”
+Like everything else pertaining to man, it is a matter of development
+modified by circumstances. Fillmore’s excellent investigation[284] in
+this line only proves again that man is the same in all climes and ages
+since first we get track of him, so far as his fundamental make-up is
+concerned. Variations and differences are only those which come from a
+development of latent talents or possibilities. He always moves, when
+he moves, along certain lines that are prearranged by his constitution
+and his environment. He may stop where circumstances direct, but he
+will have stopped where others stopped before.
+
+[Illustration: SET OF PLAYING STICKS]
+
+There is always a great deal of repetition in the songs. The Amerind
+seems content to go over and over again the same few notes. In some
+tribes the poet and singer stands in the interior of a circle formed by
+all the members of the tribe—men, women, and children—around a cedar
+tree from which all but the top branches have been removed. A time of
+moonlight is chosen, and I remember well such a night with some Pai
+Utes, of Arizona. The poet recited his refrain, then all took it up
+and repeated it in song, circling round and round the cedar with their
+peculiar shuffle, repeating and repeating. I joined the circle and the
+singing till I became tired, and finally left them still enjoying it.
+The poet would give out some such stanza as
+
+    “No rabbit kill,
+     No rabbit eat,”
+
+and it would serve the purpose for a considerable time, when he would
+be obliged to announce a new one.
+
+Mooney has translated some of the songs of the Arapahos used in the
+Ghost or Resurrection Dance, and I give several as specimens of their
+style[285]:
+
+              “O, my children! O, my children!
+               Here is another of your pipes—He eye!
+               Here is another of your pipes—He eye!
+               Look! thus I shouted—He eye!
+               Look! thus I shouted—He eye!
+               When I moved the earth—He eye!
+               When I moved the earth—He eye!
+
+                            ————
+
+            “The sacred pipe tells me—E yahe eye!
+             The sacred pipe tells me—E yahe eye!
+                    Our father—Yahe eye!
+                    Our father—Yahe eye!
+    We shall surely be put again (with our friends) E yahe eye!
+    We shall surely be put again (with our friends) E yahe eye!
+                    Our father, E yahe eye!
+                    Our father, E yahe eye!
+
+                            ————
+
+                “The cedar tree, the cedar tree!
+                    We have it in the centre!
+                    We have it in the centre!
+                        When we dance,
+                        When we dance,
+                    We have it in the centre!
+                    We have it in the centre!
+
+                            ————
+
+                  “My children, my children!
+          It is I who wear the morning star on my head!
+          It is I who wear the morning star on my head!
+                    I show it to my children!
+                    I show it to my children!
+                        Says the father!
+                        Says the father!
+
+                            ————
+
+    “With the ba-qati wheel I am gambling!
+     With the ba-qati wheel I am gambling!
+            With the black mark I win the game!
+            With the black mark I win the game!”
+
+“This (last) song is from the northern Arapaho. The author of it in
+his visit to the spirit world, found his former friends playing the
+old game of the _baqati_ wheel, which was practically obsolete among
+the prairie tribes, but which is being revived since the advent of the
+Ghost Dance.... The game is played with a wheel (_baqati_, large wheel)
+and two pairs of throwing sticks.... It is a man’s game and there are
+three players, one rolling the wheel while the other two, each armed
+with a pair of throwing sticks, run after it and throw the sticks so as
+to cross the wheel in a certain position.”[286]
+
+[Illustration: PUEBLO RATTLES.
+
+  Turtle shell, with hoofs of goats or sheep. Fastened to the rear of
+  the right leg near the knee in dancing Painted gourd with wood handle
+]
+
+Among the Mokis, some of the old men are custodians of songs, according
+to the societies to which they belong. Such a man is leader of the
+singing. It is he who knows the old songs. He meets a lot of the young
+men at a specified house, and placing an old tin pan on the floor to
+spit in while smoking cigarettes, and beside it a candle for light,
+they group themselves in a circle, sitting on the floor, while the
+instructor takes his place on a stool at the large double-headed drum
+at one end. He runs over a passage, beating time on the drum, and
+then all join in with a vigour that well-nigh raises the roof. There
+was something fine in the force and power with which these songs were
+rendered, and it was the only time in my experience that my artistic
+sense was stirred by Amerind singing. Later, on the same evening as the
+gathering mentioned, when the same young men were rehearsing further
+and also practising the dance with some small girls in a neighbouring
+house, the singing lost its fire and was not at all thrilling. Before
+the rehearsal with the young men the “choir master” rehearses by
+himself. From my house at Tewa, on the “East Mesa,” I could hear just
+after dark, every evening, through the stone wall, continuous singing.
+It was in the next room or “house,” the entrance to which, though on
+my level, was around a corner and not connected in any way with my
+balcony. I had a ladder of my own. I was curious to see who it was that
+was so devoted to this amusement. I mounted to my house-top by means of
+steps on the end of a wall, and then I could look down my neighbour’s
+chimney, from which little smoke and much sound were arising. I
+could see plainly the singer, an old man, sitting cross-legged
+before the fire, its light softly illuminating him, with a small
+double-headed drum between his knees, which he was vigorously beating
+in accompaniment to a “+HO+, ho, +HO+, ho, +HO+—+HE+, he, +HE+,” etc.
+When I went afterward to the house of Anawita, the war-chief, to the
+rehearsal described, this old fellow and Anawita were the leaders of
+the songs. They were practising at that time for the Somaikoli or
+Soyaita ceremony.
+
+The Amerind is fond of singing. He sings in ceremonials, sings in camp,
+bursts out in yelps as he rides across country, and the women amongst
+the Pueblos sing a shrill chant while they are grinding corn. Men of
+some tribes sing at times without knowing what they are singing. I
+once had a Uinkarets Ute with me in Arizona, and at night this man
+would build a fire a few yards from us, and sitting by it would sing
+the words _Lola-my, lola-my, lola-my_ with great vigour and gusto over
+and over and over again. When I asked him what the words meant, he
+said he did not know, nor could he explain just why he performed thus,
+but it was probably a gambling chant. Singing is used at night for
+driving away evil spirits that may be near. We had four Pai Utes once
+travelling with us for a number of weeks, and almost every night, along
+in the middle, one would wake and begin to sing in a low voice, then a
+second would join, and a third, and so on till all were engaged, their
+voices rising gradually, and finally as gradually diminishing till they
+ceased altogether.[287] As this performance woke us up there were
+protests against it, but they were of no avail. The red men declared
+they did it to drive off the “woonūpits,” or spirit of evil, and we
+were forced to partake of their protection. Beginning a song low and
+rising slowly is an effect often used. Fewkes mentions something of the
+kind. “At the termination of this ceremonial smoke,” he says, “the four
+priests nearest the bowl picked up the small gourd rattles and began
+a low, rapid rattling. This continued for a few moments, and then the
+priests began a song, at first low, rising gradually and increasing in
+volume.” Fewkes recorded many songs by means of the phonograph. The
+Harriman Expedition recorded a number of Tlinkit songs, and afterwards
+some of these were reproduced for the benefit of men of the same stock
+farther north, who immediately recognised the melodies and, as their
+hilarity testified, enjoyed them hugely, though they had never before
+heard a talking machine.
+
+[Illustration: ZUÑI DANCE ORNAMENT
+
+  Yellow gourd with band of black and white squares. A stick is
+  passed through it for a handle. Generally used in social dances
+]
+
+[Illustration: MOKI NOTCHED STICK
+
+  With shoulder-blade of deer or sheep for scraping it to make noise
+]
+
+[Illustration: KWAKIUTL DOUBLE WHISTLE, WITH FOUR VOICES.]
+
+[Illustration: THE AWL GAME]
+
+Most Amerind songs are connected with ceremonials, and some are
+imported or adopted. Ceremonials are not always sacred. Many of them
+are full of amusing features intended to entertain the onlookers. The
+attendance at a camp or village on a ceremonial day is for amusement as
+much as anything else.
+
+The different tribes of a locality expect to meet friends then and
+enjoy social intercourse. The Amerind is fond of games, races, and all
+forms of sport on which a wager can be laid. A game without a stake
+would be no game at all for him. He must put up something to lose, and
+I once noticed after a distribution of goods among individuals of a
+certain tribe that within twenty-four hours a few had all the goods. In
+modern times many Amerinds play cards. Their own games are numerous. In
+the “awl game,” played chiefly by women, “the players,” according to
+Mooney, “sit upon the ground around a blanket marked in charcoal with
+lines and dots and quadrants in the corners as shown in illustration
+on preceding page. In the centre is a stone upon which the sticks are
+thrown. Each dot ... counts a point, making twenty-four points for
+dots. Each of the parallel lines, and each end of the curved lines in
+the corners, also counts a point, making sixteen points for the lines,
+or forty points in all. The players start from the bottom, opposing
+players moving in opposite directions, and with each throw of the
+sticks the thrower moves her awl forward and sticks it into the blanket
+at the dot or line to which her throw carries her. The parallels on
+each of the four sides are called ‘rivers,’ and the dots within these
+parallels do not count in the game. The rivers at the top and bottom
+are ‘dangerous’ and cannot be crossed, and when the player is so
+unlucky as to score a throw which brings her upon the edge of the river
+(_i. e._, upon the first line of either of these pairs of parallels)
+she ‘falls into the river’ and must lose all she has hitherto gained
+and begin again at the start. In the same way, when a player moving
+around in one direction makes a throw which brings her awl to the
+place occupied by the awl of her opponent coming around from the other
+side, the said opponent is ‘whipped back’ to the starting-point and
+must begin all over again.... The game is played with four sticks,
+each from six to ten inches long, flat on one side and round on the
+other. One of these is the trump stick and is marked in a distinctive
+manner in the centre on both sides, and is also distinguished by having
+a green line along the flat side, while the others have each a red
+line.... There are also a number of small green sticks, about the size
+of lead pencils, for keeping tally. Each player in turn takes up the
+four sticks together in her hand and throws them down on end upon the
+stone in the centre. The number of points depends upon the number of
+flat round sticks which turn up.... Only the flat sides count except
+when all the sticks turn round side up. On completing one round of
+forty points the player takes one of the small green tally sticks from
+the pile and she who first gets the number of tally sticks previously
+agreed on wins the game.”[288]
+
+Another game, widely spread and in some respects resembling the
+Mexican game of _patolli_, is thus described by Fewkes as he found it
+among the Mokis[289]:
+
+[Illustration: AMERIND GAMBLING TOOLS
+
+  Set of bone dice, Arapaho. Length, 1¾ to 2¼ in.
+
+  Set of counting sticks, Blackfeet. Length, 5½ in.
+
+  Set of plum stones, Arikaree. Diameter, ¹¹⁄₁₆ in.
+]
+
+“This game, _totolospi_, resembles somewhat the game of checkers, and
+can be played by two persons or by two parties. In playing the game, a
+rectangular figure divided into a large number of squares is drawn upon
+a rock, either by scratching or by using a different-coloured stone as
+a crayon. A diagonal line, _tuhkiota_, is drawn across the rectangle
+from north-east to south-west, and the players station themselves at
+each end of this line. When two parties play, a single person acts as
+player, and the other members of the party act as advisers. The first
+play is won by tossing up a leaf or corn husk with one side blackened.
+The pieces which are used are bean or corn kernels, stones and wood,
+or small fragments of any substance of marked colour. The players are
+stationed at each end of the diagonal line, _tuhkiota_. They move their
+pieces upon this line but never across it. The moves which are made
+are intricate and the player may move one or more pieces successively.
+Certain positions entitle him to this privilege. He may capture or, as
+he terms it, kill one or more of his opponent’s pieces at one play. In
+this respect the game is not unlike checkers, and to capture the pieces
+of the opponent seems to be the main object of the game.”
+
+Horse-racing is a great sport among all Amerinds and much valuable
+property changes hands on these occasions. There are also foot races.
+Anything they can bet on constitutes a game, and they are much like
+many white men in this respect. Arrows are shot into the air to see
+who can shoot out of sight, or they are shot at a mark and dexterous
+archers try to split the shaft of the preceding shooter. Or they
+throw arrows or bows over the ground or the snow to see who can throw
+farthest. In this line the Iroquois had the game known as “snow snake,”
+wherein a specially formed stick was caused to glide over the snow or
+ice. The Arapahos used for a similar purpose slender willow rods about
+four feet long peeled and painted and tipped with a point of buffalo
+horn. This is swung from one end like a pendulum and then let fly with
+a sweeping motion.
+
+Among the Pai Utes a common gambling game was played by four men
+sitting down in two rows opposite each other, that is, two on a side,
+and about five feet apart. In front of each side was a row of little
+sticks placed diagonally in sand heaped up, the ends sticking out
+toward the side to which the lot belonged. Two bits of bone formed the
+pieces, one being plain and the other having a buckskin string around
+it. These pieces were about two and a half inches long, tapering toward
+their ends. The leader of one side tosses both pieces into the air
+and, catching them, crosses his arms, pressing the fists against each
+shoulder. The point is for the other side to guess in which hand is
+the piece that is marked with the string, and the diagonally opposite
+player chooses. He does not at once indicate a choice, but sways his
+body back and forth, his right hand extended and waving to and fro
+across the opponent’s breast, and slapping his own chest, all the while
+fiercely uttering a gambling song. Finally he would point directly at
+the hand he chose, and if his guess were correct he received a tally
+stick, if not, the other side got one. The side that wins all the
+tally sticks is victor and carries off the stakes, which are usually
+put on the ground at one end of the group. This is something like the
+“hunt the button” game of the prairie tribes described by Mooney.[290]
+“It is the regular game in the long winter nights after the scattered
+families have abandoned their exposed summer positions on the open
+prairie and moved down near one another in the shelter of the timber
+along the streams.... The players sit in a circle around the tipi fire,
+those on one side of the fire playing against those on the other. The
+only requisites are the ‘button,’ usually a small bit of wood, around
+which is tied a piece of string or otter skin, with a pile of tally
+sticks.... Each party has a button, that of one side being painted
+black, the other being red. The leader of one party takes up the button
+and endeavours to move it from one hand to the other, or pass it on to
+a partner, while those of the opposite side keep a sharp lookout and
+try to guess in which hand it is.” This game is played by both sexes
+but never together.
+
+Still another game which was a great favourite all over the country,
+and is yet, especially among the women, is the “plum stone” or dice
+game. Five or six dice made of bone or plum stones, a small bowl or
+basket, and the usual tally sticks are the implements. Two of the dice
+are alike in shape and marking, while the others are different from
+these but like each other. The dice are tossed up and the count made
+according to the way the marks and blanks fall.
+
+[Illustration: TERRA COTTA RATTLE FROM CHIRIQUI]
+
+The camps and villages are particularly lively in winter, when there
+is not much to do in the way of hunting, farming, or fishing. The
+sound of the drum, gambling songs, and rattles make the evening merry
+where the village is one of skin tipis or other light structures, but
+among the Pueblos the walls of the houses are so thick that sounds
+do not easily come through. The great drum is penetrating and its
+deep “bum-bum-bum” could be heard vibrating on the winter air, but
+other sounds were muffled or extinguished altogether by the walls.
+One moonlight evening when I arrived before the town of Oraibi, about
+eight o’clock, not a single sound was distinguishable, and to judge
+by appearances, the place was a deserted ruin, till the dogs got a
+sniff of our approach and then pandemonium ruled so far as they were
+concerned. Many tribes have an assembly house, where there are various
+congregations in the winter evenings, to sing and to dance. Among the
+Pueblos these congregations, when there are women or girls involved,
+take place in an ordinary dwelling; the kiva, which is council room,
+club, and society lodge, seldom being open to women. An orchestra that
+performed in a Kabinapek assembly hall described by Stephen Powers is
+worth mentioning. “The orchestra, eight in number, all young men, were
+squatted together opposite the entrance, four facing four. Between them
+was a hollow slab, serving as a kind of drum to be beaten by a drummer
+with the naked foot, and each of them held in his right hand a little
+stick, split half way down, to be used as a clapper in keeping time.
+The dancers were all young women, who stood in a curved row in front
+of the orchestra.” This orchestra sang a chorus accompanied by the
+clappers they held. “Like everything they sung it has no meaning. They
+all sung in a high falsetto voice, the women especially, so that they
+were less agreeable to listen to than the men. The sharp monotonous
+clacking of the sticks and the dull tunk, tunk of the slab drum were
+execrable.” He states that they kept perfect time, however, and also
+that “there was one short passage in this chorus which when chanted
+by the men alone was one of the most moving I ever heard. These three
+rude, barbaric, and wholly unintelligible syllables, hu-di-go, were
+trilled and prolonged out with a sweet, soft, and wild melodiousness
+that I shall not forget to my dying hour.”[291]
+
+The Eskimo, despite the severity of their surroundings, are a merry
+people, and have many diversions. Football, strange to say, is a
+favourite pastime, but neither their method nor their ball would pass
+muster with a college expert. The ball is a pudgy affair from three to
+seven inches in diameter, and is either kicked or whipped along. The
+whip is a short stick with several loops of seal thong at the end. The
+game, according to Turner, is a favourite with all. Throwing stones at
+a mark is also a pastime. Another is a kind of wrestling or struggling
+with each other, such as is in vogue with almost all the tribes of the
+continent. Turner says: “The opponents remove all their superfluous
+garments, seize each other around the waist and lock hands behind each
+other’s backs. The feet are spread widely apart and each endeavours to
+draw, by the strength of the arms alone, the back of his opponent into
+a curve and thus bring him off his feet. Then with a lift he is quickly
+thrown flat on his back. The fall must be such that the head touches
+the ground.... The feet are never used for tripping.”[292]
+
+Anything like scientific boxing is unknown among the tribes of the
+continent. When they try anything of this sort it is a mere clawing
+at each other’s heads, and one professional pugilist, if fists alone
+were used, could knock out a whole tribe. Among the Hudson Bay Eskimo,
+a popular game is played by trying to catch, on the end of an ivory
+point, an ivory piece that looks something like a stumpy revolver. A
+string is attached to it and to the ivory point, and the game is to
+throw up the piece and cause the point to enter one of the holes and
+catch it. Cards, such as we have, are known to almost all tribes, and
+where they have not learned games from the whites they invent some of
+their own.
+
+Ball games of various kinds were played and the Canadian game called
+_lacrosse_ is of Amerind origin. Parkman in his _Pontiac_ vividly
+describes one of these lacrosse games used in strategy to gain entrance
+to an English fort. “The plain in front was covered by the ball
+players. The game in which they were engaged, called _baggattaway_ by
+the Ojibwas, is still, as it always has been, a favourite with many
+Indian tribes. At either extremity of the ground, a tall post was
+planted, marking the stations of the rival parties. The object of each
+was to defend its own post and drive the ball to that of its adversary.
+Hundreds of lithe and agile figures were leaping and bounding upon the
+plain. Each was nearly naked, his loose black hair flying in the wind,
+and each bore in his hand a bat of a form peculiar to this game. At one
+moment the whole were crowded together, a dense throng of combatants
+all struggling for the ball; at the next they were scattered again,
+and running over the ground like hounds in full cry. Each, in his
+excitement, yelled and shouted at the height of his voice. Rushing and
+striking, tripping their adversaries, or hurling them to the ground,
+they pursued the animated contest amid the laughter and applause of the
+spectators.”
+
+[Illustration: CAT-SHAPED WHISTLE OF TERRA COTTA, CHIRIQUI]
+
+In Central America, a form of tennis was in vogue and stone courts
+where the game was played have been found and described by some of our
+modern archæologists.
+
+[Illustration: MANDAN GAME OF TCHUNGKEE
+
+  George Catlin
+]
+
+I never saw any ball playing amongst the Uinkarets, Shevwits, or other
+Amerinds of the northern Arizona-southern Nevada region. They all
+appeared to be deficient in games, at the time I was first among them,
+not knowing what our playing-cards were, and having even no games of
+exterior origin. There were flat pieces of cedar bark, painted with
+red stripes, said by some to have been used like dice, but I never saw
+them engaged in playing with them. The children used a flat piece of
+bark as a doll, and most Amerind children play with dolls made of wood,
+terra cotta, and other materials.[293] The small boys devote themselves
+to the bow and arrow for amusement in many tribes, and they will go
+out in the woods, or on the plain, and bring down small birds and mice
+with considerable skill. The whip-top, made of wood, is a favourite
+everywhere, especially among the Moki boys, whose life on the barren
+mesas precludes much hunting with bow and arrow. The children also beat
+the drum for fun.
+
+Horse-racing is a sport in which many tribes, especially those of
+the plains, are past masters. The Pueblos, particularly the Mokis,
+owing to their sedentary life, have less opportunity to develop in
+this line, but the Navajos, Sioux, Crows, Blackfeet, and Comanches
+have little to learn about rough-and-ready racing. It goes without
+saying that the Eskimo, Aleuts, Tlinkits, Haidas, and other North-west
+tribes, whose range of life is on and by the sea, have no knowledge
+of handling horses. They never adopted the horse, because it was as
+useless to them as an elephant or a hippopotamus. But to the plains
+tribes this animal came like a gift from the gods, and they appreciated
+it fully, and horses became their standard of wealth. Some tribes, like
+the Kaivavits, Uinkarets, and Shevwits Utes of northern Arizona have
+never possessed many horses because of their poverty, but there were
+always a goodly number owned, and horse-racing was a great amusement
+with them, as well as with those tribes which counted their horses
+by the thousand. Dodge describes an amusing race that took place
+near Fort Chadbourne, Texas, between a horse of a Comanche chief and
+three horses of the officers of the garrison, which illustrates the
+Amerind cleverness in the jockeying line.[294] It took several days
+of manœuvring to bring the chief to the point, and then a race was
+arranged with the third best horse of the white men. The distance was
+four hundred yards, and property to the amount of sixty dollars a side
+was wagered on the result. “At the appointed time all the Indians and
+most of the garrison were assembled at the track. The Indians ‘showed’
+a miserable sheep of a pony with legs like churns; a three-inch coat
+of rough hair stuck out all over the body, and a general expression
+of neglect, helplessness, and patient suffering struck pity into the
+hearts of all beholders. The rider was a stalwart buck of one hundred
+and seventy pounds, looking big and strong enough to carry the poor
+beast on his shoulders. He was armed with a huge club, with which,
+after the word was given, he belabored the miserable animal from start
+to finish. To the astonishment of all the whites, the Indian won by
+a neck. Another race was proposed by the officers and, after much
+‘dickering,’ accepted by the Indians, against the next best horse of
+the garrison. The bets were doubled, and in less than an hour the
+second race was run by the same pony, with the same apparent exertion
+and with exactly the same result. The officers, thoroughly disgusted,
+proposed a third race, and brought to the ground a magnificent Kentucky
+mare, of the true Lexington blood, and known to beat the best of the
+others at least forty yards in four hundred. The Indians accepted the
+race, and not only doubled the bets as before, but piled up everything
+they could raise, seemingly almost crazed with the excitement of their
+previous success. The riders mounted; the word was given. Throwing away
+his club, the Indian rider gave a whoop, at which the sheep-like pony
+pricked up his ears and went away like the wind, almost two feet to the
+mare’s one. The last fifty yards of the course were run by the pony
+with the rider sitting face to his tail, making hideous grimaces, and
+beckoning to the rider of the mare to come on. It afterwards transpired
+that the old sheep was a trick and straight pony, celebrated among all
+the tribes of the South.” Yet some people think the Amerind has no
+sense of humour.
+
+[Illustration: DOUBLE WHISTLE IN TERRA COTTA FROM CHIRIQUI]
+
+Story telling is another amusement, and a good story teller, says
+Dodge, is a man of importance. “The bucks, and squaws, and children
+crowd to his lodge, or any other where he happens to be, and spend the
+long winter evenings listening to his recitals. These stories are as
+marvellous as the imagination of the teller can create, jumbling gods
+and men, fabulous and living animals, the impossible and the possible
+in the most heterogeneous confusion.”[295]
+
+The Navajos, or at least some of them, have considerable dramatic
+sense. On one occasion, when some Navajos camped near us, one of them
+gave an exhibition of character delineation that would have done credit
+to a professional actor. Choosing a large bush nearby as a screen for
+his costuming, he came out to the fire successively representing the
+various nationalities with which he was familiar. Some of these were
+extremely well done. The Pai Ute, for instance, is poor in clothing
+and always begging. Our actor took off all his clothing but the
+breech-cloth, approached the fire timidly and cringingly, and crouched
+down beside it, drawing the back of his hand across his nose with an
+accompanying sniffle, and exclaimed in Pai Ute: _Tabac ashanty_ (I want
+some tobacco). Another was the American, who stepped nervously to the
+fire, and restlessly turned first front, then back, extended his hands,
+rubbing them over the heat; held up first one foot, then the other, and
+so on. These impersonations were full of the character of the types
+indicated. The exhibition finally culminated in a representation of the
+characteristics of his own people. Retiring once again behind the bush,
+he at last appeared with his full costume on, carefully adjusted. His
+head bore a red turban, his shirt was held by a fine belt, his broad
+Navajo trousers met at the knee the red buckskin leggings, ornamented
+with silver buttons, and his feet were protected by moccasins finely
+wrought, held by silver buttons. About his shoulders was a fine blanket
+of Navajo make, and across his back a large bow and its arrows in a
+panther-skin case and quiver. Approaching the fire with a measured,
+haughty tread, head erect and folded arms, he paused majestically
+before it, straightened to his full height, and in a deep, dignified
+tone spoke the single word, “Navajo.”
+
+[Illustration: SET OF STAVES FOR GAME
+
+  The lowest shows obverse of one above. Length, 5½ in.
+]
+
+
+
+
+               [Illustration: “BANNER-STONE,” TENNESSEE]
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+                         WORKS AND AGRICULTURE
+
+
+For a long time it was believed by the whites that the “Indians” were
+incapable of doing anything beyond weaving baskets, and from this
+condition of ignorance much of the confusion concerning the Amerinds
+has arisen. The line of reasoning was based on some such syllogism as
+this: The “Indian” never worked; The Cliff-dweller and the Moundbuilder
+worked at building houses and mounds; Conclusion, The Cliff-dweller
+and the Moundbuilder were not “Indians.” Short, in his excellent book
+on the Amerinds,[296] applies unfortunately this method of reasoning
+to the copper-mine workers of the Lake Superior district, saying:
+“The labour involved in a journey of a thousand miles from the Ohio
+valley to the copper regions, the toil of the summer’s mining, and the
+tedious transportation of the metal to their homes upon their backs,
+and by means of an imperfect system of navigation, indicates either
+industry and resolution such as no savage Indian ever possessed, or
+a condition of servitude in which thousands occupied a position of
+abject slavery.” This seems a complete misunderstanding of the people
+and conditions existing on this continent. Without consuming space in
+discussing these errors, I think my preceding pages have demonstrated
+that far from lacking industry and resolution, the “savage Indian” was
+applying himself in his way to a solution of the life problems which
+surrounded him. He knew nothing of the rules of commerce, book-keeping,
+and exchange, but there are other things in the world besides figures
+and accounts. The Amerind’s game-supply and clothing, and the soil
+about him, were not overtaxed, at least not north of Anahuac, till the
+whites arrived with their mania for “killing something,” and introduced
+on this continent the destructive practice of hunting for the fun
+of seeing how many animals could be killed in a certain time; or of
+killing for a special part of an animal, as for the tongues, or the
+hides and tallow, of the bison. When I first went to the Far West bison
+were spread over the plains by thousands. Not a single specimen can
+to-day be found alive outside of some private herd or the Yellowstone
+Park. Hunting, as before mentioned, was with the Amerind labour, not
+amusement, but in conjunction with their hunting most tribes carried on
+farming operations. It has often been asserted that the “Indian” did
+no work, even leaving the cultivation of the corn and squashes to the
+women. That the women in some of the tribes tended the crops, is true,
+but in others, like the Pueblos, they seldom or never touched hoe or
+spade. The Eastern men were hunting or building boats, or were on the
+warpath, hence it was necessary for the women to look after the fields.
+
+In the Eastern regions the crops grew without watering, but in the West
+and South-west the soil was arid and irrigation was necessary, hence
+there are found to this day remnants of extensive irrigation canals
+built to bring rivers out on the dry land. The fact that the resident
+Apaches do not irrigate does not prove that these great canals were
+built by people who emigrated from China or India, in the absurd line
+of argument that has so often been advanced in discussing Amerindian
+affairs; it simply proves that the Apaches did not cultivate the soil,
+or not extensively enough to require irrigating works, and also,
+over again, that tribes and stocks exist in a region, in different
+conditions or stages of development, either at the same time or at
+different times. These irrigating canals are unquestionably the work
+of tribes similar to the Pueblos; that is now well established. They
+were constructed because, in an increasing population and a probable
+decrease of precipitation, they were found necessary. An increase of
+population diminishes the food-supply; in an arid country where game
+is not plenty this diminution is rapid. A corresponding development
+of a food crop is the inevitable course, unless the tribe were to
+migrate to more humid regions. In this case, hostile people already
+there might have to be met, and it would be easier to remain at the
+old place and invent new methods of obtaining food. In some such way
+irrigating and its attendant engineering developed. Irrigating canals,
+then, are found not where any lost or mysterious race once dwelt, nor
+where any particular Amerind stock were living, but where the climatic
+conditions and population made irrigation imperative. These conditions
+prevailed on this continent in Mexico and our South-west, and there
+consequently are found the most important works of this kind. The
+remains of irrigating canals in the south-western United States are
+numerous. There are indications of them along the fertile bottoms
+of the Colorado River in Glen Canyon. These bottoms are deposits of
+alluvial soil, generally occupying the inside of a bend at the base of
+the cliffs. They are of various extent, about three to eight feet above
+ordinary high-water mark, and are fringed with willows. I remember
+examining several indications of these “ditches,” but as I made no
+notes at the time, and it was long ago, I cannot give details. There
+were ruins of houses here and there, both on the cliffs and below,
+and the cliff faces bore pictographs. Amongst these I found, and
+copied, one which suggested some kind of a scaffolding and sweep for
+lifting water, and it is not improbable that something of this kind
+was utilised for raising water from the river. As there would be no
+opportunity to construct a canal or ditch sufficiently long to receive
+water by natural flow from the river owing to the shortness of the
+alluvial stretches, a system of lifting it into the ditches might have
+been devised. Water might have been obtained also in another way. The
+country on both sides of the river at this point is composed chiefly
+of barren surfaces of homogeneous sandstone which collect enormous
+quantities of water, like the roof of a house, during rain-storms,
+and pour it over the edges of the cliffs and down the alcoves and
+lateral canyons. This water may also have been utilised for irrigating
+purposes. The Mokis utilise showers by collecting and guiding the
+streamlets with low dams hastily thrown up by their hoes, so it is
+certain that all these Amerinds understood thoroughly the importance of
+utilising shower-water on their crops.[297]
+
+[Illustration: SO-CALLED ELEPHANT MOUND, WISCONSIN
+
+  Has been ploughed over. Length, 140 ft.; greatest height, 4 ft.
+]
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT FABRIC DESIGN FROM IMPRESSION ON POTTERY, UTAH]
+
+In the Verde River region of Arizona some very large canals or
+“ditches” have been observed. Mindeleff has described a number of
+these, and I will mention one which he says is one of the finest he
+has seen.[298] This is “about two miles below the mouth of Limestone
+Creek on the opposite or eastern side of the river.” The canal extends
+across the northern and western part of an extent of fertile bottom
+land. In one place it is marked “by a very shallow trough in the
+grass-covered bottom, bounded on either side by a low ridge of earth
+and pebbles, at another it was cut through a low ridge. It is probable
+that the water was taken out of the river about two miles above this
+place, but the ditch was run on the sloping side of the mesa which has
+recently washed out.” It is supposed that this ancient canal irrigated
+nearly the whole of the bottom land mentioned, which was recently
+again reclaimed by another “ditch” or canal constructed by Americans.
+“The ancient ditch is well marked by two clearly defined lines of
+pebbles and small boulders.... Probably these pebbles entered into its
+construction, as the modern ditch, washed out at its head ... shows no
+trace of a similar marking.”
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT FABRIC PRESERVED BY COPPER CELT, IOWA
+
+  See page 108
+]
+
+Farming was carried on very much as the Mokis carry it on to-day,
+except that the Mokis do not have to build irrigating ditches, the
+showers supplying by their method water enough to mature the crops.
+A German has recently settled south-westerly from the Mokis and, I
+have been told, grows good crops on his place without irrigation.
+Mindeleff further states that “on the southern side of Clear Creek,
+about a mile above its mouth, there are extensive horticultural[299]
+works covering a large area of the terrace or river bench.... For a
+distance of two miles east and west along the creek, and perhaps half
+a mile north and south, there are traces of former works pertaining
+to horticulture, including irrigating ditches, ‘reservoirs,’ farming
+outlooks, etc.” The reservoirs are supposed by some to have been
+threshing-floors, being large circular depressions lined with clay.
+The produce derived from these farming operations was corn, beans,
+squashes, and cotton, corn being the principal. Cotton was grown by
+some, but not all, of the south-western tribes. A great many of the
+tribes throughout the United States and Mexico were farmers to a
+greater or less extent, and many of the earthworks of the Mississippi
+valley were in all probability connected with agriculture. It was
+necessary there to protect the crops from marauding parties from wilder
+tribes, so, in all probability, some of the earthworks, surmounted
+by palisades or by watch-houses, served to guard the crops from
+depredations. Morgan thinks some of the square ones were foundations
+for communal houses,[300] and this is also probable.
+
+[Illustration: LARGE MOUND OF THE ETOWAH GROUP, GEORGIA
+
+  Next to the Cahokia, this is probably the most important work of
+  its kind remaining in the Mississippi valley. It is sixty-one feet
+  high, and the area of the base is about three acres. With several
+  smaller ones, it stands in the middle of a tract of about fifty
+  acres of rich land, bounded on one side by the Etowah River, and on
+  the other by a semi-circular artificial waterway or moat. The top
+  approximates a square, with a sort of roadway adjoining and leading
+  up on the left. The entire contents are about 160,000 cubic yards.
+  It is composed of earth which was taken from the moat and adjoining
+  excavations
+
+  From a photograph
+]
+
+On the upper Gila River in Arizona, Fewkes discovered traces of
+reservoirs and irrigating canals. “The large circular or elongated oval
+depressions,” he says, “in the immediate neighbourhood of some of the
+house-mounds have been identified as the sites of former reservoirs....
+The reservoir at Buena Vista is one of the largest that was discovered,
+yet no irrigating ditches leading into it were distinctly traced....
+There is abundant evidence that the ancient people of the Pueblo Viejo
+Valley led the water from the Gila River over the plain by means of
+canals for purposes of agriculture, for in many places the depressions
+marking the old ditches may be traced for considerable distances.... I
+have been informed by some of the older residents that when they came
+into the country, before the Montezuma and San José irrigation ditches
+had been constructed, the ancient aqueducts were much more conspicuous
+than they are to-day, and that sections of the modern ditches follow
+the course of the ancient waterways.”[301]
+
+[Illustration: A VOTIVE ADZ OF JADITE FROM MEXICO, SHOWING FRONT AND
+  SIDE
+
+  Height, 10¹³⁄₁₆ in.; width, 6 in.; thickness, 4⅝ in. Highly
+  polished; color light grayish green with streaks of emerald green
+  on the back. A complete human figure. See page 341 for back.
+
+  From _Monumental Records_
+
+  American Museum, Kunz Collection
+]
+
+The Aztecs built long aqueducts to supply their towns, and the Mayas
+constructed large reservoirs. Charnay says: “According to historians
+of the Conquest, El Salto del Agua (a monumental fountain in the City
+of Mexico) and the aqueduct which it terminates replaced the ancient
+aqueduct of Montezuma constructed by Netzahualcoyotl, King of Tezcuco,
+between the years 1427 and 1440. At that time it was brought through
+an earthen pipe to the city, along a dyke constructed for the purpose,
+and that there might be no failure in so essential an article, a double
+course of pipes in stone and mortar was laid. In this way a column of
+water the size of a man’s body was conducted into the heart of the
+capital.”[302]
+
+George Bancroft makes the statement that “of the labours of the Indians
+on the soil of Virginia, there remains nothing so respectable as would
+be a common ditch for the draining of lands,”[303] but in this Bancroft
+was somewhat mistaken, for Thomas describes[304] some mounds in West
+Virginia, which was Virginia when the above sentence was written, that
+were undoubtedly the work of some of the Amerinds formerly occupying
+that soil. “First the earth (unless the place selected is a bare rock)
+is removed to the solid rock foundation and an approximately level
+space from ten to thirty feet in diameter formed. Centrally on this was
+placed a layer of flat stones, with the edge inward, around a circle
+about three feet in diameter. Upon the outer edge of these, others were
+placed with their outer edges resting upon the prepared foundation
+running entirety round the circle. Then another inner layer with the
+best edge inward and the thinner edge resting on the outer layer, the
+stones of one layer breaking joints with those below, as far as the
+size and form would admit. Outside of the inner row, and with the edges
+resting on it, other circles were added until a diameter ranging from
+twenty to fifty feet or even more was attained, thus extending upon
+the sloping earth not removed in forming the foundation. The last or
+outer circle usually consisted of but a single layer, over which earth
+was thrown, being sometimes heaped up until it equalled in contents
+the rock pile. The height of these piles was found to vary from four
+to eight feet, in one or two instances reaching ten feet. But in all
+cases the circular space or opening in the centre continued to the top
+the same diameter as at the bottom, somewhat resembling the so-called
+‘well-holes’ of the early western pioneers.” The stones used in these
+constructions were obtained by “rude quarrying in stratified cliffs
+one half mile distant. Some of them measure from four to six feet in
+length, half as wide, and of a thickness which renders them so heavy
+as to require from two to four stout men to handle them.” Skeletons
+were found in cavities of these piles “with head or feet (generally
+the latter) toward the central well-hole.” Coarse pottery, rude
+large celts, lance- and arrow-heads were also discovered, and “all
+the cavities of the heap not originally used for burial are filled
+with earth or mortar, often well baked by fire.”[305] Many mounds and
+other earthworks have been found in the western Virginia region, and
+in some of them copper articles have been brought to light.[306] In
+New York there are many mounds called “old forts,” of various shapes,
+with walls from one and one half to two feet or more high, and thence
+westward, throughout the Mississippi valley, mounds and earthworks of
+many shapes and sizes are found. They appear to be concentrated in
+various centres, with a sprinkling in between suggesting a number of
+different groups of Amerinds as their builders, which has been pretty
+well established by evidence was the case. Some of the mounds were of
+enormous size, the famous one at Cahokia, Illinois, being one of the
+highest and largest on the continent. Its altitude is about ninety
+feet, and it contains nearly 500,000 cubic yards of earth. Its purpose
+is, of course, not known, but it probably supported some religious
+structure of wood. Many of the mounds, as pointed out in the chapter on
+dwellings, were merely supports for buildings, religious or otherwise.
+Others were connected with religious rites in other ways. Doubtless the
+figures of birds found in Wisconsin represented the “Thunder-bird,” of
+which there are legends and traditions in many tribes. It was to the
+Amerind the cause of the thunder and lightning. These great and small
+earthworks were constructed in the United States by scooping up earth
+from the vicinity and carrying it in baskets to the designated spot.
+The United States mounds are, as a rule, made of earth, those of Mexico
+and Central America of clay or adobe brick, faced with stone or wholly
+of stone. “It is often the case,” says Thomas, speaking of the burial
+mounds of the Mississippi valley, “when a mound is carefully excavated
+and closely scanned as the work proceeds, especially where the material
+is clay or muck, that the individual loads can be readily discerned.
+As the earth of which the mounds is composed is usually gathered up
+from the surrounding surface, the interior will vary in color and
+character only as the soil so gathered up varies.... The places from
+whence material was taken to build the small or moderate-sized mounds
+are seldom discernible at the present day, but depressions plainly
+mark the points about the larger works, as the Cahokia and Etowah
+mounds and some of the enclosures of Ohio and elsewhere.[307] In some
+cases the one act has been made to serve two purposes, that is to say,
+the earth used to construct the mound or other work has been taken
+from one or two points so as to leave a basin-shaped excavation for
+holding water, or to form a trench to serve as a protective moat, or
+for drainage or other purposes.” For a long time it was believed by
+a great many persons, scientific and otherwise, that these piles of
+earth, often called pyramids quite erroneously, could not have been
+made by ordinary Amerinds, but as the study of the native American
+proceeded and the data of what he did and does actually do began to be
+recorded, it was perfectly plain that it was not at all necessary to
+look beyond the “Indian” for the origin of the mounds—that is, beyond
+the “Indian” as he was known in the region where the mounds occur. It
+was found that he had erected mounds after the arrival of the whites,
+and if he built one or several he might have built all. It was not a
+very difficult operation to dig up earth and carry it a few hundred
+feet and drop it on a pile. The transportation of the stones referred
+to above was far more laborious, and modern Amerinds do a great deal
+harder work. The Navajos are fairly good labourers, and the Mokis carry
+all their wood from forests fifteen miles away. It is work to carry
+water up the cliffs where the Mokis live, it is work to hoe the corn,
+it is work to tend and herd sheep. On full investigation it seems
+strange that it should ever have been thought that the mounds were not
+“Indian” because they represented work. Fowke has estimated that a
+mound a hundred feet in diameter and twenty feet high could have been
+erected by the “Indians” in forty-two days. I have seen Uingkaret Utes
+in Arizona carry on their backs with ease for twelve or fifteen miles
+loads that would average about thirty or forty pounds. People who can
+do this could carry earth in short stretches for forty or fifty days.
+It is probable, however, that the mounds were not built by steady and
+consecutive labour, but rather by intermittent effort, after the usual
+fashion of Amerindian work.
+
+[Illustration: BACK OF VOTIVE ADZ
+
+  For front and side see page 339
+
+  From _Monumental Records_
+]
+
+[Illustration: PATTERNS OF ANCIENT FABRICS FROM POTTERY
+
+  From New York
+
+  From Illinois
+
+  From Tennessee
+
+  See page 108
+]
+
+Many mounds and earthworks were erected for defensive purposes at
+points controlling river passages or trails, where the advance of foes
+invading a country could be checked. There were also fortification
+works like the so-called “hill-forts” of the eastern portion of the
+United States, and the “cérros trinchéras” of northern Mexico. Quoting
+again from Thomas,[308] one of the best authorities on mounds and
+“Moundbuilders”: “The most extensive example of the ‘hill-forts’ is
+that known as Fort Ancient, in Warren County, Ohio. This crowns a spur
+of the bluff some two hundred and fifty or three hundred feet high,
+which here overhangs the Miami River. The area embraced is only some
+seventy-five or eighty acres, but the length of the wall, which follows
+all the windings and zigzags of the margin of the bluff and of the
+side ravines, is a little over three miles and a half. This is one of
+the best-preserved monuments of the Ohio valley, the surrounding wall
+being uninjured save at points where the turnpike cuts through it, and
+at a few places where ravines have been formed since it was abandoned.
+This wall, which is partly of stone, but chiefly of dirt thrown up
+from the inner or upper side, varies in height from three or four to
+nineteen feet, and from twenty-five to seventy feet in width at the
+base. As the earth has all been taken from the inside (except along the
+high wall which crosses the level at the rear) and thrown outward on
+the crest of the slope, this has left an inside ditch. As a rule, the
+wall is strongest and highest at the points of easiest approach; and at
+some places the outside slope has been artificially steepened, proving
+beyond any reasonable doubt that the work was one of defence.”
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO MECHANICAL TOY.]
+
+The Amerinds, though not always engaged in war, were always on the
+defensive against stronger tribes whose warriors might appear on
+the scene. These stronger tribes were not necessarily Amerinds of a
+different stock or strangers; often, as in the South-west, defensive
+works were erected against relatives as much as against different
+tribes, just as we, in our time, have had three wars that were not with
+another race. In New Mexico the villages, besides being built on the
+communal principle, were often surrounded by a defensive wall. Such
+a wall can still be traced around the ruins of Pecos, as well as in
+parts at other ruins. The hill-forts of the Ohio kind were undoubtedly
+the result of circumstances similar to those that prevailed in the
+South-west: a desire to combine as closely as possible defence and the
+cultivation of the soil. They were often interdependent. If conditions
+changed, or a tribe grew strong enough to dominate the situation, the
+defences might be abandoned. These works do not necessarily imply that
+their builders were defeated and driven back by wilder tribes. They
+indicate only that the builders felt defensive works necessary at the
+time of the building; their circumstances then demanded them. They do
+not indicate difference in race or remote origin. The constructors were
+Amerinds, though not all one stock. There were tribes of different
+stocks in the Mississippi valley all the time, just as there were in
+other parts of the land, and the attempt that has been made by some
+writers to establish the idea that the Mississippi valley was once
+occupied by a single mysterious race that was overpowered and driven
+out or exterminated by the “Indians” has no good foundation.
+
+One of the most extensive groups of these defensive village sites
+is that known as the Newark group, in Ohio.[309] Here are circles,
+squares, and straight-line mounds, all connected, covering an area
+of two or three square miles. There are two large circles in this
+group which approximate true circles, and have been the basis of much
+unnecessary speculation as to how “Indians” could have “done it,” with
+the conclusion that the “mysterious race” did it. When it is remembered
+how easy it is to construct a fairly accurate circle in a great many
+ways, it is surprising that anyone should have thought “Indians” could
+not do it, when they did _and do_ so many things that require more
+skill. One clear-headed and accurate writer reminds the reader that
+people who could manufacture cloth could certainly make a rope with
+which to lay out a plan. Almost all Amerinds could make rope, the Pai
+Ute, Uingkarets, and Shevwits Utes, who cannot make cloth at all,
+making excellent rope and cord. But it was not necessary to make a rope
+of fibre. Amerinds have always been skilful at tanning deerskins, and
+buckskin strings braided make one of the best kind of ropes; indeed, it
+does not even require to be tanned, as it can be worked in the rawhide
+state. We should have to descend low in the scale of humanity, indeed,
+to find a tribe that could not make a cord long enough to lay out any
+circle yet discovered on this continent. There is nothing difficult
+about it. The largest circle at Newark has a diameter of about a
+thousand feet. This would require a rope only five hundred feet long,
+which would be nothing for any tribe on the continent to make.
+
+[Illustration: MÁHTOTÓHPA (THE FOUR BEARS), A MANDAN CHIEF
+
+  George Catlin, 1832
+]
+
+Just why the Newark works have the particular arrangement they have
+would be impossible to say without knowing the customs of the tribe
+that built them and the circumstances of the time. It is probable,
+however, that some enclosures were farm fences. The plan suggests two
+communal villages, closely allied and united by a sort of runway,
+which, while preventing hostiles from separating the two villages
+in time of attack, always afforded a safe passage for the women and
+children from one town to the other. The builders were evidently beset
+by enemies at the time the works were occupied, but this does not
+necessarily imply that when the works were abandoned the occupants
+were driven out or annihilated, for their enemies may have been people
+of their own stock with whom they eventually became reconciled, or
+the enemies may have passed on to other fields, or the occupants of
+the works may have grown more powerful and at length have assumed
+the offensive. Abandoned works, I repeat, do not necessarily mean
+annihilation of the builders. The South-west offers countless examples
+of the truth of this statement. Villages and works were abandoned
+there for a variety of causes; sometimes it was little more than
+caprice. Quoting Thomas again: “Nor is the theory that, while some of
+the monuments are due to the Indians, others are to be ascribed to a
+different race, justified by the data, or reasonable, as no one is
+able to define the characters which distinguish the classes. If the
+Indians built mounds of the most advanced type and of large size, as
+history shows positively the natives of the Gulf States did, there
+is no necessity for attributing the works of the middle and northern
+sections to a different race. That the Moundbuilders were divided into
+various and often contending tribes, is shown by the works for defence
+and protection, as also by the evidences of varying customs. Yet there
+is nothing in the antiquities to indicate a higher culture than that
+of the southern Indians or a greater difference between the people
+of the different sections than existed among the natives when first
+encountered by the whites.” Granting this, there is still nothing to
+prove that some of these tribes did not come from a long distance off,
+for the Amerinds very often have been travellers.
+
+Few mounds or earthworks are found east of the Alleghany Mountains,
+north of Tennessee and North Carolina, but to my mind this is not
+positive proof that the people who built earthworks in other places
+did not live there. The Amerind changes his methods so completely when
+circumstances demand, that it would not be safe to say that those who
+built mounds west of the Alleghany range did not live east of it. If
+the Mokis should have migrated to Ohio in priscan days, they certainly
+would not have built stone houses there. They would have erected mounds
+and wooden houses, for the reason that the stone would have been
+difficult to secure. Many tribes have readily changed from one method
+to another in building, as pointed out in a previous chapter. With the
+Amerind, it depends so much on circumstances what he will do in a given
+locality. For example, the traditions of the Mokis require their kiva
+to be under ground. This is easy in their cliff-land, but how would it
+be in Louisiana? Even in Zuñi surface kivas are found acceptable.
+
+[Illustration: AN ONYX JAR FROM MEXICO IN PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE
+
+  The excavating was being done by a hollow drill, probably of reed,
+  and sand
+
+  Photographed and described by M. H. Saville for the American Museum
+  _Bulletin_, vol. xiii., article xi., July 9, 1900
+]
+
+In Mexico there are numerous large mounds which, as noted before,
+sustained buildings, now commonly called “temples.” “At Teotihuacan”
+says Charnay, “the pyramid of the Sun is six hundred and eighty
+feet at the base by one hundred and eighty feet high.... Like all
+great pyramids they [the Sun and Moon pyramids] were divided into
+four storeys, three of which are still visible, but the intermediate
+gradations are almost effaced. A temple stood on the summit of the
+large mound, having a colossal statue of the Sun, made of one single
+block of stone.... The interior of the pyramid is composed of clay and
+volcanic pebbles, incrusted on the surface with the light porous stone,
+tetzontli. Over this was a thick coating of white stucco such as was
+used for dwellings. Where the pyramid is much defaced, its incline is
+from 31 to 36 degrees, and where the coatings of cement still adhere
+47 degrees.”[310] One of the largest mounds in Mexico and one of the
+largest in North America is the Great Mound of Cholula. It is about
+one thousand feet square at the base, of which the approximate area
+is over twenty acres. It now has much the appearance of a natural
+hill, surmounted by a church of modern construction. There are “three
+distinct projections, surrounding and supporting a conical hill, and
+separated from each other by wide depressions. The entire mass consists
+of adobe bricks laid in adobe clay, undisturbed except where erosion,
+earthquakes, or the hand of man have mutilated it. The bricks break
+joints and are of various sizes.”[311] The altitude is about two
+hundred feet. Limestone slabs were used for steps. Bandelier does not
+ascribe it to the Aztec or Nahuatl stock which occupied the region at
+the time of the Conquest, but to some anterior tribe.
+
+It has been called a pyramid, with other mounds in Mexico and Central
+America, but this is not a proper term for these Amerindian works.
+
+They have not the character of the Egyptian pyramids, nor were they
+constructed with the same object. The pyramids were tombs, while the
+large Amerind mounds were _foundations_ for buildings. Almost every
+ancient building of any consequence in Mexico and adjoining regions, as
+well as far up into the United States, stood on a mound of greater or
+less elevation. The so-called “palace” of Palenque, in which Stevens
+lived while studying the ruins, “stands on an artificial elevation of
+an oblong form, forty feet high, three hundred and ten feet in front
+and rear, and two hundred and sixty feet on each side. This elevation
+was formerly faced with stone, which has been thrown down by the growth
+of trees, and its form is hardly distinguishable.” See illustration of
+a part of this palace, page 403.
+
+The chief ruins at Copan are all on a huge mound, and at Mitla the
+edifices have mound foundations, or rather platforms. A more or less
+elevated site for his dwelling-place or temple, whether natural or
+artificial, seems to have been almost universal with the Amerindian
+people from the Isthmus of Panama to British Columbia. The amount of
+labour expended in constructing the artificial foundation platforms and
+mounds was something prodigious.
+
+[Illustration: WOODEN FOOD BOWL, HAIDA]
+
+
+
+
+         [Illustration: DANCING MASK OF THE MAKAHS, WASHINGTON]
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII
+
+                         CUSTOMS AND CEREMONIES
+
+
+Few Europeans can look at the world from the Amerind point of view,
+because few know what it means to have lands free. Happy the man who
+has trod the wilderness primeval, and tasted the world in its original
+freshness. He alone can understand what the Amerind has lost forever.
+When I first went into the West about thirty years ago, the regions we
+traversed were untamed, and often we did not meet even Amerinds for
+weeks at a time. Such a condition has its charms, and when we remember
+that, except in the southern regions of Mexico, the native American
+was born and bred to it, we can see that it must be a difficult matter
+for him to suddenly change. But a few generations hence, where once he
+scaled the cliffs, or followed the deer, he will be sitting down to
+a course dinner in a swallow-tail coat. He has already conquered at
+football, and the rest of the downward road will be easy for him!
+
+[Illustration: MOKI WICKER CRADLE WITH AWNING CARRYING BASKET OF THE
+  ARIKAREES
+
+  In the smaller figure the awning is over the bowed end
+]
+
+Our general impression of the native American, the Amerind, is that he
+is a kind of human demon, or wild animal, never to be trusted, unable
+to keep a compact, always thirsting for gore; but it is a mistake. He
+is not altogether unreliable. The Iroquois maintained the “covenant
+chain” with the British unbroken for a round century. The Amerind
+never broke faith with Penn, and it is seldom that he will violate any
+compact that he fully understands he has entered into. His daily life
+in the earlier days was by no means bloodthirsty. Powell has truly
+said that the scalping-knife was no more the emblem of pre-Columbian
+society than the bayonet is of ours of the nineteenth century. In the
+United States existence of a trifle over a hundred years have been
+waged several long and bloody wars, one the most gigantic known to
+history, all police records are full of horrible crimes the Amerind
+was a stranger to, and within a year or so _white people_ have
+burned alive several victims. When anyone defends the Amerind he is
+accused of trying to make an angel of him, but this only shows again
+how universally unjust toward him we are. We are blind to our own
+shortcomings and exaggerate those of the Amerind. It was inevitable
+that the weaker race should be forced to the wall, but we can at least
+give it credit for any good that was in it without injuring ourselves.
+In estimating their traits we do not regard them enough from their own
+standpoint, and without so regarding them we cannot understand them.
+The Amerind was something of a farmer, of an architect, of an engineer,
+of a statesman, of an artist, the amount and quality of his interest
+in these things depending, as with us, on circumstances. In most
+localities, he achieved for all what all are with us still dreaming to
+attain, “liberty and a living,” and his methods of government possessed
+admirable qualities. We call him lazy and despise him for it, but many
+of our people would not work if they could avoid it. One of Balzac’s
+characters is made to say: “I fear God; but I am still more afraid of
+the hell of poverty. To be without a penny is the last degree of misery
+in our present social state.” The great philosopher here put European
+life in a nut-shell. The Amerind was fortunate perhaps in not knowing
+what poverty, as we understand it, is. With him the keen eye, the
+woodman’s skill, and a generous and abundant soil gave him his daily
+bread. The idea of piling up treasure for the satisfaction of holding
+it did not occur to him any more than did killing of game for pleasure.
+A tribe may have passed through famine, but the individual never knew
+hunger in the midst of riches, as the civilised man so often meets
+it. Not long ago a whole family wandering about the streets of New
+York, homeless and without food, dropped from exhaustion at the corner
+of Thirty-fourth Street and Broadway. In Amerind society, such an
+occurrence would have been impossible. No friendly stranger ever left
+an Amerind village hungry, if that village had a supply of food. And
+“the hungry Indian,” says Powell, “had but to ask to receive, and this
+no matter how small the supply or how dark the future prospect. It was
+not only his privilege to ask, it was his right to demand.”
+
+The Amerind distribution of food was based on long custom, on tribal
+laws; food was regarded like air and water, as a necessity that should
+in distress be without money and without price. Hospitality was a
+law, and was everywhere observed faithfully till intercourse with the
+methods of our race demolished it. Among isolated tribes it is still
+observed. Among the Mokis a hungry man of any colour is cheerfully fed.
+
+[Illustration: TLINKIT MAN AND WOMAN, 30 YEARS AGO, OR ABOUT 1870
+
+  “The labret, a small cylinder of silver with a broad head, is the
+  modern style of lip ornament, differing materially from the large
+  ones worn until a few years ago.”—Niblack
+
+  Many tribes wore lip, nose, and ear ornaments
+]
+
+We cannot seriously condemn the Amerind for not jumping at the
+opportunity to tie himself to the plough, or to the ledger, or the
+grindstone. He was, as a rule, close to Nature, and like all men who
+live thus he imbibed some of her grandeur. He lived in independence;
+and when he died, he died as the sun sets at evening, expiring in
+glory, without a tear, without lamentations. In the hands of the enemy
+at the stake, his passing away was sublime, like the summer cloud that
+sails steadily out into the infinite blue and dissolves. The most
+painful tortures failed to bring a moan to his lips, or a tear to his
+defiant eye, and his proud spirit departed in silence. An offer of
+liberty was frequently refused. Charnay tells of a Tlaxcaltec chief, of
+great fame as a warrior, who was captured and who, on being recognised,
+was offered his freedom. He refused to accept it and desired to be
+devoted to the gods, as was the custom. He was tied to the gladiatorial
+stone, where he killed eight warriors and wounded twenty others before
+being overpowered and offered up to the war-god.
+
+The habit of mind and body of dense commercial populations tends toward
+degeneration because it is a concentration in one line. The Western
+mountaineer exhibits the effect of removal from trade considerations
+in a repose of manner and a tranquillity of nerves which strongly
+suggest the Amerind. “There are incommensurable differences,” says
+Balzac, “between the man who mingles with others and him who dwells
+with Nature. Once captured, Toussaint Louverture died without uttering
+a word, while Napoleon on his rock chattered like a magpie.”
+
+Freedom of limb and strength of mind eliminated much disease from the
+native races. Deformity amongst Amerinds was rare. There were seldom
+cases of diseased spine, blindness, insanity, squinting eyes, deafness,
+or any deficiency or excess of the organs.[312] Sitting Bull was a
+fine specimen of the Amerind, and he was a man of great ability. Such
+men could not be enslaved, and from the first the European efforts to
+reduce the red race to slavery were failures. They held their own in
+most localities, and often compelled governments to treat with them
+as with a sovereign power. Where the treaties were kept by the other
+side the Amerind seldom violated them. Penn never had any difficulty
+because he treated the Amerinds fairly and honourably. Oñate, in his
+long journey across Arizona, had no conflict with the natives, but
+found them without exception friendly, and this was the experience of
+other explorers who were just. The native was a child. He expected
+absolute fidelity and truthfulness from the whites, though he did
+not always give this in return; once let him detect prevarication or
+deceit, and his confidence vanished. He never forgave a white man for
+talking “crooked,” and those who have been invariably truthful and
+honourable toward him have commanded trust and respect. I know two men
+who had great influence over the Navajos because they had always been
+fair and just to them. “We call them cruel,” says George Bancroft, “yet
+they never invented the thumb-screw, or the boot, or the rack, or broke
+on the wheel, or exiled bands of their nations for opinion’s sake;
+and never protected the monopoly of a medicine man by the gallows, or
+the block, or by fire. There is not a quality belonging to the white
+man which did not also belong to the American savage; there is not
+among the aborigines a rule of language, a custom, or an institution
+which when considered in its principle has not a counterpart among
+their conquerors.”[313] Throughout the continent there was a general
+homogeneity of customs and ceremonies which separates the Amerindian
+races from the rest of the world, and argues an immense period of
+isolation from all other people.
+
+[Illustration: A PAWNEE IN BATTLE ARRAY
+
+  Photographed by J. K. Hillers, U. S. Geological Survey
+]
+
+Some tribes have become civilised, like the Iroquois, the Cherokees,
+and the Choctaws. Some tribes of Arizona and the contiguous regions are
+at the other end of the scale, living a rude life, even for Amerinds,
+and subsisting on uncultivated products of the soil, like piñon nuts,
+fruits of cactus and yucca, “_yant_,” a kind of agave, and seeds of
+grasses, as well as on what game the sterile region affords. The grass
+seeds are, some of them, large and fat, and make nutritious food.
+Many tribes cultivated a grain that has no superior in the world for
+its yield, its ease of cultivation, and its nutritious qualities.
+This was maize, or Indian corn, which grows in new ground with little
+attention, and can be dried and stored indefinitely. No machinery was
+required to separate it from the husk, and it was easily reduced to
+meal or flour between two stones or in a mortar. Nor did it even need
+to be ground, but, roasted in pits, or prepared in other ways, it
+offered a palatable and nutritious food, even before the ripening.
+Dried, or parched, it was carried on journeys, and dried venison added
+to it made a strengthening diet. There were, besides, other foods,
+like beans, squashes, native fruits and berries, and nuts. Nor was the
+native without beverages, some of them intoxicating; the _pulque_, or
+_octli_ of the Mexicans, extracted from the maguey, being a well-known
+example. There are many varieties of this drink, though all are made in
+the same way. In the spring the central part of the plant is removed,
+leaving a cup-like cavity which fills up with juice, that is taken out
+from time to time, and put into a kind of vat made of hide stretched
+on four poles. After fermentation, bitter herbs are added. _Mezcal_ is
+another drink made from a smaller kind of maguey. It is a colourless,
+brandy-like liquid, produced by distillation since the Conquest, but
+before that made by boiling, just as the Comanches make it to-day.[314]
+The Kaivavits and Uinkarets made a kind of wine out of the fruit of
+the cactus. The fruit was put into a cloth and the juice squeezed out.
+This was then allowed to ferment, and I was told produced intoxication,
+though I never observed this result. The cake resulting from the
+process was consumed as food, being sliced down like bread, and eaten
+without further preparation. The Pimas and Maricopas, after drying
+cactus fruit in the sun, macerate it in water, and after fermentation
+get drunk on the compound.
+
+[Illustration: THE KWAKIUTL WOLF DANCE CALLED WĀLASAXA, NORTH-WEST
+  COAST]
+
+_Tortillas_ were made of maize, “shelled and soaked in an alkali to
+remove the hull, then repeatedly washed in cold water.”[315] This
+product was then ground on a metate, beaten into flat cakes, and baked
+on an earthen griddle called _comalli_. _Tiste_ was parched corn ground
+with chocolate and sugar and mixed with water. _Atolli_ was a drink
+made of cornmeal cooked in water. _Chocolatl_ was prepared “by grinding
+equal parts of cacao beans and seeds of _pochotl_ or _sequoia_, which
+were then boiled. This liquid was shaken up to make it frothy, mixed
+with dough made of maize and then submitted to a new cooking to thicken
+it.”[316]
+
+No tribe learned to use the milk of any animal. The bison was about the
+only native animal that offered any. In the whisky of the whites they
+found their fate, and this has done more than any other single cause
+except smallpox to destroy the race. For it they exchanged tobacco, and
+the white man smokes as the Amerind drinks.
+
+[Illustration: UTE WOMAN CARRYING CHILD]
+
+Beckwourth, referring to the trading of the mixture of alcohol and
+water called whisky on the frontier in his day, to the natives,
+remarks: “This trading whisky for Indian property is one of the most
+infernal practices ever entered into by man. Let the reader sit down
+and figure up the profits on a forty-gallon cask of alcohol, and he
+will be thunderstruck, or, rather, whisky-struck. When disposed of,
+four gallons of water are added to each gallon of alcohol. In two
+hundred gallons there are sixteen hundred pints, for each one of which
+the trader gets a buffalo robe worth five dollars! The Indian women
+toil many long weeks to dress these sixteen hundred robes. The white
+trader gets them all for worse than nothing, for the poor Indian
+mother hides herself and children in the forests until the effect of
+the poison passes away from the husbands, fathers, and brothers who
+love them when they have no whisky, and abuse and kill them when they
+have.... In short, the sixty gallons of fire-water realised to the
+company over eleven hundred robes and eighteen horses, worth in St.
+Louis six thousand dollars.”[317]
+
+[Illustration: KEOKUK, A SAUK CHIEF
+
+  George Catlin
+]
+
+These were the honourable methods employed by the fur companies. They
+secured from the Amerinds thousands on thousands of dollars’ worth of
+valuable property for, as Beckwourth says, “worse than nothing,” and
+no man knew better than he the fearful effect of the fire-water on the
+native. To-day there are a great many white men engaged in the same
+traffic, despite the government’s efforts to crush it out. And still we
+cannot understand why the “Indian has degenerated”!
+
+A Cheyenne chief said: “White man, I have given you my robes, which my
+warriors have spent months in hunting, and which my women have slaved
+a whole year in dressing; and what do you give me in return? I have
+nothing. You give me fire-water, which makes me and my people mad; and
+it is gone, and we have nothing to hunt more buffalo with, and to fight
+our enemies.”[318]
+
+I never saw an Amerind smoke as much tobacco in a week as I have seen
+Americans or English smoke in a single day. Tobacco and the pipe were
+part of the Amerindian religious paraphernalia. The pipe seems not to
+have been much used for ordinary smoking among the Nahuatl or Mexican
+tribes, nor among the sedentary tribes of our South-west. They used
+the cigarette chiefly, leaving the pipe for ceremonials, while the
+West Indian tribes rolled the leaf up for smoking. Many Eastern tribes
+cultivated tobacco extensively and were able to sell it to traders. It
+was generally mixed with other leaves and bark for smoking, and among
+the Eskimo with wood. The exact place of the pipe in the ceremonials of
+the Eastern tribes is not yet thoroughly understood, but its function
+was always an important one.[319] Among the Iroquois, when the horizon
+was filled with “thunderheads,” or “sons of thunder,” in a period of
+drought, it was a custom to burn tobacco, as an offering to bring rain.
+Each family made an offering on its secret altar to Hinuⁿ, God of
+Thunder, and then bore a portion to the council-house, where a general
+offering was burned in the council fire. “While the tobacco was burning
+the agile and athletic danced the rain dance.”[320]
+
+The Eskimo of Alaska, it is asserted, will eat with relish the oily
+refuse from the bottom of a pipe, and they are also fond of the
+ashes of tobacco. The smoke is deeply inhaled by them, as by all the
+tribes. Among the Arikarees a special pipe was kept in a “bird box.”
+Any criminal or enemy who could reach this box and smoke the pipe was
+free from molestation. This right of asylum is noticed in other ways.
+It is said that the first whites who came among the Apaches, tired
+and hungry, were not molested by them. Everywhere, if an enemy were
+permitted to smoke the pipe or partake of food with the Amerinds he
+was absolutely safe for the time being, both because of the pipe and
+because the law of hospitality was never violated. If Macbeth had been
+an Amerind no blood would have been shed on that fatal night, and
+Duncan would have passed unharmed beyond the castle walls. The pipe was
+the invariable accompaniment of all councils and treaties among Eastern
+tribes, and it was the emblem of peace. Each village had its calumet,
+a pipe of peace made of sacred pipe-stone, and whoever travelled with
+it, passed, even among the enemy, with impunity. Envoys coming within
+a short distance of the town would utter a cry and seat themselves on
+the ground. “The great chief,” says George Bancroft, “bearing the peace
+pipe of his tribe, with its mouth pointing to the skies, goes forth to
+meet them, accompanied by a long procession of his clansmen, chanting
+the hymn of peace. The strangers rise to receive them, singing also
+a song, to put away all wars and to bury all revenge. As they meet,
+each party smokes the pipe of the other, and peace is ratified. The
+strangers are then conducted to the village; the herald goes out into
+the street that divides the wigwams, and makes repeated proclamation
+that the guests are friends; and the glory of the tribe is advanced by
+the profusion of bear’s meat, and flesh of dogs, and hominy, which give
+magnificence to the banquets in honour of the embassy.”[321] Thus
+would a war terminate. In beginning it among Eastern tribes, various
+ceremonies preceded the departure of the warriors, especially the
+war dance or scalp dance and accompanying songs, expressing contempt
+for death and certainty of victory. Beckwourth remarks: “When war is
+declared on any tribe, it is done by the council.[322] If any party
+goes out without authority of the council, they are all severely
+whipped; and their whipping is no light matter, as I can personally
+testify. It makes no difference how high the offender ranks, or how
+great his popularity with the nation—there is no favour shown; the man
+who disobeys orders is bound to be lashed, and if he resists or resents
+the punishment, he suffers death.”[323] Faces were variously decorated
+for the warpath; and sometimes when a tribe is full of anger and
+resentment, but not engaged in actual war, they will paint themselves
+strangely. Once I was among the Shevwits of Arizona (1875) when they
+were nursing their wrath against the Mormons, and the faces of the men
+were painted in a way that perhaps seemed terrible to them, but which
+was laughable to me. Some had the face divided into three or four
+sections by different colours, for example: forehead white; left side
+of face, black; right side, red; with lines of each colour over the
+others. Ordinarily the number of wounds received in battle is recorded
+by streaks of vermilion.
+
+[Illustration: SHRINE OF THE WAR-GODS, TWIN MOUNTAIN, PUEBLO OF ZUÑI,
+  NEW MEXICO]
+
+Before the acquisition of firearms and the horse, and the crowding
+back of tribe against tribe by the whites, wars were in some parts
+rather infrequent. Night attacks were never made. Captives were
+often compelled to run the gauntlet, and if they did it bravely they
+were adopted into the tribe. Frequently a captive was given his life
+without this ordeal if he would join the tribe of the captors and fill
+the place of some slain warrior. Cooper utilises this custom where
+Deerslayer is offered his liberty if he will take the wife and family
+of one he has killed and become a member of the tribe. Such adoption
+always rested, however, on the consent of the kindred of the deceased.
+The war-gods were propitiated by acts of cruelty, and by human
+sacrifices from among the prisoners. It is related by Bancroft[324]
+that on one occasion the Iroquois sacrificed an Algonquin woman,
+exclaiming, “Areskoni, to thee we burn this victim; feast on her
+flesh and grant us new victories.” Her flesh was afterwards eaten as
+a religious rite. Cannibalism of this kind prevailed in many tribes;
+_always, ostensibly_, a religious ceremony, not a means of satisfying
+hunger. The victims were often richly feasted and generously treated
+for some time before being executed. Payne holds that the Aztec custom
+of consuming captives at religious feasts was in reality a means of
+procuring animal food resulting from the limited meat supply, and
+that perpetual war was waged mainly to obtain prisoners for this
+purpose.[325] Prescott says: “Indeed the great object of war, with the
+Aztecs, was quite as much to gather victims for their sacrifices as to
+extend their empire.”[326]
+
+[Illustration: A COSTUME OF A HĀMATSA IN THE KWAKIUTL CANNIBALISTIC
+  CEREMONY, WHERE SLAVES AND CORPSES WERE FORMERLY DEVOURED
+
+  The head and neck rings were from his mother’s tribe, the Tongass
+  (Tlinkit)
+]
+
+[Illustration: MEXICAN OPERATING THE PALM-DRILL FOR FIRE
+
+  Fac-simile outline of an original Mexican painting presented to the
+  University of Oxford by Archbishop Sand
+]
+
+One of the great ceremonials of the Aztecs was the obtaining of the
+“new-fire,” admirably described by Prescott, according to his custom.
+“On the evening of the last day, a procession of the priests, assuming
+the dress and ornaments of their gods, moved from the capital towards
+a lofty mountain, about two leagues distant. They carried with them
+a noble victim, the flower of their captives, and an apparatus for
+kindling the new-fire, the success of which was an augury of the
+renewal of the cycle. On reaching the summit of the mountain, the
+procession paused till midnight; when as the constellation of the
+Pleiades approached the zenith, the new-fire was kindled by the
+friction of the sticks placed on the wounded breast of the victim. The
+flame was soon communicated to a funeral pile, on which the body of
+the slaughtered captive was thrown. As the light streamed up towards
+heaven, shouts of joy and triumph burst forth from the countless
+multitudes who covered the hills, the terraces of the temples, and
+the house-tops, with eyes bent anxiously on the mount of sacrifice.
+Couriers, with torches lighted at the blazing beacon, rapidly bore
+them over every part of the country; and the cheering element was
+seen brightening on altar and hearth-stone, for the circuit of many
+a league, long before the sun, rising on his accustomed track, gave
+assurance that a new cycle had commenced its march and that the laws of
+nature were not to be reversed for the Aztecs.”[327]
+
+[Illustration: ZUÑI WOMAN CARRYING WATER
+
+  Shows also style of moccasin and leg wrapping worn by Puebloan and
+  Navajo women
+]
+
+New-fire was also obtained by friction, with the Aztecs, once each
+year, and once each four years, as well as at the fifty-two year
+cycle. In Arkansas it was produced every year. On a certain day, “as
+the sun began to decline the fires were extinguished in every hut,
+and universal silence reigned.”[328] A priest next produced fire by
+friction. “It was then brought out of the temple in an earthen dish and
+placed upon an altar that had been previously prepared in the square.
+Its appearance brought joy to the hearts of the people as it was
+supposed to atone for all past crimes except murder. A general amnesty
+was proclaimed except for this one crime, and all malefactors might now
+return to their villages in safety.”[329] The Mokis still produce the
+new-fire each November.[330]
+
+Sacrifices to the gods were made by the Mayas at the sacred _cenoté_
+of Chichen Itza, and similar places.[331] This sacred well was one of
+the openings to the subterranean waters of Yucatan, and was about one
+hundred and fifty feet in diameter and sixty-five feet deep from the
+brink to the surface of the water, with perpendicular sides. Pilgrims
+came here to make offerings and Landa states that in time of drought
+they would cast live men into it as a tribute to the gods, believing
+that though they disappeared they would not die. Valuable property
+was also thrown in and still lies with the bones at the bottom.
+Charnay tried to work some automatic sounding machines there, but he
+failed to obtain satisfactory results. Among the Aztecs a person to
+be sacrificed was extended full length over a convex stone, and the
+priest with a long obsidian knife made a gash in the breast through
+which he extracted the living heart and laid it at the feet of the
+idol. Parts of the victim were afterward served at a grand ceremonial
+banquet. “Forty days previous to the festival of Quetzalcohuatl,”
+says Bandelier, “a slave was selected, who must be in perfect health
+and of faultless body. He was dressed in the same manner as the idol,
+and, after having been carefully bathed, and kept in ‘honourable
+confinement,’ as an object of worship for that length of time, he
+was sacrificed at midnight. The heart was tendered to the moon, and
+afterwards thrown at the idol, and the body cut up, cooked and publicly
+devoured.”[332] In times of drought children from six to ten years old
+were offered up; they were not eaten, but buried before the idol. The
+priests who officiated were medicine-men, or shamans. Every tribe on
+the continent had shamans. These individuals held a peculiar power,
+and among tribes known to us now they still exercise it. Even among
+the Christian Pueblos of New Mexico, the authority of the shaman has
+not altogether waned and ancient rites are said to be still enacted
+in secret. For some of these it is believed rattlesnakes have been
+carefully guarded for years. “Among Indians,” Mooney states,[333]
+“the professions of medicine and religion are inseparable. The doctor
+is always a priest and the priest is always a doctor. Hence to the
+whites in the Indian country the Indian priest-doctor has come to be
+known as the ‘medicine-man’ and anything sacred, mysterious, or of
+wonderful power or efficacy in Indian life or belief is designated as
+‘medicine,’ this term being the nearest equivalent of the aboriginal
+expression in various languages. To make ‘medicine’ is to perform some
+sacred ceremony, from the curing of a sick child to the consecration
+of the Sun-dance lodge.” An Iroquois student states,[334] that, “among
+the Indians, the knowledge of the medicine-man and the more expert
+sorceress is little above that of the body of the tribe. Their success
+depends entirely on their own belief in being supernaturally gifted and
+on the faith and fear of their followers. I do not believe that the
+Iroquois lives to-day who is not a believer in sorcery, or who would
+not in the night time quail at seeing a bright light the nature of
+which he did not understand.”
+
+[Illustration: UTE CRADLE, FRAME OF RODS COVERED WITH BUCKSKIN
+
+  Carried on the back. In principle the majority of Amerind cradles
+  are similar
+]
+
+The functions and powers of the shamans or medicine-men have never
+been completely understood, but over the sick they carried on various
+incantations and administered decoctions of native vegetable and animal
+substances. Powell defines a shaman as “a person who has the power to
+control ghosts through magic.” They mortified their own flesh and the
+priests of Mexico would pierce their tongues and draw through the wound
+thus formed a long knotted cord, or twigs fastened together, or a cord
+set with some animal’s claws or teeth. Speaking of Mexico, Prescott
+says:[335]
+
+“In no country, not even in ancient Egypt, were the dreams of the
+astrologer more implicitly deferred to. On the birth of a child he was
+instantly summoned. The time of the event was accurately ascertained,
+and the family hung in trembling suspense as the minister of Heaven
+cast the horoscope of the infant and unrolled the dark volume of
+destiny. The influence of the priest was confessed by the Mexican in
+the first breath which he inhaled.” Other tribes were not behind.
+In some the shamans were hereditary, but it would seem that their
+selection and appointment were due to various regulations existing
+in the secret orders and also to a reputation for the possession of
+occult power. Some writers hold that the shamans are self appointed,
+but this does not seem to correspond with the intricacies of the
+Amerindian social organisation. Powell adopts the Algonquin name
+for them, _jossakeeds_, and describes them as the head men of the
+fraternities. Whatever he may do to obtain his supposed magical powers,
+it would appear reasonable to believe that so prominent a functionary
+as this shaman, or jossakeed, would require in the beginning to be
+a man of some distinction, or special initiation. In making such
+decoctions as he used the shaman boiled various plants together with
+a stone arrow-head, or similar article. Out of twenty plants used by
+the Cherokees, only seven are noted in the United States Dispensatory.
+“Five plants or 25 per cent.,” says Mooney, “are correctly used; 12
+or 60 per cent. are presumably either worthless or incorrectly used,
+and three plants or 15 per cent. are so used that it is difficult
+to say whether they are of any benefit or not. Granting that two of
+these three produce good results as used by the Indians, we should
+have 35 per cent., or about one third of the whole, as the proportion
+actually possessing medical virtues, while the remaining two thirds
+are inert, if not positively injurious.” “For a disease caused by the
+rabbit the antidote must be a plant called ‘rabbit’s food,’ ‘rabbit’s
+ear,’ or ‘rabbit’s tail’; for snake dreams, the plant used is ‘snake’s
+tooth,’” and so on, “an empiric development of the fetich idea.”[336]
+No sanitary precautions were taken during the treatment except fasting.
+When the patient eats, certain kinds of food are forbidden, but on the
+ground of some fancied connection between the disease and the food. If
+squirrels are supposed to be at the root of the trouble, the patient
+is prohibited from eating squirrel meat.[337]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO WOMAN OF POINT BARROW CARRYING CHILD
+
+  Photograph by Capt. Healy, U. S. R. M.
+]
+
+[Illustration: APACHE WOMAN CARRYING CHILD
+
+  Shows also moccasins and leg wrappings similar to the Puebloan and
+  Navajo
+]
+
+The sweat bath was, and is, the great cure-all among the Amerinds,
+except the Central and Eastern Eskimo. It was also a means of religious
+purification. Sometimes the sweat house was a large structure, but
+usually it was only large enough to hold one or two persons in a
+squatting posture, and was constructed of poles covered with skins,
+blankets, or earth. The patient entered and those outside heated stones
+and passed them in to him by means of sticks. Water or some decoction
+was then poured over the stones and the opening closed. Profuse
+perspiration was the result. At the proper time, if a stream were near,
+the patient would run out and plunge in; otherwise cold water was
+poured over him. This was the chief remedy for smallpox, which has made
+such ravages in all tribes, but of course it was ineffective. The sweat
+lodge and the sweat bath connected with it must not be confounded, as
+is often the case, with the _estufa_, (or _kiva_). The latter has no
+connection with the sweat bath, but is an entirely different thing,
+the confusion arising from the Spanish term, which means a hothouse,
+derived from the fact that the kivas are kept stiflingly close and hot
+in winter.
+
+Most Amerinds believe that all living things, even trees, once had
+human shape, and “have been transformed, for punishment or otherwise,
+into their present condition.” They had no understanding of a single
+“Great Spirit” till the Europeans, often unconsciously, informed them
+of their own belief.
+
+The Iroquois in many ways were the finest Amerinds of all. Brinton
+says, “unsurpassed by any other on the continent [physically], and I
+may even say by any other people in the world.”[338] “In legislation,
+in eloquence, in fortitude and in military sagacity they had no
+equals,” says Morgan.[339] He also maintains that they represented
+“the highest development the Indian ever reached in the hunter state.”
+“Crimes and offences were so unfrequent under their social system that
+the Iroquois can scarcely be said to have had a criminal code.” Theft
+was barely known, and “on all occasions, and at whatever price, the
+Iroquois spoke the truth without fear and without hesitation.”[340]
+The Iroquois, Algonquins, and other stocks carried on a considerable
+commerce with far-distant points. “The red pipe-stone was brought to
+the Atlantic coast from the Coteau des Prairies, and even the black
+slate highly ornamented pipes of the Haidah on Vancouver Island have
+been exhumed from graves of Lenapé Indians.”[341] The wide extent of
+Amerindian commercial traffic has hardly been appreciated.
+
+[Illustration: MOKI “SNAKE DANCE” AT WALPI
+
+  Snake priests in action
+
+  Photograph (reversed)
+]
+
+The religion of most of the Amerinds was zoötheism—that is, their gods
+were deified men and animals. The heavenly bodies, personified as
+men and animals, also formed a part of their galaxy. Their worship
+of these various deities, who were believed to control each his
+division of human affairs and earthly phenomena, was through numerous
+ceremonials, many of them embodying their form of dancing, and called
+by the whites “dances,” though this term fails properly to describe
+them. Often there is very little dancing, and even that has a minor
+part. The ceremonials take place at all times and seasons, many being
+as absolutely fixed to a certain date as our own holidays or church
+celebrations. The Eastern tribes had ceremonials on tapping the maple
+trees, and others for the close of the maple-sugar season. There were
+also the Corn-Planting Festival, the Strawberry Festival, the Bean
+Festival, and the famous Green Corn Dance of the Iroquois, followed
+by the Harvest Dance. Some ceremonials occur in their perfection only
+at specified intervals, as the Snake Dance of the Mokis, which, while
+performed annually at some one of the towns, is seen in its full glory
+only once every two years at the village of Walpi. This now famous
+ceremonial, in which a hundred or more rattlesnakes are used alive,
+covers altogether a period of nine days, including the search for the
+snakes, as well as rites performed in the kiva. It is only on the
+last two days that there are public ceremonies. Spectators who are
+known or have a proper introduction are sometimes allowed to visit a
+kiva when it is reserved by the order owning or controlling it; at
+other times a visitor is generally freely admitted. During my stay in
+the Moki country I never was barred from any place that I desired to
+enter; though it may have happened that I never tried to enter at a
+time when outsiders were forbidden. The snakes are brought out of the
+kiva by one set of priests, or shamans, and dropped on the ground
+to be picked up by another set with much ceremony. At the end all
+the snakes are carried to the valley and liberated to return through
+their holes to the underworld, there to communicate the desires of
+the people to the gods. The towns of the Mokis on the East Mesa are
+now frequently visited by whites, but Oraibi and the others are not
+so often approached. When I went to Oraibi, in 1885, we were followed
+about by a band of curious small boys, and the women peered at us from
+the roof hatchways, quickly ducking out of sight if one of us happened
+to look their way. The men declined to talk except in monosyllables,
+and I am free to confess that it was a relief to finally mount and ride
+away. Oraibi has never had a reputation for hospitality. From there we
+went to Shimopavi, where our reception was exactly the reverse of what
+it had been at Oraibi, and I shall always remember with pleasure the
+frank, genial, smiling men who received us in one of the chief kivas,
+and the alacrity with which a clean repast of watermelon and piki was
+brought and placed before us. This only shows what a difference in
+manners may exist in the divisions of one tribe, and how easy it would
+be to denounce all the Mokis as being surly and ugly, if one saw only
+the Oraibi branch.
+
+[Illustration: AMERINDIAN PICTURE-WRITING
+
+  Sixth Ann. Rept., Pl. V.
+  Drawings by the Central Eskimo. See page 59.
+
+  Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. XXXVIII.
+  Page of the Dakota Winter-Counts, also called by them “Counts
+  Back.” See page 60.
+
+  Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. LXIII.
+  Page from Red Cloud’s Census, Dakota. See page 60.
+
+  Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. IV.
+  Ojibwa Mnemonic Record of a Midē Song. See page 58.
+]
+
+[Illustration: BEGINNING OF THE MOKI “SNAKE DANCE” AT WALPI
+
+  Antelope priests lined up
+
+  This scene precedes the one on page 376
+
+  Photograph (reversed)
+]
+
+A simple occurrence means to the superstitious mind of the Amerind
+a great deal. In illustration of this I may mention that two men I
+knew were one day at one of the Moki towns and carelessly entered a
+kiva where the preparing and blessing of certain sacred water were in
+progress. When they had departed, a frightened rock-wren fluttered in.
+This was accepted as an evil omen. The bird was immediately killed and
+some of its blood sprinkled over the floor of the kiva. Then it was
+taken to the first house the whites had entered when they arrived at
+the town, and more blood sprinkled wherever they had stood. After this
+the bird’s body was carefully laid outside, near the door.
+
+Thus the struggles of a dazed bird are considered by these people a
+portentous circumstance.
+
+The dancing of the Amerinds is everywhere much alike, and it is
+generally performed in a circle. It has been described as a heel
+dance, and with some tribes is apparently that because they seem to
+strike the ground only with the heel, but it is usually a toe-and-heel
+step, the toe first touching and then the heel being brought down
+with more or less force. When rapidly done the separate touching of
+the toe is hardly noticeable. The movement of the circle is commonly
+from left to right, and during this progress various contortions are
+gone through with, more or less violently according to the intensity
+of the occasion. In the remarkable _Okeepa_ ceremony of the Sioux
+fearful tortures were submitted to, and sometimes a bison skull was
+dragged around by means of ropes attached to skewers thrust through the
+bodies and limbs of the performers. They were also pulled aloft in the
+dancing-lodge by these skewers, and the pain was often so intense that
+the devotee would faint. (See page 382.) When Catlin first described
+this ceremonial and its ordeals it was received with doubt, but it has
+since been seen by others and fully authenticated. It is, of course,
+not possible to more than touch on the customs and ceremonies of the
+Amerinds in this short chapter. A large volume would be required to
+exhibit even a quarter part of the details.
+
+The ceremonials[342] of the Pueblos are marked by elaborately costumed
+katcinas,[343] but perhaps not more so than those of other tribes.
+Those of the North-west coast are full of strange costumes also, and
+the plains tribes executed their wild scalp dance, bear dance, buffalo
+dance, etc., in costumes that were as singular as the dance itself.
+In the ceremony of the Mokis called Soyaita or Somaikoli, I counted
+sixteen different katcinas with extraordinary costumes weighing them
+down, except one who wore nothing but a round bullet-like mask and a
+breech-cloth. The others were so loaded that it was nearly impossible
+to recognise in them human beings. The preparations for a ceremonial
+occupy a week or two beforehand. One evening, some time before the
+public performance of the Somaikoli, as I was walking from one village
+to the other on the East Mesa, I was about half way when I suddenly
+became aware of a hideous yelling ahead of me, and discovered the
+flaring of torches in the darkness. There being no rock, tree, or shrub
+near, I was fully illumined by the glare as the torches approached.
+Then I saw six stalwart fellows, entirely nude, except for the
+breech-cloth, though it was a chilly night in November. I paused to
+await results, as I perceived they meant to come tip with me. I could
+not understand their object. They were marching in single file. When
+they saw that I was not a native, but the solitary white visitor to
+the mesa who lived at Hano, they grinned and passed on without a word.
+What they would have done with one of their people I do not know, but I
+heard afterwards that they captured anyone they found out and kept them
+in one of the kivas till the day of the public ceremony. At any rate,
+I found that everybody took care to be indoors on this night between
+certain hours. The mysteries of the different secret orders are not
+known to outsiders, not even if members of the tribe.[344]
+
+[Illustration: HORNED RATTLESNAKE, CROTALUS CERASTES
+
+  Commonly called “Sidewinder” because of its sidling motion.
+  Inhabits desert plains and valleys of Southern Arizona, California,
+  and Nevada, and south-western Utah. One killed by the author in
+  1875 was about three ft. long. The rattlesnake was identified with
+  religious ceremonials of most of the tribes from Ohio to Central
+  America
+]
+
+Photographs and paintings were considered “bad-medicine” by most
+tribes, and I had no success whatever in persuading the Mokis to pose
+for me when I was there. One who finally consented ran away when it
+came to the test. I was permitted to use my snap-camera and to sketch
+buildings freely, but when it came to painting persons they rebelled.
+They believed that the possessor of a likeness held power over the
+person represented.
+
+[Illustration: THE OKEEPA CEREMONY OF THE MANDANS, LASTING FOUR DAYS
+
+  “A number of the young men are seen (inside the Mystery Lodge)
+  reclining and fasting ... others are yet seen in the midst of those
+  horrid cruelties. One is seen smiling whilst the knife and the
+  splints are passing through his flesh. One is seen hanging by the
+  splints run through the flesh on his shoulders and drawn up by men
+  on the top of the lodge. Another is seen hung up by the pectoral
+  muscles with four buffalo skulls attached to splints through the
+  flesh on his arms and legs; and each is turned round by another
+  with a pole till he faints, etc.”—Catlin’s _Eight Years_, vol. i;
+  also _Smithsonian Report_, 1895, p. 362
+
+  From a painting by George Catlin, 1832
+]
+
+[Illustration: THE SACRED POLE OF THE OMAHA
+
+  Now in the Peabody Museum
+]
+
+Murder in most tribes was settled by property atonement, or by the
+assumption by the guilty one of the victim’s duties, and when once
+settled the matter could never again be reopened. No controversy was
+ever permitted, and to terminate it there were three methods: 1. When
+controversy arises in relation to ownership, the property is usually
+destroyed by the clan or by the tribal authorities. This is one
+reason why property is found buried with Amerinds. By thus disposing
+of it all controversy is avoided. Or the property may be completely
+abandoned by all concerned, as in the case mentioned by Powell, where
+a war party of Sioux surprised and killed a squad of sleeping soldiers
+at the first volley. “Their arms, blankets, and other property were
+untouched because the attacking party being large, it could not be
+decided by whose bullets the soldiers were slain.” 2. If two persons
+come to blows, it is, unless serious injury be done, considered a final
+settlement. Appeal to authority is thereby forever barred in that
+matter. 3. Establishment of a day or festival once a month, usually
+once a year, beyond which crimes do not pass. Marriage is by what is
+called legal appointment. In this way controversy over the women of
+a tribe is largely avoided, for little is left to personal choice.
+But kinship groups allowed to intermarry do not remain stationary in
+numbers, hence, one set of men may have many wives to choose from,
+another few, which, says Powell, leads to modification of the principle
+and three additional forms of marriage are the result, by elopement,
+by capture, and by duel. That is, if a pair elope and can evade their
+pursuers till the day limiting controversy has passed, they are safe
+from molestation. We once met an interesting example of this class in
+the Uinta Valley, Utah, and with our boats put the runaways across
+Green River, thus obliterating their trail, though at the time we did
+not so well understand the situation. A group of men who have but a
+limited class to choose wives from sometimes combine to capture for one
+of their number a wife from some other group within their own tribe.
+A fight is often the result, but without weapons. A second battle
+for the same woman at that time is not permitted.[345] Or one man, if
+he feel strong enough, may deprive some other fellow in his own tribe
+of his wife. In southern Utah, Tom came to our camp one night weeping
+bitterly, and when I could get at his statement it was to the effect
+that someone had deprived him of his wife. Our men were indignant and
+wished to proceed forthwith to the Amerind camp and compel the thief to
+restore the wife to Tom, but they finally decided to abandon him to the
+established customs of his people.
+
+[Illustration: CRUCIFORM STONE TOMB, OAXACA
+
+  This tomb, recently discovered and excavated by Saville, is one
+  of the remarkable monuments of Amerindian antiquity. It lies five
+  miles east of Mitla and one thousand feet above it on the spur of a
+  mountain.
+
+  About a mile north-west are the quarries from which the great
+  stones were obtained. The tomb was never finished. It fronted west.
+
+  The north, east, and south arms of the cross do not vary in
+  dimensions by the fraction of an inch. The length of each is 11.7
+  ft. and the width 5.2 ft., while the depth is 7.5 ft. There are
+  three courses of huge stones, the largest measuring 12 ft. long by
+  3.3 ft. high and 3 ft. thick.
+
+  Photographed by Saville
+]
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF CRUCIFORM TOMB, OAXACA]
+
+Sometimes a woman is assigned to a man who already has a wife, while
+some other man has none, because the group into which he is permitted
+to marry is exhausted. He then challenges the man who is entitled to
+more than one and endeavours to win the woman by success in battle.
+On one occasion in southern Nevada a white man’s sympathies were so
+aroused by one of these affairs, in which the girl was being roughly
+pulled about, that he threw off his coat and, taking an active part in
+the struggles, rescued her. Then he was amazed at the information that
+the girl belonged to him and he must keep her. This he declined to do
+and turned her over again to their tender mercies. These three forms of
+marriage become roundabout methods of personal choice. When the supply
+of wives is normal the young man in some tribes goes out into the woods
+by a certain trail, and if the girl of his choice follows him, it is
+considered a marriage, and is celebrated with prescribed ceremonies.
+Polygamy was practised by most tribes. Among the Navajos, who buy their
+wives, it is very common, but there a wife can depart at pleasure, and
+as the husband acquires no right to her property, she takes it with her.
+
+Totemism is an important custom in vogue among all the stocks of the
+continent, and it was probably a custom the world over when tribes
+were in a certain stage. The word totem is derived from the Ojibwa,
+and is said to have first been introduced into literature by one Long,
+an interpreter. Totems are of three kinds: clan totems, sex totems,
+and individual totems. The first are the most important.[346] Totemism
+is at the same time a religious and a social system. The totem is
+usually an animal, as a frog, bear, bat, etc. The Amerind believes that
+between these objects and himself there is a particular bond, and he
+has for them the most profound respect. From them he believes himself
+descended. Therefore he would not harm an animal that was his totem.
+The Bear clan would not kill a bear, the Red Maize clan would not eat
+red maize, and so on. Totemism existed among the Israelites, and the
+objection to eating pork is supposed by some to rest on the pig having
+been one of their totems. The Amerind also generally derived his name
+from some animal or object, and he represented this as his individual
+totem mark. In the totem poles of the North west coast, these various
+representations of totems were combined and set up before the door to
+indicate the relationships of the persons who lived there.[347]
+
+Cleanliness varies among the tribes, and is sometimes in proportion
+to the ease or difficulty with which water can be procured. The Mokis
+who live in an arid country and have to carry water long distances
+seldom waste it in bathing or washing, though I did once see an old
+Moki fill his mouth with water and blow it out in instalments over his
+hands. The Omahas, according to Dorsey, generally bathe twice every day
+in warm weather. They used to help women and children to alight from
+horses, and sometimes carried them over streams on their backs. Old
+men and women were never abandoned by them. Some men were not wanting
+in gallantry. Dorsey tells of a young woman who wished to halt at a
+spring. Her brother was with her. The ground was muddy and she would
+have soiled her clothes had she knelt to drink, but another man rode up
+at the moment, and, jumping from his horse, he pulled a lot of grass,
+placing it on the wet ground so that she could drink without soiling
+her dress.
+
+[Illustration: AMERINDIAN ART
+
+  Fifth Ann. Rept., Pl. XV.
+  A Navajo “Dry” Painting made with sand in the Mountain Chant
+  Ceremony. See page 61.
+
+  Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. LII.
+  Page of an Oglala Roster—“Big-Road” and band. See page 59.
+
+  Third Ann. Report, Pl. IV.
+  Copy of Plates 65 and 66, Vatican Codex B. Each figure is a tree
+  with a person clasping the trunk. See page 72.
+
+  See Twelfth Ann. Rept., Pl. XVII.
+  Drawing restored from fragments of a thin copper plate, in repoussé
+  work, from a mound of the Etowah group, Georgia.
+]
+
+[Illustration: MOKI EARTHEN CANTEEN, ARIZONA.]
+
+When he died the Amerind was disposed of in a number of different ways.
+There were burials in pits, graves, mounds, cists, caves, and so on;
+there was cremation; there was embalming; there was aërial sepulture
+in trees or scaffolds; there was burial beneath water, or in canoes
+that were turned adrift. The Navajos leave the dead in the place where
+they die, or throw them into a cleft in the rocks and pile stones upon
+the corpse. In Tennessee graves are found which were made by lining
+a rectangular excavation with slabs of stone. These are ancient and
+resemble the graves of the reindeer period in France. Yarrow[348]
+speaks of them as being almost identical. I found graves of similar
+description in southern Utah near the Arizona line, but in the two or
+three that I opened there were no bones, only on the bottom a shallow
+layer of what appeared to be fine dark earth with thin slabs upon it;
+doubtless the slabs once forming the top.[349] Some tribes wrapped
+their dead in fine furs or in grasses and matting;[350] others buried
+in urns. In the North-west a living slave was buried with the deceased.
+If the slave were not dead in three days, he was strangled by another
+slave. In Mexico the custom of burying slaves with the dead was common.
+
+[Illustration: MODERN LACED SANDAL OF LEATHER FROM COLIMA, MEXICO]
+
+
+
+
+              [Illustration: ESKIMO PIPE WITH STONE BOWL.]
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+                     MYTHS, TRADITIONS, AND LEGENDS
+
+
+Persons who are obliged to rely on memory find that memory develops
+with use and becomes more reliable. The Amerinds, having no written
+language, if we except the Nahuatl and Mayan tribes, had no way of
+preserving their tales, traditions, and legends except to remember
+them, and there can be no doubt that everywhere on the continent memory
+was highly developed. To assist in recalling them they had their
+picture-writing, already described. The method is well illustrated in
+the remarkable _Walam Olum_, or Red Score of the Lenapé, where a most
+poetic account of the origin of things is recorded by means of a few
+rude pictures made by lines and dots.[351] There has been some doubt
+as to the genuineness of this score, first recorded by Rafinesque, but
+Brinton, who was a scholar of fine intellect and calm judgment and
+thoroughly versed in all the intricacies of the situation, accepted
+it as a genuine Amerind production “which was repeated orally to
+someone indifferently conversant with the Delaware language, who wrote
+it down to the best of his ability. In its present form it can, as a
+whole, lay no claim either to antiquity, or to purity of linguistic
+form. Yet, as an authentic modern version, slightly coloured by
+European teachings, of the ancient tribal traditions, it is well worth
+preservation.... The narrator was probably one of the native chiefs or
+priests, who had spent his life in the Ohio and Indiana towns of the
+Lenapé, and who, though with some knowledge of Christian instruction,
+preferred the pagan rites, legends, and myths of his ancestors.
+Probably certain lines and passages were repeated in the archaic form
+in which they had been handed down for generations.... The cosmogony
+describes the formation of the world by the Great Manito, and its
+subsequent despoliation by the spirit of the waters, under the form
+of a serpent. The happy days are depicted, when men lived without
+wars or sickness, and food was at all times abundant. Evil beings of
+mysterious power introduced cold and war and sickness and premature
+death. Then began strife and long wanderings.”[352] We can readily
+understand how a few rude lines could recall to the Amerind mind a
+whole story, and especially to the mind of one trained to exercise his
+memory in such directions. It is not necessary for me to do more for
+the Christian reader than write “_Xmas_,” and he can from it review the
+whole wonderful story of Christ in all its details. So it was with the
+Amerind. Those entrusted with the preservation of the legends, etc.,
+learned them perfectly and year by year repeated them on the proper
+occasion to their followers. Changes were probably sometimes made in
+the text of some to suit them to changed conditions, but the accuracy
+was so great that myths and legends have been found to contain archaic
+words which the members of the tribe were unable to explain, and which
+yielded only to the expert analysis of a white linguist.
+
+[Illustration: TEOCALLI (TEMPLE) OF TEPOZTLAN, STATE OF MORELOS, MEXICO
+
+  This view is from the west or back and shows a stairway and also
+  the built up mound forming the foundation. The front is entered
+  by a broad flight of about fourteen steps. The construction is
+  stone. The site, formerly approached by flights of steps, is on the
+  summit of a high and dangerously precipitous mountain. The ground
+  plan, about 30 ft. square, is similar to the first plan on page
+  238, with a front like the second. The outer walls are 1 meter, 90
+  centimeters thick. They were covered with a smooth cement, which
+  was painted in different colors. See page 240.
+
+   _Monumental Records._ Photographed by M. H. Saville
+]
+
+[Illustration: KWAKIUTL WOOD CARVING OF THE SISUL, NORTH-WEST COAST
+
+  Worn in front of the stomach. Length, 42 in. See page 168
+]
+
+With the Amerind a group of myths, traditions, and legends developed
+along with each particular stock. Each language had its own
+accumulation of these tales, etc., relating to animals, to natural
+forces personified, and sometimes to real personages. Savage races
+worship animal gods and natural objects personified as animals.[353]
+In the middle state called barbarism the religion becomes a worship
+of the phenomena of nature, pure and simple, frequently personified
+as animals or beings, as in the case of the thunder and lightning
+generally attributed by the Amerinds to the mysterious “thunder-bird,”
+which is also believed by some to be a great being who takes on the
+form of a bird. In civilisation the worship of one God takes the place
+of all the others, while the myths and legends of earlier days survive
+in mythological literature and in unconscious thoughts and acts of
+individuals. Looking at the moon over the right shoulder for luck,
+objections to a certain number, the belief that one stone is lucky and
+another unlucky, are all remnants of the era of zoötheism, physitheism,
+and other early beliefs.[354] Races cannot shake off earlier beliefs
+entirely, but continue them under changed forms. Thus we celebrate many
+pagan rites in our holidays, and pay a tribute to the Druid priests
+every time we suspend a branch of mistletoe in our parlours in the
+season when the sun turns his course towards the vernal equinox.
+
+To primitive man night was a mysterious phenomenon, and dawn often
+became personified to him as a bright and fair deliverer, a beneficent
+being who comes out of the east bringing a train of blessings. Many
+myths recounting the coming of a hero, prophet, and teacher among the
+Amerinds and other races are accounted for as being dawn myths, but
+there is danger of overworking this convenient hypothesis.
+
+In our literature many Amerind myths and legends have become firmly
+implanted, and they are now as much a part of it as the tale of
+Orpheus, or of Theseus, or of Hercules. Some of them have been
+beautified by the diction of our poets, and Longfellow’s rendering of
+_Hiawatha_ is admired the world over. This is good literature, but it
+is not good ethnology, because in it an Iroquois hero-god is placed
+in a setting of Algonquin legends, but this was not Longfellow’s
+mistake, but Schoolcraft’s, on whose work Longfellow based his poem.
+Jeremiah Curtin says: “Schoolcraft, with his amazing propensity to
+make mistakes, with his remarkable genius for missing the truth and
+confusing everything with which he came in contact, gave the name
+Hiawatha to his patchwork.... In the face of all this Schoolcraft
+makes Hiawatha, who is peculiarly Iroquois, the leading personage in
+his Algonkin conglomerate: Hiawatha being an Iroquois character of
+Central New York (he is connected more particularly with the region
+about Schenectady), while the actions to which Schoolcraft relates
+him pertain to the Algonkin Chippewas near Lake Superior. It is as if
+Europeans at some future age were to have placed before them a great
+epic narrative of French heroic adventure in which Prince Bismarck
+would appear as the chief and central Gallic figure in the glory and
+triumph of France.”[355]
+
+[Illustration: RUSHING EAGLE, 1872
+
+  Second chief of the Mandans and son of Four Bears, Catlin’s great
+  friend
+]
+
+[Illustration: FINE CLOTH PRESERVED BY COPPER BEADS]
+
+But Hiawatha, nevertheless, is incorporated in our language and our
+literature, and altogether the conquered race, as was inevitable, has
+left an impress on our character, on our language, on our geography,
+and on our literature which can never, even if desired, be effaced. The
+mark of our contact with the red man is upon us indelibly and forever.
+George Bancroft is not quite right when he says, “The memorials of
+their former existence are found only in the names of the rivers and
+the mountains.” These memorials have not only permeated our poetry and
+literature generally, but they are perpetuated in our daily food, and
+every mention of “succotash,” of “mush,” of “chocolate,” is a tribute
+to their existence, while the fragrance of the “tobacco” we smoke is
+incense to their memory. Mrs. Sigourney touched this subject prettily
+in the little poem entitled _Indian Names_:
+
+    “Ye say they all have passed away,
+       That noble race and brave,
+     That their light canoes have vanished
+       From off the crested wave;
+     That mid the forests where they roamed
+       There rings no hunter’s shout,
+     But their name is on your waters,
+       Ye may not wash it out.
+
+    “Ye say their cone-like cabins
+       That clustered o’er the vale
+     Have fled away like withered leaves
+       Before the autumn gale.
+     But their memory liveth on your hills,
+       Their baptism on your shore;
+     Your everlasting rivers speak
+       Their dialect of yore.”
+
+And she might have added that their gods have seated themselves
+with those of the Greeks in our libraries; that Michabo, Tlaloc,
+Quetzalcohuatl, and others are now companions of Jupiter and Neptune;
+in short, that their literature, which relied on oral transmission, has
+to a large extent been crystallised in our printed pages.
+
+The Amerind, not fortified by our modern knowledge and philosophy,
+regarded the outer world in a far different way from what we do. To him
+it was not a place where a gold mine might be found, or good grazing
+or tillable soil, but he looked upon the far distance as the home of
+magical beings. Did the wind blow? It was the breath of some monster
+dwelling in a cave in the far west, or it was the beating of the wings
+of giant birds living at the four quarters of the compass. It was not
+to the sky alone that he looked for the abode of his gods; they came
+to him from every direction, even from the bowels of the earth. We
+know what the earth contains and we grope for the unknown. The Amerind
+did not know what the earth contains; it was still to him the abode of
+monsters and ghosts.
+
+There is in some respects so great a similarity between the myths of
+the New World and those of the Old, that it was at first assumed that
+there must have been early communication with Europe, but more careful
+analysis has shown that this is but another evidence of what may be
+called the parallelism of human development. Even where the similarity
+is greatest there is nothing to prove that the myths did not originate
+independently, and they are merely the results of similar thoughts, in
+similar stages of ignorance, about the sun, the sky, and natural forces.
+
+The _Popol Vuh_, the great collection of Quiche myths, presents
+Gukumatz as one of the four principal gods who created the world.
+Gukumatz means shining or brilliant snake, and hence seems to be
+the same character as that known to the Nahuatls, or Aztecs, as
+Quetzalcohuatl, whose name also means bright or shining snake. But
+among the Aztecs Quetzalcohuatl is represented as a man, while Gukumatz
+is purely a god. Quetzalcohuatl was the third of the four Mexican or
+Aztec gods, and to him is ascribed all the wisdom which came to the
+Aztecs. He appears under two forms, as a god and as an historical
+personage. He has been frequently identified with the dawn, but there
+seems to be good reason for believing that he was a real character, who
+became deified as his good deeds passed down to successive generations.
+Such prophets and teachers rise up in all times, in all ages, by the
+wayside of tribal or national development, like some rare and favoured
+tree of the forest which out-tops all the others. A divine origin may
+be claimed for these teachers and prophets, but generally they are only
+men endowed with an extremely fine moral sense and with a perception
+and knowledge beyond their time. “Among the Tzendals of Chiapas, the
+tradition of Votan, who is said to have been the first founder of
+that tribe, bears great resemblance to Quetzalcohuatl.”[356] After an
+admirable discussion of the subject of the character and origin of
+Quetzalcohuatl, Bandelier sifts the matter down to this: that he was “a
+prominent gifted Indian leader, who certainly preceded the coming of
+those Nahuatl tribes that subsequently formed the valley confederacy,
+as well as that of the later tribe of Tlaxcallan. The claim to his
+origin accordingly rests between the so-called Toltecs on one side
+and the Olmeca and Xicalanca on the other.”[357] Brinton believed
+that Quetzalcohuatl was a pure personification of the dawn myth,[358]
+but there is too much testimony on the opposite side to permit the
+acceptance of this opinion as final. It must not be forgotten that
+there were very good, extremely good, almost saintly, men, and women,
+too, among the Amerinds. The historical Mexican tribes were preceded
+by other tribes, some of which had apparently reached a higher state
+of culture than the Aztecs, and Quetzalcohuatl possibly came from one
+of them as a teacher to the newer and less cultivated people; newer
+in the sense of having come into that region from some distance off.
+There is nothing preposterous in supposing that there were teachers
+and moralists in the early days of this continent. The character of
+a high-thinking teacher is not incompatible with some of the tribes
+that have lived and died on North-American soil. As stated previously,
+never were all the tribes of the continent in one culture condition;
+there were always tribes that could teach something to other tribes,
+and undoubtedly philanthropic individuals sometimes attempted the
+rôle of missionaries, just as they do in other races to-day. In fact,
+the recent “Resurrection Dance” or “Ghost Dance” had its prophet who
+preached to the natives that “the earth was to be all good hereafter;
+that we must be friends with one another.” Fighting, he declared, was
+“bad and all must keep from it.” “There is no doubt that his religious
+teachings rest on a well-ordained religious system, and in spite of
+the numerous false reports that are spread about him, he does not
+claim to be either God or Jesus Christ, the Messiah, or any divine,
+superhuman being whatever. ‘I am the annunciator of God’s message from
+the spiritual world and a prophet for the Indian people,’ is the way he
+defines the scope of his work among men.... Thus he considers himself a
+messenger of God appointed in a dream, and has on that account compared
+himself to St. John the Baptist.”[359] This man is a full-blood, and
+it is evident that such an inspiration might have seized a man of a
+similar temperament at any period of Amerind history, and given rise
+finally to legends and worship that would incorrectly be ascribed to
+the myth of the dawn.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT FABRIC-MARKED POTSHERDS, WITH CLAY CASTS BY
+  HOLMES
+
+  See page 108
+
+  Potsherd
+
+  Clay Cast
+
+  Potsherd
+
+  Clay Cast
+]
+
+Quetzalcohuatl at length departed with a promise to return, and it
+was the belief that he would return that caused Montezuma to at first
+mistake the bearded Spaniards for his emissaries. Quetzalcohuatl also
+wore a beard.
+
+Michabo, the Algonquin counterpart of Quetzalcohuatl, was considered to
+be the ancestor of the whole tribe, the founder of their ceremonies,
+the inventor of picture-writing, the ruler of the weather, the
+creator and preserver of earth and heaven. “From a grain of sand,” says
+Brinton, “brought from the bottom of the primeval ocean he fashioned
+the habitable land and set it floating on the waters till it grew to
+such a size that a strong young wolf, running constantly, died of old
+age ere he reached its limits.”
+
+[Illustration: EHTOHKPAHSHEPEESHAH, THE BLACK MOCCASIN, CHIEF OF THE
+  MINATAREES
+
+  OVER 100 YEARS OLD
+
+  George Catlin, 1832
+]
+
+Among the Iroquois the hero-god was called Ioskeha, and he possessed
+many of the qualities of Michabo and Quetzalcohuatl, etc., though in
+his case as well as that of Michabo there seems to be no historical
+evidence of existence, as there is with Quetzalcohuatl, and therefore
+they may be, as claimed by Brinton and others, merely dawn myths. It
+is possible that they may be compounds of a dawn myth and one or more
+actual personages.
+
+The hero-god of the Mayas was Itzamna, and he was a beneficent
+personage like the others. Like Cadmus, he invented letters, and he
+also devised their calendar. He is spoken of as an historical personage
+and “is intimately associated with the noble edifices of Itzamal,
+which he laid out and constructed, and over which he ruled, enacting
+wise laws and extending the power and happiness of his people for an
+indefinite period.”[360] Brinton identifies him with the dawn myth, but
+here again it is not conclusive. It seems quite as probable that he was
+a real person, upon whose history certain myths have been engrafted.
+
+In putting the Amerind stories into other languages, embellishments and
+variations have often been introduced, or the translators have been
+deceived by interpreters or by the Amerinds themselves, while sometimes
+both causes have operated to colour or to alter the tales. Schoolcraft
+has generally been regarded as a faithful recorder, but in some
+instances he has gone considerably astray. In his time the Amerinds
+were not so well understood, nor were they, in all their various
+stocks, so accessible as now.
+
+Formerly the European was prepared to find in the Amerind rites
+evidences of the Lost Tribes of Israel, of the Chinese, or some other
+extraordinary or romantic idea. He was not content to take things as
+they were. Marquette on arriving at Green Bay was delighted with what
+he believed to be an evidence of Christianity, a large cross set up
+in the middle of the village, adorned with skins, bows, etc., which
+the people were offering to their gods. It was only one of the symbols
+of the Midē society, and was in use long before the Discovery. In the
+same way Coronado found crosses in New Mexico, and there were also in
+Yucatan the tablets of the cross referred to in a previous chapter. The
+early Spaniards turned loose their own myths in the New World and then
+started in pursuit of them. Columbus himself was the first to float
+the Amazon myth to these shores, for in a letter to Rafael Sanchez he
+speaks of an island inhabited solely by women, and the Spaniards had a
+long and fruitless chase after it.[361] Thus they also pursued the myth
+of the _Seven Cities_, _El Dorado_, and similar tales. _El Dorado_, or,
+“The Gilded Man,” really existed in a ceremony in New Granada, where a
+man was sprinkled with gold dust, but when the Spaniards had taken all
+the gold from these people they went on hunting for El Dorado just the
+same, though they never found him again.
+
+[Illustration: LACANDON (MAYAN) AMERIND FROM CHOCOLHAO, YUCATAN
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville
+]
+
+Certain resemblances between the myths of the Amerinds and those of
+the Israelites increased the belief that the American race is the
+Lost Tribes. The Mormons specially hold to this opinion. But there is
+positively no ground for the belief. The peculiar interest, however,
+which attaches to a comparison of Amerind and Israelite myths lies
+in the fact that they resemble each other, not only genetically, but
+specifically. They are alike in their details. Mallery has given much
+attention to this subject, and he says that “an Ojibway tradition
+tells the adventures of eight, ten, and sometimes twelve brothers, the
+youngest of whom is the wisest and the most beloved of their father,
+and especially favoured by the high powers. He delivers his brothers
+from many difficulties which were brought about by their folly and
+disobedience. Particularly he supplies them with corn.... The Chahta
+have an elaborate story of their migrations, in which they were
+guided by a pole leaning in the direction which they should take, and
+remaining vertical at each place where they should encamp. A still
+closer resemblance to the guidance of the Israelites in the desert by
+a pillar of fire is found in the legendary migrations of the Tusayan
+(Mokis), when indication was made by the movement and the halting
+of a star. The Pai Utes were sustained in a great march through the
+desert by water that continually filled the magic cup given to the
+Sokus Waiunats in a dream until all were satisfied; and a similarly
+miraculous supply of food to the starving multitude is reported by the
+same people. In the genesis myth of the Tusayan, the culture hero was
+enabled to pass dry-shod through lakes and rivers by throwing a staff
+upon the waters, which were at once divided as by walls.... Mr. W. W.
+Warren, in his _History of the Ojibway Nation_, tells that he sometimes
+translated parts of Bible history to the old Ojibway men, and their
+expression invariably was, ‘The book must be true, for our ancestors
+have told us similar stories generation after generation since the
+earth was new.’” There is also a strong resemblance between many of the
+Amerind myths and stories, and those of the negro, as anyone may see
+who will compare them with Harris’s delightful _Uncle Remus_.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE BUILDINGS OF THE PALENQUE GROUP
+
+  House “C” on Maudsley’s plan
+
+  Construction: stone. Site: tropical forest, Chiapas, Yucatan.
+  Abandoned in prehistoric time. There was but one room with the
+  five openings as shown. Stucco ornamentation. See page 244 and
+  Frontispiece
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville
+]
+
+All races have malignant sprites that haunt rocks and watering places,
+and the Amerind was no exception. The Uinkarets of Arizona declared
+that a certain water-pocket where we camped was a favourite resort of
+the Woonupits, a little elf that is full of mischief, and Chuar one
+night insisted that he heard one whistling in the forest. He fired a
+shot out into the darkness to drive it away. He did this with great
+solemnity and deliberation, and there was no question as to his faith
+in the belief. The same little elf crops out in the Moki country in
+the form of the Kwokwuli, a malignant sprite lurking in out-of-the-way
+places. He is about knee-high and conceals himself behind a rock or
+bush, like the Breton Korrigans inhabiting the Dolmens, and when a Moki
+appears he calls out in a shrill falsetto voice, “_Kwo-kwul-i-ul-i_.”
+If the hearer gives no heed to the cry he may pass by in safety, but
+should he willingly or unwillingly express any notice he must approach
+the elf, who immediately climbs on his back and holds fast round
+his neck—Sindbad’s Old-Man-of-the-Sea over again. The elf has only
+rudimentary legs and no wings, and this is his method of journeying
+from place to place.
+
+The Amerinds of the straits of Fuca have distinct traditions of the
+Eskimo as a race of dwarfs, who live in the “always dark country,”
+on the ice, dive and catch whales with their hands, and produce the
+aurora by boiling out the blubber, the fires reflecting on the sky.
+The Iroquois had legends of great giants, as also had other tribes,
+which were due probably to the same cause as the dwarf Eskimo myths:
+ignorance of the outside world. These were stone giants, and they
+inhabited the west. Once upon a time they started to come and destroy
+the Senecas, and a war party of the latter proceeded to the encounter.
+Before the battle came off a mighty wind came out of the west and
+swept all the giants into a vast abyss from which they could not
+escape, and because of this friendly act the West Wind became one of
+the Seneca gods, and was revered ever after. And the Eskimo, while
+themselves furnishing the material for more southerly tribes to build
+myths on, have their own tales of a tribe called Ardnainiq, living in
+the extreme North-west. The men of this people are small as children,
+but entirely covered with hair. They are carried about in the hoods
+of their wives like babies, the wives being of normal size. They have
+also stories of a race of women. The Iroquois believed that there was
+a strange creature consisting simply of a head with large eyes and
+long hair, called “Great Head.” When he saw any live thing he growled,
+“I see thee, I see thee, thou shalt die.” They also had their race of
+dwarfs with wonderful powers, who carved the cliffs and caves and could
+destroy monster animals.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUME WORN IN THE KWAKIUTL FESTIVALS CALLED LAŌLAXA,
+  NORTH-WEST COAST]
+
+The coyote, the bear, the sun, and all the animals are endowed with
+speech and great cunning, the coyote especially so among some of the
+Western tribes, and are conceived as possessing human attributes, like
+the “Brer Rabbit” and other animals whose prowess is related by Uncle
+Remus. But the Eskimo, according to A. L. Kroeber, have comparatively
+few animal stories. Examples of these animal stories may be found in
+the reports of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology and other publications.
+Lack of space prevents me from introducing any here.
+
+The slightest misunderstood noise is sufficient to rouse the Amerind
+imagination, of which I had an illustration in Arizona. I arrived
+at an out-of-the-way mine one night with two Amerind guides. It was
+winter and a stone cabin was placed at my disposal, to which I sent
+the natives while my white companions and I visited the men in charge.
+The natives presently came in, saying there was something wrong at
+the cabin, and they would not stay in it or even near it. When we
+investigated we discovered that the whole trouble arose from the
+ticking of a small clock, which we forthwith stopped; but nevertheless
+they would not remain there alone.
+
+Flood stories are numerous with all tribes, and whether they arose
+in local inundations or in some vast and general flood cannot now be
+determined. If in the latter, it would be melting ice of the glacial
+period. A fabulous being in Eskimo mythology is Kalopaling, who lives
+in the sea. His body is like that of a human being and he wears
+clothing made out of eider ducks’ skins. His jacket has an enormous
+hood, into which he thrusts any boatman that may be drowned. He cannot
+speak, but merely cry, “Be! be! be! be!” An Eskimo flood tale relates
+how the ocean long ago rose till it covered the whole land, even to the
+tops of the mountains, till the ice drifted over them. When the flood
+subsided the ice stranded and has ever since formed a cap on their
+summits.
+
+The keepers of the mythological tales were the shamans, and they are
+the real powers, generally, in a tribe. Had Cortes understood this
+point he would have seized, not the war-chief, Montezuma, but one of
+the shamans, who would have been more valuable as a hostage. Many of
+the shamans are believed to be able to pass through fire unharmed,
+and to handle it with impunity; to be able to change themselves into
+coyotes, etc., and then return to their normal shape, all at their own
+pleasure.
+
+A legend of Montezuma’s coming has been attributed to the Pueblos of
+New Mexico, but this is an error, for they knew nothing about Montezuma
+till the whites came into the country. There are a great many legends
+concerning the occupation of this or that place, and one of these, the
+legend of the former occupation of the _Mesa Encantada_, or, “Enchanted
+Mesa,” New Mexico, has recently caused a lively discussion between two
+distinguished ethnologists, as to whether some Puebloans did or did not
+once live on top of the mesa as related. Both succeeded in reaching the
+top. One found no evidence of any continued occupation of the mesa top;
+the other found what he accepted as sufficient evidence of the truth of
+the legend that Pueblos had once lived there and had been cut off from
+the world below and destroyed by a fearful storm.
+
+Large portions of the Maya chronicles relate the predictions of the
+astrologers, seers, or prophets, and after the habit of the class
+they foretold all manner of evil, but strangely enough they seem to
+have foretold the arrival of the Spaniards, for they said that white
+and bearded strangers would come and control the land and alter the
+prevailing religion. What was it that instilled them with this faith
+or fear? Was it coincidence, or was it what is now termed telepathy?
+Whatever it was, the terrible fulfilment came upon their race like a
+cyclone; and when one more century has passed away the Amerind race
+will be more truly even than now, the North-Americans of Yesterday.[362]
+
+[Illustration: GOD-HOUSES OF THE HUICHOLS AT TEAKÁTA, NEAR SANTA
+  CATARINA, STATE OF JALISCO, MEXICO
+
+  Photographed by Lumholtz
+]
+
+
+
+
+   [Illustration: ESKIMO MASK OF WOOD, PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA]
+
+                               CHAPTER XV
+
+                      ORGANISATION AND GOVERNMENT
+
+
+Tribes often had a definite organisation and a regular government,
+and each held sway over a territory with fixed boundaries. When the
+limits were not placed at a river, lake, or mountain range they were
+marked by certain trees or stones, or other natural features along the
+trails. When at peace, those who entered another domain were considered
+visitors, and they were expected to be friendly with all friends of the
+occupants of the region. “Both the Kuchins and the Eskimos are very
+jealous,” says H. H. Bancroft, “regarding their boundaries.”[363]
+
+When I was once coming out of the Shevwits country, my Uinkarets guide
+exclaimed as we passed a certain bowlder near the trail, “Now we are
+out of the Shevwits land.” Beyond that point the Shevwits would not
+venture except in a friendly way, so long as they were friendly with
+the owners of the land. I rejoiced in this fact at the time because the
+Shevwits had not been entirely agreeable, and I was glad to pass the
+point where I was certain they would not bother us. We were now in the
+country of the Santa Clara tribe.
+
+The Iroquois had the habit of occupying both banks of a river or lake,
+hence they did not utilise these as boundaries, but ran straight lines,
+marked here and there by some well-known object. “On the boundary
+line between the Onondagas and Oneidas,” says Morgan,[364] “the most
+prominent point was the Deep Spring (Deosongwa) near Manlius, in the
+county of Onondaga. This spring not only marked the limital line
+between them, but it was a well-known stopping-place on the great
+central trail or highway of the Iroquois.... From Deep Spring the
+line ran due south into Pennsylvania, crossing the Susquehanna near
+its confluence with the Chenango. North of this spring the line was
+deflected to the west, leaving in the Oneida territory the whole
+circuit of the lake. Crossing the She-u-ka or Oneida outlet, a few
+miles below the lake, the line inclined again to the east, until it
+reached the meridian of the Deep Spring. From thence it ran due north,
+crossing Black River, at the site of Watertown, and the St. Lawrence to
+the eastward of the Thousand Islands.”
+
+This line separated territories belonging to two tribes of the
+celebrated league, and was not a boundary between hostile or different
+tribes. The Iroquois were exact about their internal boundary lines,
+because it served to keep each member of the confederacy distinct and
+independent, and enabled the idea of home rule to be properly carried
+out. They always knew just whose ground they were on, just as we know
+to-day which county or State we are in. It was another mark of the
+wisdom with which the confederacy was planned.
+
+When the whites came to these shores and took possession right and
+left of the soil, they immediately stirred up the hostility of the
+owners, who naturally desired to be considered in the matter. Penn did
+consider them, and he had no trouble; and I have no doubt much of the
+fighting and enmity which followed our coming might have been avoided
+if Europeans had more fully recognised the native rights and had paid a
+fair equivalent for what they wanted. But there was nothing to compel
+this attention to the moral side, and justice must have force to bind
+it; besides, owing to the large influx of whites, the Amerinds were
+inevitably driven back. The English in a measure finally recognised
+the Iroquois rights and then afterwards turned this to good account
+by claiming sovereignty over the territory on the ground that the
+Iroquois were British subjects. The Navajos recognise the San Juan
+River as their northern limit and the Southern Utes correspondingly
+accepted it as their southern limit. “The claims of the Susquehannocks
+extended down the Chesapeake Bay on the east shore, as far as the
+Choptank River and on the west shore as far as the Patuxent. In 1654
+they ceded to the government of Maryland their southern territory to
+these boundaries.”[365] Thus it is proved that Maryland recognised
+their ownership. These examples are enough to show that the territorial
+rights of each tribe were definitely understood, just as nations to-day
+have established limits. When the settlements of our people finally
+crowded tribes back upon each other’s domain, a great deal of confusion
+and dispute arose as to ownership, and when the government began to
+pay for lands it was often necessary to pay for the same tract several
+times, owing to the conflicting claims.
+
+Scattered over the territory claimed or held by a tribe were the
+houses and villages of the tribe or the sub-tribes. Powell states
+that “every tribe lived in a village, and every village constituted a
+distinct tribe.” But the village was often spread over a wide region.
+Speaking of this, Adair says: “A stranger might be in the middle of
+one of their populous, extensive towns without seeing half a dozen
+houses in the direct course of his path.”[366] But this was only in
+the interior of the country of a tribe. Along the frontier the towns
+would be more compactly arranged, in order that the people might easily
+be called to defend them. The villages were usually permanent, though
+they were frequently, some annually, abandoned temporarily at certain
+seasons for the pursuit of game or for some other good reason, all
+the people coming together again as the cold weather approached. The
+Navajos often have a winter home in the lower, sheltered lands of their
+territory, while in summer they proceed to the higher levels where
+the winter snows are deep and the summer grass is high. Each Amerind
+village always had at least one assembly place for which they had
+their special names, but the general term that is now often used by
+ethnologists is that of _kiva_,[367] borrowed from the Mokis, because
+the Moki kiva is a representative of the general assembly hall and
+council-chamber, or lodge. The kiva, besides being used for social
+purposes, as a lounging-place and a working-place for the men, is
+also used for religious functions. Those structures, therefore, which
+crowned the mounds of the United States and Mexico, and are usually
+designated as “temples,” were possibly more of the nature of kivas,
+a temple in our usage being a structure devoted solely to worship,
+whereas many Amerind buildings of this class were used for various
+purposes. Often there were several, depending on the size of the tribe.
+The tribe was organised on the basis of the gens or the clan, and each
+gens or clan might have its own kiva. They might also belong to some of
+the secret orders, so that we may enumerate three kinds: the tribal,
+or chief kiva, the kiva belonging to the gens or clan, and the kiva
+belonging to the phratry, or secret society. The gens and the clan were
+groups of blood relations, or, as put by Powell, “an organised body
+of consanguineal kindred.”[368] The members of a gens often lived in
+one house or in a group of houses; for example, among the Iroquois in
+the long-house,[369] with its row of camp-fires, while in some other
+tribes each family might have its own house or tent, but they would
+then generally pitch or build it contiguous to the other habitations
+of their gens. It was this principle, in vogue in almost all the
+tribes of America, which directed the character of most of the Amerind
+structures. Everybody in a tribe belonged to a gens or clan, otherwise
+he could not be in the tribe. The complete organisation of the tribe
+then was: a group of families forming a gens or clan, two gentes being
+represented in each family; the “father must belong to one gens and
+the mother and her children to another,” descent being commonly in
+the female line, and marriage within a gens being forbidden; a group
+of gentes formed the phratry, and a group of phratries formed the
+tribe, while a group of tribes formed the confederacy, probably the
+highest form of government the Amerinds reached. The phratry as an
+organisation was often absent, and the tribe was then composed of the
+gentes without any further grouping. Powell seems to use “phratry” in
+a different sense from Morgan and some other writers. Morgan described
+a phratry as a group of gentes, whereas Powell defines it as simply
+a brotherhood or society. Each gens governed itself so far as its
+internal affairs were concerned; that is, it had home rule, just as
+we have it to-day in our towns, counties, etc. It sent delegates
+to the council of the tribe to represent it, and it elected its own
+officers. There was sometimes no tribal or head chief. I never could
+learn of any among the Navajos, and the Iroquois had none. When, as was
+frequent, there was a sachem, or tribal chief, he was chosen or elected
+by the chiefs of the various clans or gentes forming the council,
+but in some tribes he inherited the office, or at least the right to
+hold it. I understood this to be the case among the Kaivavits Utes of
+southern Utah. A gens had the right to take into its ranks any alien
+it chose to. Such a person was then a member of that gens and partook
+of all the benefits or disadvantages, as the case might be. He was a
+son or brother or husband, or the corresponding relationships if a
+woman, and on all occasions was treated as if he had been born into the
+gens or clan instead of adopted into it. He was therefore eligible for
+all offices in the tribe, and white men in this way sometimes became
+chiefs. Beckwourth,[370] who, however, was really supposed by a Crow
+woman to be her long-lost son, became head chief of the Crows, and held
+the office with distinction for a number of years. He began by being
+fifth councillor. “In the Crow nation there are six councillors, and by
+them the nation is ruled. There are also two head chiefs, who sit with
+the council whenever it is in session. The office of first councillor
+is the highest in the nation next to the head chiefs, whose authority
+is equal. If in any of these divisions, when a matter is brought to
+the vote, the suffrages are equal, one of the old pipemen is summoned
+before the council and the subject under discussion is stated to him,
+with the substance of the arguments advanced on both sides; after
+hearing this he gives his casting vote, and the question is finally
+settled.”[371]
+
+[Illustration: PLENTY-HORSES, A CHEYENNE
+
+  Photographed by J. K. Hillers, U. S. Geological Survey
+]
+
+[Illustration: NORTH-WEST COAST BASKETRY HATS
+
+  Made of grass and spruce roots
+
+  A. Parasol-shaped hat with totemic design on top and painted in solid
+     colour on remainder of outside surface. Tlinkit
+
+  B. Has wooden appendages representing the beak of the raven. Tlinkit
+
+  C. Cedar bark hat. G shows method of plaiting it
+
+  E. Top view of D, showing totemic design of hooyeh, the raven. Haida
+
+  H. Is method of weaving the top, F of the bottom part of D
+
+  See also figures on pp. 146, 160
+]
+
+George Bancroft says, “There have been chiefs who could not tell when,
+where, or how they obtained power.... Opinion could crowd a civil
+chief into retirement, and could dictate his successor.” Opinion was a
+most potent factor in all tribes, and this would be largely directed
+by those having popularity and power. Officers, in fact all persons,
+become extremely well known in the small community of an Amerind
+tribe. Every peculiarity of temperament was understood, and the
+individual was respected or despised according to his predominating
+characteristics. Those who were bold and fierce and full of strategy
+were made war-chiefs, while those who possessed judgment and decision
+were made civil chiefs or governors. In many tribes the civil and the
+military branches of government are separate and distinct. Certain
+chieftains were the peace chiefs. “They could neither go to war
+themselves, nor send nor receive the war belt—the ominous string of
+dark wampum, which indicated that the tempest of strife was to be let
+loose. Their proper badge was the wampum belt, with a diamond-shaped
+figure in the centre, worked in white beads, which was the symbol
+of the peaceful council fire, and was called by that name. War was
+declared by the people at the instigation of the ‘war-captains,’
+valorous braves, of any birth or family, who had distinguished
+themselves by personal prowess, and especially by good success in
+forays against the enemy. Nor did the authority of the chiefs extend
+to any infringement on the traditional rights of the gens, as, for
+instance, that of blood revenge. The ignorance of this limitation of
+the central power led to various misunderstandings at the time, on the
+part of the colonial authorities, and since then, by later historians.
+Thus in 1728 the Delaware Indians on Brandywine were summoned by the
+Governor to answer about a murder. Their chief, Civility, answered that
+it was committed by the Minisinks, ‘over whom they had no authority.’
+This did not mean but that in some matters authority could be exerted,
+but not in a question relating to a feud of blood.”[372] War-chiefs as
+well as civil chiefs were elected by the council, and could be deposed
+also by the council whenever it was desirable.
+
+[Illustration: NORTH-WEST COAST MORTUARY AND COMMEMORATIVE COLUMNS
+
+  A. Kaigani. Contains a box holding ashes of the dead
+
+  B. Kaigani. Compartment boarded up contains the remains in a box
+
+  C. Kaigani. Supported box contains the dead
+
+  D. Different form of C
+
+  E. Haida. Commemorative column put in front of the house of deceased,
+     the body being placed at a distance
+
+  F. Haida. Commemorative column same as last but with two posts
+]
+
+Brinton says, “The gentile system is by no means universal, ... where
+it exists, it is often traced in the male line; both property and
+dignities may be inherited directly from the father.... In fact, no one
+element of the system was uniformly respected, and it is an error of
+theorists to make it appear so. It varied widely in the same stock and
+in all its expressions.”[373] This intricate subject cannot be fully
+understood till the organisation of many tribes has been studied in
+detail. “In some tribes, as the Dakota, the gentes had fallen out;
+in others as among the Ojibways, the Omahas and the Mayas of Yucatan
+descent had been changed from the female to the male line.”[374] But
+Powell and Morgan both hold that the majority of the Amerind tribes
+were organised on the basis of descent in the female line. “The gens
+came into being,” says Morgan, “upon three principal conceptions,
+namely: the bond of kin, a pure lineage through descent in the female
+line, and non-intermarriage in the gens.”[375]
+
+Powell in his article on the “North American Indians” in Johnson’s
+_Cyclopedia_ seems to use the term “clan” to describe a body of kindred
+with descent in the female line, and “gens” where the descent is in the
+male line. “In most of the tribes the fundamental unit of organisation
+was the clan,” he says, and then again, “a few of the tribes were
+organised on the gentile plan and in the gens kinship is reckoned in
+the male line.” Such a distinction would be convenient, but Morgan did
+not recognise it at the time of his writing, as is evident from the
+quotation above from his _Ancient Society_, and general usage seems
+not to have defined gens to mean descent in either line specifically.
+Nevertheless, there is probably no reason why the distinction should
+not be made with regard to the Amerinds, at least, if it should be
+agreed upon. Powell also says: “As a clan is a group of people who
+reckon kinship through females to some ancestral female, real or
+conventional, so a gens is a group of people who reckon kinship through
+males to some ancestral male, real or conventional. It seems that
+the primordial constitution of the tribe is by clanship and that the
+clanship tribe is developed into the gentile tribe. Most of the tribes
+of North America have clanship organisation, yet there is a goodly
+number with gentile organisation, while perhaps it may be said that
+a majority of the clanship tribes have some elements of the gentile
+organisation; so that it may be justly affirmed that a great many of
+the tribes on this continent are in the stage of transition, and there
+is scarcely a gentile tribe which has not some feature of clanship
+organisation as a survival.”[376] The privileges and obligations of the
+gens (or clan) were, according to Morgan as follows:
+
+“I. The right of electing its sachem or chief.
+
+“II. The right of deposing its sachem or chief.
+
+“III. The obligation not to marry in the gens.
+
+“IV. Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members.
+
+“V. Reciprocal obligations of help, defence, and redress of injuries.
+
+“VI. The right of bestowing names upon its members.
+
+“VII. The right of adopting strangers into the gens.
+
+“VIII. Common religious rites.
+
+“IX. A common burial-place.
+
+“X. A council of the gens.”[377]
+
+Among the Wyandots there is a council in each gens composed of four
+women. “These four women councillors select a chief of the gens from
+its male members—that is, from their brothers and sons. This gentile
+chief is the head of the gentile council. The council of the tribe is
+composed of the aggregated gentile councils. The tribal council then is
+composed of one-fifth men and four-fifths women.”[378] This is not the
+case with other tribes, however. Among the Tlinkits it is the richest
+who “obtain the highest places,” the selection of the chiefs depending
+entirely on the amount of property they have; that is, on a property
+basis. These Amerinds have a better appreciation of property than any
+others I have ever seen. They seldom haggle, but in selling they state
+a price and adhere to it. A smaller amount offered is usually treated
+with scorn.
+
+The sign of clan or gens membership was the totem, all members of the
+same gens having the same totem, and his or her name usually indicating
+this totem. For example, if we know an Amerind woman’s name to be
+Spotted Fawn, we place her at once in the deer clan. The deer is the
+animal that she looks up to as being most intimately connected with
+her past and her future, and from which her ancestors were descended.
+This is the clan or gens totem. As mentioned in a previous chapter,
+there are also two other kinds of totems, those pertaining to sex and
+those pertaining to the individual alone. Totems are always chosen from
+a class of organic objects, while a fetich may be anything at all.
+Thus the totems are deer, frogs, bears, snakes, corn, etc., while a
+fetich may be a pebble, a piece of glass wrapped in a bit of buckskin
+together with a feather, or some similar object. The fetich was a
+talisman, the totem a beneficent attending spirit and a sign of family
+and origin.
+
+The Iroquois confederacy was planned by Hiawatha through Däganowédä
+as an interpreter of his ideas and wishes. Some, Horatio Hale for
+one, think that Hiawatha was a real person, and others that it
+was Däganowédä who did the work under the guise of representing
+Hiawatha.[379] However this may be, the organisation of the several
+tribes into the confederacy was a work of genius, and this was one
+of the highest governments that was discovered on this continent. We
+cannot say, however, that it was _the_ highest that ever existed, next
+to that of the Aztecs or the other Central Amerinds, for we really
+do not know what there may have been before, not only in Mexico and
+Central America, but in the Mississippi valley or even in the State
+of New York. As noted in a previous chapter, if the Iroquois had
+disappeared before our arrival, we could have gained no conception
+of their remarkable government from any remains that we would have
+found. The Mississippi valley and the South-west, as well as Mexico and
+Central America, exhibit traces of tribes who may easily have arrived
+at a governmental development equal to, if, indeed, not superior to,
+that of the Aztecs or the Iroquois. These tribes were undoubtedly
+Amerind, but there is nothing to prove that earlier Amerind tribes were
+inferior in their political development to later ones.
+
+The misconceptions of the Spaniards due to ignorance of Amerind
+organisation gave false colouring to the Aztec confederacy; and the
+flowing diction of Prescott, gemmed with terms and titles applicable
+to Old-World society, but having no place in that of the New, added to
+the confusion. Pages relating to “nobles,” “princes,” “royal allies,”
+“sovereigns,” “lords,” etc., do not help in fathoming the intricacies
+of Amerind government. Had the Spaniards met with the Iroquois we
+should have had something similar in their case; and the fact that they
+had no head chief would not have been discovered by the conquistadores,
+so eager for other prey. One of the war-chiefs would again have been
+taken for a royal personage, and the sachems and councillors would
+have been nobles and princes, while the outlying tribes of the Five
+Nations would have filled the bill for royal allies. It is likely
+that the Aztec government was in advance of that of the Iroquois,
+but that there was any royalty about it must be doubted till better
+evidence is available. On the other hand, Morgan’s attempt to prove
+that the Aztec organisation was not beyond that of the Pueblos or the
+Iroquois is to be taken with caution. Brinton says: “The government
+of these states did not differ in principle from that of the northern
+tribes, though its development had reached a later stage. Descent was
+generally reckoned in the male line, and the male children of the
+deceased were regarded as the natural heirs both to his property and
+his dignities. Where the latter, however, belonged rather to the gens
+than the individual, a form of election was held, the children of the
+deceased being given the preference. In this sense, which was the usual
+limitation in America, many positions were hereditary, including that
+of the chieftaincy of the tribe or confederation. The Montezuma who
+was the ruler who received Cortez, was the grandson of Axayacatl, who
+in turn was the son of the first Montezuma, each of whom exercised the
+chief power.”[380] The daughter of the first Montezuma seems to have
+occupied the position of head chief for a time, or, as Prescott would
+put it, she was queen. It is possible that while Montezuma was a war
+chief he may have combined certain civil powers with his war office,
+and that the confederacy was actually on the road to an absolute
+monarchy[381] or something of the kind, which, if human progress
+takes always the same general directions, was the next stage to be
+expected on this soil. Bandelier, Morgan, and others see in the various
+Mexican tribes and confederacies little that is different from the
+organisation of the Amerinds to the northward, and probably when all is
+well understood we may find that they are not far from correct; that,
+while there are differences, they are yet not sufficient to entitle
+the Mexicans to the separation from other Amerinds that has been
+claimed for them by romantic writers. Speaking of Tlaxcala, the famous
+“province” where Cortes found a resting-place on his inward journey,
+Bandelier says: “Owing to a misconception of aboriginal institutions,
+it has been palmed off as a kind of Mexican Switzerland, as a free
+republic in the midst of despotically ruled communities. Such was not
+the case. There was not the slightest fundamental difference between
+the social organisation and mode of government of the Tlaxcaltecos
+and that of the Mexican tribe; but the exceptional geographical
+position of the latter and the natural barrenness of their land led
+them to seek means of subsistence from abroad. The confederacy of
+tribes grew out of tribal organisation, and the greater ability of the
+inhabitants of the Central Valley gave to their confederacy a power
+of aggression superior to that of any other aboriginal cluster in the
+same country.... The Tlaxcaltecos were organised in four localised
+_phratries_, like the Mexicans. Two elective chiefs—that is, elective
+in regard to the individual, but with heredity of office in a certain
+_gens_—formed the nominal head of the tribe. The true directive power,
+however, lay in the council of the tribe. The tribe of Mexico had a
+similar organisation. What created an apparent dissimilarity was the
+confederacy of the valley tribes, with its chief-captain always taken
+from the Mexicans. As, in the single tribe, the war-chief office was
+hereditary in the _gens_, so, in the confederacy, the same office
+becomes hereditary in the _tribe_.”[382] How different is the wording
+of Prescott when speaking of the Aztec organisation! “The government
+was an elective monarchy. Four of the principal nobles, who had been
+chosen by their own body in the preceding reign, filled the office of
+electors, to whom were added, with merely honourary rank, however, the
+two royal allies of Tezcuco and Tlacopan. The sovereign was selected
+from the brothers of the deceased prince, or, in default of them,
+from his nephews. Thus the election was always restricted to the same
+family. The candidate preferred must have distinguished himself in
+war, though, as in the case of the last Montezuma.”[383] In other
+words, the election was restricted to a certain gens. Morgan says:
+“Nearly all American Indian tribes had two grades of chiefs, who may
+be distinguished as sachems and common chiefs. Of these two primary
+grades all other grades were varieties. They were elected in each
+gens from among its members. A son could not be chosen to succeed his
+father when descent was in the female line, because he belonged to a
+different gens, and no gens would have a chief or sachem from any gens
+but its own.” (Morgan here evidently forgot the right of adoption. It
+would be perfectly regular, should a gens wish to do so, to adopt a
+son into the gens in order that he might succeed his father.) “The
+office of sachem was hereditary in the gens, in the sense that it was
+filled as often as a vacancy occurred; while the office of chief was
+non-hereditary, because it was bestowed in reward of personal merit,
+and died with the individual. Moreover, the duties of a sachem were
+confined to the affairs of peace. He could not go out to war as a
+sachem. On the other hand, the chiefs who were raised to office for
+personal bravery, for wisdom of affairs, or for eloquence in council,
+were usually the superior class in ability, though not in authority
+over the gens. The relation of the sachem was primarily to the gens, of
+which he was the official head, while that of the chief was primarily
+to the tribe, of the council of which he, as well as the sachem, were
+members.”[384]
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT PUEBLOAN MOCCASINS OF FIBRE, ARIZONA
+
+  Except lower left hand one worn by the Ainos of Yezo, Japan.
+  Introduced for comparison. The Ainos were probably the earliest
+  inhabitants of Japan. In language and character they are different
+  from Japanese
+]
+
+As the Iroquois league was such an important affair, and as it was so
+thoroughly studied by Morgan, I will quote him further by giving his
+statement of the main points in the organisation.
+
+“I. The Confederacy was a union of Five Tribes (afterwards Six),
+composed of common gentes under one government on the basis of
+equality, each Tribe remaining independent in all matters pertaining to
+local self-government.
+
+“II. It created a General Council of Sachems, who were limited in
+number, equal in rank and authority, and invested with supreme powers
+over all matters pertaining to the Confederacy.
+
+“III. Fifty Sachemships were created and named in perpetuity in
+certain gentes of the several Tribes; with power in these gentes to
+fill vacancies as often as they occurred, by election from among their
+respective members, and with the further power to depose from office
+for cause; but the right to invest these Sachems with office was
+reserved to the General Council.
+
+“IV. The Sachems of the Confederacy were also Sachems in their
+respective Tribes, and with the Chiefs of these Tribes formed the
+Council of each, which was supreme over all matters pertaining to the
+Tribe exclusively.
+
+“V. Unanimity in the Council of the Confederacy was made essential to
+every public act.
+
+“VI. In the General Council the Sachems voted by Tribes, which gave to
+each Tribe a negative upon the others.
+
+“VII. The Council of each Tribe had power to convene the General
+Council; but the latter had no power to convene itself.
+
+“VIII. The General Council was open to the orators of the people for
+the discussion of public questions; but the Council alone decided.
+
+“IX. The Confederacy had no Chief Executive Magistrate or official head.
+
+“X. Experiencing the necessity for a General Military Commander, they
+created the office in a dual form, that one might neutralise the other.
+The two principal War-chiefs created were made equal in powers.”[385]
+
+[Illustration: CHIMMESYAN HEAD-DRESS REPRESENTING THE WHITE OWL
+
+  It is made of maple; eyes, tongue, eye-ornament on wings, and
+  ornament at base of the wing-feathers inlaid in Haliotis shell.
+  Wings and eyebrows of owl, and eyebrows, eyes, and noses of the
+  surrounding men painted black; margin of beak and body of the owl
+  except talons and knees, mouths, arms, and legs of the surrounding
+  men and the broad band surrounding the owl’s body, painted red. 6¼
+  in. wide, 7½ in. high. In the American Museum
+]
+
+Such was the remarkable construction of the government of these Amerind
+people of New York. In its conception, in its details, and in its
+execution it was one of the most extraordinary primitive governments
+ever recorded. From a comparatively weak people it placed the Iroquois,
+though they were far inferior in numbers to surrounding tribes, in a
+commanding position, and enabled them to extend their sway over a vast
+territory. They made no attempt to hold the region that was subject to
+their devastation, but probably, had not the European appeared on the
+scene, they would have gradually expanded until their villages covered
+many times the area which they specifically claimed when our people
+first came. An increase of population which would have overtaxed the
+game-supply would have pushed the development of their agriculture and
+forced the confederacy to move along higher and broader lines. One
+great drawback to Amerindian progress, internecine wars, was entirely
+obliterated by the masterly organisation of the Iroquois league,
+while at the same time they gained by their union a strength for
+offence and defence that, together with their fertile and well-watered
+domain, rendered their organisation impregnable. This and the Mexican
+confederacy prove that the Amerind was capable of great things in
+governmental organisation. It only remained for him to discover the
+secrets of smelting and forging, and he was apparently on the brink of
+these discoveries, to step into a foremost place of development and
+progress. In some respects it is a pity the Europeans did not remain in
+ignorance of this continent for another five hundred years.
+
+
+
+
+               [Illustration: WOODEN “SEAL” DISH, HAIDA]
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+                  ORIGIN, MIGRATIONS, AND HISTORY[386]
+
+
+The manner in which America was originally peopled has been the cause
+of considerable speculation. For a long time it was generally believed,
+and there are some who still hold that belief, that this peopling
+occurred within comparatively recent times by way of Bering Strait, and
+that before that the continent was not inhabited. But peoples do not
+willingly migrate into frozen regions, and the Bering Strait and Alaska
+down to Dixon Entrance were not many centuries ago buried under a
+mantle of ice. I doubt if there were even Eskimo in Alaska five hundred
+years back. It is my belief that all the tribes of the North-west
+migrated there from the South and South-east, and not within recent
+geologic time from the Asiatic direction.
+
+That the continent was entirely peopled by way of Bering Strait
+within the last thousand years, by migrations through a zone of ice,
+is improbable. To assume that a population came over and passed down
+to Mexico and Yucatan and even South America, carrying with them
+their arts, but not exercising them on this interminable journey, is
+ridiculous. No pottery has yet been found between the Yukon and the
+Humboldt, or even farther south, probably because the Eskimo learned
+what little they knew about it while in the St. Lawrence valley or the
+Atlantic region, and the tribes of the North-west coast never came
+into sufficiently close contact with potters to learn the art.[387]
+Furthermore, no authentic trace of any Old-World language thus far has
+been found on this continent, and the only Asiatic language now known
+to be allied to an American is that of a branch of the Eskimo family
+which crossed from this side within the last three hundred years. The
+Amerind languages change slowly. An immense period must have elapsed
+since their separation from the rest of the world. It is said that two
+Japanese vessels a year are wrecked on our California coast, and some
+have peopled the continent from this source; a more absurd theory than
+the other. The number of Japanese vessels that were afloat a thousand
+years ago was as nothing compared with those afloat to-day, and if
+only two per annum are wrecked on these shores to-day, the wrecks a
+thousand years ago did not add materially to the population.[388] It is
+possible, however, that a few persons may have reached either seaboard
+that way, and like Cabeza de Vaca, they may have wandered for years
+among the various tribes as teachers and medicine-men, giving rise to
+legends of “white and bearded strangers.” But in the early days vessels
+were frail and did not venture far from the coast, so that the chances
+of being driven to American shores without foundering were very slight.
+The Northmen made the voyage, however, and others may have done it. Yet
+the supposed visits of the Irish and Danes are hardly worthy of serious
+consideration, although it would be rash to deny the possibility of
+their having come. As for the Lost-Tribes-of-Israel theory, on which
+Kingsborough was wrecked, no archæologist of to-day would be willing
+to give it a second thought. A multitude of stock languages, differing
+from each other, yet forming a world-group by themselves, are found
+here. The people who speak them, from Panama to the Arctic, are in
+their habits, customs, and physical characteristics wonderfully
+homogeneous,[389] yet they appear to exhibit several types that have
+been moulded into a family resemblance by some strange circumstance.
+Toward Panama, some of them attained a considerable degree of progress,
+but these were not of one special stock but of diverse stocks. Farther
+north there was another group attaining to a less but a similar kind
+of progress, and they also were, and are, of diverse stocks. In the
+Mississippi valley are evidences of another similar culture group,
+probably also of diverse stocks because some of them were allied to,
+or were part of, the stocks found there when the whites came. The same
+general conditions prevailed farther east, and a centre of development
+was rapidly forming in New York when it was destroyed by our coming.
+One of the most widespread stocks, the Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan, is
+composite, containing within it tribes of the highest culture and
+tribes of the least culture, tribes that were peaceful and tribes that
+were warlike. It is evident then that _culture was no evidence of
+relationship_ or the reverse among the Amerind people. By some powerful
+influence and long association they had, whatever their origin, been
+moulded into one race. “Where had they come from?” “How did they come
+to be so much alike?” “Why did their highest development take place
+down by the Isthmus instead of by the Great Lakes or in the fertile
+valley of the Mississippi?” These are pertinent questions. Attempts
+have been made to answer them by importing different people from
+different parts of the world and their recent culture with them. But
+the more the Amerinds are studied, the more homogeneous do we find them
+and the more isolated from Old-World influences. Culture, as mentioned,
+was not confined to one stock; it permeated through unrelated stocks.
+The languages too are totally different from all others. Thus the more
+the matter is investigated, the more closely are we confined to the
+Western Hemisphere for the origin of the Amerind people, _as we know
+them_. Toward Panama, that is below the City of Mexico, a kind of
+civilisation was attained, and there we find was the densest population
+on the continent. Culture never develops in a game country with a
+sparse population, and there is, therefore, an intimate connection
+between a crowded population and “culture” or “civilisation.” It
+may be broadly asserted, I think, that _civilisation is crowding_;
+it is man’s effort at self-preservation. Where the game-supply is
+exhausted or insufficient and subsistence must be wholly or largely
+wrested from the soil, there will be found the culture centres, the
+hothouses of art and science, from which a filtration occurs into all
+the contiguous regions and peoples. On this continent the chief centre
+of culture was the narrowest part; the population was packed there
+as in the narrow end of a funnel, leaving the whole broad top thinly
+peopled. The question immediately arises: “Why was this so?” It is
+evident at a glance that there was some preponderating, irresistible
+influence which compelled the inhabitants to draw into these narrow,
+restricted regions, there to act and react one tribe on another,
+and this influence was constantly at work moulding them all. If the
+continent had been peopled within any comparatively recent time, it is
+not reasonable to suppose that the tribes would willingly have huddled
+together far down in the most limited area. It is also from this area
+apparently that all the arts have spread. The crowding and the culture
+development were coincident. What was the cause of it? If we can arrive
+at a satisfactory understanding of the cause, it seems to me that we
+have the solution of the whole matter. The explanation appears to be
+that the continent was peopled before the beginning of the glacial
+epoch, and the crowding into the narrow regions, and consequently
+the development of culture there, were due to the encroachment from
+the north of the great cold. Wright says: “Just before the beginning
+of the ice age, a temperate climate corresponding to latitude 35 on
+the Atlantic coast extended far up toward the north pole, permitting
+Greenland and Spitzbergen to be covered with trees and plants similar
+in most respects to those found at the present time in Virginia and
+North Carolina. Here indeed in close proximity to the north pole were
+then residing, in harmony and contentment, the ancestors of nearly
+all the plants and animals which are now found in the north temperate
+zone.” It is not unreasonable to suppose, then, that man was also
+here, though as yet the scientific evidence is perhaps not sufficient
+to prove it. If he circled the globe in the Northern regions at that
+time, and was also occupying Central portions, the cold drove all
+south and together with changes of land levels cut off the American
+division from the other world.[390] Migration legends are useless in
+determining the origin of the Amerinds, for they can only relate to
+the _comparatively recent changes_ of location before which, for a
+long period, the people drifted up and down and across the continent
+under the influences I have suggested. However man first originated,
+or where, he was doubtless distributed, like the flora and fauna, at
+some exceedingly remote period, over the whole world, by causes not now
+understood, but one of which was probably a greater continuity of land
+surfaces than exists to-day.[391] Some of the earlier-world people were
+possibly more advanced than we have been willing to concede, and there
+was, from a very early day, a differentiation of tribes. Some were
+making respectable weapons and tools of stone while others were using
+clubs. Too much stress has been placed upon the European classification
+of stone implements. It may exhibit conditions that existed in Europe,
+but it has nothing to do with a standard of measurement for the world.
+When Moses was leading his enlightened people, the European was a
+painted savage. The period of time in which man used stone implements
+is enormous; that in which he has used metal tools, comparatively
+insignificant. It stands to reason, therefore, that during this long
+use of stone, tribes attained to varying degrees of culture, and
+varying degrees of perfection in stone tools. There never could have
+been a single period of time when all tribes the world round made a
+certain quality of implements, then another period when they all made
+other quality of implements. Classification of tribes and races in a
+time-scale, or even in a culture scale, according to the kind of stone
+implements they used, is impossible. The Pai Ute and the Iroquois
+made equally good tools in the seventeenth century, while in other
+lands still inferior tribes were making implements about as good, and
+others were struggling on with poorer ones. At the time of the Aztec
+confederacy, their stone tools were not greatly superior to those of
+the Pai Ute. Therefore, it would seem that any resemblance between
+so-called American “paleolithic” implements and modern stone implements
+cannot be used as an argument to disprove the age of the former, nor
+that a polished stone implement found in a supposed ancient gravel
+is necessarily an indication of intrusion or that the gravel is not
+ancient. The implements thus far found in the California auriferous
+gravels have been similar to those found on the surface to-day, and
+this has been held by some to be a suspicious circumstance. It is not.
+Some tribes in California in those remote times were probably making
+stone implements quite as good as anything made to-day. Stone-working
+is not capable of high development. The range is limited. Some tribes
+compassed it early. Because also we do not find stone implements
+abundant in the North-American glacial drift proves nothing concerning
+man’s condition, presence or absence on the continent at that time. The
+population _was almost entirely below the glacial limit_, only a few
+inferior tribes skirting its southern fringe. We should, then, expect
+to find few northerly pre-glacial evidences,[392] as the main culture
+development took place south of the ice line, and tribes above this in
+pre-glacial times would be the most primitive.
+
+[Illustration: TLINKIT SUMMER CAMP
+
+  From photograph by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899
+]
+
+[Illustration: ESKIMO SUMMER CAMP, PORT CLARENCE
+
+  From photograph by the Harriman Expedition, 1899
+]
+
+[Illustration: WOODEN SNOW GOGGLES OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO]
+
+The material evidences concerning the antiquity of man in America
+are many, but few are entirely satisfactory. The Calaveras skull and
+other remains in the auriferous California gravels seem to place him
+here as early as the Tertiary, and this, says Holmes,[393] would make
+man older on this continent than anywhere else in the world according
+to present evidence. A rudely chipped arrow-head has also been found
+in another region under some elephant bones. A primitive hearth was
+discovered in well digging in an old beach of Lake Ontario which dates
+back to the glacial time. Many specimens of stone implements have been
+found throughout the land in deposits which appear to be of great age.
+There is always the question of modern introduction through burials,
+overturned trees, etc., but the number and varying positions seem to
+indicate that some of these tools have been found in their original
+places. I excavated a mound in southern Utah from the depths of which I
+brought out an exceedingly primitive grinding-stone, yet not a single
+stone implement of any other kind was found. The grinding-stone was
+twenty feet below the top of the mound and ten below the present
+general level of the surface. The mound was formed of many layers of
+earth interspersed with thin layers of charcoal and ashes. All around
+the site there were house ruins on the surface, but in the mound not
+a trace of a building stone was seen. I was told that in digging a
+well not far from this locality a small earthen jug of antique type
+was found about thirty feet below the present level. I did not see it
+nor even the man who found it, but the great abundance of such finds
+must indicate antiquity, for they could not all be fraudulent, nor all
+recent intrusions.
+
+The cause of the glacial period has been much discussed. It seems to
+have been largely due to changes in land levels,[394] and to other
+causes not now understood. The people inhabiting the world before it
+may have been originally much alike in kind and colour with local
+variations, and the isolation produced by glacial conditions modified
+this colour and increased the variations, those finally left in hot
+lands becoming darker, medium temperatures producing brown, still
+cooler the reds and yellows, and the forests of Europe evolving a shade
+or shadow people, shrinking from the strong sun; the so-called white
+race. The glacial epoch is often spoken of as if the whole world were
+frozen solid, whereas in North America, from the Ohio and the Columbia
+to the Isthmus, the climate was doubtless about relatively the same
+as it is now from Davis Strait to the Potomac and from Yakutat Bay to
+northern California. The ice extended down about to the Ohio River
+in the East and on lowlands not below the Columbia in the West. The
+Western mountain tops must have been completely glaciated and all
+elevated regions were cold, the conditions prevailing resembling those
+now found in Southern Alaska. The Sierra Nevadas, receiving the warm,
+moist airs from the Pacific, must have been far more heavily glaciated
+than the Rockies, which received less moisture in consequence. The ice
+period is estimated to have endured from ten to twenty thousand years,
+with an interval of recession in it and subsequent advance. The people
+were driven southward, and those most favourably situated developed the
+most. The people most favourably situated were all _who were already
+in_, or could fight their way to, the temperate lowlands of southern
+Mexico and Central America, which were rendered somewhat more extensive
+by the recession of the sea, caused by the withdrawal of the immense
+quantities of water that were heaped up in ice thousands of feet in
+thickness.[395] This has been estimated to have lowered the waters of
+the ocean by from 600 to 1000 feet.[396] The lands thus laid bare were
+climatically inviting and probably were soon covered with vegetation.
+In South America the people were crowded northward, or held there by
+the cold coming from the south. It would be in the northern portions,
+particularly the lowlands, that we ought to find evidence of the
+highest development, especially on the side receiving warm currents,
+and there is where we do find it. We apparently have then a northern
+and a southern limit to the ancient inhabitants of this hemisphere,
+within which climatic conditions during the period of great cold, and
+for some time thereafter, were most favourable to human development.
+This limit in the Northern continent is latitude 23 and in the Southern
+also 23. Within these lines the great precolumbian development took
+place, and the heart of this development on the Northern continent
+seems to have rested between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the present
+upper frontier of Honduras, chiefly on the lowlands, and probably also
+on lands now beneath the ocean.
+
+[Illustration: PRINCIPAL KNOWN RUINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA
+
+  Prepared by M. H. Saville
+]
+
+[Illustration: NECKLACE OF DRIED HUMAN FINGERS OBTAINED ON BATTLEFIELD
+  OF WOUNDED-KNEE BY CAPTAIN BOURKE]
+
+[Illustration: PRINCIPAL KNOWN RUINS OF MEXICO
+
+  Prepared by M. H. Saville
+]
+
+In North America, south of latitude 23, then, most of the tribes of
+the continent were crowded by the great cold, and here they developed
+their chief characteristics, so that by the time the ice began its
+last recession they had become a homogeneous people, with the greatest
+advancement and the greatest similarities in the region where the
+population had been densest, with a diminishing scale outward, those
+tribes farthest from the culture centre varying most from the highest
+culture attained. The tribe on the extreme edge was, and is now,
+represented by the Eskimo.[397] The development and the distribution
+of the arts were in the same order, and here apparently is the
+explanation of the superior excellence of Central-American arts, and
+the seeming derivation of all the arts on the continent from this
+centre. Finally the recession of the ice caused renewed trouble. The
+melting of it and the return thereby of the locked-up waters to the
+ocean caused a submergence of lowlands that had been made habitable by
+their withdrawal. There were floods and floods. Tribes were overwhelmed
+or were driven to higher ground. There was a renewed shifting of
+populations over the whole continent. Those which had been held back
+toward the highlands and toward the ice, accustomed to the cool airs
+and to a particular food, readily followed the retrogression of the
+ice, impelled always by pressure of the tribes farther south. They
+were inured to cold. The most southerly tribes became inured somewhat
+to heat, and clung to their lands, impelled also to do this by the
+pressure of wilder tribes recoiling from contact with still other
+tribes. But heat being debilitating, and especially so to the Amerind
+constitution, the Yucatec peoples, who were those who had attained the
+highest development, gradually degenerated under its influence, and
+before the voyage of Columbus whole cities were depopulated. Some held
+their own for a longer period, but were already on the way to decline
+when the Spaniards appeared. In some cases their towns were occupied
+by an inferior tribe of perhaps the same stock, or an inferior tribe
+dwelt around them and, not knowing the origin of the architectural
+works, attempted to account for them by fairy tales like the legend
+of the _Dwarf’s House_, which Stephens learned. The people nearest
+the ice front are still represented by the Eskimo, and their next
+neighbours, as of yore, are the Athapascans, and Algonquins, and so
+on down in zones more or less distinct, but considerably deranged
+by subsequent migrations, to the builders of the Yucatec ruins. The
+Apaches and Navajos are usually said to have _come down_ from their kin
+in the North, but it is equally possible that they _remained behind_
+in the high mountains while their kin pushed on.[398] The table-lands
+of Mexico, being high and temperate, formed a final refuge for many
+tribes, some of whom had profited by contact with the centre of
+development, and these roamed the plateau, one branch finally settling
+around the lake of Mexico, and there planting again the seeds of the
+lowland culture. Many tribes were early crowded into the California
+coast region, because the lowland climate there remained comparatively
+mild, and the supply of fish, seals, etc. was so great that they were
+not compelled to till the soil for subsistence (if indeed they were
+possessed of sufficient knowledge, or if the land were in condition
+to produce), as was the case farther south, where the population
+was denser and natural supplies insufficient. But the region was so
+inhospitable that only fragments of these tribes survived. They did not
+multiply.
+
+[Illustration: PROBABLE ASPECT OF ALASKA SUMMER LANDSCAPE SOME 600
+  YEARS AGO
+
+  Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899. Photographed by the author
+]
+
+The reason the Eastern continents produced many and diverse peoples is
+that the glacial period temperate zone, or warm zone, extended through
+many degrees of _longitude_, offering extensive areas of settlement to
+the races in that hemisphere, where they remained more or less isolated
+and independent, to advance in their own way and along their own lines;
+that is, on the Eastern continents there was ample _latitudinal_ land
+space, while on the Western there was a very limited latitudinal land
+space that retained a salubrious climate. This was the cause of North
+American race homogeneity.
+
+The period of time that has elapsed since the so-called disappearance
+of the ice was formerly believed to be very great, but latterly views
+on this point have been much modified. Gilbert has declared, after
+a study of the Niagara gorge, that the time since the ice left that
+region is not more than seven thousand years, perhaps less. More recent
+investigations have tended to confirm his suggestion of fewer years.
+Immediately after the recession of glacial ice, as may be seen in
+Alaska to-day, erosion is extremely rapid. I have not space to discuss
+this point at length, but it is apparent that the rate of erosion is
+variable, and I doubt if more than five thousand years have passed
+since the ice left the vicinity of the Niagara gorge. As it still
+lingers in the North, far down on the Pacific side, it _is probably
+not more than a thousand years since its influence was powerful
+in affecting the climate of all the region southward_. The North is
+undoubtedly growing warmer. Some five hundred years ago Alaska was
+still covered with glacial ice. Five hundred years from now there
+will scarcely be a glacier to be found there, except in the highest
+mountains. “The next generation will find few of them with their fronts
+still in the sea,” says Henry Gannett.[399]
+
+[Illustration: A PUEBLOAN WARRIOR OF NAMBÉ, NEW MEXICO, IN BATTLE ARRAY]
+
+The most widely spread stocks are made up of those that were forced
+to occupy a middle position during the cold, like the Algonquins
+and Athapascans, who were invigorated by it. Other stocks, for
+reasons not understood, dwindled to mere handfuls of people, like
+the Karankawan, now extinct, the Adaizan, the Natchezan, the Uchean,
+the Zuñian, Keresan, and others. The oldest people of the Valley
+of Mexico mentioned are the Xicalancas, Olmecas, and the Toltecs.
+Brinton believed the latter never existed, but other authors, fully
+as distinguished, accept them as a _bona-fide_ tribe. They may have
+been kindred to the Nahuatls, coming from the crowded lowlands, as the
+waters rose and the heat increased, and occupying the cooler plateau.
+Their wilder relatives later became influenced by them and adopting
+their learning began the famous development in the Valley of Mexico.
+The period of evolution in the crowded region was very long. Tribes
+rose to power and declined.[400] Other tribes, profiting by their
+experience, took up some of their ways and progressed. Many of these
+tribes we have no reminiscence of.
+
+Back of the Conquest of Mexico by Cortes, the thread of authentic
+history becomes most uncertain. It begins about the sixth century.
+Ixtlilxochitl, the native Mexican, has written a good deal, but it
+must be taken, oftentimes, with extreme caution. The history of the
+Amerind race is written mainly by their conquerors. It is a one-sided
+affair, and even so is not pleasant reading. Balzac says: “Historians
+are privileged liars, who lend their pen to popular beliefs.” Certainly
+the character of the Amerind and his doings have not often been too
+charitably drawn, while, on the other hand, our actions toward him,
+even as related by ourselves, are enough to make one sometimes doubt
+the benefits of civilisation. Morgan, speaking of the remnant of the
+Senecas, says: “To embitter their sense of desolation as a nation, the
+pre-emptive right to these last remnants of their ancient possessions
+is now held by a company of land speculators, the Ogden Land Company,
+who, to wrest away these few acres, have pursued and hunted them
+for the last fourteen years with a degree of wickedness hardly to
+be paralleled in the history of human avarice. Not only have every
+principle of honesty, every dictate of humanity, every Christian
+precept been violated by this company in their eager artifices to
+despoil the Senecas; but the darkest frauds, the basest bribery, and
+the most execrable intrigues which soulless avarice could suggest,
+have been practised in open day upon this defenceless and much injured
+people.”[401]
+
+[Illustration: APACHE WOMAN CARRYING WATER IN A WICKER BOTTLE]
+
+On one occasion in 1643, out of a spirit of revenge for a murder
+committed by an Indian who had been infuriated by whisky, but whose
+friends, according to Amerind custom, offered to pay a blood indemnity,
+Governor Kieft, heading a band of soldiers and freebooters from Dutch
+privateers, fell upon the unsuspecting Algonquins and slaughtered over
+a hundred of them. Little children were tossed into the river, and the
+parents who plunged to the rescue were prevented from landing by the
+soldiers, and child and parent both perished. In this incident began
+the Dutch and Indian War, which lasted two years. Can anyone condemn
+them for going to war after such treatment?
+
+Acts of white brutality of this character could be quoted to fill a
+volume, but these are sufficient to indicate the manner of the European
+approach, except in the case of Penn. The more docile the Amerinds
+were, the more abuse they got. If they became self-supporting like the
+Navajos, the government gave them nothing; if they were murderous and
+deadly, like the Apaches, the government took care of them and fed
+them. Issuing rations is a proper thing, when we have destroyed the
+native means of subsistence, but the tribe that works and helps itself
+ought to be aided further toward civilisation in other ways. One of
+the most stubborn of the numerous Amerind wars was the Seminole in the
+Everglades of Florida. Our whole available force was engaged in this
+war, besides some fifty thousand militia and volunteers. Though there
+were probably not more than four hundred warriors, the cost of the
+war was over $30,000,000, and three thousand lives were sacrificed.
+The wars with the Apaches were long and difficult. The Modocs also
+carried on a disastrous war, and recently the Sioux took their turn.
+These wars could generally have been averted by proper diplomacy. The
+battle of Wounded Knee was precipitated by a wild and unauthorised
+shot at a critical moment by one of our soldiers. Had he remained
+inactive the battle would probably never have occurred. Many tribes
+were exterminated at an early period. Most of the Carolina tribes were
+destroyed between 1714 and 1740. To-day very few Amerinds exist in the
+United States east of the Mississippi. Those who were not destroyed, or
+who are not still living on lands reserved for them, are mostly west
+of the Mississippi, either on lands belonging to them in the Indian
+Territory, or on scattered reservations. Tribes in Indian Territory
+have long conducted a sort of civilised government, but some of them
+are now on the eve of selling their lands and purchasing broader tracts
+with the funds obtained, in Mexico. The Navajos are in possession of
+an enormous area lying across the line of Arizona and New Mexico,
+and their vast herds of sheep, cattle, and horses require extensive
+grazing, so that it will be impossible to reduce the area allotted
+to them, especially as the tribe is steadily increasing in numbers.
+Schools of mechanic arts should speedily be established among them,
+in order that when they eventually are obliged to look to other avenues
+of support than stock-raising, they can do work that will command a
+price. It makes not the slightest difference whether or not they are
+able to read English, if they have wares to sell that white people
+need and want, and the Navajo is capable of great development on the
+mechanical side. They will learn English when necessity requires it.
+The Mokis have a reservation adjoining the Navajos, and it is ample for
+them for all time, as they are not increasing, and their herds of sheep
+are small.
+
+[Illustration: GROUP OF ESKIMO, PORT CLARENCE, ALASKA
+
+  Photographed by the Harriman Expedition, 1899 Permission of E. H.
+  Harriman
+]
+
+[Illustration: SHELL SPIDER GORGETS
+
+  From mounds in Missouri, Illinois, and Tennessee
+
+  Pl. LXI.—Second Ann.
+]
+
+In the West the history of the Amerind is linked mainly with that of
+but two other races, the Spanish and the Anglo-Saxon, while in the East
+it is intimately bound up with the wars and history of the Dutch and
+French as well. All the struggles of these European races for supremacy
+affected the Amerind, and in the East he is found sometimes on one
+side, sometimes on another.[402] He did not for some time discover
+that his doom was in the European regardless of kind. At first, too,
+the Amerind extended the law of hospitality to the newcomers, and the
+Europeans would have starved to death in some instances had it not
+been for the timely aid of the race in possession of the soil, and
+whose reward was subsequent destruction. The Amerinds at last tried
+to combine, as in the conspiracy of Pontiac, against their increasing
+foe, and had they been able to throw aside some of their peculiar
+regulations and form a wide-spreading and close confederacy, they
+could have compelled the Europeans to halt on the Atlantic slopes of
+the Appalachian chain for a long period. “In our ignorance,” says Simon
+Pokagon, chief of the Pokagon Pottawatomies, “we did not comprehend
+the mighty ocean of humanity that lay back of the advance waves of
+pioneer settlement. But being fired by as noble patriotism as ever
+burned in the hearts of mortals, we tried to beat back the reckless
+white man who dared to settle within our borders—and vast armies were
+sent out to punish us. We fought most heroically against overpowering
+numbers for home and native land; sometimes victory was ours, as when,
+during the last decade of the eighteenth century, after having many
+warriors killed, and our villages burned to the ground, our fathers
+arose in their might, putting to flight the alien armies of Generals
+Harmer and St. Clair, hurling them in disorder from the wilderness
+across our borders into their own ill-gotten domain.”[403] But the
+whites who had already come to America, however much they might have
+desired to leave the Amerinds alone, were powerless to prevent other
+whites, in search of better fortunes, from dispossessing them, and
+so impelled by the pressure of European population, numbers came and
+numbers came again and again, and yet still others behind them. The
+result, the final result, was inevitable. The Amerind was doomed when
+Columbus first saw the Western land, and nothing that the Amerind
+could have done would have greatly changed the final course of events.
+Tecumseh made an heroic effort to unite his people in a stubborn stand
+against the enemy, but the difficulty was that there were not enough
+Tecumsehs. The powerful league of the Iroquois, that once promised to
+dominate the whole continent, began its decline with the very first
+intercourse with the Europeans, so that in 1750 they were about half
+their former number. The league was probably formed about the middle
+of the sixteenth century, and in these two hundred years they reached
+their highest power and were on the wane. As it must have taken them
+some time to reach the point where they could form such a body as the
+league, they must have been a powerful and progressive people at least
+a hundred years before, so that their main existence as a progressive
+people probably covered a period of some three hundred years if not
+more. Had they not been wrecked by contact with Europeans, it is safe
+to assume that they would have advanced to double their power, at
+least, in another century. They destroyed the Siouan tribes of the
+East, held the Lenapé in subjection, and terrorised the Algonquins as
+far as the banks of the Mississippi.
+
+[Illustration: BLACK HAWK
+
+  The great central figure in the Black Hawk War, 1832
+
+  George Catlin
+]
+
+[Illustration: PORTION OF THE SO-CALLED “PALACE” OF LABNA, YUCATAN
+
+  Construction: stone. Site: tropical forest. Abandoned in
+  prehistoric times
+
+  Saville says: “The entire surface of the country is covered with
+  forests.... Immediately to the south and west no white man has ever
+  penetrated beyond the first range of hills; and who can tell what
+  gems of ancient architecture lie buried in the wilderness”
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville, 1890
+]
+
+King Philip, Red Jacket, Pontiac, Black Hawk, and many other Amerinds
+distinguished themselves as men of wide capacity, and in our later day
+may be mentioned the famous Sitting Bull, whose sagacity, intelligence,
+and military skill were of an extremely high order. He gave us much
+trouble, to be sure, but if all is fair in war, Sitting Bull deserves
+great praise for his ability.
+
+In war the Amerinds were given to killing all they could, but as this
+is the business of war, and as white armies use weapons that are also
+meant to kill, and seem to try to do killing in battle, we cannot be
+too hard on the Amerind warrior if he did not always do his killing
+exactly in the way we do it. “Murder as a fine art” was not one of his
+studies. He killed and we kill; where is the difference? Wars may be
+necessary; I think they sometimes are; so did the Amerind.
+
+[Illustration: MUSICAL BOW OF THE SOUTHERN TEPEHUANES AND THE AZTECS,
+  MEXICO
+
+  The sounding-board is a gourd with a hole in it. The other end
+  of the brace attached to the bow rests on a stone. The cord of
+  the bow was struck by a stick to produce the desired noise. Found
+  by Lumholtz in use. Length of bow, 1 metre 36.5 centimetres. See
+  page 308; and also article on “Geographical Distribution of the
+  Musical Bow” by O. T. Mason, _American Anthropologist_, November,
+  1897; _Natural History of the Musical Bow_, by Henry Balfour; and
+  “Symbolism of the Huichol Indians,” by Carl Lumholtz, _Memoirs of
+  the American Museum_, vol. iii, pages 206, 207
+]
+
+Long before any permanent settlers pushed to the wilderness,
+adventurous traders penetrated to remote regions with the whisky keg,
+and as they seldom expected to go to the same place twice, they usually
+swindled the native outrageously. Many of these were Frenchmen, and
+they were given the name of _Coureurs du Bois_. There were also always
+certain outlaws who found safety in putting a great distance between
+themselves and the law. These classes were more apt to stir the native
+up against the European than to render intercourse easy, and often,
+in early times as well as in our day, they incited the Amerinds to
+war for the sake of their own gains. But it was the coming of actual
+settlers which caused the greatest trouble. They appropriated the
+soil, killed the game, and otherwise interfered with rights which the
+tribe concerned had for centuries, perhaps, regarded as theirs alone.
+In the case of the Hudson Bay Company, it being well understood that
+they occupied certain points merely for trade, no trouble was ever
+experienced. _For two hundred years this company traded all over the
+northern part of the continent without a serious rupture with any
+tribe!_ Each tribe held its own lands as before, so far as the company
+was concerned, hence there was no clashing; but with settlers taking up
+choice places it becomes another matter.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL TYPE OF CHIMMESYAN, HAIDA, AND TLINKIT CHIEF’S
+  COSTUME, NORTH-WEST COAST
+
+  The Chilkat blanket which this man has over his shoulders “is so
+  called because the best specimens come from the Chilkat country,”
+  says Niblack. All the North-west coast tribes use it. The warp is
+  cedar bark twine and the woof a yarn made of mountain-goat wool.
+  See pages 128, 142.
+]
+
+[Illustration: PERFORATED DISCOIDAL STONE, ILLINOIS]
+
+The stories of Cabeza de Vaca, Soto, Cortes, Coronado, John Smith,
+La Salle, Tonti, Joliet, Lewis and Clark, Fremont, and many others
+are valuable, not only for the adventures contained in them and the
+descriptions of new country, but because of the descriptions of
+Amerinds as they existed in the beginning. Our understanding of the
+routes of some of these explorers is not always strictly accurate,
+and the accuracy of the route has much to do with our properly
+placing geographically the Amerinds named therein. There are grave
+discrepancies in the tracing of that of Coronado, for example. In
+another place I have presented my views on this subject.[404]
+
+[Illustration: HOBOBO, THE FIRE KATCINA IN THE SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY,
+  CICHUMOVI, 1884
+
+  From a drawing by the author, after one of his photographs. The
+  mask enclosed the whole head, and was of cloth, stained green, with
+  globular eyes attached
+]
+
+[Illustration: CIRCLE OF DANCERS IN THE INTERVALS BETWEEN THE
+  APPEARANCES OF THE VARIOUS KATCINAS IN THE MOKI SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY,
+  CICHUMOVI, ARIZONA, 1884
+
+  Photographed by the author
+]
+
+As there were outlaws among the whites, so too there were outlaws among
+the Amerinds. These were men from various tribes who had committed
+crimes and escaped the punishment they should have received according
+to the law of their people, and coming together they sometimes formed a
+band by themselves in some strong and isolated position. A good example
+of such a band of renegades was that of one Patnish in south-eastern
+Utah near the Navajo mountain. It was composed of outlaws from the
+surrounding tribes, chiefly Utes and Navajos, and was the terror of
+the country, though in 1872, when I first knew of it, nothing in the
+way of serious depredation had been attempted for several years. The
+Mormons of southern Utah looked upon Patnish as a dangerous man, yet
+he sometimes came to their frontier villages in a peaceful way. He
+had three or four stalwart sons who usually accompanied him in his
+travels, and they were always ready for emergencies. The band wore the
+Navajo dress and, I understood, preferred to be considered Navajos.
+Beckwourth mentions a renegade band of this sort in his time, a village
+“composed of outlaws from all the surrounding tribes, who were expelled
+from their various communities for sundry infractions of their rude
+criminal code; they had acquired a hard name for their cruelties and
+excesses, and many white traders were known to have been killed by
+them.... The village numbered three hundred lodges, and could bring
+from twelve to fifteen hundred warriors into the field.... We called it
+the City of Refuge.”[405] He speaks of them as Cheyennes, but I suppose
+they were Cheyennes in the same way that Patnish’s band were Navajos;
+because they preferred to be called so.
+
+These outlaws often caused trouble between the better class of Amerinds
+and the whites, because, especially in the earlier days, an “Indian”
+was an “Indian” always and everywhere, and a crime of the outlaws or
+others was revenged upon the first “Indian” that was met with. There
+never was any inquiry to find out if he committed the crime; he was
+generally shot on sight. Innocence was a quality never thought of in
+dealing with “Indians.” By reason of their birth, they were all guilty
+of any crime perpetrated.
+
+But I have already exceeded the limits prescribed for this book. In
+concluding, I would say that it seems from all the evidence available
+that this continent was peopled at a period so remote that other races
+had not yet developed their present characteristics. This was probably
+before the glacial epoch began, while the Northern climate was mild,
+and while land surfaces were distributed more on latitudinal lines,
+separated by narrower waters. Afterwards there was a rearrangement by
+the forces of nature, which, together with the extreme cold of the
+North, effectually separated the Amerinds from other peoples, and
+caused them to mingle and react on each other till even the affinities
+which had before developed in different localities and had produced
+some differentiation of types were almost rubbed out and remain to-day
+only as tinges of the earlier qualities. The other world tribes,
+subjected to other influences, have developed other differences and
+have diverged from their original stocks. It is also probable that
+in the redistribution of land surfaces and rearrangement of land
+levels, many stocks, some highly developed, were obliterated. Slight
+modifications may have occurred through later accidental intrusions
+from the Eastern Hemisphere, but if there had been any considerable
+intercourse within a recent period between outside peoples and the
+Amerinds we should have found distinct traces of it in the writings
+of early days. People as different and extraordinary as the Amerinds
+were would have produced a vivid impression on any who might have
+seen them and contrariwise a European, for example, would have left
+a lasting impression. On the extreme North-west coast there seems to
+be a type resemblance to Asiatics, but this is more likely due to an
+extremely early colouring which was preserved by special isolation on
+this continent, rather than to any considerable infusion of Asiatic
+blood in recent time. As before remarked, I am of the opinion that
+the Alaska and North-west coast tribes reached those regions from the
+South and South-east in comparatively late times.[406] Taking a broad
+view of the question, it seems to be an inevitable conclusion that the
+Amerind race, or rather _the various races of which it was originally
+composed_, were early cut off on this hemisphere from intercourse
+with the remainder of the world, and held in isolation by a change
+in land distribution and by the continued glaciation of the northern
+portions of the continent which in a measure endures to this day.
+The climate of North-eastern Siberia was also glacial and prevented
+migrations from milder regions. Many eminent archæologists agree
+that the Amerind was here before the great cold moved down, although
+the evidence of implements and remains as we now understand them is,
+perhaps, insufficient. Languages, traits, customs, and arts are also
+to be considered, and they seem all to favour, as outlined above,
+the theory of an exceedingly remote peopling of this continent from
+various directions. But this slight attempt to outline vast movements
+must be brought to a close. To sum briefly up, then, it seems that the
+Amerindian race, while originally composed of different elements, was,
+as a body, separated from the other peoples of the world, at a remote
+epoch, and by peculiar climatic and geographic influences, welded into
+an ethnic unity, which was unimpressed by outside influences till
+modern times.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT OF THE HOUSE OF THE COLUMNS, MITLA, OAXACA
+
+  The excavation is shown that was made by Saville in January, 1900.
+  A cement floor was uncovered and the base of a square that was
+  probably a shrine. On the left, behind, is seen the top of the
+  Catholic church that has been built on the site of one of the
+  ancient structures. Excavations at the sites of old cities will
+  doubtless yield valuable returns. Recently (October, 1900) a sewer
+  excavation in the City of Mexico, near the Cathedral, the site of
+  the great teocalli, furnished several wagon-loads of idols, gold
+  objects, jade beads, etc. See also pages 209, 246
+
+  Photographed by M. H. Saville
+]
+
+  +Note.+—For an excellent _résumé_ of facts on “The Prehistoric
+      Archæology of North America,” see the article by Henry W.
+      Haynes, p. 329, Winsor’s _Narrative and Critical History of
+      the United States_, vol. i.; also “The Progress of Opinion
+      Respecting the Origin and Antiquity of Man in America,” by
+      Justin Winsor, _ibid._, p. 369; also the “Critical Essay
+      on Sources of Information,” p. 316; and for pre-Columbian
+      explorations see p. 76; and, _The Fundamental Principles of Old
+      and New World Civilisations_, by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, Peabody
+      Museum.
+
+[Illustration: A COSTUMED HUMAN FIGURE FROM TAMPICO, WASHINGTON
+
+  The material is antler. Found in a stone cist somewhat resembling
+  the stone graves of Kentucky and Ohio, but covered by a heap of
+  jagged basaltic rocks about 8 feet in diameter. The skeleton
+  of a child was found in the cist. The antler figure is 247 mm.
+  long and from 2 to 5 mm. thick. The front is engraved as shown
+  above. The back is plain. See paper on this subject by Harlan I.
+  Smith.—_Bulletin American Museum_, vol. xx, pp. 195–203.
+
+  Harlan I. Smith
+]
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE OF A TOMB AT CUILAPA, MEXICO
+
+  It was around the entrances of such tombs as this that the
+  terra-cotta funeral urns were found, shown on pp. xii, xxviii, 115.
+  They were usually in series of five with nothing in them.
+
+  Marshall H. Saville
+]
+
+
+
+
+               [Illustration: STICK USED IN THE AWL GAME]
+
+
+                              APPENDIX[407]
+
+
+A list of the principal stocks or families, tribes, and many sub-tribes
+of the North American Amerinds, based on the linguistic classification
+of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, as given in the _Seventh Annual
+Report_; on Brinton’s classification in his _The American Race_,
+on Mason’s “Linguistic Families of Mexico,” in the _American
+Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1; in _Mexico_, Washington, 1900,
+Bureau of American Republics; Dall’s Tribes of the Extreme Northwest,
+_Contributions to North American Ethnology_, vol. i.; James Mooney’s
+_Siouan Tribes of the East_; and on lists in the _Bibliographies_ of
+James C. Pilling, with tribal names from other sources.
+
+
+                  +List of Stocks and Sub-Stocks+[408]
+
+The abbreviations are the ones used in the alphabetical list of tribes.
+By referring back from that list to this, the linguistic affinity and
+general geographical location of a tribe may be determined. The author
+has added the term “+Hopitan+” as a sub-stock of the +Shoshonean+
+to designate the group of Hopi tribes, which, while showing strong
+linguistic affinity, are otherwise, like the +Piman+ and +Nahuatlan+,
+so markedly separated in habits from the true +Shoshonean+ stock that
+an individual classification for them seems desirable. As the +Hopitan+
+are ranked as +Shoshonean+ in the general scheme the harmony of the
+classification is not interfered with. +Puebloan+ is also given as a
+comprehensive descriptive term for all the permanent house-building
+tribes, regardless of linguistic affinities, or ancient or modern
+existence. This is necessary because it is not possible to assign a
+linguistic place to the former occupants of ruins like those of the
+Chaco, yet it is settled that they were of a kind with the other
+town builders. Thus, also, the Cliff-dwellers may be conveniently
+classed under this head. Tusayan and Cibola, as applied respectively
+to the +Hopitan+ and the +Zuñian+, should never be used, for the
+reason that it is not certain that these are the places that were so
+designated by Coronado in 1540. The author believes they were not seen
+by Coronado.[409] It is in the interest of accuracy to avoid these
+unnecessary designations, which confuse ethnological and geographical
+matters.
+
+  _Ada._ +Adaizan.+ Western Louisiana.
+
+  _Alq._ +Algonquian.+ North-east third of the continent, from
+        Tennessee and Montana.
+
+  _Ath._ +Athapascan.+ North-west part of the continent, and from the
+        Utah-Colorado line southward into Mexico. There are also some
+        small groups on the Pacific coast in south-western Oregon and
+        north-western California.
+
+  _Att._ +Attacapan.+ Southern Louisiana.
+
+  _Beo._ +Beothukan.+ Northern Newfoundland. Extinct. Formerly all
+        Newfoundland.
+
+  _Cad._ +Caddoan.+ Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and North Dakota.
+
+  _Crb._ +Caribbean.+ Caribbean Islands and British Honduras. Also
+        probably Florida and S. E. United States at a very early period.
+
+  _Cpn._ +Chapanecan.+ Chiapas, Mexico.
+
+  _Chi._ +Chimakuan.+ North-west Washington.
+
+  _Chrk._ +Chimarikan.+ Northern California.
+
+  _Chyn._ +Chimmesyan.+ British Columbia, near Dixon Entrance, and the
+        neighbouring Annette Island, in Alaska.
+
+  _Cit._ +CHINANTECAN.+ Oaxaca, Mexico.
+
+  _Chik._ +Chinookan.+ Lower portion of the Columbia River.
+
+  _Cht._ +Chitimachan.+ Southern Louisiana.
+
+  _Chon._ +Chontal.+ See Zap., My., Tqs., also Tzental.
+
+  _Chm._ +Chumashan.+ Southern California coast.
+
+  _Coh._ +COAHUILTECAN.+ Lower valley of the Rio Grande del Norte,
+        adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+  _Cop._ +Copehan.+ Northern California.
+
+  _Cso._ +Cusaboan.+ Coast of South Carolina; possibly mainly related
+        to the Muskhogean. It is a group title. See Gp.
+
+  _Cost._ +Costanoan.+ California, south of the Golden Gate.
+
+  _Dak._ +Dakota.+ See Siu.
+
+  _E. Siu._ +Siouan of the East.+ Same as Siu.
+
+  _Esk._ +Eskimauan.+ From Prince William Sound, Alaska, all along the
+        northern coasts, islands, and inlets to Hudson Bay, Greenland,
+        and northern Newfoundland.
+
+  _Alk. Esk._ Alaska Eskimo.
+
+  _Alu. Esk._ Aleut Eskimo. Aleutian Islands.
+
+  _Gr. Esk._ Greenland Eskimo.
+
+  _Lab. Esk._ Labrador Eskimo.
+
+  _M. Esk._ Middle or Central Eskimo. North of Hudson Bay.
+
+  _Gp._ +Group title.+ Several tribes of different stocks classed
+        erroneously together.
+
+  _Gua._ +Guatusoan.+ Nicaragua.
+
+  _Ess._ +ESSELENIAN.+ South coast of California.
+
+  _Hai._ +Haida.+ See Skit.
+
+  _Hua._ +Huavan.+ Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
+
+  _Ho._ +Hopitan.+ North-east Arizona. Classed as Shoshonean.
+
+  _Ir._ +Iroquoian.+ Around lakes Erie and Ontario, and down the St.
+        Lawrence as far as Quebec; along the Susquehanna and its
+        branches as far as the mouth, and also a belt through northern
+        Georgia, eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina, and
+        southern Virginia.
+
+  _Kal._ +Kalapooian.+ Western Oregon.
+
+  _Kar._ +Karankawan.+ Southern Texas. Extinct.
+
+  _Kers._ +Keresan.+ Northern New Mexico.
+
+  _Kio._ +Kiowan.+ Indian Territory, formerly in the Platte valley.
+
+  _Kit._ +Kitunahan.+ British Columbia and Oregon.
+
+  _Kols._ +Koluschan.+ Dixon Entrance to Prince William Sound, Alaska.
+
+  _Kuln._ +Kulanapan.+ North-western California.
+
+  _Kus._ +Kusan.+ Western Oregon.
+
+  _Ln._ +Lencan.+ Honduras.
+
+  _Lut._ +Lutuamian.+ Southern Oregon and northern California.
+
+  _Mar._ +Mariposan.+ Southern California.
+
+  _Mgn._ +Matagalpan.+ Nicaragua.
+
+  _My._ +Mayan.+ Northern border of Honduras to Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
+
+  _Mex._ +Mexicana.+ See Nah.
+
+  _Mixt._ +Mixteca.+ See Zap.
+
+  _Mo._ +Moquelumnan.+ Central California.
+
+  _Mus._ +Muskhogean.+ Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida,
+        and western Tennessee.
+
+  _Nah._ +Nahuan.+ See +Nahuatlan+.
+
+  _Nah._ +Nahuatlan.+ Southern portion of Mexico and parts of Central
+        America. Classed as Shoshonean.
+
+  _Nah._ +Nahuatlaca.+ See +Nahuatlan+.
+
+  _Nat._ +Natchesan.+ Northern Louisiana, western Mississippi. Now in
+        Indian Territory.
+
+  _Ot._ +Otomian.+ Central Mexico.
+
+  _Pal._ +Palaihnihan.+ North-eastern California.
+
+  _Pa._ +Pani.+ See Cad.
+
+  _Pim._ +Piman.+ The Sonoran region of Mexico, and southern Arizona.
+        Classed as Shoshonean.
+
+  _Pbl._ +Puebloan.+ See Ho., Kers., Pim., Tan., Zun., etc. Northern
+        Mexico and the south-western part of the United States. The
+        stone and adobe house building tribes.
+
+  _Puj._ +Pujunan.+ North-eastern California.
+
+  _Qrs._ +Queres.+ See Kers.
+
+  _Qor._ +Quoratean.+ Northern California.
+
+  _Sli._ +Salinan.+ Southern California coast.
+
+  _Salh._ +Salishan.+ North-west Oregon, northern Washington, northern
+        Idaho, western Montana, south-western British Columbia.
+
+  _Sas._ +Sastean.+ Northern California.
+
+  _Ser._ +Serian.+ Tiburon Island and adjacent coast of Mexico.
+
+  _Shap._ +Shahaptian.+ South-east Washington, north-west Oregon,
+        western Idaho.
+
+  _Sho._ +Shoshonean.+ Southern Texas to northern Montana and north
+        of the Colorado River, west to the Sierra Nevada. In southern
+        California through to the Pacific. Under Shoshonean are
+        classed by some authorities not only the true Shoshonean but
+        the Nahuatlan, Piman, and Hopitan. Including the Piman and
+        Nahuatlan the stock range would extend throughout Mexico and to
+        parts of Central America.
+
+  _Siu._ +Siouan.+ Continuously from northern Louisiana to the province
+        of Saskatchewan, eastward to the Mississippi, and in Wisconsin
+        as far as Lake Michigan. Westward to the eastern boundaries of
+        Colorado and Idaho. There were also formerly a number of tribes
+        of this stock in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.
+        See E. Siu.
+
+  _Skit._ +Skittagetan.+ Queen Charlotte Island, North-west coast.
+
+  _Sub._ +Subtiaban.+ Nicaragua.
+
+  _Tak._ +Takilman.+ South-west Oregon.
+
+  _Tan._ +Tañoan.+ Valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, New Mexico.
+
+  _Tar._ +Tarascan.+ Michoacan, Mexico.
+
+  _Tqs._ +Tequistlatecan.+ Oaxaca, Mexico.
+
+  _Te._ +Tewan+ or +Tehuan+. See Tan.
+
+  _Tim._ +Timuquanan.+ Florida.
+
+  _Tl._ +Tlinkit.+ See Kols.
+
+  _Tkn._ +Tonikan.+ Eastern Louisiana and western Mississippi.
+
+  _Tow._ +Tonkawan.+ Western and southern Texas.
+
+  _Tot._ +Totonacan.+ State of Vera Cruz, Mexico.
+
+  _Tzl._ +Tzental.+ Tabasco, Mexico. See also Chon.
+
+  _Uch._ +Uchean.+ Georgia.
+
+  _Ulv._ +Ulvan.+ Honduras.
+
+  _Un._ +Unidentified.+ Region, state, or possible affinity following.
+
+  _Uto-Az._ +Uto-Aztecan.+ See Ho., Nah., Pim., Sho.
+
+  _Wlp._ +Waiilatpuan.+ North-east Oregon.
+
+  _Wak._ +Wakashan.+ Coast of British Columbia.
+
+  _Wash._ +Washoan.+ Eastern California; western Nevada.
+
+  _Wei._ +Weitspekan.+ North-west California; south-west Oregon.
+
+  _Wish._ +Wishoskan.+ North-west California.
+
+  _Ykn._ +Yakonan.+ Coast of Oregon.
+
+  _Yan._ +Yanan.+ Northern California.
+
+  _Yuk._ +Yukian.+ Western California.
+
+  _Yma._ +Yuman.+ Arizona, southern California, and Lower California.
+
+  _Zap._ +Zapotecan.+ Southern Mexico.
+
+  _Zo._ +Zoquean.+ Chiapas and Oaxaca, Mexico.
+
+  _Zun._ +Zuñian.+ Western New Mexico.
+
+
+                            +List of Tribes+
+
+The stocks are also included and are printed in capitals. In order to
+facilitate reference several titles of the same tribe are sometimes
+given.
+
+  Abbāto-tenā. _Ath._
+  Abnaki. _Alq._
+  Absáruqe. _Siu._
+  Acadiau. _Alq._
+  Acaxees. _Nah._
+  Acconeechy. _E. Siu._
+  Acha. _Pbl._
+  Achē’to-tin’neh. _Ath._
+  Achis. _My._
+  Achomâwi. _Pal._
+  Acolhua. _Nah._
+  Acoma. _Kers._
+  Acomita. _Kers._
+  Acquera. _Tim._
+  Acxoteca. _Nah._
+  Adahi. _Ada._
+  Adáí. _Ada._
+  +Adaizan.+ _Ada._
+  Adaize. _Ada._
+  Adees. _Ada._
+  Adshusheer. _E. Siu._
+  Aggomiut. _M. Esk._
+  Agualulco. _Nah._
+  Aguateca. _My._
+  Aguile. _Tim._
+  Agutit. _M. Esk._
+  Ahaknanelet. _M. Esk._
+  Ahántchuyuk. _Kal._
+  Ahome. _Pim._
+  Ahowsaht. _Wak._
+  Aht. _Wak._
+  Ahtena. _Ath._
+  Aicale. _My._
+  Aivillirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Aiyan. _Ath._
+  Ajoye. _My._
+  Akansea. _Siu._
+  Akbat. _Gr. Esk._
+  Akenatzy. _E. Siu._
+  Akoklako. _Kit._
+  Akorninak. _Gr. Esk._
+  Akudliarmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Akudnirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Alaguilac. _Nah._
+  Alame. _My._
+  Alasapa. _Coh._
+  Aleut. _Alu. Esk._
+  Algonkin. _Alq._
+  +Algonquian.+ _Alq._
+  Algonquin. _Alq._
+  Alibamu. _Mus._
+  Aliche. _Cad._
+  Alikwa. _Wei._
+  Alimacani. _Tim._
+  Alsea. _Ykn._
+  Altatin. _Ath._
+  Aluik. _Gr. Esk._
+  Amitormiut. _M. Esk._
+  Amuchgo. _Zap._
+  Amusgo. _Zap._
+  Anaddakka. _Cad._
+  Anani. _E. Siu._
+  Anarnitsok. _Gr. Esk._
+  Anasitch. _Kus._
+  Andaste. _Ir._
+  Angmagsalik. _Gr. Esk._
+  Annocchy. _E. Siu._
+  Anouala. _Tim._
+  Apache. _Ath._
+  Apalachi. _Mus._
+  Appalou. _Tim._
+  Aquamish. _Wak._
+  Aquonena. _Tim._
+  Arapaho. _Alq._
+  Arctic Highlander. _Gr. Esk._
+  Ariquipa. _Ath._
+  Arikara. } _Cad._
+  Arikaree.}
+  Aripa. _Yma._
+  Arispa. _Pim.?_
+  Arivaipa. _Ath._
+  Arkansa. _Siu._
+  Arra-arra. _Qor._
+  Arvillirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Aseguang. _Skit._
+  Ashochimi. _Yuk._
+  Asomoches. _Alq._
+  Assinaboin. _Siu._
+  Assinai. _Cad._
+  Assiwikales. _Alq._
+  Astina. _Tim._
+  Ătaăkût not Ā]. _Ath._
+  Atakwa. _E. Siu._
+  Atai. _Ada._
+  Ateacari. _Nah._
+  Atfálati. _Kal._
+  Athabascan. _Ath._
+  Athapacca. _Ath._
+  Athapasca. _Ath._
+  +Athapascan.+ _Ath._
+  Atka. _Alu. Esk._
+  Atnah (1). _Salh._
+  Atnah (2). _Ath._
+  Atore. _Tim._
+  Attacapa. _Att._
+  +Attacapan.+ _Att._
+  Atuamih. _Pal._
+  Auk. _Kols._
+  Awani. _Mo._
+  Axion. _Alq._
+  Ayankēld. _Kal._
+  Ayapai. _Mar._
+  Ayhuttisaht. _Wak._
+  Aztec. _Nah._
+
+  Babiocora. _Pim._
+  Backhooks. _E. Siu._
+  Baiyu. _Puj._
+  Balló Kai Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Baluxa. _E. Siu._
+  Bannock. _Sho._
+  Basirora. _Pim._
+  Basisa. _Tim._
+  Batemdikáyi. _Kuln._
+  Batucari. _Pim._
+  Batuco. _Pim._
+  Beaver. _Ath._
+  Belbellah. _Wak._
+  Bellacoola. _Salh._
+  Benixono. _Zap._
+  Beothuk. _Beo._
+  +Beothukan.+ _Beo._
+  Bethuck. _Beo._
+  Biara. _Pim._
+  Bilkula. _Salh._
+  Biloxi. _E. Siu._
+  Binukhsh. _Siu._
+  Blackfeet. _Siu._ (_See_ Sihasapa.)
+  Blackfeet. _Alq._ (_See_ Siksika.)
+  Blood Indians. _Alq._
+  Boka. _Puj._
+  Bollanos. _Mo._
+  Braba. _Pbl._
+  Brulé. _Siu._
+  Bulbul. _Ulv._
+  Búldam Pomo. _Kuln._
+
+  Cacalote. _Coh._
+  Cachopostate. _Coh._
+  Cacores. _E. Siu._
+  Cadapouce. _E. Siu._
+  Caddo. _Cad._
+  +Caddoan.+ _Cad._
+  Cadica. _Tim._
+  Cahita. _Pim._
+  Cahokia. _Alq._
+  Cahrok. _Qor._
+  Cahuillo. _Sho._
+  Cailloux. _Wlp._
+  Cajono. _Zap._
+  Cakchiquel. _My._
+  Calabaw. _E. Siu._
+  Calanay. _Tim._
+  Calapooya. _Kal._
+  Canai. _Alq._
+  Caniba. _Alq._
+  Canaway. _Alq._
+  Capaha. _Siu._
+  Cape Fear. _E. Siu._
+  Carcha. _Ulv._
+  Carib. _Crb._
+  +Caribbean.+ _Crb._
+  Carrizo. _Coh._
+  Casa Chiquita. _Coh._
+  Casa Grande. _Pbl._
+  Casas Grandes. _Pbl._
+  Cascade. _Chik._
+  Casti. _Tim._
+  Catajano. _Coh._
+  Catawba. _E. Siu._
+  Cathlamet. _Chik._
+  Cathlapotle. _Chik._
+  Cathlascon. _Chik._
+  Cattoway. _E. Siu._
+  Caughnawaga. _Ir._
+  Cayuga. _Ir._
+  Cayuse. _Wlp._
+  Cenis. _Cad._
+  Ceri. _Yma._
+  Chaco (Ruins). _Pbl._
+  Chahta. _Mus._
+  Chainímaini. _Mar._
+  Chalca. _Nah._
+  Chalqueño. _Nah._
+  Chamule. _My._
+  Chaneabal. _My._
+  Changuaguane. _Ath._
+  Chapa. _Cpn._
+  Chapanec. _Cpn._
+  +Chapanecan.+ _Cpn._
+  Charack. _Siu._
+  Charaeo. _Ot._
+  Charense. _Ot._
+  Chasta Costa. _Ath._
+  Chata. _Mus._
+  Chatcheeni. _Skit._
+  Chatino. _Zap._
+  Chauchila. _Mo._
+  Chawishek. _Kuln._
+  Chayopine. _Coh._
+  Chehalis. _Salh._
+  Chelamela. _Kal._
+  Chele. _My._
+  Chelekee. _Ir._
+  Chemehuevi. _Sho._
+  Chenposel. _Cop._
+  Chepewyan. _Ath._
+  Cheraw. _E. Siu._
+  Cherokee. _Ir._
+  Chetco. _Ath._
+  Cheyenne. _Alq._
+  Chia. _Pbl._
+  Chicasa. _Mus._
+  Chichen Itza. _My._
+  Chichilticalli. _Pbl._
+  Chichimec. _Gp._
+  Chichominy. _Alq.?_
+  Chickasaw. _Mus._
+  Chicklesaht. _Wak._
+  Chicora. _Cso._
+  Chiglit. _Alk. Esk._
+  Chikakokim. _Alq._
+  Chikaree. _E. Siu._
+  Chikelaki. _Alq._
+  Chilicothe. _Alq._
+  Chilili. _Tim._
+  Chilkat. _Kols._
+  Chilluckquittequaw. _Chik._
+  Chillúla. _Wei._
+  Chilpain. _Ath._
+  +Chimakuan.+ _Chi._
+  Chimakum. _Chi._
+  Chimalakwe. _Chrk._
+  Chimalapa. _Zo._
+  Chimalapas. _Zo._
+  Chimalpanec. _Nah._
+  +Chimarikan.+ _Chrk._
+  Chimariko. _Chrk._
+  +Chimmesyan.+ _Chyn._
+  Chimsian.}
+  Chimsyan.} _Chyn._
+  +Chinantecan.+ _Cit._
+  Chinanteco. _Cit._
+  Chinarra. _Nah._
+  Chinipa. _Pim._
+  Chinook. _Chik._
+  +Chinookan.+ _Chik._
+  Chinquíme. _Zo._
+  Chipeway. _Alq._
+  Chippewa. _Alq._
+  Chippewyan. _Ath._
+  Chiricahua. _Ath._
+  Chiroehaka. _Ir._
+  Chitimacha. _Cht._
+  +Chitimachan.+ _Cht._
+  Choam Chadila Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Chochona. _Zap._
+  Choctaw. _Mus._
+  Chokuyem. _Mo._
+  Chole. _My._
+  Cholupaha. _Tim._
+  Chontal (1). _Gp._
+  Chontal (2). _My._
+  Chontal (3). _Tqs._
+  Chopunnish. _Shap._
+  Chorotega. _Cpn._
+  Chorti. _My._
+  Chowanoc. _Alq._
+  Choya. _Tim._
+  Chozetta. _E. Siu._
+  Christanna. _E. Siu._
+  Chuchaca. _Kers._
+  Chuchona. _Zap._
+  Chugachigmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Chukaímina. _Mar._
+  Chūkchansi. _Mar._
+  Chumash. _Chm._
+  +Chumashan.+ _Chm._
+  Chumâwa. _Pal._
+  Chumaya. _Yuk._
+  Chumidok. _Mo._
+  Chūmteya. _Mo._
+  Chumtiwa. _Mo._
+  Chumuch. _Mo._
+  Chumwit. _Mo._
+  Chunut. _Mar._
+  Chwachamajù. _Kuln._
+  Cia. _Pbl._
+  Cicumovi. _Ho._
+  Cicuye. _Pbl._
+  Cimopavi. _Ho._
+  Cipaulovi. _Ho._
+  Clackama. _Chik._
+  Clahoquaht. _Wak._
+  Clallam. _Salh._
+  Clamets. _Lut._
+  Clatsop. _Chik._
+  Clickass. _Skit._
+  Cliff-Dwellers. _Pbl._
+  Clowetsus. _Wak._
+  +Coahuiltecan.+ _Coh._
+  Coahuilteco. _Coh._
+  Coaquilenes. _Coh._
+  Cochimi. _Yma._
+  Cochiti. _Kers._
+  Coco. _Ulv._
+  Cocomaricopa. _Yma._
+  Cocome. _My._
+  Coconino. _Yma._
+  Coconūn. _Mar._
+  Cocopa. _Yma._
+  Cœur d’Alêne. _Salh._
+  Coguinache. _Pim._
+  Cohonino. _Yma._
+  Cohuixca. _Nah._
+  Colotlan. _Nah._
+  Colouse. _Cop._
+  Colville. _Salh._
+  Comanche. _Sho._
+  Combahee. _Cso._
+  Comecrudo. _Coh._
+  Comeya. _Yma._
+  Comiteco. _My._
+  Comopari. _Pim._
+  Comupatrico. _Pim.?_
+  Comuripa. _Pim._
+  Comux. _Salh._
+  Concho (1). _Yma._
+  Concho (2). _Coh._
+  Conestoga. _Ir._
+  Confitachiquí. _Uch._
+  Congaree. _E. Siu._
+  Coninos. _Yma._
+  Conoy. _Alq._
+  Cook-koo-oose. _Kus._
+  Cooniac. _Chik._
+  Coosa. _Un. Mus.? Cso.?_
+  Cootenai. _Kit._
+  Copalis. _Salh._
+  Copan. _My._
+  Copeh. _Cop._
+  +Copehan.+ _Cop._
+  Coquilth. _Wak._
+  Cora. _Pim._
+  Coraru. _Nah._
+  Coree. _Ir.?_
+  Corsaboy. _Cso._
+  Coshatta. _Mus._
+  Cosninos. _Yma._
+  Costano. _Cost._
+  +Costanoan.+ _Cost._
+  Cotober. _E. Siu._
+  Cotoname. _Coh._
+  Coutani. _Kit._
+  Covisca. _Zo._
+  Covisco. _Zo._
+  Cowichin. _Salh._
+  Cowlitz. _Salh._
+  Coyotero. _Ath._
+  Cree. _Alq._
+  Creek. _Mus._
+  Crow. _Siu._
+  Cuchan. _Yma._
+  Cuicateco. _Zap._
+  Cuitlateco. _Nah._
+  Culua. _Nah._
+  Cumshawa. _Skit._
+  Cûñopavi. _Ho._
+  Cusabo. _Cso._
+  +Cusaboan.+ _Cso._
+  Cushna. _Puj._
+  Cusso. _Cso._
+  Cuthead. _Siu._
+  Cuttawa. _E. Siu._
+
+  Dāho′-tenā. _Ath._
+  Dakota. _Siu._
+  Dakubetede. _Ath._
+  Dápishul Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Daupom. _Cop._
+  Delamateno. _Ir._
+  Delaware. _Alq._
+  Didja-Za. _Zap._
+  Diegueño. _Yma._
+  Digger. _Gp._
+  Digothi. _Ath._
+  Dirian. _Cpn._
+  Dog Rib. _Ath._
+  Dohme. _Pim._
+  Dowaganha. _Alq._
+  Dwamish. _Salh._
+
+  Eastern People. _Kuln._
+  Eataubau. _Siu._
+  Echeloot. _Chik._
+  Edelano. _Tim._
+  Edisto. _Cso._
+  Ehiamana. _Tim._
+  Ehnek. _Qor._
+  Ekŏg´mint. _Alk. Esk._
+  Eloquale. _Tim._
+  Enecaqua. _Tim._
+  Eno. _E. Siu._
+  Erie. _Ir._
+  Erío. _Kuln._
+  Eriwoneck.
+  Erússi. _Kuln._
+  Esaw. _E. Siu._
+  +Eskimauan.+ _Esk._
+  Eskimo. _Esk._
+  Eskin. _Puj._
+  Esopus. _Alq._
+  Esquimaux. _Esk._
+  Esselen. _Ess._
+  +Esselenian.+ _Ess._
+  Estakewach. _Pal._
+  Etchemin. _Alq._
+  Etiwaw.}
+  Eutaw. } _Cso._
+  Euchre Creek. _Ath._
+  Eudeve. _Pim._
+  Éukshikni. _Lut._
+  Eurok. _Wei._
+
+  Faraone. _Ath._
+  Flachbogen. _Kit._
+  Flanahaskie. _E. Siu._
+  Flatbow. _Kit._
+  Flathead (1). _E. Siu._
+  Flathead (2). _Salh._
+  Flathead-Cootenai. _Kit._
+  Flonk´o. _Ath._
+  Fox. _Alq._
+
+  Gallinomréo. _Kuln._
+  Ganawese. _Alq._
+  Gaspesian. _Alq._
+  Gileño. _Ath._
+  Gohunes. _Yma._
+  Gosiute. _Sho._
+  Grand Pawnee. _Cad._
+  Gros Ventres. _Siu._
+  Guaicuru. _Yma._
+  Guailopo. _Pim._
+  Guajiquero. _Ln._
+  Gualála. _Kuln._
+  Guatuso. _Gua._
+  +Guatusoan.+ _Gua._
+  Guaymas. _Pim._
+  Guazapari. _Nah._
+  Guetares. _Cpn._
+  Guilito. _Cop._
+  Guimen. _Mo._
+  Gyidesdzo. _Chyn._
+  Gyitgāata. _Chyn._
+  Gyitksan. _Chyn._
+  Gyitqātla. _Chyn._
+  Gyitsalaser. _Chyn._
+  Gyitsumrälon. _Chyn._
+
+  Haeltzuk. _Wak._
+  Haida. _Skit._
+  Hailtzuk. _Wak._
+  Haishilla. _Wak._
+  Hammonasset. _Alq._
+  Hanahaskies. _Siu._
+  Hanega. _Kols._
+  Hano. _Tan._
+  Hanocoroucouay. _Tim._
+  Hantewa. _Pal._
+  Hapaluya. _Tim._
+  Hare. _Ath._
+  Hasatch. _Kers._
+  Hasinninga. _E. Siu._
+  Hatteras. _Alq._
+  Havasupai. _Yma._
+  Helto. _Puj._
+  Hemes. _Tan._
+  Hettitoya. _Mo._
+  Heve. _Pim._
+  Hicaranaou. _Tim._
+  Hichucios. _Pim._
+  Hidatsa. _Siu._
+  Himeri. _Pim._
+  Hiouacara. _Tim._
+  Hirrihiqua. _Tim._
+  Hishquayquaht. _Wak._
+  Hitchitee. _Mus._
+  Hizo. _Pim._
+  Hoak. _Puj._
+  Hoankut. _Puj._
+  Hololúpai. _Puj._
+  Homolua. _Tim._
+  Hoodsunu. _Kols._
+  Hoopah. _Ath._
+  Hopi. _Ho._
+  +Hopitan.+ _Ho._
+  Hopitu. _Ho._
+  Howakan. _Skit._
+  Howchuklisaht. _Wak._
+  Hualapai. _Yma._
+  Huasteca. _My._
+  +Huavan.+ _Hua._
+  Huaves. _Hua._
+  Huaztonteco. _Hua._
+  Huecos. _Cad._
+  Huichol. _Nah._
+  Huite. _Nah._
+  Huma.}
+  Hume.} _Nah._
+  Humâwhi. _Pal._
+  Hunah. _Kols._
+  Hupa. _Ath._
+  Huron. _Ir._
+  Husky. _Esk._
+  Husorone. _Pim._
+  Hutchnom. _Yuk._
+  Hydah. _Skit._
+
+  Igdlolnarsuk. _Gr. Esk._
+  Iglulingmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Ikogmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Illinois. _Alq._
+  Ilmâwi. _Pal._
+  Imahklimiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Inguhklimiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Innies. _Cad._
+  Innuit. _Esk._
+  Iowa. _Siu._
+  Ipapapan. _Tot._
+  +Iroquoian.+ _Ir._
+  Iroquois. _Ir._
+  Isantei. _Siu._
+  Isleta, New Mex. _Tan._
+  Isleta, Texas. _Tan._
+  Issa. _E. Siu._
+  Iswa. _E. Siu._
+  Itafi. _Tim._
+  Itara. _Tim._
+  Itaziptco. _Siu._
+  Ititcha. _Mar._
+  Itivimiut. _Lab. Esk._
+  Itza. _My._
+  Ivimiut. _Gr. Esk._
+  Ixil. _My._
+
+  Janos. _Ath._
+  Jaripecha. _Tar._
+  Jemez. _Tan._
+  Jicarilla. _Ath._
+  Jocolabal. _My._
+  Jonaz. _Ot._
+  Jope. _Zo._
+  Joshua. _Ath._
+
+  Kabinapek. _Kuln._
+  Kadapaw. _E. Siu._
+  Kagutl. _Wak._
+  Kaialigmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kaigani. _Skit._
+  Kaimé. _Kuln._
+  Kaiowe. _Kio._
+  Kai Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Kaivavitz. _Sho._
+  Kaiyuh-khotānā. _Ath._
+  Kakamatsis. _Wak._
+  +Kalapooian.+ _Kal._
+  Kalapuya. _Kal._
+  Kăltsuerea tûnnĕ. _Ath._
+  Kamalel Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Kangivamiut. _Lab. Esk._
+  Kangmaligmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kaugormiut. _M. Esk._
+  Kani. _Mo._
+  Kāniăgmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kansa. _Siu._
+  Karankawa. _Kar._
+  +Karankawan.+ _Kar._
+  Karok. _Qor._
+  Karsuit. _Gr. Esk._
+  Kaskaskia. _Alq._
+  Kassooo. _Mar._
+  Kassovo. _Mar._
+  Kastel Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Kasua. _Sli._
+  Katchan. _Yma._
+  Kato Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Kauía. _Mar._
+  Kaulits. _Salh._
+  Kaus. _Kus._
+  Kauvuyas. _Sho._
+  Kaviagmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kaw. _Siu._
+  Kaweah. _Mar._
+  Kaweya. _Mo._
+  Kâwiasuh. _Sho._
+  Kayowe. _Kio._
+  Kayung. _Skit._
+  Kcaltana. _Ath._
+  Kechemeches. _Alq._
+  Kechis. _Sho._
+  Keimanoeitoh. _Wak._
+  Kek. _Kols._
+  Kēlta. _Un., Ath.?_
+  Kemisak. _Gr. Esk._
+  Kenai. _Ath._
+  Kenay. _Ath._
+  Kenesti. _Ath._
+  Kera. _Kers._
+  Keres. _Kers._
+  +Keresan.+ _Kers._
+  Keswhawhay. _Ker._
+  Keyauwee. _E. Siu._
+  Kiawaw. _Cso._
+  K’iapkwainakwin. _Zun._
+  Kiawétni. _Mar._
+  Kichai. _Cad._
+  Kickapoo. _Alq._
+  Kiguaqtagmiut. _Lab. Esk._
+  Kikapoo. _Alq._
+  Kikkertarsoak. _Gr. Esk._
+  Killamuk. _Salh._
+  Kinarbik. _Gr. Esk._
+  Kingnaitmiut. _M. Esk._
+  King’s River. _Mar._
+  Kinnepatu. _M. Esk._
+  Kiowa. _Kio._
+  +Kiowan.+ _Kio._
+  Kioway. _Kio._
+  Kisani. _Pbl._
+  Kiscapocoke. _Alq._
+  Kitsmaht. _Wak._
+  Kittegareut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kittuwa. _Ir._
+  +Kitunahan.+ _Kit._
+  Kizh. _Sho._
+  Klallam. _Salh._
+  Klamath (1). _Lut._
+  Klamath (2). _Wei._
+  Klanoh-Klatklam. _Kit._
+  Klaokwat. _Wak._
+  Klenekate. _Kols._
+  Klikitat. _Shap._
+  K’naia-khotona. _Ath._
+  Knik. _Ath._
+  Knisteneau. _Alq._
+  Koasáti. _Mus._
+  Koloma. _Puj._
+  Kolomum. _Puj._
+  Kolosch. _Kols._
+  +Koluschan.+ _Kols._
+  Komácho. _Kuln._
+  Kombo. _Un., Yan.?_
+  Komuk. _Salh._
+  Konjagen. _Esk.?_
+  Konkau. _Puj._
+  Kootenai. _Kit._
+  Kopagmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kopé. _Cop._
+  Korusi. _Cop._
+  Kouksoarmiut. _Lab. Esk._
+  Kowagmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kowelits. _Salh._
+  Kowilth. _Wish._
+  Koyukukhotānā. _Ath._
+  Kramalit. _M. Esk._
+  Kuagmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kuchin. _Ath._
+  Kuitc. _Ykn._
+  Kulá Kai Pomo. _Kuln._
+  +Kulanapan.+ _Kuln._
+  Kulanapo. _Kuln._
+  Kūlmeh. _Puj._
+  Kulomum. _Puj._
+  Kung. _Skit._
+  Kunxit. _Skit._
+  Kupule. _My._
+  Kusa. _Kus._
+  +Kusan.+ _Kus._
+  Kuscarawock. _Alq._
+  Kuskwogmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kutani. _Kit._
+  Kŭtchā-Kŭtchin´. _Ath._
+  Kutchan. _Yma._
+  Kutchin´. _Ath._
+  Kutenay. _Kit._
+  Kwaiantikwoket. _Sho._
+  Kwakiutl. _Wak._
+  Kwalhioqua. _Ath._
+  Kwantlen. _Salh._
+  Kwapa. _Siu._
+  Kwashilla. _Wak._
+  Kwatóa. _Puj._
+  Kwazami. _Ath._
+  Kwikhpăgmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Kwokwoos. _Kus._
+  Kyoquaht. _Wak._
+
+  Lacandon. _My._
+  Laguna. _Kers._
+  Laimono. _Yma._
+  Lákmiut. _Kal._
+  Láma. _Kuln._
+  Las´sik. _Cop._
+  Leaf-shooters. _Siu._
+  Lenapé. _Alq._
+  Lenca. _Ln._
+  +Lencan.+ _Ln._
+  Lenni-Lenapé. _Alq._
+  Likatuit. _Mo._
+  Likwiltoh. _Wak._
+  Lilowat. _Salh._
+  Lipan. _Ath._
+  Liwaito. _Cop._
+  Llanero. _Ath._
+  Loldla. _Cop._
+  Lolon´kūk. _Ath._
+  Lolsel. _Cop._
+  Long Island. _Alq._
+  Long Valley. _Sho._
+  Lopolatimne. _Mo._
+  Loucheux. _Ath._
+  Lower Coquille. _Kus._
+  Lucururu. _Tim._
+  Lummi. _Salh._
+  Lutuami. _Lut._
+  +Lutuamian.+ _Lut._
+
+  Macaw. _Wak._
+  Machapunga. _Alq._
+  Machaua. _Tim._
+  Machemni. _Mo._
+  Machemoodus. _Alq._
+  Macock. _Alq._
+  Magemiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Mahican. _Alq._
+  Mablemiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Mahoc. _Un., E. Siu.?_
+  Maidu. _Puj._
+  Maiera. _Tim._
+  Makah. _Wak._
+  Makhelchel. _Cop._
+  Malaka. _Cop._
+  Malica. _Tim._
+  Maliseet. _Alq._
+  Mam. _My._
+  Mamaleilakitish. _Wak._
+  Manahoac. _E. Siu._
+  Manakin. _E. Siu._
+  Mandan. _Siu._
+  Maneetsuk. _Gr. Esk._
+  Mangoac. _Ir._
+  Mangue. _Cpn._
+  Manhattan. _Alq._
+  Mano de perro. _Coh._
+  Manosaht. _Wak._
+  Mantese. _Alq._
+  Mareschit. _Alq._
+  Maricopa. _Yma._
+  Mariposa. _Mar._
+  +Mariposan.+ _Mar._
+  Marracou. _Tim._
+  Mascoutin. _Alq._
+  Maskegon. _Alq._
+  Maskoki. _Mus._
+  Massachuset. _Alq._
+  Massawomek. _Ir._
+  Massett. _Skit._
+  Massinacak. _E. Siu._
+  Matagalpan. _Un._
+  Matapane. _Pim._
+  Matelpa. _Wak._
+  Mathaica. _Tim._
+  Matlaltzinco. _Ot._
+  Matlame. _Ot._
+  Mattamuskeet. _Alq._
+  Mattapony. _Alq._
+  Mattoal. _Ath._
+  Mauvais-Monde. _Ath._
+  Maya. _My._
+  +Mayan.+ _My._
+  Mayapan. _My._
+  Maya-Quiche. _My._
+  Mayarca. _Tim._
+  Mayáyu. _Mar._
+  Mayo. _Pim._
+  Mazahua. _Ot._
+  Mazapil. _Nah._
+  Mazateco. _Zap._
+  Mecos. _Ot._
+  Meewoc. _Mo._
+  Mehemencho. _E. Siu._
+  Meherrin. _Ir._
+  Meidoo. _Puj._
+  Meipontsky. _E. Siu._
+  Melchora. _Ulv._
+  Meliseet. _Alq._
+  Melona. _Tim._
+  Melukitz. _Kus._
+  Mengwe. _Ir._
+  Menominee. _Alq._
+  Mequachake. _Alq._
+  Mescal. _Coh._
+  Mescalero. _Ath._
+  Met’how. _Salh._
+  Mexicana. _Nah._
+  Meztitlateca. _Nah._
+  Miakan. _Coh._
+  Miami. _Alq._
+  Michoa. _Tar._
+  Michōpdo. _Puj._
+  Micikqwûtme tûnnĕ. _Ath._
+  Micmac. _Alq._
+  Mico. _Ulv._
+  Micoñinovi. _Ho._
+  Mije. _Zo._
+  Mikono tûnnĕ. _Ath._
+  Mimbreño. _Ath._
+  Mingo. _Ir._
+  Minisink. _Alq._
+  Minitaree. _Siu._
+  Minneconjou. _Siu._
+  Minsi. _Alq._
+  Misálamagūn. _Kuln._
+  Mishongnovi. _Ho._
+  Misisauga. _Alq._
+  Missouri. _Siu._
+  Mita. _Wei._
+  Mitoám Kai Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Miwok. _Mo._
+  Mixe. _Zo._
+  Mixtec. _Zap._
+  Mixteca-Zapoteca. _Zap._
+  Moan´auzi. _Sho._
+  Moapariats. _Sho._
+  Mobilian. _Mus._
+  Mochilagua. _Pim.?_
+  Mocoso. _Tim._
+  Mocossou. _Tim._
+  Moctoby. _E. Siu._
+  Modoc. _Lut._
+  Módokni. _Lut._
+  Mogollon. _Ath._
+  Mohave. _Yma._
+  Mohawk. _Ir._
+  Mohegan. _Alq._
+  Mohetan. _E. Siu._
+  Mohican. _Alq.?_
+  Mokelumni. _Mo._
+  Moki. _Ho._
+  Molale. _Wlp._
+  Molua. _Tim._
+  Monachi. _Sho._
+  Monagan. _E. Siu._
+  Monahasanugh. _E. Siu._
+  Monasiccapano. _E. Siu._
+  Mono. _Sho._
+  Monocan. _E. Siu._
+  Monqui. _Yma._
+  Monsey. _Alq._
+  Monsoni. _Alq._
+  Montagnais (1). _Ath._
+  Montagnais (2). _Alq._
+  Montagnard. _Ath._
+  Montauk. _Alq._
+  Moose. _Alq._
+  Moosonee. _Alq._
+  Mopan. _My._
+  +Moquelumnan.+ _Mo._
+  Moquelumne. _Mo._
+  Moquis. _Ho._
+  Moscoso. _Tim._
+  Mosilian. _Alq._
+  Moundbuilder. Composite. _Gp._
+  Mowachat. _Wak._
+  Mowhemcho. _E. Siu._
+  Muclaht. _Wak._
+  Muctobi. _E. Siu._
+  Mukaluk. _Lut._
+  Mulluck. _Kus._
+  Multnoma. _Chik._
+  Munsee. _Alq._
+  Musakakūn. _Kuln._
+  +Muskhogean.+ _Mus._
+  Muskhogee. _Mus._
+  Muskoki. _Mus._
+  Musquito. _Un._
+  Mūtsūn. _Mo._
+  Muutzizti. _Pim._
+
+  Naas. _Gp., Chyn., Salh.?_
+  Nachitoches. _Cad._
+  Nacu. _Kus.?_
+  Nadowessiwag. _Siu._
+  Nagailer. _Ath._
+  Nageuktormiut. _M. Esk._
+  Nahauni. _Ath._
+  Nahsuzi. _Pbl._
+  Na’htchi. _Nat._
+  Nahua. _Nah._
+  Nahuatl. _Nah._
+  +Nahuatlan.+ _Nah._
+  Nahuatleca. _Nah._
+  Nahyssan. _E. Siu._
+  Na-isha. _Ath._
+  Naktche. _Nat._
+  Nakum. _Puj._
+  Nakwahtoh. _Wak._
+  Naltun netûnnĕ. _Ath._
+  Nambé. _Tan._
+  Nanaimo. _Salh._
+  Nanoos. _Salh._
+  Nantic. _Alq._
+  Nanticoke. _Alq._
+  Naolingo. _Tot._
+  Napa (1). _Cop._
+  Napa (2). _Yuk._
+  Napetuca. _Tim._
+  Narraganset. _Alq._
+  Narsuk. _Gr. Esk._
+  Nascapee. _Alq._
+  Nasquá. _Chyn._
+  Nataco. _Cad._
+  Natches. _Nat._
+  +Natchesan.+ _Nat._
+  Natchez. _Nat._
+  Natchitoches. _Cad._
+  Natowek. _Ir._
+  Natowesieux. _Siu._
+  Nātsit-Kŭtchin´. _Ath._
+  Naugatuck. _Alq._
+  Nauset. _Alq._
+  Navaho.}
+  Navajo.} _Ath._
+  Nawiti. _Wak._
+  Nayerit. _Pim._
+  Nehalim. _Salh._
+  Nehantic. _Alq._
+  Nehaunee. _Ath._
+  Nehethawa. _Alq._
+  Nenenot. _Alq._
+  Nespelum. _Salh._
+  Netchillirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Netela. _Sho._
+  Netzicho. _Zap._
+  Neusiok. _Alq.?_
+  Neuter. _Ir._
+  Nevome. _Sho._
+  New Gold Harbour. _Skit._
+  Newichumni. _Mo._
+  Nez Percé. _Shap._
+  Nicaraos. _Nah._
+  Nicassias. _Mo._
+  Nicoutamuch. _Salh._
+  Nihaloth. _Chik._
+  Nikonha. _E. Siu._
+  Nimkish. _Wak._
+  Nipissing. _Alq._
+  Nipmuc. _Alq._
+  Nipnet. _Alq._
+  Niquiran. _Nah._
+  Nīshinam. _Puj._
+  Nisqualli. _Salh._
+  Nitinaht. _Wak._
+  Niwiti. _Wak._
+  Noema. _Cop._
+  Noje. _Yan._
+  Nomlaki. _Cop._
+  Nommuk. _Cop._
+  Nootka. _Wak._
+  Norelmuk. _Cop._
+  Normuk. _Cop._
+  Norridgewock. _Alq._
+  Notchee. _Nat._
+  Notoánaiti. _Mar._
+  Nottoway. _Ir._
+  Noyùki. _Cop._
+  Nozi. _Yma._
+  Nuchalaht. _Wak._
+  Nugumiut. _M. Esk._
+  Nuksahk. _Salh._
+  Numpali. _Mo._
+  Num´su. _Cop._
+  Nunatogmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Nuncock. _Siu._
+  Nunivagmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Nuntaly. _Un., E. Siu.?_
+  Nuntaneuck. _Un., E. Siu.?_
+  Nusdalum. _Salh._
+  Nushagagmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Nusulph. _Salh._
+  Nūtchu. _Mo._
+  Nūtha. _Sho._
+  Nutka. _Wak._
+  Nuwungmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+
+  Oathcaqua. _Tim._
+  Occaneechi. _E. Siu._
+  Ochíngita. _Mar._
+  Ocotlano. _Zap._
+  Oenock. _E. Siu._
+  Ogalalla.} _Siu._
+  Oglála.  }
+  Oglemiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Ohiat. _Wak._
+  Ojadagochroene. _E. Siu._
+  Ojibwa. _Alq._
+  Okahoki. _Alq._
+  Okeeogmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Okinagan. _Salh._
+  Okkiosorbik. _Gr. Esk._
+  Okomiut. _M. Esk._
+  Olamentke. _Mo._
+  Olelato. _Cop._
+  Olhone. _Mo._
+  Olla. _Puj._
+  Olmeca. _Un., Mex._
+  Olowidok. _Mo._
+  Olowit. _Mo._
+  Olowiya. _Mo._
+  Olposel. _Cop._
+  Oluláto. _Cop._
+  Olumpali. _Mo._
+  Omaha. _Siu._
+  Onathcaqua. _Tim._
+  Onava. _Pim._
+  Oneida. _Ir._
+  Onochaquara. _Tim._
+  Onondaga. _Ir._
+  Ontponas. _E. Siu._
+  Oohenopa. _Siu._
+  Opata. _Pim._
+  Opatoro. _Ln._
+  Opechisaht. _Wak._
+  Openango. _Alq._
+  Opuhnarke. _Alq._
+  Oraibe. _Ho._
+  Orarian. _Alk. Esk._
+  Orejone. _Coh._
+  Orista. _Cso._
+  Orotina. } _Cpn._
+  Orotinan.}
+  Osage. _Siu._
+  Osile. _Tim._
+  Otaki. _Puj._
+  Otari. _Ir._
+  Otayachgo. _Alq._
+  Oto. } _Siu._
+  Otoe.}
+  Otomi. _Ot._
+  +Otomian.+ _Ot._
+  Ottawa. _Alq._
+  Ounángan. _Esk._
+  Oustaca. _Tim._
+  Owilapsh. _Ath._
+
+  Paanese. _E. Siu._
+  Paboksa. _Siu._
+  Pacaos. _Coh._
+  Pachenaht. _Wak._
+  Pachera. _Pim._
+  Pacuâche. _Coh._
+  Padlimiut. _M. Esk._
+  Paduca. _Gp._
+  Paguate. _Kers._
+  Pah Ute.}
+  Pai Ute.} _Sho._
+  Paiuti. }
+  Pajalate. _Coh._
+  Pakamalli. _Pal.?_
+  Pakawá. _Coh._
+  Palaihnih. _Pal._
+  +Palaihnihan.+ _Pal._
+  Palaik. _Pal._
+  Palenque. _My._
+  Paléumni. _Sho._
+  Palligawonap. _Sho._
+  Paloos. _Shap._
+  Paluxsi. _E. Siu._
+  Pamaque. _Coh._
+  Pamawaioc. _Alq._
+  Pame. _Ot._
+  Pamlico. _Alq._
+  Pampopa. _Coh._
+  Pamticoke. _Alq._
+  Pamunkey. _Alq._
+  Pani. _Cad._
+  Panpakan. _Puj._
+  Pantasma. _Ulv._
+  Panteco. _My._
+  Papabuco. _Zap._
+  Papago. _Pim._
+  Parrastah. _Ulv._
+  Paskagula. _Siu._
+  Pasquotank. _Alq._
+  Passamaquoddi. _Alq._
+  Pastancoya. _Coh._
+  Patacale. _Coh._
+  Patawat. _Wish._
+  Patáwe.  } _Cop._
+  Patcháwe.}
+  Patchica. _Tim._
+  Patshenin. _E. Siu._
+  Patwin. _Cop._
+  Paugusset. _Alq._
+  Paupákan. _Puj._
+  Pausane. _Coh._
+  Pavant. _Sho._
+  Paviotso. _Sho._
+  Pawnee. _Cad._
+  Paya. _Un._
+  Payseya. _Coh._
+  Pea. _Alq._
+  Pecos. _Pbl._
+  Pedee. _E. Siu._
+  Pehtsik. _Qor._
+  Pekwan. _Wei._
+  Pend d’Oreille. _Salh._
+  Penobscot. _Alq._
+  Pennacook. _Alq._
+  Pentlash.} _Salh._
+  Pentlatc.}
+  Peoria. _Alq._
+  Pequot. _Alq._
+  Pericu. _Yma._
+  Perquiman. _Alq._
+  Peten. _My._
+  Piankishaw. _Alq._
+  Picuris. _Tan._
+  Pi Ede. _Sho._
+  Piegan. _Alq._
+  Pihique. _Coh._
+  Pilingmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Pima. _Pim._
+  +Piman.+ _Pim._
+  Pinal Coyotero. _Ath._
+  Pinome. _Zo._
+  Pintahae. _E. Siu._
+  Pipile. _Sho._
+  Piqua. _Alq._
+  Pirinda. _Ot._
+  Piros. _Tan._
+  Piscataway. _Alq._
+  Pisquow. _Salh._
+  Pitkachì. _Mar._
+  Pitt River. _Pal._
+  Pi Ute. _Sho._
+  Poam Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Pocomtock. _Alq._
+  Podunk. _Alq._
+  Poélo. _Sho._
+  Pohállin Tinleh. _Mar._
+  Pohonichi. _Mo._
+  Pojoaque. _Tan._
+  Pokomam. _My._
+  Pokonchi. _My._
+  Poluksalgi. _E. Siu._
+  Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Pomouik. _Alq._
+  Ponca. _Siu._
+  Ponderay. _Salh._
+  Popoluca. _Gp., Mex._
+  Poquonnoc. _Alq._
+  Potanou. _Tim._
+  Poteskeet. _Alq._
+  Potlapigua. _Pirn._
+  Pottawatomi. _Alq._
+  Pottawattomi. _Alq._
+  Powhattan. _Alq._
+  Pueblito. _Kers._
+  Pueblo. _Pbl._
+  +Puebloan.+ _Pbl._
+  Pujunan. _Puj._
+  Pujuni. _Puj._
+  Pulairih. _Pal._
+  Punyeestye. _Kers._
+  Punyekia. _Kers._
+  Pusityitcho. _Kers._
+  Pusúna. _Puj._
+  Putum. _My._
+  Puyallup. _Salh._
+
+  Qagutl. _Wak._
+  Qaumauangmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Qinguamiut. _M. Esk._
+  Quaitso. _Salh._
+  Quapaw. _Siu._
+  Quatquiutl. _Wak._
+  Quatsino. _Wak._
+  Quekchi. _My._
+  Queniut. _Salh._
+  Queptlmamish. _Salh._
+  Querechos. _Un., Sho.?_
+  Queres. _Kers._
+  Quiahanless. _Skit._
+  Quiche. _My._
+  Quile-Ute. _Chi._
+  Quinnebaug. _Alq._
+  Quinnipiac. _Alq._
+  Quinpi. _Alq._
+  Quivira. _Un., Siu.?_
+  Quoddy. _Alq._
+  +Quoratean.+ _Qor._
+  Quoratem. _Qor._
+  Qwinctûnnetûn. _Ath._
+
+  Rama. _Un._
+  Ramapoo. _Alq._
+  Ramcock. _Alq._
+  Reho. _Un._, _Cali._
+  Republican Pawnee. _Cad._
+  Riccaree. _Cad._
+  Rickohockan. _Ir._
+  Rikwa. _Wei._
+  Rogue River. _Ath._ and _Tak._
+  Runsien. _Gp._
+  Rurok. _Wei._
+
+  Saagit. _Wei._
+  Sabaquis. _Pim._
+  Sabaibo. _Nah._
+  Sac. _Alq._
+  Sac and Fox. _Alq._
+  Sacumehu. _Salh._
+  Sagdlirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Saharipa. _Pim._
+  Sahewamish. _Salh._
+  Sahkey. _Alq._
+  Saiaz. _Ath._
+  Saidyuka. _Sho._
+  Saint Regis. _Ir._
+  Saiwash. _Sas._
+  Sakaiakumni. _Mo._
+  +Salinan.+ _Sli._
+  Salish. _Salh._
+  +Salishan.+ _Salh._
+  Saluda. _Alq.?_
+  Samamish. _Salh._
+  Samish. _Salh._
+  San Antonio. _Un._
+  Sandia. _Tan._
+  Sanetch. _Salh._
+  San Felipe. _Kers._
+  Sanhican. _Alq._
+  San Ildefonso. _Tan._
+  Sanipao. _Con._
+  San Juan. _Tan._
+  San Juan de Guacara. _Tim._
+  San Mateo. _Tim._
+  San Rafael. _Mo._
+  Sans Arcs. _Siu._
+  Sans Puell. _Salh._
+  Santa Ana. _Kers._
+  Santa Barbara. _Sli._
+  Santa Clara, New Mexico. _Tan._
+  Santa Clara, Utah. _Sho._
+  Santa Cruz, Cali. _Mo._
+  Santa Elena. _Cso._
+  Santa Inez. _Sli._
+  Santa Lucia de Acuera. _Tim._
+  Santee. _E. Siu_ and _Siu_.
+  Santiam. _Kal._
+  Santo Domingo. _Kers._
+  Saponi. _E. Siu._
+  Saps. _E. Siu._
+  Saptin. _Shap._
+  Sara. _E. Siu._
+  Sarcees. _Ath._
+  Saste. _Sas._
+  +Sastean.+ _Sas._
+  Satsika. _Alq._
+  Satsop. _Salh._
+  Saturiwa. _Tim._
+  Sauk. _Alq._
+  Saumingmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Sauteux. _Alq._
+  Savanna. _Alq._
+  Sawákhtu. _Mar._
+  Sawamish. _Salh._
+  Saxapahaw. _E. Siu._
+  Sayúskla. _Ykn._
+  Scatacook. _Alq._
+  Sebasa. _Wak._
+  Secoffie. _Alq._
+  Secotan. _Alq._
+  Seemunah. _Kers._
+  Seguas. _Nah._
+  Sekamish. _Salh._
+  Sekumne. _Puj._
+  Selawigmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Selish. _Salh._
+  Seminole. _Mus._
+  Seneca. _Ir._
+  Senecú. _Tan._
+  Senel. _Kuln._
+  Sequas. _Nah._
+  Seri. _Ser._
+  +Serian.+ _Ser._
+  Sermiligak. _Gr. Esk._
+  Sermilik. _Gr. Esk._
+  Seroushamne. _Mo._
+  Serrano. _Ot._
+  Seshaht. _Wak._
+  Sewee. _E. Siu._
+  Shacco. _E. Siu._
+  Shackaconias. _Siu._
+  Shahaptaní. _Shap._
+  +Shahaptian.+ _Shap._
+  Shakan. _Skit._
+  Shanktonwan. _Siu._
+  Shasta. _Sas._
+  Shastika. _Sas._
+  Shasty. _Sas._
+  Shawano. _Alq._
+  Shawnee. _Alq._
+  Sheshtapoosh. _Alq._
+  Shetimasha. _Cht._
+  Shevwitz. _Sho._
+  Sheyenne. _Alq._
+  Shibal´ni Pómo. _Kuln._
+  Shingwauk. _Alq._
+  Shinomo.}
+  Shínumo.} _Pbl._
+  Shiwapmuk. _Salh._
+  Shiwokugmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Shoccori. _E. Siu._
+  Shódo Kaí Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Shomamish. _Salh._
+  Shooswap. _Salh._
+  Shoshokoes. _Sho.?_
+  +Shoshonean.+ _Sho._
+  Shoshone.} _Sho._
+  Shoshoni.}
+  Shotlemamish. _Salh._
+  Sia. _Kers._
+  Síako. _Kuln._
+  Sicatl. _Salh._
+  Sicaunie. _Ath._
+  Sihasapa. _Siu._
+  Sikonesse. _Alq._
+  Sikosuilarmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Siksika. _Alq._
+  Silets. _Salh._
+  Silla. _Kers._
+  Similaton. _Ln._
+  Sinaloa. _Pim._
+  Sinimiut. _M. Esk._
+  Sinnager. _Ir._
+  +Siouan.+ _Siu._
+  Sioux. _Siu._
+  Siquai. _Ulv._
+  Sisseton. _Siu._
+  Sissipahaw. _E. Siu._
+  Sitcaxu. _Siu._
+  Sitcomovi. _Ho._
+  Sitka. _Kols._
+  Siuslaw. _Ykn._
+  Skagit. _Salh._
+  Skedan. _Skit._
+  Skidi. _Cad._
+  Skihwamish. _Salh._
+  Skiteiget. _Skit._
+  Skitsuish. _Salh._
+  Skittaget. _Skit._
+  +Skittagetan.+ _Skit._
+  Skoffi. _Alq._
+  Skokomish. _Salh._
+  Skopamish. _Salh._
+  Skoyelpi. _Salh._
+  Sktehlmish. _Salh._
+  Skwaksin. _Salh._
+  Skwallyamish. _Salh._
+  Slave. _Ath._
+  Sluacus tinneh. _Ath._
+  Smoos. _Ulv._
+  Smulkamish. _Salh._
+  Snake. _Sho._
+  Snohomish. _Salh._
+  Snoqualmi. _Salh._
+  Sobaipuri. _Pim._
+  Sochimiloco. _Nah._
+  Soke. _Salh._
+  Sokóa. _Kuln._
+  Solteco. _Zap._
+  Songish. _Salh._
+  Sonomi. _Mo._
+  Sonora. _Pim._
+  Sonorense Opata. _Pim._
+  Sorrocho. _Tim._
+  Souriquoi. _Alq._
+  Spirit Lake. _Siu._
+  Spokan. _Salh._
+  Squawmisht. _Salh._
+  Squaxon. _Salh._
+  Squonamish. _Salh._
+  Stahkin. _Kols._
+  Stegara. _E. Siu._
+  Stehtsasamish. _Salh._
+  Stenkenocks. _E. Siu._
+  Stillacum. _Salh._
+  Stono. _Cso._
+  St. _Regis. Ir._
+  Subirona. _Ulv._
+  Subtiaba. _Sub._
+  +Subtiaban.+ _Sub._
+  Sugan. _E. Siu._
+  Sugaree. _E. Siu._
+  Sugon. _Wei._
+  Suinyi. _Zun._
+  Suisun. _Cop._
+  Sumass. _Salh._
+  Supi. _Yma._
+  Suquamish. _Salh._
+  Suquinimiut. _Lab. Esk._
+  Susquehannock. _Ir._
+  Swali. _Siu._
+  Swinamish. _Salh._
+
+  Tâcame. _Coh._
+  Tacatacura. _Tim._
+  Táchi. _Mar._
+  Taculli. _Ath._
+  Taderighrone. _E. Siu._
+  Taensa. _Nat._
+  Tagish. _Kols._
+  Tahichapahanna. _Sho._
+  Tahkaht. _Wak._
+  Tahkali. _Ath._
+  Tāh´ko-tin´neh. _Ath._
+  Tablewah. _Ath._
+  Tahltan. _Ath._
+  Tâiakwin. _Zun._
+  Tait. _Salh._
+  Taitchida. _Puj._
+  Takilma. _Tak._
+  +Takilman.+ _Tak._
+  Taku. _Kols._
+  Talamanca. _Un._
+  Talamo. _Salh._
+  Talatui. _Mo._
+  Talirpingmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Taltûctun tûde. _Ath._
+  Tamal. _Mo._
+  Tamaroi. _Alq._
+  Tamoleka. _Mo._
+  Tanek. _E. Siu._
+  Taño. _Tan._
+  +Tañoan.+ _Tan._
+  Tantoyoc. _My._
+  Tanu. _Skit._
+  Taos. _Tan._
+  Tapaneco. _Nah._
+  Tapijulapane. _Zo._
+  Tappas. _Cad._
+  Taqagmiut. _Lab. Esk._
+  Tarahumara. _Pim._
+  Tarasca. _Tar._
+  +Tarascan.+ _Tar._
+  Tarasco. _Tar._
+  Tarelepa. _My._
+  Tarratine. _Alq._
+  Tartanee. _Skit._
+  Tataten. _Ath._
+  Tatera. _E. Siu._
+  Taterat. _Gr. Esk._
+  Tatimole. _Tot._
+  Tatsāh-kutchin. _Ath._
+  Tatu. _Yuk._
+  Tauxsnitania. _E. Siu._
+  Tawakomie. _Cad._
+  Taywaugh. _Tan._
+  Tcême. } _Ath._
+  Tchême.}
+  Tcĕtlĕstcan tûnnĕ. _Ath._
+  Tchĭkûn. _Ath._
+  Tchishi. _Ath._
+  Tchokoyem. _Mo._
+  Teacualitzistis. _Pim._
+  Teata. _Pim._
+  Tebaca. _Nah._
+  Teco. _Nah._
+  Tecojine. _Zo._
+  Tecoripa. _Pim._
+  Tecualme. _Pim.?_
+  Tigninatio. _E. Siu._
+  Teguima. _Pim._
+  Tehama. _Cop._
+  Tēhānin-kŭtchin. _Ath._
+  Tehua. _Tan._
+  +Tehuan.+ _Tan._
+  Tehueco. _Pim._
+  Tejano. _Coh._
+  Tektikilhatis. _Tot._
+  Télumni. _Mar._
+  Tenaino. _Shap._
+  Tenăn-kŭtchin. _Ath._
+  Tenez. _Cit._
+  Tenime. _Zo._
+  Tennŭth-Kutchin´. _Ath._
+  Teotenanca. _Un., Mex._
+  Tepaneco. _Nah._
+  Tepehuane. _Pim._
+  Tepozcolul. _Zap._
+  Tequis. _Pim._
+  Tequistlateca. _Yma._
+  Terwar. _Ath._
+  Tessuisak. _Gr. Esk._
+  Tesuque. _Tan._
+  Tetero. _E. Siu._
+  Teton. _Siu._
+  Teuteca. _Cit._
+  Tewa. _Tan._
+  +Tewan.+ _Tan._
+  Texano. _Coh._
+  Texas. _Cad.?_
+  Texone. _Coh._
+  Teyas. _Cad.?_
+  Tezcucan. _Nah._
+  Tezcuco. _Nah._
+  Thlinket. _Kols._
+  T’ho. _My._
+  Tientien. _Cop._
+  Tigua. } _Tan._
+  Tiguex.}
+  Tillamook. _Salh._
+  Timoga. _Tim._
+  Timucua. _Tim._
+  Timuquana. _Tim._
+  +Timuquanan.+ _Tim._
+  Tínlinneh. _Mar._
+  Tinné. }
+  Tinneh.} _Ath._
+  Tinney.}
+  Tionontate. _Ir._
+  Tipatolápa. _Sho._
+  Tisèchu. _Mar._
+  Tíshum. _Puj._
+  Titõwā. _Siu._
+  Tiutei. _E. Siu._
+  Tlacopán. _Nah._
+  Tlahuico. _Nah._
+  Tlamatl. _Lut._
+  Tlaoquatch. _Wak._
+  Tlapanec. _Zap._
+  Tlapaneco. _Zo._
+  Tlascalan. _Nah._
+  Tlascaltecan. _Nah._
+  Tlatluican. _Nah._
+  Tlatscanai. _Ath._
+  Tlingit.} _Kols._
+  Tlinkit.}
+  Toámtcha. _Puj._
+  Tobikhar. _Sho._
+  Tocaste. _Tim._
+  Tockwhogh. _Alq._
+  Toderichroone. _E. Siu._
+  Todetabi. _Cop._
+  Tokar. _Sho._
+  Tokoaat. _Wak._
+  Tolemato. _Tim._
+  Tolewa.} _Ath._
+  Tolowa.}
+  +Toltec.+ _Nah.?_
+  Tongass. _Kols._
+  Tonika. _Tkn._
+  +Tonikan.+ _Tkn._
+  Tonkawa. _Tow._
+  +Tonkawan.+ _Tow._
+  Tonto. _Yma._
+  Topaidisel. _Cop._
+  Topoqui. _Tim._
+  Toquaht. _Wak._
+  Tosikoyo. _Puj._
+  Totero. _E. Siu._
+  Toto. _Puj._
+  +Totonacan.+ _Tot._
+  Totonaco. _Tot._
+  Towiachies. _Cad._
+  Towakarehu. _Cad._
+  Triqui. _Zap._
+  Tsamak. _Puj._
+  Tsawadinoh. _Wak._
+  Ts’emsián. _Chyn._
+  Tshinkitani. _Kols._
+  Tshokoyem. _Mo._
+  Tsimshian. _Chyn._
+  Tsinuk. _Chik._
+  Tubare. _Nah._
+  Tucano. _Pbl._
+  Tucururu. _Tim._
+  Tŭkkūth-kŭtchin. _Ath._
+  Tukuarika. _Sho._
+  Tulare. _Mo._
+  Tumidok. _Mo._
+  Tumun. _Mo._
+  Tunglas. _Mus._
+  Tununirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Tununirusirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Tunxi. _Alq._
+  Tuolomne. _Mo._
+  Tusayan. _Pbl._
+  Tuscarora. _Ir._
+  Tutahaco. _Pbl._
+  Tŭtchoné-kŭtchin. _Ath._
+  Tutelo. _E. Siu._
+  Tututena. _Ath._
+  Tutu tûnnĕ. _Ath._
+  Twaka. _Ulv._
+  Twana. _Salh._
+  Twichtwicht. _Alq._
+  Twightwee. _Alq._
+  Two Kettle. _Siu._
+  Tyigh. _Shap._
+  Tzendal.} _Tzl._
+  Tzental.}
+  Tzotzil. _My._
+  Tzutuhil. _My._
+
+  Ucalta. _Wak._
+  Uché. _Uch._
+  +Uchean.+ _Uch._
+  Uchita. _Yma._
+  Ucita. _Tim._
+  Ugalakmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Ugaqpa. _Siu._
+  Ugjulirmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Uinkarets. _Sho._
+  Ukiah. _Kuln._
+  Ukivokgmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Ūkumnom. _Ath._
+  Ukusiksalingmiut. _M. Esk._
+  Ukwulta. _Wak._
+  Ulva. _Ulv._
+  +Ulvan.+ _Ulv._
+  Umaha. _Siu._
+  Umanak. _Gr. Esk._
+  Umatilla. _Shap._
+  Umerik. _Gr. Esk._
+  Umkwa. _Ath._
+  Umpqua. _Ath._
+  Unakhotānā. _Ath._
+  Unalachtigo. _Alq._
+  Unalashka.} _Alu. Esk._
+  Unalaska. }
+  Unaligmiut. _Alk. Esk._
+  Unami. _Alq._
+  Uncapapa. _Siu._
+  Unechtgo. _Alq._
+  Ungavamiut. _Lab. Esk._
+  Unquachog. _Alq._
+  Ūnŭnǵŭn. _Alu. Esk._
+  Urriparacuxi. _Tim._
+  Usheree. _E. Siu._
+  Ushiti. _Yma._
+  Uspanteca. _My._
+  Ustóma. _Puj._
+  Uta. }
+  Utah.} _Sho._
+  Ute. }
+  Utchium. _Mo._
+  Utina. _Tim._
+  Utlateca. _My._
+  Uttewa. _Skit._
+  Uxmal. _My._
+
+  Vacissa. _Tim._
+  Valiente. _Un._
+  Varogio. _Nah._
+  Vebetlateca. _My._
+  Venaambakaiia. _Kuln._
+  Venado. _Coh._
+  Viard. _Wish._
+  Vŭntā-kŭtchin´. _Ath._
+
+  Waccamaw. _E. Siu._
+  Waco. _Cad._
+  Wagluxe. _Siu._
+  Wahaikan. _Chik._
+  Wahkiacum. _Chik._
+  Wahpeton. _Siu._
+  Waicurru. _Yma._
+  Waiilatpu. _Wlp._
+  +Waiilatpuan.+ _Wlp._
+  Waikenmuk. _Cop._
+  Waikosel. _Cop._
+  Waikur. _Yma._
+  Wailaki (1). _Cop._
+  Wailakki (2). _Ath._
+  Wailaksel. _Cop._
+  Wailatpu. _Wlp._
+  Wairika. _Sas._
+  Wakash. _Wak._
+  +Wakashan.+ _Wak._
+  Walakumni. _Mo._
+  Walapai. _Yma._
+  Walla Walla. _Shap._
+  Walli. _Mo._
+  Walpi. _Ho._
+  Wampanoag. _Alq._
+  Wangum. _Alq._
+  Wangunk. _Alq._
+  Wapanachki. _Alq._
+  Wapanoc. _Alq._
+  Wapoo. _Cso._
+  Wappinger. _Alq._
+  Wappo. _Chik._
+  Wapuchuseamma. _Kers._
+  Wapúmni. _Puj._
+  Warren nuncock. _E. Siu._
+  Wasco. _Chik._
+  Washaki. _Sho._
+  Washita. _Cad._
+  Washo. _Wash._
+  +Washoan.+ _Wash._
+  Waskiteng. _E. Siu._
+  Wateree. _E. Siu._
+  Watlala. _Chik._
+  Waxhaw. _E. Siu._
+  Wazaza. _Siu._
+  Wea. _Alq._
+  Weapemeoc. _Alq._
+  Weenee. _E. Siu._
+  Weeyot. _Wish._
+  Weitspek. _Wei._
+  +Weitspekan.+ _Wei._
+  Wendat. _Ir._
+  Wepawaug. _Alq._
+  Westo. _Cso._
+  Whīlkut. _Ath._
+  Whonkenteae. _E. Siu._
+  Wíchikik. _Mar._
+  Wichita. _Cad._
+  Wihinasht. _Sho._
+  Wikchúmni. _Mar._
+  Wikenak. _Wak._
+  Wíksachi. _Mar._
+  Wilaksel. _Cop._
+  Willamat.  } _Kal._
+  Willamette.}
+  Wima. _Puj._
+  Wimbee. _Cso._
+  Winangik. _Sho._
+  Winatsha. _Salh._
+  Winnebago. _Siu._
+  Wintoon. _Cop._
+  Wintu. _Cop._
+  Wintun. _Cop._
+  Winyaw. _E. Siu._
+  Wisack. _E. Siu._
+  Wishosk. _Wish._
+  +Wishoskan.+ _Wish._
+  Witchita. _Cad._
+  Wiwash. _Alq._
+  Wíyot. _Wish._
+  Woccon. _E. Siu._
+  Wolokki. _Puj._
+  Woolwa. _Ulv._
+  Wyandot. _Ir._
+  Wylackker. _Cop._
+
+  +Xicaque.+ _Un._
+  Xicayan. _Zap._
+  Xime. _Nah._
+  Ximena. _Pbl., Pim.?_
+  +Xinca.+ _Un._
+  Xicalanca. _Un., My.?_
+  Xuala. _E. Siu._
+
+  Yaketahnoklatakmakanay. _Kit._
+  Yakon. _Ykn._
+  +Yakonan.+ _Ykn._
+  Yakutat. _Kols._
+  Yakwĭna. _Ykn._
+  Yamacraw. _Mus._
+  Yamasi. _Mus._
+  Yamil. _Kal._
+  Yamkally. _Kal._
+  +Yanan.+ _Yan._
+  Yankton. _Siu._
+  Yanktonnais. _Siu._
+  Yaqui. _Pim._
+  Yatasses. _Cad._
+  Yavipais. _Yma._
+  Yellow-knives. _Ath._
+  Yecpin. _Alq._
+  Yesang. _E. Siu._
+  Yodetábi. _Cop._
+  Yokáya Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Yokultat. _Wak._
+  Yokut. _Mar._
+  Yonkalla. _Kal._
+  Yope. _Zo._
+  Yosemité. _Mo._ See Awani.
+  Yótowi. _Puj._
+  Youkone. _Ykn._
+  Yuba. _Puj._
+  Yucatec. _My._
+  Yuchi. _Uch._
+  Yuclulaht. _Wak._
+  Yuit. _Asiatic Esk._
+  Yukai. _Kuln._
+  Yuke.} _Yuk._
+  Yuki.}
+  +Yukian.+ _Yuk._
+  Yúkol. _Mar._
+  Yukulta. _Wak._
+  Yuloni. _Mo._
+  Yuma. _Yma._
+  +Yuman.+ _Yma._
+  Yupaha. _Tim._
+  Yuqueyunque. _Pbl._
+  Yurok. _Wei._
+  Yusâl Pomo. _Kuln._
+  Yuta. _Sho._
+
+  Zapotec. _Zap._
+  +Zapotecan.+ _Zap._
+  Ziamma. _Kers._
+  Zoque. _Zo._
+  +Zoquean.+ _Zo._
+  Zoque-Mixe. _Zo._
+  Zuaque. _Pim._
+  Zuñi. _Zun._
+  +Zuñian.+ _Zun._
+
+[Illustration: WOODEN SEAL-DISH, HAIDA, NORTH-WEST COAST]
+
+
+
+
+                                  INDEX
+
+                See also list of illustrations, page xv.
+
+
+        A
+
+        Abandoned works, meaning of, 348
+
+        Aboriginal dress, 126, 133
+
+        Adobe, 220;
+          brick, 234;
+          house, 195
+
+        Adoption, 366, 416
+
+        Adoratorio, 186
+
+        Alaska, peopled from S. and S.-E., 457
+
+        Albornoz, 136
+
+        Aleut houses, 216
+
+        Aleutian islands, when inhabited, 457
+
+        Aleuts, range of, 217
+
+        Algonquin, dress, 142;
+          records, 58
+
+        Alloy of gold and copper, 301
+
+        Alosaka, the, 179
+
+        Alphabet, Bureau of Ethnology, 36;
+          Cherokee, 52;
+          Sauk, 53
+
+        Amazon myth, 403
+
+        America, when peopled, 456
+
+        Amerind, a village dweller, 247;
+          definition of, 2;
+          literature, 30
+
+        Amerindian race composed of different elements, 457
+
+        Amerinds a stone-age people, 248
+
+        Amnesty, 370
+
+        Amusements, 308
+
+        Ancient fabrics, 108
+
+        Antiquity of man in America, evidences of, 434
+
+        Antiquity of Mayas, 242
+
+        Apaches and Navajos remaining behind, 440
+
+        Appendix, 461
+
+        Aqueduct, 339
+
+        Arch, 217, 242
+
+        Ardnainiq, tribe called, 407
+
+        Armour, 156, 255, 257
+
+        Arrow- and spear-heads, 263
+
+        Assembly place, 412
+
+        Astrology, reliance of Aztecs on, 373
+
+        Astronomical, knowledge, 183;
+          reckonings, 303;
+          station at Zuñi, 306;
+          stone, 182
+
+        Atlantis, 15
+
+        Atolli, 360
+
+        Authentic history, beginning of, 443
+
+        Awatuwi, ruins of, 179
+
+        Awl game, 320
+
+        Aztec, books, 73;
+          cannibal banquet, 371;
+          confederacy, 421, 423, 424;
+          descent, how reckoned, 423;
+          sculptures, 184;
+          states, government of, 423;
+          stone tools, 433;
+          towns, 238;
+          writing, 68, 69;
+          year, 306
+
+
+        B
+
+        Bag, sacred, 204
+
+        Baggattaway, 327
+
+        Baidar, 283
+
+        Baidarka, 283
+
+        Balance not known, 305
+
+        Ball games, 327
+
+        Baqati wheel, 317
+
+        Barábara, 217
+
+        Bark for rope-making, 126
+
+        Basket-drum, 92, 311
+
+        Basketry hats, 147, 148, 415
+
+        Basque, resemblance of language to Amerind, 32
+
+        Bathing, 386
+
+        Battle, costume, 357;
+          for a wife, 385;
+          of Wounded Knee, how begun, 445
+
+        Bayeta cloth, how used by Navajos, 131
+
+        Beads, wampum, 56
+
+        Beadwork, 153
+
+        Bear-mother carving, 164
+
+        Beckwourth, head chief of the Crows, 416
+
+        Bells, 292, 301, 302
+
+        Belts, 143
+
+        Bird box, 364;
+          spear, Eskimo, 268
+
+        Bird-stones, 175
+
+        Bison, disappearance of, 333;
+          possibility of domestication, 276
+
+        Black dye, 304
+
+        Blanket and basket designs symbolic, 58
+
+        Blanket-loom, 124, 131, 132
+
+        Blanket-making, 128, 133
+
+        Blanket-pole, 162
+
+        Blue dye, 304
+
+        Boats, 281;
+          Omaha, 284
+
+        Boiling-basket, 89
+
+        Bolas, 268
+
+        Bologna codex, 72
+
+        Books, of Chilan Balam, 82;
+          of the Mayas, 77, 82
+
+        Borgian codex, 69
+
+        Boundary lines, 410, 411
+
+        Bow and arrow, 249, 254, 256
+
+        Bow-drill, 254
+
+        Boxing, 326
+
+        Bronze tools, 299
+
+        Buffalo wool blankets, 159
+
+        Building methods, change of, 200, 350
+
+        Bunch-word, 32
+
+        Burial, 388
+
+        Burning pottery, 100
+
+
+        C
+
+        Cactus-fruit wine, 360
+
+        Cahokia mound, 342
+
+        Cajon, 220, 236
+
+        Cakchiquel year, 307
+
+        Calaveras skull, 434
+
+        Calculiform writing, 73, 186
+
+        Calendar, stick, 305;
+          stone, 181, 305
+
+        California houses, 215
+
+        Calumet, 364
+
+        Cannibal banquet, 371
+
+        Cannibalism, 368
+
+        Canoe, dugout, 282;
+          Haida, 164, 282
+
+        Captain David, 140
+
+        Captives, treatment of, 366
+
+        Card-playing, 320, 326
+
+        Carved panthers, 180
+
+        Carving, 162, 167, 169
+
+        Casa Grande, 200, 233, 234
+
+        Casas Grandes, 234
+
+        Casting metals, 301
+
+        Cause of North-American race homogeneity, 441
+
+        Cavate lodge, 220, 228;
+          plan and sections, 227
+
+        Cedar mats, 147
+
+        Cement, 303, 305
+
+        Cenoté, 370
+
+        Central-American arts, why superior, 439
+
+        Centre of culture, 431
+
+        Ceremonials, 320, 376, 381
+
+        Cérros trinchéras, 344
+
+        Chac-Mool, statue, 190
+
+        Chaco ruins, 230, 232
+
+        Chalchivitl, 136
+
+        Change in building methods, 200, 350
+
+        Cherokee, alphabet, 52;
+          syllabary, 52;
+          writing, 36
+
+        Chiefs, 416, 424;
+          civil, 418;
+          grades of, 424;
+          war, 418
+
+        Chief’s office hereditary in the gens, 424
+
+        Chilkat blanket, 452
+
+        Chimney, Puebloan, 226
+
+        Chinook jargon, 28
+
+        Chirimia, 311
+
+        Chiriqui, pottery, 104;
+          stools, 192
+
+        Chocolatl, 360
+
+        Cholula, Great Mound of, 350
+
+        Chultune, 288
+
+        Cigarette used, 363
+
+        _Cire perdue_ process, 301
+
+        City of Refuge, 456
+
+        Civil and military branches often separate, 418
+
+        Civilised tribes, 358
+
+        Clan, 414;
+          crest, 166, 220;
+          privileges and obligations of, 419
+
+        Classification by stone implements impossible, 433
+
+        Cleanliness, 386
+
+        Cliff-dwellers, 176, 229
+
+        Codex, Bologna, 72;
+          Borgia, 69;
+          Cortesianus, 82;
+          Dresden, 82;
+          Mendoza, 72;
+          Peresianus, 76, 82;
+          Telleriano-Remensis, 72;
+          Troano, 82;
+          Vaticanus, 72
+
+        Coil-process pottery, 99, 104
+
+        Comalli, 360
+
+        Commerce, 375
+
+        Communal, buildings, 247;
+          living, 200, 247
+
+        Complementary days, 306
+
+        Confederacy, Aztec, 421, 423, 424;
+          Iroquois, 421, 425, 449
+
+        Conical cap, 148;
+          hat, 147
+
+        Continent peopled before glacial period, 432
+
+        Controversy, 383
+
+        Cooking-basket, 89
+
+        Copan, 242, 351
+
+        Copper, bells, 292;
+          bowlder, 288;
+          hardening, 299;
+          implements, 291;
+          mines, date of working, 290;
+          plates, 291;
+          working, 249, 288, 291, 301
+
+        Coppers, 162, 293
+
+        Corbel, arch, 242;
+          vault, 235, 237, 242
+
+        Cord, 126
+
+        Cord-marked pottery, 106
+
+        Coronado, error in tracing of route of, 453
+
+        Cortesianus codex, 82
+
+        Costume, 133 to 144, 367
+
+        Cotton, 128, 338
+
+        Cotton-padded armour, 259
+
+        Cotton weaving, 137
+
+        Council, 420;
+          general, 420;
+          of women, 420;
+          tribal, 420
+
+        Councillors, 416, 420
+
+        Counterfeiting, 49
+
+        “Counts back” of the Dakotas, 60, 377
+
+        _Coureurs du Bois_, 451
+
+        Covenant chain of the Iroquois, 352
+
+        Crest, 166
+
+        Crops, 333
+
+        Cross, the, 254;
+          in America, 63
+
+        Crotalus, 380
+
+        Cruciform tomb, 3, 384;
+          ground plan, 385
+
+        Cueitl, 138
+
+        Culture not evidence of relationship, 430
+
+        Cup-markings, 65
+
+        Cupped-stones, 65, 272
+
+        Curtains for doors, 205
+
+
+        D
+
+        Dagänowédä, 421
+
+        Daily life not bloody, 353
+
+        Dakota winter counts, 60
+
+        Dance, around a cedar tree, 315;
+          Ghost, 316;
+          Rain, 364;
+          Resurrection, 316;
+          Snake, 376;
+          Somaikoli, 318, 381, 454
+
+        Dancing, 376, 378, 381
+
+        Dead, disposal of, 388
+
+        Death-house, Natchez, 208
+
+        Death-masks in Amerindian pottery, 106, 171
+
+        Declaration of war, 366
+
+        Decoration of pottery, 99
+
+        Defensive, village, 346;
+          walls, 345
+
+        Deformity rare, 366
+
+        Degeneration of Yucatecs, 439
+
+        Descent, basis of, 419
+
+        Destruction of Amerinds by Gov. Kieft, 444
+
+        Details of Puebloan house architecture, 211
+
+        Dibble, 270
+
+        Dighton Rock, 45
+
+        Diseases introduced by whites, 229
+
+        Distinction between gens and clan, 419
+
+        Distribution of, arts, 439;
+          food, 354
+
+        Dog, harness, Eskimo, 278;
+          whip, 279
+
+        Dogs, 276
+
+        Dolls, 328
+
+        Doors, 205
+
+        Doorways, 228
+
+        Double-headed snake, 168, 392
+
+        Dramatic sense, 331
+
+        Dresden codex, 82
+
+        Dress, 143
+
+        Drill, 251, 252
+
+        Drums, 308
+
+        Dry-painting, 61, 387
+
+        Dugout canoe, 282
+
+        Dwarfs, races of, 405
+
+        Dwellings, 195
+
+        Dyes, 303, 304
+
+
+        E
+
+        Early advancement, 432
+
+        Earthenware burial casket, 105
+
+        Earth, iglu, 219;
+          lodge, 202
+
+        Earthworks, Cahokia mound, 342;
+          connected with agriculture, 338;
+          Etowah group, 337, 346;
+          foundations for houses, 338;
+          method of construction, 342;
+          Newark group, 346
+
+        East Mesa, 378
+
+        Effigy jars, 119
+
+        Eldorado myth, 403
+
+        Election of Aztec chief, 424
+
+        Election of chiefs, 418
+
+        Elephant mound, 334;
+          pipe, 172
+
+        Elephant’s trunks, 190
+
+        Elopement, 383
+
+        Emblem of peace, 364
+
+        Embroidery, 153
+
+        Enchanted mesa, 408
+
+        Eskimo, boots, 158;
+          cloak, 159;
+          clothing, 156, 158;
+          derivation of term, 32;
+          dog harness, 278;
+          drum, 313;
+          fuel, 275;
+          house, 217, 219, 221;
+          lamp, 169, 274;
+          language, 36;
+          light from lamp, 276;
+          not in Alaska 500 years back, 428;
+          southern range of, 273;
+          wick for lamp, 276
+
+        Estufa, not a sweat-house, 375
+
+        Etchings, rock-scratchings incorrectly called, 180
+
+        Eternal fires, 252
+
+        Etowah mound, 337, 346
+
+
+        F
+
+        Fabric-marked pottery, 109
+
+        Face decoration, 366
+
+        Farming, 336
+
+        Farm products, 247, 338
+
+        Feather, garments, 134, 137, 138;
+          mail, 134;
+          mantles, 138
+
+        Feather-work, method of making, 137
+
+        Feathered, horned serpent, 63
+
+        Fetich, of what consisting, 420
+
+        Fire-drill, 250, 252;
+          by friction, 368, 370;
+          eternal, 252
+
+        Firing pottery, 100
+
+        Five Nations (or Tribes), 212, 425
+
+        Flageolet, 308
+
+        Flax, 130
+
+        Flint Ridge, 264
+
+        Flood stories, 407, 408
+
+        Floods, 439
+
+        Flute, 308
+
+        Fondness for singing, 318
+
+        Football, Eskimo, 326
+
+        Foot-races, 323
+
+        Forbidden food, 373
+
+        Foreign influence, no, 247
+
+        Fort Ancient, 344
+
+        Fortifications, 344
+
+        Fraudulent implements, 49
+
+        Funeral, jars, 112;
+          urns, 190
+
+        Fur companies, methods of, 363
+
+
+        G
+
+        Gallantry, 387
+
+        Gallatin’s work, 20–26
+
+        Gambling, 323
+
+        Games, 320
+
+        Garments, primitive, 126
+
+        Garters, 133
+
+        Gauntlet, running the, 366
+
+        Genesis, myth of the Mokis, 403
+
+        Gens, 414;
+          basis of, 419;
+          definition of, 414;
+          privileges of, and obligations, 419
+
+        Gentes, 414
+
+        Gentile system, 414
+
+        Georgia costume, 141
+
+        Gesture language, 26
+
+        Ghost dance, 316, 399
+
+        Ghost-shirt, 156, 262
+
+        Gilded man, the myth of, 403
+
+        Glacial period, cause of, 435
+
+        Glaciation, duration of, 435;
+          extent of, in North America, 435
+
+        Glue, 303, 305
+
+        God-houses of the Huichols, 409
+
+        Gold, alloy, 301;
+          plating, 302
+
+        Government, 414
+
+        Governor’s palace, Uxmal, 244
+
+        Grass seeds for food, 358
+
+        Grave monuments, 166
+
+        Graves, 388;
+          stone box, 388
+
+        Grease feast, 162
+
+        Great Heads, 407
+
+        Great Mound of Cholula, 350
+
+        Great Spirit, no knowledge of a single, 375
+
+        Gukumatz, 397
+
+
+        H
+
+        Haida canoes, 164
+
+        Hair dressing, 150
+
+        Hall of Columns, 209, 246
+
+        Hano, establishment of village of, 22
+
+        Hard pottery, 100
+
+        Hardened copper, 299, 300
+
+        Harpoon, 267
+
+        Hawk bells, 292, 309
+
+        Head at Izamal, 191
+
+        Head chief, 416
+
+        Head roll for carrying, 153
+
+        Health, 356
+
+        Heat, debilitating to Amerinds, 439
+
+        Helmet, 260
+
+        Hereditary offices, 423–424
+
+        Hero-gods, 371, 396, 399, 401
+
+        Hiawatha, 393;
+          in Longfellow and Schoolcraft ranked as an Algonquin, 395
+
+        Hieratic languages, 29
+
+        Hill forts, 344
+
+        Hinuⁿ, God of Thunder, 364
+
+        History, linked with other races, 447
+
+        Hodenosaunee, 212
+
+        Hodenosote, 200, 210
+
+        Hollow square earthworks, 208
+
+        Homogeneity, 358
+
+        Hopewell cache, 264
+
+        Horse-racing, 323, 329
+
+        Hospitality, a law, 354, 447
+
+        House, column, 162;
+          of the dead, 208;
+          post, 162
+
+        Household utensils, 273
+
+        Houses on piles, 240
+
+        Hudson Bay Co., peaceful success of, 453
+
+        Huepilli, 140
+
+        Human flesh eaten, 367, 368
+
+        Hunt-the-button game, 324
+
+        Hut of the Great Sun, 208
+
+
+        I
+
+        Ideographic records, 48, 59
+
+        Iglu, 217
+
+        Iglugeak, 217
+
+        Ikonographic writing, 69
+
+        Ikonomatic, 48, 69
+
+        Imaginary animals, 174
+
+        Indian, corn, 358;
+          names, 395;
+          stocks or families, list of, 461;
+          tribes, list of, 465
+
+        Indio Triste, 184
+
+        Intercalation of days, 306;
+          denied, 306
+
+        Interkilling, 381
+
+        Internecine wars, 229, 427
+
+        Irish and Danes in Ancient America, 429
+
+        Irrigating, 333;
+          canals, 195, 333, 336
+
+        Iroquois, confederacy, 421, 425, 449;
+          costume, 140;
+          house, 198, 200, 210;
+          unsurpassed, 375
+
+        Israelite and Amerindian myths compared, 403
+
+        Itzamna, 401
+
+        Ixtlilxochitl, 443
+
+        Izamal, head at, 191
+
+
+        J
+
+        Jacal construction, 220, 236
+
+        Jargon, Chinook, 28
+
+        Joint tenements, 240
+
+        Jossakeed, 373
+
+
+        K
+
+        Kabinapek orchestra, 325
+
+        Kalopaling, 407
+
+        Karankawa, 34
+
+        Kashim, 216
+
+        Katcina, 47, 378
+
+        Kayak, 281, 283
+
+        Kishoni, 196
+
+        Kisi construction, 196
+
+        Kiva, 231, 232, 325, 350, 375, 412, 414
+
+        Knives, 269
+
+        Kwakiutl, house front, 239;
+          statues, 167
+
+        Kwokwuli, 405
+
+
+        L
+
+        Labna, palace of, 450
+
+        Labret, 355
+
+        Lacandon idol, 190
+
+        Lack of carving in the South-west, 181
+
+        Lacrosse, 327
+
+        Ladders, 197, 226
+
+        Lamp, 169, 274;
+          of Vancouver Island, 275;
+          wick, 276
+
+        Landa’s alphabet, 50;
+          legacy, 78
+
+        Language, classification, 17;
+          roots, 18, 25
+
+        Languages, number of, 20;
+          polysynthetic, 32
+
+        Laōlaxa costume, 406
+
+        Law of hospitality, 354, 447
+
+        League of the Iroquois, 421, 425, 449
+
+        Legends, 393, 403, 405
+
+        Leggings, 134, 143, 144, 148, 150
+
+        Lenapé houses, 206
+
+        Length of year calculated, 305
+
+        Limits of ancient inhabitants, 437
+
+        Linguistic map, 33
+
+        Long-house, 200, 210, 414
+
+        Loom, 124, 131, 132
+
+        Lost-Tribes-of-Israel theory, 53, 63, 401, 403, 429
+
+        Louisiana costume, 140
+
+
+        M
+
+        Main points of Iroquois organisation, 425
+
+        Maize, 358
+
+        Makah house, 213
+
+        Malignant sprites, 405
+
+        Man always the same, 315
+
+        Manatee pipe, 173
+
+        Mandan costume, 144
+
+        Manner of dying, 356
+
+        Mantle of fur, 137
+
+        Map, Central-American ruins, 436;
+          linguistic, 33;
+          Mexican ruins, 438
+
+        Masks, 165
+
+        Mats, 147
+
+        Maxtlatl, 136
+
+        Maya, alphabet, 50;
+          books, 77, 82;
+          buildings, ground plans, 238;
+          chronicles, 408;
+          chronology, 242, 307;
+          greatness, 242;
+          house, 246;
+          numeral system, 83;
+          numerals, 86;
+          paper, 77;
+          parchment, 77;
+          war and rain gods, 190;
+          week, 306;
+          writing, origin of, 78;
+          year, 306
+
+        Mealing stones, 194
+
+        Medicinal remedies, 373
+
+        Medicine-men, 371, 372
+
+        Mendoza codex, 72
+
+        Mesa Encantada, 408
+
+        Messiah, the, 399
+
+        Metates, 181, 191, 194, 272
+
+        Method of attaching arrow-heads, 265
+
+        Methods of the fur companies, 363
+
+        Metlatl, 272
+
+        Mexican, bronze tools, 299;
+          costume, 134, 136, 138;
+          hardened copper, 299;
+          houses, 238;
+          knowledge of metals, 299;
+          mining, 299
+
+        Mezcal, 360
+
+        Michabo, 396, 399, 401
+
+        Midē, society, 401;
+          songs, 58
+
+        Migration theory, 428
+
+        Milk not used, 360
+
+        Mining, 285;
+          by fire method, 285
+
+        Misconceptions of the Spaniards, 421
+
+        Mississippi valley, houses, 205;
+          pottery, 106
+
+        Mitla, 209, 246;
+          roof construction, 230
+
+        Mnemonic records, 48, 59
+
+        Moccasin, 134, 142, 145, 150, 159, 369
+
+        Modoc houses, 215
+
+        Moki, hair dressing, 150, 151;
+          house plan, 220;
+          loom, 130;
+          method of watering crops, 335;
+          putchkohu, 268, 270;
+          reservation, 447;
+          sacred blanket, 130;
+          throwing-stick, 268, 270;
+          women’s costume, 150
+
+        Monitor pipe, 171
+
+        Monolithic monuments, 186
+
+        Montezuma, legend of, 408;
+          rank of, 423
+
+        Moons computed to the year, 305
+
+        Morgan’s classification, 14
+
+        Mormon protective garment, 262
+
+        Mortar, 246, 272
+
+        Most widely spread stocks, 443
+
+        Mound foundations, 242
+
+        Moundbuilder pipes, 172, 174
+
+        Moundbuilders, lack of skill, 174
+
+        Mounds, 195, 206, 207, 342, 350;
+          builders of, 343
+
+        Murder, settlement of, 381
+
+        Musical, bow, 308, 451;
+          instruments, 308
+
+        Mustache, 154
+
+        Myths, 393, 403;
+          resemblances to those of Israelites, 403
+
+
+        N
+
+        Nahuatls, 443. _See_ Mexican _and_ Aztec
+
+        Names, derivation of, 386;
+          indicating totem, 420
+
+        Natchez temple, 207
+
+        Navajo, costume, 150;
+          dramatic sense, 331;
+          dry-painting, 61;
+          house, 199;
+          loom construction, 131, 132;
+          reservation, 445;
+          silversmiths, 294;
+          silver-work, 296;
+          songs the most primitive, 313;
+          summer and winter homes, 412;
+          women’s costume, 150
+
+        Navajos remained behind, 440
+
+        Nenenot tent, 219
+
+        Nets, 269
+
+        New-fire, 252, 368, 370;
+          Moki, 370
+
+        Newark group of earthworks, 346
+
+        Nicaragua costume, 140
+
+        Night attacks, 366
+
+        North growing warmer, 443
+
+        North-west coast, “coppers,” 293;
+          houses, 212, 241;
+          totem poles, 241
+
+        North-western tribes, costume, 144
+
+        Notched doorway, 213, 228
+
+        Numerals of the Mayas, 83, 86
+
+
+        O
+
+        Object of Aztec war, 368
+
+        Observatories, 183
+
+        Obsidian, mines, 264;
+          tools, 299
+
+        Octli, 360
+
+        Oglala roster, 387
+
+        Okeepa ceremony, 362, 378
+
+        Oldest people of Valley of Mexico, 443
+
+        Olmecas, 443
+
+        Omaha boat, 284
+
+        Only one kind of music, 314
+
+        Ontonagon bowlder, the, 289
+
+        Opinion, effect of, on civil chief, 416
+
+        Oraibi at night, 325
+
+        Organisation and government, 410, 414
+
+        Organisation of Iroquois confederacy, 425
+
+        Origin, migrations, and history, 428
+
+        Origin of Maya writing, 78
+
+        Ornamentation of Yucatec architecture, 191
+
+        Outlaws, 453, 455
+
+
+        P
+
+        Pai Ute Messiah, 399
+
+        Pai Utes, 303
+
+        Painting faces, 366
+
+        Palace of Palenque, 351
+
+        Palenque buildings, 244, 351, 404, Frontispiece;
+          transverse section of, 210
+
+        Palm-drill, 252, 368
+
+        Paper of the Mayas, 77
+
+        Parallelism of human development, 396
+
+        Patnish and his band, 455
+
+        Patolli, 322
+
+        Peace chiefs, 418;
+          envoys, 364
+
+        Penn’s dealings, 358
+
+        Peopling of America, 428
+
+        Peresianus codex, 76
+
+        Period of time since recession of ice, 441
+
+        Permanent houses, 195
+
+        Phonetic element in Mayan and Mexican writing, 71
+
+        Phonographic records of songs, 320
+
+        Photographs bad medicine, 381
+
+        Phratry, 414
+
+        Pictographs, painted, 42
+
+        Picture-writing, 39;
+          classified, 50
+
+        Piki (Moki bread), 377
+
+        Pima house, 199
+
+        Piñon nuts for food, 358
+
+        Pipe, 171;
+          of peace, 364;
+          stone, 375
+
+        Pisé, 220, 236
+
+        Platforms, 206
+
+        Plumaje, 134
+
+        Plum-stone game, 324
+
+        Pochotl, 360
+
+        Poet, 313
+
+        Pokagon, Simon, quoted, 449
+
+        Pole, sacred, of the Omahas, 204
+
+        Polygamy, 386
+
+        Polysynthetic languages, 32
+
+        _Popol Vuh_, 82, 397
+
+        Population, 177;
+          before glacial cold, 434
+
+        Portable houses, 195
+
+        Potlatch, 162
+
+        Pottery, area, 110;
+          burnished, 100;
+          cloisonné, 101;
+          coil made, 99;
+          decoration of, 99, 120, 122;
+          Eskimo knowledge of, 428;
+          glaze, 101;
+          invented, 98;
+          preparation of clay for, 99
+
+        Priest doctor, 371
+
+        Primitive, fabrics, 124;
+          garments, 126;
+          loom, 121
+
+        Pronunciation, 34
+
+        Protective, armour, 156;
+          medicine, 262
+
+        Protruding tongue, 166
+
+        Pueblo, 207
+
+        Puebloan, costume, 133, 151, 153;
+          ignorance of metals, 292;
+          use of term, 44
+
+        Pulque, 360
+
+        Pump-drill, 251, 254
+
+        Putchkohu, 268, 270
+
+        Pyramid, not a proper term, 343, 351;
+          of Cholula, 350;
+          of the Sun, 350
+
+
+        Q
+
+        Quarries, 264, 273
+
+        Quetzalcohuatl, 371, 396, 397
+
+
+        R
+
+        Rabbit-skin robe, 130
+
+        Rain dance, 364
+
+        Raised houses, 240
+
+        Rapidity of erosion after recession of ice, 441
+
+        Rations, issue of, 445
+
+        Rattles, 309
+
+        Rattlesnake, centre of distribution, 190;
+          designs, 188;
+          horned, 380;
+          species, 189;
+          venerated, 63
+
+        Recession of the sea, 437
+
+        Records of Tecpan, Atitlan, 82
+
+        Red Cloud’s census, 60
+
+        Red dye, 304
+
+        Red pipe-stone, 375
+
+        Red score, authenticity of, 390;
+          of the Lenapés, 46, 47, 390
+
+        Rehearsal, a, 317
+
+        Religion, 375
+
+        Religious feasts, 368
+
+        Remedies, medicinal, 373
+
+        Remedy for smallpox, 375
+
+        Repoussé method of working copper, 291
+
+        Resemblance to Asiatics, 457
+
+        Resemblances of Amerinds and Old World people, cause of, 432
+
+        Reservoirs, 195, 338
+
+        Resurrection dance, 316, 399
+
+        Right of asylum, 364
+
+        Roasting tray, 90
+
+        Rock, carving, 168;
+          peckings, 42, 168, 180
+
+        Roof construction, Mitla, 230;
+          Moki, 226
+
+        Rope-making, 126, 346
+
+        Round towers, 232
+
+        Ruins in Honduras and Nicaragua, 246
+
+        Running the gauntlet, 366
+
+
+        S
+
+        Sachems, duties of, 425
+
+        Sacred, bag, 204;
+          buffalo-cow skin, 204;
+          Moki blanket, 130;
+          pole, 204, 383;
+          structures, 208;
+          tent, 204, 208;
+          tipi, 204
+
+        Sacrifice, method of Aztec, 371;
+          of children, Aztec, 371
+
+        Sacrificial stone, 182
+
+        Sail of umiak, 284
+
+        Sauk alphabet, 53
+
+        Sealskin, bottles, 276;
+          floats, 267
+
+        Secret society, 414
+
+        Section of Yucatec building, 235
+
+        Seminole, costume, 154;
+          war, 445
+
+        Sequoia, 360
+
+        Sequoyah (George Gist) syllabary, 52
+
+        Seven cities myth, 403
+
+        Shamans, 371, 373, 408;
+          definition of, 372
+
+        Shell carvings, 174
+
+        Shields, 258
+
+        Shoshokoes, 8
+
+        Sign-language, 26
+
+        Sign of clan or gens membership, 420
+
+        Silversmith’s tools, 298
+
+        Silversmiths, Navajo, 294, 296;
+          Tlinkit, 296
+
+        Similarities between Amerind and European words, 25, 28
+
+        Singing, 312, 318;
+          in the night, 319
+
+        “Singing-girl,” statue, 188
+
+        Sīsul, 168, 392
+
+        Sitting Bull, 356, 451
+
+        Six Nations, 425
+
+        Skin armour, 260
+
+        Skull-cap, 147
+
+        Slab houses, 212
+
+        Sledge, 277
+
+        Smallpox remedy, 375
+
+        Smelting ore, 291
+
+        Smoking, 363
+
+        Snake dance, 376
+
+        Snow-house, 217;
+          iglu, 217;
+          knife, 217;
+          shoe, 280;
+          snake, 323
+
+        Soapstone quarries, 273, 286;
+          vessels, 273
+
+        Sod house, 217
+
+        Soft pottery, 99
+
+        Sokus Waiunats and the magic cup, 403
+
+        Somaikoli ceremony, 318, 381, 454
+
+        Songs of the Ghost dance, 316
+
+        Sorceress, 371
+
+        Sound writing, 69
+
+        Soyaita ceremony, _see_ Somaikoli
+
+        Spades, 270
+
+        Spear- and arrow-heads, 263
+
+        Spindle, 126
+
+        Spinning, 128
+
+        Statue of the Sun, 350
+
+        Stelæ, Copan, 186
+
+        Stock names, how derived, 30
+
+        Stocks, 17
+
+        Stone, cutting, 300;
+          graves, 388;
+          implements as charms, 263;
+          statues in Georgia and Tennessee, 176
+
+        Stools of Chiriqui, 192
+
+        Story telling, 330
+
+        String-drill, 252
+
+        Sun priests of the Moki, 305
+
+        Superstition, 377
+
+        Swastika, 63, 458
+
+        Sweat, bath, 374;
+          house, 374
+
+        Syllabary, Cherokee, 52
+
+        Symbol of the peaceful council fire, 418
+
+        Symbolic writing, 69
+
+
+        T
+
+        Tablet of the, Cross, 184;
+          Sun, 186
+
+        Tablets, Maya, 184
+
+        Taensa house, 208
+
+        Tambourine-drum, 308, 313
+
+        Taos, 3, 234
+
+        Tattooing, 56
+
+        Tchungkee game, 328
+
+        Tecumseh, 449
+
+        Tegua (moccasin), 134
+
+        Telleriano-Remensis Codex, 72
+
+        Temple, of the Cross, 184, 190, 244;
+          of the Natchez, 207;
+          of the Sun, Frontispiece, 186;
+          of Tepoztlan, 242, 391;
+          of Xochicalco, 23, 31, 242
+
+        Temples, 350
+
+        Temporary house, 195
+
+        Tennis, 328
+
+        Teocalli, Frontispiece, 391
+
+        Tepehuaje, 311
+
+        Teponaztli, 312
+
+        Tepoztlan, temple of, 242, 391
+
+        Terms for describing stone weapons, 263
+
+        Terra-cotta, figures, 112, 113, 115;
+          tubing, 116, 117
+
+        Tetzontli, 350
+
+        Tewa, village of, when established, 22
+
+        Thought writing, 69
+
+        Thread, 126, 138
+
+        Throwing-stick of Mokis, 267, 268
+
+        Thunder-bird, 167, 342, 393
+
+        Tilmatli, 136
+
+        Time calculations, 305
+
+        Tipi, 195, 198, 200, 204;
+          construction, 200;
+          decoration, 202;
+          derivation of, 200;
+          sacred, of the Omahas, 204
+
+        Tiste, 360
+
+        Tlaloc, 396
+
+        Tlapan-huehuetl, 311
+
+        Tlaxcala, not a Mexican Switzerland, 423
+
+        Tlaxcalteco organisation, 424
+
+        Tlinkit silversmith, 296
+
+        Tobacco, 28, 363;
+          pipe, 171, 363, 364
+
+        Toboggan, 279
+
+        Toltecs, 443
+
+        Tongue in Amerindian carving, 166
+
+        Tools, 249
+
+        Topek, 219
+
+        Tortillas, 360
+
+        Totem, and totemism, 386;
+          poles, 162, 386
+
+        Totems, where chosen, 420
+
+        Totolospi game, 322
+
+        Towers, round, 232
+
+        Tozacatl, 311
+
+        Traditions, 393
+
+        Traits, 354
+
+        Translation of picture-writing by Mormons, 63
+
+        Transportation, 276
+
+        Triangular arch, 242
+
+        Tribal, chief, 416;
+          organisation, 414
+
+        Tribes, change building methods, 350;
+          exterminated, 445
+
+        Troano Codex, 82
+
+        True arch, 217
+
+        Tupek, 219
+
+        Turf house, 217
+
+        Turtleback flints, 261
+
+
+        U
+
+        Umiak, 157, 282, 283;
+          sail, 284
+
+        Unity of all music, 314
+
+        Unseen ruins, 246
+
+        Utahs, costume of 1776, 141
+
+
+        V
+
+        Value of a “copper,” 297
+
+        Variation in culture, 178
+
+        Vase from Labna, 74
+
+        Vatican Codex, 72
+
+        Veils, 138
+
+        Vicuna in Arizona, 130, 276
+
+        Village dweller, 8
+
+        Villages, location of, 412;
+          permanent, 228
+
+        Virgin copper, 301
+
+        Votan, 397
+
+        Votive stones, 188
+
+
+        W
+
+        Walamink, or Place of Paint, 304
+
+        Wālasaxa dance, 359
+
+        Wall, steps on, Moki, 222, 224
+
+        Walls, Moki, 226
+
+        Walam Olum, 47, 390
+
+        Wampum, 55, 143, 418;
+          belt, 418
+
+        War, 8, 366, 445;
+          belt of Iroquois, 418;
+          bonnet, 145, 156, 266;
+          chief’s office hereditary in the tribe, 424;
+          chiefs, 418, 424;
+          costume, 156, 357, 442;
+          declaration of, 418;
+          infrequent, 366;
+          object of, with Aztecs, 368;
+          Seminole, 445;
+          shirt, 262
+
+        Water-pocket, 405
+
+        Waterproof, boots, 159;
+          garment, 159
+
+        Weaving, 126, 128, 137, 141, 147
+
+        Weighing, 305
+
+        Whalebone dish, 96
+
+        Whip, of Eskimos, 279;
+          top, 328
+
+        Whisky, 360, 361
+
+        Whistles, 308, 310
+
+        White, brutality, 445;
+          buffalo-cow skin, sacred, 204;
+          men as chiefs, 416
+
+        Wicker-work, in house construction, 234, 236;
+          plastered, 236
+
+        Wigwam, 200, 204
+
+        Wikiup, 195
+
+        Wilson, Jack, the Pai Ute Messiah, 399
+
+        Windows, 228, 242
+
+        Wine, from cactus fruit, 360
+
+        Winter counts, Dakota, 60, 377
+
+        Wolf-killer, 267
+
+        Wooden, house, 195;
+          walls in ancient Puebloan construction, 236
+
+        Woonupits, 320, 405
+
+        Wrecks of Japanese vessels on Pacific coast, 429
+
+
+        X
+
+        Xicalancas, 443
+
+        Xochicalco, temple of, 23, 31, 242
+
+
+        Y
+
+        Yant, 358
+
+        Yellow dye, 304
+
+        Yokuts houses, 215
+
+        Yourt, 216
+
+        Yucatec, buildings, ground plans, 238;
+          stone, 242
+
+
+        Z
+
+        Zahcab, 238, 288
+
+        Zoötheism, 375
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE SWASTIKA
+
+  A primitive and universal sign]
+
+
+
+
+                               FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See the last chapter.
+
+[2] See linguistic map p. 33, and list of tribes and stocks in Appendix.
+
+[3] When the ice front was along the Ohio, the Eskimo naturally were
+distributed along the southern fringe.
+
+[4] For many details of the life of the American Indians, or Amerinds,
+see _The Indians of To-Day_, by George Bird Grinnell. For the origin of
+the word Amerind see the _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No.
+3, p. 582.
+
+[5] It must be borne in mind that the general estimate of the Amerind
+is entirely drawn from white men’s writings. The Amerind side has never
+been presented.
+
+[6] _Narrative of James P. Beckwourth_, p. 254; Irving’s _Bonneville_,
+p. 225.
+
+[7] “Amidst all the devastating incursions of the Indians in North
+America it is a remarkable fact that no Friend who stood faithful to
+his principles in the disuse of all weapons of war, the cause of which
+was generally well understood by the Indians, ever suffered personal
+molestation from them,” vol. v., p. 63, Brinton’s _Library of Am. Ab.
+Literature_, from _An Account of the Conduct of the Society of Friends
+toward the Indians_, p. 72. London, 1844.
+
+[8] Payne says, “Anahuac was becoming a military despotism.” _History
+of the New World called America_, vol. ii., p. 494.
+
+[9] See Preface and the last chapter.
+
+[10] Brinton’s “Uto-Aztecan.” The connection between the Nahuatl, or
+Aztec, and Shoshonean is not well established.
+
+[11] Lewis H. Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, Dr. W. J. McGee has
+added a fourth stage, “Enlightenment.”
+
+[12] For a full statement of this story, see the fascinating book,
+_Atlantis: The Antediluvian World_, by Ignatius Donnelly.
+
+[13] See Chap. XVI. and also the Preface.
+
+[14] The widest differences were in the Maya and the Timuquanan. Each
+of these differed greatly from the bulk of the Amerind languages and
+from each other, probably because both stocks held more isolated
+positions than the others during the glacial period, and preserved more
+of their earlier life, whatever it may have been.
+
+[15] See J. N. B. Hewitt, _American Anthropologist_, October, 1893.
+
+[16] “There are well-known examples in the ethnography of other races,
+where reliance on language alone would lead the investigator astray;
+but all serious students of the native American tribes are united in
+the opinion that with them no other clue can compare to it in general
+results.”—D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, Preface.
+
+[17] As to the value of linguistics as a means of classification, Cyrus
+Thomas says: “On the one side, it is held by some authors that affinity
+of languages implies racial identity or unity of origin; on the
+other, it is contended that the theory that the affinity of languages
+necessarily implies identity of race is not warranted.”
+
+[18] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_. He does not approve wholly of
+these terminations.
+
+[19] _Seventh Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of Ethnology_, contains
+complete list of American race stocks, north of Mexico, as far as
+known. See Appendix.
+
+[20] _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 35.
+
+[21] Hopi is the singular; Hopituh the plural. Dr. Fewkes and others
+having decided in favour of the singular form, it is so given here.
+
+[22] They have intermarried with the Hopi and Navajo till Fewkes
+believes that in “the next generation the percentage of pure
+Tañoan blood will be so small that we cannot regard the stock as
+Tañoan.”—_American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, p. 167.
+
+[23] See Chap. XVI.
+
+[24] _The American Race_ and _Chronicles of the Maya_.
+
+[25] For further coincidences see Payne, _History of the New World
+Called America_, vol. ii., p. 78, _et seq._
+
+[26] See the _American Anthropologist_, July, 1894, vol. vii., “The
+Chinook Jargon,” by Myron Eells.
+
+[27] _Snake Dance of the Mokis_, p. 190.
+
+[28] There are analogies between the Nahuatl and some languages of the
+North-west and Alaska, especially that of the Koluschan, or Tlinkit,
+living along the sea from Dixon Entrance to Prince William Sound.
+
+[29] The Maya, however, has been found a useful language by Europeans.
+Dr. Berendt met “whole families of pure white blood” who used this
+language and did not know Spanish. This is not the usual fate of the
+Amerind tongues.
+
+[30] This word was popularly written Esquimaux, after the French.
+Then the Bureau of Ethnology wrote it Eskimo, and this has been the
+accepted spelling and pronunciation. But it is from the Abnaki dialect
+of Algonquin, according to Brinton (_The American Race_, p. 59), and is
+properly Eskimwhan. This is better represented by Eskimä than by Eskimo.
+
+[31] See the list of stocks in the Appendix.
+
+[32] “Their language was reduced to writing some sixty years ago and
+has now a considerable literature. Nearly all the men of the tribe are
+able to conduct personal correspondence in their own language.”—Mooney,
+_American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, p. 137, 1899.
+
+[33] The “l” like “cl” in “exclaim.”
+
+[34] See also Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 96 _et
+seq._, for an excellent discussion of Amerind languages.
+
+[35] “Cherokee Formulas,” Mooney, _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[36] For a complete presentation of the subject of sign-language, see
+paper by Garrick Mallery, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, and for that of
+picture-writing see _Tenth Ann. Rept._, a paper by same author, and one
+in _Fourth Ann. Rept._
+
+[37] Note in Preface and last chapter statement as to irregularity of
+culture progress.
+
+[38] The Mayas, however, had passed the zenith of their development.
+
+[39] “Etching” is the word commonly used, but as etching is a totally
+different thing it has no place in this connection, and only adds to
+the incongruities already existing in writings on the Amerind subject.
+
+[40] _Painted_ characters are found in southern California, west and
+south-west of Sierra Nevada; _painted_ and _scratched_, from Colorado
+River to Georgia, north to West Virginia and along the Mississippi.
+Remaining parts of United States show rock scratchings almost exclusive
+of paintings, according to Mallery.
+
+[41] The name applied by the Pai Utes to the old Puebloans.
+
+[42] That is, the rock faces change slowly. Other changes may occur,
+as, for instance, the foothold from which the pictures were made. I
+remember seeing in Keam’s Canyon, Arizona, some pictographs on a cliff
+wall that were far above reach, ten or twelve feet above my head. My
+explanation was that the ground had been washed away after they were
+made.
+
+[43] I say “type,” because the Pueblo culture was not confined to one
+stock. “Puebloan” may be used to designate them.
+
+[44] A rock near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, is inscribed with characters
+supposed to be Runic, which have been translated by Phillips,
+“_Harkussenmen varu_” = “Harko’s son addressed the men.” The Dighton
+inscription was read as an account of the party of Thorfinn, while
+other interpreters have made out Scythian and Phœnician characters. It
+is possible that there may have been a few Runic characters mingled
+with the Algonquian on the Dighton Rock.
+
+[45] For a full account of the Walam Olum, see Brinton’s “The Lenapé
+and their Legends,” in vol. v. of his _Library of American Aboriginal
+History_.
+
+[46] The pronunciation of this word always sounded to me
+“_kat-chee´-nah_,” but Dr. Fewkes eliminates the “h” sound from this
+and other words, and as he has devoted much attention to the subject I
+follow his spelling.
+
+[47] See Brinton, _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 213.
+
+[48] At Newark, Ohio, a business was carried on in the manufacture of
+inscribed stones, buried and dug up to suit occasion.
+
+[49] See “A Remarkable Counterfeiter” by A. E. Jenks, _American
+Anthropologist_, April-June, 1900.
+
+[50] J. T. Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.
+
+[51] The Sauk, of Algonquian stock, “have a syllabic alphabet,
+apparently the work of some early French missionary, by means of which
+they keep up a correspondence with friends on their various scattered
+reservations.”—Mooney, _American Anthropologist_, January, 1899, p. 143.
+
+[52] For an explanation of the Lost Tribes theory see Payne’s _History
+of the New World Called America_, vol. ii., p. 75 _et seq._
+
+[53] Finally, after 1714, the machine-made beads grew in favour,
+because the supply of native beads diminished with the diminution of
+the number of Amerinds. These machine-made beads were of uniform size,
+while the native beads varied considerably. See Horatio Hale, _Pop.
+Sci. Monthly_, February, 1897.
+
+[54] “The best blanket-makers, smiths, and other artisans among
+the Navajos are the descendants of captives from Zuñi and other
+Pueblos.”—J. G. Bourke, _Jour. Am. Folk-Lore_, p. 115.
+
+[55] Garrick Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[56] Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[57] See “The Mountain Chant,” by Washington Matthews, _Fifth Ann.
+Rept. Bu. Eth._ The dry-paintings also occur in the “Yebitchai”
+ceremony, described by James Stevenson, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[58] “Pictographs of the feathered, horned serpent are also found
+on the cliff to the south-west of Walpi. These pictographs have the
+head, with a representation of a horn and feathers, and the same
+conventionalised markings of parallel lines and arrow-points which are
+found on the kilts of the Snake priests.”—Fewkes, _Journal of American
+Ethnology_, vol. ii., p. 38.
+
+[59] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. of Eth._, p. 92.
+
+[60] By Dr. Nicolas Leon. _Science_, Jan. 27, 1899, p. 156. Still
+another lately turned up in possession of an English gentleman.
+
+[61] “They may have passed through some of the same stages of growth,
+but the general consensus of opinion is that the Mayan is the older
+of the two classes, and that these two classes have developed
+independently.”—Thomas, _Study of American Archæology_, p. 360.
+
+[62] P. 213 _et seq._
+
+[63] Several have recently been splendidly reproduced and may be found
+at large libraries.
+
+[64] Suggested by the Abbé Brasseur.
+
+[65] Egypt had three kinds of writing.
+
+[66] _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.
+
+[67] For a fac-simile of part of the Landa MS. and bibliographic notes
+on Mayan and Mexican writing see _Winsor’s Nar. and Crit. Hist. of the
+U. S._, vol. i., p. 197.
+
+[68] See the Preface, p. vii., and the last chapter.
+
+[69] Cyrus Thomas, Introduction to _Study of American Archæology_, p.
+361.
+
+[70] _Ibid._, p. 343.
+
+[71] _Queen Moo_, by A. Le Plongeon, p. xv.
+
+[72] Pp. 95 and 100.
+
+[73] The “Codex Cortesianus is considered to furnish a connecting link
+between Maya and Mexican symbols.”—Powell.
+
+[74] Written in 1558. An abridgment of an older book.
+
+[75] Goodman gives these three signs for 20 [symbol symbol symbol] and
+remarks, “the last of the three being drawn with a great variety of
+detail.”—_Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., p. 64.
+
+[76] _Sixth Ann. Rep. Bu. Eth._, p. 337.
+
+[77] See the monumental work on basketry by Otis T. Mason, and other
+writings on this subject by the same author.
+
+[78] See the _American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, vol. vii., “The
+Basket Drum,” by Washington Matthews, as an illustration of how a
+certain specialty in an art may survive after the art itself is
+neglected.
+
+[79] Murdoch found fragments of a cooking pot at Point Barrow.—_Ninth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 91. Rude cups were also sometimes made.
+
+[80] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 276.
+
+[81] W. H. Holmes, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, “Pottery of the
+Ancient Pueblos.”
+
+[82] The Amerind paste was generally quite dark, a light surface
+colour being obtained by a “slip.” But I have found fragments of a
+pinkish-white ware in Arizona the same colour all the way through.
+
+[83] The earthenware of the Greeks and Romans was not glazed, but
+covered with wax, bitumen, etc.
+
+[84] With all the differences, however, an examination of pottery from
+all over North America will convince any close observer of its general
+homogeneity.
+
+[85] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Pottery of the Mississippi Valley,” _Fourth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 372.
+
+[86] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 56.
+
+[87] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Death-Masks in Ancient American Pottery,”
+_American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.
+
+[88] In this connection it may be mentioned that Swallow found a human
+skull enclosed in an earthen jar, the opening of which was too small to
+admit of the skull’s extraction.
+
+[89] W. H. Holmes, “Prehistoric Textile Fabrics,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu.
+Eth._; _Ibid._, “Prehistoric Textile Art,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+Eth._
+
+[90] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Fabric-Marked Pottery,” _Popular Science
+Monthly_, March, 1898.
+
+[91] Brinton states that the art of the potter was extensively
+practised by the Lenapé, but if this were accurate fragments of pottery
+ought to be commoner than they are in the region formerly their home.
+
+[92] Compare Preface and last chapter.
+
+[93] M. H. Saville, “Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern
+Mexico,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899.
+
+[94] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., 1899, i., p. 355.
+
+[95] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[96] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[97] Rib is the term applied by our potters to the small thin pieces of
+wood used for smoothing the ware. The Moki “rib” corresponds closely in
+size, shape, and use to that I have seen employed by our potters.
+
+[98] For soapstone or steatite vessels, see Chap. X.
+
+[99] Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 260.
+
+[100] Holmes, _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 22.
+
+[101] Boas, _Report U. S. Nat. Museum_, p. 319.
+
+[102] Gibbs, _U. S. G. S., Contrib. to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. i., part
+ii., p. 219.
+
+[103] National Academy of Sciences, _Bones of the Hemenway Expedition_,
+Introduction by Washington Matthews, p. 157.
+
+[104] See for description of kiva the chapter in this book on
+Architecture, etc., and also Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.
+
+[105] Dr. Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers.” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu.
+Eth._, p. 375.
+
+[106] Washington Matthews, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 377.
+
+[107] Some of the finest Navajo blankets command high prices.
+A two faced blanket is described by Matthews in the _American
+Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 4.
+
+[108] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 158.
+
+[109] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. i., pp. 439, 442.
+
+[110] _Ibid._, vol. ii., p. 13.
+
+[111] _Ibid._, p. 71.
+
+[112] The _timatli_ or _tilmatli_ for men was a piece of cloth,
+according to Biart, “four feet long, which enveloped the body, and two
+corners of which were knotted upon the breast or upon the shoulder.”
+
+[113] _Ibid._, p. 73.
+
+[114] Du Pratz, _Hist. de la Louisiane_, vol. ii., pp. 191, 192.
+
+[115] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. ii., pp. 133, 134.
+
+[116] Lucien Biart, _The Aztecs_.
+
+[117] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 289.
+
+[118] _The History of Erie County, N. Y._, pp. 58, 59, edited by H.
+Perry Smith.
+
+[119] Quoted in Captain Simpson’s _Report_, p. 494.
+
+[120] Buckingham Smith’s translation.
+
+[121] Lieutenant Mowry, _Report_, p. 587, Ex. Doc. No. 11, 35th Cong.,
+1st Session.
+
+[122] John W. De Forrest, _History of the Indians of Connecticut_, pp.
+9–11.
+
+[123] Catlin had wonderful success in persuading Amerinds to pose for
+him. When I went amongst the Navajos and Mokis in 1884–85 I found
+it next to impossible to get them to sit for me. Only one solitary
+specimen in the whole region was willing to run the risk. It was
+considered very “bad medicine.”
+
+[124] The Crows, Sioux, Mandans, and Assiniboins are the same stock—the
+Dakota or Siouan.
+
+[125] Catlin, _Smithsonian Report_, 1885, pp. 450, 451.
+
+[126] Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 310.
+
+[127] Geo. Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and North-western
+Oregon,” _U. S. G. S. Contrib._, vol. i., part ii., p. 220.
+
+[128] _Ibid._, p. 219.
+
+[129] _Ibid._, p. 176.
+
+[130] The same kind of a wicker cap is worn by many California Amerinds.
+
+[131] Cushing says of the early Zuñis: “They wore but scant clothing
+besides their robes and blankets—breech-cloths and kilts, short for
+the men, long for the women, and made of shredded bark and rushes or
+fibre; sandals also of fibre.... The hair was bobbed to the level
+of the eyebrows in front, but left long and hanging at the back,
+etc.”—_Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.
+
+[132] “Coronado Letter,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 562.
+
+[133] “Narrative of Jaramillo,” _Ibid._, pp. 586, 587.
+
+[134] “Relación Postrera de Sívola,” _Ibid._, p. 569.
+
+[135] C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, p. 486.
+
+[136] _Memoirs Long Island Hist. Soc._, vol. i., p. 99, “Journal of a
+Voyage to New York in 1679–80.”
+
+[137] See chapter on Weapons, and note also the quotation from
+Prescott—pp. 134 and 136.
+
+[138] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, pp. 789, 790; see also Chap. IX., this work.
+
+[139] Murdoch, “The Point Barrow Eskimo,” _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._;
+Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; Turner,
+“Hudson Bay Eskimo,” _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[140] Murdoch.
+
+[141] Dr. Kane, _Arctic Exploration_, vol. i., p. 203.
+
+[142] John D. Hunter, _Memoirs of a Captive among the Indians of North
+America_, London, 1823, pp. 289, 290.
+
+[143] Sometimes two high poles are set up, between which, at a potlatch
+or “grease feast,” the piles of blankets forming payment for a “copper”
+are laid. These are called “blanket-poles.”
+
+[144] There is a fine specimen in the American Museum of Natural
+History, New York.
+
+[145] See _Tenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 478.
+
+[146] W. H. Dall, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 112.
+
+[147] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp.
+323, 324.
+
+[148] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp.
+370, 371.
+
+[149] _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[150] _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[151] Chap. V., and _American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.
+
+[152] _Prehistoric Art_, p. 477.
+
+[153] Joseph D. McGuire, “American Aboriginal Pipes,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._,
+1897, p. 468.
+
+[154] H. W. Henshaw, “Animal Carvings,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._,
+p. 166.
+
+[155] Warren K. Moorehead, _The Bird-Stone Ceremonial_ (pamphlet).
+
+[156] The Pai Utes make rude clay and wood dolls, but nothing larger,
+and no pottery.
+
+[157] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 152.
+
+[158] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 153.
+
+[159] _Ibid._, p. 161.
+
+[160] A painted design, similar to that of the “Calendar Stone,” was
+found on one of the inside walls at Mitla. See pl. xxv., Fig. 1,
+Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_.
+
+[161] A compass card has five concentric circles, and the Calendar
+Stone appears to have the same number. The compass was known in Europe
+in the twelfth century, in China earlier.
+
+[162] A. F. Bandelier, _Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico_, p.
+78.
+
+[163] Two structures at Palenque are so called on account of the
+tablets in them bearing emblems that resemble a cross. In that
+designated by Stephen as No. 2, by Charnay later as No. 1, and by H. H.
+Bancroft as No. 4, the cross form is the more pronounced, and it is the
+one usually referred to by the above title.
+
+[164] For the exterior of the Temple of the Sun, see Frontispiece.
+
+[165] Leonhard Stejneger, “Poisonous Snakes of North America,” _Rep. U.
+S. Museum_, 1893, p. 421.
+
+[166] Edward S. Holden, “Studies in Central American Picture-Writing,”
+_First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 229.
+
+[167] Charnay found at Palenque that some of the figures were modelled
+first nude and draperies applied afterwards, the latter separating from
+the figure itself.
+
+[168] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities of the New World_.
+
+[169] “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+Eth._, p. 27.
+
+[170] For definitions of aboriginal architecture, see Macmillan’s
+_Dictionary of Architecture_.
+
+[171] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 103.
+
+[172] Or, if the climate should change, the character of the house
+might change with it.
+
+[173] For full information on Dakota customs, etc., see the papers of
+the late Rev. James Owen Dorsey in the third, eleventh, thirteenth, and
+fifteenth _Ann. Repts. Bu. Eth._
+
+[174] Wigwam is frequently used in a general sense to designate any
+Amerind house of the skin or earth or wood type.
+
+[175] See “ti” and “pi” in _Dakota-English Dictionary_, vol. vii.;
+_Cont. U. S. G. S._, pp. 421, 467.
+
+[176] Lewis H. Morgan, “Houses and House Life of the American
+Aborigines,” _Contributions to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. iv., p. 114.
+
+[177] Castañeda describes the Querechos and Teyas in 1540 as
+travelling, “like the Arabs, with their tents and troops of dogs loaded
+with poles, and having Moorish pack-saddles and girths.”—Winship’s
+translation, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527.
+
+[178] Morgan’s “Houses and House Life,” etc., p. 113.
+
+[179] W. J. Hoffman, “The Menominee Indians,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, pp. 254–55.
+
+[180] The Lenapé houses “were built in groups and surrounded with a
+palisade.... In the centre was sometimes erected a mound of earth, both
+as a place of observation and as a location to place the children and
+women.”—Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 51.
+
+[181] Cyrus Thomas, “Mound Explorations,” _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+Eth._, p. 647.
+
+[182] _Ibid._, p. 649.
+
+[183] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 653.
+
+[184] Francis Parkman, _Discovery of the West_, p. 277.
+
+[185] George Bancroft, _U. S. History_.
+
+[186] L. H. Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 120; see also _The
+Iroquois League_, by Morgan.
+
+[187] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.
+
+[188] Gibbs cites a split plank he saw in Puget Sound region, 24 feet
+long and 4½ feet wide.
+
+[189] Gibbs mentions a house of the Makah, north-west Washington, 75
+feet long, 40 wide, and 15 high, all one room; and another used for
+festivals 520 feet long, 60 feet wide, 15 feet high in front, and 10
+feet in the rear.—George Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and
+North-western Oregon,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol. i., p. 215.
+
+[190] Stephen Powers, “Tribes of California,” _Contributions_, etc.,
+vol. iii., p. 255.
+
+[191] _Ibid._, p. 215.
+
+[192] _Ibid._, p. 45.
+
+[193] W. H. Dall, “Tribes of Alaska,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol.
+i., p. 82.
+
+[194] The tree growth ceases at about the line of the village of Kodiak
+on Kodiak Island. The Aleuts ranged over the Aleutian Islands and
+eastward as far as Stepovak Bay on the peninsula.
+
+[195] For definitions of these terms see Macmillan’s _Dictionary of
+Architecture_.
+
+[196] Schwatka found cliff-dwellings occupied by Tarahumaris in
+northern Mexico. See _Cave and Cliff-Dwellers_, by Frederick Schwatka,
+p. 187.
+
+[197] In early days upper stories in New Mexico were sometimes built of
+wood, plastered.
+
+[198] For details of Pueblo architecture, see paper on the subject by
+Victor Mindeleff, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._ And “The Cliff Ruins of
+Canyon de Chelly,” by Cosmos Mindeleff, _Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[199] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.
+
+[200] See paper by Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of the Verde
+Valley,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[201] See illustrations, pp. 225, 227, 228.
+
+[202] See the writings of Geo. H. Pepper, director of the Hyde
+Expedition.
+
+[203] _Commerce of the Prairies._
+
+[204] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_. Kiva is a Moki term
+to replace the Spanish estufa, which is misleading. The kiva is not a
+sweat house, as the Spanish term seems to imply. A sweat house or lodge
+is expressly built and heated for the purpose of a sweat bath.
+
+[205] See _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sciences_, vii., p. 146. Introduction by
+Washington Matthews.
+
+[206] “And have five or six stories, three of them with mud walls
+and two or three with thin wooden walls.”—“Relacion del Suceso,”
+_Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 575.
+
+[207] Littré gives _pisé_ as “made with a species of large bricks made
+in wooden moulds”; _piser_, “to construct by beating earth between two
+planks.”
+
+[208] Prescott, _Mexico_, i., p. 474.
+
+[209] _Ibid._, ii., p. 70.
+
+[210] _Ibid._, ii., p. 110.
+
+[211] Prescott, _Mexico_, ii., p. 109.
+
+[212] _Voyages of Vancouver_, ii., p. 274.
+
+[213] Morgan, _House Life_, p. 231. For the houses and house life of
+some modern cave and cliff dwellers see _Unknown Mexico_, by Carl
+Lumholtz.
+
+[214] M. H. Saville, “Temple of Tepoztlan,” _Monumental Records_, i.,
+No. 1.
+
+[215] Goodman in _Biologia Centrali Americana_. From an inscription on
+the back of the “Yucatec Stone” 10,731 years back to the date of an
+action represented on the front of the stone from 1895.
+
+[216] Cyrus Thomas (_American Anthropologist_, July, 1899) says: “Here
+we see the culmination of Mayan art.” There are several terraces, but
+one is so large as to eclipse the others.
+
+[217] Viollet-le-Duc thinks these buildings and the Maya ones
+originated in wooden structures. For details of construction, see
+Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour in Mexico_.
+
+[218] For mining operations see Chap. X.
+
+[219] The Lenapé had arrow-heads and pipes made of copper. See Abbott’s
+_Primitive Industry_.
+
+[220] The Amerind muscles that came into play in bow shooting were so
+highly developed that a white man untrained could not half pull a bow
+that a generally weaker Amerind could pull with ease.
+
+[221] Hoffman (_Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 281) describes
+similar bows found in Arizona and Nevada, three feet long, but made of
+wood in a composite way.
+
+[222] Hough says he has often made fire in thirty seconds with the
+palm-drill and in five seconds with the bow-drill.—_National Museum
+Report_, 1888, p. 531.
+
+[223] See chapter on Customs for a quotation from Prescott describing
+the festival of the new-fire.
+
+[224] The Iroquois rigged large pump-drills out of saplings.
+
+[225] Hoffman denies this, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 279.
+
+[226] For modern arrow-making among the Menominee, see _Fourteenth Ann.
+Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 275 _et seq._
+
+[227] It is said that a blow-gun was also used by some North American
+tribes. “Many of the Siouan Indians use the lance, javelin, or
+spear.”—McGee, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 171.
+
+[228] “Primitive American Armour,” _Report of National Museum_, 1893.
+
+[229] Bancroft, H. H., _Native Races_, vol. ii., p. 407.
+
+[230] Veytia, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 289, 290; see also page
+134, this book.
+
+[231] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 138.
+
+[232] “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” by James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann.
+Rept. Bu. Eth._; see also Chap. VI., this book.
+
+[233] The Utah Mormons wear an undergarment supposed to have such
+resistance. The idea may have come from them.
+
+[234] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, p. 790.
+
+[235] See Preface pages iv. and v., and also the last chapter of this
+book.
+
+[236] For “Medicine Arrows of the Oregon Indians,” see A. S. Gatschet,
+_Journal of American Folk-Lore_, 1893.
+
+[237] The surface flint was in bowlders and nodules.
+
+[238] For a valuable account of stone implements of the
+“Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province,” see paper by W. H. Holmes in
+_Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; also, “The Obsidian Mines of Hidalgo,
+Mexico,” by the same author, _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No.
+3, N. S.
+
+[239] Tylor declares that it is not possible to distinguish stone
+weapons from one part of the world from those from any other part.
+
+[240] From the Aztec: _metlatl_.
+
+[241] While the Eastern Amerinds generally seem not to have known how
+to melt copper, some few may have experimented in a limited way with it.
+
+[242] Walter Hough, “The Lamp of the Eskimo,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1896,
+p. 1028.
+
+[243] The Amerinds of Vancouver Island were said by Captain Chase to
+use a lamp made of a clam shell, with oil from the whale or porpoise.
+The wick was bark.—Hough, p. 1039.
+
+[244] See Castañeda’s narrative, Winship’s translation, _Fourteenth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527; and Ternaux Compans, _Relation de
+Castañeda_, p. 190, “ils ont de grands troupeaux de chiens qui portent
+leur bagage; ils l’attachent sur le dos de ces animaux au moyen d’une
+sangle et d’un petit bât”; also the same narrative, _Fourteenth Ann.
+Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 456.
+
+[245] For excellent descriptions in detail of the Eskimo sledge and
+methods of using it, see Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 529 _et
+seq._; Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 353 _et seq._; and
+Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 241 _et seq._
+
+[246] Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.
+
+[247] O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, p. 566; see
+also p. 564; and Turner, in the _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 307.
+
+[248] See O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, pp.
+381–410; _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 308–312; _Ninth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, pp. 344–352.
+
+[249] For details of construction see Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu.
+Eth._, p. 305; and Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 292.
+
+[250] Baidarka is the Russian term used at Kodiak and along the Alaska
+peninsula. Baidar = umiak; baidarka = kayak.
+
+[251] For details of kayak and umiak construction, see Murdoch, _Ninth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328; Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p.
+527; Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 235; see, also, for
+hunting weapons and methods, “Aboriginal American Zoötechny,” by Otis
+Tufton Mason, _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, 1899.
+
+[252] The Omahas made one out of dried bison hides, branches, and
+saplings.
+
+[253] Mines of steatite vessels have been found on Santa Catalina
+Island, California, as well as on the Eastern United States coast.
+Charles F. Holder describes the Santa Catalina mines in the _Scientific
+American_ for December 16, 1899.
+
+[254] W. H. Holmes, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 108, 109.
+
+[255] For a description of these chultunes, see “The Chultunes of
+Labna,” _Memoirs of Peabody Museum_.
+
+[256] Champlain’s _Voyages_, Prince Society edition, vol. ii., p. 236.
+
+[257] Now in the National Museum, Washington. See article on the
+subject by Charles Moore, _Report of U. S. Museum_, 1895.
+
+[258] Frank Hamilton Cushing, “Primitive Copper Working, An
+Experimental Study,” _American Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No.
+1, 1894.
+
+[259] Fewkes found several of these bells in his excavations around the
+headwaters of the Gila.
+
+[260] During my stay with the Mokis and in their vicinity and in all
+the long time I have been observing them, I never saw nor heard of a
+single object in metal wrought by them.
+
+[261] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 52.
+
+[262] F. Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rept. Nat. Mus._, 1895, p. 344.
+
+[263] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, p. 171.
+
+[264] The tribes of the North-west made some gold and silver ornaments,
+and at Sitka to-day there is a jewelry establishment kept by a native
+Tlinkit, who makes most of his own silverware.
+
+[265] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, p. 172.
+
+[266] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 138.
+
+[267] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., pp. 213–215.
+
+[268] _Ibid._, p. 216.
+
+[269] _Ibid._, p. 218.
+
+[270] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., p. 222.
+
+[271] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
+Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 186.
+
+[272] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 53.
+
+[273] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu.
+Eth._, p. 376.
+
+[274] Squier describes a Tyrian purple of various shades secured in
+Nicaragua from the murex shellfish by a slow and tedious process; see
+his _Nicaragua_, p. 286.
+
+[275] Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, vol. ii.,
+p. 151.
+
+[276] Cyrus Thomas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 271.
+
+[277] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 111.
+
+[278] _Ibid._, p. 112. The intercalation of these 12½ or 13 days is
+denied by Payne, _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 294–316 _et
+seq._, but Mrs. Zelia Nuttall and other eminent scholars are certain
+they were intercalated.
+
+[279] Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., pp. 5, 8.
+
+[280] This bell is supposed, however, to have developed here from the
+rattle.
+
+[281] The Peabody Museum contains an exhibit of forty-five whistles
+made of bone, all found together in one basket. They were wrapped with
+split reed and were seven to ten inches in length.
+
+[282] Washington Matthews, “The Basket Drum,” _American
+Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No. 2, April, 1894.
+
+[283] A. F. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 150.
+
+[284] John Comfort Fillmore, “The Harmonic Structure of Indian Music,”
+_American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899. See also Chas. K. Wead,
+“The Study of Primitive Music,” _Am. Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii.,
+No. 1.
+
+[285] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995.
+
+[286] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995
+
+[287] Murdoch says the Point Barrow Eskimo wake up in the night to
+sing.—_Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 388.
+
+[288] James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, pp. 1002, 1003.
+
+[289] J. Walter Fewkes, _Jour. of Am. Eth._, vol. ii., p. 159.
+
+[290] James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 1008.
+
+[291] Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_, pp. 211, 212.
+
+[292] _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 255.
+
+[293] For a description of the “Cat’s Cradle” games of the Amerinds,
+see the elaborate work _String Figures_ by Caroline Furness Jayne.
+
+[294] Col. Richard Irving Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_, pp.
+329, 330.
+
+[295] _Plains of the Great West_, p. 324.
+
+[296] John T. Short, _The North Americans of Antiquity_.
+
+[297] From the Moki method of guiding shower-waters amongst the corn to
+guiding waters from a brook or river in that way would not be a great
+step; indeed, it would be most simple and natural and would easily be
+forced by circumstances.
+
+[298] Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of Verde Valley,”
+_Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 238.
+
+[299] The term “horticulture” as employed by some writers means
+agriculture on a small scale, the operations not being considered by
+them extensive enough to merit the title of agriculture.
+
+[300] Refer to previous chapter on “Architecture and Dwellings.”
+
+[301] J. Walter Fewkes, “Preliminary Account of Archæological Field
+Work in Arizona in 1897,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1897, p. 613.
+
+[302] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities_, p. 36.
+
+[303] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 209.
+
+[304] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.
+
+[305] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.
+
+[306] In New England there was once a fortification in Sanbornton, N.
+H., which had walls six feet thick and breast-high, faced outside with
+stone.—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i., p. 404.
+
+[307] The great Cahokia mound in Illinois is seven hundred feet by five
+hundred feet on the ground. For illustration of Etowah mound see page
+337.
+
+[308] Cyrus Thomas, _Study of North American Archæology_, p. 125.
+
+[309] Gerard Fowke describes in the _American Anthropologist_, N. S.,
+vol. ii, No. 3, “Points of difference between Norse Remains and Indian
+works.”
+
+[310] _Ancient Cities._
+
+[311] Ad. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 233 _et seq._
+
+[312] Contact with civilisation has, however, changed the average
+health in many if not all tribes.
+
+[313] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i.
+
+[314] For further details of the Mexican drinks, see Charnay’s _Ancient
+Cities_.
+
+[315] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 272.
+
+[316] Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 290.
+
+[317] _The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, Mountaineer,
+Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of Indians_, p. 444.
+Harper Bros., 1856.
+
+[318] _Ibid._, p. 445.
+
+[319] The council was opened by the sachem puffing smoke from the
+pipe over the heads of the assembly, and then each councillor in turn
+drawing at the pipe. This accomplished, business was begun.
+
+[320] Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann.
+Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 72.
+
+[321] _History of the United States._
+
+[322] Important announcements are made by appointed criers.
+
+[323] _Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth_, p. 228.
+
+[324] _History of the United States._
+
+[325] Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 495, 499, and
+501.
+
+[326] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 81.
+
+[327] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 126; see also pp. 251, 252 of
+this book.
+
+[328] Lucien Carr, _Smithsonian Report_, 1891, p. 543; see also Payne’s
+_History of the New World_, page 330.
+
+[329] _Ibid._
+
+[330] See Fewkes, “The New-Fire Ceremony at Walpi,” _American
+Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.
+
+[331] For details of cenoté, etc., see Desiré Charnay’s _Ancient
+Cities_.
+
+[332] _Archæological Tour_, p. 204.
+
+[333] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, p. 980.
+
+[334] Mrs. Erminnie Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann. Rept.
+Bu. Eth._, p. 68.
+
+[335] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 121.
+
+[336] James Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Ann.
+Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328.
+
+[337] “Our materia medica owes tobacco, gum copal, liquid amber,
+sarsaparilla, resin of tecamaca, jalap, and huaca to the Aztecs.”—L.
+Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 285.
+
+[338] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 82.
+
+[339] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 55.
+
+[340] _Ibid._, pp. 330–333.
+
+[341] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.
+
+[342] These ceremonials often introduce historical matters. I was
+surprised once to hear the song change to one of our Sunday-school
+hymns. This portion of the ceremony was describing the establishment of
+a Presbyterian mission at Keam’s Canyon years before.
+
+[343] See J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology_, for a
+description of some of the Moki ceremonials and other papers by the
+same author.
+
+[344] In some of the pueblos there is a constant inter-killing going on
+for supposed evil practices of witchcraft (Bandelier _Report_, part i.,
+p. 35), but whether this has any connection with the secret orders, I
+do not know.
+
+[345] For information on these and other social points see the various
+writings of J. W. Powell.
+
+[346] The clan totem is probably an expansion of the individual totem
+by increase.
+
+[347] See pp. 162, 164, 241, this book, for illustrations of totem
+poles.
+
+[348] Dr. H. C. Yarrow, “Mortuary Customs,” _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[349] The head-stones of these graves were this shape, [symbol] and
+a portion in some cases protruded above the ground when I was there.
+The ground was very sandy. The stones were natural slabs, about 1½ in.
+thick.
+
+[350] Stansbury, in his _Report_, describes graphically a “death lodge”
+he found, but, unfortunately, space is lacking to reprint it here.
+
+It is important in studying burial customs of the Amerinds to remember
+that all members of a tribe were not necessarily disposed of in the
+same way. Cabeza de Vaca mentions that “sometimes common members of a
+tribe were buried while medicine men were burned.”
+
+[351] See p. 46, this book.
+
+[352] D. G. Brinton, _The Lenapé and their Legends_, pp. 158, 164.
+
+[353] “The spirit of any plant, any star, or other personage in
+creation may become a man’s attendant. In our popular phraseology this
+is called his medicine.”—Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths_, p. 29.
+
+[354] See “The Lessons of Folklore,” J. W. Powell, _American
+Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 1, N. S., January, 1900.
+
+[355] Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths of Primitive America_, p. 499.
+
+[356] Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 180.
+
+[357] _Ibid._, p. 193. See p. 170 _et seq._ for his whole discussion of
+Quetzalcohuatl. See also the “Book of Quetzalcohuatl.” Payne, _History
+of the New World_, II., p. 435 _et seq._
+
+[358] _American Hero Myths_, p. 64 _et seq._
+
+[359] A. S. Gatschet, “An Indian Visit to Jack Wilson, the Payute
+Messiah,” _Journal of American Folk-Lore_.
+
+[360] _American Hero Myths_, p. 147.
+
+[361] Payne accepts the Amazon stories as true. _History of the New
+World_, vol. ii., p. 11.
+
+[362] For some Amerind legends delightfully related, see _Blackfoot
+Lodge Tales_, and other books, by George Bird Grinnell.
+
+[363] _Native Races_, vol. i., p. 129.
+
+[364] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 43.
+
+[365] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 15.
+
+[366] _History of the American Indians_, p. 282.
+
+[367] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_; pronounced
+_kee-vah_.
+
+[368] _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 59.
+
+[369] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.
+
+[370] Parkman mentions Beckwourth in the _Oregon Trail_, p. 124, as “a
+mongrel of French, American, and Indian blood.... He is a ruffian of
+the worst stamp, bloody and treacherous, without honour or honesty”;
+but other writers seem to give him a better character.
+
+[371] Beckwourth, _Life and Adventures_, first ed., pp. 227, 228.
+
+[372] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 47.
+
+[373] _The American Race_, p. 46.
+
+[374] Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 8. “In the ancient gens
+descent was limited to the female line.” _Ibid._, p. 5.
+
+[375] _Ancient Society_, p. 69.
+
+[376] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol i., No. 4, October, 1899,
+p. 710.
+
+[377] _Ancient Society_, p. 71, and _Houses and House-Life_, p. 7.
+
+[378] Powell, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 61.
+
+[379] Originally _Häyowenthä_ in the Mohawk. He and _Däganowédä_ are
+usually considered mythical personages.
+
+[380] _The American Race_, p. 130.
+
+[381] Payne, as before noted, says “a military despotism.”
+
+[382] _Archæological Tour_, p. 31, and footnote, p. 31.
+
+[383] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 23.
+
+[384] _Ancient Society_, pp. 71, 72.
+
+[385] _Houses and House-Life_, p. 28.
+
+[386] See the Preface of this book, and also Payne’s _History of the
+New World_, vol. ii., which, unfortunately, the author did not have the
+benefit of seeing till after this book was written.
+
+[387] In this connection see “Archæology of the Thompson River Region,
+British Columbia,” by Harlan I. Smith, _Memoirs of the American
+Museum_, vol. ii., May, 1900. The Eskimo probably entered Alaska along
+the coast from the east.
+
+[388] It is of course possible that some infusion of blood occurred in
+this manner, but it is not likely that it was ever sufficient to tinge
+a whole stock.
+
+[389] “This uniformity finds one of its explanations in the
+geographical features of the continent, which are such as to favour
+migrations in longitude, and thus prevent the diversity which special
+conditions of latitude tend to produce.”—Brinton, _American Race_, p.
+41.
+
+[390] See also “On the Peopling of America,” by August R. Grote,
+_Bulletin Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences_, February 2, 1877.
+
+[391] The tinge of resemblance between certain Amerind stocks and
+foreign stocks endures from the pre-glacial period, then, when
+intercourse was on different lines, and does not indicate any
+latter-day relationship.
+
+[392] These tools might easily be quite as good as many found on the
+surface to-day, and it would be difficult to distinguish them from at
+least the ruder forms of modern implements.
+
+[393] W. H. Holmes, “Preliminary Revision of the Evidence Relating
+to Auriferous Gravel Man in California,” _American Anthropologist_,
+October, 1899.
+
+[394] An elevation of the ocean bottom in the Atlantic tropical regions
+would probably disturb the existing climate of the North Atlantic
+regions by deflecting the warm currents.
+
+[395] See _A Naturalist in Nicaragua_, by Thomas Belt, Chap. XIV.
+
+[396] Payne believes that by this lowering of the waters combined with
+land elevation, a Miocene land passage was formed leading from Asia to
+the North-west coast and that the American continent was then peopled
+by this route.
+
+[397] See also, “Man and the Glacial Period in America,” Payne’s
+_History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 62 _et seq._, and discussion
+of the effects of glaciation, _ibid._, p. 348.
+
+[398] “When first met with the Navajos occupied the same range of
+country they now inhabit.”—Bandelier, _Report_, part i., p. 175.
+
+[399] _National Geographical Magazine_, December 1, 1899, p. 509.
+
+[400] “That there was a primitive empire ... seems to some minds
+confirmed by other evidences than the story of Votan ... and out of
+this empire ... have come, as such believers say, after its downfall,
+somewhere near the Christian era, and by divergence, the great stocks
+of people called Maya, etc.”—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i.,
+p. 134.
+
+[401] _League of the Iroquois._
+
+[402] For information on the Amerindian wars, their efforts to preserve
+their territory, etc., see Bancroft’s _History of the United States_;
+Winsor’s _Narrative and Critical History of the United States_;
+Winsor’s other works; Parkman, John Fiske; and numerous other books to
+be found in any good library.
+
+[403] _Harper’s Magazine_, March, 1899, p. 649.
+
+[404] “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” _Bulletin of American
+Geographical Society_, December, 1897.
+
+[405] _Life and Adventures_, p. 438.
+
+[406] Bering found no inhabitants on the Aleutian islands and his visit
+of discovery was recent—1741.
+
+[407] The thanks of the author are due to Prof. Otis Tufton Mason, of
+the United States National Museum, for kindly reviewing this appendix
+in proof. Prof. Mason writes, “Your work has my approval and it is well
+done.”
+
+[408] See map, page 33 this book, and also the original of it in the
+_Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
+
+[409] See “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” by F. S. Dellenbaugh,
+in the _Bulletin of the American Geographical Society_, December, 1897.
+
+
+
+
+                          By F. S. DELLENBAUGH
+
+The North-Americans of Yesterday
+
+    A Comparative Study of North-American Indian Life, Customs, and
+    Products, on the Theory of the Ethnic Unity of the Race. 8ᵒ.
+    Fully illustrated net, $4.00
+
+The Romance of the Colorado River
+
+    A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from
+    1540 to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the Two
+    Voyages of Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons.
+
+    8ᵒ. Third Edition Revised. Fully illustrated net, $3.50
+
+Breaking the Wilderness
+
+    The Story of the Conquest of the Far West, from the Wanderings of
+    Cabeza de Vaca to the First Descent of the Colorado by Powell,
+    and the Completion of the Union Pacific Railway, with Particuvlar
+    Account of the Exploits of Trappers and Traders.
+
+    8ᵒ. Fully illustrated net, $3.50
+
+A Canyon Voyage
+
+    The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the
+    Green-Colorado River from Wyoming, and the Explorations on Land
+    in the Years 1871 and 1872.
+
+    8ᵒ. Fully illustrated net, $3.50
+
+                           G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
+                        NEW YORK          LONDON
+
+
+                         Breaking the Wilderness
+
+_The story of the Conquest of the Far West, from the Wanderings of
+Cabeza de Vaca to the first Descent of the Colorado by Powell, and the
+Completion of the Union Pacific Railway. With particular account of the
+exploits of trappers and traders._
+
+                      By +Frederick S. Dellenbaugh+
+             _With about 146 illustrations. 8ᵒ, net $3.50._
+
+“Mr. Dellenbaugh has performed here an excellent and valuable service
+in collecting a vast array of heretofore disconnected accounts of a
+fascinating and wonderful region of land still fraught with mystery
+and rich in glorious possibilities. It would be difficult to convey a
+greater amount of useful and interesting information in a volume of
+corresponding size and scope.”—_Phila. North American._
+
+“Taken as a whole the book gives the most comprehensive account of the
+history of Western exploration and discovery that has been given to the
+public.”—_N. Y. Tribune._
+
+“No other American was so competent to write this thrilling and
+captivating story.”—_Henry Haynie in the Boston Times._
+
+“A most readable book.... A book that will interest every student of
+American history and every reader whose blood is stirred by deeds of
+hardship and daring.”—_N. Y. Evening Telegram._
+
+               _SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR_
+                           G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
+            New York                                   London
+
+
+                             A Canyon Voyage
+
+_The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the Green-Colorado
+River from Wyoming and the Explorations on Land in the Years 1871 and
+1872._
+
+                      By +Frederic S. Dellenbaugh+
+
+           Artist and Assistant Topographer of the Expedition
+
+_8vo with 50 Full-page Illustrations from Photographs and from Drawings
+by the Author (2 in color) and Maps including reproductions of the
+first maps made. Net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75._
+
+Mr. Dellenbaugh’s new book is a narrative of the United States
+Exploring Expedition, generally known as the Second Powell Expedition
+down the Green and Colorado Rivers from Wyoming almost forty years
+ago; an expedition which in all these years never has been described
+in any government publication, nor by anyone in print excepting
+Mr. Dellenbaugh, who was a member of the party. Yet it was the
+expedition to make the first maps of the course of the river and of
+some of the contiguous country. In the _Romance of the Colorado_, Mr.
+Dellenbaugh gave a brief description of this expedition in order to
+make his history of the remarkable river complete, but now feeling
+the desirability of a fuller record in the interest of Western United
+States history, he tells, in _A Canyon Voyage_, the whole experience.
+
+               _SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR_
+                           G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
+            New York                                   London
+
+
+                         _The_ Romance _of the_
+                          Colorado River : : :
+
+_A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from 1540
+to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the two Voyages of
+Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons_
+
+By +Frederick S. Dellenbaugh+
+
+_8ᵒ, with 200 Illustrations, net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75_
+
+
+“As graphic and as interesting as a novel.... Of especial value to the
+average reader is the multiplicity of pictures. They occur on almost
+every page, and while the text is always clear, these pictures give,
+from a single glance, an idea of the vastness of the canyons and their
+remarkable formation, which it would be beyond the power of pen to
+describe. And the color reproduction of the water-color drawing that
+Thomas Moran made of the entrance to Bright Angel Trail gives some
+faint idea of the glories of color which have made the Grand Canyon the
+wonder and the admiration of the world.”—_The Cleveland Leader._
+
+“His scientific training, his long experience in this region, and his
+eye for natural scenery enable him to make this account of the Colorado
+River most graphic and interesting. No other book equally good can be
+written for many years to come—not until our knowledge of the river is
+greatly enlarged.”—_The Boston Herald._
+
+               _SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR_
+                           G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
+            New York                                   London
+
+
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+  • Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+  • Text enclosed by equals is in bold (=bold=).
+  • Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.
+  • Since image attributions are given in the List of Illustrations,
+    they are not provided for each image.
+  • Image size and internal details are removed in the text version.
+  • Front advertisement was moved to the back.
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76978 ***
diff --git a/76978-h/76978-h.htm b/76978-h/76978-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c33fb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/76978-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,20112 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+<head>
+  <meta charset="utf-8">
+  <title>The North-Americans of Yesterday | Project Gutenberg</title>
+  <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover">
+  <style>
+
+    body {
+      margin-left: 8%;
+      margin-right: 10%;
+    }
+
+    h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {
+      text-align: center;
+      clear: both;
+    }
+
+    h1 {font-size: 300%;}
+
+    h2 {margin-top: 6%;}
+
+    h3 {
+      margin-top: 3%;
+      margin-bottom: 1%;
+    }
+
+    /* === h2 Subheading === */
+    .subheadc {
+      font-size: smaller;
+      font-weight: bold;
+      text-align: center;
+      margin: 1% 2% 3% 2%;
+    }
+
+    p {
+      margin-top: .5em;
+      margin-bottom: .5em;
+      text-align: justify;
+      text-indent: 1em;
+    }
+
+    figcaption p {
+      margin-bottom: 0;
+    }
+
+    .p1 {margin-top: 1em;}
+
+    /* === Continuation after illo or poetry === */
+    p.noindent {text-indent: 0;}
+
+    p.ad {
+      margin-left: 2.5em;
+      margin-top: 0.25em;
+      text-indent: 0;
+    }
+
+    p.hang {
+      text-align: justify;
+      text-indent: -2em;
+      padding-left: 2em;
+    }
+
+    p.hang1 {
+      text-align: justify;
+      text-indent: -1em;
+      padding-left: 1em;
+    }
+
+    /* === Title page === */
+    div.titlepage {
+      text-align: center;
+      font-weight: bold;
+      page-break-before: always;
+    }
+
+    div.titlepage p {
+      text-align: center;
+      text-indent: 0;
+      font-weight: bold;
+      line-height: 1.5;
+      margin-top: 3em;
+    }
+
+    div.chapter {
+      clear: both;
+      /*margin-top: 10%;*/
+      page-break-before: always;
+    }
+
+    hr       {width: 35%; margin: 1% 32.5%; clear: both;}
+    hr.short {width: 15%; margin-left: 42.5%; margin-right: 42.5%;}
+    hr.full  {width: 100%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; height: 3px; border: none; background-color: black;}
+    hr.full2  {width: 100%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; height: 6px; border: none; background-color: black;}
+    hr.chap  {width: 65%; margin: 5% 17.5%;}
+    .x-ebookmaker hr.chap {visibility: hidden;}
+    @media print {hr.chap {visibility: hidden;}}
+
+    /* === Super/subscript size === */
+    sup, sub {font-size: 75%;}
+
+    /* === Fonts === */
+    .xsmall   {font-size: x-small;}
+    .small    {font-size: small;}
+    .medium   {font-size: medium;}
+    .large    {font-size: large;}
+    .xlarge   {font-size: x-large;}
+    .xxlarge  {font-size: xx-large;}
+    .xxxlarge {font-size: 350%;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;}
+    .bold     {font-weight: bold;}
+    .gesperrt {letter-spacing: 0.2em; margin-right: -0.2em;}
+    .antiqua {font-family: Fraktur, Textur, "Old English Text MT", Schwabacher, Blackletter,
+      "Olde English", "Old English Five", "Engravers Old English BT", "Collins Old English",
+      "New Old English", UnifrakturMaguntia, sans-serif;}
+    .ws2 {word-spacing: 0.35em;}
+
+    /* === Alignment === */
+    .mt0    {margin-top: 0;}
+    .mt1    {margin-top: 1%;}
+    .mt2    {margin-top: 2%;}
+    .mt5    {margin-top: 5%;}
+    .mt6    {margin-top: 6%;}
+    .mt10   {margin-top: 10%;}
+    .mt20   {margin-top: 20%;}
+    .mb0    {margin-bottom: 0;}
+    .mb2    {margin-bottom: 2%;}
+    .mb5    {margin-bottom: 5%;}
+    .mb10   {margin-bottom: 10%;}
+    .lh15    {line-height: 1.5em;}
+    .clear  {clear: both;}
+    .left   {text-align: left;}
+    .center {text-align: center;}
+    .right  {text-align: right; margin-right: 2%;}
+    .fright, .x-ebookmaker .fright {float: right;}
+
+    /* === Page #s === */
+    .pagenum {
+      position: absolute;
+      right: 1%;
+      color: gray;
+      font-size: x-small;
+      text-align: right;
+      font-style: normal;
+      font-weight: normal;
+      font-variant: normal;
+      padding: 0 0.2em;
+    }
+
+    blockquote {
+      margin-left: 5%;
+      margin-right: 10%;
+      font-size: 90%;
+    }
+
+    /* === Bordered box === */
+    .bbox {
+      margin: auto auto;
+      border: 3px solid;
+      padding: .3em 1em;
+    }
+
+    /* === Lists === */
+    ul {list-style-type: none;}
+
+    ul.illo {padding-left: 2em;}
+    ul.illo li {
+      padding-top: 3.4em;
+      font-weight: bold;
+      font-size: small;
+      text-indent: -2em;
+      padding-left: 2em;
+      display: flex;
+    }
+
+    ul.hang li {
+      text-indent: -2.5em;
+      padding-left: 2.5em;
+    }
+
+    li.ifrst {
+      margin-top: 1em;
+      text-indent: -2em;
+      padding-left: 1em;
+    }
+    li.indx  {
+      margin-top: 0.5em;
+      text-indent: -1em;
+      padding-left: 1em;
+    }
+    li.isub1 {
+      text-indent: -2em;
+      padding-left: 3em;
+    }
+
+    /* === Tables === */
+    table {
+      margin-left: auto;
+      margin-right: auto;
+    }
+
+    table.autotable {border-collapse: collapse;}
+
+    table.loi td {padding-top: 0.3em;}
+
+    .loiattr {
+      font-size: small;
+      padding-left: 4em;
+      text-indent: -2em;
+    }
+
+    .tdl {
+      text-align: left;
+      padding-left: 2em;
+      text-indent: -2em;
+    }
+    .tdr {
+      text-align: right;
+      vertical-align: middle;
+      padding-left: 1em;
+    }
+    .tdch {
+      text-align: right;
+      vertical-align: top;
+    }
+
+    /* === Footnotes === */
+    .footheader {
+      font-size: x-large;
+      text-align: center;
+      text-decoration: underline;
+      margin-top: 2%;
+      margin-bottom: 3%;
+    }
+
+    .footnote {
+      margin: 1% 5% 1% 7%;
+      font-size: small;
+      text-align: justify;
+    }
+
+    .footnote .label {
+      position: absolute;
+      right: 87%;
+      text-align: right;
+    }
+
+    .fnanchor {
+      vertical-align: super;
+      font-size: x-small;
+      text-decoration: none;
+      font-style: normal;
+      font-weight: normal;
+      font-variant: normal;
+    }
+
+    .col33 {
+      display: inline-block;
+      width: 32.5%;
+      vertical-align: bottom;
+    }
+
+    .col50 {
+      display: inline-block;
+      width: 49.5%;
+      vertical-align: bottom;
+    }
+
+    .col50t {
+      display: inline-block;
+      width: 49.5%;
+      vertical-align: top;
+    }
+
+    /* === Poetry === */
+    .center-container {
+      display: flex;
+      justify-content: center;
+    }
+
+    .poetry {
+      text-align: left;
+      margin-left: 5%;
+      margin-right: 5%;
+    }
+
+    .stanza {
+      margin: 0.75em auto;
+      text-indent: -3em;
+    }
+    .stanza div.i0  {padding-left: 3em;}
+    .stanza div.i1  {padding-left: 3.5em;}
+    .stanza div.i2  {padding-left: 4em;}
+    .stanza div.i3  {padding-left: 4.5em;}
+    .stanza div.i6  {padding-left: 6em;}
+    .stanza div.i7  {padding-left: 6.5em;}
+    .stanza div.i8  {padding-left: 7em;}
+    .stanza div.i10 {padding-left: 8em;}
+    .stanza div.i12 {padding-left: 9em;}
+    .stanza div.i13 {padding-left: 9.5em;}
+    .stanza div.i16 {padding-left: 11em;}
+
+    /* === Images === */
+    img {
+      max-width: 100%;
+      height: auto;
+    }
+
+    figure {
+      margin-left: auto;
+      margin-right: auto;
+      margin-top: 1em;
+      max-width: 100%;
+      text-align: center;
+      page-break-inside: avoid;
+    }
+
+    figcaption {
+      font-weight: bold;
+      font-size: 70%;
+      text-align: center;
+      clear: both;
+    }
+
+    .figcenter {
+      margin-left: auto;
+      margin-right: auto;
+      text-align: center;
+      clear: both;
+      max-width: 100%;
+      page-break-inside: avoid;
+    }
+
+    .figleft {
+      float: left;
+      margin: 1em 1em 0 0;
+      padding: 0;
+      text-align: center;
+      page-break-inside: avoid;
+      max-width: 100%;
+      padding: 0;
+    }
+    .x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: left;}
+
+    .figright {
+      float: right;
+      margin: 1em 0 0 1em;
+      padding: 0;
+      text-align: center;
+      page-break-inside: avoid;
+      max-width: 100%;
+      padding: 0;
+    }
+    .x-ebookmaker .figright {float: right;}
+
+    .attr, .x-ebookmaker .attr {
+      float: right;
+      font-size: x-small;
+      margin-bottom: 0.5%;
+      clear: right;
+    }
+
+    .attl, .x-ebookmaker .attl {
+      float: left;
+      font-size: x-small;
+      margin-bottom: 0.5%;
+      clear: left;
+    }
+
+    .illowp12 {width: 12%; max-width: 9em;}
+    .illowp14 {width: 14%; max-width: 10.5em;}
+    .illowp15 {width: 15%; max-width: 11.25em;}
+    .illowp20 {width: 20%; max-width: 15em;}
+    .illowp23 {width: 23%; max-width: 17.25em;}
+    .illowp25 {width: 25%; max-width: 18.75em;}
+    .illowp30 {width: 30%; max-width: 22.5em;}
+    .illowp32 {width: 32%; max-width: 24em;}
+    .illowp33 {width: 33%; max-width: 25em;}
+    .illowp35 {width: 35%; max-width: 26.25em;}
+    .illowp37 {width: 37%; max-width: 27.75em;}
+    .illowp40 {width: 40%; max-width: 30em;}
+    .illowp45 {width: 45%; max-width: 33.75em;}
+    .illowp50 {width: 50%; max-width: 37.5em;}
+    .illowp54 {width: 54%; max-width: 40.5em;}
+    .illowp55 {width: 55%; max-width: 41.25em;}
+    .illowp56 {width: 56%; max-width: 42em;}
+    .illowp60 {width: 60%; max-width: 45em;}
+    .illowp64 {width: 64%; max-width: 48em;}
+    .illowp65 {width: 65%; max-width: 67.5em;}
+    .illowp66 {width: 66%; max-width: 49.5em;}
+    .illowp67 {width: 67%; max-width: 48.75em;}
+    .illowp70 {width: 70%; max-width: 52.5em;}
+    .illowp75 {width: 75%; max-width: 56.25em;}
+    .illowp76 {width: 76%; max-width: 57em;}
+    .illowp80 {width: 80%; max-width: 60em;}
+    .illowp83 {width: 83%; max-width: 62.25em;}
+    .illowp84 {width: 84%; max-width: 63em;}
+    .illowp85 {width: 85%; max-width: 63.75em;}
+    .illowp86 {width: 86%; max-width: 64.5em;}
+    .illowp90 {width: 90%; max-width: 67.5em;}
+    .illowp95 {width: 95%; max-width: 71.25em;}
+    .illowp100 {width: 100%; max-width: 75em;}
+
+    /* === image of a symbol or glyph === */
+    .iglyph {
+      width: auto;
+      vertical-align: middle;
+    }
+
+    /* === Text drop caps === */
+    p.drop-cap {text-indent: 0;}
+    p.drop-cap:first-letter {
+      float: left;
+      font-size: 4em;
+      margin: 0 0.1em 0 0;
+      line-height: 0.8
+    }
+    .x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap {text-indent: inherit;}
+    .x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap:first-letter {
+      float: none;
+      font-size: inherit;
+      padding-right: inherit;
+      padding-left: inherit;
+      margin-top: inherit;
+      line-height: inherit;
+    }
+
+    /* === Abreviation: no underline, no color === */
+    abbr {
+      border: none;
+      text-decoration: none;
+    }
+
+    /* no underline of links */
+    a {text-decoration: none;}
+
+    /* === Transcriber's notes === */
+    ul.spaced li {
+      padding-top: 1%;
+      list-style-type: disc;
+    }
+
+    .transnote {
+      background-color: #E6E6FA;
+      border: 1px solid;
+      color: black;
+      font-size: small;
+      padding: 0.5em;
+      margin-top: 2em;
+      margin-bottom: 5em;
+      font-family: sans-serif, serif;
+    }
+
+  </style>
+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76978 ***</div>
+  <figure class="x-ebookmaker-drop">
+    <img class="illowp75" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" id="cover">
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure id="i_front">
+    <div class="figcenter illowp75">
+      <img src="images/i_front.jpg" alt="">
+      <div class="attl">Field Columbian Museum</div>
+      <div class="attr">From a photograph by Maudsley</div>
+    </div>
+    <figcaption>TEOCALLI OF THE SUN, PALENQUE, YUCATAN
+      <p class="hang">Discovered about 1750; 28 × 38 feet on the ground, about 25 feet
+        high without the “roof-comb,” a feature of the Palenque buildings here particularly well preserved. Like all the
+        structures of the group, this crowns a mound of considerable height. The construction is stone; ornamentation, stucco.
+        Charnay calls attention to the resemblance to a Japanese temple. On pages <a href="#i_210">210</a>, <a href="#i_235">235</a>, and <a href="#i_237">237</a> constructive features are
+        shown, on <a href="#i_185">page 185</a> is a reproduction of a tablet from it, and on <a href="#i_238">page 238</a>, second figure, is the ground plan. <a href="#i_404">Page 404</a> gives
+        another of the group, and <a href="#i_436">page 436</a> shows geographical location.</p>
+      </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="titlepage">
+    <h1>The North-Americans<br>
+      of Yesterday</h1>
+
+    <div class="center lh15" style="font-size: 130%;">
+      A Comparative Study of North-American Indian Life<br>
+      Customs, and Products, on the Theory of<br>
+      the Ethnic Unity of the Race</div>
+
+    <div class="xlarge mt6 lh15"><span class="medium">By</span><br>
+      Frederick S. Dellenbaugh</div>
+
+    <div class="center-container mt5 mb5">
+      <div class="poetry">
+        <div class="stanza">
+          <div class="i0">“But their name is on your waters,</div>
+          <div class="i2">Ye may not wash it out.”—<i>Mrs. Sigourney.</i></div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp20">
+      <img src="images/colophon.jpg" alt="">
+    </figure>
+
+    <div class="center mt5">
+      With over 350 Illustrations. And an Appendix giving list of stocks,<br>
+      sub-stocks and tribes</div>
+
+    <div class="mt5"><span class="xlarge">G. P. Putnam’s Sons</span><br>
+      <span style="font-size: 125%;"><span style="font-weight: normal; word-spacing: 0.45em;">New York and London</span><br>
+      <span class="antiqua">The Knickerbocker Press</span></span></div>
+  </div>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="titlepage">
+  <div class="lh15">
+    <span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1900<br>
+    <span class="xsmall">BY</span><br>
+    FREDERICK S. DELLENBAUGH<br>
+    ——<br>
+    Fourth Printing</div>
+
+    <div class="antiqua mt20">The Knickerbocker Press, New York</div>
+  </div>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="titlepage">
+    <div class="lh15 mt10 mb10">
+      To<br>
+      <span class="large">MAJOR POWELL</span><br>
+      WHOSE COURAGE SOLVED THE PROBLEM<br>
+      OF THE<br>
+      COLORADO RIVER<br>
+      AND WHOSE FORESIGHT ESTABLISHED<br>
+      THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY<br>
+      THIS BOOK<br>
+      IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED<br>
+      IN MEMORY OF DAYS<br>
+      AFLOAT AND AFIELD</div>
+  </div>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="center large mt10"><b>NOTE</b></div>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <p class="mb10">The author suggests the reading in conjunction with this volume of the
+      first four chapters of his <cite>Breaking the Wilderness</cite>: Also the
+      article in the <cite>Atlantic Monthly</cite> for March 1906, by Charles M.
+      Harvey: <cite>The Red Man’s Last Roll Call</cite>.</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Preface">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span>
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_f005">
+      <img src="images/i_f005.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>MOKI DRAWINGS OF STARS</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>PREFACE</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THE basis of this volume is eight lectures given before the Lowell
+    Institute in Boston in 1894. They have been expanded by the addition of
+    further matter relating to the various subjects, but even with these
+    additions there is but a brief <i lang="fr">résumé</i> of the vast store of
+    material extant.</p>
+
+  <p>The “Indian” has never seemed to me an abnormal factor, but rather a
+    natural part of our society, for it is now nearly thirty years since
+    I first associated with him in the Far West, and before that the
+    Iroquois were familiar to me as a small boy. When I first went among
+    the Western tribes, it was with the second Colorado River expedition
+    of that gallant explorer and foremost student of Amerindian affairs,
+    John Wesley Powell. His own works and the reports of the United
+    States Bureau of Ethnology, of which he has so long been the head,
+    and where he has gathered together so many eminent ethnologists and
+    archæologists, have furnished me with much material. These reports
+    form a fine library on Amerindian matters, and reflect great honour
+    on Professor Powell who conceived the idea, and on Congress which
+    has ungrudgingly supported it. A great and timely work has become
+    established, which to private enterprise would have been next to
+    impossible. Add to these the invaluable reports of the Smithsonian
+    Institution and the memoirs and reports of the Peabody Museum and
+    American Museum, and the student has before him a large fund of
+    material without seeking farther. Then there are the brilliant works
+    of Parkman, Brinton, Winsor, Bandelier, Putnam, Morgan, Schoolcraft,
+    Prescott, Maudsley, Goodman, Wilson, Keane, and many others, with the
+    huge production of H. H. Bancroft filling an important place. To all of
+    these and to others I owe much, and I have intended in every case to
+    give credit and references. Where these, in some cases, may not have
+    been properly awarded, it is due to oversight and not to intention. My
+    especial thanks are due to the Bureau of Ethnology for copies of all
+    the reports, and for permission to utilise the illustrations contained
+    in them, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span>and to the American Museum, Archæological Institute, Field
+    Columbian Museum, Peabody Museum, and Smithsonian Institution for
+    similar generosity. I take pleasure also in acknowledging favours
+    from Professor Putnam, Professor Powell, Professor Mason, Dr. McGee,
+    Mr. Saville, Professor Seymour, Professor Langley, Mr. Bancroft,
+    Professor Holmes, Dr. Baum, and others, and from Mr. E. H. Harriman the
+    opportunity of visiting Alaska under the most favourable circumstances.</p>
+
+  <p>The title, <cite>The North Americans of Yesterday</cite>, seems to me
+    appropriate, because while there are still some Amerinds extant, and
+    a few are even yet apparently leading the old-time life, nevertheless
+    they are merely remnants of a people whose sun has set, and who
+    therefore properly belong to yesterday. For this reason I have
+    mainly treated them as a bygone race. Between the so-called “Red
+    Indian” of the United States and northern regions and the so-called
+    “Civilised Tribes” of Mexico and southern regions I have made no race
+    differentiation, because the differences, whatever they may be, are
+    discovered to be not of kind, but of degree. Confusion was formerly
+    caused by misconceptions and by romantic ideas which have been
+    dispelled by the more scientific methods of later days. Some confusion
+    has been caused also by the persistent efforts to classify the progress
+    of mankind as a whole into distinct world-epochs or time periods. It
+    seems to me that no such universal epochs of even progress could have
+    existed in past time any more than in present time. Tribes of men are
+    differentiated now, always will be, and, I believe, always have been.
+    Common world-planes of culture in time periods are an impossibility.
+    Such schedules as Morgan’s may apply to tribes and stocks as indicating
+    their special, individual advance, but not to the whole world, except
+    in a very general way. That is, they may be <em>culture</em> but never
+    <em>time</em> classifications. The closer we approach the beginnings
+    of man’s existence, the less marked, perhaps, the differences in
+    tribes, but differences certainly began at the moment when one group
+    of men left another group of men to live apart. The environment and
+    necessities of each group would cause differences and varying rates of
+    progress. One group would gain the bow a thousand years before another.</p>
+
+  <p>Long before the beginning of the glacial period, therefore, some groups
+    must have been far ahead of others, and in the manufacture of stone
+    implements some tribes excelled others; some <span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span>making ruder ones than
+    others, and some perhaps making well-finished, polished tools. There
+    are a good many arrow- and spear-head shapes, and it is possible that
+    each form originated at a different time or in a different locality.
+    And in our present state of knowledge of these matters, no time
+    position can be assigned to many American stone tools, polished or
+    not. They may have been used over and over again by various tribes
+    for centuries, or for a thousand years, or they may have been made
+    by tribes of our own day. Some of these tribes made no smoothed or
+    polished implements, though otherwise of advanced type, and polished
+    implements have been found that may be many thousand years old. This
+    is no indication that tribes do not change, but that development
+    began and continues unevenly, and that tribes existed ten thousand or
+    more years ago that were in advance of some that are extant to-day.
+    Nobody can say whether the stone implements, rough or smooth, that
+    have been found in Chiriqui belong to comparatively modern or to very
+    ancient times. The whole subject of stone implements appears to be
+    in a chaotic state, mummified and petrified by a slavish respect and
+    devotion to European patterns. It is a case of cart before the horse.
+    It will be apparent that I do not consider the finish of stone tools,
+    in the present state of our understanding of them, any guide for a
+    world-classification of peoples in a time-scale, especially in North
+    America. This has been admitted by others back to a certain point, but
+    beyond that point they have continued to play follow-the-leader with
+    their world-classifications of “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic,” two of
+    the most confusing, misleading, and useless terms ever invented. Below
+    the limit of the ice action there is nothing to fix the age of stone
+    tools when found on the surface or near it. “Paleoliths” and “neoliths”
+    might therefore be picked up side by side, and the paleolith might
+    not be as old as the neolith, or both might be of the same age. And
+    if a well-made tool, or one resembling some of to-day, is found in an
+    ancient gravel, it does not necessarily mean an intrusion, but that
+    men lived in that far past who were more skilful than some of their
+    neighbours, and more skilful than we have heretofore been willing to
+    admit. That very ancient men made very rude tools is doubtless true,
+    but that <em>all</em> ancient men made rough tools of the same style
+    down to a certain fixed time, and then all began on an improved or a
+    smoothed type, is undoubtedly wrong.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></p>
+
+  <p>How the Amerinds came here I explain by a theory that there was before,
+    or perhaps during the early part of the glacial period, a wider
+    distribution of land surfaces on latitudinal lines, which invited
+    latitudinal migrations.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> These land surfaces may have been no more
+    than groups of larger or smaller islands which have been since wholly
+    submerged or have left only their highest parts above the sea. Before
+    the beginning of the glacial cold, a mild climate extended to the North
+    Pole, facilitating migrations also in that region. Changes in the
+    ocean’s bottom were probably greater in pre-glacial time than now, but
+    they have not altogether ceased. It is little more than fifteen years
+    since a new island appeared off the Aleutian chain, and I think it is
+    doubtful if any of that group existed above water six or eight hundred
+    years ago. I am also of the opinion that no human life was in Alaska or
+    in Northeast Siberia five hundred years back.</p>
+
+  <p>Races not being all of an even grade of culture before the beginning
+    of the cold period any more than now, the tribes that found themselves
+    isolated on this continent by changes in the land levels and by the
+    southward extension of the glaciation, were unevenly developed, some
+    being in advance of others in various ways, though none, of course,
+    had passed beyond the use of stone tools, a condition in which they
+    practically continued down to the Discovery. In this respect the term,
+    “Stone Age,” as indicating a condition, is applicable, but it would
+    not be possible to differentiate it into “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic”
+    periods. The cold pushed them all southward, whether they came by
+    northlands or by latitudinal lands, or both, towards the narrow
+    funnel-like part of the continent, and also to the lower levels,
+    as there was no chance for latitudinal expansion as in the Eastern
+    Hemisphere, the most advanced tribes being the most southerly, if not
+    from original position, because they were able to choose. Eventually
+    communication with Asia and Europe by the north was by the glaciation
+    severed completely, as it had previously been latitudinally by the
+    disappearance of favourable land surfaces, and communication by the
+    north remained closed till within three or four hundred years. The
+    most crowded tribes developed most rapidly, because such development
+    was imperative for self-preservation, and their culture filtered
+    through in diminishing ratio, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span>according to distance, to the less
+    crowded regions—that is, to the climatically less favourable regions;
+    but all who were closely crowded into the “funnel” progressed along
+    similar lines and in much the same degree, <em>without regard to
+    relationships</em>, so that we find in the narrow part of the continent,
+    where the largest number found refuge from the cold, many different
+    stocks in almost parallel stages of culture. There were no isolated
+    “areas of characterisation” as in the latitudinally broader lands of
+    the Eastern Hemisphere, though in some cases there were slight barriers
+    tending to produce or maintain slight variations. The long longitudinal
+    chain of the Sierra Nevada abounding in glaciers to a late date, and
+    to a less extent that of the Rocky Mountains, brought about a partial
+    isolation of the stocks in the great north-and-south migrations,
+    maintaining previous differences and originating others, so that now we
+    distinguish differences between what is called the Atlantic and what is
+    called the Pacific group, while they are yet practically the same.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+    The tribes farthest advanced at the beginning of the isolation on this
+    continent would not necessarily continue at the front of progress, for
+    a change of conditions that might cripple such tribes might at the same
+    time be beneficial to others previously inferior. For instance, as the
+    heat gradually returned, the highly developed lowland tribes began to
+    find themselves at a disadvantage, which grew with the intensity of
+    the heat, while others, inured to harsher conditions, found warmth
+    stimulating, and they began to develop germs received from the superior
+    but now declining stocks. “The American Indians,” says Brinton, “cannot
+    bear the heat of the tropics even as well as the European.” The heat,
+    which at first seems to have been intense in the daytime, then caused
+    a decline of the highest stocks, and a corresponding progression of
+    lower stocks existing on, or migrating to, higher levels. The Yucatec
+    tribes declined, while the Nahuatls, at higher altitudes, began to
+    develop. The finest monuments of North American antiquity, for these
+    reasons, are generally found on comparatively low levels and below a
+    certain latitude, where conditions during the greatest cold were most
+    favourable; conditions that may have continued fairly favourable down
+    to within, say, a thousand years.</p>
+
+  <p>Long before the dawn of the Columbian era, therefore, the Amerind
+    peoples had become, through the influences indicated, a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span>world-race by
+    themselves, existing in various stages of the same general culture,
+    and with a rising and a declining of tribes and stocks directed by
+    environment and circumstances. The great stocks surviving at the
+    beginning of the Columbian era may be approximately traced by their
+    languages, in layers, from Panama northward, about as they expanded
+    mainly eastward of the Sierra Nevada in response to the gradual relief
+    from the pressure of the cold. The Yucatec tribes had held the region
+    south of the Tehuantepec isthmus, and owing to this slight barrier,
+    and perhaps to another barrier of a strait through the land about
+    on the line of the proposed Nicaragua canal, had developed somewhat
+    differently from tribes to the north, and may also have preserved
+    more of their original character. Thence stretching north far into
+    the United States was the great composite Shoshone, or Uto-Aztecan
+    family, in all its variations, with what appears to be an “island” of
+    Athapascans or Boreal men preserved in its midst by glacial conditions
+    lingering in the high regions near the Mexico-United States line;
+    then follows the Siouan; then the widespread Algonquian stock; next
+    the Athapascan; and finally the Eskimauan, which had always been held
+    against the edge of the glaciers by the back pressure of the southern
+    stocks, and being most remote was less affected by filtration from
+    the development centre, and thus remains to-day a more differentiated
+    stock than any other.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The western arm of these stocks was generally
+    farther north than the eastern because the climate was and is milder
+    in the west, the trend of the ice front being now, and apparently
+    always having been, N.W. to S.E. Distribution of skill in pottery
+    follows about the same lines, “petering” out with stocks farthest
+    from the Yucatec centre. The Algonquins crowded the Athapascans off
+    to the N.W., and together they crowded the Eskimo to the limits of
+    human subsistence. In California many stocks found refuge in a climate
+    kept comparatively mild by the ocean currents, where they secured
+    subsistence on fish, and went no farther south. Along the Gulf coast
+    were other tribes resting somewhat aside from the great continental ebb
+    and flow, while in Florida and in the islands of the Caribbean region
+    there was sufficient separation to produce a slight differentiation
+    from the surging continental stocks. Remnants of other stocks were
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span>scattered here and there through the regions below the glaciated
+    area. Mingled with all these developments there were probably certain
+    traits and “tinges” derived from earlier ancestry, and these, with the
+    similarity of development of all races under like conditions prevailing
+    wherever human beings can live, fully account for resemblances to
+    other-world tribes and peoples that have caused so much speculation.</p>
+
+  <p>There has been an error, I believe, in considering the glacial
+    period as of the remote past. It does not seem to have yet closed.
+    It influences our climate now, and probably a thousand years ago
+    its meteorological effects were marked as far south as Yucatan. The
+    glaciers of the Northern Hemisphere everywhere appear to be slowly
+    disappearing, and not so slowly either, if the Muir can be taken as a
+    gauge, for it has been for twenty years receding at the rate of 500
+    feet per annum, and probably at the same rate before that. However
+    this may be, it is probably less than 5000 years since the ice front
+    was at Lake Erie. Eminent geologists have estimated it at less than
+    7000, based on the erosion at Niagara; but as the erosion immediately
+    following the disappearance of the ice is extremely rapid, it seems
+    safe to cut down the estimate. The subtleties of meteorology are far
+    from being understood also, and the theories as to the causes of the
+    cold seem mere guesses. Considerable heat there must have been during
+    the glacial period, or there would have been no glaciers.</p>
+
+  <p class="mb0">On the theory of the ethnic unity of the Amerind people, I have
+    briefly brought together in chapters notes on their chief habits,
+    products, languages, etc., so that the reader may be able to compare.
+    In collecting material that is now obtainable, but which will shortly
+    be gone forever, much remains to be done, and to be done quickly. If
+    this book helps to arouse a deeper public interest in the gathering of
+    this material, and in the general study of the subject, I shall feel it
+    needs no apology.</p>
+
+  <div class="right"><span class="smcap">F. S. Dellenbaugh</span></div>
+
+  <p class="mt0 small"><span class="smcap">New York</span>, January 31, 1900.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="i_f011">
+  <img src="images/i_f011.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI DRAWINGS OF THE SUN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100 mt10" id="i_f012">
+    <img src="images/i_f012.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TERRA-COTTA FUNERAL URNS FROM A MOUND, VALLEY OF OAXACA, MEXICO.
+      <p class="hang">Average height, 15 inches. This is a complete series preserved in
+        the order in which they were found. The usual number of these
+        urns in a series was five. Nothing was put in them and they
+        were not placed inside the burial chambers but in front of the
+        door, on the roof, fastened into the façade, or in niches over
+        the door. See <cite>Funeral Urns from Oaxaca</cite>, Marshall H.
+        Saville, <cite>American Museum Journal</cite>, vol. iv. pp. 49–60,
+        and <cite>Explorations in Zapotecan Tombs</cite>; same author,
+        <cite>American Anthropologist</cite>, N. S., vol. i. April, 1899.</p></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span>
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_f013">
+      <img src="images/i_f013.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>MOKI DRAWINGS OF SQUASH-BLOSSOMS
+      </figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <table class="autotable">
+    <thead class="xsmall">
+      <tr>
+        <th class="tdr">CHAPTER</th>
+        <th></th>
+        <th class="tdr">PAGE</th>
+      </tr>
+    </thead>
+    <tbody>
+      <tr>
+        <td></td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Preface">Preface</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">iii</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">I—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_I">Introductory</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">1</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">II—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_II">Languages and Dialects</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">17</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">III—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_III">Picture Writing, Sign-Language, Wampum, Cupped-Stones</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">39</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">IV—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_IV">The Mexican and Central-American Writing, Inscriptions, and Books</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">68</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">V—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_V">Basketry and Pottery</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">88</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">VI—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_VI">Weaving and Costume</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">123</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">VII—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_VII">Carving, Modelling, and Sculpture</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">161</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">VIII—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_VIII">Shelters, Dwellings, and Architecture</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">194</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">IX—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_IX">Weapons, Armour, Implements, and Transportation</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">248</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">X—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_X">Mining, Metallurgy, and Science</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">285</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">XI—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_XI">Musical Instruments, Music, Amusements, and Games</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">308</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">XII—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_XII">Works and Agriculture</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">332</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">XIII—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_XIII">Customs and Ceremonies</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">352</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">XIV—</td>
+        <td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span><a href="#Ch_XIV"><span class="smcap">Myths, Traditions, and Legends</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">390</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">XV—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_XV">Organisation and Government</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">410</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch">XVI—</td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Ch_XVI">Origin, Migrations, and History</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">428</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdch"></td>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#Appendix">Appendix—Containing a List of North-American Stocks, Sub-Stocks, and Tribes</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">461</td>
+      </tr>
+    </tbody>
+  </table>
+
+  <div class="center mt10"><b>NOTE</b></div>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <p>Particular attention is called to the appendix by means of which
+      the linguistic stock to which a tribe belongs may be readily found.
+      First refer to the <em>list of tribes</em> where the abbreviation
+      following the tribal name, will indicate the family or stock to
+      which that tribe belongs in the <em>list of stocks</em>. Example:
+      “Navajo. <em>Ath.</em>” refers to “<em>Ath.</em> <span class="smcap">Athapascan</span>,”
+      in the stock list, Athapascan being the linguistic family to which
+      the Navajo belong. The geographical range of the stock follows.</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter mt10" id="i_f014">
+    <img class="illowp45" src="images/i_f014.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI DRAWINGS OF RAIN CLOUDS AND LIGHTNING</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span>
+    <h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <table class="autotable loi">
+    <thead>
+      <tr>
+        <th></th>
+        <th class="tdr xsmall">PAGE</th>
+      </tr>
+    </thead>
+    <tbody>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_front">Teocalli of the Sun, Palenque, Yucatan</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_f005">Moki Drawings of Stars</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">iii</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_f014">Moki Drawings of the Sun</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">ix</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_001"><span class="smcap">Gargoyle—Serpent Head</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From débris of temple, Copan]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">1</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_003"><span class="smcap">South Portion of the Tewa Pueblo of Taos, New Mexico. Adobé Construction</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">3</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_005"><span class="smcap">Seated Figure Carved in Trachyte</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From débris of hieroglyphic steps, Copan. Slightly larger than life size]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">5</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_007"><span class="smcap">Kicking Bear, Sioux</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">7</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_009"><span class="smcap">A Corner of a Mitla Ruin, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Bandelier’s <cite>Archæological Tour</cite>, published by the Archæological Institute of America]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">9</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_011"><span class="smcap">Sculpture from Terrace East of the Great Plaza, Copan</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">11</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_013"><span class="smcap">A Kieskabi, or Covered Passage, at Walpi, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">13</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_015"><span class="smcap">Moki Mask of Pawikkatcina</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">15</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_016"><span class="smcap">Specimen of Sculpture on Hieroglyphic Stairway, Copan</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">16</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_017"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Jade Adze</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">17</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_019"><span class="smcap">“Singing-Girl” Sculptured in Trachyte</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From débris of Temple 22, Copan. Slightly larger than life]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">19</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_020"><span class="smcap">Terra-Cotta Stool, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">20</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_021"><span class="smcap">Altar Q, Copan, Honduras</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From photograph by M. H. Saville. American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">21</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_023"><span class="smcap">South-West Corner of the Temple of Xochicalco, State of Morelos, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of. Natural History]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">23</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_027"><span class="smcap">Polished Black Ware, Santa Clara, New Mexico</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">27</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_031"><span class="smcap">Eastern Façade of the Temple of Xochicalco, State of Morelos, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of Natural History]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">31</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_033"><span class="smcap">Amerind Linguistic Map of North America</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[After the one prepared by the U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">33</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_035"><span class="smcap">Fac-Simile of a Cherokee Manuscript</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Written in Sequoyah’s Syllabary]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">35</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_037"><span class="smcap">Petroglyphs near Wrangell, Alaska, probably Tlinkit</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">37</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_038"><span class="smcap">Human Forms, Moki</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">38</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_039"><span class="smcap">Omaha War Club</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">39</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_040"><span class="smcap">Painted Petroglyphs, Santa Barbara County, California</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">40</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_041"><span class="smcap">Petroglyphs in Brown’s Cave, Wisconsin</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">41</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_042"><span class="smcap">Painted Petroglyphs, Southern Utah</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">42</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_043"><span class="smcap">Petroglyph at Millsboro, Pennsylvania</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">43</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_044"><span class="smcap">Petroglyphs in Georgia</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">44</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_045-1">Runic Inscription on Stone Found at Igalikko, Greenland</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">45</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_045-2"><span class="smcap">Dighton Rock, Massachusetts</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">45</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_046"><span class="smcap">Illustration of the “Walam Olum” of the Lenapé</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Brinton]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">46</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_047"><span class="smcap">Katcinas in the Somaikoli Ceremony, Cichumovi, Arizona, November, 1884</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photograph by the Author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">47</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_048"><span class="smcap">Killed Two Arikarees</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">48</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_049"><span class="smcap">Petroglyphs on Paint Rock, North Carolina</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">49</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_050"><span class="smcap">Landa’s Maya Alphabet, after Brasseur</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">50</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_051"><span class="smcap">Fac-Simile of the Lord’s Prayer in Micmac Hieroglyphs</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Le Clercq]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">51</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_052"><span class="smcap">Sequoyah’s Cherokee Syllabary</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">52</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_054"><span class="smcap">Lean Wolf’s Map, Hidatsa</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">54</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_055-1"><span class="smcap">The “Penn” Wampum Belt</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_055-2"><span class="smcap">Strings of Wampum</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">55</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_056"><span class="smcap">Orca or Killer-Whale Decoration, Haida</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">56</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_057"><span class="smcap">Haida Tattooing</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">57</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_058"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Drawing—“The Man in the Moon Comes Down”</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">58</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_059"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Picture-Writing</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">59</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_060"><span class="smcap">Specimens of the Dakota Winter Counts</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">60</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_061"><span class="smcap">Killing a Bison</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">61</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_062"><span class="smcap">Shell Disc, Tennessee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">62</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_064"><span class="smcap">Shell Gorget, Tennessee</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Actual size]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">64</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_065">Cup Markings</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">65</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_067"><span class="smcap">Cup from Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">67</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_068"><span class="smcap">Terra-Cotta from Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">68</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_070"><span class="smcap">Page from an Aztec Book</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From a copy in the possession of M. H. Saville]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">70</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_071"><span class="smcap">Mexican Writing of Name of Montezuma</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Brinton]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">71</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_072"><span class="smcap">Part of Plate 65, Dresden Codex</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Maya]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">72</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_074"><span class="smcap">Vase from Labna, Yucatan, with Peculiar Markings</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">74</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_075"><span class="smcap">Convex Discoidal Stone, North Carolina</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">75</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_079"><span class="smcap">Female Head in Trachyte</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">79</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_081"><span class="smcap">Usual Type of Sculptured “Yokes,” Central America</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Field Columbian Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">81</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_086"><span class="smcap">A Suggestion of the possible Scheme of Maya Numerals. Wholly Tentative</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From drawing by the Author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">86</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_087"><span class="smcap">Omaha Calumet</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">87</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_088"><span class="smcap">Omaha War Club</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">88</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_089-1"><span class="smcap">North-West Coast Feather Ornamentation on Baskets</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">89</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_089-2"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Bag-Basket</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">89</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_089-3"><span class="smcap">Moki Wicker Water-Jug</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">89</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_090"><span class="smcap">Havasupai Clay-Lined Roasting Tray</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">90</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_091-1"><span class="smcap">Iroquois Birchbark Vessel</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_091-1"><span class="smcap">North-West Coast Basket</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">91</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_092"><span class="smcap">McCloud River Basket, California</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">92</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_093-1"><span class="smcap">Moki Food Basket</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_093-2"><span class="smcap">Klamath Basket</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">93</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_095-1"><span class="smcap">Moki Food Tray</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_095-2"><span class="smcap">Moki Floor Mat</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">95</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_096-1"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Whalebone Dish</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_096-2"><span class="smcap">Clallam Basket, Washington</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">96</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_097"><span class="smcap">Amerind Wicker-Work—Apache Basket; Pai Ute Water-Jug; Moki Food Tray; Klamath Basket</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">97</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_100-1"><span class="smcap">Modelling an Olla at Hano</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photograph by the Author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">100</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_100-2"><span class="smcap">Clay Nucleus</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">100</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_100-3"><span class="smcap">Method of Building up Coil</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">100</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_102-1"><span class="smcap">Ware from Moki Region, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">102</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_103-1"><span class="smcap">Cup from Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">103</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_103-2"><span class="smcap">Vase from Arkansas, Showing Lines Made with a Sharp Point before Firing</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">103</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_105"><span class="smcap">Bottle-Shaped Vase, Arkansas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">105</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_106"><span class="smcap">Earthenware Burial Casket, Tennessee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">106</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_107"><span class="smcap">Death-Mask Vase, Tennessee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">107</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_109-1"><span class="smcap">Fluted Vase, Arkansas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">109</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_109-2"><span class="smcap">Impression of Parts of Basket Mould on Pottery</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">109</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_111"><span class="smcap">Vase from Chiriqui. Decorated in Black, Red, and Purple</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">111</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_113"><span class="smcap">An Ancient Figure of Terra Cotta from the Valley of Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From photograph by American Museum of Natural History]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">113</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_114"><span class="smcap">Coil Indented for Decoration</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">114</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_115"><span class="smcap">Zapotecan Terra-Cotta Funeral Urns Found on Cement Floor in Front of Tomb 1, Mound 7, Xoxo, Oaxaca, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of Natural History]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">115</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_116"><span class="smcap">Pot Showing Diagonal Grooves across the Lines of the Coil Made by the Hand in Smoothing up. Mancos Canyon, Colorado</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">116</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_117"><span class="smcap">Zapotecan Terra-Cotta Tubing Found Leading down into a Field from the Centre of Mound 7, Xoxo, Oaxaca, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by M. H. Saville for the American Museum of Natural History]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">117</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_118"><span class="smcap">Pueblo Pot. Pattern Produced by Obliterating Pinch Marks</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">118</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_119"><span class="smcap">Pinch-Marked Coil</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">119</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_120"><span class="smcap">Engraved Ware, Arkansas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">120</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_121"><span class="smcap">Engraved Ware, Arkansas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">121</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_122">Black Cup, Chiriqui</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">122</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_123"><span class="smcap">Woven Moccasin from Kentucky Cave</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">123</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_125"><span class="smcap">Menominee Beaded Garters</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">125</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_127"><span class="smcap">Navajo Woman at the Loom</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">127</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_129"><span class="smcap">Part of the Somaikoli Ceremony at Cichumovi, November, 1884, Showing a Sacred Blanket on Figure in Foreground</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From photograph by the Author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">129</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_131"><span class="smcap">Details of Navajo Loom Construction</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">131</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_135"><span class="smcap">A Puebloan of San Juan, New Mexico</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">135</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_137"><span class="smcap">Method of Making Feather-Work</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">137</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_139"><span class="smcap">Chilkat Ceremonial Shirt</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">139</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_142"><span class="smcap">Chilkat Ceremonial Blanket</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">142</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_144"><span class="smcap">Moki Wall Decoration. Pink on a White Ground. Mishongnuvi, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">144</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_145"><span class="smcap">Bellacoolas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">145</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_146"><span class="smcap">Top View of Conical North-West Coast Hat</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">146</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_147"><span class="smcap">Wonsivu, a Pai Ute Girl</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Posed by Thomas Moran]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">147</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_148"><span class="smcap">A Navajo Leader in Native Costume</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Figure from photograph by the U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">148</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_149"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Moki House, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">149</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_151"><span class="smcap">Pueblo Head Mat</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">151</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_152"><span class="smcap">Navajos</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">152</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_154"><span class="smcap">Seminole Man’s and Woman’s Costume</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">154</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_155"><span class="smcap">Ear-Perforating and Hair-Dressing of Seminoles</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">155</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_157"><span class="smcap">The Ghost-Shirt, Simple Form</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">157</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_158"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Boots</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">158</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_160"><span class="smcap">Rain Hat, Haida</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">160</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_161"><span class="smcap">Toucan of Squier and Davis, Really a Crow</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">161</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_162-1"><span class="smcap">Deserted Village near Cape Fox, Alaska</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">162</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_162-2"><span class="smcap">Interior House-Column</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Sketch by Author from post at Cape Fox Village, Alaska]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">162</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_163">Major Part of Interior House-Post from Cape Fox Village, S. E. Alaska</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">163</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_164"><span class="smcap">Totem Pole with Bear on the Top, Wrangell</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Sketch by the Author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">164</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_165-1"><span class="smcap">Terra-Cotta Statuette, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">165</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_165-1"><span class="smcap">The Bear-Mother, Haida, N. W. Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">165</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_166"><span class="smcap">Wooden Masks, N. W. Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">166</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_167"><span class="smcap">Kwakiutl Carving, N. W. Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">167</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_168"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Carved Ivory Drum-Handles</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">168</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_170"><span class="smcap">Specimen of Moundbuilder Sculptural Skill with Human Figure</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">170</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_171"><span class="smcap">Stone Pipe from North Carolina Mound</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">171</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_172-1"><span class="smcap">So-Called Elephant Pipe, Iowa</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">172</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_172-2"><span class="smcap">Toucan of Squier and Davis, possibly Meant for a Young Eagle</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">172</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_173"><span class="smcap">Tripod Vase, Chiriqui. Legs Modelled to Imitate Fish</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">173</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_175"><span class="smcap">Shell Gorget, Missouri</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">175</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_176"><span class="smcap">Bird-Shaped Earthen Bowl, Arkansas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">176</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_177"><span class="smcap">Shell Mask, Virginia</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">177</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_178">Moki Sculptural Skill with the Human Figure</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">178</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_179-1"><span class="smcap">The Alosaka (Moki)</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[After drawing by A. M. Stephen]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">179</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_179-2"><span class="smcap">Sculptural Art of Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">179</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_180"><span class="smcap">Shell Gorget, Tennessee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">180</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_182"><span class="smcap">The Aztec “Calendar” Stone</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Bandelier’s <cite>Archæological Tour</cite>]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">182</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_183"><span class="smcap">Aztec Sculpture, the Indio Triste</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Bandelier’s <cite>Archæological Tour</cite>]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">183</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_185"><span class="smcap">Sanctuary Tablet Temple (Teocalli) of the Sun, Palenque</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Field Columbian Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">185</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_186"><span class="smcap">“Altar” in Front of Stela D, Copan</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">186</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_187"><span class="smcap">Stela No. 6, Copan; Back of Stela No. 6</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">187</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_188"><span class="smcap">Puma-Shaped Stool of Grey Andesite, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">188</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_B">†</a> <a href="#i_189"><span class="smcap">Head Sculptured in Stone. Chultunes of Labna, Yucatan</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">189</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_191"><span class="smcap">Large Built-up Head at Izamal</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From Stephens]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">191</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_192"><span class="smcap">Stool of Grey Basalt, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">192</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_193"><span class="smcap">Copper Bell from Tennessee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">193</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_194"><span class="smcap">Pueblo Mealing Stones</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">194</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_195"><span class="smcap">Pai Ute Wikiups, Northern Arizona</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From photograph by Colorado River Expedition, 1872]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">195</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_196"><span class="smcap">Moki Kisi Construction</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">196</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_197"><span class="smcap">Primitive Amerind Ladders</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">197</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_198"><span class="smcap">A Navajo House</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">198</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_199"><span class="smcap">A Sweat House</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">199</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_201"><span class="smcap">An Omaha Tipi</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">201</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_203"><span class="smcap">A Seminole Dwelling</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">203</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_206"><span class="smcap">Mississippi Valley Method of Using Jacal Construction, according to Thomas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">206</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_207"><span class="smcap">Cliff Outlook, Canyon del Muerto, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">207</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_209"><span class="smcap">Hall of Columns, Mitla</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Field Columbian Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">209</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_210"><span class="smcap">Transverse Section (somewhat Generalised) Showing Construction of Palenque Buildings, Yucatan</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Field Columbian Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">210</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_211"><span class="smcap">Some Details of Pueblo House Architecture—A Triangular Sipapu or Sacred Kiva Orifice; Moki Doorway with Transom; Pueblo Roof Construction; Some Moki Roof Drains</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">211</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_213"><span class="smcap">Moki Notched Doorway, so Made that Large Bundles could be Taken in</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">213</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_215-1">A Zuñi Chimney, Moki the Same</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">215</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_215-2">One Form of Moki Chimney Hood</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">215</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_217"><span class="smcap">Ground Plan of Eskimo Snow Iglu</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">217</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_218"><span class="smcap">Section of Snow Iglu</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">218</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_219"><span class="smcap">An Alaska Eskimo Winter House, Point Barrow</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">219</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_220"><span class="smcap">Interior Ground Plan of a Moki House</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">220</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_221-1"><span class="smcap">An Alaska Eskimo Winter House of Wood and Earth, Point Barrow</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">221</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_221-2"><span class="smcap">Interior of Wood and Earth Iglu</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">221</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_222"><span class="smcap">Stone Steps at Oraibi</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">222</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_223"><span class="smcap">Cliff-Dwelling, Eastern Cove of Mummy Cave, Canyon de Chelly, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">223</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_224"><span class="smcap">Houses in Walpi, One of the Moki Towns, Arizona</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photograph by U.&nbsp;S. Geological Survey]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">224</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_225"><span class="smcap">General View of a Group of Cavate Lodges, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">225</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_227"><span class="smcap">Plan and Sections of a Cavate Lodge</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">227</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_228"><span class="smcap">Diagram Showing Pocket at Back of some Cavate Lodges</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">228</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_C">‡</a> <a href="#i_230"><span class="smcap">Theoretic Roof Construction of Mitla</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">230</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_231"><span class="smcap">Ground Plan of a Kiva and Ceiling Plan of Another</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">231</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_232-1"><span class="smcap">Chaco Ruins Masonry; Chaco Ruins, Ground Plans</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From <cite>Report</cite> of Hayden Expedition]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">232</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_233"><span class="smcap">Ruin Called Casa Grande, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">233</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_C">‡</a> <a href="#i_235"><span class="smcap">Transverse Section of an Ordinary Yucatec Building</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">235</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_C">‡</a> <a href="#i_237"><span class="smcap">Forms of the Maya Corbel Vault</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">237</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_C">‡</a> <a href="#i_238"><span class="smcap">Ground Plans of Yucatec Buildings</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">238</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_239"><span class="smcap">Kwakiutl House Front</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">239</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_241"><span class="smcap">North-West Coast Houses and Totem Poles</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">241</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_C">‡</a> <a href="#i_243"><span class="smcap">Ruin of East Façade and Iglesia, “Palace,” Chichen-Itza, Yucatan</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">243</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_244"><span class="smcap">Elevation of Kwakiutl House</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">244</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_245"><span class="smcap">View in the Moki Town of Mishongnavi, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">245</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_247"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Horn Dipper</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">247</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_248-1"><span class="smcap">Horn Arrow Straightener</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">248</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_248-2"><span class="smcap">Modern Iron Arrow-Heads of the Omahas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">248</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_249"><span class="smcap">Forms of the Bow</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">249</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_250"><span class="smcap">Pai Ute Palm-Drill</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by the Author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">250</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_251-1"><span class="smcap">The Palm-Drill (Fire-Making); The Pump-Drill (Fire-Making)</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">251</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_251-2"><span class="smcap">Eskimo String-Drill (For Fire-Making with Mouthpiece)</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">251</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_251-3"><span class="smcap">Pueblo Pump-Drill (For Boring)</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">251</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_251-4"><span class="smcap">Drill-Point of Chipped Flint</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">251</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_253"><span class="smcap">Set of Fire-Making Tools, Bristol Bay Eskimo, Alaska</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">253</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_254"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Bow-Drill</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">254</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_255-1"><span class="smcap">Modern Rod Armour of the Klamaths, Oregon</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">255</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_255-2"><span class="smcap">Hupa Rod Armour, California</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">255</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_257"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Plate Armour, Diomede Island, Bering Strait</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">257</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_258"><span class="smcap">Tlinkit Skin Armour, Alaska</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">258</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_259"><span class="smcap">Prehistoric Aleutian Rod Armour</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">259</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_261-1"><span class="smcap">Chipped Flint; Chipped Flint Blunt Arrow-Head, Georgia; Chipped Flint Implement, Tennessee; Specimen “Cores,” or Blocks of Flint; Specimen of Chipped Flint Discs, called “Turtleback,” Mississippi Valley; Grooved Stone Axe, Tennessee (Ground)</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">261</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_263"><span class="smcap">Diagram Explaining Terms to be Used in Describing Stone Weapons</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">263</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_265"><span class="smcap">Tlinkit Slat-and-Rod Armour, Alaska, Front View</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">265</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_266"><span class="smcap">Apache War-Bonnet</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">266</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_268-1"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Throwing-Boards for Darts</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">268</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_268-2"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Bird Bolas</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">268</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_269"><span class="smcap">Amerindian Knives</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">269</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_270-1"><span class="smcap">Moki Throwing-Stick, or Putchkohu; Pueblo Planting Stick; Zuñi Wooden Spade</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">270</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_271"><span class="smcap">A Moki Throwing the Putchkohu</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From a drawing by the Author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">271</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_273"><span class="smcap">Shell Spoon, Mississippi Valley</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">273</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_274-1"><span class="smcap">Pueblo Mountain Sheep-Horn Spoon</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">274</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_274-2"><span class="smcap">Menominee Wooden Mortar and Pestle</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">274</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_275"><span class="smcap">Stone House-Lamp, Point Barrow, Alaska</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">275</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_277"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Sledges</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">277</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_278"><span class="smcap">Central Eskimo Dog Harness</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">278</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_279"><span class="smcap">Enclosed Canadian Toboggan or Travelling Sled</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">279</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_280"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Snow-Shoe, Point Barrow, Alaska</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">280</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_281"><span class="smcap">Canoes of the North-West Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">281</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_282"><span class="smcap">Umiak of the Central Eskimo</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">282</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_283"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Kayaks</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">283</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_284-1"><span class="smcap">Method of Attaching Oars to Umiak</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">284</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_284-2"><span class="smcap">Method of Tying Frame of Kayak</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">284</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_285"><span class="smcap">Thin Plate of Copper Wrought by Repoussé Method, Illinois Mound</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">285</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_287"><span class="smcap">Amerindian Method of Mining Steatite for Utensils</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">287</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_289"><span class="smcap">Chipped Spade</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">289</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_290"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Stone Maul</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Drawn by Mary Wright Gill]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">290</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_292"><span class="smcap">Small Figure of Frog in Base Metal, Plated with Gold, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">292</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_293"><span class="smcap">Coppers from the North-West Coast; Painted Design in Black Representing a Sea Monster with Bear’s Head; Painted Design Representing a Hawk</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[U.&nbsp;S. National Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">293</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_294"><span class="smcap">Hollow Silver Beads of Navajo Make, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">294</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_295"><span class="smcap">Navajo Silver Work, Arizona; Engraved Button; Bracelet</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">295</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_297"><span class="smcap">Kwakiutl Chief Holding his Copper, North-West Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">297</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_302-1"><span class="smcap">Triple Bell or Rattle of Gold from near Panama</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">302</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_302-2"><span class="smcap">Bronze Mexican Bell</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">302</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_304"><span class="smcap">Bronze Bells, Plated or Washed with Gold, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">304</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_306"><span class="smcap">Small Metal Figure, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">306</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_307"><span class="smcap">Silver Plate with Spanish Coat of Arms</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">307</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_308"><span class="smcap">Moki Rattle of Animal Hoofs</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">308</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_309"><span class="smcap">Amerindian Rattles; Gourd, ; Earthenware Rattlee from Chiriqui; Tin, Ojibwa</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">309</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_310"><span class="smcap">Omaha Large Flute</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">310</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_312"><span class="smcap">Drum of Terra-Cotta, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">312</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_313"><span class="smcap">Menominee Tambourine Drum</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">313</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_314"><span class="smcap">Omaha Box Drum</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">314</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_315"><span class="smcap">Set of Playing Sticks</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">315</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_317"><span class="smcap">Pueblo Rattles—Turtle Shell with Hoofs of Goats or Sheep, Fastened to the Rear of the Right Leg near the Knee in Dancing; Painted Gourd with Wood Handle</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">317</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_319-1"><span class="smcap">Zuñi Dance Ornament</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_319-2"><span class="smcap">Moki Notched Stick</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_319-3"><span class="smcap">Kwakiutl Double Whistle, with Four Voices</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">319</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_320"><span class="smcap">The Awl Game</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">320</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_322"><span class="smcap">Amerind Gambling Tools—Set of Bone Dice, Arapaho; Set of Counting Sticks, Blackfeet; Set of Plum Stones, Arikaree</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">322</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_325"><span class="smcap">Terra-Cotta Rattle from Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">325</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_327"><span class="smcap">Cat-Shaped Whistle of Terra-Cotta, Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">327</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_328"><span class="smcap">Mandan Game of Tchungkee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">328</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_330"><span class="smcap">Double Whistle in Terra-Cotta from Chiriqui</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">330</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_331"><span class="smcap">Set of Staves for Game</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">331</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_332"><span class="smcap">“Banner-Stone,” Tennessee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">332</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_334"><span class="smcap">So-Called Elephant Mound, Wisconsin</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">334</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_335"><span class="smcap">Ancient Fabric Design, from Impression on Pottery, Utah</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">335</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_336"><span class="smcap">Ancient Fabric, Preserved by Copper Celt, Iowa</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">336</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_337"><span class="smcap">Large Mound of the Etowah Group, Georgia</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">337</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_339"><span class="smcap">A Votive Adz of Jadite from Mexico, Showing Front and Side</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum, Kunz Collection]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">339</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_341"><span class="smcap">Back of Votive Adz</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">341</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_344"><span class="smcap">Patterns of Ancient Fabrics from Pottery; from New York; from Illinois; from Tennessee</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">344</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_345"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Mechanical Toy</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">345</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_347"><span class="smcap">Máhtotóhpa (The Four Bears), a Mandan Chief</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">347</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_349"><span class="smcap">An Onyx Jar from Mexico in Process of Manufacture</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">349</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_351"><span class="smcap">Wooden Food Bowl, Haida</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">351</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_352"><span class="smcap">Dancing Mask of the Makahs, Washington</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">352</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_353"><span class="smcap">Moki Wicker Cradle with Awning; Carrying Basket of the Arikarees</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">353</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_355"><span class="smcap">Tlinkit Man and Woman Thirty Years Ago, or about 1870</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">355</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_357"><span class="smcap">A Pawnee in Battle Array</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by J. K. Hillers, U.&nbsp;S. Geological Survey]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">357</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_359"><span class="smcap">The Kwakiutl Wolf Dance, called Wālasaxa, North-West Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">359</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_361"><span class="smcap">Ute Woman Carrying Child</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">361</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_362"><span class="smcap">Keokuk, a Sauk Chief</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">362</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_365"><span class="smcap">Shrine of the War-Gods, Twin Mountain, Pueblo of Zuñi, New Mexico</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">365</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_367"><span class="smcap">A Costume of a Hāmatsa in the Kwakiutl Cannibalistic Ceremony, where Slaves and Corpses were Formerly Devoured</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">367</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_368"><span class="smcap">Mexican Operating the Palm Drill for Fire</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">368</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_369"><span class="smcap">Zuñi Woman Carrying Water</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">369</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_372"><span class="smcap">Ute Cradle, Frame of Rods Covered with Buckskin</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">372</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_374-1"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Woman of Point Barrow Carrying Child</span></a>;
+          <a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_374-2"><span class="smcap">Apache Woman Carrying Child</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">374</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_376"><span class="smcap">Moki “Snake dance” at Walpi</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">376</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_377"><span class="smcap">Amerindian Picture-Writing</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">377</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_378"><span class="smcap">Beginning of the Moki “Snake Dance” at Walpi</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">378</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_380"><span class="smcap">Horned Rattlesnake, Crotalus Cerastes</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">380</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_382"><span class="smcap">The Okeepa Ceremony of the Mandans, Lasting Four Days</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">382</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_383"><span class="smcap">The Sacred Pole of the Omaha</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">383</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_384"><span class="smcap">Cruciform Stone Tomb, Oaxaca</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">384</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_385">Ground Plan of Cruciform Tomb, Oaxaca</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">385</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_387"><span class="smcap">Amerindian Art</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">387</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_388">Moki Earthen Canteen, Arizona</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">388</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_389"><span class="smcap">Modern Laced Sandal of Leather from Colima, Mexico</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">389</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_390"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Pipe with Stone Bowl</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">390</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_391"><span class="smcap">Teocalli (Temple) of Tepoztlan, State of Morelos, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Monumental Records]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">391</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_392"><span class="smcap">Kwakiutl Wood-Carving of the Sīsul North-West Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">392</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_394"><span class="smcap">Rushing Eagle, 1872</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">394</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_395"><span class="smcap">Fine Cloth Preserved by Copper Beads</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">395</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_398"><span class="smcap">Ancient Fabric-Marked Potsherds, with Clay Casts by Holmes</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">398</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_400"><span class="smcap">Ehtohkpahshepeeshah, the Black Moccasin, Chief of the Minatarees, over One Hundred Years Old</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">400</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_402"><span class="smcap">Lacandon (Mayan) Amerind from Chocolhao, Yucatan</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by M. H. Saville]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">402</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_404"><span class="smcap">One of the Buildings of the Palenque Group</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by M. H. Saville]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">404</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_406"><span class="smcap">Costume Worn in the Kwakiutl Festivals, called Laōlaxa, North-West Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">406</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_409"><span class="smcap">God-Houses of the Huichols at Teakáta, near Santa Catarina, State of Jalisco, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">409</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_410"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Mask of Wood, Prince William Sound, Alaska</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">410</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_413"><span class="smcap">Plenty-Horses, a Cheyenne</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[U.&nbsp;S. Geological Survey]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">413</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_415"><span class="smcap">North-West Coast Basketry Hats</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">415</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_417"><span class="smcap">North-West Coast Mortuary and Commemorative Columns</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">417</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_422"><span class="smcap">Ancient Puebloan Moccasins of Fibre, Arizona</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">422</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_426"><span class="smcap">Chimmesyan Head-dress Representing the White Owl</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">426</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_428"><span class="smcap">Wooden “Seal” Dish, Haida</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">428</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_429"><span class="smcap">Tlinkit Summer Camp</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">429</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_431"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Summer Camp, Port Clarence</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">431</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_433"><span class="smcap">Wooden Snow Goggles of the Central Eskimo</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">433</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_436"><span class="smcap">Principal Known Ruins of Central America</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">436</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_437"><span class="smcap">Necklace of Dried Human Fingers Obtained on Battlefield of Wounded Knee by Captain Bourke</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">437</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_438"><span class="smcap">Principal Known Ruins of Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">438</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_440"><span class="smcap">Probable Aspect of Alaska Summer Landscape some Six Hundred Years Ago</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">440</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_442"><span class="smcap">A Puebloan Warrior of Nambé, New Mexico, in Battle Array</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">442</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_444"><span class="smcap">Apache Woman Carrying Water in a Wicker Bottle</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">444</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_446"><span class="smcap">Group of Eskimo, Port Clarence, Alaska</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[[Photographed by the Harriman Expedition, 1899]]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">446</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_447"><span class="smcap">Shell Spider Gorgets</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">447</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_448"><span class="smcap">Black Hawk</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">448</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_450"><span class="smcap">Portion of the So-Called “Palace” of Labna, Yucatan</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">450</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_451"><span class="smcap">Musical Bow of the Southern Tepehuanes and the Aztecs, Mexico</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">451</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_452"><span class="smcap">General Type of Chimmesyan, Haida, and Tlinkit Chief’s Costume, North-West Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">452</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_453"><span class="smcap">Perforated Discoidal Stone, Illinois</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">453</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_454"><span class="smcap">Hobobo, the Fire Katcina, in the Somaikoli Ceremony, Cichumovi, 1884</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[From a drawing by the author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">454</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_455"><span class="smcap">Circle of Dancers in the Intervals between the Appearances of the Various Katcinas in the Moki Somaikoli Ceremony, Cichumovi, Arizona, 1884</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[Photographed by the author]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">455</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_457"><span class="smcap">Front of the House of Columns, Mitla, Oaxaca</span></a><br>
+          <div class="loiattr">[American Museum]</div></td>
+        <td class="tdr">457</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_459">A Costumed Human Figure from Tampico, Washington</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">459</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#i_460">Entrance of a Tomb at Culapa, Mexico</a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">460</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_A">*</a> <a href="#i_461"><span class="smcap">Stick Used in the Awl Game</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">461</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_478"><span class="smcap">Wooden Seal-Dish, Haida, North-West Coast</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">478</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td class="tdl"><a href="#LOIattr_D">¶</a> <a href="#i_488"><span class="smcap">The Swastika</span></a></td>
+        <td class="tdr">488</td>
+      </tr>
+    </tbody>
+  </table>
+
+  <ul class="small">
+    <li id="LOIattr_A">* U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology.</li>
+    <li id="LOIattr_B">† Peabody Museum.</li>
+    <li id="LOIattr_C">‡ Field Columbian Museum.</li>
+    <li id="LOIattr_D">¶ U.&nbsp;S. National Museum.</li>
+  </ul>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="center"><b>NOTE</b></div>
+
+  <p>The cover, designed and drawn by the author, has for its central
+    feature a sketch of a stone animal head removed from one of the
+    buildings at Copan and brought to the Peabody Museum by Saville. The
+    sacred butterfly of the Mokis fills the four corners of the space
+    around this, and above and below an arrangement of Puebloan scrollwork
+    completes the composition. On the back is a figure representing the
+    terra-cotta statue shown more exactly on <a href="#i_113">page 113</a>, with a further
+    arrangement of scrollwork and some minor Moki symbols.</p>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="center xxlarge bold mt10 mb10">THE NORTH-AMERICANS OF<br>YESTERDAY</div>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <figure id="i_f030">
+    <div class="figcenter illowp75">
+    <img src="images/i_f030.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attl">American Museum</div>
+    <div class="attr">Marshall H. Saville</div>
+    </div>
+    <figcaption>TERRA-COTTA FUNERAL URN FOUND IN FRONT OF A TOMB AT CUILAPA, MEXICO<br>
+        Height: 2 feet 3¾ inches. Shows traces of four colours: white, yellow, red, and blue</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_I">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span>
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_001">
+      <img src="images/i_001.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>GARGOYLE—SERPENT HEAD<br>From débris of temple, Copan</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <div class="center xxlarge bold">THE<br>NORTH-AMERICANS OF YESTERDAY</div>
+
+    <hr class="short mt5">
+    <h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+    <div class="subheadc">INTRODUCTORY</div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">WHEN those rapacious enthusiasts, the Spaniards of the sixteenth
+    century, had unfolded some of the mysteries of the great half-world
+    that the resolution and daring of Columbus had opened to them, they
+    found it everywhere already peopled, though often sparsely, by a race
+    strange to the other half, with totally different ideas and customs,
+    existing in various degrees of sylvan felicity, or in the budding
+    promise of a civilisation. They also found imposing ruins that told of
+    the long previous departure of some of the occupants of this land into
+    the vaster unknown, and indeed evidences of still earlier hosts that
+    had travelled the dim pathway through the outer darkness. These new
+    lands were believed to be some part of India, and because of this first
+    error the inappropriate title of “Indians” was bestowed on the natives,
+    and this name continued to cling after the mistake was discovered,
+    growing more and more confusing as intercourse increased with the real
+    Indians, till now in our day it is exceedingly troublesome, and we
+    are compelled to differentiate, when accuracy is desirable, by saying
+    “East Indian,” “Red Indian,” or “American Indian,” etc. To add further
+    to this confusion, many persons persist in considering the Algonquin
+    and Iroquois <span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>as the type specimens of “Indians,” and exclude all who
+    do not accord with this limited and erroneous standard. The natives of
+    the Western Hemisphere appear all to have been of one race, for there
+    are only minor differences, which will be shown in following pages, and
+    there is therefore a necessity for a broad designation for all these
+    people. When these words were first written I had determined to adopt
+    the term “Redskin” for use in this book, but learning that Amerind,
+    compounded of the first syllables of American and Indian, had been
+    suggested by the Anthropological Society of Washington, I gave it the
+    preference over Redskin, and on full examination was convinced that it
+    is a satisfactory and useful substitute for “Indian,” and, in order to
+    avoid the latter, have used it exclusively in these pages, except where
+    another writer is quoted.</p>
+
+  <p>This Amerind people were indeed more remarkable than has been popularly
+    appreciated.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> They possessed, as a rule, strong personality, great
+    physical vigour, quick intelligence, and dauntless courage. Their
+    brain power was of a high order and the cerebral quality extremely
+    fine; capable through the processes of time of a development second to
+    none. They had their trials, their wars, their sicknesses, and their
+    various tribulations before the Europeans fell down upon them; but had
+    the cargo of misery, disease, and death for them which freighted the
+    bold caravels of Columbus possessed tangible weight in proportion to
+    its magnitude, those vessels would have plunged to the depths of the
+    unknown sea. But Destiny had traced another course for events, and
+    thus the gay banners, glowing on one side with Hope for one race and
+    black on the reverse with Despair for another, flaunted at length their
+    ominous folds in the sunshine of the Amerind continent. Great good
+    fortune it was for the Europeans, especially for the Spaniards, but the
+    latter failed to read their star aright. Upon the conquered tribes, an
+    easy prey before the superior weapons of the invaders, they lavished a
+    cruelty which eclipsed that of savages, and settled like a blight over
+    the country, to finally stifle by just retribution the haughty power of
+    Spain herself, and wrench forever from her the last foot of the domain
+    which the unfaltering courage of the Adelantados had bequeathed to her.
+    To attempt to gloss over the oppression of the Spanish <span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>rule of the
+    Amerind people would be fruitless. There is no excuse for it. Fresh
+    from the methods of the Inquisition, the Spaniards themselves perhaps
+    were not wholly aware of the horror of their acts. Unfortunately, they
+    do not stand alone as sinners in this respect, and the contemplation of
+    the early intercourse of Europeans and Amerinds is not likely to give
+    a candid person an agreeable sensation, as it is frequently difficult,
+    if not impossible, to decide which race is the one to whom rightfully
+    belongs the description, “treacherous, bloodthirsty, and savage.”
+    Certain it is that the Amerinds from the very beginning had numerous
+    vivid lessons from the whites in murder, treachery, and kindred
+    crimes.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> They were frequently slain without cause or mercy; they
+    were enslaved when possible; their records were destroyed; and, most
+    terrible of all, they were burned alive at the stake. But this latter
+    diversion had been practised in Europe, where St. Ferdinand with his
+    own hands heaped the fagots on the blazing pile. The Conquistadores of
+    the sixteenth century were versed in as much cruelty as the Amerinds
+    had ever dreamed of; yet in the midst of it all there were men like Las
+    Casas and Viceroy Mendoza, who had no sympathy with the barbarities
+    practised, and whose characters bring relief in the broad and hideous
+    blackness. Ship-loads of slaves were carried off each year, and the
+    system of <i lang="es">repartimientos</i> placed every Amerind in bondage.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_003">
+    <img src="images/i_003.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SOUTH PORTION OF THE TEWA PUEBLO OF TAOS, NEW MEXICO<br>
+      Adobé construction</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Opposition was punished in the most terrible ways possible to devise.
+    In one instance the offenders, seventeen or eighteen caciques, were
+    strangled and mangled by dogs kept for the purpose, the execution
+    taking place in the public square, so that the struggles of the
+    unfortunates might make a spectacle. Again the Spaniards invited some
+    chiefs to a conference, as told by Brinton, in a large wooden building,
+    which was then burned up with the chiefs in it. But it is not necessary
+    to go back so far for examples of the treacherous brutality with
+    which the whites have treated the Amerinds. Were it so, the cruelty
+    and injustice might perhaps be regarded as merely circumstances of
+    the period, but Beckwourth, in his <cite>Narrative</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> relates an
+    incident, also referred <span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>to by Washington Irving, quite as horrible as
+    any that occurred in the sixteenth century. Beckwourth came upon some
+    white trappers who had captured two Amerinds from a party of Arikarees
+    who had stolen their horses. The Arikarees offered to return some, but
+    not all, of the horses in exchange for the prisoners, but the trappers
+    declared they would burn their captives alive <span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span>if all the horses were
+    not returned. The threat was disregarded. Thereupon the logs on the top
+    of a huge fire were separated, the two helpless, chain-bound prisoners
+    were dropped into the red furnace, and the flaming logs replaced.
+    “There was a terrible struggle for a moment,” says Beckwourth, “then
+    all was still.” And thus was another lesson of the mercy and justice of
+    the White rendered unto the Red.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_005">
+    <img src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SEATED FIGURE CARVED IN TRACHYTE<br>
+      From débris of hieroglyphic steps, Copan. Slightly larger than life size</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Nearer to us than this we have an incident even more diabolical,
+    because without the provocation the trappers had. Horse stealing down
+    to recent times in the West has always been liable to punishment by
+    death, so the trappers might be somewhat excused on that ground in
+    the minds of some, but in the year 1898, in the Indian Territory,
+    two Amerinds were burned alive at the stake by a mob of whites. The
+    accusation, too, was a mere suspicion, and it was later established
+    that the Amerinds were perfectly innocent. After such deeds we may well
+    pause when our inclination is to vaunt the superiority of the white men
+    over the red.</p>
+
+  <p>Notwithstanding the popular idea that the Amerinds were devils
+    incarnate, many tribes when first encountered were kindly, and trusted
+    the newcomers till the moment came, as it soon did, when they were
+    basely deceived. That all tribes were trusting is not claimed, but it
+    is well known that many explorers found the Amerinds ready to receive
+    them fairly and honestly. Neither Cartier nor Roberval met with
+    hostility from natives, and the success of the straightforwardness
+    of Penn in his dealings with them is unquestioned.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It has been
+    stated that the European is no more than a whitewashed savage, and
+    his intercourse with the Amerind people bears out this description.
+    There was often provocation on both sides, augmented by the complete
+    ignorance of each other’s ways and customs. Actions which were correct
+    according to the manners of the Amerinds were offensive to the whites,
+    and <i>vice versa</i>, and, to add to the ever-increasing hostility,
+    the whites <span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>resented upon all Amerinds the crime or indiscretion of
+    one or a few members of a particular tribe. If an Amerind committed a
+    crime, the next one met with suffered for it. When Walker, in 1833,
+    treacherously abandoned the line of work Bonneville had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>laid out for
+    him and struck down the Humboldt for California, one of the men had his
+    traps carried off by some of the Shoshokoes. He swore to kill the first
+    one he should meet, and so their trail was one of blood. At one place
+    they murdered no less than twenty-five unsuspecting red people without
+    provocation. This was the manner in which these pioneers exhibited
+    their superiority. There have always, too, been certain whites, more
+    or less outlawed, like one Rose, who have struck up a friendship with
+    the worst tribes for the purpose of inciting them against the whites to
+    advance their own profit.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_007">
+    <img src="images/i_007.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KICKING BEAR, SIOUX</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Previous to the European invasion the Amerind was not always at
+    war, though many seem to think that he was. His territorial lines
+    were generally well defined, and, as a rule, he stayed within them.
+    Their villages, for the Amerind was always a village dweller, were
+    far apart north of Mexico, and as long as there was no contention
+    over property or water rights, things went smoothly, and even during
+    hostilities intercourse was not always entirely broken off. So that
+    there was frequently a large measure of security and periods of
+    uninterrupted peace. He <em>worked</em> at hunting, fishing, and, in all
+    the tribes east of the Mississippi, in Mexico, and many tribes west,
+    at agriculture. The arrival and the westward movement of the Europeans
+    crowded back the tribes across boundaries and upon lands they had
+    no right to, and frequent wars were the inevitable result. Finally
+    the acquisition of the horse gave facility of movement never before
+    possessed, and made quick journeys and night attacks feasible, while
+    the desire to secure as many of the valuable animals as possible added
+    a new and great incentive to theft and consequent warfare. The Amerind
+    began to change, in fact, the moment he acquired the horse and the gun,
+    adapting both to his needs and using them with consummate skill. The
+    whites did not try to understand him, nor were they superior to him in
+    the matter of patience or forgiveness. One thing was well understood
+    by the whites, however, and continues to this day, and that was that
+    an Amerind has no rights that a white man is bound to respect, or even
+    to consider. The natives north of the Aztec country were regarded as
+    vagabonds and vagrants who had no right to anything, while those of
+    Mexico, whom the Spaniards had meanwhile reduced everywhere to abject
+    slaves, were believed to be a different race, with former qualities
+    that were greatly exaggerated by the Europeans. And <span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>then, later,
+    in the effort to counteract the extravagant notions entertained of
+    the Aztecs, their remarkable growth, and that of the Mayas, was by
+    some writers reduced to the level of that of the Pueblo tribes of
+    New Mexico and Arizona, which is undoubtedly a serious error in the
+    other direction. Montezuma was probably not a king nor an emperor as
+    those terms are understood by us, but it is difficult to accept him as
+    little more than a Moki war-chief, especially as one can readily see
+    that a few steps farther, even in the line of Moki development, might
+    have produced a form of government partaking of the monarchical, but
+    different from anything that we know about.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Ever since I saw one of
+    our Arizona Pai Ute guides, a chief of his band, command a follower to
+    take off his shoes as he reclined by the fire, I have suspected the
+    existence among the Amerinds of a latent germ of aristocracy.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_009">
+    <img src="images/i_009.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A CORNER OF A MITLA RUIN, MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the first flush of the discovery of America, Europe was wild
+    with the romance of it, and mystery was the order of the day. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>More
+    wonderful things still were expected. Fables that had done good service
+    for centuries were transported to the new lands, and there blazed up
+    with the mysterious uncertainty of the <i>ignis fatuus</i>, luring and
+    deceiving, till the gold-thirsting Europeans struggled in the pursuit
+    of such phantoms as the “Seven Cities.” The most extraordinary tales
+    appeared tame in that atmosphere of dazzling imagination. Exaggeration
+    of one kind or another has ever since been the inheritance of the
+    Amerind people, and it is only within a comparatively few years that
+    these “Americans of Yesterday” have been scientifically studied and
+    their real character and attainments given proper places. The whole
+    matter of American ethnology and archæology is new; so new that it is
+    impossible to speak with decision on a great many points. In the United
+    States we have usually regarded the Amerind as the incarnation of evil;
+    a treacherous demon with a bloody knife in one hand and a scalp-lock in
+    the other, and we have generally refused to consider the finer traits
+    of his character. So callous have we become to his good points that
+    Cooper is ridiculed for his delineation of Amerinds that have instincts
+    or principles above the brute, and yet Cooper’s chief models were the
+    Iroquois who established a remarkable political organisation.</p>
+
+  <p>It is not necessary to be what has been scornfully called “an Indian
+    lover” to be interested in this extraordinarily homogeneous race that
+    was scattered from Alaska to Patagonia. Such interest should be a
+    matter apart from sentiment. We are interested in the primitive man of
+    Europe; few would have been pleased to live with him. So the question
+    whether we “like” the Amerind people and would enjoy social intercourse
+    with them is not to the point. It is a matter of education; a matter,
+    in fact, of the study of ourselves as others saw us some thousands
+    of years ago, for the Amerind people were passing through phases of
+    human existence which, in all probability, our remote ancestors also
+    passed through; so that by examining this kind of life we are holding
+    up the mirror to ourselves. Till recently the apathy shown on this
+    subject was surprising. People generally were not aware that there
+    were differences in “Indians,” or that they spoke different languages.
+    The idea that there was any profit in studying them was popularly
+    considered ridiculous. He was a “good-for-nothing,” and that was all
+    that there was about it. But we can no more find fault with the Amerind
+    for not <span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>being a European than we can with a stage-coach for not being
+    a locomotive. We must accept him as he was, and as he is, and wherever
+    possible study him and write him down so minutely that generations
+    of ethnologists to come will shower blessings on our heads. We must
+    constantly remember that the Amerind point of view is different from
+    ours, and that we too are only in a transitional stage.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_011">
+    <img src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SCULPTURES FROM TERRACE EAST OF THE GREAT PLAZA, COPAN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Amerind people, like ourselves, represent merely a stage of human
+    progress. Our stage is in advance of theirs, but it is by no means
+    perfection. We do not scalp, but the revolver is quite as active as
+    their scalping-knife, and we require a great number of policemen to
+    keep us civilised. As for war, the European race has certainly not
+    been backward in that respect. In Europe to-day vast bodies of men
+    are withdrawn from every other service and trained for war with a
+    completeness that the Amerind never dreamed of; and in the United
+    States we have probably <span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>already killed more men in wars than ever
+    at one time peopled it in aboriginal days. For in those days the
+    various groups of Amerinds were separated by tracts of unoccupied
+    territory; unoccupied except as the hunters roamed over it in search
+    of their food, and the population outside of the Aztec country and
+    Central America was generally sparse. Nor was the distribution of this
+    population always the same as it was revealed to us by the Discovery.
+    Tribes developed, rose to power, declined and passed away, leaving
+    little, where their art development was slight, to indicate their
+    former presence, no matter what may have been the degrees of their
+    political attainments. Had not our own history come in to rescue the
+    confederacy of the Iroquois, their remains, assuming them to have
+    declined without further art development, would have conveyed no
+    suspicion of their political organisation.</p>
+
+  <p>Back and forth the Amerind race moved, up and down, across the face
+    of the American continent through the forgotten ages in ever shifting
+    waves impelled, in the main, by climatic conditions and food quest,
+    some leaving behind no record, others bequeathing to the future
+    monuments and edifices that astonished the world and gave birth to
+    elaborate and far-fetched theories to account for a development that
+    seems to have required no more than time and the circumstances which
+    existed. All the remains on this continent appear to be palpably
+    American; the work of the Amerinds in their various degrees of
+    progress. Whether they came from one source or several, they have been
+    long enough here to become homogeneous from one end of the hemisphere
+    to the other, and this, it is evident, would require a great stretch
+    of time.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> They clearly separated from the other inhabitants of the
+    world, in any case, at a period before those inhabitants had developed
+    present characteristics. From the time the human race was born, whether
+    as an ape or as it now stands, there was differentiation of habits,
+    customs, and knowledge which has never ceased and which never will
+    cease. But as light, air, and natural conditions are similar or the
+    same the world round, and as cerebral matter seems to be practically
+    the same in all peoples, humanity has passed everywhere through about
+    the same stages of development, and each stock or tribe in time has
+    arrived at about the same place on the road of progress because they
+    could not help it. Conditions might <span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>force one people ahead while
+    other conditions might be retarding another, but whatever progression
+    there has ever been was made on practically the same lines. The same
+    race, however, does not throughout always develop evenly. Sir John
+    Lubbock has said that “different races in similar stages of development
+    often present more features of resemblance to one another than the same
+    race does to itself in different stages of its history,” and to-day in
+    Arizona there exist near to each other two branches of the widespread
+    Shoshonean<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> stock, the Pai Utes and the Mokis, who exhibit the most
+    marked differences of customs, the latter living in substantial houses
+    of stone while the former occupy the rudest kind of brush wikiups.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_013">
+    <img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A KIESKABI, OR COVERED PASSAGE, AT WALPI, ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Amerind people were living in various stages of progress at the
+    time of the Discovery. The Mexicans, according to Lewis Morgan, were
+    “one stage higher than the Mohawks and one stage lower than the
+    warriors of the <cite>Iliad</cite>.” Accepting this as correct, we would be
+    able to trace human development back of the Greeks through the Amerinds
+    of North America. Morgan suggested the classification of mankind in
+    three broad ethnic stages: Savagery, Barbarism, and Civilisation,<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+    the first ending with the acquisition of the bow and arrow, represented
+    here by the Pai Utes; the second ending with the smelting of iron
+    ore, represented by the early Greeks; and the third beginning with a
+    phonetic alphabet, and represented by ourselves. In this scheme the
+    Mexicans would fall in the middle period of Barbarism. This is a fairly
+    good working basis, but, like all generalisations, it is only general.
+    It must not be rigidly adhered to. The conditions on this continent
+    were quite different from those in Europe, and consequently the line
+    of development could not be precisely the same. There seems to be no
+    good argument yet advanced and no archæological data yet exhibited
+    that compel us to seek an outside derivation for the Amerind race; and
+    this being so, it is about as reasonable to search this continent for
+    the original home of the yellow race as to go to Asia for that of the
+    red. That they may have come from there is possible, and so also it is
+    possible that they came from Europe. Nor should we at present exclude
+    even the lost <span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>Atlantis,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> for the geography of the world was not
+    always as it is now, and the elevation and subsidence of lands are
+    still in progress. This, of course, is admitted, as also that there was
+    a land connection across the Atlantic before man appeared in the world;
+    but man may have appeared earlier than we suspect, and this lost land
+    may have been in sunshine later than we believe.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_015">
+    <img src="images/i_015.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI MASK OF PAWIKKATCINA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Amerinds of North America were practically a people of stone
+    culture, because while some had developed an ability to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>employ copper
+    to a limited extent, they used stone tools for most of their work;
+    their highest government appears to have been the confederacy, with in
+    some cases perhaps a monarchical tendency; they were without domestic
+    animals; without beasts of burden; without fireplaces or chimneys;
+    without inside stairs; and without wheeled vehicles. There was no
+    mystery about them. They ranged the continent, as has been noted,
+    impelled by food quest and climate. They lived bravely and they died
+    without fear. The following chapters will tell some of the things they
+    did, with the hope that readers may arrive at a better understanding of
+    the people that so long had a half-world to themselves.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_016">
+    <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SPECIMEN OF SCULPTURE ON HIEROGLYPHIC STAIRWAY, COPAN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_II">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_017">
+      <img src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>ESKIMO JADE ADZE</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THERE were many tribes and many tribe-groups, or, as the latter are
+    usually designated, “stocks,” among the Amerinds. These various stocks
+    differed considerably from each other in manners, customs, possibly in
+    origin, and in languages, the last often being widely different.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+    Yet there was a homogeneity binding them all together as one distinct
+    race while at the same time separating them completely from other races
+    of the world as now constituted. The subdivisions of the Amerind stocks
+    were not always contiguously distributed on the continent, but, as
+    in the case of the Navajo-Apache branch of the Athapascan, sometimes
+    separated from their kindred by wide stretches of territory peopled
+    by other stocks, and also, as in the case of the Navajos, somewhat
+    altered by absorption of people of another stock. Various methods of
+    arranging the distribution and classification of these stocks have
+    been attempted, but the basis of language appears to offer the most
+    advantages and the greatest accuracy. There are some who dispute the
+    correctness of the present analysis of the Amerind languages, and
+    deprecate the classifications obtained <span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>by this means,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> but foremost
+    students, like Brinton, Gatschet, Powell, Steinthal, and others, have
+    pronounced unequivocally in favour of its value when applied with
+    judgment.</p>
+
+  <p>“Nothing is so indelible as speech,” wrote George Bancroft; “sounds
+    that in ages of unknown antiquity were spoken among the nations of
+    Hindostan still live in their significancy in the language which we
+    daily utter.” And this fact has been the corner-stone of the modern
+    science of linguistics, which maintains accordingly that the possession
+    of similar <em>language roots</em> and grammatical construction by two
+    otherwise distinct tribes proves a relationship or a common descent.
+    In this way, as is well understood, the Indo-Germanic—that is, our
+    European stock—has been traced back toward its origin. The accuracy
+    of this has been questioned, but it doubtless affords the best method
+    attainable.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The same principle is applicable to the American
+    languages, which afford an immense field for linguistic study in their
+    great diversity. This diversity is not popularly understood, the
+    majority of our people believing that if a person can speak “Indian” he
+    could converse with every tribe on the continent. Yet within a limited
+    area in Arizona he would find useless in four different tribes the
+    language he had learned, say, in California; and in California itself
+    some twenty or thirty tribes would listen to his words, as well as to
+    those of each other, without a gleam of understanding. And not one of
+    the languages of any of these tribes would serve him in the Mississippi
+    or in the Atlantic region any better than English, for the Iroquois
+    and the Algonquin and other Eastern tongues are as widely different
+    from those of California as they are from each other, while every
+    one contains numerous dialects, or what may be called sub-languages,
+    also exhibiting great variations. The early missionaries were slow to
+    discover these facts, and it was a source of discouragement for them to
+    learn that, after long study to acquire a language, it was spoken by
+    only a single group of the natives, while adjacent to them dwelt others
+    who spoke a totally different one.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_019">
+    <img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>“SINGING-GIRL” SCULPTURED IN TRACHYTE<br>
+      From débris of Temple 22, Copan. Slightly larger than life</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Even where a group of Amerinds speak related languages, or dialects,
+    there are, and were, such wide variations that the one is not
+    understood by those speaking the other. Therefore we have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>in North
+    America not only a large number of distinct languages, but within these
+    separate languages an immense number of dialects or sub-languages,
+    sometimes as many as twenty in one stock varying from each other as
+    much as, say, English and German. At least sixty-five of the separate
+    stock languages are distinguished in North America which appear so
+    radically separated from each other that it is believed impossible
+    that they ever should have sprung from the same parent, unless it may
+    have been at a time so remote as to be beyond the scope of present
+    investigation. In the classification according to these languages it
+    has been necessary to have a general designation for each stock, and in
+    selecting the names to be thus used, Powell and others have observed
+    the law of priority of mention, as far as possible, and have derived
+    the stock name from the author first mentioning it in print since 1836,
+    the date of Gallatin’s great work, which is taken as the foundation.
+    The termination “an,” or “ian,” is added to distinguish the family or
+    stock name from a tribal name, for often a tribe bears the name given
+    to the whole stock. As examples, Algonquian may be mentioned as a stock
+    name taken from the tribal name of Algonquin, and Mayan from the tribal
+    name, Maya. This is not always strictly adhered to outside of the
+    Bureau of Ethnology because of its frequent inconvenience, and in the
+    case of Mayan the term Maya is preferably used by some investigators
+    and writers as being simpler, and Brinton gives it as the stock
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>name.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Following the distribution of tribes as closely as possible
+    at the time of the first contact with white men, Powell and his able
+    associates of the U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology in Washington have produced
+    a map, based on Gallatin’s.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The separate stocks north of Mexico
+    are each represented by a different colour, every colour standing for
+    a variation in language as great as that between Hebrew and English,
+    not related as English and Spanish. Fifty-eight are thus shown, but
+    south of the Mexican border are perhaps a dozen more. Continuous study
+    may succeed in bringing some of the stocks into relationship or in
+    dividing them still further. In their beginning, languages probably
+    changed rapidly; memory was deficient, intercourse slight, and
+    comparatively short separations of tribes speaking originally the same
+    tongue were sufficient to establish entire new sets of words. These
+    separations were apt to occur frequently when methods of subsistence
+    were crude and difficult, migrations frequent, and population sparse.
+    As races developed memory grew to better proportions, and after the
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>introduction among the Amerinds of mnemonic records and other memory
+    devices their languages became more crystallised, till within the later
+    centuries changes have come about slowly. That many more languages
+    once existed on the American continents than we have any trace of is,
+    therefore, probable. By intercourse, by intermingling, by the crossing
+    and absorbing of stocks was finally produced what we find to-day, or
+    did find yesterday, a reduced number of different stocks, but still
+    so many that the archæologist views the field with amazement, and the
+    layman looks upon it with incredulity.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_020">
+    <img src="images/i_020.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TERRA COTTA STOOL, CHIRIQUI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_021">
+    <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ALTAR Q, COPAN, HONDURAS<br>
+      From photograph by M. H. Saville, Museum of Natural History</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>And these Amerind languages are as remarkable for their separation in
+    a body from the Old World languages as they are in their separation
+    from each other. This in itself seems to bestow upon the Amerind people
+    a vast antiquity in their isolation from other peoples, and adding
+    to it the testimony of their art works, their implements, and their
+    pictographs and hieroglyphs, there seems to be no escape from granting
+    them to be a division of mankind by themselves.</p>
+
+  <p>Not only does the differentiation of the stock languages indicate
+    antiquity, but that of the dialects adds strong testimony. Brinton
+    cites Dr. Stohl’s opinion that “the difference which is presented
+    between the Cakchiquel and the Maya dialects could not have arisen in
+    less than 2000 years.”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+  <p>It may be urged that the Amerind languages are loose and shifting
+    and that a few centuries would be sufficient to bring about on this
+    continent a complete and total difference in a language from its mother
+    tongue in, we will say, Siberia; but the more closely the matter is
+    studied the more apparent is the tenacity with which each stock retains
+    its special form. Of this tenacity a modern example exists in the
+    village of Tewa (or Hano) now forming one of the seven villages of the
+    Moki, and situated on what is known as the “First or East Mesa.” The
+    people of this village are not Hopi (Moki) stock, Hopi being the Moki
+    name for themselves,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> but belong to a Rio Grande stock, the Tañoan
+    of Powell, and the Tehua of Brinton, having come from the Rio Grande
+    country to their present location somewhere about 1680. The Moki, who
+    are believed to belong to the Shoshonean stock <span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>(though they are
+    probably composite), permitted them to repair and occupy old houses
+    which stood on the site of the present village and there they have
+    lived amicably ever since, to all appearances completely amalgamated
+    with the Moki. The ordinary observer sees little to distinguish them
+    from the other Amerinds of the locality, and they speak the Moki
+    language like Mokis, but within their own village and by their own
+    firesides they largely use the speech of their forefathers, and to all
+    appearances will go on speaking it till the end. Here, then, is this
+    little community separated for a long period and by many miles from
+    their immediate kindred, mingling daily with people of another stock
+    and another language, yet preserving their own language intact.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+    And if this has happened once within historical times it may have
+    happened before any number of times, and goes to prove that these
+    various languages have in them elements of stability greater than
+    has heretofore been admitted. Powell says that in his long study of
+    savage tongues he has everywhere been “impressed with the fact that
+    they are singularly persistent, and that a language which is dependent
+    for its existence upon oral tradition is not easily modified.” On the
+    other hand John Fiske expresses the opinion that “barbaric languages
+    are neither widespread nor durable. In the course of two or three
+    generations a dialect gets so strangely altered as virtually to lose
+    its identity.” The Algonquian languages were spread over an immense
+    area, and the Shoshonean had an even greater range.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_023">
+    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SOUTH-WEST CORNER OF THE TEMPLE OF XOCHICALCO, STATE OF MORELOS, MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Brinton contradicts the assertion of Waldeck “that the language (of
+    the Mayas) has undergone such extensive changes that what was written
+    a century ago is unintelligible to a native of to-day. So far is this
+    from the truth that, except for a few obsolete words, the narrative of
+    the Conquest, written more than three hundred years ago by the chief,
+    Pech, could be read without difficulty by any educated native.” Thus
+    it seems probable that the Amerind languages extant have been spoken
+    nearly as we know them to-day for a great many centuries, and that
+    modifications crept in slowly; so slowly that the language roots and
+    grammatical construction of the various stocks are so distinct that
+    they <span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>form the safest guide now available in the classification of the
+    various branches of the Amerind race; and furthermore that, judged by
+    these tests, these languages have no relationship to any other group.
+    Powell places more reliance, as a test, in the lexical elements,—that
+    is, in the <em>language roots</em>,—than in the grammatical structure,
+    as the latter is constantly changing. “The roots of a language,” he
+    maintains, “are its most permanent characteristics, and while the words
+    which are formed from them may change so as to obscure their elements
+    or in some cases even to lose them, it seems that they are never lost
+    from all, but can be recovered in large part.” If there should be
+    advanced the criticism that these Amerind languages had little or no
+    literature, and therefore are not equal to languages so recorded, as a
+    test of affinity, it may be noted that the largest number of languages
+    throughout the world have produced no literature. Max Müller says:
+    “It is a mere accident that languages should ever have been reduced
+    to writing.” However this may be, such an accident appears to be in
+    the line of regular human development, and when a people arrive at the
+    right point in their mental evolution they invent a means of recording
+    their thought. It seems, therefore, to be rather a state of mind than
+    an accident. The Mayas of this continent had reached the point for
+    speech recording and, following the natural order, they invented a
+    system and made books of record.</p>
+
+  <p>Because of certain similarities of physique, of words, or of myths,
+    or of customs, however slight, the Amerinds have been identified with
+    almost every people under the sun.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> These similarities are only such
+    as might occur where similar organisms are continuously subjected to
+    similar conditions, and the really remarkable fact is that there are
+    not more and even closer resemblances. Some of the arguments advanced
+    to uphold the so-called identifications are extraordinary. In language
+    the Amerinds have been found to speak—or at least have been claimed
+    to speak—Irish, Welsh, Norse, Chinese, and many other independent
+    or interrelated tongues, yet with the exception of the Basque, the
+    structure of all the Old World languages has little in common with the
+    Amerind. Brinton has shown<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> that a number of Maya words resemble
+    our English words of the same meanings, as, bateel and battle, hol and
+    hole, hun and one, lum and loam, pol and poll <span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>(head), potum and pot,
+    pul and pull, and so on, but nobody has yet ventured to deduce from
+    this that the Mayas are first cousins of the English.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The Maya
+    language certainly does differ from almost all others on the continent
+    in its construction. Before Gallatin’s time, the wildest statements
+    flourished because the few linguists who had paid attention to Amerind
+    languages had worked in rather a desultory manner and had made no
+    determined effort to systematise them and group them under their stock
+    names. Gallatin was the first to bring order out of what appeared
+    to be an almost hopeless tangle, and Powell, Brinton, and others,
+    supplementing and developing these labours of Gallatin, have been able
+    to present the subject in definite shape with a promise of greater
+    accuracy in the near future. Many languages which are known to have
+    existed at the beginning of European acquaintance with America have
+    disappeared with the tribes which used them. Some of these were spoken
+    by mere handfuls of people, while others were wider spread.</p>
+
+  <p>With so many distinct languages on the continent, and with many
+    tribes totally ignorant of the speech of their neighbours, there
+    became necessary a means for the interchange of ideas which should
+    not entirely rely on spoken words, and this means was found in a
+    “sign-language” assisted by a few words of each spoken language which
+    were simple and commonly known, or by words which belonged to no spoken
+    language but which through accident were attributed by each side to the
+    other. This sign-language was of extensive development and existed not
+    only among the Amerinds but all over the world, and bore a resemblance
+    to the sign-language now used in some of our deaf-mute schools. This
+    peculiar sign-language possessed varieties like spoken language
+    corresponding to dialects. For a time its existence was disputed, but
+    the work of Mallery and others has established it beyond question.</p>
+
+  <p>Besides the gesture language, tribes not understanding each other’s
+    speech had recourse to a medley of corrupted words from each language,
+    from other languages, and from no language at all but springing into
+    being through misunderstandings and necessities. When white men came
+    upon the scene they often thought they were talking “Indian,” while
+    the Amerinds thought <span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>it was the white man’s tongue, and neither
+    was talking the language of the other at all or of any other people
+    in existence. It was a jargon. If the whites had previously learned
+    something of another Amerind tongue, for example Algonquin, and they
+    were trying to talk to Dakotas, they would use Algonquin terms,
+    supposing them to be intelligible to the Dakotas, and the latter would
+    suppose them to be English words. These would gradually accumulate
+    through usage, together with nondescript terms, until a working jargon
+    was formed. In this may perhaps be discovered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>one of the causes
+    that led to the former belief that Amerind languages were loose and
+    changeable.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_027">
+    <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>POLISHED BLACK WARE, SANTA CLARA, NEW MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>One of the most important and most interesting of the jargon languages
+    is that known as the Chinook,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> in the north-western United States,
+    along the Columbia River, which grew into such proportions that it
+    formed at length the principal language in a wide district. It is made
+    up of words from Chinook, Chehali, Selish, Nootka, English, French, and
+    other languages, with a large number of words that belong nowhere else.
+    This same process in earlier times going on between several different
+    tribes doubtless gave birth to permanent languages, which in their turn
+    were again modified. Even in our own every-day English we use hundreds
+    of borrowed words and also some that, like “skedaddle,” “mugwump,”
+    etc., were coined for special occasions. We hardly give a thought to
+    the origin of these words which are seen side by side with others that
+    have come to us through a thousand years and still others that were
+    only yesterday the gift of the Amerind. How few realise when they
+    say chocolate, squash, mush, hominy, pone, succotash, or other terms
+    equally familiar from Amerind sources, that they are talking “Indian”!
+    Tobacco, of course, all understand came from the native language, but
+    it is generally supposed to have been the name of the plant, when in
+    reality it was the name of the roll of leaves from the plant, which was
+    called “a tobacco,” as we now call it a cigar.</p>
+
+  <p>Sometimes words appear similar when they have no shadow of
+    relationship, the resemblance being purely accidental. Powell cites
+    the word “tia,” meaning deer in some of the Shoshonean languages. This
+    was at first supposed to be an attempt on the part of the Shoshones to
+    pronounce our own word “deer,” but further investigation has shown it
+    to be the original Shoshone name for deer, and that in some dialects it
+    was called “tiats” and in others “tiav.” Brinton, as already mentioned,
+    calls attention to similar resemblances between Maya and English words.</p>
+
+  <p>A tribe would often possess two languages, one known only to the
+    priesthood and the other the language of the people, the priest
+    language being the older, just as to-day we find the priests of the
+    Roman Catholic Church using a dead language in their sacred functions
+    while the parishioners use the ordinary one. Bourke <span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>believed that
+    the Zuñis and the Mokis each have a language of this kind,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and it
+    is thought that the Central-American tribes also had. Such hieratic
+    languages would necessarily be far older than the languages in common
+    use, therefore if the latter tend to indicate a great antiquity for the
+    Amerind race, we should be carried still farther back by the hieratic
+    languages. Occasionally tribes have spoken two languages, both familiar
+    to the common people, as in the case of the Tewas speaking Moki as well
+    as their own language, already referred to. The Tubares of Mexico,
+    nearly extinct, are said to have spoken two different languages among
+    themselves, one a dialect of the Nahuatl.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Gatschet, the eminent student of Amerind languages, declares that “the
+    majority suppose that an Indian language is simply a gibberish not
+    worth bothering about, but languages that can preserve identity for
+    centuries are certainly something more than gibberish.” He further
+    points out that while “the Indian neglects to express with accuracy
+    some relations which seem of permanent importance to us, as tense and
+    sex, his language is largely superior to ours in the variety of its
+    personal pronouns, in many forms expressing the mode of action, or
+    the idea of property and possession, and the relations of the persons
+    addressed to the subject of the sentence.”</p>
+
+  <p>Again it is said by some persons, “Why study languages which have no
+    literature, and dialects that are known only to savages?” but Max
+    Müller insists that “dialects which never produced any literature at
+    all, the jargons of savage tribes, the clicks of Hottentots, and the
+    vocal modulations of the Indo-Chinese, are as important, nay, for the
+    solution of some of our problems, more important, than the poetry of
+    Homer or the prose of Cicero. We do not want to know languages; we want
+    to know language, what language is, how it can form a vehicle or organ
+    of thought; we want to know its origin, its nature, its laws.”</p>
+
+  <p>Here in North America exists a splendid field for this study, but until
+    recently it has been sadly neglected. This neglect has been largely
+    due to the attitude of the people at large, an attitude of apathy and
+    contempt for anything “Indian.” Opportunities <span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>that can never come
+    again have been allowed to pass heedlessly away. We have not half
+    realised the importance of collecting the linguistic treasures that
+    are scattered across the length and breadth of the country, partly
+    because of the foolish and narrow estimate of the Amerind which for so
+    long a time dominated the public mind. We have despised his languages
+    because we thought he did not bathe with sufficient frequency! “To
+    draw conclusions from the exterior appearance of a people on their
+    language,” exclaims Gatschet, “and to suppose that a man not worth
+    looking at cannot speak a language worth studying, would be the acme of
+    superficiality.” Remnants of tribes have died out and their language
+    unrecorded has died with them even within a comparatively few years.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+  <p>As an example of the necessity for prompt investigation, an incident
+    mentioned by Putnam may be cited. In a conversation with a gentleman
+    whom he had recently met, he learned of Mrs. Oliver’s acquaintance with
+    the Karankawas of Texas, and her knowledge of their language. Now it
+    happened that Gatschet had made a fruitless search in Texas for some
+    trustworthy information regarding the language of this extinct tribe,
+    and when Putnam sent him Mrs. Oliver’s vocabulary he was delighted and
+    immediately paid a visit to the old lady, obtaining much additional
+    information about these Amerinds, among whom Mrs. Oliver had spent her
+    early life. Within three months afterward she died.</p>
+
+  <p>That the Amerind has no literature is true if by literature we mean
+    only written books, for outside of Yucatan and Mexico there were no
+    native books, and the Spaniards burned all they could find of these,
+    but if we accept the enormous number of legends, myths, songs, and
+    ceremonial lore mnemonically recorded, as literature, and they surely
+    become literature when we write them down, then the Amerind is not so
+    poor in this respect as has been generally considered.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_031">
+    <img src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>EASTERN FAÇADE OF THE TEMPLE OF XOCHICALCO, STATE OF MORELOS, MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In North America, as in other parts of the world, the various language
+    stocks occupy areas differing enormously in proportions. Some are
+    confined to small tracts, while others, as mentioned above, are spread
+    over wide territory. The Algonquian stock, for <span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>instance, occupied
+    an immense area while the Zuñian is a mere spot in the expanse of New
+    Mexico. More than thirty of the stocks lie within the Pacific region,
+    six on the banks of the Klamath River alone.</p>
+
+  <p>The Amerind languages, with the exception of the Maya and possibly
+    one or two others, are polysynthetic, and no other languages of the
+    world have exactly this construction, though, as has previously been
+    stated, that of the Basques has a construction somewhat similar. By
+    polysynthetic is meant a language that permits the incorporation
+    of a great many words in one sentence, till all are fused into one
+    “bunch-word” of from ten to fifteen or more syllables. Examples are
+    often quoted from Eskimo<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> which in our eyes appear ridiculous in
+    their cumbersome length, but they are as intelligible and valuable
+    to the Eskimo as our words are to us. While the Basque more nearly
+    resembles the Amerind languages than does any other Old World tongue,
+    it stops short of the incorporating power of that of the Amerinds. In
+    Basque this is restricted to the verb and some pronominal elements,
+    but in the Amerind it embraces all parts of speech. It is specially
+    interesting to note also that Basque in the Old World is an isolated
+    language, the only one there of its kind. The Amerinds who look
+    alike are not always the ones who speak the same language. Quite
+    different-looking Amerinds will sometimes speak the same tongue, while
+    others who look the same will speak different ones. The Pueblos of
+    New Mexico and Arizona, while apparently of one race, speak several
+    different stock languages, while some of the natives of Labrador, who
+    are of apparently different stocks, speak dialects of one language.
+    Nor, as has been mentioned, is the area occupied by one stock always
+    continuous.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The Athapascan, next to the Eskimo, is the most
+    northerly stock, yet three small branches are found south, on the
+    Pacific coast of the United States, while two large branches, the
+    Navajos and the Apaches, extend through Arizona and New Mexico, the
+    latter far into the country of Mexico proper. In the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>same way the
+    Siouan<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> lies in the middle region of the United States, but a
+    small band still lingered, at the beginning of the Columbian era,
+    on the Gulf coast in Mexico, and another smaller band in eastern
+    North Carolina, having for a near neighbour still <span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>another, which
+    spread itself over three States. These detached bands indicate great
+    movements on the part of the various stocks. One Amerind language,
+    the Eskimo, has been traced across Bering Strait into Asia, but
+    thus far no language has been traced from Asia into America. When
+    the Asiatic and North-west Coast investigations instituted by the
+    American Museum of Natural History, under the auspices of Mr. Jesup,
+    are completed, something more definite will be known on the subject
+    of possible affinities. In addition to the great difference in their
+    formation, some of the Amerind languages do not possess sounds common
+    to European languages, and on the other hand they sometimes have
+    sounds rarely heard elsewhere. The Pai Utes have no “f,” and when they
+    try to pronounce “fire” they can only say “piah.” The Moki cannot
+    say “s” before “k” or hard “c.” In trying to pronounce “school” they
+    say “cool.” There is no “r” in Huron, Mexican, Otomi, and some other
+    languages, and several have no “i.” The Iroquois have no labials, and
+    do not articulate with their lips. Cherokee has the same peculiarity,
+    as it is an Iroquoian language. The Karankawa contains sounds rarely
+    heard in European languages, while other sounds common to the latter
+    are absent altogether from the Karankawa, so that in this language is
+    found not only a complete difference from European tongues in grammatic
+    structure and lexical elements, but a complete difference in phonetics
+    as well, and in the last respect it differs also from other Amerind
+    languages. Altogether the Karankawa shows many peculiarities, and it is
+    unfortunate that the authentic material relating to it is so limited.
+    In the Navajo there is a common combination of “tl” with a peculiar
+    explosive click.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The tongue is placed with the tip against the roof
+    of the mouth and pressure as for “t” made against it, the “l” sound
+    immediately following by an explosion at the side. It is a peculiar
+    sound, and the Navajo language is filled with it.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_033">
+    <img src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>AMERIND LINGUISTIC MAP OF NORTH AMERICA, AFTER THE ONE PREPARED BY
+      THE U.&nbsp;S. BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In recording these Amerind languages and their peculiar sounds, no
+    definite system was employed till recently. Travellers wrote the
+    Amerind words down with ordinary letters as they understood them, thus
+    producing great diversity in method and results. Differences are due
+    sometimes to a lack of perception on <span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>the part of the recorder, and
+    also sometimes to a difference in pronunciation on the part of the
+    Amerinds themselves, and again to differences of methods of recording.
+    To catch the exact sounds of a new language requires a musical ear.
+    I do not mean a knowledge of music, but an ear that follows a tune
+    easily. Without such an ear a person is not fit to record language
+    sounds that are novel no matter how good a linguist he may be.
+    Investigators ought to have their ears tested for sound-perception as
+    the eyes of locomotive engineers are tested for colour.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_035">
+    <img src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>FAC-SIMILE OF A CHEROKEE MANUSCRIPT<br>
+      Written in Sequoyah’s Syllabary. See cut on <a href="#Page_52">page 52</a>.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Recognising the importance of a system in the recording of the Amerind
+    languages—the importance of systematising the orthography of these
+    languages—the U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology published an <cite>Introduction to
+    the Study of Indian Languages</cite>, in which an alphabet was advocated
+    that was adapted to recording harmoniously the Amerind languages.
+    In this over sixty separate sounds are given by signs following as
+    closely as possible our own alphabet. This is complicated and many
+    investigators use their own systems and translate afterwards into
+    the more general one. The great difference in the Amerind sounds
+    necessitates many different characters and inverted letters standing
+    for peculiar sounds.</p>
+
+  <p>Of all the Amerind languages of North America, that of the Eskimo is
+    probably the most homogeneous. Its dialects are alike from one side of
+    the continent to the other, following similarity in other respects.
+    Dall states there is a saying “that a man understanding thoroughly
+    the dialect of either extreme, could pass from village to village,
+    from Greenland to Labrador, from Labrador to Bering Strait, and thence
+    southward to the Copper River, staying five days in each halting place,
+    and that in all that journey he would encounter no greater differences
+    of speech and customs than he could master in the few days devoted
+    to each settlement. Probably there is no other race in the world
+    distributed over an equal territory, which exhibits such solidarity.”
+    They do not take to new languages. Though the Eskimo of Alaska have
+    had long intercourse with English-speaking men, their English is very
+    limited. Like most of the Amerinds, they prefer to invent their own
+    terms for articles that are new to them. The Aleutian Islanders are of
+    Eskimo stock, but their language is different from the main body of the
+    family, and would not be understood by them.</p>
+
+  <p>The writings of the Cherokees in the syllabary of Sequoyah <span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>are
+    of sacred formulas. These were written out by the shamans and are
+    thoroughly Amerind. “They are not disjointed fragments,” says Mooney,
+    who made a careful study of the subject, “of a system long since
+    extinct, but are the revelation of a living faith which still has its
+    priests and devoted adherents.” The language used is full of archaic
+    forms and figurative expressions, some of which even the shamans
+    cannot now understand. Some of these are highly poetical, especially
+    the prayers “used to win the love of a woman or to destroy the life of
+    an enemy, in which we find such expressions as: ‘Now your soul fades
+    away—your spirit shall grow less and dwindle away never to reappear.’
+    ‘Let her be completely veiled in loneliness,—O Black Spider, may
+    you hold her soul in your web, so that it may never get through the
+    meshes!’ ‘Your soul has come into the very centre of my soul, never to
+    turn away.’”<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_037">
+    <img src="images/i_037.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PETROGLYPHS NEAR WRANGELL, ALASKA, PROBABLY TLINKIT</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In nearly all the Amerind languages there was a poetical touch. But
+    what seems to be poetry to us arose partly from the inability of
+    the Amerind to express himself in a spiritual way. As his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>religion
+    was chiefly zoötheistic, and the heavenly bodies and natural forces
+    were personified as animals, his comparisons and references were not
+    intended for metaphor, but were merely the ordinary workings of his
+    mind on the material at his command.</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <div class="center mt5">NOTE</div>
+    <p>As it is sometimes useful to have at hand an orderly geographical
+      and cultural classification of tribes, this one used by Livingston
+      Farrand is here given: I, Eskimo; II, North Pacific; III, Mackenzie
+      Basin and High Plateaus; IV, Columbia River and California; V,
+      Plains; VI, Eastern Woodlands; VII, The South-west and Mexico.</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_038">
+    <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HUMAN FORMS, MOKI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_III">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_039">
+      <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption style="margin-top: -2em;">OMAHA WAR CLUB</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">PICTURE-WRITING—SIGN-LANGUAGE—WAMPUM—CUPPED-STONES<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">OUR pre-columbian knowledge of the Amerind people is at present meagre.
+    The majority of the different stocks had not arrived at the point where
+    they understood how to record their thoughts and their doings. Outside
+    of the Maya and Nahuatl stocks, and others in that region, there is
+    nothing but rude picture-writing to refer to besides an abundance of
+    traditions, legends, and other oral matter. All the Amerind languages
+    are capable of being readily written, being possessed of grammars
+    and of copious vocabularies, but none of the tribes north of Mexico
+    had made the discovery that marks can represent sounds. We trace our
+    alphabet back to the Romans, still farther to the Greeks, and yet
+    farther back to the Phœnicians, and then another stage back to even
+    ruder characters connecting the chain of its development with the end
+    links of such writing as that of the Mayas, and exhibiting writing in
+    all stages, from rock scratching or picture-writing, through all phases
+    down to the work of the writing and printing machines of to-day.</p>
+
+  <p>Mankind are all alike, merely exhibiting different degrees of culture.
+    As the rills in the mountains born of the rains and the snows are
+    all the same and reach the ocean by various devious and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>complicated
+    courses, so the races of men, emerging from the darkness of the past,
+    follow, because of the immutability of natural law, practically the
+    same lines of development through savagery, barbarism, civilisation,
+    toward a common goal of unification and enlightenment. The progress
+    of humanity from earliest times to now appears to be divided, in each
+    race evolution, into several epochs by certain great inventions or
+    discoveries which seemed to spread themselves over the world either
+    from one centre or from several. Of these the most important are,
+    first, fire; second, the bow; third, smelting; fourth, phonetic
+    writing; and fifth, printing. This progression is not even, but a
+    people may stand still for a long time and then suddenly become
+    active in one particular line, or in many lines.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Ours is the age
+    of mechanical development; the Greeks made a stride in art. When
+    development reaches a certain point and conditions are favourable for
+    an invention, it springs into being not in one individual alone but
+    usually in several widely separated ones, as if the seed of it had
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>been sprinkled over the earth. It may have germinated before when
+    conditions were not ripe, but it then died before even sprouting.
+    Environment cultivates the mind, and the mind feeds on environment.
+    Only a small portion of those to whom an idea occurs endeavour to carry
+    it out, and often other subsequent inventions are necessary to success.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_040">
+    <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PAINTED PETROGLYPHS, SANTA BARBARA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_041">
+    <img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PETROGLYPHS IN BROWN’S CAVE, WISCONSIN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>On the Amerind continent before the advent of the European the various
+    stocks and tribes were rising and falling under the influence of the
+    moulding conditions, and rising again or giving place to more highly
+    vitalised stock which might succeed in fertilising in the brain of a
+    Hiawatha or a Quetzalcohuatl great ideas that should lift them onward.</p>
+
+  <p>In the matter of writing, these races were moving toward success, and
+    had their isolation been maintained they would in time have come to
+    the full measure. As it was, the Mayas<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> had reached a considerable
+    degree of efficiency, and the Aztecs were following close. The more
+    northern stocks, however, had not passed beyond the elementary
+    stage. In the sense in which artists now use the word “drawing,”
+    it hardly existed anywhere on this continent; that is, there was
+    little exactness and delicacy of delineation, but <span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>it was mainly an
+    offhand representation of objects in a barbaric fashion. There was
+    considerable merit in some of the work executed by the sculptors,
+    but it was nevertheless as a whole aboriginal and primitive. In the
+    middle region the drawings and rock peckings<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> have no artistic
+    merit whatever, and are like the work of little children; nor are the
+    Eskimo efforts much better. The Eastern States do not afford the same
+    abundance of characters pecked and scratched, and sometimes painted on
+    the rocks, that exists in the Rocky Mountain region, and particularly
+    in the South-west, where they are found everywhere.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> This may be
+    due to the more verdant nature of the eastern part of the country,
+    and also to the fact that the broad, smooth surfaces of sandstone
+    exposed so universally in the South-west are generally absent in the
+    East. Another reason may be that the Amerinds of the various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> Pueblo
+    stocks and allied tribes were more given to inscribing the rocks in
+    this manner. Certain it is that wherever evidences exist of the former
+    occupation of a locality by Amerinds of the Pueblo kind, there rocks
+    will be found covered with markings and paintings. These people went
+    everywhere in their region, and they generally left some record on the
+    rocks, as they do to-day. If one thinks he has found a place where
+    they did not arrive in that vast land of cliffs and canyons, he is
+    sure soon to be undeceived. Once I reached a little platform on the
+    face of a cliff in Arizona by hard scrambling, part of the way through
+    a narrow crevice, and as I stood viewing the valley a thousand feet
+    below, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>I thought, “Now, at last, I am on a spot where the Shinumo<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
+    never stood.” As I turned to make my way down again I was confronted
+    by a lot of pictographs spread across the whole of the smooth wall
+    behind. Thus it was almost everywhere: in the deep gorges of the
+    Colorado River, in its side canyons, in the cliffs above and around,
+    and all along Green River, at least as far north as the lower end of
+    Split-Mountain canyon, these pictures occur. The climate is dry, and
+    there is little change from one century’s end to another.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> Some are
+    comparatively recent, while others, even some of the painted ones,
+    are old; how old it is impossible to estimate, but many of them are
+    found in regions where no Amerinds of the Pueblo type<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> have lived
+    within historical times, or within the memory of those Amerinds who
+    now occupy the region. Some of the painted figures in sheltered places
+    appeared fresh, but they must have been at least a century or two
+    old. The other Amerinds, while they also executed picture-writings
+    of various kinds, did not so often decorate rock surfaces with them.
+    They were more inclined to drawing and painting on buffalo robes and
+    other <span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>skins, on bark, on trees, shell, pottery; even the human form
+    in some regions not being exempt. The Puebloans, while utilising
+    most of these methods, also used the rocks a great deal, the country
+    they occupied abounding in broad, smooth faces attractive for this
+    purpose. In the settled East the perishable substances have long ago
+    disappeared, except those fortunately preserved in museums or private
+    collections. Comparatively few rock inscriptions are found there,
+    and these have created considerable discussion and the usual number
+    of theories. The markings, undoubtedly Algonquian, on the now widely
+    known Dighton Rock in Massachusetts were for a long time ascribed to
+    the Northmen, and were copied in a great many different ways.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> The
+    trouble arose from the same reason that has led to so many mistaken
+    theories regarding the Amerind race—that is, an underestimate of their
+    intellectual side, so far as those north of Mexico are concerned, and
+    an overestimate of those in the latter region. Brinton asserts that
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>the Algonquins had developed the picture-writing <em>farther than any
+      other stock north of the Aztecs</em>. “It had passed,” he says, “from
+    the representative to the symbolic stage, and was extensively employed
+    to preserve the national history and rites of the secret societies.
+    The figures were scratched or painted on pieces of bark or slabs of
+    wood, and as the colour of the paint was red, these were sometimes
+    called ‘red sticks.’” Some of these slabs, or “red sticks,” like the
+    <i>Walam Olum</i> (<i>walam</i> = painted, and <i>olum</i> = scores
+    or notches on a stick) of the Lenapés,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> have been preserved. Many
+    of the figures executed by the Amerinds, not excepting the Aztecs and
+    the Mayas, were grotesque, and even childish. Their strangeness is
+    frequently due to our unfamiliarity with the originals, figures with
+    queer hair-dressing, masks, or complete ceremonial costume, which, if
+    we could see them to-day, would resemble nothing we had ever imagined
+    or viewed before. The extraordinary make-up of these people for their
+    ceremonials is beyond anything our race can imagine. Those who have
+    witnessed Pueblo ceremonials will understand how unlike any human being
+    the wearer of the strange costumes can become. The <i>katcina</i><a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>
+    is fearfully and wonderfully made, and, especially if represented with
+    the half-skill <span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>of the Amerind, would baffle classification by anyone
+    not familiar with the actual object. Among the early tribes there
+    were undoubtedly many of these ceremonial dresses and costumes that
+    we can now have no conception of, and where we see them represented
+    in sculpture or drawing they have a most uncanny and diabolical
+    appearance. Even to-day were we to see a representation in their crude
+    way of a simple little Moki girl, with the singular arrangement of her
+    hair in flat, circular puffs, like huge wheels, one on each side of the
+    head, and had never seen or heard of this fashion of hair-dressing, we
+    should be puzzled as to what it meant.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_042">
+    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PAINTED PETROGLYPHS, SOUTHERN UTAH</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_043">
+    <img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PETROGLYPH AT MILLSBORO, PENNSYLVANIA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_044">
+    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PETROGLYPHS IN GEORGIA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="i_045-1">
+    <img src="images/i_045-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>RUNIC INSCRIPTION ON STONE FOUND AT IGALIKKO, GREENLAND,<br>
+      Introduced here to show contrast to the Amerind writings or pictographs.<br>
+      Translation: “Vigdis, Mars’ daughter, rests here. May God gladden her soul.”</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_045-2">
+    <img src="images/i_045-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DIGHTON ROCK, MASSACHUSETTS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp37" id="i_046">
+    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="">
+  </figure>
+
+  <ul class="illo">
+    <li>1. Sayewitalli wemiguma wokgetaki.—At first, in that place, at all
+      times, above the earth.</li>
+
+    <li>2. Hackung kwelik owanaku wak yutali kitanitowitessop.—On the earth
+      (was) an extended fog, and there the great Manito was.</li>
+
+    <li>3. Sayewis hallemiwis nolemiwi elemamik, kitanitowitessop.—At
+      first, forever, lost in space, everywhere, the great Manito was.</li>
+
+    <li>4. Sohalawak kwelik hakik owak awasagamak.—He made the extended
+      land and the sky.</li>
+
+    <li>5. Sohalawak gishuk nipahum alankwak.—He made the sun, the moon,
+      and the stars.</li>
+
+    <li>6. Wemi-sohalawak yulik yuchaan.—He made them all to move evenly.</li>
+
+    <li>7. Wich-owagan kshakan moshakwat kwelik kshipe helep.—Then the wind
+      blew violently, and it cleared, and the water flowed off far and strong.</li>
+
+    <li>8. Opeleken mani-menak delsin-epit.—And groups of islands grew
+      newly, and there remained.</li>
+
+    <li>10. Owiniwak angelatawiwak chichankwak wemiwak.—To beings, mortals,
+      souls and all (spoke the Manito).</li>
+  </ul>
+
+  <div class="center small bold clear">ILLUSTRATION OF THE “WALAM OLUM” OF THE LENAPÉ</div>
+
+  <blockquote class="bold">
+    <p>There are sixty of these figures painted on the sticks. Each one
+      recalls to the memory of those who have become acquainted with the
+      associated idea, that special idea, and as an example nine of the signs
+      are given here in connection with the associated idea, and also with
+      the translation into English.</p>
+
+    <p>There is seen here at once the resemblance to Genesis, and it is
+      difficult to believe that this portion of the <i>Walam Olum</i> was not
+      inspired by the teachings of the missionaries. But Brinton says: “This
+      similarity is due wholly to the identity of psychological action, the
+      same ideas and fancies arising from similar impressions in New as well
+      as Old World tribes.</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp70" id="i_047">
+    <img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KATCINAS IN THE SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY, CICHUMOVI, ARIZONA, NOVEMBER, 1884</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_048">
+    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KILLED TWO ARIKAREES</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Some of the ordinary rock pictures may have been carved for simple
+    amusement, but the majority were made with a purpose, and this was
+    usually the communication or record of an idea. The Amerind records
+    may be divided into two and perhaps three general classes: first, the
+    mnemonic; second, the ideographic; and, third, the phonetic. Brinton
+    suggests for the writings of the Aztecs, which were partly ideographic
+    and partly phonetic, the term <i>ikonomatic</i>,<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> and used it in his
+    own works. The ideographic class are those which represent an idea, as
+    a man striking another, like the accompanying illustration from the
+    autobiography of Running Antelope, who thus records his killing of two
+    Arikarees. The mnemonic class do not represent an idea, but simply are
+    memory helps, like a string tied around one’s finger, a good example
+    being any numeral, say the figure “9.” The phonetic class represent
+    sounds, like the letters of our alphabet, say the letter “e.” It <span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>is
+    believed that the Maya writings were largely phonetic, but the phonetic
+    quality is not well established.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp40" id="i_049">
+    <img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PETROGLYPHS ON PAINT ROCK, NORTH CAROLINA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>It is supposed that the mnemonic symbols originated in sign-language.
+    One of the most striking examples of the universality of the
+    sign-language is the case, cited by Mallery, of a professor in a
+    deaf-mute college, who, visiting several wild tribes, was able to
+    communicate freely with them though he knew nothing of their spoken
+    languages. It was a natural thing that races should attempt to record
+    these signs, and some early hieroglyphs in Egyptian can clearly be
+    traced to them. These same efforts occurred amongst the Amerind
+    stocks in varying degree. Picture-writing, the world over, as well as
+    particularly in North America, probably grew out of sign-language,
+    giving, as the first stage in the development, sign-language, second
+    pictographs, third alphabet. These merge into each other, as there
+    was not a series of jumps, but a slow and gradual progression. Many
+    pictographs are merely representations of natural objects and had
+    no special significance, others were guide marks to springs, others
+    recorded visits to certain localities. Mallery states a particularly
+    interesting fact, that within “each particular system ... every
+    Indian draws in precisely the same manner.” Therefore, if a perfect
+    understanding of each tribal system is obtained, the various rock
+    markings and other pictographs can be classified. Sometimes frauds<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
+    have been attempted by white men, one well-known case being where
+    an Illinois blacksmith copied on six copper plates designs from a
+    Chinese tea-box, and then claimed that the plates had been found in
+    a mound. Recently a most ingenious counterfeiter of stone implements
+    was discovered in Dane County, Wis. He had been selling the spurious
+    implements for years. They are usually of bizarre patterns.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
+    Bandelier says that “it is certain that some of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>them [pictographs in
+    Mexico] were manufactured after the Conquest, not with the intention
+    of fraud, but with a view to a compromise between the new method
+    of recording and the old one, which the new teachers were loath to
+    comprehend and which they refused to adopt.” Powell classifies all
+    the picture-writings as: (1) Mnemonic—songs, traditions, treaties,
+    war, and time; (2) Notification—departure, direction, condition,
+    warning, guidance, geographic features, claim or demand messages, and
+    communications and record of expeditions; (3) Totemic—tribal, gentile,
+    clan, and personal designations, insignia, tokens of authority,
+    personal names, property marks, status of individuals, signs of
+    particular achievements; (4) Religious—mythic personages, shamanism,
+    dances, ceremonies, mortuary practices, grave-posts, charms, fetiches;
+    (5) Customs, habits; (6) Tribal history; (7) Biographic.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_050">
+    <img src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>LANDA’S MAYA ALPHABET AFTER BRASSEUR</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>On this continent no true alphabet, so far as now known, was produced,
+    unless we accept that recorded by Bishop Landa, and ascribed to the
+    Mayas. Landa was the second bishop of Yucatan, and he did his best to
+    destroy the Maya records and everything else that in his estimation
+    linked them with the devil. But he did construct an alphabet after
+    theirs, for the purpose, no doubt, of putting before them the Holy
+    Gospel, and it is this alphabet that has been preserved. It has been
+    the basis of many vain attempts to decipher the few ancient Maya
+    documents that are known, and the failure of these attempts has caused
+    some investigators to consider the alphabet a pure fabrication, but the
+    identity <span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>of the characters with many of those in the ancient writing
+    completely disproves this charge. Besides the alphabet, Landa left
+    some other information concerning the Mayas, and Goodman thus presents
+    his respects to his memory<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>: “It is a signal instance of the irony
+    of fate that this bigoted destroyer of the fruits of Maya science and
+    art—the pietist whose zeal rendered him avid of the obliteration of
+    every vestige of their impious learning—should have been the only one
+    to leave a clue by which the mysterious codices and inscriptions will
+    yet be deciphered. Nevertheless he <span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>left such a clue—slight and vague,
+    it is true; but, when carefully followed up, it broadens and leads into
+    an open way where everything will presently become self-evident.” The
+    alphabet was probably modified by a desire to make it conform to the
+    Spanish, and it is this foreign element possibly that has led to the
+    unfavourable opinion expressed in some quarters concerning it.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_051">
+    <img src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>FAC-SIMILE OF THE LORD’S PRAYER IN MICMAC HIEROGLYPHS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_052">
+    <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SEQUOYAH’S CHEROKEE SYLLABARY</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>North of the Mexican country certain alphabets were invented by the
+    European priests for the purpose of furthering the introduction
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>of Christianity among the Amerinds. Of these the Micmac is a good
+    example.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> They were not drawn from pictographs, and were used only
+    for teaching the Bible. In that field they did not serve to preserve
+    Amerind history, traditions, and legends. After long contact with
+    Europeans there was invented but one alphabet, and he who accomplished
+    this was a half-breed. In 1821, George Gist (or Guess), whose native
+    name was Sequoyah, a Cherokee, who spoke little if any English, but
+    whose father was a Dutch peddler and whose mother was of mixed blood,
+    produced an alphabet, or, more correctly speaking, a syllabary, which
+    was immediately adopted by his tribe, and enabled them to record their
+    traditions, sacred formulæ, prayers, etc., which to-day form a valuable
+    portion of the information we possess of these Amerind people. Many of
+    the symbols were adapted from our alphabet, an old spelling-book having
+    found its way into Sequoyah’s hands, but it was the forms which were
+    utilised, the sounds they represented being usually different. By means
+    of this syllabary the members of the Cherokee tribe were able to learn
+    in a few hours to write words, and the system is used to this day.</p>
+
+  <p>The endeavour to prove the descent of the Amerinds from one of the
+    numerous foreign sources that have from time to time been advocated
+    has at least resulted sometimes in the accumulation or reproduction
+    of some interesting material. Lord Kingsborough became so infatuated
+    with the idea that the Amerinds were the Lost Tribes of Israel that
+    he attempted to prove it in a number of splendid volumes, which also
+    contain admirable fac-similes of some old Amerind manuscripts.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> He
+    spent his fortune on this work, and through a business dispute with
+    the merchants who furnished the paper he was thrown into Dublin Jail,
+    where, unfortunately, he died.</p>
+
+  <p>To explain the methods employed in the ruder attempts at recording,
+    the map made by Lean Wolf, a Hidatsa, who once made a trip from Fort
+    Berthold to Fort Buford, Dakota, with the ambition of stealing a horse,
+    is a good example. In the illustration the returning horse-tracks
+    indicate that he was successful and rode<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> home. 1 is Lean Wolf himself;
+    2, the Hidatsa lodges; 3, Lean Wolfs tracks on his outward course; 4,
+    government buildings at Fort Buford; 5, several Hidatsa lodges whose
+    occupants intermarried with Dakotas; 6, Dakota tipis; 7, small square,
+    a white man’s home, with a cross indicating that he had married a
+    Dakota woman; 8, horse-tracks; 9, the Missouri River and tributaries.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_054">
+    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>LEAN WOLF’S MAP, HIDATSA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Frequently the marks on the rocks merely record the visit of someone
+    to the place, exactly as when we visit the birthplace of Shakespeare
+    we write our names in a large book kept there for that purpose; or,
+    perhaps, as some persons carve their names on public buildings and in
+    other conspicuous places. Gilbert found a number of such records at
+    Oakley Springs, Arizona, and old Tuba, a Moki, explained them to him.
+    Tuba said that the Mokis go to a place in the canyon of the Little
+    Colorado for salt, and they stop on the return trip at this spring,
+    where each draws his totem mark, or crest, on the record rocks once,
+    and once only, for each trip. There are many repetitions of the same
+    sign, showing that the owner of that particular sign, or totem, had
+    made that many journeys to the salt mine. Tuba gave the name of the
+    totems, and they were all animals.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp70" id="i_055-1">
+    <img src="images/i_055-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE “PENN” WAMPUM BELT</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>One cannot be too careful in taking statements from Amerinds, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span>for,
+    like some of their white brethren, many of them will lie for the fun of
+    it, or just to experiment as to the probable result. Sometimes, too,
+    when they are telling the truth they tell only part of it. This is
+    particularly the case with regard to springs, sacred rites, and other
+    matters which are specially cherished. Some objects in the custody of
+    the heads of the secret orders are never shown in public, or are only
+    shown on special occasions. Pictographs representing them, therefore,
+    should any happen to be made, would not be intelligible to any persons
+    but the initiated.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp30" id="i_055-2">
+    <img src="images/i_055-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>STRINGS OF WAMPUM</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Another class of symbols was worked out in wampum. The popular idea
+    of wampum seems to be that it was a kind of Amerind money, but the
+    money function was only one of its uses. There was another, a mnemonic
+    use, of more importance—that is, it was a means of recording and
+    of communicating mnemonically among the tribes of the North-east.
+    The Iroquois used it chiefly in the form of belts. The beads were
+    generally white, and were used in strings as well as belts, other
+    colours being mingled with the white, as purple and white, or black and
+    white. These strings had important functions in summoning officers,
+    in representing persons, and in conferring authority. But all wampum
+    had a meaning only to those who remembered the particular association
+    of particular forms of it, and the knowledge once entirely forgotten
+    could never be regained. Consequently the ideas with which the belts,
+    etc., were associated had to be regularly brought to mind. Once a year,
+    therefore, they were exhibited in public, and the story connected
+    with each carefully rehearsed so that it <span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>should not be lost through
+    forgetfulness. This custom is still kept up among the remnants of the
+    wampum-using tribes. In other tribes, formulæ and drawings were often
+    preserved by certain orders who rehearsed them in the privacy of the
+    kiva. The wampum beads were generally ⅛ inch by ¼ inch diameter—that
+    is, flat discs of shell. They were sometimes also ¼ to ½ inch thick,
+    with the same diameter. When the white men discovered the valuation the
+    Amerinds placed on these beads an attempt was made to introduce some
+    of European manufacture, but it met with only partial success.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> The
+    average width of a belt is three inches and the length three feet.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp100" id="i_056">
+    <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ORCA OR KILLER-WHALE DECORATION, HAIDA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>By some tribes the human body was also used as a surface for the
+    display of pictographs. Among all primitive people the body has been
+    often decorated to a greater or less extent by means of pigments or
+    by tattooing, and even to-day the practice lingers among civilised
+    races, in their sailors and soldiers especially. The primitive totem or
+    tattoo marks are frequently highly elaborate, but the work is not all
+    accomplished at one time. Years sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> pass before the drawings
+    are complete. The Haidas of the North-west coast are specially given
+    to this form of decoration, and their bodies bear carefully prepared
+    symbols. They are heraldic signs, or the family totem, of the clan to
+    which the person belongs.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_057">
+    <img src="images/i_057.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HAIDA TATTOOING</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Pottery was also a medium, and some of the designs contained upon
+    earthenware unfold a whole legend to the knowing eye of the native. The
+    designs that are woven into blankets, baskets, and scarfs of Amerind
+    manufacture are also, to a certain extent, symbolic. The Navajos, who
+    weave a superior kind of blanket, put into it a variety of designs,
+    that are carried entirely in their memory. It is asserted that the
+    majority of these designs are Pueblo. The Navajos no doubt absorbed
+    many of the Pueblos, who must have been in the country they now occupy
+    when they arrived. There is some intermarriage of Navajos and Mokis in
+    these latter days.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Everything the Amerind does pertains to his religious belief, and these
+    symbols, totems, and pictures play an important part in his life. Some
+    sign or token occurs on almost every article of his manufacture.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp100" id="i_058">
+    <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO DRAWING—“THE MAN IN THE MOON COMES DOWN”</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Excellent examples of Algonquin mnemonic records are found in the songs
+    of the Midē society, which have been preserved for many generations
+    by means of their picture-writing, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>some of the records are
+    exceedingly elaborate. The method is to associate certain devices with
+    songs or with parts of songs to recall the words to the memory of the
+    singer when he beholds the pictures, and in this way they have been
+    handed along through the centuries. There is reason to believe that
+    almost all important legends are recorded in this mnemonic way among
+    the tribes of North America. Of course the memory is likely to fail in
+    some details and so the songs become more or less changed as time goes
+    on, but it is not probable that the changes are of much importance, for
+    where the memory is trained in this way it grows remarkably accurate.
+    There was much practising of the various songs at each particular
+    season, under the guidance of some veteran singer.</p>
+
+  <p>The Eskimo, in their picture-writing, seem now to be rather a class
+    by themselves. Whether the suggestion of perspective found in some
+    pictures was a result of contact with the whites I am unable to state,
+    but it seems probable. In the above illustration the suggestion of
+    perspective is clear. There is a landscape with houses, with the moon
+    in the sky, and with a perfectly evident effort to make the foreground
+    and middle and background take their proper places. Such a thing is not
+    to be found throughout all the other Amerind stocks.</p>
+
+  <p>From Alaska come some good examples of the ideographic, by way of
+    San Francisco, where one Naumoff, an Alaskan native, made them. They
+    are written on strips of wood and placed in conspicuous places as
+    notifications.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_059">
+    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>
+      <p>The irregular line indicates the contour of the country. The
+        traveller is seen starting out at the left. He presently leaves a
+        stick with a bunch of grass to show direction, and stops with a
+        friend at night—the division of days represented by a line upright.
+        Next morning, on the second hill, he discovers game, etc.</p></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Some tribes have a system of enumerating the members of it and keeping
+    a kind of clan roll. Chief Big Road, a Dakota, was one day brought
+    to the agency and required to give an account of his followers. He
+    submitted a roster, made on common foolscap paper with black and
+    coloured pencils. The names, represented by pictures, were Big Bear,
+    Bear-looking-behind, Brings-back-Plenty, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>White Buffalo, and so on.
+    This is also an example of the ideographic. Red Cloud had a similar
+    census of his warriors. It was prepared under his supervision at the
+    Pine Ridge Agency. Owing to some disagreement, the agent had refused
+    to recognise Red Cloud’s leadership and named another man as chief.
+    Thereupon the adherents of Red Cloud prepared this document, and
+    sent it to Washington to establish his claim. The names pictorially
+    represented are Shield-Bear, Sees-the-Enemy, Biting-Bear, Cut-through,
+    Red Owl, etc.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_060">
+    <img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SPECIMENS OF THE DAKOTA WINTER COUNTS<br>
+      Dates determined by counting back from great events<br>
+      The left: 1788–89. Very severe winter. Crows were frozen to death. “Many-crows-died-winter”<br>
+      Middle: 1789–90. Two Mandans killed by the Minneconjous<br>
+      Right: 1790–91. “All-the-Indians-see-the-flag-winter”</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In this same line are the Dakota winter counts collected by Dr.
+    Corbusier. The years are counted by winters, as the winter among the
+    Dakotas makes the deepest impression. These records have been kept for
+    many years and are used in computing time and to aid the memory in
+    recalling names and events of different years. The enumeration is begun
+    at the winter last recorded and carried backward. There are at least
+    five of these counts kept among the Oglalas and Brules by different
+    men.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+  <p>From the manuscript drawing-book of an Amerind prisoner at St.
+    Augustine we have a “conversation” about the lassooing, shooting, and
+    final killing of a bison which had wandered into camp. “The dotted
+    lines indicate footprints. The Indian drawn under the animal having
+    secured it by the forefeet, so informs his companions, as indicated by
+    the line drawn from his mouth to the object mentioned. The left-hand
+    figure, having secured the buffalo by the horns, gives his nearest
+    comrade an opportunity to strike it with an axe, which he no doubt
+    announces that he will do, as the line from his mouth to the head of
+    the animal indicates. The Indian in the upper left-hand corner is told
+    by a squaw to take an arrow and join his companions, when he turns his
+    head <span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>to inform her that he has one already, which fact he demonstrates
+    by holding up the weapon.”<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_061">
+    <img src="images/i_061.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KILLING A BISON</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Navajos have a singular kind of picture-writing which has been
+    called “dry-painting.” These dry-paintings are made on the ground with
+    dry sand of various colours.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> All the designs <span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>are made with the
+    utmost care and precision, being drawn according to an exact system,
+    except in minor points, where the artist is left to his imagination.
+    So far as known this system is not recorded in any way, but depends
+    entirely on the memory of those in charge. Changes must therefore occur
+    in the course of time. The sand is trailed out of the hand between the
+    thumb and forefinger, and when a mistake is made it is corrected by
+    renewing at that point the surface of the sand which forms the general
+    ground for the work. No less than seventeen ceremonies are illustrated
+    by drawings of this kind. Sand enters into some of the kiva ceremonies
+    of the Moki, but in a different way. It is used more to maintain in
+    position certain objects that belong to the ritual.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_062">
+    <img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">After Dr. Jones</div>
+    <figcaption>SHELL DISC, TENNESSEE<br>
+      Diameter, 4.4 inches</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p>
+
+  <p>The mounds of the Mississippi valley have yielded antiquities of great
+    interest, but thus far nothing that is beyond the ability of the
+    ordinary Amerind to execute. Some shell discs, which Holmes suggests
+    may have been time symbols, attract special attention. There are
+    generally thirteen small outer circles on the discs, and thirteen is
+    a number that occurs frequently in Amerind chronology. On other discs
+    various objects are drawn, the one first to fix the attention of the
+    white race being the figure of the cross because of its connection
+    with the Christian religion. But it had no similar significance with
+    the Christian cross. Crosses were found among almost all the tribes of
+    North America, because a cross is an easy and a most natural figure to
+    construct. Another emblem found throughout the world, and next to the
+    cross the simplest figure to make, is that called the swastika, merely
+    a cross <span class="xlarge" style="vertical-align: middle;">卐</span> with the arms broken at right angles. The
+    Mormons firmly believe, along with Kingsborough, that the Amerinds are
+    the Lost Tribes of Israel, and one of their elders has succeeded in
+    translating some picture-writing thus: “<em>I, Mahanti, the 2nd king of
+    the Lamanites in five valleys in the mountains, make this record in
+    the twelve hundredth year since we came out of Jerusalem. And I have
+    three sons gone to the south country to live by hunting antelope and
+    deer.</em>” Like the power to divine the future, the power to translate
+    picture-writings is rare.</p>
+
+  <p>In some of the Moundbuilder work there is a suggestion of a position
+    for the makers intermediate between, say, the Algonquin and the Nahuatl
+    or Aztec tribes. Their serpent symbols strongly resemble those of more
+    southern tribes, and also some of the figures in shell and copper.</p>
+
+  <p>The fact that the serpent was a prominent object with them as with
+    the Nahuatl tribes tends to link the tribes who made these symbols
+    with the Nahuatl tribes. The serpent symbol, especially the feathered
+    kind,<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> belongs mainly to the tribes of the Mexican region, where the
+    rattlesnake exists in its greatest variety. The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>rattlesnake was highly
+    venerated, and tribes as far north as the Moki country in the West,
+    and perhaps as the Ohio in the East, might be correctly called the
+    Snake people. There is nothing improbable in supposing that some of the
+    tribes of the Mississippi valley, if they were not of the same stock as
+    the Aztecs, were in tolerably close communication with them, or with
+    tribes intermediate between the two.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_064">
+    <img src="images/i_064.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SHELL GORGET, TENNESSEE<br>
+      Actual size</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p>
+
+  <p>Sometimes there occur markings on the rocks in the South-west that
+    would be a puzzle to us did we not know, through the Mokis, who are
+    still making them, just what they are. There is therefore no room
+    for the imagination; the long scratchings are only grooves made in
+    sandstone by the Moki farmer sharpening his planting stick.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_065">
+    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CUP MARKINGS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Another kind of rock markings, the so-called cupped-stones or cup
+    markings, about which there has been a vast amount of discussion, may
+    be considered here because they have generally been thought to have
+    symbolic significance. That some of them may have had such significance
+    is admitted below, but the bulk of those on this continent it seems
+    possible to explain without resort to symbolism. An explanation which
+    I offer, for what it may be worth, I have never seen suggested, though
+    the idea may not be new. It is well known that the common form of
+    fire-drill in use from one end of this continent to the other <span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>was that
+    in which the end of a straight stick is made to rotate back and forth
+    in a rounded cavity in another stick of softer wood called the hearth.
+    In order that the operation should be speedily successful in producing
+    fire, it was necessary to have the end of the drill convex, so that
+    it would immediately bear as nearly as possible on the whole surface
+    of the hearth cavity. In order to produce this convexity, the Amerind
+    pecked a small cavity on a slab or rock of sandstone, and when he had
+    it in the proper condition, he could bring his drill very quickly
+    to the desired convexity, and also give it a roughness of surface
+    that would contribute to the friction. As the fire-drill was long in
+    constant use, many cavities were necessary, for a cavity would grow too
+    deep, or for some other cause would not be adequate. A new hole would
+    then be made, and thus in the course of time there would be numbers of
+    the cavities on a rock or slab, which was convenient or had been found
+    to possess the right texture for the purpose. My opinion, therefore,
+    is that these so-called “cup markings” or “cupped” stones were in
+    America the result of the sharpening of fire-drills, just as the long
+    grooves seen at the Moki towns to-day are the result of the sharpening
+    of planting sticks. Gerard Fowke describes the cupped-stones in the
+    Bureau of Ethnology collection,<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> as follows, and it will be noticed
+    that thin pieces have cups on both sides, while the large blocks have
+    them only on one. This was because it was convenient to turn the small
+    stones over. In some cases where a cup had worn too large, another
+    was started in the bottom of it, perhaps because the rock at that
+    particular spot suited the fancy of the individual. Fowke says: “The
+    cupped-stones in the Bureau are almost invariably of reddish sandstone,
+    of varying texture, from a few ounces to thirty pounds in weight. The
+    holes are from one to twenty-five in number, of various sizes, even in
+    the same stone, and follow the natural contour of the surface even when
+    that is quite irregular; the stone is never flattened or dressed to
+    bring the cups on a level; none show any marks of work, but are rough
+    blocks or slabs in their natural state. Many of the holes are roughly
+    pecked in, but the larger ones are usually smooth, as if ground out,
+    and almost complete hemispheres. They range from a pit only started or
+    going scarcely beyond the surface to one two inches in diameter. The
+    smaller ones with one cup pass into the pitted stones. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>Occasionally
+    at the bottom of a large cup there is a small secondary hole as though
+    made by a flint drill. Slabs or thin pieces nearly always have cups on
+    both sides, while blocks or thick slabs have them on one side only.”</p>
+
+  <p>In the case of the cup markings of the Eastern Hemisphere, their
+    frequent peculiar arrangement accompanied by grooves and circles may
+    have pertained to some ceremony connected with the drill-dressing. It
+    may have been thought that the fire would come quicker, be better, or
+    last longer when the drill was dressed in holes of a certain type; or
+    special stones and holes of peculiar arrangement may have been required
+    for dressing the drill-end that was to be used by the priest in the
+    sacred ceremony of producing the “new-fire.” In this manner a primitive
+    custom might become sacred and be surrounded with symbolism exemplified
+    in cup markings the world over.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="i_067">
+    <img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CUP FROM CHIRIQUI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+    <div class="chapter" id="Ch_IV">
+    <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span></p>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="i_068">
+      <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>TERRA COTTA FROM CHIRIQUI</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">THE MEXICAN AND CENTRAL-AMERICAN WRITING, INSCRIPTIONS, AND BOOKS</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">WHILE there are found in the mounds of the central Mississippi
+    region, and also among the living natives of the North-west coast,
+    resemblances to the art work of the Aztecs, Mayas, and other tribes of
+    the Central-American region, there is no evidence that there was any
+    approach, in these localities or elsewhere, to any kind of record to be
+    compared with the proficiency of the South. What there may once have
+    been in the way of writings on bark or wood we can only conjecture. The
+    Davenport tablet has been pronounced, on good authority, to be within
+    the powers of the Dakota tribes. Other tablets and inscriptions of the
+    Eastern region are surrounded with doubt.</p>
+
+  <p>The Mexican, that is, the Aztec, writing was more pictorial than
+    that of the Mayas. It was cruder in every way, and comparing the
+    two in the pages of Kingsborough and later reproductions, it is
+    easy to distinguish a superior culture indicated by the writing of
+    the Maya. We are more fortunate in the number of Aztec manuscripts
+    preserved. The Spanish priests did what they could to obliterate the
+    books existing when they came into the country, and Bishop Zumarraga
+    made a fine bonfire out of a lot of them. But some escaped. Some
+    priests sent copies or originals <span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>back home as curiosities, thinking,
+    doubtless, that this took them out of the sight of the natives quite
+    as effectually as the burning, and the natives themselves succeeded
+    in preserving in secret some of the ancient documents. None of the
+    oldest, however, have been found, but in time the number known to us
+    may be considerably increased. One by one they turn up unexpectedly.
+    That called the Codex Borgia was in use as a plaything of children
+    of the Gustiniani family, till rescued by Cardinal Borgia, and only
+    recently another one has been found dating from the year 1545,<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>
+    wherein there are pictorial combinations never before seen. Thus
+    gradually our data are increasing, and with the awakening interest in
+    Amerindian archæology that seems to have come in these latter days of
+    the nineteenth century, a century that has let slip much valuable data
+    never to be recovered, further finds may be expected from time to time.
+    The style of the Aztec documents is different from that of the Maya and
+    Brinton believes them to be independent developments. It is possible,
+    however, that both were derived from the same source and developed
+    independently.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> The Aztec writing is of a “rebus” character, and
+    Brinton has applied to it the term <i>ikonomatic</i>, which he explains
+    as follows in his <cite>Essays of an Americanist</cite><a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>: “All methods of
+    recording ideas have been divided into two classes—Thought Writing and
+    Sound Writing. The first, simplest and oldest, is Thought Writing. This
+    in turn is subdivided into two forms—Ikonographic and Symbolic Writing.
+    The former is also known as Imitative, Representative, or Picture
+    Writing. The object to be held in memory is represented by its picture
+    drawn with such skill, or lack of skill, as the writer may possess.
+    In Symbolic Writing, a single characteristic part or trait serves to
+    represent the whole object; thus the track of an animal will stand
+    for the animal itself.... It will be observed that Thought Writing
+    has no reference to spoken language; neither the picture of a wolf
+    nor the representation of his footprint conveys the slightest notion
+    of the sound of the word <em>wolf</em>. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>How was the enormous leap made
+    from the thought to the sound—in other words, from an ideographic to
+    a phonetic method of writing? This question has received considerable
+    attention from scholars with reference to the development of the two
+    most important alphabets in the world, the Egyptian and the Chinese.
+    Both these began as simple picture writing, and both progressed to
+    almost complete phoneticism. In both cases, however, the earliest
+    steps are lost, and can be retraced only by indications remaining
+    after a high degree of phonetic power had been reached. On the other
+    hand, in the Mexican and probably in the Maya hieroglyphics, we find
+    a method of writing which is intermediate between the two great
+    classes I have mentioned, and which illustrates in a striking manner
+    the phases through which both the Egyptian and the Semitic alphabets
+    passed somewhat before the dawn of history. To this method, which
+    stands midway between the ikonographic and the alphabetic methods of
+    writing, I have given the name <i>ikonomatic</i>, derived from the
+    Greek εικων-ονος, an <span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>image, a figure; ονομα-ατος, a name.... It is
+    this plan on which those familiar puzzles are constructed which are
+    called rebuses and none other than this which served to bridge over the
+    wide gap between Thought and Sound Writing. It is, however, not correct
+    to say that it is a writing by <em>things</em>, rebus; but it is by the
+    <em>names</em> of things, and hence I have coined the work ikonomatic to
+    express this clearly.” The position of the signs often had important
+    significance, just as it has in some of our puzzles, like the following:</p>
+
+  <div class="center">
+    WOOD<br>
+    JOHN<br>
+    MASS</div>
+
+  <p class="noindent">which is said to have been the address on a letter that
+    found its destination in John Underwood, Andover, Massachusetts. It
+    might be supposed that, having acquired a knowledge of the method
+    of the Aztec writing, the general principles of which, according to
+    Brinton, were known many years ago, we would now be able to translate
+    the Mexican documents with little difficulty. The trouble lies,
+    however, in the lack of exact knowledge of the Nahuatl language itself,
+    and till that is acquired small progress will be made. It will be
+    necessary to understand this language before its modern additions and
+    changes came in, in order to connect it with the picture-writing, or
+    rather the ikonomatic writing, of the fifteenth and previous centuries.
+    It has been doubted whether there is any phonetic element in either the
+    Aztec or the Maya hieroglyphics, but the evidence seems to indicate
+    that there is a phonetic element, notwithstanding that there has been a
+    following in many cases of rather slender threads of evidence.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_070">
+    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PAGE FROM AN AZTEC BOOK<br>
+      <p class="hang">Plate 67 of the Nahuan precolumbian Vatican Codex, No. 3773, Loubat
+        edition. This is the 19th page of the Tonalamatl, the sacred
+        astrological calendar of the Aztecs. The seated figure is the
+        goddess Xochiquetzal, and on the left is the god Tezcatlipoca.
+        The book is in size about 5 × 6 inches.</p>
+</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp33" id="i_071">
+    <img src="images/i_071.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MEXICAN WRITING OF NAME OF MONTEZUMA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Brinton gives the accompanying illustration of the character of the
+    Aztec writing, this being the name of Montezuma, but really reading
+    Moquahzoma. As most writers spell this name to suit themselves, judging
+    from the great variety of spellings, we may as well accept Moquahzoma
+    too. Indeed, as this seems to be supported by the evidence of the
+    writing, it is more likely to be correct than the others. The picture
+    at the right is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>of a mouse-trap, <i>montli</i> in Nahuatl, “with
+    a phonetic value of <i>mo</i> or <i>mon</i>; the head of the eagle
+    has the value <i>quauh</i>, from <i>quauhtli</i>; it is transfixed
+    with a lancet <i>zo</i> and surmounted with a hand <i>maitl</i>,
+    whose phonetic value is <i>ma</i>, and these values combined give
+    <i>Moquahzoma</i>.”</p>
+
+  <p>When Mendoza was viceroy of New Spain, he caused a specimen of Aztec
+    writing and book-making to be prepared and sent to Charles V., with
+    an explanation in Spanish. Copies of this exist to-day; one in the
+    Bodleian Library, Oxford, and another, which Prescott thought was the
+    original, though Bancroft believed it to be a copy, in the Escurial
+    Library. This Codex Mendoza was in three parts: 1st, historical; 2d,
+    tribute rolls; 3d, descriptive of the domestic life and manners of the
+    people. Besides this and the Borgia, there are the Codex Vaticanus,
+    in the Vatican Library, another in the same place written on skin;
+    the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, in the Bibliothèque National, Paris;
+    the Codex <span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>Bologna, in the library of the Scientific Institute, and
+    a number of others in divers places.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The remnants of the native
+    Tezcucan archives were inherited by Ixtlilxochitl, lineal descendant of
+    the last “king” of Tezcuco, who used them in preparing his historical
+    writings. The collection afterwards disappeared.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_072">
+    <img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PART OF PLATE 65, DRESDEN CODEX<br>
+      Maya</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Many of the manuscripts were merely chronological, but there were also
+    tribute rolls, law codes, court records, historical records, and all
+    the varied writings that belong to an active and intelligent people.
+    The priests executed and held in their possession the important books,
+    and seem to have been the leaders of whatever learning existed. “These
+    writings,” says Bancroft, “were a sealed book to the masses, and even
+    to the educated classes who looked with superstitious reverence on the
+    priestly writers and their magic scrolls.”</p>
+
+  <p>The paper used was usually made from the leaves of the maguey. It is
+    probable that the Aztecs learned to make it from the Mayas or from
+    some intervening tribe who had learned from the Mayas. Sometimes the
+    books were long strips of cotton cloth, or even a kind of parchment.
+    They were either rolled up or folded like a screen, and frequently had
+    covers of wood. A great deal of ingenuity and skill were bestowed on
+    the preparation of these books and the writing they contained.</p>
+
+  <p>The appropriate name of “calculiform”<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> has been given to the Maya
+    hieroglyphics because of their resemblance to pebble forms. Besides
+    the inscriptions carved on stone from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to
+    the northern border of Honduras, there are some on wood and in stucco,
+    but there exist, so far as known, but very few of the numerous records
+    and books of perishable material which the pious zeal of the Spanish
+    priests hastened to gather together and purify of heresy and wickedness
+    in the fires of bigotry. Bishop Landa says: “As they contained nothing
+    that did not savour of superstition and lies of the devil, we burnt
+    them all, at which the natives grieved most keenly and were greatly
+    pained.” The practice of the Mayas, it is said, was to bury the books
+    with the priest who had written them, in which case large numbers of
+    the writings must have been disposed of before the Spaniards took a
+    hand. Doubtless, however, only certain books were thus buried with the
+    authors, and perhaps copies <span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>of these may have been preserved. At any
+    rate, unless some of the books have been protected in an absolutely
+    dry place, tomb or what not, or there were also writings on tablets of
+    clay or stone, we are not likely to have our present scanty knowledge
+    of the ancient Mayas much increased through this channel. There are
+    possibilities of discovery in many ways, even amongst the papers in
+    forgotten archives.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_074">
+    <img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>VASE FROM LABNA, YUCATAN, WITH PECULIAR MARKINGS<br>
+      Diameter at top, 5 inches; diameter at bottom, 4 inches; height, 4½ inches</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the Peabody Museum at Cambridge I saw a small vase from Labna
+    that fixed my attention at once, and I understand there are others
+    in existence of a similar character. It bears certain marks in the
+    clay that suggested to my mind an alphabetic system. The marks are in
+    groups, each group contained in a space that apparently corresponds
+    to the calculiform inscriptions of the monuments. It seems possible,
+    therefore, that this may be a development out of the calculiform.
+    Afterwards I found a reference apparently to this same vase in
+    Brinton’s <cite>Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics</cite>. He says: “There is some
+    reason to suppose, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>however, that in this part of the Mayan territory
+    there had been a development of this writing until it had become
+    conventionalized into a series of lines and small circles enclosed in
+    the usual square or oval of the katun. I have seen several examples of
+    this remarkable script, and give one, Fig. 79, part of an inscription
+    on a vase from Labna, Yucatan, now in the Peabody Museum.” If these
+    marks should turn out to be alphabetic, then we may expect to find
+    slabs and tablets similarly inscribed.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_075">
+    <img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CONVEX DISCOIDAL STONE, NORTH CAROLINA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>We are but at the beginning of our investigation of the Amerind field.
+    Only recently Saville discovered an entirely new form of hieroglyphic
+    in Oaxaca in a tomb believed to be Zapotecan. Organised and exhaustive
+    exploration will yield fine results. “Such organised and exhaustive
+    exploration is the more to be desired,” says Goodman, “for the reason
+    that all the inscriptions so far brought to light are of a purely
+    chronological character, destitute of any real historical importance.
+    They are merely public calendars, as it were, showing that at specified
+    dates certain periods of their scheme would begin or end, or that a
+    correspondence would occur between two or more of their different
+    plans for computing time. Aside from the circumstance that the initial
+    date in most instances undoubtedly marks the time at which the temple,
+    stela, or altar to which it belongs was erected, I do not believe there
+    is the record of a single historical event in all the inscriptions at
+    present in our possession. That a people as cultured as they should
+    have had no historical records at all, would be a presumption too
+    absurd for credence, even without the testimony of the early Spanish
+    authorities to the contrary. The actual <span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>question is whether any of
+    them will ever be discovered. If they were inscribed upon paper or
+    parchment and buried with their priestly owners, as we are told, there
+    is very little hope that any vestige of them remains, unless there may
+    have been some instance of almost miraculous preservation. Still that
+    remote chance is worth a vast amount of research. But a better hope
+    ... is that in crypts or tombs or other unexplored receptacles may be
+    collected historical tablets of durable material—stone, stucco, baked
+    clay, or even metal—which patient excavation will yet unearth.” Chance
+    has played the chief part in the preservation of the few documents that
+    have come down to us. In the Bibliothèque National at Paris the Maya
+    one now known as the Codex Peresianus had been neglected amongst a lot
+    of old papers where De Rosny happened to discover it. It has generally
+    been assumed that because there was found one form of writing on the
+    monuments and a similar form in the few documents preserved there was
+    but the one method. This, however, does not necessarily follow. The
+    monumental records and the chronological books may have been written
+    by the priests in the archaic style while the ordinary and common
+    style was something quite different.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Pio Perez has been followed
+    with great faith, but Goodman thrusts him aside in the following
+    paragraph: “The man who led everybody astray ... was Don Pio Perez....
+    In the absence of any regularly ordained authority, he was at once
+    accepted on his own bare assumption as a leader and lawgiver, and then
+    began that journey through the wilderness which has lasted more than
+    forty years.... I ran in the ruck for seven seasons.... Then I turned
+    and went back to Landa—to whom all desirous of reliable information
+    concerning Maya chronology must go at last.”<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The trouble with
+    following Landa has been the inaccuracy of the translation by the Abbé
+    Brasseur as well as a certain confusion existing within the original
+    manuscript.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Brinton says: “The Mayas were naturally a literary people. Had they
+    been offered the slightest chance for the cultivation of their
+    intellects, they would have become a nation of readers and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>writers.”
+    Instead of having this chance they were crushed by the Spaniards and
+    never rose again. But the decline of the Mayas cannot be altogether
+    laid at the door of Spain. The remnant of the stock encountered by
+    the Spaniards was already on the down road and had been for a long
+    period.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> That the Mayas had long passed the zenith of their progress
+    is generally admitted, and we are not entirely sure that the people we
+    know as Mayas were the original stock or only a mixture of the original
+    and an inferior, wilder stock which mingled with them in the days of
+    their decline. When a stock declined or became extinct, other stocks
+    from contiguous territory or from farther off were likely to come in
+    and possess themselves of whatever they found that was valuable and
+    also become permanent residents of the country, just as the Navajos
+    took up their home in a land that was formerly the residence of a
+    different, house-building stock of whom the Navajos preserve, so far
+    as I am aware, barely a reminiscence. Berendt thus describes the
+    neighbourhood of Cintla: “Not a single tradition, not a single native
+    name survives to cast any light upon these ruins. The whole of this
+    coast was depopulated in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries owing
+    to the slave-hunting incursions of the filibusters and man-hunters.
+    The Indians who are now found in the neighbourhood have removed there
+    from the interior since the beginning of the present century, and are
+    absolutely ignorant of the origin or builders of this city.”</p>
+
+  <p>Not until we are in possession of historical data from the Mayas
+    themselves, if that happy time ever arrives, can we be absolutely
+    certain as to the present descendants.</p>
+
+  <p>“In Yucatan,” says Brinton, “the books of the Mayas consisted of a
+    kind of paper made by macerating and beating together leaves of maguey
+    and afterwards sizing the surface with a durable white varnish. The
+    sheet was folded like a screen, forming pages about nine by five
+    inches. Both sides were covered with figures and characters painted
+    in various brilliant colours. On the outer pages boards were fastened
+    for protection, so the completed volume had the appearance of a bound
+    book of large octavo size. Parchment was sometimes used instead of
+    paper. It was made of deerskin cured and smoked. Twenty-seven rolls
+    of such parchments covered with hieroglyphics were among the articles
+    burned by Bishop Landa at Mani in 1562.” “None of them, however,”
+    remarks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> Goodman of the Maya books that have been found, “can be of
+    much assistance in solving Maya historical problems, as they are all
+    merely text-books explaining the meaning of signs, the elementary
+    principles of their respective calendars and certain phases of lunar,
+    solar, and in a few places, bissextile and chronological reckoning. I
+    believe the figures usually supposed to represent deities to be only
+    personifications of different periods or phases of time, and that most
+    of the glyphs are merely numerals or symbols used for the occasion in
+    their numerative sense only.”</p>
+
+  <p>It is plain, therefore, that much of the supposed interpretation of
+    the Maya inscriptions has had little solid foundation, has in fact
+    been little better than guesswork. There was one sanguine translator
+    who was discovered to have begun at the <em>wrong end</em> of the book!
+    The readings of the Maya inscriptions sometimes suggest that other
+    mysterious operation of certain brilliant scholars of our time, the
+    discovery and reading of the Shakespeare-Baconian cipher. The lack
+    of real understanding of the Maya subject is pretty well indicated
+    by the various estimates of the value of Landa’s legacy. One author,
+    Holden, states that it was a positive misfortune, while Goodman, after
+    following other lines for a time, returns to Landa as the only real
+    foundation for accurate study. There is even yet difference of opinion
+    as to the proper directions, left to right or up and down, etc., in
+    which the works are to be read when they are read. Apparently the first
+    sensible thing to be done is to gather together all that Landa wrote
+    and reduce it to a shape that will place it before the greatest number
+    of students, in connection with specimens of every kind of a mark or
+    picture that by any possibility might have alphabetic significance. A
+    striking peculiarity of the Maya remains is that there are not found
+    any preliminary or originating forms of the glyphs. “We are compelled
+    therefore to admit,” says Thomas, “that the origin of this writing is a
+    mystery we are unable to fully penetrate.”<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> It may be that the forms
+    from which it was derived were recorded on skins, on wood, or on bark,
+    and in that case they probably disappeared before the beginning of the
+    Maya decline. “A difference, it is true,” says Thomas,<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> “in the
+    forms and ornamentation, and, to a certain degree, an advance toward
+    a more perfect type, can be traced, but no examples, so far as the
+    writer is aware, of the first <span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>rude beginnings or the original forms
+    have been found. Some comparatively rude are found painted on pottery,
+    scratched on shells or other soft material, but these belong to what
+    may be termed demotic writing and are not primitive forms. Comparing
+    the characters of the various inscriptions which have been discovered
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>and those found in the few remaining pre-Columbian manuscripts, the
+    result is as follows: <em>First</em>, it is apparent that the characters
+    in the manuscripts have been adapted from those of the inscriptions. In
+    other words, inscriptions preceded the manuscripts; hence we must look
+    to the former for the older forms. What appear to the writer to be the
+    oldest forms of the glyphs yet discovered are seen in those of Palenque
+    and some of the inscriptions found by Charnay at Menche (Lorillard
+    City), though others discovered by him at this same place belong to
+    the later and more ornamental type, discovered in the Peten region,
+    that is those carved in wood discovered by Bernouilli at Tikal, a type
+    also found at Copan and Chichen Itza, but in none of the inscriptions
+    at Palenque.” For my part, I cannot see that Thomas has exactly proved
+    that the manuscripts were later than the stone-carved inscriptions, but
+    his knowledge of the subject is so great and his methods so cautious
+    that I am glad to give his statement in this connection.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_079">
+    <img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>  FEMALE HEAD IN TRACHYTE<br>
+      From slope north of Temple 22—Copan. Slightly larger than life</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Maya glyphs probably developed out of something like the Mexican
+    or Aztec writing; and the step was not a very long one from writing of
+    the character of the Lenapé <i>Walam Olum</i> to that of the Aztec, and
+    again it was not a long step from the ordinary picture-writing to the
+    <i>Walam Olum</i>, so that it would seem that in these various writings
+    we have an interesting series of steps from the crudest attempts at
+    records, nearly, if not quite, to the highest, for it must be borne in
+    mind that the step from the Maya glyphs to a true phonetic alphabet
+    would be even shorter than any of the others. It is not impossible
+    that something of the kind may yet be discovered. While the Mayas
+    had made little progress in mechanical inventions, their progress in
+    architecture, art, writing, and in astronomy is a proof that they were
+    a thinking people, and, had conditions continued favourable to their
+    progress, the Spaniards would have found them not easy to vanquish.
+    The prominent and striking quality of the calculiform style has had a
+    tendency to obscure the point that there may have been another system
+    in vogue, more simple, more modern, in short purely phonetic. Perfected
+    phonetic characters are simple characters and are likely not to attract
+    notice, especially when attention has been fixed on other forms.</p>
+
+  <p>So far as now understood, there is no relationship between any kind
+    of Amerindian writing and that of other races. Like everything <span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>else
+    pertaining to the Amerind people, the development appears to have been
+    purely indigenous. Le Plongeon, however, asserts that “abundant proofs
+    of the intimate communications of the ancient Mayas with the civilised
+    nations of Asia, Africa, and Europe are to be found among the remains
+    of their ruined cities.”<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> The grounds accepted for this statement
+    do not seem to be sufficient to satisfy other investigators. Certainly
+    if there was any inter-communication, it was before the acquirement of
+    iron-working in other countries, as so far no prehistoric iron has been
+    found in the ruins of Yucatan.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_081">
+    <img src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">W. H. Holmes</div>
+    <figcaption>USUAL TYPE OF SCULPTURED “YOKES,” CENTRAL AMERICA<br>
+      15½ inches long; 14½ inches wide; thickness, 3½ × 4½ inches<br>
+      Substance: Dark, greenish grey, very compact, chlorite; surface well
+      polished. Carving of a frog or toad</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>After the coming of the Spaniards, some of the Mayas soon learned
+    their alphabet and the missionaries added, says Brinton, “a sufficient
+    number of signs to it to express with tolerable accuracy the phonetics
+    of the Maya tongue. Relying on their memories, and, no doubt, aided
+    by some manuscripts secretly preserved,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> many natives set to work to
+    write out in this new alphabet the contents of their ancient records.
+    Much was added which had been brought in by the Europeans, and much
+    omitted which had become unintelligible or obsolete since the Conquest,
+    while of course the different writers varying in skill and knowledge
+    produced works of very various merit. Nevertheless each of these books
+    bore the same name. In whatever village it was written, or by whatever
+    hand, it always was, and to-day still is, called ‘<cite>The Book of Chilan
+    Balam</cite>.’ To distinguish them apart, the name of the village where
+    a copy was found or written is added. Probably in the last century
+    almost every village had one, which was treasured with superstitious
+    veneration.” Sixteen of these curious books are known to exist, but
+    there has never been a complete translation of any of them. The
+    following specimen is from <cite>The Book of Chilan Balam</cite> of the town
+    of Mani, and is taken from Brinton’s <cite>Chronicles of the Maya</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+  <p>“<i>Lai u tzolan katun lukci ti cab ti yotoch Nonoual cante anilo
+    Tutulxiu ti chikin Zuiua u luumil u talelob Tulapan chiconahthan.</i>”</p>
+
+  <p>Translation: “This is the arrangement of the katuns since the departure
+    was made from the land, from the house Nonoual, where were the four
+    Tutulxiu, from Zuiva at the West: they came from the land Tulapan,
+    having formed a league.”</p>
+
+  <p>The strange title of these books is derived from that of the priests
+    or shamans, who were believed to have divine powers. They date from
+    1595. The Maya books at present known are three, one in two parts,
+    with these titles: 1. <cite>Codex Tro</cite> or <i>Troano</i>, 70 pages,
+    found by the Abbé Brasseur at Madrid; 2. <cite>Codex Cortesianus</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>
+    so named because of a belief that it was brought to Europe by Cortes,
+    also at Madrid, and believed to be a part of the Troano; 3. <cite>Dresden
+    Codex</cite>, 74 pages, in the Royal Library, Dresden; 4. <cite>Codex
+    Peresianus</cite>, 22 pages, the one discovered in the Paris Bibliothèque
+    National by De Rosny, and given its title from the name “Perez,”
+    written on the outer wrapper. Besides these it has been supposed that
+    there are several in private hands. The Quiches, of Mayan stock, had a
+    sacred book called the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> and the allied Cakchiquels
+    had their <cite>Records of Tecpan <span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>Atitlan</cite>. Other tribes or stocks of
+    the Mexican region undoubtedly had books and records also, but in the
+    present state of knowledge nothing definite can be said about them. But
+    there was a general high development of all, or at least, the majority,
+    of the stocks occupying Mexico and Central America in the fifteenth
+    century and before, so that it is entirely reasonable to expect a
+    considerable corresponding development in the line of picture-writing,
+    hieroglyphs or alphabets. These, in some cases, will come to our
+    knowledge, just as the new hieroglyph attributed to the Zapotecs
+    recently rewarded the investigations of Saville.</p>
+
+  <p>The numeral systems of these people were well developed, and they were
+    able to make exact calculations in astronomical, and in all other
+    matters. The Aztecs used dots from one to ten, or twenty, and then
+    symbols. The Mayas used dots only to four, and then dots and lines
+    to nineteen, beyond which little is known of their method. Like all
+    the rest of the Maya subject, there is in this line of investigation
+    considerable confusion and great uncertainty. The table herewith given
+    is a suggestion of a possible line of study. It seems to me to be the
+    <em>method</em> that was followed, though my arrangement or even the
+    figures are not correct. I introduce it here, before bestowing upon it
+    further study, because it may contain an idea that will start someone
+    else on a right track. It has been generally accepted that one dot •
+    is one, two dots •&nbsp;• two, and so on to four •&nbsp;•&nbsp;•&nbsp;•, after which five was
+    a straight line, <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_083-1.jpg" style="height: 0.6em;" alt="line">. Here arises a question. Did the dots
+    and lines mean the same when horizontal as when vertical? They occur
+    both ways in the inscriptions and in the manuscripts, and Goodman
+    takes them to be the same. Vertical and horizontal occur together
+    frequently, thus: <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_083-2.jpg" style="height: 3em;" alt="complex symbol">
+    from Pl. 51, Dresden Codex. A doubt fills
+    my mind, however, on this point. It is possible that when vertical
+    the dots and lines had a different meaning. On this assumption, the
+    two, three, etc., horizontally placed would mean either one, two,
+    three, etc., or some higher figures, leaving the vertically placed
+    ones to take their place as one, two, three, etc. I assume that the
+    vertical ones were the beginning. The Maya system was a vigesimal one,
+    that is, a counting by twenties. Every new twenty, therefore, would
+    be represented by a new symbol. Referring to the table, it will be
+    seen that the dots and lines vertically placed and combined carry the
+    table easily to nineteen, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>that is, a dot beside the five line gives
+    six, two five lines give ten, three, fifteen, while the addition of
+    the dots carries the count quite naturally to the nineteen. It is now
+    necessary to adopt a sign for twenty, and there have been adopted
+    by various authors as many various signs, with several variants in
+    each lot. Once settle on a symbol for twenty, and the road is easy to
+    twenty-nine by placing the dots and lines horizontally. Thomas gives
+    this figure <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-1.jpg" style="height: 2.2em;" alt="symbol"> for twenty,<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> but I do not believe it is
+    twenty, and for convenience will adopt this
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-2.jpg" style="height: 2.1em;" alt="symbol">. Then to get
+    twenty-one it would be simple for the Maya to put a little cross on
+    each side of the dot, that is above and below,
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-3.jpg" style="height: 2.1em;" alt="symbol">. This figure
+    is frequent, and it is varied sometimes by this
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-4.jpg" style="height: 2.1em;" alt="symbol">, and by
+    this <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-5.jpg" style="height: 2.1em;" alt="symbol">, which Brinton assumes all to be variants of twenty. I
+    take it they are variants of twenty-one and twenty-two, or of one and
+    two. Running down to twenty-nine by means of the dots and lines, we
+    arrive at the necessity for a new symbol for forty, and I take a common
+    symbol in the inscriptions,
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-6.jpg" style="height: 2.3em;" alt="symbol">. To follow precisely the method
+    indicated by progress thus far, we would put a dot inside of this for
+    forty-one, but the Maya does not seem to have done this, but made a
+    slight change, perhaps to avoid confusion, and he put the dot outside
+    and to the left,
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-7.jpg" style="height: 2.3em;" alt="symbol">. Four of these dots make forty-four, and
+    then forty-five is represented by a straight line vertically within.
+    Dots now outside as before carry to forty-nine, when a vertical line
+    replacing the dots gives fifty. Adding dots again as before leads to
+    fifty-four, while doubling the lines with the dots produces all figures
+    up to fifty-nine, <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-8.jpg" style="height: 2.3em;" alt="symbol">. Then once more a new character is needed
+    to go on, and one is chosen that is very common in the Dresden Codex,
+    occurring in a number of different forms. It is this
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-9.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol"> in its
+    simple form. Thomas takes it in this form
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-10.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol"> for naught, and
+    Försteman for the same numeral in this form
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-11.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol">. The difference
+    between these two is immediately apparent, and it seems that both
+    these able investigators have made a mistake in this respect. It is
+    as if some <span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>future investigator should give as our naught the figure
+    6 and the figure 9. The simple form is possibly one of the chief Maya
+    numerals and the enclosed lines give it the necessary differentiation.
+    Some change occurs again here, in the system I have attempted to
+    outline. There are used lines instead of dots, though dots also were
+    used, and the horizontal line does not appear to have been doubled;
+    at least I have been unable to find an example of it, though, as
+    the number of manuscripts is limited, I could hardly expect to find
+    examples of all the figures in them. The carved inscriptions being, as
+    is believed, older than the manuscripts, there would be a difference
+    between the numerals in them and in the books. But we will take the
+    simple character
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-1.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol"> for, say, sixty. It may be mentioned again
+    that these selections and their order are merely tentative. Only by
+    long study might the matter be determined. Adding lines transversely
+    as found in the Dresden Codex, we arrive easily at sixty-four.
+    Following the previous system, a horizontal line with an upward
+    curve then gives <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-2.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol"> sixty-five, and transverse lines again
+    take us to sixty-nine. A horizontal line with a down curve produces
+    seventy <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-3.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol">. Seventy-four would then be
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-4.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol">, and as the
+    horizontal line seems not to have been doubled we are forced to choose
+    another character for seventy-five
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-5.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol">. A down curved horizontal
+    line then gives seventy-six
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-6.jpg" style="height: 1.6em;" alt="symbol">, while for seventy-seven an
+    entirely new form is used. The reversal of seventy-five and seventy-six
+    carries to seventy-nine. The cross lines in some cases appear to have
+    been used up to sixty-seven. There are so many different figures of
+    this kind that it is possible they were used interchangeably in some
+    cases. For eighty a new figure is required, and I have selected one
+    that occurs frequently in the Dresden book, in shape something like a
+    bow, <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-7.jpg" style="height: 2.6em;" alt="symbol">. A series of dots readily carries to eighty-four, and
+    then the substitution of a line like a bow-string gives eighty-five
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_085-8.jpg" style="height: 2.6em;" alt="symbol">. The next step at ninety would be to double this bow-string,
+    but this seems not to have been done, as I can find no example of it.
+    But I do find a differentiation in another way, probably because in
+    this figure doubling the string would be clumsy. The difference is made
+    by a rider on the string, and there <span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>are two kinds of rider, one a
+    point or triangle, and the other a double square. Taking one of these
+    riders for ninety, and then the dots beside it, we find ourselves at
+    ninety-four <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_087-1.jpg" style="height: 2.6em;" alt="symbol">. Then with the other rider on the string for
+    ninety-five we arrive by means of the dots at ninety-nine
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_087-2.jpg" style="height: 2.6em;" alt="symbol">.
+    Then comes a demand for a character for one hundred, and this appears
+    to have been merely a circle. A dot beside it would give 101, and so on
+    by adding, out or in, the various symbols 199 is reached. To get to 299
+    it is only necessary to add another circle. For 500 some other symbol
+    must be adopted, and the apparent one is a sort of circle with a kind
+    of scarf knot at the top, or perhaps it can be described as a knotted
+    scarf, <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_087-3.jpg" style="height: 2.8em;" alt="symbol">. Taking this as 500 we can easily arrive
+    <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_087-4.jpg" style="height: 2.8em;" alt="symbol">
+    at 599. An extra circle within will then carry to <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_087-5.jpg" style="height: 2.8em;" alt="symbol"> 699, and
+    so on by adding circles up to 1000. Thomas in one of his admirable
+    discussions of Maya writing<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> is puzzled by what he terms ornamental
+    loops around some of the numerals, but if the line I have indicated
+    here has any sense in it these ornamental loops would be 602, 604,
+    etc., or some other numbers depending on the proper place for this
+    symbol in the general scheme. The series of “loops” mentioned by Thomas
+    is this:</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_087">
+    <img src="images/i_087-6.jpg" alt="">
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Something might be determined by a comparison of these symbols with the
+    known names of numbers. The Mayas counted into the millions, so they
+    must have had a perfected system.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_086">
+    <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A SUGGESTION OF THE POSSIBLE SCHEME OF MAYA NUMERALS. WHOLLY TENTATIVE<br>
+      Founded on figures in the codices and on tablets</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_087-7">
+    <img src="images/i_087-7.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>OMAHA CALUMET</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_V">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_088">
+      <img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption style="margin-top: -2em;">OMAHA WAR CLUB</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">BASKETRY AND POTTERY</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">ALMOST every tribe the world round seems to have acquired at a very
+    early stage in its progress a knowledge of plaiting rushes, strips
+    of bark, or other simple substances, for use as beds, covering of
+    shelters, etc., and in this knowledge may be discovered the beginnings
+    of several arts of the first importance to man: basketry, weaving,
+    and pottery. Basketry and pottery are mother and daughter. Plaiting
+    together straws or rushes was a simple operation and must have occurred
+    to the most primitive tribes spontaneously as the need for some such
+    thing arose. Having produced a mat and used it for various purposes,
+    the turning up of the sides, or edges, for the purpose of retaining
+    things upon it, thereby producing a shallow basket or tray, was an
+    easy step, and by such stages did basketry grow to perfection.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> The
+    Amerinds excelled particularly in this art, and there were few tribes
+    without ability to make baskets and other wicker-work, the character
+    and excellence of which depended to a considerable extent on the
+    material available.</p>
+
+  <p>Wicker jugs, rendered water-tight by means of pitch, were invented and
+    used for cookery, hot stones being introduced through the wide mouth,
+    to bring the contents to the required temperature, and it was the
+    effort to protect the basketry used in the various culinary operations
+    from the effects of the heat that led to coatings of mud or clay,
+    which being hardened by the fire, disclosed the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>great secret. There
+    is still in use among some of the more primitive tribes of America a
+    “boiling-basket,” that is, a wicker jug rendered waterproof, and in
+    which food is cooked as indicated. In Zuñi this basket was known as a
+    “coiled cooking basket,” and the corrugated earthen pot used to this
+    day is called a “coiled earthenware cooking basket.” And the Navajos
+    still call earthenware pots, “kle-it-tsa” or mud-basket. In these
+    terms is seen a clear indication of the origin of pottery among the
+    Amerinds in basketry. Cushing found these boiling-baskets in use a few
+    years <span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>ago among the Havasupai, who live an isolated life in northern
+    Arizona, and I saw similar jugs among the Amerinds of Utah twenty years
+    ago, and some more recently among the Moki, the latter, however, not
+    using them for boiling purposes, and perhaps not being the makers of
+    them. They are bottle-shaped, but with wide mouths, and provided near
+    their rims with a sort of cord or strap for a handle attached to two
+    loops or eyes. In some of the pots derived from this form these loops
+    are represented by little knobs of clay, or by an ornament.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_089-1">
+    <img src="images/i_089-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>NORTH-WEST COAST FEATHER ORNAMENTATION ON BASKETS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_089-2">
+      <img src="images/i_089-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>TINNÉ WORK-BASKET, ⅓</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_089-3">
+      <img src="images/i_089-3.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>MOKI WICKER WATER-JUG, ¼</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_090">
+    <img src="images/i_090.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HAVASUPAI CLAY-LINED ROASTING TRAY</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Cushing describes the Havasupai in Arizona as using a wicker tray lined
+    with clay for the purpose of roasting or parching seeds, and this
+    was probably used by all primitive peoples. The seeds were placed on
+    the clay-lined tray and agitated with live coals. Naturally the clay
+    is hardened by the heat of the coals, and would be sure to suggest
+    the making of utensils from it by means of fire. The turning up of
+    the edges would follow the use of the first trays made of clay, in
+    imitation of wicker bowls, and so would other forms of basketry be
+    imitated, as well as forms in horn, wood or shell. Perhaps the wicker
+    jugs may have been coated with clay on the outside for protection, and
+    eventually the heat not only baked the clay but destroyed the wicker
+    framework that had supported it. Thus jugs of clay may have been made
+    by burning away the framework every time, just as Lamb’s discoverer of
+    roast pig could find no other way of securing his toothsome morsel than
+    that of burning down the house. Or the jar may have been modelled on
+    the inside and then the wicker burned off. When we speak contemptuously
+    of primitive peoples it is well to remember that they were inventors as
+    well as ourselves.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figleft illowp90" id="i_091-1">
+      <img src="images/i_091-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>IROQUOIS BIRCHBARK VESSEL</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figleft illowp95" id="i_091-2">
+      <img src="images/i_091-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>NORTH-WEST COAST BASKET, ⅛</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_092">
+    <img src="images/i_092.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>M<sup>C</sup>CLOUD RIVER BASKET, CALIFORNIA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>When the art of pottery was discovered basketry remained in use, for
+    pottery could not take its place in many uses then any more than it can
+    to-day. The environment and habits of a tribe controlled the amount,
+    the quality, the character, of both basketry and pottery. A tribe
+    possessing plenty of good clay would make more and better pottery than
+    one finding clay difficult to acquire, provided both had reached the
+    same degree of proficiency in this art, but mere abundance of good
+    clay would not necessarily make skilful potters; that is, the degree
+    of progress in culture of a tribe and other factors of environment
+    than the presence or absence of good clay in quantity had much to do
+    with pottery-making. For example, the Pueblos and the Navajos occupy
+    the same kind of a region, or rather the same region, with plenty of
+    clay and a similar abundance of yucca, willows, etc., for basketry,
+    yet the Pueblos carried pottery-making to a high degree of excellence,
+    while the Navajos produced only a limited amount of inferior ware. Nor
+    is this a matter of intelligence, for the Navajos are as intelligent
+    as any Amerinds living, and besides, as has been mentioned, probably
+    have a strong infusion of Pueblo blood. While the Navajos have gone
+    farther in silver- and iron-smithing, they have lagged behind in
+    pottery and house-building. So it is also with basketry. While the
+    Pueblos no longer make boiling-baskets or jugs, or at least, if they
+    do occasionally make them, they do not use them for cooking purposes,
+    yet they produce some fine trays <span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>and bowls.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Inclination and fancy,
+    as well as necessity, have much to do with the development of the
+    arts. Tribes might attain a wonderful development politically, like
+    the Iroquois, and yet possess hardly any proficiency in any art, while
+    others, like the Navajos, with scarcely any political development,
+    possess high artistic skill in weaving and metal-working, but none in
+    pottery. Great in war and government the Iroquois certainly were, but
+    they had not reached the border line of artistic development. Neither
+    weavers, potters, nor builders were they (though Bandelier maintains
+    that their long-house was as difficult of construction as any house
+    the Pueblos build), and, outside of the idea of the league, their
+    government was not much superior to that of the Pueblos. Their pottery,
+    limited in quantity, was very inferior to that of many other Amerinds.
+    It is probable that following the line of race development they would
+    eventually have produced excellent ware, but the iron pot made its
+    appearance and progress in pottery was doomed. On the North-west coast
+    little or no pottery is found. Quality and quantity increase as we
+    approach Yucatan.</p>
+
+  <p>Tribes with unfavourable environment would find it next to impossible
+    to acquire skill in pottery. The Eskimo, with a temperature for the
+    greater part of the year near or below freezing, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>and a scarcity
+    of fuel, would find moulding forms out of wet clay about the last
+    occupation to think of. The Eskimo, therefore, made almost nothing of
+    clay except occasionally a lamp.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> The Kutchins of the Yukon country
+    make pots and cups of clay, but in the main the Far Northern people
+    rely on basketry, soapstone, and on metallic vessels obtained from the
+    whites. Nor is the North land entirely favourable to basketry, yet
+    the Aleut basket-work is exceedingly fine in texture, some of their
+    productions being almost a cloth. This is specially true of baskets
+    made on the island of Attu of the Aleutian chain. These are usually
+    cylindrical, sometimes fitted with a cover of the same material. So
+    soft and pliable are they that they can barely sustain an upright
+    position. This fine texture is a characteristic of all the basketry of
+    the North-west coast, but there is not much variety in form and the
+    artistic shapes so common with the Amerinds southward of the Columbia
+    are absent. The decorations are similar to those of other Amerinds and
+    are woven in with quills, grasses, feathers, bits of silk, or worsteds,
+    appropriately coloured. In the interior of the Northern lands, the
+    Kniks and others make a substitute for baskets out of thin boards
+    steamed and bent around a flat bottom piece which fits into a groove
+    in the board. It is fastened in place with split roots or skin thongs.
+    Among the Eskimo sealskin cups and buckets are used, and some made of
+    whalebone, but they also make a basket out of coiled grasses, which is
+    artistic and has a variety of interesting forms. East of Point Barrow
+    baskets are rare. Birchbark vessels of various kinds were used by many
+    tribes as substitutes for baskets, and doubtless some forms in pottery
+    were derived from these vessels as well as from baskets. Some tribes
+    made pottery and then, as circumstances changed, they abandoned its use
+    and finally forgot how to make it. Dorsey states that “pottery has not
+    been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The art of making it
+    has been forgotten by the tribe.”<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_093-1">
+    <img src="images/i_093-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI FOOD BASKET. ⅕</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="i_093-2">
+    <img src="images/i_093-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KLAMATH BASKET. ⅛</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Various conditions might cause a tribe to cease making pottery, if
+    it were not a sedentary tribe. One constantly on the move would
+    either never learn to make pottery, or if, during some sedentary
+    period, it had acquired this art it would soon drop it, because <span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>in
+    primitive travel basketry and gourds are lighter and more serviceable
+    than the crude pottery they could produce. Thus if a tribe living a
+    comparatively quiet life and developing the potter’s art came into
+    possession of the horse, the pottery might be abandoned because it
+    could not readily be transported. This would apply only to tribes
+    making rude pottery, for where a people had attained great proficiency
+    in this direction they would not give it up, except, as in the case
+    of Taos, they could purchase nearby a sufficient supply. Proficiency
+    would only accompany a sedentary life, so that great skill in pottery
+    would be a rather sure index of the character and progress of a
+    people in other directions. While a people might achieve progress
+    without doing much in pottery, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>if they did excel in pottery it
+    would be an indication of excellence in other lines. Pottery is
+    well-nigh imperishable, and therefore it is often the chief record
+    that a departed people has left behind. Where almost every other
+    distinguishing vestige has completely disappeared, we may frequently
+    still discover scattered on the surface fragments of pottery, or buried
+    in the soil complete specimens, which by their form, texture, or
+    decorative treatment tell what manner of people these were who lived
+    their lives and passed away; tell the limits of their distribution,
+    and also to what other tribes or people they were related. Pottery
+    therefore, next to actual records and inscriptions, is probably the
+    most valuable as well as often the only kind of remains, that a race
+    has left.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_095-1">
+    <img src="images/i_095-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI FOOD TRAY. ⅕</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_095-2">
+    <img src="images/i_095-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI FLOOR MAT. ⅛</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_096-1">
+    <img src="images/i_096-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO WHALEBONE DISH</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_096-2">
+    <img src="images/i_096-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CLALLAM BASKET, WASHINGTON. ⅛</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <div class="col50t">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_097">
+      <img src="images/i_097-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>APACHE BASKET. ⅛</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp70">
+      <img src="images/i_097-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>PAI UTE WATER-JUG. ⅛</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp95">
+      <img src="images/i_097-3.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>MOKI FOOD TRAY. ¼</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp50">
+      <img src="images/i_097-4.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>KLAMATH BASKET. ¼</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="center bold small">AMERIND WICKER-WORK</div>
+
+  <p class="hang small bold">For an excellent review of this subject, see “Basket-work of the
+    North American Aborigines,” by Otis T. Mason, <cite>Report of the
+    U.&nbsp;S. National Museum, Part II of the Report of the Smithsonian
+    Institution for 1884</cite>.</p>
+
+  <p>European pottery has long received close attention from archæologists,
+    but it is only within recent years that it has been thought worth
+    while to study that of the Western continent. Like the other remains
+    of the Amerinds, their pottery was not considered of much importance
+    by archæologists, and while American money and talent were being
+    bestowed upon the well-worked European field, our Amerind pottery was
+    abandoned to the curiosity hunter. The artistic qualities of the Old
+    World pottery fascinated the student, and this, together with a natural
+    deep interest in peoples closely associated with our own past, served
+    to obscure the real value of an investigation of the Amerind field
+    for the information that might be disclosed concerning the character
+    and distribution of Amerind tribes, for its bearing on the history
+    of the ceramic art in general, as well as for its story of primitive
+    effort and invention. Pottery is said to have been invented 2698 years
+    <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> by the Chinese emperor Hoang-ti, but of course it was
+    made by some tribes long before this. Like every other art, it existed
+    among some tribes, while other tribes had no knowledge of it. There was
+    never a time, and there never will be a time, when all people possess
+    an equal degree of information or skill, so that when something has
+    been invented or discovered by one tribe or people it may have been in
+    use for a long period by another. At the beginning of the Columbian
+    era, most of the Amerinds knew how to make some kind of earthenware.
+    Various methods were used in various places to produce the pottery.
+    Some was modelled in baskets or on basket forms, right side up or up
+    side down as happened to be necessary, some was modelled in a hole in
+    the ground, or in the lap, and still other groups were produced by
+    coiling round <span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>and round slender ropes of clay, which were afterwards
+    smoothed off or not as suited the knowledge or desire of the potter.
+    The progression in a general way was probably about this: 1. Made on
+    the inside of a wicker form—confined chiefly to bowls; 2. Made on a
+    netting in a mould hole; 3. Coil-made; 4. Free-hand modelling; 5.
+    Wheel-made, which Amerinds appear never to have attained. There was
+    doubtless no sharp line of separation between these various processes,
+    but they merged into each other. The coil process was about the highest
+    development of the Amerind potter’s skill, and it was in use all over
+    the continent. As Holmes points out in his admirable paper,<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> the
+    Pueblos are the only people who used the coil as a means of decoration
+    as well as construction, so far as now known. All the other potters
+    smoothed the coils off so that no trace eventually was left of them,
+    and this is the practice of the modern Moki potters. They work by no
+    special rule. According to my own observation, the making of pottery
+    is a desultory occupation and is done by the women. Sometimes I saw a
+    woman toiling alone with her ropes of clay, out-of-doors, and again
+    several women would form a gay, laughing party in the sunlight. When
+    the work is dry the painting and decorating are done by means of a
+    little, long, string-like brush made of yucca fibre. This brush is like
+    a piece of coarse twine, about three inches long, without a handle,
+    very limber, and apparently entirely inadequate, yet they easily
+    accomplished all they desired to do with it. In order to turn the work
+    while in process of manufacture, and not injure it or destroy its
+    shape, it is generally built upon a wicker tray. In this way it can be
+    readily swung round and round, as the potter pays out the clay rope and
+    adjusts it in place. This is the nearest approach to the potter’s wheel
+    that seems ever to have been known on the American continent. While
+    many shapes are based on some form in basketry, or wood, or horn, or
+    shell, or bark, a great many are pure inventions, the result of fancy
+    or inclination.</p>
+
+  <p>In preparing the clay, sand or pulverised potsherds were mixed with it
+    to temper it and prevent cracking. This was sometimes so coarse and
+    abundant in the old pottery that in the fragments picked up one can
+    frequently see large grains of sand.</p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_100-1">
+      <img src="images/i_100-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption><span class="xsmall">From photo by the author, 1884</span><br>
+        MODELLING AN OLLA AT HANO<br>
+        The potter was not aware of being photographed</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_100-2">
+      <img src="images/i_100-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>CLAY NUCLEUS</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_100-3">
+      <img src="images/i_100-3.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>METHOD OF BUILDING UP COIL</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>All pottery of primitive races belongs to the class known as
+    <em>soft</em> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>pottery, as distinguished from what we call stoneware
+    or <em>hard</em> pottery in its different forms. The Amerinds were no
+    exception, and all their pottery is soft unglazed ware.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> The reason
+    for this lies in the fact that the making of hard pottery requires not
+    only an extensive knowledge of the properties of clay, but, what is
+    more, a temperature for firing of about 4000° Fahrenheit,—a temperature
+    which can be obtained only in a furnace or retort, of which Amerinds
+    were apparently ignorant, their pottery being burned, in historic and
+    prehistoric times, in the open air. The common modern method among the
+    Pueblos is to burn with sheep dung, but they are said to have used in
+    ancient times deadwood, common wood, and coal. The method was usually
+    the same in all cases; the ware was piled up and then covered with the
+    fuel in such a manner that there would be as little as possible direct
+    contact. They also sometimes baked the ware in hot ashes with a fire
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>above, and sometimes they dug a pit which they lined with the fuel.
+    A rich shiny black ware was obtained in some localities by allowing
+    the ware to come in contact with the fuel and, at a certain period
+    in the burning, smothering the fire. This produced an apparent glaze
+    as well, an effect obtained also by rubbing and polishing before the
+    firing. But there is no true glazing in any Amerind ware, at least
+    not north of Mexico. Even had they known the process they would have
+    been baffled in attempting to put it in practice, for glazing requires
+    a temperature of at least 1300° Fahrenheit, and they apparently had
+    no means of securing it.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> All of their ware can be scratched with
+    a knife, which is a test of soft ware, and while some of it seems to
+    have lustre, it is the lustre of polish, not of glaze. Some ware,
+    however, recently found in the Central-American region appears to have
+    a true glaze. Some tribes make a variety of kinds of ware, while others
+    confine themselves to some special kind, and still others, as mentioned
+    in the case of Taos, buy all they use and make none. The Pueblos
+    to-day are extensive potters, especially the Zuñis and the Mokis, and
+    produce large quantities of varied ware, which, while similar in many
+    respects to that of the ancients of the region, is not so fine nor so
+    well formed. At the Chaco ruins Pepper found a number of tube-shaped
+    vases, about four inches diameter and a foot high, with four small
+    perforated handles. In the course of time enormous quantities must have
+    been made in the South-west, for the ground is everywhere strewn with
+    fragments of it. This would indicate either a dense population or a
+    very long occupation by a comparatively sparse one, and thus far the
+    evidence is in favour of the latter hypothesis. In such a dry climate
+    as exists in the South-west, even soft pottery is almost indestructible
+    when not exposed to river or ice action. In such cases it would soon
+    be destroyed. Though the Colorado River runs through the length of the
+    ancient Pueblo country, and receives many branches whose valleys, like
+    its own, reveal myriads of fragments, I never found a specimen in the
+    river gravels. If this is the case, how could we expect to find remains
+    of pottery in glacial drift?</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_102-1">
+    <img src="images/i_102-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>WARE FROM MOKI REGION, ARIZONA. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Another kind of pottery has lately been found by Lumholtz at
+    Teuchitlan, State of Jalisco, Mexico. It is a sort of cloisonné,
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>apparently made by firing the plain ware and then applying a thick
+    slip which, when dry, was engraved with a pattern down to the baked
+    surface. The parts cut away were then smoothly filled in with a white
+    paste and with paste of other colours, producing some excellent
+    effects. Another firing then fixed the superimposed paste.</p>
+
+  <p>There are numerous specimens in the American Museum.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_102-2">
+    <img src="images/i_102-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>WARE FROM MOKI REGION, ARIZONA. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp64" id="i_103-1">
+    <img src="images/i_103-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CUP FROM ARIZONA. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_103-2">
+    <img src="images/i_103-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>VASE FROM ARKANSAS, SHOWING LINES MADE WITH A SHARP POINT BEFORE FIRING. ⅓</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The valley of the Mississippi is as prolific in its yield of pottery
+    as the South-west, though most of it is found in mounds. It has
+    therefore been attributed to a departed and mysterious race which has
+    been called “Moundbuilder.” <span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>These mounds, however, were clearly the
+    work of different tribes and were erected for different purposes, and
+    there is no evidence to show that the builders were not Amerinds,
+    similar to tribes that were encountered by our people. True, some of
+    these tribes or stocks may have become extinct before whites entered
+    the region, for tribes rose to power, dwindled, and disappeared, but
+    that does not prove that they were anything but Amerinds, even though
+    they may have developed qualities and arts not practised by Amerinds
+    we have known. That there are some marked differences between some
+    of the so-called Moundbuilder ware and some other Amerind pottery
+    is freely admitted, but why this should indicate that there was any
+    mystery about the former is not intelligible, for there are many
+    differences in the products of existing tribes and stocks.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> As has
+    been mentioned, the Pueblos are <span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>extremely good potters, while their
+    neighbours the Navajos practically are no potters at all. Had the
+    Pueblos become extinct before the appearance of the European, what a
+    fine chance this would have been to speculate on who these mysterious
+    and departed people were who built superior houses of stone and made
+    splendid pottery! Oh no, they could never have been common “Indians,”
+    they must have been a migration from China, or Japan! Unfortunately for
+    writers of the romantic school, the Pueblo is still there, and he is an
+    ordinary Amerind, in some ways hardly as intelligent as his neighbour
+    who makes no pottery and builds no houses. There is no reason, then,
+    for assuming that there was anything extraordinary about any of the
+    former occupants of the Mississippi valley. They were, at least some of
+    them were, skilful potters, and some had sense enough to dig out copper
+    and hammer it into shapes; but what is there in this that should lead
+    us to exalt them above other Amerinds? Progress in the arts may vary
+    among associated stocks, and also among different branches of the same
+    stock. In the Mississippi-valley pottery there was a tendency toward
+    upright bottle-shaped vessels with long necks, while the tendency of
+    the Pueblo ware is in the direction of the bowl. There are also long
+    tray-like vessels in the Mississippi valley, which do not occur at all
+    amongst the Pueblo ware, and there are more animal shapes, birds, etc.
+    A series of the Mississippi-valley forms suggests a knowledge of the
+    wheel, but it is not likely that they had it, though it is possible.
+    Anyone who has watched the progress of a common jug turning on one
+    of our potter’s wheels, must be struck by the series of fine shapes
+    the lump of clay passes through before assuming its last form. Such
+    a progression appears in the Mississippi valley ware, but these jars
+    were all probably made by the “coil” process, which was still in use in
+    the Mississippi valley after the advent of our people. Holmes states
+    positively: “The wheel or lathe has not been used.”<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> The pottery
+    of Chiriqui, a province near Panama, is remarkable for perfection of
+    finish and execution and a similar suggestion of mechanical aids. In
+    this case Holmes says: “Notwithstanding the fact that only primitive
+    methods were known, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>The high-necked Moundbuilder bottle is rarely
+    found in other parts of the United States, but it occurs in Mexico and
+    in South America. Ladles, common in Pueblo ware, are of rare occurrence
+    in that of the Moundbuilders, while rectangular box-like vessels are
+    found, which, though rare, are of wide distribution. One remarkable
+    object found in Tennessee is an earthenware burial casket formed of two
+    parts, a body and a lid, and it still bears marks of the baking. It
+    contains the remains of a small child, reduced to dust, except portions
+    of the skull and limbs; and two or three dozen small shell beads. It
+    weighs altogether 12¼ pounds. Another peculiar vessel was shaped like a
+    shallow trough, with a flat lip or projection at each end. While there
+    was undoubtedly in all tribes a certain progression of forms based on
+    those of basketry, etc., as before noted, it must not be forgotten that
+    there is a parallelism with wheel-made ware that cannot but strike the
+    student with amazement. So great is the symmetry and so graceful are
+    the shapes that one is led to suspect the employment of mechanical
+    devices of a high order.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp70" id="i_105">
+    <img src="images/i_105.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>BOTTLE-SHAPED VASE, ARKANSAS. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span></p>
+
+  <p>The high-necked Moundbuilder bottle is rarely found in other parts
+    of the United States, but it occurs in Mexico and in South America.
+    Ladles, common in Pueblo ware, are of rare occurrence in that of the
+    Moundbuilders, while rectangular box-like vessels are found, which,
+    though rare, are of wide distribution. One remarkable object found
+    in Tennessee is an earthenware burial casket formed of two parts, a
+    body and a lid, and it still bears marks of the baking. It contains
+    the remains of a small child, reduced to dust, except portions of the
+    skull and limbs; and two or three dozen small shell beads. It weighs
+    altogether 12¼ pounds. Another peculiar vessel was shaped like a
+    shallow trough, with a flat lip or projection at each end. While there
+    was undoubtedly in all tribes a certain progression of forms based on
+    those of basketry, etc., as before noted, it must not be forgotten that
+    the Amerind, like all other human beings, did some things from pure
+    inspiration or invention and with no previous model of any kind.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp76" id="i_106">
+    <img src="images/i_106.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>  EARTHEN WARE BURIAL CASKET, TENNESSEE. ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Mississippi valley, according to Holmes, may be divided into three
+    districts as far as the pottery is concerned: the upper, the middle,
+    and the lower districts. This would seem to indicate as many different
+    tribes or stocks, or even different periods of occupancy by either the
+    same stock or by different stocks. The most northerly examples are
+    the rudest and most different from the others. Some of the pottery
+    that is advanced as showing a skill in sculpture not possessed by
+    Amerinds of the North can be explained in another way than by assuming
+    that the makers were different from other Amerinds of the Mississippi
+    valley as we have known them. As I pointed out elsewhere,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> these
+    head-shaped vases are death-masks.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> It does not require a second
+    look at the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>illustration below to see that the features are those of
+    death reproduced in a manner that no aboriginal potter could possibly
+    accomplish by free-hand method. “Here we look on a face perfect in its
+    proportions, accurately modelled, and, above all, depicting death with
+    a master-hand; yes, more, presenting to the spectator death itself as
+    it seized this personage in the long-forgotten past. Here is death
+    present with us as plainly as it is in the well-preserved features of
+    an Egyptian mummy.... Soft clay was pressed upon the dead features, and
+    when sufficiently dry it was removed and other soft clay thinly pressed
+    into the mould obtained. The mask thus made was built upon till the
+    jar before us was completed.... The interior of the wall follows the
+    exterior closely except in projecting features. The potter, finding
+    it difficult as well as unnecessary, to work the clay evenly into the
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>projections of the mould, filled them up more or less solidly.” This
+    vase is five inches in height and five inches wide from ear to ear.
+    It is open at the top, and has a perforated knob over the middle of
+    the forehead, perhaps for attaching a head-dress, and the ears are
+    perforated. These holes also would permit cords to be attached, by
+    which the jar could be hung, probably in a dead-house where the body of
+    the deceased original was laid. It has been stated that the features
+    exhibited in this vase are not “Indian,” but there seems to be no
+    ground for such a statement. The features are apparently those of an
+    Amerind boy fourteen or sixteen years of age.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_107">
+    <img src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DEATH-MASK VASE, TENNESSEE. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp50" id="i_109-1">
+    <img src="images/i_109-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>FLUTED VASE, ARKANSAS. ⅓</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp50" id="i_109-2">
+    <img src="images/i_109-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>IMPRESSION OF PARTS OF BASKET MOULD ON POTTERY</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Of the basketry of the Mississippi valley there are, of course, no
+    ancient specimens. Wicker-work would not last long in that climate;
+    but there must have been baskets and plaited implements of various
+    kinds, because people do not make pottery without passing through the
+    basketry stage. The Amerinds of that region also made good baskets when
+    first met with, and we know that they did some fairly good weaving both
+    in ancient and modern times. Some of the ancient fabrics have been
+    preserved in the mounds by contact with copper, by being charred, and
+    in other ways, and the ingenuity of Holmes has given us fac-similes of
+    some of the old netting.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> He noticed curious markings on certain
+    fragments of pottery, and took clay casts of them, thus producing
+    positive from negative, and revealing the fact that the peculiar
+    markings were the impressions of fabrics. He believes these fabrics
+    were impressed on the ware for purposes of ornament, and while this may
+    in some instances have been the reason, in my opinion, the chief object
+    of the netting that made the impression was to lift the freshly made
+    jar out of a hole or a wicker form where it had been modelled. Very
+    early pottery was doubtless built on or in wicker-work—that is, early
+    in the practice of any particular tribe. This was specially the case
+    with the Amerinds of the Atlantic coast, as is plainly indicated in the
+    casts made by Holmes from fragments of pottery from that region. “The
+    earlier potters probably used baskets that came up to the curved-in
+    part of the jar, which was continued above the basket by deft handling,
+    or, if a basket of the same form was followed, the basket was destroyed
+    in the firing process. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>This would seem to the modern mind a great
+    waste of time and material, but it must be remembered that the Indian
+    potter had not learned modern haste, and besides could turn up a coarse
+    basket in a very short time. Therefore it does not seem improbable that
+    he may, in the early stages, have modelled his jar on the <em>inside</em>
+    of a basket frame of similar form and then allowed the basket to be
+    consumed in the baking process when it could not be separated from the
+    vessel. Even when he developed to a point beyond and modelled the upper
+    portions with a free hand, he would find great trouble in separating
+    his jar from its framework. What, therefore, would be the following
+    step? It seems to me it would have been the placing between the clay
+    and the mould of a piece of netting, which would permit him to lift
+    out his jar easily and intact, and transport it to the drying place.
+    He would then speedily discover that his basket was not necessary—was
+    not so serviceable, in fact, as a hole in the ground, for the sides of
+    the hole could be plastered with a layer of very sandy clay, and thus
+    would all sticking of the vessel to its mould be avoided. The netting,
+    or fabric, having been spread as evenly as possible over the inside
+    surface of the mould hole, the upper edges were allowed to lie out upon
+    the ground. The soft clay being now pressed evenly upon the fabric to
+    the required thickness, the sandy surface of the mould hole easily gave
+    it shape, and gave the potter no anxiety about the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>outside surface.
+    Indeed, he had but one surface to watch till he came to the in-curve,
+    if his vessel was to have a narrow mouth. Then, I surmise, he built
+    up roughly a clay mould, well sanded, pressing what was left of his
+    fabric into the inside of this mould as he built his vessel upward.
+    Frequently, doubtless, the fabric was not sufficient to go to the
+    top, which explains why sometimes only a part of a jar shows the cord
+    markings.... The distorting and overlapping of the meshes observed by
+    Holmes were probably due to the gathering in to fit the interior of the
+    mould, for it must be borne in mind that the fabric was not shaped in
+    any way to fit the mould, but was doubtless a fragment of some squarely
+    woven article. Thus gathering and overlapping were necessary to make it
+    conform to the inside surface of the mould....”</p>
+
+  <p>“When coarse basketry was used for a mould that was intended to
+    be removed before firing, the interstices of the basket work were
+    probably rubbed full of a mixture of sand and clay to prevent the
+    finished vessel from sticking or catching, which explains, I think,
+    the peculiarity of design in some cases, for only the more prominent
+    features of the basket work would impress the vessel.... In some kinds
+    of basketry more filling was necessary than in others, which explains
+    the frequent greater separation and irregularity of the markings.”<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+  <p>It seems, then, that the pottery of the Atlantic region was very rude
+    and was modelled chiefly on wicker moulds, and was not abundant<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>;
+    that the lower Mississippi valley and the South-west were the
+    regions within the United States where pottery attained its highest
+    development; that as one proceeds northward pottery diminishes in
+    quantity and in quality till it disappears; and that in a southerly
+    direction it increases in abundance and in excellence of manufacture
+    and artistic design. The pottery area is fan-shaped, with Central
+    America for a handle. This would all appear to indicate that the
+    pottery wave rolled up from the Far South, and that the Moundbuilders
+    and the Pueblos acquired their art from that direction, or brought
+    it north as they came on the retreat of the cold. Attempts have been
+    made to connect the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span>Pueblos with the Moundbuilders, and both with the
+    Aztecs, but there is no good evidence now known which substantiates
+    any such claim. Even if they did come from the South, it does not
+    make a mystery nor does it necessarily prove any direct relationship
+    between these branches of the Amerind race. Those nearest the great
+    culture centre acquired most culture, hence the farther north the less
+    pottery. The homogeneity of the Amerinds was due to causes operating
+    on this continent at a very early period, and the same causes may
+    explain why the Moundbuilder, the Pueblo, and the Southern stocks were
+    good potters, while the Algonquins, the Dakotas, the Athapascans, and
+    other Northern stocks were so inferior in this respect, while not being
+    inferior in others.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp86" id="i_111">
+    <img src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>VASE FROM CHIRIQUI. ⅓. DECORATED IN BLACK, RED, AND PURPLE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Aztecs, Zapotecs, Mayas, and other people of the Mexican <span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>region
+    were expert potters; and it was in this region that working in clay,
+    like everything else, was carried to the highest degree of perfection
+    on this continent, and where evidence is found of seemingly true glaze.
+    Not only ordinary pottery of beautiful shapes and excellent texture
+    was made, but large funeral vases of elaborate form, terra-cotta
+    water-pipes, and terra-cotta figures, some of them of almost or
+    quite life size. Saville recently found some of these funeral jars
+    and terra-cotta figures in the Zapotec country, south of the city of
+    Mexico, in the province of Oaxaca, and there are specimens in the
+    Museum of Natural History in New York. The principal terra-cotta figure
+    he found is thus described by Saville<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>: “Another trench was started
+    at the eastern side of this mound, and after working down to the level
+    of the surrounding fields near the centre of the mound just back of the
+    tomb, there were found the scattered fragments of what will be, when
+    restored, the largest specimen of terra cotta ever found in America,
+    and I do not know of so large a specimen ever having been found
+    elsewhere. It represented a warrior, and the different pieces of the
+    figure were scattered over a space of about fifteen feet. The central
+    fragment was the head, upper torso, and right arm, lying face upward;
+    the open mouth revealed the teeth painted white and filed, as in the
+    case of the funeral urns. The eyes were well modelled and painted white
+    and red; the head was covered with a turban of feathers, somewhat
+    resembling the head-dress of Chac Mol, found by Dr. Le Plongeon in
+    Yucatan. A closely cropped beard covered the lower portion of the face,
+    the upper part being pitted as though marked by smallpox. The ears had
+    curious circular ornaments pendent by a string passed through holes
+    pierced in the lobes. The nose was ornamented with a long cylindrical
+    bead attached by a string fastened at the top and bottom through
+    the septum. The breast was painted red and white and additionally
+    ornamented with curious designs made by circular indentations. The
+    legs, which lay quite separated from the body, were bare, and the feet
+    were covered with sandals having beautiful heel-pieces. Around each
+    ankle was a line of bells. Both the toe- and the finger-nails were
+    painted white; the right arm, bent at an angle, grasped a pole or staff
+    of which about a foot remained. These fragments are now in the Museo
+    Nacional, City of Mexico. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>The entire length of the figure, according
+    to measurements made of the detached pieces, was nearly, if not quite,
+    six feet.”</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_113">
+    <img src="images/i_113.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>AN ANCIENT FIGURE OF TERRA COTTA FROM THE VALLEY OF MEXICO<br>
+      The height of this figure is 150.9 cm. Breadth of shoulders, 46.0 cm.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_114">
+    <img src="images/i_114.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>COIL INDENTED FOR DECORATION</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The specimen now in the New York Museum, <a href="#i_113">page 113</a>, is about five feet
+    in height, and while, artistically, it is crude, it exhibits great
+    skill in the potter’s art. The walls are thin and it must have taken
+    much labour to build the figure and successfully file it. It is in
+    three parts. There are also in the Museum several of the funeral urns
+    found in this locality. They are about fifteen or twenty inches high
+    and skilfully made. These urns were found “in series of five in front
+    of tombs, on the roof, or fastened into the façade.” They are usually
+    of grotesque design like most of the Amerind figures, and evidently
+    represent personages arrayed in the regalia of certain orders or
+    societies, or possibly the same personage in his various offices, or
+    attended by representations of other officers of some society to which
+    he belonged. Saville says of one group: “Resting directly on the cement
+    floor at the centre of the mound were five large funeral urns, page
+    115, representing seated figures, placed in a row facing west. The
+    urn in the centre has a remarkably well-modelled face, undoubtedly a
+    portrait of some <span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>ancient Zapotecan personage. The two on either side
+    are of the same general size and character, with the exception of the
+    face, which is covered with a mask in the form of a grotesque face,
+    possibly the conventionalised serpent, as the bifurcated tongue is
+    one of the most prominent characteristics.”<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> These are some of the
+    most important terra-cotta productions ever found on this continent.
+    Some terra-cotta tubing also found at this place is unique. Saville
+    says: “No such terra-cotta tubing has ever been discovered elsewhere
+    in Mexico, and a new problem is therefore presented.” One end of this
+    tubing was three feet below the surface <span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>in a field, while the other
+    was in the mound excavated. “It was laid in short sections, of varying
+    length, one end being smaller than the other, the small end of one
+    tube being fitted into the large end of the next, <a href="#i_117">page 117</a>. Several
+    of the joints still preserved the cement with which they were made
+    tight. The exploration did not reveal the use of the pipe.” The fact,
+    however, that the tubes were so carefully fitted into each other with,
+    apparently, the joinings all on the down slope, that is, connected
+    in such a way that water would flow continuously without waste, and
+    that the joints were made tight with cement, is good evidence that
+    these <span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>pipes were laid for conducting water. It seems probable that
+    this tubing was a part of some water-supply or irrigating scheme,
+    which had been abandoned before the mound covering a part of it was
+    constructed. As the valley where these interesting finds were made, as
+    well as neighbouring valleys, contain many more mounds, it is probable
+    that the future exploration of them will produce much more material
+    of value. If the terra-cotta tubing had a mythological significance
+    it will be found in other mounds, and if it belonged to an irrigating
+    scheme, or water-works, it will be explained by other finds. Effigy
+    jars were not confined to Mexico, for they are found in various parts
+    of the United States, especially in Tennessee, but they are nowhere
+    anything like those described from the Zapotec country. The Tennessee
+    specimens artistically and mechanically are exceedingly crude, as are
+    all attempts to delineate the human figure by the northerly Amerinds.
+    Some of the most elaborate and at the same time artistic forms in
+    Amerind pottery are found in Chiriqui,<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> a province just below
+    Costa Rica. The old occupants of this region seem to have excelled in
+    metal-working, stone-carving, and pottery, and probably in other arts
+    the products of which are of a more destructible nature. As the line of
+    demarkation between the North- and South-American cultures runs along
+    the southern side of Nicaragua, practically on the line of the proposed
+    Nicaragua Canal, the consideration of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>Chiriqui products should
+    belong perhaps with the South-American division, but being above the
+    isthmus, they may be mentioned here for the sake of comparison. “The
+    casual observer,” says Holmes, “would at once arrive at the conclusion
+    that the wheel or moulds had been used, but it is impossible to detect
+    the use of any such appliances.” And further: “On the exposed surfaces
+    of certain groups of ware the polish is in many cases so perfect that
+    casual observers and inexperienced persons take it for a glaze.”<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>
+    There was extraordinary variety in this ware. There are whistles,
+    drums, rattles, round vases with necks and without necks; vases of
+    simple and vases of complex form; vases and jars with elaborate
+    handles; vases with annular bases or feet; and vases with short or
+    long legs, three in number generally. This field is so rich that it is
+    practicable to give here only a suggestion of what it affords, and the
+    reader is referred to the admirable paper by Holmes.<a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_115">
+    <img src="images/i_115.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ZAPOTECAN TERRA-COTTA FUNERAL URNS FOUND ON CEMENT FLOOR IN FRONT OF TOMB 1, MOUND 7, XOXO, OAXACA, MEXICO<br>
+      From the <cite>American Anthropologist</cite></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_116">
+    <img src="images/i_116.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>POT SHOWING DIAGONAL GROOVES ACROSS THE LINES OF THE COIL MADE BY THE
+      HAND IN SMOOTHING UP. ⅓. MANCOS CANYON, COLORADO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_117">
+    <img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ZAPOTECAN TERRA-COTTA TUBING FOUND LEADING DOWN INTO A FIELD FROM THE CENTRE OF MOUND 7, XOXO, OAXACA, MEXICO<br>
+      From the <cite>American Anthropologist</cite></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_118">
+    <img src="images/i_118.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PUEBLO POT. PATTERN PRODUCED BY OBLITERATING PINCH MARKS. ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp60" id="i_119">
+    <img src="images/i_119.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PINCH-MARKED COIL</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp66" id="i_120">
+    <img src="images/i_120.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ENGRAVED WARE, ARKANSAS. ⅓</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the matter of decoration there is found a general similarity of
+    methods in the different regions. Apparently the first decorations
+    were the unavoidable result of methods of manufacture, whether moulded
+    or coil-made. In the first instance the meshes of the wicker mould,
+    or such part of them as could not easily be covered up with a sandy
+    paste to prevent adhesion, impressed themselves upon the soft clay;
+    or the fabric that was employed to remove the work from a mould made
+    impressions upon the ware. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>If coil-made, the pinching of the clay rope
+    into position left marks of the finger-tips and the finger-nails with
+    a regularity that doubtless came to be admired and then modified to
+    conform to fancy, and finally finger markings and other markings and
+    indentations grew, especially in our South-west, into a regular system
+    of decoration. The irregularity due to pinching the rope in place is
+    less with the expert than it was with the primitive potters, and it
+    is now smoothed off entirely with a “rib,” the left hand being placed
+    opposite the pressure applied with the right.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> In the earlier forms
+    the fingers of the right hand held stiffly downward seem to have been
+    used to even up the irregularity of the coils to some extent, as may be
+    discerned in figure <a href="#Page_116">page 116</a>, where there are diagonal grooves across
+    the lines of the coil, evidently made, the left hand being inside the
+    jar, by drawing the fingers of the right, or rather the forefinger
+    braced against the others, diagonally upward upon the outer surface.
+    The operation would be almost identical with the modern practice except
+    that the fingers were used instead of a “rib.” Indentations were also
+    made with a sharp instrument <span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>in a pattern, and another method seems
+    to have been to smooth off all the pinch marks, except in certain
+    areas that when left would form a pattern. Thus in the latter case the
+    pattern was produced by a system of obliteration. In figure on page
+    118, a vase from the Moki country, of the ancient Pueblo manufacture,
+    shows this method of making a pattern by smoothing down pinch marks.
+    To do this the pinch marks would intentionally be made with some
+    regularity.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_121">
+    <img src="images/i_121.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ENGRAVED WARE, ARKANSAS. ¾</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="i_122">
+    <img src="images/i_122.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>BLACK CUP, CHIRIQUI. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Another method of ornamentation was that of scratching or engraving
+    the ware after it had been fired. This is seen in figures on pages
+    <a href="#i_120">120</a> and <a href="#i_121">121</a>, from Arkansas. Still another method of ornamentation was
+    produced after the ware was smoothed to its finish, whether coil-made
+    or not, by drawing on it with a point. An example of this is seen on
+    <a href="#i_103-1">page 103</a>, also from Arkansas. The method that was most employed by the
+    ancient Amerinds, and is used by those of to-day, as well as by most
+    potters the world round, is colour. A slip or wash of fine clay was
+    given to the ware, and polished and decorated in colours before firing.
+    In this way many beautiful results were obtained in all the regions of
+    North America. Almost every colour was used, but white, black, red,
+    and yellow are most common. These pigments were laid on in a single
+    wash, or were applied in more or less elaborate patterns. The Pueblos,
+    ancient and modern, have produced an astonishing variety of designs,
+    and the same may be said of the Mexicans, Mayas, Zapotecs, Chiriquis,
+    and other stocks of the South. A large volume could barely do justice
+    to this subject, but enough has been given here to show the nature,
+    distribution, and trend of pottery making by the Amerindian Tribes.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_VI">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_123">
+      <img src="images/i_123.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>WOVEN MOCCASIN FROM KENTUCKY CAVE</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">WEAVING AND COSTUME</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THE first article of dress of primitive people was not a woven stuff,
+    but nevertheless weaving, like pottery, begins in plaiting and
+    basketry, and is an ancient art. The first clothing, a necessity of
+    climate, was made of skins of animals where they could be obtained, and
+    where they could not primitive man walked in a state of nature. His
+    desire for clothing was one purely of comfort; modesty, as we define
+    it, was unknown. Modesty, so far as it relates to concealment of the
+    body, is the child of climate and fashion. A Breton peasant girl does
+    not mind if her legs are seen, but she is shocked if caught with her
+    hair down or without her cap; one of our own ladies thinks nothing of
+    exhibiting her bare shoulders and bosom at the opera under gaslight,
+    but she would not do it in daylight. On the beach it would also be
+    improper, but there she is not troubled if her lower extremities are
+    seen. In some of the milder climates to-day clothing is scanty, while
+    with the Eskimo in the Far North it is composed of warm furs. Cold was
+    responsible for the first clothing, and is to-day responsible for a
+    good deal of it. The idea of utilising feathers and broad leaves as
+    well as skins would soon occur to a people, especially if they found it
+    difficult to secure the skins, and with these some kind of a string was
+    necessary to hold them together, and if no sinew or thong was at hand
+    the want would be supplied by twisted <span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>grass or bark, and this twisted
+    grass or bark then came itself to be combined in the form of mats for
+    sleeping on or covering sticks to produce a shelter. This was plaiting,
+    and it is the first step to basketry and weaving. Many of the simpler
+    arts are native in the brain of man, and the expression of them at the
+    proper time is as easy and natural as it is for a birdling to fly, a
+    kitten to catch a mouse, or a baby to walk for the first time. It is,
+    like sight, or thought, or articulate speech, a direct and unconscious
+    result of the innate composition of mankind. It is impossible to tell
+    why a spider builds a web of even proportions instead of one that
+    is irregular, or when it acquired the skill to perform its feat of
+    engineering, or why it builds a web at all, and does not, like a cat
+    and some species of spiders, rely on springing upon its prey. The
+    spider does this the world round because it is a spider, and because
+    its prey also has, the world round, its own habits. So with man.
+    Everywhere he learned to plait mats, make wicker-work and pottery, and
+    a thousand other things simply because he was everywhere <em>the same
+      man</em>. If you examine articles of primitive manufacture from various
+    parts of the globe, you will find them all practically alike, because
+    the men who made them were practically alike and their wants and
+    surroundings were practically alike. They plaited together strips of
+    bark or twisted grasses, or rushes, because they had to have them, and
+    they went on finding out the properties of the materials that compose
+    the world just as they are doing to-day, till they made cloth and made
+    it on a machine. Primitive fabrics were everywhere about the same,
+    and when the loom was invented it was and is, where still used in its
+    primitive form, very much the same. That in use to-day by the Navajos
+    is much like that used by the Orientals. The Navajos are probably not
+    the inventors of it, but borrowed the idea from the Pueblos, or at
+    least derived it through a mixture of Pueblo blood. Their cousins, the
+    Apaches, do not weave, and they are probably better representatives of
+    the original Athapascan stock than the Navajos.</p>
+
+  <p>The Mexican loom was similar to that of the Navajos, and it is probable
+    that some of the tribes of the Mississippi valley were acquainted with
+    one built on a like pattern. The product of these primitive looms was
+    also much alike in its character; some of the Oriental rugs that we see
+    now strongly resemble the blankets of the Mexicans or Navajos.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_125">
+    <img src="images/i_125.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MENOMINEE BEADED GARTERS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span></p>
+
+  <p>This is because weaving is a simple art; and until the invention of the
+    Jacquard principle complex patterns were produced only by great labour,
+    as all the different colours had to be adjusted by hand, which is still
+    the case in many fine products like the Turkish rugs or the shawls of
+    Cashmere.</p>
+
+  <p>The primitive products of the loom were square in shape, and when used
+    as garments they were not cut to a pattern or altered, but were worn
+    as they came from the loom. To make a dress, it was only necessary to
+    fasten two of these mats or blankets together, just as the Moki women
+    do now. This combination was then slipped over the head, with one
+    corner on the right shoulder and one under the left, and a belt around
+    the waist. This was the costume complete. There was no fitting the
+    fabric to the body.</p>
+
+  <p>Thread, cord, twine, and rope were made by the Menominees chiefly
+    out of the “inner bark of the young sprouts of basswood. The bark is
+    removed in sheets and boiled in water to which a large quantity of lye
+    from wood ashes has been added. This softens the fibre and permits
+    the worker to manipulate it without breaking. The shoulder-blade of
+    a deer or other large animal is then nailed or otherwise fastened
+    to an upright post, and through it a hole about an inch in diameter
+    is drilled; through this hole bunches of the boiled bark are pulled
+    backward and forward, from right to left, to remove from it all
+    splinters or other hard fragments. After the fibre has become soft and
+    pliable, bunches of it are hung up in hanks, to be twisted as desired.
+    The manner of making cord or twine, such as is used in weaving mats and
+    for almost all household purposes, is by holding in the left hand the
+    fibre as it is pulled from the hank, and separating it into two parts,
+    which are laid across the thigh. The palm of the right hand is then
+    rolled forward over both so as to tightly twist the pair of strands,
+    when they are permitted to unite and twist into a cord. The twisted
+    end being pushed a little to the right, the next continuous portions
+    of the united strands also are twisted to form a single cord. The same
+    process is followed in all fibre-twisting, even to the finest nettle
+    thread.”<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> In the matter of thread some fine results were obtained
+    by various Amerinds. Holmes says: “The finest threads with which I
+    am acquainted are perhaps not as fine as our number ten ordinary
+    spool-cotton thread, but we are not justified <span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>in assuming that more
+    refined work was not done.”<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Sage-brush, yucca, and other plants
+    were used for making thread and cord.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_127">
+    <img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>NAVAJO WOMAN AT THE LOOM</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In order to weave, it is first necessary to reduce your fibre, or
+    wool, or cotton, to more or less even threads or yarn. The Amerind
+    way of doing this was the same, practically, wherever spinning and
+    weaving were attempted, from Central America northward. The spindle is
+    a round, slender, pointed stick, a foot to about fifteen inches long,
+    put through a disc, generally of flat, hard wood, four to six inches in
+    diameter, which acts as a flywheel to keep up the momentum. It is the
+    simplest form of top. The operator holds the wool or cotton, previously
+    prepared, in his or her lap, and attaching one end of it to the top
+    arm of the spindle, above the disc, gives the spindle a twirl, either
+    by the thumb and forefinger or by a dexterous sweep of the palm of the
+    hand along the thigh. The fibre, or wool, that was attached to the arm
+    of it winds round till it reaches the tip, where it clings and takes
+    on the rotary motion of the stick to which it is fast, being twisted
+    thereby into yarn. It continues to spin with the spindle for some
+    seconds, about fifteen or twenty, and when the momentum slackens below
+    the necessary speed, the yarn thus far made is wound on the spindle
+    and it is started afresh, with more wool paid out to the twisting. The
+    operation is repeated over and over till the spindle is full, and it
+    is surprising to see how rapidly it can be done. I have only seen this
+    performed amongst the Moki, but the descriptions from other places
+    show it to be done in about the same way everywhere. In the Mexican
+    region the spindle-discs were made of pottery. In Nicaragua both wood
+    and terra cotta were employed, and it is likely that wood was also
+    used by some part of the people in Mexico and other places where the
+    terra-cotta discs are now found.</p>
+
+  <p>Weaving was not confined to the Pueblo and Mexican country when the
+    whites first came to the continent, but was in vogue amongst many
+    different tribes, who used various substances in the manufacture of
+    rugs and blankets. Cotton amongst Southern and South-western tribes
+    was a favourite material, and in other places hemp, and the hair of
+    animals, and birds’ feathers were used. The Kwakiutls of the North-west
+    coast “made blankets of mountain-goat wool, dog’s hair, feathers, or a
+    mixture of both.”<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> And the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>tribes of Puget Sound and the Straits
+    of Fuca “attained considerable skill in manufacturing a species of
+    blanket from a mixture of the wool of the mountain sheep and the hair
+    of a particular kind of dog, though in this art they never equalled
+    the more northern tribes.”<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> It is extremely probable that some
+    of the Pueblos, before the introduction of the sheep of Europe, used
+    the hair or wool of a mountain sheep or goat for weaving, and it is
+    possible that they had to some extent domesticated that animal or some
+    similar one; at least they may have kept it imprisoned for its wool in
+    much the same way that they now keep eagles for their feathers. Fray
+    Marcos relates that one of the natives he met with in 1540 told him
+    that the people of Totonteac made cloth, much like the garment he had
+    on, from the hair of certain small animals. These animals have usually
+    been supposed to have been dogs, but as the Northern Amerinds used
+    mountain-goat’s wool, it is possible that the Pueblos, who were in
+    advance of them in all that pertains to weaving, had not only succeeded
+    in weaving such hair or wool garments, but had conceived the idea of
+    holding the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>animals in captivity. It has been supposed by some that
+    they had an animal of the vicuna kind. Terra-cotta images have been
+    found in the Salado ruins of Arizona that are difficult to identify,
+    and are believed by some zoölogists who have seen them to represent “a
+    creature allied to the South-American Camellidæ.”<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_129">
+    <img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PART OF THE SOMAÍKOLI CEREMONY AT CICHUMOVI, NOVEMBER, 1884, SHOWING A SACRED BLANKET ON FIGURE IN FOREGROUND</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>“It has been surmised that such animals continued to be domesticated
+    by the sedentary Indians of Arizona and New Mexico down to historic
+    days and became extinct only when the more serviceable European sheep
+    was introduced by the Spaniards.... Fossil bones of an animal of this
+    family have been found in the South-west; but its bones were not
+    identified in the Salado ruins.”<a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+  <p>The Pai Utes made a garment of rabbit-skins which was very warm. The
+    skins were twisted and attached one to another end and end, making a
+    sort of fur rope, and this rope was tied in parallel lines, forming
+    a kind of large cloak which was most serviceable in winter. Flax, or
+    a plant closely allied to it, also grew wild all over Arizona and
+    New Mexico, and was used for garments. The bark of the sagebrush was
+    used to make cord and mats. Yucca also furnished a supply of valuable
+    fibre. Cotton was grown by many of the Pueblos and is still cultivated
+    by the Mokis, who manufacture a sacred blanket from it that is sought
+    after at good prices by the Pueblos of other districts. It is a finely
+    woven white blanket, with a broad red stripe transversely at each end.
+    It is worn by women in the ceremonials. The Mokis are good weavers,
+    using a loom similar to that employed by the Navajos. The Moki loom
+    is generally set up in the kiva<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> where often there are permanent
+    attachments for it, and there the men, who do all the weaving among
+    this tribe, patiently execute their plans. Most of the Moki blankets
+    are of low colours and simple design, dark blue being, with black, the
+    favourite tint. The usual material is the wool of the European sheep,
+    which has flourished among the Pueblos ever since it was introduced by
+    the Spaniards. The sheep are herded on the plains during the day and at
+    night are driven up the talus of the cliffs to corrals that lie just
+    below the plateau on which the villages are built. The Navajos living
+    in the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>surrounding country have far larger flocks than those of the
+    Moki, and weave only wool. In fact, there are amongst the Navajos more
+    than a million and a half head of sheep and goats. Most of the wool
+    from these they usually sell to dealers at four or five cents a pound
+    and then purchase for their blanket-work at high prices Germantown
+    wools of brilliant colours, which colours they cannot obtain with their
+    own dyes, though the colours they do secure are far more artistic.
+    Formerly, to get the brilliant red of which they are so fond, they
+    would buy a Mexican cloth, called <i>bayeta</i>, a sort of flannel, and
+    ravel it, to reweave it in their blankets. The women do most of the
+    weaving amongst the Navajos. The colours are usually bright, though
+    the every-day serviceable blanket is of dark blue and white or black
+    and white, or of the natural grey of the wool. The greater gaudiness
+    of much of the Navajo work has given it a reputation of superiority
+    to that of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>the Pueblo, which, in my opinion, is not wholly correct.
+    Washington Matthews,<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> who has so carefully studied the subject,
+    states that there is a constant deterioration in Pueblo weaving, which
+    may be true in general, but hardly applies to the Moki. I have a sample
+    of Moki work which, so far as weaving skill is concerned, is as fine
+    as any Navajo work I have ever seen. The Moki do not turn out as much
+    as the Navajo, because they are a far smaller tribe; and their product
+    is dark, as a rule, in colour, as they use their own dyes, but its
+    texture, and especially the texture of the sacred cotton blankets, is
+    extremely fine, even finer and better as an example of weaving skill
+    than many Navajo blankets. “In some Pueblos,” says Matthews, “the skill
+    of the loom has been almost forgotten.”</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_131">
+    <img src="images/i_131.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DETAILS OF NAVAJO LOOM CONSTRUCTION</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Navajo loom is set up anywhere and a shelter of boughs built over
+    it. As the rainfall is light in the Navajo country, it is not necessary
+    to provide permanent shelters. The loom is worth a careful description,
+    and as I do not know of any better, or indeed so good as that given by
+    Matthews, it is here quoted entire: “Two posts, a a, are set firmly
+    in the ground; to these are lashed two cross pieces or braces, b c,
+    the whole forming the frame of the loom. Sometimes two slender trees,
+    growing at a convenient distance from one another, are made to answer
+    for the posts, d is a horizontal pole, which I call the supplementary
+    yarn-beam, attached to the upper brace, b, by means of a rope, e e,
+    spirally applied, f is the upper beam of the loom. As it is analogous
+    to the yarn-beam of our looms, I will call it by this name, although
+    once only have I seen the warp wound around it. It lies parallel to
+    the pole, d, about two or three inches below it, and is attached to
+    the latter by a number of loops, g g. A spiral cord wound around the
+    yarn-beam holds the upper border cord, h h, which, in turn, secures
+    the upper end of the warp, i i. The lower beam of the loom is shown
+    at k. I will call this the cloth beam, although the finished web is
+    never wound around it; it is tied firmly to the lower brace, c, of the
+    frame, and to it is secured the lower border cord of the blanket. The
+    original distance between the two beams is the length of the blanket.
+    Lying between the threads of the warp is depicted a broad, thin, oaken
+    stick, l, which I will call the batten. A set of healds attached to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>a
+    heald-rod, m, are shown above the batten. These healds are made of cord
+    or yarn; they include alternate threads of the warp, and serve when
+    drawn forward to open the lower shed. The upper shed is kept patent by
+    a stout rod, n (having no healds attached), which I name the shed-rod.
+    Their substitute for the reed of our looms is a wooden fork, which will
+    be designated as the reed-fork.”<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+  <p>All the Navajo and Pueblo weaving is the same on both sides. Most of
+    it is straight weaving, but there is a good deal of diagonal work.
+    This is true also of the Moki. The diagonal weaving produces a diamond
+    figure that is very pretty, but I have never seen it used in any of the
+    finest Navajo work. As to the designs, Matthews says that “in the finer
+    blankets of intricate pattern, out of thousands which I have examined,
+    I do not remember to have ever seen two exactly alike.”<a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> Doubtless
+    while some of these designs, or even many, are drawn from Pueblo
+    sources as noticed, the weaver introduces original features and often
+    invents new patterns. The blankets are woven, as a rule, in two ways,
+    the tight method for protection against rain, and the loose method for
+    protection against cold. The loose, soft blanket is worn under one of
+    the harder ones in wet or windy weather.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The Navajos also weave
+    garters and long sashes. The garters are similar to the sashes, only
+    smaller. They are used to hold leggings in place. Small blankets are
+    made to put under the saddle, and these are often very fine in texture
+    as well as in pattern. Similar ones are made for children.</p>
+
+  <p>“Previously to the seventeenth century,” says Bandelier, “the
+    aboriginal dress consisted largely of cotton sheets, or rather simple
+    wrappers, tied either around the neck or on the shoulder, or converted
+    into sleeveless jackets.” Of the fibre of the yucca, the Zuñi Indians
+    made skirts and kilts; of rabbit-skins very heavy blankets were made.
+    The northern Puebloans, of New Mexico, nearer to a game region, dressed
+    in buckskin in preference to anything else. But still, even when cotton
+    was unobtainable for whole garments, they sought to secure cotton
+    scarfs and girdles woven in bright colours, which were used for belts
+    as well as for garters, etc. The dress was more simple than that of
+    to-day. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>Leggings of buckskin were worn in winter only, and then mostly
+    by the northern Pueblos. The moccasin, or <i>tegua</i>, protected
+    the feet. It is explicitly stated that while the uppers of this shoe
+    without heel were of deerskin, the soles were frequently of buffalo
+    hide.”<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> The moccasin of the South-west is generally soled with
+    rawhide of some kind, the sole being slightly turned up all round.</p>
+
+  <p>Another material for garments was feathers. These were utilised all
+    over the continent, to a greater or less degree, by various tribes, but
+    it was the Mexicans who carried the work in this line to perfection.
+    “Nothing could be more picturesque,” says Prescott, “than the aspect of
+    these Indian battalions with the naked bodies of the common soldiers
+    gaudily painted, the fantastic helmets of the chiefs glittering with
+    gold and precious stones, and the glowing panoplies of feather-work,
+    which decorated their persons.... The common file wore no covering
+    except a girdle round the loins. Their bodies were painted with
+    appropriate colours of the chieftain whose banner they followed. The
+    feather-mail of the higher class of warriors exhibited also a similar
+    selection of colours for the like object, in the same manner as the
+    colour of the tartan indicates the peculiar clan of the Highlander.
+    The caciques and principal warriors were clothed in a quilted cotton
+    tunic, two inches thick, which, fitting close to the body, protected
+    also the thighs and the shoulders. Over this the wealthier Indians wore
+    cuirasses of thin gold plate or silver. Their legs were defended by
+    leathern boots or sandals, trimmed with gold. But the most brilliant
+    part of their costume was a rich mantle of the <i>plumaje</i>, or
+    feather-work, embroidered with curious art, and furnishing some
+    resemblance to the gorgeous surcoat worn by the European knight over
+    his armour in the Middle Ages. This graceful and picturesque dress
+    was surmounted by a fantastic head-piece made of wood or leather,
+    representing the head of some wild animal, and frequently displaying
+    a formidable array of teeth. With this covering the warrior’s head
+    was enveloped, producing a most grotesque and hideous effect. From
+    the crown floated a splendid <i>panache</i> of the richly variegated
+    plumage of the tropics, indicating, by its form and colours, the
+    rank and family of the wearer. To complete their defensive armour,
+    they carried shields or targets, made sometimes of wood covered with
+    leather, but more usually of a light frame of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>reeds quilted with
+    cotton, which were preferred as tougher and less liable to fracture
+    than the former. They had other bucklers, in which the cotton was
+    covered with an elastic substance, enabling them to be shut up in a
+    more compact form, like a fan or umbrella. These shields were decorated
+    with showy ornaments, according to the taste or wealth of the wearer,
+    and fringed with a beautiful pendant of feather-work.... Such was the
+    costume of the Tlascalan warrior, and, indeed, of that great family of
+    nations generally who occupied the plateau of Anahuac.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>... They
+    were particularly struck with the costume of the higher classes, who
+    wore fine embroidered mantles, resembling the graceful <i>albornoz</i>,
+    or Moorish cloak, in their texture and fashion.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>... Here they were
+    met by several hundred Aztec chiefs, who came out to announce the
+    approach of Montezuma, and to welcome the Spaniards to his capital.
+    They were dressed in the fanciful gala costume of the country, with the
+    <i>maxtlatl</i>, or cotton sash, around their loins, and a broad mantle
+    of the same material, or of the brilliant feather-embroidery, flowing
+    gracefully down their shoulders. On their necks and arms they displayed
+    collars and bracelets of turquoise mosaic, with which delicate plumage
+    was curiously mingled, while their ears, under-lips, and occasionally
+    their noses, were garnished with pendants formed of precious stones,
+    or crescents of fine gold<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>.... Montezuma wore the girdle and ample
+    square cloak, <i>tilmatli</i>,<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> of his nation. It was made of the
+    finest cotton, with the embroidered ends gathered in a knot around his
+    neck. His feet were defended by sandals having soles of gold, and the
+    leathern thongs which bound them to his ankles were embossed with the
+    same metal. Both the cloak and sandals were sprinkled with pearls and
+    precious stones, among which the emerald and the <i>chalchivitl</i>—a
+    green stone of higher estimation than any other among the
+    Aztecs—were conspicuous. On his head he wore no other ornament than
+    a <i>panache</i> of plumes of the royal green which floated down his
+    back, the badge of military, rather than of regal rank.”<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_135">
+    <img src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A PUEBLOAN OF SAN JUAN, NEW MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p>
+
+  <p>These quotations from Prescott will give an idea of the costume of the
+    Mexicans, and of the beautiful feather-work which formed so important
+    a part of it. Though the language of Prescott may somewhat exaggerate
+    the quality and beauty of the Mexican garments, we know from what
+    the Mexicans and Pueblos manufactured afterward that much skill must
+    have been displayed in these various fabrics. The cloak of cotton was
+    probably no more a cloak or mantle than the blankets woven by the
+    Pueblos and Navajos to-day; that is, it was a square of cloth worn
+    about the shoulders. If one should describe the Pueblo in Prescott’s
+    delightful language, we should think him and his houses and garments
+    far finer than they really are. To describe a breech-cloth as a girdle
+    round the loins; to speak of blankets as mantles and robes; moccasins
+    as sandals, and otherwise gild description, makes pleasant reading, but
+    is liable to convey erroneous impressions. Prescott’s lack of general
+    knowledge of Amerind customs gave him a free rein and his poetical
+    temperament finished the picture.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp60" id="i_137">
+    <img src="images/i_137.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>METHOD OF MAKING FEATHER-WORK</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Montezuma wore on his head “a <i>panache</i> of plumes, ... the badge
+    of military, rather than of regal rank.” And this is exactly what
+    Montezuma was, a war-chief. But Prescott drew his material from the
+    Spaniards, and where he describes what they saw, he is not, in all
+    probability, far from the mark, although his language may be sometimes
+    rather flowery. The feather-work was one of the remarkable products
+    of the Aztecs. In an ornamental way it is still practised in Mexico,
+    and the birds and other objects made from feathers exhibit a wonderful
+    skill. Mantles of fur are mentioned as being used by the Aztecs,
+    but these were probably constructed in much the same manner as the
+    rabbit-skin robes of the Moki and the Pai Ute, that is, by twisting
+    the skins into ropes and then tying them together. The cotton weaving
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>was done on a loom similar to that now in use by the Navajos and the
+    Pueblos. The feather-work was probably made in much the same way as
+    that of Peru, specimens of which have been preserved in the tombs. The
+    figure on <a href="#Page_137">page 137</a> shows the way the Peruvians attached the feathers
+    to the cloth underground, but in many cases the feathers were woven
+    in with the warp and woof, instead of being attached to the surface
+    in this way. This use of feathers was not confined to any particular
+    locality, but, like almost all the arts in use on the continent, was
+    widely distributed. Turkey feathers were used in Virginia for this
+    work, and in Louisiana the same bird was called upon. “The feather
+    mantles,” writes Du Pratz in his history of Louisiana, “are made on
+    a frame similar to that on which the peruke makers work hair; they
+    spread the feathers in the same manner and fasten them on old fish-nets
+    or old mantles of mulberry bark. They are placed, spread in this
+    manner, one over the other and on both sides; for this purpose small
+    turkey feathers are used; women who have feathers of swans or India
+    ducks, which are white, make these feather mantles for women of high
+    rank.”<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> Feather mantles of fine quality were also made by the
+    Lenapé.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost every Amerind tribe could make thread, cord, nets, mats, and
+    some kind of woven stuff. The Mexicans, Mayas, and other tribes of the
+    Central region excelled in these things, but the Pueblos, and Navajos,
+    as we have seen, execute in modern times some admirable fabrics, which
+    the Pueblos also constructed before the advent of the whites.</p>
+
+  <p>“The Mexicans had also,” says Prescott, “the art of spinning a fine
+    thread of the hair of the rabbit and other animals, which they wove
+    into a delicate web that took a permanent dye.... The women, as in
+    other parts of the country, seemed to go about as freely as the men.
+    They wore several skirts or petticoats of different lengths, with
+    highly ornamented borders, and sometimes over them loose flowing
+    robes, which reached to the ankles. These, also, were made of cotton;
+    for the wealthier classes, of a fine texture, prettily embroidered.
+    No veils were worn here (Mexico) as in some other parts of Anahuac,
+    where they were made of the aloe thread, or of the light web of hair
+    above noticed.”<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> Biart<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> says the women wore “a piece of
+    cloth <i>cueitl</i>, which they <span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>wrapped around their bodies, and
+    which descended a little below the knee; over this skirt they wore a
+    sleeveless chemise called <i>huepilli</i>.”</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_139">
+    <img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CHILKAT CEREMONIAL SHIRT</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Mayas and other Amerinds of the Central region used woven cloths
+    similar to those of the Aztecs. Of the dress of the modern Amerinds
+    of Nicaragua, Squier says: “It is exceedingly simple. On ordinary
+    occasions the women wear only a white or flowered skirt fastened round
+    the waist, leaving the upper part of the person entirely exposed, or
+    but partially covered by a handkerchief fastened around the neck.
+    In Masaya and some other places, a square piece of cloth of native
+    manufacture, and precisely the same style and pattern with that used
+    for the same purpose before the Discovery, supplies the place of a
+    skirt. It is fastened in some incomprehensible way without aid of
+    strings or pins and falls from the hips a little below the knees....
+    The men wear a kind of cotton drawers, fastened above the hips, but
+    frequently reaching no lower than the knees. Sandals supply the place
+    of shoes, but for the most part both sexes go with bare feet.”<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
+    The costume of the women of Louisiana as depicted by Du Pratz in an
+    illustration in his history, is almost, if not quite identical with the
+    costume of the women of Nicaragua.</p>
+
+  <p>Fine dressing was not confined to the Mexicans. Other Amerinds gave
+    some attention to their personal appearance as well as the tribes of
+    Mexico. In the following description by a Miss Powell, who visited an
+    Iroquois council on Buffalo Creek, in 1785, of Captain David, if the
+    worthy Captain had been described as a “lord,” and Miss Powell had been
+    less skeptical about his ablutions, he might easily have ranked with
+    some of the “lords” of Anahuac who are so conspicuous in the charming
+    works of Prescott. Miss Powell declared, “that the Prince of Wales
+    did not bow with more grace than ‘Captain David.’ He spoke English
+    with propriety. His person was as tall and fine as it was possible to
+    imagine; his features handsome and regular, with a countenance of much
+    softness; his complexion not disagreeably dark, and, said Miss Powell,
+    ‘I really believe he washes his face.’... His hair was shaved off,
+    except a little on top of his head, which, with his ears, was painted
+    a glowing red. Around his head was a fillet of silver from which two
+    strips of black velvet, covered with <span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>silver beads and brooches, hung
+    over the left temple. A ‘foxtail feather’ in his scalp-lock and a black
+    one behind each ear waved and nodded as he walked, while a pair of
+    immense silver ear-rings hung down to his shoulders. He wore a calico
+    shirt, the neck and shoulders thickly covered with silver brooches, the
+    sleeves confined above the elbows with broad silver bracelets engraved
+    with the arms of England, while four smaller ones adorned his wrists.
+    Around his waist was a dark scarf lined with scarlet which hung to his
+    feet, while his costume was completed by neatly fitting blue cloth
+    leggins, fastened with an ornamental garter below the knee.”<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> This
+    elegant gentleman belonged to no vanished or mysterious race; he was
+    a modern Iroquois. Undoubtedly his ancestors had, many of them, with
+    the means at their command, dressed with equal splendour, and we may
+    wonder what kind of a description of them we would have had from the
+    romantic Spaniards if they had happened to meet with them. Even this
+    well-balanced American lady was considerably overcome, for she says:
+    “Captain David made the finest appearance I ever saw in my life.” About
+    this same time, or to be accurate, in 1776, Father Escalante met with
+    Amerinds in Utah whose dress was very different. “Their dress,” he
+    says, “manifests great poverty; the most decent which they wear is a
+    coat or shirt of deerskin, and big moccasins of the same in winter;
+    they have dresses made of hare and rabbit skin.”<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> In the latter we
+    recognise the same twisted skin garments that are still used, or were
+    a few years ago, by the Pai Utes and the Mokis. In central Georgia in
+    Soto’s time the women wore a kind of shawl, “for covering, wearing one
+    about the body from the waist downward, and another over the shoulder
+    with the right arm left free.”<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> Spinning and weaving were long
+    supposed, by those who had not investigated, to be practised only by
+    the Mexican and Pueblo tribes, and by the Navajos, but the Pimas and
+    Maricopas of Arizona were adepts in these arts in 1857. The government
+    agent reports at that time: “They also spin and weave their cotton, by
+    hand, into blankets of a beautiful texture, an art not acquired from
+    the Spaniards, but found among them more than three hundred years ago,
+    when the Spaniards first <span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>penetrated the country.”<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The Algonquins
+    of Connecticut dressed in skins “cured so as to be soft and pliable,
+    and sometimes ornamented with paint and with beads manufactured from
+    shells. Occasionally they decked themselves in mantles made of feathers
+    overlapping each other as on the back of the fowl, and presenting an
+    appearance of fantastic gayety which, no doubt, prodigiously delighted
+    the wearers. The dress of the women consisted usually of two articles:
+    a leather skirt, or under garment, ornamented with fringe; and a skirt
+    of the same material, fastened round the waist with a belt and reaching
+    nearly to the feet.... Their hair they dressed in a thick heavy
+    plait which fell down upon the neck; and they sometimes ornamented
+    their heads with bands of wampum or with a small cap. The men went
+    bare-headed, with their hair fantastically trimmed, each according to
+    his fancy. One warrior would have it shaved on one side of the head
+    and long on the other. Another might be seen with his scalp completely
+    bare, except a strip two or three inches in width running from the
+    forehead over to the nape of the neck. This was kept short, and so
+    thoroughly stiffened with paint and bear’s grease as to stand straight
+    after the fashion of a cock’s comb, or the crest of a warrior’s
+    helmet. The legs were covered with leggins of dressed deerskin, and
+    the lower part of the body was protected by the breech-cloth, usually
+    called by the early settlers, Indian breeches. Moccasins, that is,
+    light shoes of soft <span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>dressed leather, were common to both sexes;
+    and like other portions of the attire, were many times tastefully
+    ornamented with embroidery of wampum. The men often dispensed with
+    their leggins, especially in summer; while in winter they protected
+    themselves against the bleak air by adding to their garments a mantle
+    of skins. The male children ran about in a state of nature until they
+    were ten or twelve years old; the girls were provided with an apron,
+    though of very economical dimensions.... The women ... used the paint
+    as an ornament, while the men seldom applied it, except when they
+    went to war and wished to appear very terrible in the sight of their
+    enemies. Sachems and great men had caps and aprons heavily wrought with
+    different-coloured beads. Belts were also worn of the same material,
+    some of which contained so great a quantity of wampum as to be valued
+    by the English colonists at eight and ten pounds sterling.”<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_142">
+    <img src="images/i_142.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CHILKAT CEREMONIAL BLANKET</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Here we discover the same desire for distinction of individuals by
+    dress that exists in all races, and the same desire to dress richly
+    on the part of those possessing wealth or station, for it must be
+    understood that wealth and station have their degrees amongst the
+    rudest Amerinds as well as amongst the highest and amongst the
+    Europeans. The dress in the summer always differs considerably from
+    that of winter. In many tribes little is worn by the men in summer but
+    the breech-cloth, and sometimes not even that. I recall one morning
+    when I was living in the Moki village of Tewa, in Arizona, one of
+    the dignitaries came to call upon me, as was a common custom, and he
+    had wrapped about him a native blanket. When he temporarily let this
+    covering drop away from his person, I noticed that there was not even
+    a breech-cloth beneath. The small children of both sexes played about
+    in a state of nature, though some wore a shirt, and the women appeared
+    to have on only the one garment, made of two small black blankets sewed
+    together on their side edges and caught over the right shoulder and
+    under the left. The Moki women wear moccasins only in the ceremonials,
+    or on some state occasion, or when travelling. They rarely travel.</p>
+
+  <p>Catlin gave a great deal of attention to the costumes of the Amerinds
+    he travelled amongst and painted, and a reference to his works opens
+    up a world of detail that cannot be presented <span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>here. Some of his most
+    interesting work was amongst the Mandans, of Dakota stock, in the year
+    1832.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> I will quote from him some general remarks on the Mandan
+    costume. “The Mandans, in many instances, dress very neatly, and some
+    of them splendidly. As they are in their native state, their dresses
+    are all of their own manufacture, and, of course, altogether made
+    of skins of different animals belonging to those regions. There is,
+    certainly, a reigning and striking similarity of costume amongst most
+    of the North-western tribes, and I cannot say that the dress of the
+    Mandans is decidedly distinct from that of the Crows or the Blackfeet,
+    the Assiniboins, or the Sioux<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>; yet there are modes of stitching
+    or embroidering in every tribe which may at once enable the traveller
+    who is familiar with their modes to detect or distinguish the dress
+    of any tribe. These differences consist generally in the fashions of
+    constructing the head-dress, or of garnishing their dresses with the
+    porcupine quills, which they use in great profusion.... The tunic,
+    or shirt, of the Mandan men is very similar in shape to that of the
+    Blackfeet—made of two skins of deer, or mountain-sheep, strung with
+    scalp-locks, beads, and ermine. The leggings, like those of the other
+    tribes of which I have spoken, are made of deerskins and shaped to fit
+    the leg, embroidered with porcupine <span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>quills, and fringed with scalps
+    from their enemies’ heads. Their moccasins are made of buckskin, and
+    neatly ornamented with porcupine quills. Over their shoulders (or, in
+    other words, over one shoulder and passing under the other) they very
+    gracefully wear a robe from a young buffalo’s back, oftentimes cut
+    down to about half of its original size, to make it handy and easy
+    for use. Many of these are also fringed on one side with scalp-locks,
+    and the flesh side of the skin curiously ornamented with pictured
+    representations of the creditable events and battles of their lives.
+    Their head-dresses are of various sorts, and many of them exceedingly
+    picturesque and handsome, generally made of war-eagles’ or ravens’
+    quills and ermine. These are the most costly part of an Indian’s dress
+    in all this county, owing to the difficulty of procuring the quills and
+    the fur; the war-eagle being the <i>rara avis</i>, and the ermine the
+    rarest animal that is found in the country.” Catlin gave two horses
+    for one of the head-dresses. This specimen came down to the wearer’s
+    feet. These are now called “war-bonnets,” and are still in use among
+    the Sioux and other tribes. “There is occasionally,” continues Catlin,
+    “a chief or a warrior <span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>of so extraordinary renown that he is allowed
+    to wear horns on his head-dress, which give to his aspect a strange
+    and majestic effect. These are made of about a third part of the horn
+    of a buffalo bull, the horn having been split from end to end, and a
+    third part of it taken and shaved thin and light and highly polished.
+    These are attached to the top of the head-dress on each side in the
+    same place that they rise and stand on the head of a buffalo, rising
+    out of a mat of ermine skins and tails, which hang over the top of the
+    head-dress somewhat in the form that the large and profuse locks of
+    hair hang and fall over the head of a buffalo bull.” This head-dress
+    with horns “is used only on certain occasions, and they are very
+    seldom.”<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_144">
+    <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI WALL DECORATION. PINK ON A WHITE GROUND.<br>
+        MISHONGNUVI, ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_145">
+    <img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>BELLACOOLAS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_146">
+    <img src="images/i_146.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TOP VIEW OF CONICAL NORTH-WEST COAST HAT<br>
+        Made of spruce roots, ornamented in red and black paint, with totemic device of a raven<br>
+        See figure <a href="#Page_160">page 160</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Among the Omahas, also of Dakota stock, garments, Dorsey
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
+    says, “were usually made by the women, while men made their weapons....
+    There is no distinction between the attire of dignitaries and that of
+    the common people.”<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp35" id="i_147">
+    <img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Posed by Thomas Moran<br>
+        WONSIVU, A PAI UTE GIRL<br>
+        From photograph by the Colorado River Survey, 1874</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Makahs of the North-west region (U.&nbsp;S.) manufacture a kind of cloth
+    out of cedar bark. “The inner bark is selected, boiled, or macerated,
+    and then pounded and hatcheled out. The bark is made to form the warp,
+    the woof being made of grass thread. This stuff is pliable, and makes a
+    convenient outer garment. Very pretty capes, edged with sea-otter skin,
+    are made of it. This tribe also are the principal manufacturers of the
+    cedar mats which are used on the Sound. These are entirely of bark,
+    formed into narrow strips, and woven on the floor. They are thin and
+    perfectly even in texture.”<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> Among the tribes of the North-west:
+    “The women universally wore a breech-clout of strands gathered around
+    the waist and falling usually to the knees.... With the men no idea of
+    modesty existed.”<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> They sometimes wear a bearskin with the hair
+    out tied around the throat. “Their hats, when they wear any, are of
+    the conical form common along the coast.”<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> A conical wicker hat
+    similar to the Japanese shape is found among the Tlinkits (Koluschan)
+    and Chimmesyan up on the Alaskan coast. I saw several at Sitka in the
+    summer of 1899, but not in use. The head covering of various tribes
+    differs considerably. The skull-cap, woven like a basket, was never
+    found, so far as I know, in the Mississippi region. The Pai Utes
+    formerly <span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>wore caps, or at least some of them did, the men wearing a
+    little buckskin affair tied under the chin with strings. The remainder
+    of their costume often consisted of a string around the waist from
+    which was suspended front and rear a cloth of buckskin reaching half
+    way to the ground. Others wore fine buckskin suits; a fringed shirt
+    and fringed leggings reaching, like those of the Dakota, to the waist.
+    The southern Utah women wore conical caps of wicker-work, like a bowl
+    upside down, except that they had a little point at the top.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The
+    women’s garment was of buckskin, attached at the neck and hanging down
+    before and behind to below the knee, open at the sides, and bound
+    around the waist by a buckskin sash. There was a plentiful adornment of
+    buckskin fringe also. The feet were bare except in cold weather, when
+    moccasins were worn. The younger women wore a narrow band around the
+    brow composed of two buckskin strings, covered with porcupine quills,
+    which were interwoven to hold the strings <span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span>together, and the men
+    often wore a head-dress of feathers, which stood straight up around
+    the crown. In both men and women the hair was allowed to hang down,
+    brushed back from the face without braids of any kind. The Navajo men
+    wear a sort of turban; a piece of red cloth or a bandana twisted around
+    the brow, the hair being done up in a kind of Greek knot behind. Their
+    clothes consist of a shirt or jacket of cotton goods, and trousers
+    of the same stuff reaching to just below the knee and slashed up on
+    the outside for about eight inches. They sometimes wear close-fitting
+    breeches with leggings. This garment is generally held at the waist
+    by a belt, which is often richly decorated by discs of silver about
+    two by four inches elaborately engraved in their native style. The
+    trousers are sometimes bound inside the leggings. Their leggings are
+    of buckskin, red or black, frequently fastened on the outside by a row
+    of silver half-globe buttons of their own make and woven garters, some
+    three feet long, twisted around above the calf. The leggings are also
+    applied without any buttons when they are held by the garters. The
+    moccasin is one finely made, red or black, or the natural tan colour,
+    with a rawhide sole turned up all round, and, like the leggings, often
+    fastened by several silver buttons. The Navajos are extremely fond
+    of black. The hair of the women is parted and tied in a knot behind
+    very much the same as that of the men. Their dress is now very like
+    that of Moki women, that is, a garment that is attached over the right
+    shoulder, under the left, and falls about half way between the knees
+    and the ground, usually caught in at the waist by a sash or belt.
+    Also like the Moki women they wear a kind of combined moccasin and
+    legging, on certain occasions. This is a rawhide-soled moccasin with
+    a long narrow top-piece which is wound round and round the leg after
+    the moccasin is put on, and gives an almost straight line from the
+    knee down, almost exactly the same as the Moki custom. In fact, so far
+    as garments are concerned, it might often be difficult to tell Navajo
+    and Moki women apart. The Moki women wear their hair differently; the
+    married ones making two cues of it which hang down on each side of the
+    face, usually in front of the shoulders, while the unmarried ones have
+    theirs done up in two extraordinary wheels or discs standing parallel
+    with the side of the face or head, and attached to it by a sort of axle
+    wound round with string. This effect is obtained by first dividing the
+    hair into two equal parts, drawing each part to its side of the head
+    and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>winding it with string just above the ear, and a little behind
+    it. Each division is then again divided, horizontally, into two equal
+    parts, and these parts are carefully brushed around a curved stick,
+    like a letter U, held with the opening sidewise, the upper one down
+    and around and the lower one up and around, till they are completely
+    wound over the U and spread out as much as possible at the same time.
+    Then they are tied in the middle with a string, that is, between the
+    arms of the U, and finally, before withdrawing the U, the two portions
+    are fully spread, till when the U is taken out, and they are further
+    arranged, they almost meet and form a perfect wheel or circle. In
+    ordinary practice they do not meet, but resemble a well tied bow-knot
+    of broad ribbon; but when a girl has a fine head of hair that has been
+    well cared for, and her mother takes a pride in dressing her hair for
+    any ceremony or feast day, the wheel is almost perfect. This peculiar
+    method of hair-dressing is now found nowhere else in the world, except
+    among the unmarried women of the Coyotero Apaches, who are said to wear
+    a coil something like it.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_148">
+    <img src="images/i_148.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A NAVAJO LEADER IN NATIVE COSTUME</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_149">
+    <img src="images/i_149.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>INTERIOR OF A MOKI HOUSE, ARIZONA<br>
+        Unmarried women grinding corn; married women baking <i>piki</i>, or
+        “paper” bread. From a model in the National Museum</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp54" id="i_151">
+    <img src="images/i_151.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PUEBLO HEAD MAT</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Some of the Pueblo women tie their hair in a knot behind like the
+    Navajo women; in fact, both Navajo women and men closely resemble the
+    Pueblo in their dress, the reason in my opinion being that advanced
+    before: namely, the incorporation of Pueblo stock. The Moki men also
+    sometimes wear their hair like Navajos, but full-blood Navajos have
+    taken up their residence with the Moki, so it may be confined to these
+    and their children. The regular Moki method of dressing a man’s hair
+    is to “bang” it across the eyebrows, cut the side locks straight back
+    on the lower line of the ear, and gather the remainder into a knot
+    behind.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> The brush used is composed of a bunch of stiff grass
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
+    tied round the middle with a string. Both Navajo and Moki men as well
+    as those of other tribes now wear white men’s trousers when obtainable.
+    The costumes worn in the various ceremonials of the Navajos, Pueblos,
+    Iroquois, and other Amerinds are so numerous and so varied that there
+    is no space in a chapter like this for a description of them.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_152">
+    <img src="images/i_152.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>NAVAJOS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span></p>
+
+  <p>In the line of embroidery comes the beadwork, see <a href="#Page_125">p. 125</a>, the
+    ornamentation with quills, and embroidery with yarns. I will only
+    mention the embroidery of the Mokis, which is done on the ends of broad
+    cotton sashes, with coloured yarns. This is the only form in which I
+    have seen it. The pattern is elaborate, and often a foot or more at
+    each end of a sash will be thus ornamented. The Pueblo women wore a
+    roll on the head on which a water-jar was balanced. Coronado mentions
+    this thus: “I also send two rolls, such as the women usually wear on
+    their heads when they bring water from the spring, the same way that
+    they do in Spain. One of these Indian women, with one of these rolls
+    on her head, will carry a jar of water up a ladder without touching it
+    with her hands.”<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> Some of the Pueblo women still use rings to carry
+    water-jars on their heads. See figure on <a href="#Page_151">page 151</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>Jaramillo speaks of the natives of the first village of “Cibola” as
+    having clothing of “deerskins, very carefully tanned, and they also
+    prepare some tanned cowhides, with which they cover themselves, which
+    are like shawls and a great protection. They have square cloaks of
+    cotton, some larger than others, about a yard and a half long. The
+    Indians wear them thrown over the shoulder like a gypsy and fastened
+    with one end over the other, with a girdle, also of cotton.”<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>
+    Other Pueblos of New Mexico he describes as having “some long robes
+    of feathers which they braid, joining the feathers with a sort of
+    thread; and they also make them of a sort of plain weaving with which
+    they make the cloaks with which they protect themselves.” In the
+    <cite>Relación Postrera</cite>, the Cibola dress is described also, and I
+    add it here because these accounts show so conclusively that the art
+    of weaving was in full practice in this northern country before the
+    Europeans entered it. “Some of these people wear cloaks of cotton
+    and of the maguey (or Mexican aloe) and of tanned deerskin, and they
+    wear shoes made of these skins, reaching up to the knees. They also
+    make cloaks of the skins of hares and rabbits, with which they cover
+    themselves. The women wear cloaks of the maguey, reaching down to the
+    feet, with girdles; they wear their hair gathered about the ears like
+    little wheels.”<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> I would specially call attention to the similarity
+    to the costume of the present Moki, even to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>the hair-dressing. The
+    Seminole men had a singular way of wearing their hair. It was cut
+    “close to the head, except a strip about an inch wide, running over
+    the front of the scalp from temple to temple, and another strip, of
+    about the same width, perpendicular to the former, crossing the crown
+    of the head to the nape of the neck. At each temple a heavy tuft was
+    allowed to hang to the bottom of the lobe of the ear. The long hair of
+    the strip crossing to the neck is generally gathered and braided into
+    two ornamental queues.”<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The mustache is worn among the Seminole,
+    Navajo, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>Tlinkit, Eskimo, and other tribes. Some Eskimo shave a round
+    place on the crown of the head. Some Amerinds also wear a small beard.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_154">
+    <img src="images/i_154.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SEMINOLE MAN’S AND WOMAN’S COSTUME</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Many Amerinds, especially the men, wore, as before mentioned, nothing
+    whatever in mild weather, and even in winter the dress of some,
+    especially in the more southerly regions, was far from elaborate. I
+    remember one February, in the mountains of Arizona, visiting a camp of
+    Shevwits to have a talk with the chief. Proceeding toward his wikiup, I
+    found him near it lying naked, basking in the sun, only partly covered
+    by a rabbit-skin robe. He seemed to be warm and happy, the spot being
+    a sheltered one in a canyon, and the rays of the sun being comfortably
+    warm. In a <cite>Journal of a Voyage to New York in 1679–80</cite>, the
+    authors, speaking of the natives near Sandy Hook, said: “They wear
+    something in front, over the thighs, and a piece of duffels, like a
+    blanket, around the body, and this is all the clothing they have. Their
+    hair hangs down from their head in strings, well smeared with fat,
+    and sometimes with quantities of little beads twisted in it out of
+    pride.”<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_155">
+    <img src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>EAR-PERFORATING AND HAIR-DRESSING OF SEMINOLES</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span></p>
+
+  <p>In war the body was generally naked in many tribes.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> The Navajo
+    warrior wore absolutely nothing but the breech-cloth, and I am not sure
+    that he wore even that. In some tribes the warriors wore a head-dress,
+    either a kind of turban or a feather head-dress. The Dakotas wore their
+    long trailing war-bonnets of feathers, or not possessing one, certain
+    feathers in their hair, according to their standing as warriors; and
+    sometimes their leggings. Of course each carried bow, quiver, shield,
+    and such weapons of his tribe as were in vogue. On the North-west coast
+    a protective armour was employed, and such a practice obtained in other
+    regions, notably among the Aztecs and other Mexicans, who made a thick
+    quilted cotton armour, as was noted in the quotations from Prescott.
+    The subject of armour, however, belongs to another chapter. The wearing
+    of rings in the nose and ears, and the perforation of the ears, while
+    a part of costume, more properly belongs to customs. In the “ghost”
+    excitement of a few years ago, special shirts were donned, and in the
+    battles resulting from this craze, these shirts were worn because they
+    were thought to be proof against bullets and all other weapons. “During
+    the dance,” says Mooney, “it was worn as an outside garment, but was
+    said to be worn at other times under the ordinary dress. Although the
+    shape, fringing, and feather adornment were practically the same in
+    every case, considerable variation existed in regard to the painting,
+    the designs on some being very simple, while the others were fairly
+    covered with representations of sun, moon, and stars, the sacred
+    things of their mythology, and the visions of the trance. The feathers
+    attached to the garment were always those of the eagle, and the thread
+    used in the sewing was always the old-time sinew.”<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The approved
+    material of the “ghost-shirt” was buckskin, but where this could not be
+    had the shirt was made of cotton cloth.</p>
+
+  <p>In the Far North, clothing is imperative all the year round, and about
+    every minute of the time, out-of-doors. Yet the garments of the Eskimo
+    often do not quite meet around the waist, so that in bending over the
+    bare back is exposed to the cold. In their houses, too, they often wear
+    very little; nothing more than a kind of deerskin drawers. The material
+    of their clothing is entirely fur-skins; <span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>though the Hudson Bay Eskimo
+    sometimes wear trousers of jean, or denim, obtained in trade. Up to
+    a certain age the children of both sexes are dressed much alike, and
+    the smaller ones scrabbling about the bottom of a <i>umiak</i>, or
+    skin boat, can hardly be distinguished at first glance from some kind
+    of a bear cub. At Plover Bay, Siberia, where the natives resemble the
+    Eskimo, I saw one small child in arms, that seemed to be completely
+    sewed up in skins with the hair side in, its arms and legs looking
+    like the stumps left after a surgical operation. Of the skin of the
+    child nothing was to be seen except its face, its head, too, being
+    entirely enveloped. This was in the middle of July, when the far-away
+    Moki children would be scurrying about without a thread to disguise
+    them. The children of the Eskimo proper, on our side of Bering Strait,
+    were clothed, as mentioned, in skins with the fur side out. Reindeer,
+    otter, fox, and seal seem to furnish the bulk of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>their furs, but
+    a number of other skins and furs are used when they can get them.
+    Murdoch, Boas, and Turner have given such careful detailed accounts of
+    the Eskimo in the various regions they visited,<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> that I refer the
+    reader to them for full information, presenting here only sufficient to
+    convey a general idea of the clothing. “The chief material (at Point
+    Barrow) is the skin of the reindeer (caribou),” says Murdoch, “which
+    is used in various stages of pelage. Fine, short-haired summer skins,
+    especially those of does and fawns, are used for making dress garments
+    and underclothes. The heavier skins are used for every-day working
+    clothes, while the heaviest winter skins furnish extra warm jackets for
+    cold weather, warm winter stockings and mittens.... The man’s dress
+    consists of the usual loose hooded frock, without opening except at
+    the neck and wrists. This reaches just over the hips, rarely about to
+    mid-thigh, where it is cut off square, and is usually confined by a
+    girdle at the waist. Under this garment is worn a similar one, usually
+    of lighter skin and sometimes without a hood. The thighs are clad in
+    one or two pairs of tight-fitting knee-breeches, confined round the
+    hips by a girdle and usually secured by a drawstring below the knee,
+    which ties over the tops of the boots. On the legs and feet are worn,
+    first, a pair of long, deerskin stockings with the hair inside; then
+    slippers of tanned sealskin, in the bottom of which is spread a layer
+    of whalebone shavings, and outside a pair of close-fitting boots, held
+    in place round the ankle, usually reaching above the knee, and ending
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>by a string with a rough edge, which is covered by the breeches....
+    The boots are of reindeer skin, with white sealskin soles for winter
+    and dry weather, but in summer waterproof boots of black sealskin with
+    soles of white whaleskin, etc., are worn.”<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_157">
+    <img src="images/i_157.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE GHOST-SHIRT, SIMPLE FORM</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp40" id="i_158">
+    <img src="images/i_158.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO BOOTS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The woman’s frock is much like the man’s, in the Point Barrow region,
+    only it has tails, or aprons, front and rear, rounded at the bottom. In
+    the Hudson Bay region, this garment is shaped more at the waist, and
+    the tails are lance-shaped and narrower, while the front one is much
+    shorter than the back. At Point Barrow there is also worn by the men a
+    cloak or mantle of deerskin, in extremely cold weather. These cloaks
+    are put on over the head, and fall down all round, being fastened
+    at the throat by strings. They are not of one piece. The men’s leg
+    coverings come only to the knee, but the women’s are long enough to
+    reach from the feet to the waist, and the moccasin is attached to the
+    bottom. The edge of the moccasin sole is crimped to make it smaller at
+    the top, and this is the case with the soles of the boots made. This
+    crimping is done by the teeth. The wet-weather boots are waterproof
+    and light, but there is a disagreeable odour about them. This odour is
+    more pronounced in some of the hastily made stockings which are worn
+    inside the boots. I bought a pair of the common sealskin stockings
+    made with hair side in at Port Clarence, but their smell was something
+    unbearable. For a waterproof garment they take the entrails of the
+    seal and, splitting them longitudinally, sew together the strips thus
+    obtained in the desired shape. Coats made in this way are durable and
+    light, and answer the purpose admirably. Dr. Kane mentions a dress
+    he saw where a man wore “booted trousers of white bearskin, which
+    at the end of the foot were made to terminate with the claws of the
+    animal.”<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+  <p>In the middle and upper Mississippi region, according to Hunter, there
+    were tribes who made blankets of the wool of the buffalo, notably the
+    Osages, who were of Siouan stock. Their method of procedure seems to
+    have been very like that of the Navajos and Mokis, to whom they are
+    not related, except that they belong to the Amerind race. Hunter says:
+    “The hair of the buffalo and other animals is sometimes manufactured
+    into blankets; the hair is first twisted by hand and wound into balls.
+    The warp is then laid of a length to answer the size of the intended
+    blanket, crossed by three small smooth rods alternately beneath the
+    threads, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>and secured at each end to stronger rods supported on forks,
+    at a short distance above the ground. Thus prepared the woof is filled
+    in, thread by thread, and pressed closely together, by means of a long
+    flattened wooden needle. When the weaving is finished, the ends of
+    the warp and woof are tied into knots, and the blanket is ready for
+    use.”<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="i_160">
+    <img src="images/i_160.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>RAIN HAT, HAIDA<br>
+        See figure <a href="#Page_146">page 146</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_VII">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_161">
+    <img src="images/i_161.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TOUCAN OF SQUIER AND DAVIS, REALLY A CROW</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">CARVING, MODELLING, SCULPTURE</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THE shaping of objects in clay, wood, or stone, or other material,
+    known as carving, modelling, etc., constitutes sculpture. Some form of
+    these methods was in use in very primitive times for the production
+    of weapons or tools of wood, bone, or stone. But the greatest schools
+    of sculpture were basketry and pottery, for in the practice of these
+    arts a sense of form and proportion could not be dispensed with.
+    Thus sculpture finds its birth in several arts, but particularly in
+    basketry, stone-shaping, and pottery. Taken all in all, the Mayas of
+    Yucatan seem to have been the greatest artists and sculptors, and as
+    we travel northward from there the skill in art gradually diminishes
+    till, on passing the old Aztec realm, it drops off rapidly. Far to
+    the northward the “Moundbuilders” exhibited a moderate skill and in
+    some objects a similarity to Mexican work, and still farther to the
+    north-westward the Haidas, Kwakiutls, etc., in their totem poles,
+    canoes, etc., show not only a singular proficiency in carving in wood,
+    but also similarities to some of the Mexican work.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_162-1">
+    <img src="images/i_162-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DESERTED VILLAGE NEAR CAPE FOX, ALASKA<br>
+      Showing arrangement of totem poles and houses along the shore</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp20" id="i_162-2">
+    <img src="images/i_162-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>INTERIOR HOUSE-COLUMN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp30 clear" id="i_163">
+    <img src="images/i_163.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MAJOR PART OF INTERIOR HOUSE-POST FROM CAPE FOX VILLAGE, S. E. ALASKA
+      <p class="hang1">Presented to University of Michigan by E. H. Harriman. Height, 11
+        ft. 2 in.; width, 3 ft.; thickness, 12 to 15 in.; one piece of
+        spruce. Painted in several colours. Photograph by Professor
+        Cole, University of Michigan</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Masks, pipes, rattles, and other ceremonial paraphernalia gave the
+    Amerind sculptor much to do. It must not be supposed, though, that
+    all members of a tribe possessed the sculptor’s power. There was as
+    much variation as we now find among ourselves. It is not everyone of
+    our people who can model a statue, or even carve the rudest shape
+    imitating man. So it was with the Amerind. He had his arrow-makers,
+    his skilful potters, his great carvers, who were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>employed by the less
+    skilful to do their work. To-day, among the Amerinds of the North-west
+    coast, there are specialists who carve the totem poles, and obtain high
+    prices. The totem poles and house-posts are often elaborate, being
+    covered almost from top to bottom with figures of totemic animals. The
+    carving is often on a large scale, as the totem poles are frequently
+    more than fifty feet in height. They are planted several feet in the
+    ground, then there are several feet plain, and from that on to near the
+    top they may be covered with carving, while surmounting the whole is a
+    figure—bird, fish, or bear, or other animal—of large proportions. These
+    poles stand in front of the house,<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> and are an indication of the
+    clan or clans to which the person or persons who erected it belong. The
+    Haidas and the Tlinkits specially excel in totem poles. The execution
+    of the figures is often extremely good in a barbaric way. Besides the
+    carved poles there are often the carved columns or posts inside the
+    houses. These posts serve to support <span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>the two great rafters on which
+    the jack-rafters rest, and are often elaborate. At a deserted village
+    in south-east Alaska (Cape Fox), I saw two of these columns, each
+    representing a huge bird, the wings being split out of cedar, quite
+    thin, and attached to the post with a diagonally forward direction,
+    the rest of the bird being erect and facing the room, the posts being
+    within about six feet of the rear of the structure. Its tail was carved
+    out of the post in a sort of bas-relief the remainder of the post being
+    squared up both below and above, and on the sides of the figure, except
+    where the head was. The latter had a huge beak, of the carnivorous
+    type. On the breast was a singular round face. The whole was brightly
+    painted in reds, yellows, and blacks. The accompanying figure
+    represents another of the house-posts of this village which is now at
+    Michigan University. It was similarly painted. The carving of these
+    tribes is done almost entirely in wood, so that had they disappeared a
+    century or so before our coming there would have been found scarcely
+    a trace of their work. In like manner the work of the tribes of the
+    Mississippi valley may have disappeared—that is, supposing that they
+    carved in wood, which is probable. There is a great similarity between
+    the carving of the Haida and the Tlinkit totem poles, yet these tribes
+    are of different stocks. An animal resembling a frog seems to be very
+    common as a totem in both stocks. Human figures are also carved on the
+    poles, and strange heads are frequent.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp32 clear" id="i_164">
+    <img src="images/i_164.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TOTEM POLE WITH BEAR ON THE TOP WRANGELL</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Haidas have become famous for their gigantic canoes carved from
+    single logs and elaborately decorated.<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> The other Amerinds of
+    this region also dig out fine boats from the huge logs they obtain
+    so easily in the forest, but there are none equal to those of the
+    Haida, who, indeed, require specially good boats for navigating the
+    waters around their island, Queen Charlotte’s. They are the best
+    carvers of all the tribes now living north of Mexico. Their work is
+    grotesque, corresponding with the singular mythology of the artists and
+    their inability to render accurately the forms they see about them.
+    Combinations of human and animal forms are often seen, such as the
+    panther-man found by Swan in this region—a crouching figure with an
+    attempt at a panther’s head and forelegs, with the hind legs human. One
+    of the most remarkable of all the Haida works from an artistic point of
+    view is the group called the “Bear-mother,”<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> now in the National
+    Museum at Washington, and made by <i>Skaowskeav</i>, one of the tribe.
+    It apparently shows European influence. The lines are more flowing and
+    soft than the ordinary Amerind method of execution, and the conception
+    is more in range with European ideas. This may be accidental, however,
+    and merely in the line of the sculptor’s development. The material is
+    slate. The subject is a child at the breast of the “Bear-mother.” The
+    story of the bear-mother, as told by J. G. Swan, is that “a number of
+    Indian squaws were in the woods gathering berries when one of them,
+    the daughter of a chief, spoke in terms of ridicule of the whole bear
+    species. The bears descended on them and killed all but the chief’s
+    daughter, whom the king of the bears took to wife. She bore him a
+    child, half human and half bear. The carving represents the agony of
+    the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>mother in suckling this rough and uncouth offspring.” From an
+    art standpoint, one failure in the execution of this conception is
+    that the child does not suggest sufficiently its half-bear character.
+    Nevertheless, it is an extraordinary work for an Amerind.</p>
+
+  <div class="clear"></div>
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter" id="i_165-1">
+      <img class="illowp100" src="images/i_165-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>TERRA-COTTA STATUETTE, CHIRIQUI. ACTUAL SIZE</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter" id="i_165-2">
+      <img class="illowp95" src="images/i_165-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>  THE BEAR-MOTHER, HAIDA, N. W. COAST
+      </figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>All the Amerinds of the North-west coast carve wooden masks, but here
+    again, the Haidas excel, though the Tlinkits are not far behind. It is
+    the same with the other work, boxes, rattles, etc. Some of the bowls,
+    hollowed from a single piece of wood, and carved on the exterior with
+    their strange figures, and polished, have a decided artistic merit. The
+    Innuit also make wooden <span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>masks, but they are crude when compared with
+    those of Queen Charlotte Island, or the mainland in that vicinity. One
+    feature of all these North-west masks, specially noted by Dall,<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a>
+    which resembles Mexican carvings, is the protruding tongue touching an
+    animal. The protruding tongue is an index of life if firmly held forth,
+    according to Squier, while if it is loose and dangling at one side it
+    signifies death or captivity. Dall concludes that the touch of the
+    tongue symbolises the “transmission of spiritual qualities or powers.”
+    In the totem poles this protruding tongue touching an animal is common,
+    while frequently the tongue protrudes without touching any other person
+    or thing. A totem represents the guardian spirit of the individual or
+    clan, and therefore the closer the association with it the better;
+    hence the idea of placing the tongue upon it.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_166">
+    <img src="images/i_166.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>WOODEN MASKS, N. W. COAST</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp65" id="i_167">
+    <img src="images/i_167.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KWAKIUTL CARVING, N. W. COAST</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>“A person,” says Boas, “may have the general crest of his clan and,
+    besides, use as his personal crest such guardian spirits as he
+    has acquired. This accounts partly for the great multiplicity of
+    combinations of crests which we observe on the carvings of these
+    people.... The crest is used for ornamenting objects belonging to a
+    member of the clan; they are carved on columns intended to perpetuate
+    the memory of a deceased relative, painted on the house front or carved
+    on a column which is placed in front of the house, and are also shown
+    as masks in festivals of the clan.”<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Some of the grave monuments
+    of the Kwakiutls, the Chimmesyans, the Tlinkits, and others of the
+    region<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> are ambitious carvings and represent considerable labour on the
+    part of the sculptor. One grave I saw at Cape Fox was presided over by
+    two huge wooden bears, the whole sheltered by a neat roof on posts and
+    surrounded by a balustrade. The animals must have been at least four
+    and a half feet high. Boas describes a grave-monument bird carved out
+    of cedar bark, which is six feet high and about twelve feet from tip
+    to tip of the extended wings. This bird is upright like the one carved
+    on the house-post mentioned above, and, like that, has on its stomach
+    the carved representation of a face. This bird’s wings were originally
+    painted black to represent feathers, but this decoration has worn off.
+    It is now in the American Museum. The Kwakiutls also have carved some
+    statues in wood representing chiefs in a state of nature. These are
+    extremely crude, but are superior to much of the Moundbuilder work as
+    shown in the pipes and other carvings that have been preserved, and
+    not greatly behind the Mexican. Double-headed birds and animals figure
+    prominently among the carvings and drawings of the North-west coast
+    tribes, such as the double-headed “thunder-bird,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> the double-headed
+    snake, etc. Boas obtained one of the latter among the Kwakiutls which
+    he describes as having a head at each end and a human head in the
+    middle. It is forty-two inches in length and about six inches wide.
+    It is “worn in front of the stomach and secured with cords passing
+    around the waist.” The fabulous animal this affair represents has “the
+    power to assume the shape of a fish. To eat it and even to touch or to
+    see it is sure death, as all the joints of the unfortunate one become
+    dislocated, the head being turned backward. But to those who enjoy
+    supernatural help it may bring power.”<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> These North-west tribes
+    seem to love to carve, and decorate almost everything that will admit
+    of it in this manner. In the vicinity of Fort Rupert there are on the
+    beach a number of rock carvings. These represent faces of sea monsters,
+    and also some of them human faces.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="i_168">
+    <img src="images/i_168.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO CARVED IVORY DRUM-HANDLES. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span></p>
+
+  <p>Amongst the Eskimos carving is limited, generally, to a sort of
+    engraving on bone and ivory, except in the matter of masks, which
+    are rudely shaped out of wood without any of the elaborate finish
+    that is observed in the work of Amerinds farther south. The wood they
+    have had to work with is not the kind that promotes carving, and
+    ivory is a rather difficult material to shape. Nevertheless, they
+    occasionally, form some attractive little heads from it, to adorn
+    the end of a harpoon line or something of that sort. They also shape
+    their drill bows and other implements to some extent and decorate them
+    with neat engraving. Some of these decorations are very pleasing, and
+    exhibit the same taste for symmetrical ornamentation that is found
+    throughout the continent. When they attempt to represent form they are
+    generally successful in giving it the proper character with less of
+    the childish grotesqueness that is seen in most Amerind work. How much
+    the long intercourse with Europeans on whalers has modified the art
+    efforts of the Eskimo it is not possible to judge. Murdoch<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> gives
+    illustrations of seals and whales shaped by the Point Barrow Eskimo,
+    but aside from the <em>character</em> of the animal being generally
+    fairly well rendered, there is little that is artistically interesting
+    in the work. What I mean by character is that you can generally tell
+    what is intended by an Eskimo carving, which is not always the case
+    with the sculptured efforts of other Amerinds, though the finish may
+    be better. Boas gives illustrations of the carved work of the Central
+    Eskimo,<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> which show the same characteristics as the Western.</p>
+
+  <p>The Far Northern tribes, as a rule, are inferior to the other
+    Amerinds, in sculptural work, yet the Eskimo, mechanically, were, in
+    many respects, apparently in advance of all others. They possessed
+    the lamp, the only stock on the continent who did, but, after all,
+    this shows only the adaptability that saved them from destruction. In
+    a world without fuel and with plenty of seal oil, they would never
+    have survived if they had not invented a way to secure heat from the
+    oil. The Amerind of the forested regions had no need for a lamp. The
+    possession of the lamp, therefore, is no indication of higher mental
+    powers, but of a more severe environment. Nor, on the other hand, is
+    the limited amount of their carving an indication on their part of
+    inferior mental endowment. It is, again, the result of circumstances,
+    as pointed out above. In a region without suitable material or climate
+    for extensive carving,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> they did not carve, that is all. Place them for
+    a few generations in the region of the Haidas, and they would begin to
+    develop many different habits and traits.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp65" id="i_170">
+    <img src="images/i_170.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SPECIMEN OF MOUNDBUILDER SCULPTURAL SKILL WITH HUMAN FIGURE<br>
+      <i>Height of jar, 10½ in.; width of shoulders, 8 in.</i></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>On the Atlantic coast, few specimens of sculpture have, thus far, been
+    found, nor has any carving of consequence been disclosed. In New Jersey
+    some rude heads in stone have come to light, but such finds are rare.
+    As the bounds of the Mississippi valley are entered, however, the art
+    remains immediately increase in importance, but not to the exaggerated
+    extent claimed by many writers. The carvings and sculptures of the
+    Mississippi valley are, like all Amerind products in this line, crude,
+    and there is no warrant for the claims that the occupants of the region
+    were not “Indians,” so far as these remains testify. The most striking
+    work found up to the present is that of the head-shaped vases from
+    Pecan Point, Arkansas, but as I have pointed out before,<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> these
+    vases were not modelled free-hand, but were the result of a process,
+    are in fact death-masks, built into the vases. While it was a clever
+    thing to accomplish these in that way, yet it is a mechanical method,
+    and has little to do with artistic skill. Thomas Wilson says of these
+    vases that they “divide themselves <span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>into two distinct groups. The
+    specimens forming the first group are death-masks, as becomes more
+    and more evident the more the objects are studied; the other group,
+    while of the same general form as the first, the human head being
+    represented, has the face and features wrought upon it free-hand, as in
+    sculpturing, without the aid of mould or cast.”<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> It may be added
+    that the second group is far inferior to the first, and is quite in
+    line with the rest of the remains of this district.</p>
+
+  <p>The tobacco pipes of the region were lauded as perfect examples of
+    the sculptor’s art, but if one gives them critical examination, it is
+    at once plain that they are not out of the Amerind line, and, what is
+    more, that as specimens of sculpture they are pretty bad, because it
+    is difficult to decide just what they represent. Even the Eskimo give
+    their work character enough to distinguish it, yet the Moundbuilder did
+    much of his carving so poorly that there has been frequent diversity
+    of opinion as to what it was intended to depict. Henshaw took up the
+    matter, and has shown that the degree of excellence of representation
+    in the carving of the Moundbuilder pipes, so long extolled, has been
+    overrated.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_171">
+    <img src="images/i_171.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>STONE PIPE FROM NORTH CAROLINA MOUND</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The tobacco pipe, bearing, as it did, a peculiar relation to the sacred
+    paraphernalia and ceremonies of the Amerinds, received much attention
+    from them and was frequently elaborate, from the Amerind standpoint,
+    in its details. The earliest form of pipe was a straight tube seen in
+    Mexican carvings and also found in various parts of North America.
+    In the Eastern United States one is found which is designated as the
+    “Monitor.” I suppose this name came from a resemblance to the famous
+    first turret man-of-war, the United States ship <cite>Monitor</cite>. The
+    base of these pipes was slightly curved downwards, the bowl rising from
+    about the centre of the platform, on the convex side. Many of these
+    show marks <span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>of steel tools.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> Squier and Davis, who published their
+    work in 1848, discerned wonderful artistic skill in the Moundbuilder
+    pipes, and they discovered an intimate acquaintance between the
+    Moundbuilder artists and far-off tropical birds and animals, probably
+    because in those days it was thought that an “Indian” was absolutely
+    incapable of producing anything. Especially was great stress laid by
+    Squier and Davis upon certain pipes said to delineate the manatee.
+    Theories of origin and migration were founded on this supposed
+    knowledge, and other writers accepting these deductions founded yet
+    other theories upon them; and they were <em>all</em> wrong. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>The trouble
+    seems to lie in the fact that the archæologists of some years ago not
+    only were not naturalists, but they were not accurate and drew their
+    conclusions from insufficient data. The attitude of the archæologist
+    of to-day is exceedingly cautious, and before pronouncing a pipe
+    carving a manatee, or any other animal, he would surely institute
+    cautious and careful comparisons. This Messrs. Squier and Davis seem
+    not to have done, nor did any of their followers or successors, being
+    content, as Henshaw points out, to accept Squier and Davis’s statement
+    as absolute. Henshaw demolishes their claims and shows that no manatee
+    is represented and that all the pipe carvings are of birds and animals
+    that had their range in the country of the Moundbuilders or not far
+    from its borders. What they called a toucan he identifies as a crow, or
+    raven, and in this decision several other ornithologists fully agree.
+    The nasal features are plainly shown, and the “general contour of the
+    bill is truly corvine.” See figure <a href="#Page_161">page 161</a>. Thus is this supposed
+    tropical acquaintance easily disposed of and the crow, certainly not
+    a rare bird in that locality, substituted. A turkey buzzard is shown
+    to be a hawk, and other foreign types claimed by Squier and Davis are
+    disproved with ease. Out of forty-five carvings on pipes figured by
+    them only five, by Henshaw’s tests, are correctly named. Some carvings,
+    which they were unable to identify, Henshaw places without any effort.
+    As for the so-called manatees, he <span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span>believes they were intended for
+    otter. The manatee is an earless animal with many peculiar features
+    which do not appear in the Moundbuilder carvings, while ears do
+    appear. This is what I mean by not giving “character” to carvings. It
+    is a matter, largely, of perception. The Eskimo appears to have this
+    perception developed to a considerable degree, and when he delineates
+    an animal he knows he marks strongly its peculiar features, whatever
+    else he may do. The element of imagination also comes in, for Amerinds
+    often produce drawings or carvings of animals they think they have
+    seen, or as they appeared to them in a sudden and fleeting glimpse, or
+    vision.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_172-1">
+    <img src="images/i_172-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SO-CALLED ELEPHANT PIPE, IOWA
+      <p class="hang">Only two of the “elephant” pipes have been found and both by the
+        same person. There is a doubt as to their genuineness. Even if
+        genuine they are far from depicting the mastodon</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_172-2">
+    <img src="images/i_172-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TOUCAN OF SQUIER AND DAVIS, POSSIBLY MEANT FOR A YOUNG EAGLE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp60" id="i_173">
+    <img src="images/i_173.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TRIPOD VASE, CHIRIQUI. ⅓. LEGS MODELLED TO IMITATE FISH</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>It was a lack of ability to reproduce accurately the lines and
+    character of <em>any</em> object which caused some of the Moundbuilder
+    pipes intended to represent the common otter to look like something
+    else. As a matter of fact, these Moundbuilder pipe carvings, about
+    which so much that is unwarranted has been written, are not superior to
+    the carvings of the Haidas, or other stocks, and indeed, if anything,
+    are not equal to them. They certainly do not compare for a moment with
+    most of the work of the Mexican tribes. A further important conclusion
+    of Henshaw’s is that “there is no reason for believing that the masks
+    and sculptures of human faces are more correct likenesses than are the
+    animal carvings,”<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> which is exactly in accord with my own opinion,
+    not only as concerns the work of the Moundbuilders, but of every other
+    Amerind tribe. They were not sculptors of a kind that could reproduce a
+    likeness to an individual. Their work was always <em>general</em>; they
+    seldom drew or painted <em>from the object</em>, as an artist or sculptor
+    of our race does, but they accomplished their result by memory,
+    imagination, and “rule of thumb.” The surprise of the Europeans at
+    finding anything at all in the art line, coupled with a wide ignorance
+    on art matters, has awarded all the Amerind carvings and sculptures,
+    as is well illustrated in the Moundbuilder case, a false degree of
+    excellence. The Amerinds of the Mississippi valley probably also carved
+    wood, but their work in this material has, of course, long ago decayed.
+    They worked other things, like shell, and some of the shell carvings
+    are strikingly like Aztec drawings. In this shellwork there are a great
+    many discs and gorgets, engraved with figures of spiders, rattlesnakes,
+    birds, geometrical designs, and representations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> of the human figure.
+    There are also rude shell masks of the human face, but these are
+    primitive in the extreme. It must be borne in mind that this region was
+    occupied for long ages, and <em>by many different tribes</em>, so that
+    the work found is probably from different sources, though all Amerind.
+    A class of singularly shaped stones is found in the Mississippi
+    valley and northward, mainly north of the Ohio, to which the name
+    “bird-stones” has been applied because of their resemblance to avian
+    forms. No satisfactory explanation of their use has been advanced.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_175">
+    <img src="images/i_175.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SHELL GORGET, MISSOURI. ACTUAL SIZE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p>
+
+  <p>A number of stone statues of the human figure have been unearthed from
+    Georgia to Tennessee, varying in height from three or four inches
+    to something over twenty. They are all of the crudest description,
+    and so far as any resemblance to the type of man who made them is
+    concerned are absolutely valueless. They are undoubtedly human forms,
+    that is all; not another characteristic, except sex, indicated by
+    breasts, is presented. They are mostly in a squatting posture and on
+    one or two there seems to be a suggestion of the hair dressed behind.
+    Effigy bottles of earthenware from Tennessee are similarly crude and
+    primitive. There is little, therefore, in the whole Mississippi valley
+    or on the Atlantic coast, in the line of carving or sculpture, that
+    could not have been executed by Amerinds that have been known to our
+    race, many of them living in the same localities where the art remains
+    have been found. The superlative rank awarded Moundbuilder art is
+    unwarranted.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_176">
+    <img src="images/i_176.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>BIRD-SHAPED EARTHEN BOWL, ARKANSAS. ⅓</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Directing our attention now to still another region, we find in the
+    South-west a vast deal that is absorbingly interesting. Fortunately
+    the people were, many of them, still there when the first Spaniards
+    came into the country in 1540, so that we have data to prevent the
+    attributing the works found there to some mysterious race. It has been
+    attempted in the case of the “Cliff-dwellers,” but the investigations
+    of competent ethnologists have effectually <span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>settled that matter, and
+    checked the romantic tendency except in the case of a few who will not
+    learn. The ethnographic condition of the South-west since we have known
+    it probably represents also what prevailed in the Mississippi region,
+    that is, <em>a number of different stocks existing in different stages
+      of culture</em>, distributed in patches, not uniformly.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_177">
+    <img src="images/i_177.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SHELL MASK, VIRGINIA. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>All of them pitched their camps or built their houses as expediency
+    dictated, and when cause arose to render them dissatisfied with their
+    site, whether cliff-house, village, or camp, they moved to a more
+    desirable place, leaving behind what they could not easily carry,
+    as well as their houses. Thus in the course of a long time the area
+    presented the appearance from the numerous remains <span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>of having a
+    larger population than was really the case; though I may add that
+    I believe the population was at one time somewhat greater than has
+    usually been admitted by the best ethnologists. These various stocks
+    carried on their daily avocations, and when the results were in some
+    indestructible material, many of them were preserved to us, which,
+    taken in connection with the productions of the modern tribes, give an
+    excellent and correct impression of the life and occupations of the
+    inhabitants extending far back into the past.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_178">
+    <img src="images/i_178.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Terra cotta<span style="padding-left: 30%;">Wood</span><span style="padding-left: 30%;">Terra cotta</span><br>
+      MOKI SCULPTURAL SKILL WITH THE HUMAN FIGURE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp20" id="i_179-1">
+    <img src="images/i_179-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE ALOSAKA (MOKI)</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp54" id="i_179-2">
+    <img src="images/i_179-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr" style="padding-right: 8em; padding-bottom: 1em;">Side</div>
+    <figcaption>SCULPTURAL ART OF CHIRIQUI<br>
+      Fragmentary figure in grey basaltic rock. ½</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Shoshonean is one of the stocks still extant in that and more
+    northerly regions, and spreads far south to the lakes of Mexico. It
+    exists to-day in several stages, the Mexican or Nahuatl, the Moki or
+    Hopi, and the numerous bands of Utes.<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> Other stocks probably had
+    equal variation in culture within their ranks, this variation being
+    sometimes due to the absorption, as in the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>case of the Navajos, of
+    a more cultured tribe. Many of these tribes did no carving whatever,
+    and the region of our South-west is poor in this sort of remains. The
+    Pueblos, while possessing other artistic talents of a high order, do
+    not seem to have done much in the line of carving. They execute the
+    ordinary fetiches with little or no shape, and they also produce a kind
+    of small doll for the children and some that are used in ceremonies,
+    figure <a href="#Page_178">page 178</a>, but all these, and all the masks in ceremonies, are
+    fearful things to look upon, bearing little or no resemblance to
+    anything human; shapeless, botched up masses of hideousness, usually
+    not carved or modelled, but built up out of various stuffs. Some of
+    them model effigies in earthenware, but these attempts do not amount
+    to much. I have never seen any wood carving, from this region, worth
+    mentioning. A. M. Stephen made a sketch of two figures in wood with
+    small knots or horns called the Alosaka, which I copied, but they are
+    primitive to the last degree. These figures were about four feet high,
+    and were of cottonwood, apparently very old. Figures above. They were
+    discovered by accident in a cave near the ruins of Awatuwi and removed.
+    When the loss was learned by the Moki they requested the return of the
+    images, which was granted, and they have not been seen since, nor does
+    anyone outside of the custodians, or at least no white man, know where
+    they are. Around the Moki towns I saw not a single attempt at rock
+    carving, nor do I remember in extensive journeys over the South-western
+    region ever seeing any <span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span>relief carving whatever. Rock scratchings,
+    erroneously termed “etchings” by many writers on these subjects, I
+    have seen in great abundance, but not an attempt at sculpture worth
+    noticing. There may, however, in some of the villages, be carvings
+    nevertheless. Governor Prince found at a ruin near Cochiti a number
+    of rudely formed stone figures of human shape. Nearby there are two
+    panthers carved life size in the tufa which forms the surface rock of
+    the locality. They “lie side by side,” says Bandelier, “representing
+    the animals as crouching with tails extended, and their heads pointing
+    to the east.”<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> Their length is six feet, one third of this being
+    tail. The height is two feet and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>the breadth across the shoulders
+    fourteen inches, and across the rump seventeen inches. They are about
+    twenty-two inches apart. Around them is an irregular pentagonal
+    enclosure, “made of large blocks, flags, and slabs of volcanic rock,
+    some of which are set in the ground like posts, while the majority
+    are piled on each other so as to connect the upright pillars.... When
+    I last saw the monument it looked like a diminutive and dilapidated
+    Stonehenge.”<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> Another pair of similar panthers occurs at not
+    a great distance off at a place now called the <i lang="es">Potrero de los
+      Idolos</i>. The size is about the same as the others. “One of them
+    is completely destroyed by treasure hunters, who loosened both from
+    the rock by a blast of powder, and then heaved the ponderous blocks
+    out by means of crowbars. After breaking one of the figures to pieces
+    they satisfied themselves that nothing was buried underneath.... The
+    imperfections of the sculpture are very apparent; were it not for the
+    statements of the Indians, who positively assert that the intention
+    of the makers was to represent a puma, it would be considered to be a
+    gigantic lizard.”<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_180">
+    <img src="images/i_180.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SHELL GORGET, TENNESSEE. ⅔<br>
+      Apparently a human figure, with face in profile to the left of the
+      circle near the top. The nose is cut away by a perforation</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The metates or mealing stones, abundant in modern and ancient villages,
+    and which in the Far South are elaborately carved oftentimes, are, in
+    the South-west, so far as I have observed in the field and in reports
+    of investigators, never decorated in the faintest degree. Articles,
+    also, of various kinds that among the Haidas or Tlinkits would be
+    covered with carving, have here not a vestige of it. Nor is there any
+    carving about the house timbers or the stones that enter into the
+    wall construction, places where the Aztecs, and especially the Mayas,
+    lavished their skill. The Mokis make little clay images which they fire
+    for the children, but they are without merit. Nor do the Navajo, the
+    Pima, the Apache, Yuma, or any of the other stocks attempt anything
+    in the direction of carving, so that it seems safe to say that the
+    South-west has not produced any carving worthy of note, either in
+    modern or ancient times. The ruins so far as known are as barren of
+    carved articles as the modern occupied houses.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_182">
+    <img src="images/i_182.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE AZTEC “CALENDAR” STONE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Proceeding southward, however, when we approach the vicinity of the
+    City of Mexico, examples of carving appear, and it is quickly evident
+    that the Aztecs gave great attention to this form of art. One of the
+    most remarkable specimens is the so-called Calendar Stone dug up under
+    the present city, and now in the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>Mexican National Museum. It has been
+    called a sacrificial stone, but Bandelier thinks it may have served
+    rather as the base for another stone, holding the rope of a captive
+    doomed to the “gladiatorial” sacrifice. For my part I incline to the
+    opinion that it is an astronomical affair. The date carved on the top
+    is the 13th Acatl or <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1479 of our time, according to the
+    accepted calculations. In the centre is a head, supposed to represent
+    the sun, and around it are twenty figures, standing for the twenty days
+    of the Mexican month. Then come eight divisions by what appear to be
+    arrow-heads, four being extended farther toward the centre than the
+    others and also curled up at the ends or flukes, and one of these four
+    ending in an elaborate sort of bow-knot ornament which covers a wide
+    space at what is now the lower edge as it stands. Each of the eight
+    divisions is again divided by a kind of crown which is smaller than the
+    smaller arrow-heads, and then <span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>there is a still further subdivision
+    made by a dot, on a line with the base of the crown. This gives
+    thirty-two points, or exactly the number of points on our mariner’s
+    compass card, so that this carving can be “boxed” as any compass card
+    can be. The N., E., and W., are more prominent than any other points
+    but the S., which has the decoration referred to. Then come the N.E.,
+    S.E., S.W., and N.W., with each set of intermediate points diminishing
+    in importance.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> It looks as if our ancient Aztecs had found a
+    mariner’s compass washed ashore and perpetuated it by thus carving
+    it with mythological significance.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> Stranger things than this
+    have occurred among Amerinds. But I prefer to believe that the Aztec
+    astronomer worked out the points of the compass for himself, for these
+    directions exist of course in every land independent of the compass,
+    and the moment the Amerind began to work in astronomy he was forced
+    to recognise the thirty-two natural directions that were open to him.
+    No doubt the Mayan and Mexican observatories were somewhat similar to
+    that of the Shah Jahan at Jeypore in India, where circular stones of
+    different sizes formed a part of the observing apparatus. The Mayan and
+    Mexican astronomical knowledge was probably equal to any extant in the
+    fourteenth century.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp60" id="i_183">
+    <img src="images/i_183.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>AZTEC SCULPTURE, THE INDIO TRIST</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span></p>
+
+  <p>Another type of Mexican carving is seen in the statue of Teoyaomiqui,
+    the god of war and death, of which the two faces are different.
+    Bandelier believes this to be a statue of the war-god Huitzilopochtli.</p>
+
+  <p>Another remarkable statue given mention by Bandelier is the “Indio
+    Triste.” This is a squatting figure of an Amerind executed with more
+    simplicity than is usual with Amerind work in this region. Bandelier
+    considers it a torch-bearer, a supposition borne out by evidence he
+    advances, and also by the arrangement of the hands and arms, which
+    are brought out forward of the chest as if clasping something in the
+    empty space between the fingers. This statue is forty inches high and
+    two feet wide. A comparatively small number of Aztec sculptures have
+    been found. Almost all were destroyed or buried by the zeal of the
+    early priests. Under the City of Mexico and in other places there are
+    probably many lying intact, and some day they may come to the light.
+    “The art of sculpture in aboriginal Mexico,” says Bandelier, “while
+    considerably above that of the Northern Village-Indians, is still not
+    superior to the remarkable carvings on ivory and wood of the tribes of
+    the North-west Coast and often bears a marked resemblance to them.”<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Proceeding on southward, the next great group of carvings is that
+    ascribed to the Mayas, and extending, in a general way, from the
+    Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the borders of Honduras and somewhat beyond.
+    The people formerly occupying this area were extremely active in the
+    line of carving, and there are preserved to us tablets, figures in
+    bass-relief, statues, monoliths, and other stone- and wood-work that,
+    taken together, easily bring this people in the very front place among
+    Amerind artists. Their buildings were most elaborately ornamented with
+    carving in stone, or wood, and with modelling in stucco, and there
+    were many tablets bearing carved inscriptions. One of the most famous
+    of these tablets adorned a beautiful building called in modern times
+    “The Temple of the Cross.”<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> It stands at Palenque. The tablet was
+    affixed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>to the rear wall of an inner chamber, termed by Europeans
+    the “Adoratorio,” and was in three sections, the total dimensions of
+    which were ten feet eight inches wide, by six feet four inches high.
+    One section of this tablet remained in place at the time of Charnay’s
+    last visit, one was in Las Playas, and the other, the third, is in the
+    Smithsonian Institution. At each extreme end of the whole composition
+    was a mass of the calculiform writing; next came two figures separated
+    by a peculiar design in the centre, which somewhat resembles a cross,
+    and it was this design that gave the name to the tablet. While the
+    execution is remarkable it is nevertheless primitive, and similar to
+    other Amerind art in quality and conception. It is a high development
+    of Amerindian sculptural ideas. Another similar tablet exists in the
+    so-called “Temple of the Sun.” A cast of this was made by Charnay and a
+    photograph from this cast is given in figure on <a href="#i_185">page 185</a>.<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_185">
+    <img src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SANCTUARY TABLET, TEMPLE (TEOCALLI) OF THE SUN, PALENQUE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_186">
+    <img src="images/i_186.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>“ALTAR” IN FRONT OF STELA D, COPAN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>At Copan twenty-three stelæ, or monolithic monuments, elaborately
+    carved with human figures and hieroglyphs, have been found. Each had
+    in front a sculptured block designated as an <span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>altar. Their average
+    height is twelve feet, and their breadth and their thickness each
+    about three feet. Stelæ and so called idols have been exhumed around
+    Lake Nicaragua, but all remains grow less important towards the south
+    except in Chiriqui, as well as towards the north. Indeed, here in
+    Yucatan seems to have sprung the living fountain that watered all the
+    desolation of the Western world.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_187">
+    <img src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>STELA NO. 6, COPAN<span style="padding-left: 30%;">BACK OF STELA NO. 6</span></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_188">
+    <img src="images/i_188.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PUMA-SHAPED STOOL OF GREY ANDESITE, CHIRIQUI. ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The stelæ at Copan are some of the most artistic and altogether
+    remarkable sculptures found on the continent. They are highly
+    decorative, and the execution of the intricate designs with the poor
+    stone tools at their command is extraordinary. But all the productions
+    of the Mayas pass easily beyond those of any other stock on this
+    continent. Some of the conventionalised animal heads used as gargoyles
+    are exceedingly well done and so also are several works called
+    “singing-girls” (see figures pages <a href="#i_019">19</a> and <a href="#i_079">79</a>). There are no geometric
+    patterns at Copan, and the designs and execution are of a high order,
+    yet at the same time thoroughly Amerindian. The rattlesnake enters into
+    many of the designs and is represented by itself frequently. It was
+    an animal of great importance to all Amerinds from the thirty-eighth
+    parallel down. Charnay gives an illustration of what he calls votive
+    stones, that are apparently the representation of the rattle of the
+    revered reptile. The segments are clearly indicated and altogether the
+    design seems to me unmistakable.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> The region of the South-west and
+    Mexico is also the richest in species of any part of America, no less
+    than “eight out of a total of seventeen species occurring at or near
+    the boundary between the United States and the Mexican Republic.” In
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>southern Arizona seven different species are found. “Their centre of
+    distribution appears to be the tableland of Mexico with its extension
+    northward into the south-western United States.”<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_189">
+    <img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HEAD SCULPTURED IN STONE, CHULTUNES OF LABNA, YUCATAN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>One of the “Temples of the Cross” at Palenque is flanked at the
+    entrance by two well-constructed figures, one on either side, supposed
+    to represent the Mayan war and rain gods.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> These figures are in low
+    relief, covered with the customary Amerind trappings and head-dresses
+    of this region. On each tablet there are some calculiform characters.
+    Many of the ruined buildings still exhibit a wealth of ornamentation
+    either carved in stone, modelled in stucco, or constructed out of
+    rubble and stucco. Some of the carvings, notably certain heads at
+    Uxmal, have formed the basis for much discussion. The latter were
+    supposed by Waldeck to be representations of elephants’ trunks, but
+    there is no foundation for this supposition. They more likely represent
+    ceremonial masks with long noses. Something similar, though lacking
+    the curve, is seen in some of the remarkable funeral urns found in the
+    Zapotecan tombs.</p>
+
+  <p>The statue of Chac-Mool, found at Chichen Itza by Le Plongeon, is
+    an example of what was accomplished when the figure was attempted
+    without any of the accessories of masks, draperies, etc.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> It is
+    a large reclining figure, crude and primitive. Some of the work at
+    other places is more symmetrical, as, for instance, the Lacandon idol
+    described by Charnay. “This idol is very beautiful and unique of its
+    kind, for nothing like it has been found either in Tabasco or Yucatan.
+    It represents a figure sitting cross-legged, the hands resting on the
+    knees ... the face now mutilated is crowned by an enormous head-dress
+    of a peculiar style, presenting a fantastic head with a diadem and
+    medallions, topped by huge feathers, like those on the columns at Tula
+    and Chichen-Itza.”<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> This idol was found at Menché, where there is
+    a lot of excellent work in the line of carving, some of the wooden
+    lintels being particularly interesting. It is impossible in a brief
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>chapter to convey more than a slight impression of all this elaborate
+    carving. The reader who desires to obtain a full comprehension of the
+    work should study Maudsley’s text and illustrations in the <cite>Biologia
+    Centrali Americana</cite>.</p>
+
+  <p>Where modelling was accomplished by the building-up process with stones
+    and mortar the results were sometimes gigantic. Stephens found an
+    enormous head made in this way at Izamal at the base of the palace of
+    Hunpictok. He described it as being seven feet eight inches high. “The
+    features,” he says, “were first rudely formed by small rough stones,
+    fixed in the side of the mound by means of mortar, and afterwards
+    perfected with stucco so hard that it has resisted the action of air
+    and water for centuries.” The stone composing the chin alone measures
+    one foot and six inches. The face had an extremely large mustache. This
+    singular specimen of the Yucatan Amerinds’ modelling skill has, since
+    the visit of Stephens, completely disappeared. At the same place is
+    another, however, still intact.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp40" id="i_191">
+    <img src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>LARGE BUILT-UP HEAD AT IZAMAL</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>This one is thirteen feet high and is constructed in the same manner as
+    the one that is gone.</p>
+
+  <p>Everywhere throughout Yucatan and the contiguous region the
+    architecture is overloaded with ornamentation which many large volumes
+    would barely be sufficient to describe. In Nicaragua, as well as in
+    Honduras, there are found many carvings and sculptures, statues, stelæ,
+    etc., but they are rarely equal to those found in the Maya ruins. It
+    must be said, however, that the examination of these states has been
+    even less thorough than that of the Maya region. Tribes of Nahuatl
+    stock built and laboured in the country below the Maya, and in Costa
+    Rica there are indications that the remains belong to Amerinds who
+    differed from both Maya and Nahuatl.</p>
+
+  <p>Some of the supposed metates or mealing stones found in Nicaragua are
+    carved with legs and artistically decorated. One <span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>figured by Squier is
+    a particularly beautiful specimen. It is a thin curved slab, concave
+    side up, and has four legs. One end projects considerably beyond the
+    legs, apparently forming the head or end where the operator sat or
+    kneeled, and is carved in a wide band all the way across. In Chiriqui
+    there are similar stones. Another class of carved remains found in
+    Chiriqui is apparently a sort of metate, but it differs from the latter
+    in being round, and Holmes designates them as stools, for want of a
+    more exact term.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> Some wooden stools have recently been obtained in
+    Central America which are so nearly like the affair described by Squier
+    as a metate, that it is probable the latter was also a stool. The
+    figure on <a href="#Page_188">page 188</a> illustrates this class. They have a depressed upper
+    surface and are carved basalt in one piece. An example of the round is
+    given above. To carve an object like this from solid basalt must have
+    been a work of great duration. It is in their metal- and claywork,
+    however, that the Chiriqui Amerinds specially excelled.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_192">
+    <img src="images/i_192.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>STOOL OF GREY BASALT, CHIRIQUI. ⅓</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>All works are dominated by the customs and religious ideas of the
+    Amerind race, which were practically the same everywhere in
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
+    different stages of development. Nowhere do we find a touch of
+    idealism, which is such a marked characteristic of the work of the
+    European race. The highest of it marks a development in art below the
+    Egyptian. As in picture-writing we trace the growth of letters, so by
+    the aid of the Amerind sculpture and carving we have a line of art
+    progress from infancy to the present time.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp25" id="i_193">
+    <img src="images/i_193.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>COPPER BELL FROM TENNESSEE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_VIII">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_194">
+    <img src="images/i_194.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PUEBLO MEALING STONES</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">SHELTERS, DWELLINGS, AND ARCHITECTURE</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THE Amerind of North America has generally been considered a shiftless
+    and indolent being, but the preceding pages have shown, I think, that
+    this estimate is an error, and the following chapters, together with
+    the present one, will even more conclusively demolish that false
+    assumption. The Amerind to be sure was not a white man, but it must
+    not be forgotten that the constant holding of the white man’s nose to
+    the grindstone is not so commendable as it is often said to be, for it
+    is not choice with him but necessity born of his ways of living and
+    his great numbers. Put him in comparatively small numbers on a vast
+    continent rich and fertile and abounding in game, and it is not likely
+    that he would shut himself up in a factory or in an office, where he
+    is only a counting machine. The Amerind was as industrious as his
+    environment demanded. Doubtless had his development not been interfered
+    with by the Discovery, he might have arrived in time at the same
+    condition of pressure that compels us to labour incessantly.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost everywhere on this continent are discovered numerous evidences
+    of Amerind industry and toil. From the brush shelter of the Pai
+    Ute of Arizona to the vast stone structures, richly ornamented, of
+    Yucatan, is an immense range, and within these limits are to be
+    found about every kind of a refuge from the elements that mankind
+    has been able to devise. Mud, boughs <span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>caves, wood, adobe, stone,
+    ice, snow, wicker-work, wattling, skins, in fact, every material and
+    every possible hole, existing in nature, have been utilised by the
+    Amerind, and the materials have been given every variety of shape. In
+    nothing, perhaps, has his struggle with environment, and the moulding
+    effects of the environment, been more clearly exhibited than in the
+    forms and materials of the dwellings he has been compelled to invent.
+    Other evidences of his perseverance and exertion are discerned in
+    great aqueducts, in long irrigating canals, in reservoirs, in huge
+    earthworks, and enormous mounds that sometimes rival in magnitude the
+    giant constructions of Egypt.</p>
+
+  <p>The Amerind dwellings may be divided into three general
+    classes,—temporary, portable, and fixed. The two classes, temporary and
+    fixed, only are usually recognised by ethnologists, but it has seemed
+    to me proper to add the third class, because of the wide use of the
+    portable tipi, and other forms of tent. The temporary houses, those
+    abandoned on moving camp and seldom occupied again, may be represented
+    by the Pai Ute wikiup; the portable, carried from place to place for
+    years, by the tipi of the Dakotas; the fixed, or those which are
+    occupied either for an extended period or periodically, by the stone or
+    adobe house of the Pueblos, or the wood house of the Iroquois, or the
+    wood and earth house of the Eskimo.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp70" id="i_195">
+    <img src="images/i_195.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PAI UTE WIKIUPS, NORTHERN ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Outside of a natural cave or rock shelter, the wikiup of the Pai <span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>Ute
+    exhibits about the lowest type of house used by man. It is said the
+    chimpanzee makes a rude hut of boughs and branches, but even that could
+    scarcely be less simple than the Arizona wikiup. This is composed
+    merely of several branches arranged in a semi-circle, or rather more
+    than a semi-circle, eight or ten feet in height, their tops together,
+    and covered with boughs of cedar or pine or any other convenient
+    brush. About one third of the circumference is open to the south, and
+    opposite this side the fire is built a few feet away. The Pai Ute is
+    surrounded by remains of excellent stone dwellings constructed long ago
+    by Amerinds who are believed to be of the same general stock, but he
+    has never tried to improve his wikiup of his own accord. The Utes, his
+    kindred on the north, live in good tipis, but the Pai Ute appears never
+    to have noticed the fact. The Mokis, also allied to him, live not far
+    to southward in excellent houses, yet he has never attempted to emulate
+    them.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_196">
+    <img src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI KISI CONSTRUCTION</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the kisi construction of the Mokis we may perhaps see the beginning
+    of even the wikiup. The kisi is a sort of windbreak and sun-shelter
+    lightly constructed of boughs and made in two ways, one called kishoni,
+    being simply poles stuck in the ground in the arc of a circle with
+    the concave side towards the north, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>interlaced with twigs and
+    branches to form a shade. The other kind is built by planting several
+    posts with crotches at their tops in the ground in the form of a
+    parallelogram and laying other posts or poles across from crotch to
+    crotch and covering these with poles to form a platform or roof.
+    Against the whole, on the south side, poles and branches are erected
+    to form a shade. These affairs are put up in the fields to protect the
+    crop tenders when there is no convenient cliff or ledge whereon to
+    erect a better structure of stone. Doubtless out of these shelters,
+    now seen in the field structures, originally grew the firm adobe and
+    stone house, by one step or improvement after another, and probably all
+    house construction had some such simple beginning. In a forested area,
+    however, the easy construction of a comfortable house out of poles and
+    bark would delay any development of a durable stone or adobe structure;
+    the adobe, indeed, would not be durable in a humid climate. Protection
+    and subsistence dictated the region a tribe or a stock should occupy,
+    and the region usually determined the character of the house or
+    shelter. House building, in its beginnings, is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>largely a result of
+    environment, and was developed or modified accordingly. The tribes that
+    were compelled to live in a sterile, dry country, where game and wood
+    were both scarce, were forced to provide themselves with different
+    food and different shelter from those which occupied a well-wooded
+    country abounding in game. A few skins and poles, in the latter case,
+    would quickly produce a house. In the arid region, however, man was
+    not provided with such convenient material. His shelter from the sun
+    cost him much labour and he was obliged to transport his necessary wood
+    long distances. Additions to the shade to make it more comfortable were
+    therefore obtained by piling up stones or scraping together the mud
+    after a rain, and these operations being repeated, a development of
+    skill was the inevitable result; skill which eventually produced a wall
+    all round the sun-shelter, with the beams of the latter resting upon
+    them instead of upon posts.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="i_197">
+    <img src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PRIMITIVE AMERIND LADDERS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_198">
+    <img src="images/i_198.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A NAVAJO HOUSE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>It seems, therefore, altogether probable that stone and mud house
+    building originated in arid regions; but in a region treeless, like
+    our great plains, the inevitable outcome in the line of a shelter was
+    the portable tipi (teepee), because there bison hides were at hand for
+    covering, but poles of the proper sort were difficult to secure and
+    were carried along. In the forest, neither portable tents nor stone
+    houses were necessary. It would only be when population was dense
+    enough to destroy the game and timber, or when a people were forced to
+    an arid region, that the stone house would develop. The Iroquois was
+    a forest Amerind, and he built a house of wood that was excellent in
+    construction and answered his purpose admirably. The Navajo occupying
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>an arid region has been content with a rude shelter of boughs and
+    branches or with boughs or poles covered with mud. They have never
+    profited by the example of their Moki neighbours, and built substantial
+    houses,—one reason, and the chief one, being that their habit of never
+    occupying again any shelter where death has occurred has precluded it,
+    for they do not care to bestow great labour on a structure that they
+    may be called upon any time to abandon. There are then other causes
+    besides ability, or inability, to build substantially that determine
+    the character of the Amerind house.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_199">
+    <img src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A SWEAT HOUSE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Bandelier states that the Pimas “dwelt in scattered hamlets, the houses
+    of which combine to-day the mud roof of a typical New Mexican pueblo
+    with the temporary framework of frail branches characteristic of the
+    roaming savage.”<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> The roof is dome-shaped, but it is similar in
+    material to the Pueblo mud roof, so that there we have a sort of a
+    cross between the Moki field shelter, already mentioned, and the Navajo
+    hut or hogan. The stock from which the present Pimas descended are
+    supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> to have built the remarkable structure in Arizona known as
+    <em>Casa Grande</em>, found in ruins by the first explorers. Tribes alter
+    their methods of building, either from summer to winter or at different
+    epochs. The Omahas at one time made lodges of wood, at another of
+    earth, and at still another time they dwelt in tipis of skin. If a
+    stone-house-building tribe should migrate to a region where neither
+    loose flat stones nor adobe clay could be readily obtained, they would
+    be forced to use timber.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> The Zuñi languages and traditions point
+    to the occupancy by the Pueblos in early times of brush houses like
+    those of the Pai Utes. The Mohaves live in low huts of branches covered
+    with mud.</p>
+
+  <p>The communal principle of living pervaded America and largely
+    determined the size and character of the dwellings. A number of
+    families usually lived together, in the same house, or in a group of
+    rooms or houses. The “long-house” of the Iroquois, called by them
+    <i>hodénosote</i>, and the clustered fortress-houses of the Pueblos,
+    are good examples of the results of the practice of the communal
+    principles adhered to by most of the Amerinds. It is also believed
+    by some of the best authorities, like Bandelier and Morgan, that the
+    Mexican and Mayan houses were largely due to the same cause.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the Omahas the tipis were usually grouped according to
+    gentes.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Tipi and wigwam are frequently used by us as synonymous,
+    and in some dictionaries a picture of a tipi is made to represent a
+    wigwam.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> This is an error due to unfamiliarity with different forms
+    of Amerind dwellings. The tipi is generally a portable structure while
+    the wigwam is always fixed, and the latter is also of a different
+    shape. Tipi is a Dakota term and wigwam is Algonquin. Tipi is really
+    the plural for “house,” the singular being “ti,” and “pi” a termination
+    indicating plurality.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> It is constructed by arranging a number,
+    sometimes as many as twenty or thirty, long poles, previously tied
+    together near their tops, in a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>circle of about ten or fifteen feet
+    diameter. This conical frame is then covered with bison hides sewed
+    together in one sheet, or in modern days with canvas, shaped properly
+    and laced or pinned together along the middle third of the junction of
+    the covering mantle. The upper third is left loose, and its pointed
+    ends are extended up and out by means of outside poles stuck into
+    pockets in their extreme upper corners, according to the direction of
+    the wind, to let the smoke escape from the fire built in the middle
+    of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>the interior. If the wind blows straight at these flaps they are
+    brought close together. Sometimes an extra skin is adjusted at the top
+    so that it can be placed on any side to accomplish this object. The
+    lower third is left open for a doorway, another skin being adjusted
+    before it with a stick to spread it near its upper end, which end is
+    attached to the tent. The bottom of the tent cover is held down by
+    stakes or pins driven into the ground. In case of high winds, stones or
+    other weights are placed on the bottom edge of the skins to keep them
+    down. In summer the Omahas, and other tribes of the Dakotas, erected,
+    when convenient, an elliptical lodge covered with bark, the roof being
+    rounded and the construction being generally similar to the Algonquin
+    elliptical wigwam. It was not more than seven feet high, while the
+    tipi is twelve to twenty or more. These tribes also sometimes built
+    earth lodges, chiefly for summer use, the roofs of which resembled in
+    construction those of the Pueblo houses, though they were conical. A
+    number of posts were set up in the ground to support in their crotches
+    the transverse beams upon which numerous slender poles, about two
+    inches in diameter, were laid to reach almost to the top where a hole
+    for the exit of smoke was left. Against the outer series of posts
+    all around slabs of wood were set up and the whole was then covered
+    with earth a foot or two thick after matting and a layer of grass, or
+    grass alone, was placed on the rafters or roof poles. This lodge was
+    circular, the roof being conical, and it was entered through a covered
+    way about ten feet long and five feet wide, the outer opening of which
+    was protected by hanging bison hides. The supporting poles or posts
+    were arranged in two concentric circles, in large lodges, the inner set
+    being higher than the outer. Compartments within opening toward the
+    fire were formed of willow matting, or skins.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_201">
+    <img src="images/i_201.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>AN OMAHA TIPI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The regular tipi was decorated in accordance with tribal customs.
+    Dorsey has published some careful notes on this as on other matters
+    connected with the tribes of the Dakota stock, and Catlin has also
+    given descriptions. The decorations were often the result of a vision.
+    If a man had a vision of the aurora he depicted it on his robes and
+    tent, the latter having a band of paint around the bottom, above which
+    was a zigzag border from which, on one side, three stripes were drawn
+    to the top of the tent, four on the other, and one in the rear. If he
+    had a vision of the night or of some other “superterrestrial object,
+    he blackened the upper part of his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>tent and a small portion on each
+    side of the entrance.” Sometimes a star was also indicated, and night
+    was represented by a black band above the middle or at the bottom. A
+    tent similar to the Dakota tipi is in wide use among the Amerinds.
+    Morgan states that the Dakotas were living in bark-covered houses when
+    first discovered, in villages, in the present state of Minnesota,
+    and that when they were driven “upon the plains by an advancing
+    white population, but after they had become possessed of horses,
+    they invented a skin tent eminently adapted to their present nomadic
+    condition. It is superior to any other in use among the American
+    aborigines from its roominess, its portable character, and the facility
+    with which it can be erected and struck.”<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> While this is probably
+    accurate as concerns the Dakotas, it is likely that other tribes
+    invented a similar tent for themselves, before the appearance of the
+    Dakotas on the plains.<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> Three tipis among the Omahas were sacred,
+    and sheltered three sacred objects, the Sacred Pole, the Sacred White
+    Buffalo-Cow Skin, and the Sacred Bag. These are all now in the Peabody
+    Museum at Cambridge. They were built like the common tipi.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_203">
+    <img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A SEMINOLE DWELLING</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The wigwam of the Algonquins was built in two general ways, using bark
+    or mats for covering. One form is made by planting elastic poles in the
+    ground and bringing their tops together, and binding the whole with
+    horizontal poles. It is unlike the tipi, because it is not portable,
+    because the poles are flexible, and because the sides curve out from
+    bottom to top instead of being straight lines. It is covered with
+    birchbark. It is from ten to sixteen feet in diameter on the ground,
+    and from six to ten feet high. The fire was built, as in the tipi, in
+    the middle of the floor in a slight depression, and the usual outlet
+    for smoke was left at the top. “Such a lodge,” says Morgan, “would
+    accommodate, in the aboriginal plan of living, two and sometimes three
+    married pairs with their children.”<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> The Menominee-Algonquin form
+    of wigwam was made by planting in the ground about three feet <span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>apart,
+    approximating the form of an ellipse, strong saplings some two inches
+    in diameter, leaving at each end an opening for a doorway. The poles
+    are then bent over toward each other and tied in an arch with strips of
+    bark. Horizontal poles are tied on to the upright ones for stiffening,
+    and the frame is then covered with bark or mats overlapping each other
+    like shingles. The usual smoke outlet is left in the top. A mat curtain
+    takes the place of a door. There were seldom, or never, regular doors
+    in any Amerind houses on the continent before the Discovery, the
+    opening being closed by curtains or mats. Another Menominee shelter,
+    described by Hoffman, was made by “putting five or six saplings on each
+    side of a parallelogram; the ends are left open, and the top of each
+    sapling on a given side is then bound down over its opposite fellow to
+    form a roof somewhat resembling a wagon-top. Horizontal saplings are
+    then bound around the framework to make the structure secure, and over
+    all are laid, longitudinally, a series of long strips of pine bark the
+    upper pieces overlapping those below, while a large piece is placed
+    over the highest part of the roof, which thus sheds the rain or melting
+    snow.... The bedding is spread on the ground and usually covers the
+    entire floor.”<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p>
+
+  <p>The eastern portion of the continent below Labrador, being
+    well-forested, the Amerind houses there appear to have been entirely of
+    wood, or sometimes of wood and mud combined. For this reason nothing
+    of any of them, except occasional earth rings, is to be found and,
+    so far as remains of houses are concerned, our wonderful, surpassing
+    Moundbuilders appear to have had no houses. Turning to other Amerinds,
+    however, who occupied the country when the whites arrived, we glean a
+    fair idea of what the houses of the Mississippi valley may have been
+    at their best. They varied in design in the same locality, of course,
+    according to the tribe, in the same way that I have mentioned that in
+    the South-west we find to-day Amerinds living in the most primitive
+    form of dwelling not many miles away from others living in high types.</p>
+
+  <p>Some of the Mississippi valley houses were doubtless excellent
+    structures though built of wood, or of wattling plastered with
+    mud. Many of the mounds, squares, and circles were connected <span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>with
+    buildings, generally forming the foundations for dwellings or other
+    structures as in other parts of the continent.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> In other words,
+    they were often platforms for houses. The reasons for building a house
+    on a platform raised above the surrounding lands might be many; one
+    simple one was a desire to keep the floor dry in wet weather. The floor
+    was earth, and earth on a level during long rains got uncomfortably
+    damp if not wet. It would be natural in building, after such lessons,
+    to elevate the floor of the house, which was done by rearing a platform
+    of earth. This gave good drainage, and besides in a malarial region
+    would be more healthful, and furthermore added to the defensive
+    qualities. The habitations being built upon platforms, it would not
+    do to build sacred structures on low ground. Man seldom looks down
+    upon his spiritual constructions. Hence the higher the sacred building
+    could be placed, the more sacred it seemed, and the huge flat-topped
+    mounds of the Mississippi valley and Mexico were the result. Some of
+    the Florida Amerinds were still living in dwellings reared on platforms
+    of this kind, and so were others in the Southern United States, at the
+    time of the first visits of the whites. The mounds, as a rule, are on
+    the bottom lands along river courses, though in places where there are
+    higher terraces these have frequently been chosen. Thomas quotes the
+    following passage from Garcilasso: “The town and the houses of the
+    cacique Ossachile are like those of other caciques in Florida.... <span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>The
+    Indians try to place their villages on elevated sites; but inasmuch
+    as in Florida there are not many sites of this kind where they can
+    conveniently build, they erect elevations themselves in the following
+    manner: They select the spot and carry there a quantity of earth, which
+    they form into a kind of platform two or three pikes in height, the
+    summit of which is large enough to give room for twelve, fifteen, or
+    twenty houses, to lodge the cacique and his attendants. At the foot
+    of this elevation they mark out a square place, according to the size
+    of the village, around which the leading men have their houses....
+    To ascend the elevation they have a straight passageway from bottom
+    to top, fifteen or twenty feet wide. Here steps are made by massive
+    beams, and others are planted firmly in the ground to serve as walls.
+    On all other sides of the platform the sides are cut steep.”<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a>
+    Thomas quotes further from Garcilasso: “The chief, whose name was also
+    Guaxule, came out with five hundred men to meet him and took him in the
+    village (pueblo) in which were three hundred houses, and lodged him in
+    his own. This house stood on a high mound (cerro) similar to others we
+    have already mentioned. Round about was a roadway sufficiently broad
+    for six men to walk abreast.”<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> Again he quotes Le Page Du Pratz,
+    who visited the Natchez in 1720: “As I was an intimate friend of the
+    sovereign of the Natchez he showed me their temple, which is about
+    thirty feet square, and stands on an artificial mount about eight feet
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>high, by the side of a small river.”<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> There was also still another
+    reason for building on mounds or elevated platforms; the reason, or
+    at least one great reason, why the Mayas and Mexicans built on them,
+    namely the desire to protect the foundations. In Louisiana the Taensas,
+    in the time of La Salle, built of “sun-baked mud mixed with straw,
+    arched over with a dome-shaped roof.”<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> Now a structure of this
+    kind if reared on ordinary ground would soon be destroyed by the rains
+    and moisture sapping its foundations, but by placing it on an elevated
+    platform, where its footing would be comparatively dry, it would endure
+    a long time. A sacred house would be likely to be so placed, if not
+    others.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_206">
+    <img src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MISSISSIPPI VALLEY METHOD OF USING JACAL CONSTRUCTION,<br>
+      ACCORDING TO THOMAS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_207">
+    <img src="images/i_207.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CLIFF OUTLOOK, CANYON DEL MUERTO, ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Every tribe had some kind of a sacred structure, the Omahas carrying
+    from place to place the three sacred tents referred to. The sacred
+    structures, too, were generally of the same style as the house of the
+    chief. Each village of the Natchez had a house devoted to the dead,
+    besides others dedicated to different sacred objects. The death-house
+    was oval, “having a circumference of one hundred feet—a simple hut
+    without a window, and with a low and narrow opening on the side for
+    the only door.”<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> Here were “garnered the choicest fetiches of the
+    tribe, of which some were moulded from clay and baked in the sun.
+    There, too, were gathered the bones of the dead; there an undying fire
+    was kept burning by appointed guardians as if to warm and light and
+    cheer the departed.”<a href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> “Hard by the temple, on an artificial mound
+    of earth, stood the hut of the Great Sun; around it were grouped the
+    cabins of the tribe.”<a href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p>
+
+  <p>It seems unnecessary to give any further space to show that the mounds
+    that have aroused so much discussion and romantic writing were, many of
+    them, the foundations for various structures reared by Amerinds as we
+    know them.</p>
+
+  <p>Morgan advanced a theory that the hollow square earthworks were the
+    foundations for long buildings, at one and the same time dwellings
+    and a part of the defences, the interior area being used for a work
+    place, children’s playground, etc. Many Algonquin houses were made
+    of a parallelogram shape, with straight sides about eight feet high
+    and a rounded roof. These houses were fifty or more feet long, and
+    the matting with which they were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>covered could be readily removed
+    to let in the sun and air. As a rule the villages were surrounded
+    by palisades. The Iroquois, as well as most other Amerinds, lived
+    in permanent villages, which were at first stockaded. They used
+    three kinds of houses; a triangular lodge made of poles with bark
+    for a covering, used in hunting, and the <i>ganosote</i> or smaller
+    bark house constructed in the same way as the third kind, the
+    <i>hodénosote</i> or “long-house,” which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>was built to accommodate a
+    number of families. This was sometimes a hundred feet long, and from it
+    came the name <i>Hodenosaunee</i> by which the great League of the Five
+    (Six) Nations was known to the world and to themselves. It was made by
+    planting poles in the ground and binding others across them to make
+    a strong frame of the shape of a parallelogram, upon which a roof of
+    triangular pattern was built out of poles covered with bark. Sometimes
+    the roof was round like that of many Algonquin tribes, and that of the
+    ganosote was very frequently round. The height of the sides was about
+    ten feet. The ganosote was about fifteen by twenty feet and fifteen
+    feet high, with inside a kind of double berth built against the longer
+    walls like the berths in a ship. It would accommodate eight persons.
+    The entrance was closed by skins or by bark hung on wooden hinges.
+    The covering was bark held in place by an outer set of poles tied
+    through to the inside ones. The long-house was divided into a number
+    of chambers six or eight feet wide with a passageway through all from
+    end to end where the doors were. “Between each four apartments, two on
+    a side, was a fire-pit in the center of the hall, used in common by
+    their occupants.... Raised bunks were constructed around the walls of
+    each apartment for beds.”<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> These structures constituted the village
+    which was surrounded by a palisade, sometimes a double or triple row.
+    The houses were placed without arrangement; and when the league grew
+    powerful the palisade was dispensed with. The Lenapé “constructed small
+    wattled huts with rounded tops thatched with the leaves of the Indian
+    corn or with sweetflags.... In summer light brush tents took the place
+    of these.”<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_209">
+    <img src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Holmes’s Archæological Studies in Mexico</div>
+    <figcaption>HALL OF COLUMNS, MITLA<br>
+      Photograph by A. V. Armour</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_210">
+    <img src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">W. H. Holmes</div>
+    <figcaption>TRANSVERSE SECTION (SOMEWHAT GENERALISED) SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF
+      PALENQUE BUILDINGS, YUCATAN<br>
+      <i>f</i>, trefoil opening through medial wall; <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, two
+      principal varieties of roof comb</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_211">
+    <img src="images/i_211.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SOME MOKI ROOF DRAINS<br>
+      SOME DETAILS OF PUEBLO HOUSE ARCHITECTURE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>On the North-west coast the native houses are usually built of cedar
+    slabs. These slabs are split out of the wide trees<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> and the walls
+    are obtained by securing them in an upright position to a frame about
+    ten feet high. On this rests the roof of split shakes, bark, or boards,
+    laid on rafters which are supported in the middle by two long, heavy
+    beams, running the entire length of the house, and themselves borne up
+    by four huge posts, often <span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>carved with totemic emblems. The general
+    outward appearance of these houses is much like an ordinary low
+    one-story house or barn of our own, except that in the middle of the
+    roof there is a large square hole for a smoke outlet, the fire being
+    made on a patch of sand or earth that forms a square about nine by ten
+    feet in the middle of the room, the size depending on the dimensions
+    of the house. They are usually about thirty or forty feet square,<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>the interior forming one large room, sometimes having a platform on
+    one or two sides or all the way round about six feet wide and two feet
+    high. This is divided by thin partitions into small compartments,
+    which are covered about six feet above the floor with a ceiling of
+    thin boards. A curtain in front makes a room of it. These houses vary
+    somewhat in the different localities, but the type is about the same
+    from the Puget Sound region to Yakutat Bay. Some of the Sound Amerinds
+    give but one pitch to the roof. Many of the natives now build a house
+    of sawed materials and roof it with shingles so that their modern
+    villages, like the one at Sitka, present outwardly few Amerind signs,
+    as they usually have chimneys, too, instead of smoke holes. Where
+    they have the latter, boards are stuck up above the ridge to form a
+    windbreak, or a more perfect arrangement for preventing back draught is
+    applied in the shape of a large solid shutter so pivoted in the middle
+    line that it can be tilted from one side of the ridge to the other.
+    Among some tribes there are several smoke holes with adjustable boards
+    that can be worked from below with a pole. The entire front gable of
+    a chief’s house or an assembly house is often ornamented with a huge
+    totemic design, painted on smooth boards that fill the whole space.
+    In front of the house stood the tall pole bearing the totems of the
+    inmates carved, one above another, with a full relief totem adorning
+    the top. Small houses were built to hold the boxes containing the ashes
+    of the dead, and the roof was sometimes surmounted with a totem carved
+    in wood, or the totem was erected on a small pole nearby, or placed
+    under the roof.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_213">
+    <img src="images/i_213.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI NOTCHED DOORWAY, SO MADE THAT LARGE BUNDLES COULD BE TAKEN IN<br>
+      The transom was probably at first a smoke outlet</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In all the constructions of the Amerinds of the North-west coast we
+    perceive the powerful influence of surroundings on a primitive people.
+    The region abounds in superb cedars with a grain so fine and straight
+    that the logs can be readily split into slabs a couple of inches thick,
+    that are admirable material for building purposes. Then there are
+    plenty of young straight hemlocks, firs, and cedars for rafters and
+    framework, so that these Amerinds, like those of the cliff region of
+    the South-west, had their building material almost ready made. Being
+    largely fishermen, they were not well supplied with skins, so that it
+    was not easy to make pole lodges covered with them, as was the case
+    with many Amerinds of the interior, where trees were absent or hard to
+    split and where skins were plenty.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_215-1">
+      <img src="images/i_215-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>A ZUÑI CHIMNEY, MOKI THE SAME</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_215-2">
+      <img src="images/i_215-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>ONE FORM OF MOKI CHIMNEY HOOD</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In California a variety of houses was built, as there are many
+    different stocks and conditions. The Yokuts made them of tule mats in
+    the shape of an “A” tent with a door at the front. A half dozen or more
+    of these were placed in a row and above them a flat sun-shelter of
+    branches laid on a platform of poles supported by crotched posts set in
+    the ground. Others build a hut of slabs or bark brought to a point and
+    open on one side, like a tipi cut in two. Others again live in wikiups
+    made by covering a square framework with boughs, leaving one side open.
+    When the side of an Amerind hut is left open in this way, the opening
+    always faces the south, except in hot weather, when it generally faces
+    the other way. Another California tribe lives in earth lodges entered
+    from the top through a hole or hatch with steps on the outside. This
+    lodge was made by excavating a couple of feet and putting this earth
+    on the covering framework, for a roof. In the mountains where wood was
+    plenty they frequently used no earth at all, showing how quickly they
+    adapted themselves to circumstances. The Modoc “excavates a circular
+    space from two to four feet deep, then erects over it a rounded
+    structure of poles and puncheons, strongly braced up with timbers,
+    sometimes hewn and squared. The whole is warmly covered with earth, and
+    an aperture left atop, reached by a centre pole. Before the coming of
+    the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>whites secured them against the constant assaults and incursions
+    of their enemies, their dwellings were slighter, consisting generally
+    of a frame of willow poles, with tule matting overspread.”<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> Another
+    tribe of the Pacific Slope, the Makhelchel, build cabins “of slender
+    willow poles set upright in the ground, with others crossing them
+    horizontally, forming a square lattice-work.”<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> The Yokaya have a
+    lodge or dwelling composed of a “huge framework of willow poles covered
+    with thatch, and resembling a large flattish haystack.” The Karok
+    “excavate a round cellar, four or five feet deep and twelve or fifteen
+    feet in diameter. Over this they build a square cabin of split poles
+    or puncheons, planted erect in the ground and covered with a flattish
+    puncheon roof. They eat and sleep in the cellar ... and store their
+    supplies on the bank above next to the walls of the cabin.”<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> The
+    Maidu make a hut of slabs placed together in something the shape of a
+    tipi, with a low, square projection for an entrance.</p>
+
+  <p>Passing northward to the Aleuts, we find “houses built with the floor
+    somewhat below the level of the outside soil, the walls of whale-ribs,
+    sticks of wood, or upright stone walls, covered outside with mats,
+    straw and finally turf.... The roof was formed by arching whale-ribs,
+    or long sticks of driftwood, matted, thatched, and turfed like the
+    sides, with a central aperture. A platform, somewhat raised, around
+    the sides of the house afforded a place for sitting and sleeping.
+    Later each village had a large house or <i>kashim</i>, which served
+    as a common work-shop, and a lodging for strangers, as well as for a
+    town-hall for their discussions and festivals.... Still later, in a
+    period not greatly antedating the historic, the Aleuts began to build
+    large communistic dwellings with features peculiar to themselves,
+    without doors, and entered by the hole in the roof, the inmates
+    descending on a notched log placed upright. These large yourts were
+    divided, by partitions of wood, stone, or matting, into small rooms
+    like the state-rooms of a steamer, but without doors; open toward the
+    center of the yourt, and each accommodating one family.”<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p>
+
+  <p>It will be noted that we have again changed materials of construction;
+    and why? Because the Aleutian Islands are devoid of timber, devoid of
+    good building stone that an Amerind could get <span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>at, and he resorted
+    therefore to what there was—driftwood, whale-ribs, turf, etc.<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>
+    The house called by the Russians <em>barabára</em> seems to have been
+    originally made of turf even to the roof, and I saw examples in the
+    summer of 1899 at Unalaska and on St. Paul Island. The turf or sod was
+    cut into slabs and laid up like stones.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_217">
+    <img src="images/i_217.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>GROUND PLAN OF ESKIMO SNOW IGLU</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Continuing northward we reach the vast treeless arctic regions, where
+    cold is the great enemy, and the reader wonders what man can do here in
+    the way of architecture. He has done considerable; amongst other things
+    he devised the only true arch found on the continent, and constructed
+    one of the most admirable and unique dwellings in the world. This he
+    built out of the snow which fell about him and prevented him from
+    securing other material. The invention of the snow house by the Eskimo,
+    or Innuit, as they call themselves, was one of the greatest triumphs
+    over environment man has ever accomplished. I refer, of course, to
+    the perfected snow house, the dome-shaped <i>iglugeak</i>, commonly
+    called by us <i>igloo</i> or <i>iglu</i>. <i>Iglu</i> is the Innuit
+    generic term for “house,” the distinctive name for snow house being
+    <i>iglugeak</i>. This snow house is begun by selecting a suitable deep
+    drift that is compact enough to permit homogeneous blocks to be taken
+    from it, with the snow-knife, which is a bone tool shaped like a short
+    sword. Latterly steel saws are employed when they have them. In the pit
+    formed by removal of blocks of snow the builder works at his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>walls,
+    the bottom of the excavation finally forming the floor of the house.
+    The first block is bevelled down to a wedge shape with the point toward
+    the beginning, and the worker goes on round his circle, and when he
+    comes again to the wedge his wall rises upon the first portion and
+    continues thus in a spiral fashion to the top, constantly narrowing
+    till at last one block fills the opening. It takes two to adjust this,
+    though one may build a small house successfully to that last point. By
+    building spirally and therefore continuously, there is always support
+    on two sides for the last block laid. The edges are slanted at the
+    same time to bring the tiers gradually toward the centre. Joints and
+    holes are filled with snow, though a small hole is left at the top for
+    ventilation. As the heating of this house is done with lamps there is
+    little smoke. For camping purposes a small snow house is built, seven
+    feet diameter and five feet high, in about two hours. When made for
+    permanent use the house is about twelve feet high and fifteen feet
+    diameter. Plenty of light comes through the snow, but a window of ice
+    or seal intestine is often placed over the entrance, which is reached
+    by a more or less extended passage, with vaults for storage, by the way.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_218">
+    <img src="images/i_218.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SECTION OF SNOW IGLU</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>But though this house is so cleverly built, and is warm, and proof
+    against everything but mild weather, the Innuit, if he can, will build
+    a permanent winter house of drift wood, stones, earth, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>and sod and
+    whale-ribs. These from the outside look like mounds of earth, and as
+    soon as warm weather comes are nothing but wet cellars, which the
+    inhabitants quickly abandon for the time, erecting with their walrus
+    and seal skins a summer tent, called a <i>tupek</i> or <i>topek</i>.
+    The Point Barrow tupek is something like a tipi, without a smoke hole,
+    as the fire is built outside when they can secure wood to build one.
+    All the Alaska Innuit now use canvas tents of the “wall” pattern, when
+    they can procure them.</p>
+
+  <p>The Amerind of the interior of the northland, where timber grows,
+    utilises it and the skins of the animals he kills. The Nenenot about
+    Hudson Bay occupy, all the year round, a tent almost identical with the
+    Dakota tipi.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_219">
+    <img src="images/i_219.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>AN ALASKA ESKIMO WINTER HOUSE, POINT BARROW<br>
+      Interior and sections p. 221</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>No construction on the continent shows more skill than the Innuit
+    snow iglu. The winter houses, of snow or other material, are usually
+    occupied by two or more families. Many interiors of snow houses are
+    lined with the summer tent covering to prevent the drip of the walls
+    from falling on the occupants.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp67" id="i_220">
+    <img src="images/i_220.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>INTERIOR GROUND PLAN OF A MOKI HOUSE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>As the polar regions developed the snow-house; forest regions, bark
+    and mat houses; barren plains, portable tents; so arid regions, where
+    disintegrating cliffs furnished an abundance of flat slabs of stone,
+    evolved stone houses, and broad dry valleys or <span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span>plains lacking cliffs,
+    timber, or large game, but yielding good clay soil, produced houses
+    of mud or adobe; or, according to conditions, such combinations of
+    these materials as were easiest and most practicable. It is next in
+    order to review the houses of the arid regions constructed of stone,
+    adobe, jacal, cajon, pisé,<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> etc., and the cavate lodges. To do
+    full justice to the subject of houses would require a separate volume,
+    but enough may be given here to present a general view. The occupied
+    villages of the South-western United States are similar to the ruins
+    found throughout that region, and the cliff-dwellings, which some
+    writers would clothe with mystery, as has been mentioned, were no more
+    mysterious than the occupied dwellings of the Moki; or any other Pueblo
+    village, which, fortunately, remains inhabited by the builders.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a>
+    The cliff-dwellings were constructed in cliffs simply because it was
+    expedient to build them there and not because the builders were a race
+    apart from other Amerinds. The canyons where the cliff-dwellings occur
+    have bottom lands that are fertile and easily irrigated, both by stream
+    water, and after the Pueblo fashion, by guiding shower waters with hoes
+    amongst the corn. This in itself was a sufficient object for building
+    in the canyons, and the huge, natural conchoidal <span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>alcoves that occur
+    in the faces of the prevailing formation were attractive places to
+    build in for several reasons, one of which may have been protection
+    from assault and the weather, and another the frequent presence of
+    springs at the back of these cavities. These springs have almost
+    vanished, in many cases have entirely disappeared, owing to slightly
+    drier conditions now prevailing. But I have frequently noticed at the
+    back part of many of the cavities that had no ruins, or few ruins, to
+    cover it up, a moisture that might at times increase to a dripping, or
+    even flowing, that would furnish enough water for the daily supply of
+    a considerable Amerind village. The construction is the same as other
+    Pueblo houses of stone.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_221-1">
+    <img src="images/i_221-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>INTERIOR OF WOOD AND EARTH IGLU</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_221-2">
+    <img src="images/i_221-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>AN ALASKA ESKIMO WINTER HOUSE OF WOOD AND EARTH, POINT BARROW</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_222">
+    <img src="images/i_222.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>STONE STEPS AT ORAIBI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The inhabited pueblos, like the ruins, usually consist of a number of
+    rooms built adjoining or on top of each other, like a lot of square
+    boxes placed in rows or in a pyramidal pile, or like a series of steps,
+    with the total height at the back often straight <span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>down. One or two
+    single-room houses are first built, and then additions are made from
+    time to time till the pile grows to a considerable height; three or
+    four stories.<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> Groups of these groups built near each other form
+    courts between. The lower tier of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>rooms, in olden times, was not
+    entered from the ground, but from the roof through a hatchway, a ladder
+    leading up on the outside and down on the inside. The upper rooms, or
+    houses, were entered from the roofs of the lower ones; that is, the
+    roofs of the lower rooms formed the floors of the upper ones, and also
+    balconies in front of the rooms. I occupied for a time one of these
+    upper rooms in Tewa, on the “East Mesa” at the Moki towns, and I found
+    the roof in front of my door a delightful place, commanding a view of
+    the whole mesa and a hundred miles beyond. I could also reach the top
+    of my house easily, by a sort of stairway formed on the edge of the
+    prolonged wall that separated me from my neighbour, and as this was the
+    summit of the village my view was superb. Such stairways are common in
+    all the villages. The ladders by which the various roofs are reached
+    are now much like our own, but rudely made, and the upper ends are
+    often very long, extending in many cases far above the house-top. The
+    walls, about a foot thick, are of stone slabs laid in adobe mortar,
+    and are generally built up by the women, who take their own time to
+    the work, adding a few stones whenever they feel like it. Beams of
+    small tree-trunks, six to eight inches in diameter, form the basis of
+    the flat roof.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> They are laid across the top of the walls and the
+    ends, if too long, usually allowed to project beyond. These are covered
+    with smaller poles laid about a foot apart, and on these are spread
+    slender willows or reeds, with a layer of grass or twigs next, on which
+    a layer of adobe mortar is laid and earth trodden down on top till it
+    is firm, when a finish is made with another coat of adobe mortar. A
+    slight pitch is given to the roof. No plumb-line, level, or square was
+    used by the Amerinds anywhere on the continent so far as is now known.
+    Sometimes the floors are paved with irregular flat sandstone slabs, but
+    in most houses the floor is formed by a coat of adobe mortar which is
+    patched and renewed as needed. Moccasined feet are not hard on such a
+    surface, but my heavy soled shoes were the despair of the owner of my
+    habitation. The hand is used as a trowel. The chimney is usually at one
+    corner, and did not exist in America previous to the sixteenth century.
+    A hood is built down from the roof to within about three or four feet
+    of the floor, to catch <span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>the smoke, and outside the chimney is built
+    up about three feet, sometimes with stones, but more frequently with
+    large earthen pots with the bottoms knocked out. The hood is formed
+    of sticks plastered with adobe mortar. Doorways were formerly of the
+    notched variety<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> closed by a curtain, and the hatchways were closed
+    by a mat of reeds. In later times the doorways have become like our
+    own, and doors, too, have been made out of sawed boards. My door at
+    Tewa was hung on hinges and had a latch and string. Glazed windows have
+    also been adopted in many houses. The Rio Grande pueblos are built
+    of adobe bricks, and so, largely, is Zuñi, but there is little adobe
+    in the Moki towns, except in the form of plaster and mortar. The Rio
+    Grande pueblos were largely constructed of adobe when first visited in
+    1540. The Pueblo Amerind frequently abandoned his village for one cause
+    or another and built a new one elsewhere, so while his village may be
+    called a permanent one it was not much more so than villages of the
+    Algonquins and Iroquois.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_223">
+    <img src="images/i_223.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CLIFF-DWELLING, EASTERN COVE OF MUMMY CAVE, CANYON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_224">
+    <img src="images/i_224.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HOUSES IN WALPI, ONE OF THE MOKI TOWNS, ARIZONA
+      <p class="hang">In this are well seen the plastered and unplastered walls of
+        stone, the ladders of ascent, the “end wall” steps, the notched
+        doorway, with transom, the projecting roof beams, a rabbit-skin
+        robe hanging on the wall above the right-hand ladder, and also
+        on the left the entrance to a passageway through to another court</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_225">
+    <img src="images/i_225.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>GENERAL VIEW OF A GROUP OF CAVATE LODGES, ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_227">
+    <img src="images/i_227.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PLAN AND SECTIONS OF A CAVATE LODGE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp40" id="i_228">
+    <img src="images/i_228.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DIAGRAM SHOWING POCKET AT BACK OF SOME CAVATE LODGES
+      <p class="hang">It was probably a receptacle for water which dripped slowly from
+        the rock in wet seasons</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Besides houses, some of the Amerinds of the South-west dwelt in
+    shelters excavated wholly or in part in the face of a cliff or
+    mountain, or hill. There are four localities where these cavate lodges
+    occur in numbers, the northern Rio Grande valley, the San Juan River
+    valley, the San Francisco mountain region, and the Rio Verde valley
+    in Arizona. There are in these places thousands of cavate lodges.
+    They average in size two or three rooms, sometimes communicating
+    by a ledge, sometimes, often, in fact, with excavated connections.
+    Some of the Verde group<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> are cut back a long distance into the
+    rock—forty or fifty feet. The rooms are both oblong and circular, about
+    seven feet high and ten by seventeen feet in size, or eight or ten
+    feet diameter, according to the shape. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>There were no chimneys, the
+    fire-pits being near the entrances. Nor were there any windows, the
+    doorway being the only opening to the outside. Floors were levelled by
+    filling depressions with adobe clay and low ridges were built up of
+    the same material, probably to keep the inmates off the bottom, which
+    must have sometimes been damp. Poles or willows laid across the ridges
+    with skins on them would have made a flooring. Depressions at the back
+    walls appear to have been made to hold water, and doubtless at times
+    there was a “seepage” of considerable amount, as I have suggested
+    regarding the open conchoidal caves occupied by the Cliff-dwellers.
+    What appear to be stepping-stones are found in some entrances, as
+    if water at times flowed out. The Verde group are in a soft grey
+    sandstone, the Rio Grande in tufa, the San Francisco in cinder hills.
+    These cavate dwellings are simply another form of Amerind residence
+    due to necessity or expedience.<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> In other places there are some
+    that were undoubtedly merely farming outlooks, occupied only during
+    the crop season, just as there are cliff houses for this purpose, and
+    also houses erected singly in open valleys. But many cavate lodges were
+    actual residences for a period of years, owing to circumstances of
+    one kind or another. The Cliff-dwellers may still be found among the
+    Tarahumaris of northern Mexico. Schwatka describes some who “had walled
+    up the outward face of a cave nearly to the top, leaving the latter for
+    ventilation.” Many small cliff-dwellings in other places were so made
+    to allow the smoke to escape. That is, the wall along the outer edge
+    of the cavity was not carried quite up to the rock above, so that the
+    smoke could drift out. There was, therefore, no roof over the dwelling,
+    but it was sheltered by the overhanging rock. Many more examples of
+    this adaptation of the dwelling to circumstances might be added.</p>
+
+  <p>There are ruins scattered all over the South-west, many of which were
+    built by the same set of Amerinds, and do not represent a vanished
+    population. Still, I believe that the population was at one time much
+    greater than it was when our acquaintance with it began. Internecine
+    wars resulting from a diminution of water-supply; diseases introduced
+    by the whites; and also the attacks and absorption of tribes by the
+    wilder Amerinds, being some of the causes of the diminution. It would
+    not be possible to describe even all the prominent ruins here, but
+    I will mention <span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>several. Beginning easterly of the Rio Grande, we
+    find the Pecos Ruins first of importance. There are also remains of a
+    large adobe Catholic church and a convent here, not finally and fully
+    abandoned till about 1840. The ruins consist of two chief buildings
+    on a low table, surrounded by an artificial wall. The buildings were
+    in the form of rectangles, with courts within, one 55 by 440 feet,
+    and the other 170 by 350 feet. In places, they were three or four
+    stories high, terraced, Pueblo fashion. The construction was slightly
+    different from the ordinary, as the upper floor and roof beams rested
+    mainly on heavy upright posts set into the walls, and not directly
+    on the walls themselves. The whole framework was thus independent of
+    the enclosing walls, very much as our modern steel frame buildings
+    are. The walls were of sandstone slabs, and were from one to two feet
+    thick. Another group of important ruins, and about the finest specimens
+    of the stone buildings of the ancient Pueblos, is that of the Chaco,
+    in north-western New Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> There are eleven chief ruins, and
+    many smaller ones. The principal ruins were once houses three, four,
+    or perhaps five stories high, all built of sandstone slabs and blocks
+    obtained from <span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>the débris of the cliffs. Some of the walls are still
+    standing to the height of thirty or forty feet. All are not uniform in
+    the way the stones are laid, the variation being due to building at
+    different times, and to a variation of the available supply of slabs.
+    The stones were usually laid so closely, and so carefully chinked with
+    spalls, that the outside of the walls resembles a smooth mosaic; though
+    adobe mortar and rubble were freely used in the interior. Lintels,
+    as was generally the case throughout America, were of wood. The date
+    of the abandonment of these buildings is not known. They were first
+    mentioned by Gregg, in 1844.<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_230">
+    <img src="images/i_230.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">W. H. Holmes</div>
+    <figcaption>THEORETIC ROOF CONSTRUCTION OF MITLA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_231">
+    <img src="images/i_231-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CEILING OR ROOF PLAN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_231-2">
+    <img src="images/i_231-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>GROUND PLAN OF A KIVA AND CEILING PLAN OF ANOTHER
+      <p class="hang">The entrance is by ladder through the hole in the ceiling, which is
+        also the smoke outlet. The floor is paved with slabs of stone,
+        and is about 12 inches higher at the right-hand end. There are
+        places on each side for the looms, blankets being woven in the
+        kivas. The fireplace is the black square. At the left is the
+        plank containing the sacred orifice called the sipapu. The foot
+        of the ladder rests on the edge of the raised portion of the
+        floor</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_232-1">
+    <img src="images/i_232-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CHACO RUINS MASONRY<br>
+      2 and 3 not found in modern Pueblo architecture</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp40" id="i_232-2">
+    <img src="images/i_232-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>From Hayden <i>Report</i></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>There were many round towers of stone in the South-west, also the work
+    of the Pueblos. Some stand alone but most of them are near other ruins.
+    Often they were built with two or three concentric walls from two to
+    five feet apart. A double-walled tower on the Mancos had an outer
+    diameter of forty-three feet. Some of them may have been watch-towers,
+    but those connected with other buildings were perhaps religious
+    structures, or were used somewhat as the kiva<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> is to-day. The kiva
+    is a room now <span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>usually square, in part, or wholly, below the general
+    surface of the locality, used as a kind of club-house, council-house,
+    lounging place, and meeting place for members of the society to which
+    it belongs; and also a lodging place for the men; women are generally
+    excluded. In Zuñi, the kivas are rooms on the ground floor. Many
+    ancient kivas were round.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_233">
+    <img src="images/i_233.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>RUIN CALLED CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Adobe brick and adobe clay in various forms were largely employed by
+    the South-western and Mexican Amerinds, and there are evidences that
+    some tribes in the Mississippi valley also used it. In the Rio Grande
+    valley the adobe is made into large bricks, sun-dried and laid up
+    with a mortar of the same material. Otherwise the villages are much
+    the same as those described. One of the best modern examples of the
+    adobe construction is the village of Taos in north-eastern New Mexico.
+    (See illustration <a href="#i_003">page 3</a>.) Another method of employing adobe is seen
+    in the famous ruin called <i>Casa Grande</i>, near Florence, Arizona,
+    which our government recently repaired so that it will endure for a
+    considerable time. This was made by the cajon method; that is, the
+    adobe mud was rammed into large chests or boxes of wicker, without
+    top or bottom, and when the material was sufficiently dried to hold
+    its shape the frame was removed and the operation repeated till the
+    wall was finished. The ruin referred to is only one of a number that
+    were still standing in an area of about sixty-five acres in 1744,
+    when Father Sedelmair saw them. He described the present ruin as
+    having four stories, but only three are now distinguishable at the
+    highest part. Its age is unknown. Its builders are supposed to have
+    been the ancestors of the present Pimas, though probably there was
+    considerable difference in the matter of culture. Father Kino, in 1694,
+    was the first European to see the place and it was a ruin then. It
+    was doubtless a communal dwelling like all the other large structures
+    of the Amerinds of this region. Its size on the ground is forty-three
+    by fifty-nine feet. Partitions three or four feet thick divide the
+    interior into five rooms, the middle one having higher walls than the
+    rest. The adobe blocks are two feet high, three to five long, and
+    three or four across, and are almost as hard as sandstone while dry.
+    There may have been upper stories of plastered wattled posts. Another
+    famous ruin similar to this is the <i>Casas Grandes</i> in Chihuahua,
+    Mexico. It is built in much the same way as <i>Casa Grande</i>, and
+    there are more buildings there standing. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>Probably there were at
+    one time a great many structures of this kind in that region, and
+    there may be others still standing in less explored parts. In the
+    Salt River valley many of the buildings were of a somewhat different
+    type again, as concerns their wall construction.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> The Hemenway
+    Expedition excavated a great many sites and found that the walls were
+    often adobe rammed in between two series of posts wattled with reeds
+    and cross-braced with sticks, the outer part of the wattled frames
+    being plastered with adobe mortar. The thinner walls were constructed
+    with only one line of wattled posts plastered on both sides, after
+    the manner of the Mexican construction known as jacal, which is a set
+    of poles fixed in the ground and then plastered on one or both sides
+    with mud. The upper stories of some of the Rio Grande structures in
+    the early times were made of wood probably plastered this way, which
+    explains why in the southern part of New Mexico there are not now found
+    higher standing walls of ruins or evidences of several stories.<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>
+    Examples also have been seen in South-western Colorado, where a kind of
+    wicker-work was built on the top of a wall and plastered on both sides.
+    In the Salt River ruins the existence of the wood-work was indicated
+    by the cavities left by its decay. There were also other structures
+    built without the wattled frames. The cajon and pisé construction are
+    very much alike, one being a Spanish and the other a French term,
+    except that any pounded or rammed earth construction might be pisé,
+    while the cajon is distinctly made by ramming earth into a box.<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a>
+    Therefore the <i>Casa Grande</i> would be a clear example of cajon,
+    while the Salt River construction of adobe rammed between the wattled
+    frames would be pisé; and the plastered wicker-work would be jacal.
+    The pisé and cajon method is very old all over the world. It is still
+    to be found in France and England. In France the pisé box is about
+    three yards long, one yard high, and about half a yard wide. The
+    readiness with which the Amerind took advantage of his resources in the
+    architectural line is again apparent in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span>these great adobe structures
+    of the Amerinds of northern Mexico and the South-western United States.
+    It is not sensible, therefore, when some style of construction is
+    discovered differing from that which we have been accustomed to see, to
+    ascribe it to some mysterious race.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_235">
+    <img src="images/i_235.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">W. H. Holmes</div>
+    <figcaption>TRANSVERSE SECTION OF AN ORDINARY YUCATEC BUILDING
+      <p><i>f</i>, capstones of corbel vault; <i>l</i>, roof crest or comb. Such
+      a building stood on the top of a mound</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_237">
+    <img src="images/i_237.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">W. H. Holmes</div>
+    <figcaption>FORMS OF THE MAYA CORBEL VAULT</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In southern Mexico they erected extensive cities or pueblos because
+    there they were more crowded together than anywhere to the northward,
+    but these cities were essentially the same as the more simple towns in
+    the northern country. At Tlascala “the houses were built, for the most
+    part, of mud or earth; the better sort of stone and lime, or bricks
+    dried in the sun. They were unprovided with doors or windows, but in
+    the apertures for the former hung mats fringed with pieces of copper,
+    or something which by its tinkling sound would give notice of anyone’s
+    entrance. The streets were narrow and dark.”<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> This extract from
+    Prescott might picture a New Mexican pueblo instead of one of the towns
+    encountered by Cortez which have been often so romantically described.
+    The copper on the mats was probably more for Amerind ornament than
+    for the purpose stated by Prescott. While in some respects the Aztec
+    towns may have been more elaborate than the New Mexican towns, there
+    was probably not much difference in their method of construction. “The
+    principal buildings and temples of the city were covered with a hard
+    white stucco which glistened like enamel in the ... morning sun.”<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>
+    This was perhaps a wash of gypsiferous clay similar to that used by the
+    Mokis, or it may have been similar to the zahcab of the Mayas, which
+    was a singular and abundant white earth used by them as a stucco. It
+    was found in pockets.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_238">
+    <img src="images/i_238.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">W. H. Holmes</div>
+    <figcaption>GROUND PLANS OF YUCATEC BUILDINGS<br>
+        Tablets at x</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>“The dwellings of the common people were also placed on foundations
+    of stone which rose to the height of a few feet, and were then
+    succeeded by courses of unbaked bricks, crossed occasionally by wooden
+    rafters.”<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> These rafters were the projecting ends of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>poles,
+    as in the Pueblo country. The adobe houses in Mexico are now often
+    built on stone foundations, for it is the foundation that is sapped
+    and undermined by the rains. The upper walls of adobe stand well in a
+    climate of that sort. Prescott says of the houses of the “dignitaries”
+    and of the “principal nobles” that “They were low, indeed; seldom of
+    more than one floor, never exceeding two. But they were spread over
+    a wide extent of ground; were arranged in a quadrangular form, with
+    a court in the centre,”<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> all of which sounds suspiciously like
+    a communal dwelling, as Morgan maintains the Aztec houses were. The
+    Aztecs were crowded around the lake of Mexico, and also built out
+    over the water on piles. Houses raised above the water or ground were
+    nothing unusual in America. Some of the North-west coast Amerinds
+    built dwellings which were “raised and supported near thirty feet from
+    the ground by perpendicular spars of very large size” with “access
+    formed by a long tree in an inclined position from the platform to the
+    ground, with notches cut in it by way of steps about a foot and a half
+    asunder.”<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_239">
+    <img src="images/i_239.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KWAKIUTL HOUSE FRONT<br>
+      The thunder-bird lifting a whale. The beak was carved and fastened on<br>
+      Construction: wood—split cedar planks, tree trunks, and poles. Site: edge of the sea</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>So far as the Aztec houses are concerned, “None of the Spanish
+    descriptions,” asserts Morgan, “enable us to realise the exact form
+    and structure.... But for the pueblos, occupied or in ruins, in New
+    Mexico, and the more remarkable pueblos in ruins in Yucatan and Central
+    America, we would know very little concerning the house architecture of
+    the Sedentary Village Indians.”<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Morgan believes all were joint tenements, but in this he may be
+    mistaken, for the life of the Aztecs seems to have passed to a point
+    somewhat higher than that of the New Mexican Amerinds, and a further
+    development of Aztec life certainly included a further development of
+    their house-life also.</p>
+
+  <p>Within a day’s journey of the City of Mexico, Saville investigated some
+    interesting ruins of an old “temple” erected, according to a tablet
+    found there, in 1502, the signs on the tablet representing a rabbit and
+    ten dots, or ten <i>tochtli</i>, corresponding to this date. It was
+    built of rubble stone covered in many places inside with stone carving
+    that had been painted.<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> There were also <span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>ornaments in stucco. The
+    outer walls are nearly six feet thick. It is on the top of a high,
+    cliff-like mountain difficult of access, near the Mexican town of
+    Tepoztlan. Another splendid ruin near this is the Temple of Xochicalco.
+    See illustrations, pages <a href="#i_023">23</a> and <a href="#i_031">31</a>.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_241">
+    <img src="images/i_241.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>NORTH-WEST COAST HOUSES AND TOTEM POLES<br>
+      End left open to show construction. &nbsp;Dotted lines give section of floor.
+      &nbsp; <i>m</i>, totem pole; <i>c&nbsp;c</i>, bench; <i>b</i>, fireplace; <i>k</i>, smoke hole; <i>g&nbsp;g</i>, house posts
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The greatest group of architectural remains on this continent is that
+    of the Maya region, mainly in Yucatan. For a full description of many
+    of these buildings the reader is referred again to the admirable work
+    of Maudsley. The Mayas were the greatest architects as well as the
+    greatest artists and greatest in almost everything of all the Amerinds,
+    and if Goodman is correct in his rendering of some of their chronology
+    they occupied the region more than ten thousand years.<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> Mound-like
+    foundations supported the buildings, which generally rose as from a
+    terrace, though sometimes the mound was very high and very steep, with
+    small space around the building crowning it. At Copan,<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> which was
+    in ruins before the Spaniards arrived, there is a great main terrace
+    from which mounds rise, the latter bearing the buildings. The casing
+    of the mound and the walls of buildings are of nicely dressed oblong
+    stones usually without mortar. The joints were not broken here, nor in
+    other Maya work. The mound slopes were terraced at five-foot intervals
+    and the steps were about five feet high. The so-called “triangular
+    arch” probably existed here as it did at the other Maya ruins. It
+    was made by advancing the courses, several feet above the base of an
+    opening, gradually toward each other till they met above, where a large
+    slab was usually laid across to bind the whole together. The ceilings
+    or roofs of many rooms in Maya ruins were wholly made this way. It has
+    also been called a corbel arch, though it is, in fact, not an arch at
+    all. See illustrations, pages <a href="#i_210">210</a>, <a href="#i_235">235</a>, and <a href="#i_237">237</a>. There was no arch
+    in Amerindian architecture besides the one the Eskimo constructed in
+    his snow hut. The rooms are generally long and narrow in all the Maya
+    structures and no windows existed. The Maya inability to span wide
+    spaces was the cause <span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>of the narrow rooms and buildings. At Uxmal the
+    two main rooms of the so-called Governor’s Palace are sixty feet long
+    and only eleven to thirteen feet wide. The walls of all the structures
+    are very thick, though certain walls, as the rear ones, are usually
+    thicker than the others and have no openings, the latter, as a rule,
+    being along one, two, or three sides. This was a probable survival of
+    earlier defensive constructions similar to the communal fortresses of
+    the Puebloan type as particularly exemplified in the ruins of the Chaco
+    in New Mexico, where there were no rear openings. See ground plans,
+    <a href="#Page_232">page 232</a>. At Palenque are some fine examples of the Maya construction.
+    The largest is called the palace and is 180 feet wide, 228 feet long,
+    and 25 feet high, with fourteen doorways on the side and eleven at the
+    ends. It was one story in height, as were all Maya buildings. There is
+    a vast amount of carving and stucco modelling around them. One of the
+    most unique constructions is that called the “Temple of the Cross,”
+    number one, or two, or three, by different explorers, there being two
+    structures much alike. See note 2, <a href="#Page_184">page 184</a>. This is on top of a high
+    mound, and is fifty feet front, thirty-one feet deep, and about forty
+    feet high. The roof was something like our gambrel type, being the
+    same all around without gables, with a level platform about three feet
+    wide along the ridge, from which arose a peculiar stone and stucco,
+    latticed, superstructure in two stories, the first about seven and the
+    second about eight feet high. See illustrations, pages <a href="#i_210">210</a> and <a href="#i_235">235</a>.
+    There was abundant stucco ornamentation over the exterior, and on each
+    side of the entrance was one of the figures referred to in the last
+    chapter.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_243">
+    <img src="images/i_243.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Holmes’s <i>Archæological Studies in Mexico</i></div>
+    <figcaption>RUIN OF EAST FAÇADE AND IGLESIA, “PALACE” CHICHEN-ITZA, YUCATAN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_244">
+    <img src="images/i_244.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ELEVATION OF KWAKIUTL HOUSE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_245">
+    <img src="images/i_245.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>VIEW IN THE MOKI TOWN OF MISHONGNAVI, ARIZONA<br>
+      Construction: stone slabs laid in adobe mortar. Site: barren summit of
+      a mesa. The ladders were pulled up in time of danger</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span></p>
+
+  <p>The mortar used is said to have been a cement made of one part slaked
+    lime to two parts of zahcab. This was used by all the ancient Mayas
+    and is used still in that country. It is, however, doubtful if slaked
+    lime was known to the ancients. There is no evidence of it. At Mitla
+    is yet another type of house ascribed to the Zapotecs.<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> It is in
+    the Mexican State of Oaxaca. The human figures and animal carvings and
+    forms seen in the Yucatan ruins are absent. The rooms are the same,
+    long and narrow, with no openings except the doors. One of the most
+    unusual features is a great hall 12 by 121 feet, with six round stone
+    columns standing at intervals of about fifteen feet down the middle.
+    See illustrations, pages <a href="#i_009">9</a> and <a href="#i_209">209</a>. These average about twelve feet
+    high and nine feet in circumference. The walls are forty-eight inches
+    thick, of roughly broken stones laid in courses in plenty of adobe
+    mortar, the outer parts of all the buildings being faced by slabs of
+    stone containing the ornamentation, which is wholly geometrical. Some
+    adobe brick walls are forty-six inches thick. The columns are out of
+    the common because they are single stones, but built up piers are often
+    used in Pueblo architecture, and the North-west coast Amerinds use the
+    column in wood very frequently to support their large longitudinal
+    rafters. One of these which I sketched in an Alaskan house at Cape Fox
+    is given in the illustration, <a href="#Page_162">page 162</a>. The roofs at Mitla were wooden
+    beams covered with earth and stone slabs. See illustration, <a href="#Page_230">page 230</a>.
+    There are other ruins all through Honduras and Nicaragua and the rest
+    of Central America. Squier says: “In Honduras, as also in San Salvador,
+    I heard of remains and monuments equal to those of Copan in extent and
+    interest.”</p>
+
+  <p>At the time the Spaniards came into Yucatan the Amerinds, according to
+    Herrera, were dwelling in timber huts thatched with grass or something
+    similar. The dense unexplored forests of the Yucatan region are
+    filled with ruins which have never been seen by white men, at least
+    that is the supposition of archæologists like Saville and Charnay.
+    The Maya house was divided, according to Landa, from side to side by
+    a wall with doors, the back part being sleeping quarters. The front
+    portion was whitewashed or painted in designs and was open the whole
+    length, with low <span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>sheltering eaves. In the rear there was a doorway
+    leading from that part. A lengthwise division into two main parts was
+    a characteristic of almost all the Maya buildings now found in ruins.
+    The structures were generally wide and shallow, and subdivided into a
+    great many rooms. It is more in the ornamentation of the buildings and
+    the stone roofs than in anything else that they differ from structures
+    farther north. The interior masonry is frequently a rubble, with
+    the dressed and carved stones on the outside as a facing. Bandelier
+    thinks that some of the stone walls in New Mexico are quite as well
+    constructed as some in Mexico proper. But however this may be, there
+    is nothing north of the City of Mexico that compares in architectural
+    excellence with the Yucatan structures, albeit in some respects there
+    is a strong resemblance between the latter in plan and conception, and
+    the Pecos and other northern ruins.</p>
+
+  <p>The communal principle of living had much to do almost everywhere with
+    the size and character of the Amerind houses. Situation was determined
+    by expedience and necessity; material of construction by environment.
+    Throughout the continent the Amerind was a village dweller, and except
+    in the Far North and on the northern Californian and North-west
+    coasts he was generally a tiller of the soil, growing, often in large
+    quantities, maize, beans, squashes, cotton, and some other products
+    according to locality. His large communal buildings were in part
+    fortresses to protect the families against marauding Amerinds of a less
+    prosperous and cultivated type, and against the occupants of other
+    towns, for in general it may be said that there was little political
+    cohesion in the various tribes, though the Aztecs and Iroquois are
+    examples of exceptions that arose from time to time.</p>
+
+  <p>There is nothing in any of the remains, so far developed, that
+    indicates foreign influence, prior to the Discovery. Every
+    architectural work on the continent is purely Amerindian or modified by
+    contact with other races subsequent to 1492.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_247">
+    <img src="images/i_247.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO HORN DIPPER, ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_IX">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_248-1">
+      <img src="images/i_248-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>HORN ARROW STRAIGHTENER, ¼</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">WEAPONS, ARMOUR, IMPLEMENTS, AND TRANSPORTATION</div>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter" id="i_248-2">
+    <img class="illowp80" src="images/i_248-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>
+      War Arrow <span style="padding-left: 25%; padding-right: 25%;">War Arrow</span> Hunting Arrow<br>
+      MODERN IRON ARROW-HEADS OF THE OMAHAS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THE Amerinds were practically all in the so-called Stone Age of
+    culture; that is, they were unacquainted with the <em>common use</em>
+    of metals. Some tribes worked silver, gold, and copper, to a limited
+    extent and in an ornamental way, and a high authority asserts that the
+    Eskimo have known iron for nine hundred years. Those Eskimo who came
+    in contact with the Northmen on the North-east coasts very likely saw
+    specimens of manufactured iron, and possessed some, nearly a thousand
+    years ago, but it was a bare acquaintance, and this and the limited
+    working of the other metals do not affect the general statement that
+    the Amerinds were practically a Stone-Age people. Even the Maya, with
+    all their varied skill and knowledge superior to any other Amerinds,
+    still used stone tools for carving in stone. They had no way of
+    sufficiently hardening the metals they could secure and their stone
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>tools were far more serviceable. So the tools, weapons, and implements
+    throughout the continent were chiefly wood, bone, and stone, with a
+    few exceptions in Mexico, Central America, and the Mississippi valley.
+    In the last region there was some working of copper obtained from the
+    rich deposits of native metal in northern Michigan,<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> but the main
+    thing they could do with it was to beat and grind it into shape with
+    stones. Arrow-heads, spear-heads, chisels, and knife-blades of copper
+    have been found in the Mississippi and Atlantic regions, but there
+    is no certainty that all of them were made by the Amerinds.<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> The
+    Spaniards and other Europeans were speedily engaged in a considerable
+    traffic with the Amerinds in which copper was an important medium
+    of exchange. Large quantities were therefore early brought into the
+    country from Europe, and we do not always know in what form. It is
+    certain that the traders would try to give it the most attractive
+    shape, and if arrow-heads were found to be good, it would not take long
+    to manufacture them. This is not to say that the Amerind could not have
+    made the implements or copper articles thus far found, but only to
+    question whether he did make all of them.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_249">
+    <img src="images/i_249.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>FORMS OF THE BOW</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The chief weapon of all Amerinds was the bow and arrow.<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> The bow
+    was made in a number of ways and of various kinds of wood, and of horn,
+    reinforced as a rule by a backing of sinew. The arrow-shaft was most
+    frequently of service-berry wood when it could be had, and also of reed
+    with a tip of some solid wood. The heads were of chipped stone, or
+    bone, or latterly of bottle-glass,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> or often, for small-bird shooting,
+    without any head whatever. A few heads were of copper, and in modern
+    times hoop iron is used. Amongst all the Amerind bows that I have ever
+    seen, one made from the horns of a mountain sheep, with a portion of
+    the skull as the central part, was the finest and most graceful. It was
+    exactly the shape of the typical bow wielded by the little god Cupid,
+    and I have always regretted that I did not purchase it at the time, for
+    I have never seen one since. I saw it in southern Utah in 1875.<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></p>
+
+  <p>I have sometimes thought that the bow and arrow were a development from
+    the primitive fire-drill, through the bow-drill and spear. Some day by
+    accident or design perhaps the drill stick sprung from the tightened
+    string, the idea of substituting the spear for the drill stick was
+    suggested, and the greatest invention in its effect on humanity man has
+    yet seen was born.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp37" id="i_250">
+    <img src="images/i_250.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PAI UTE PALM-DRILL
+      <p class="hang">Drawn by the author from a specimen obtained by him in Arizona,
+        1875. Lower part of shaft of greasewood about 5 in. long and ⅜
+        in. diameter. Hearth of cedar (Juniper). Upper part of drill shaft is omitted.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>There are three or four forms of fire-drill, but the palm-drill—that
+    is, the kind that was rotated between the palms of the hands—was the
+    earliest, most widespread, and most compact and portable of all. It
+    consisted of a shaft of wood, or reed with a piece of some harder
+    wood attached to it; or, where the hard wood was not long enough, it
+    was spliced on to another piece of wood. The illustration above shows
+    a drill and hearth I obtained from the Pai Utes of Arizona in 1875.
+    These Amerinds were using such <span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>drills for fire-making at that lime.
+    The other portion of the apparatus, the hearth, is made of cedar, or
+    any soft and suitable wood. It has cavities cut into it to receive the
+    rounded, blunt end of the shaft, and on the sides of these cavities a
+    little notch is cut to allow the air to get at the superheated wood
+    dust and to permit the dust to be quickly thrust into the tinder which
+    is placed beside and beneath the hearth. This hearth, which is an inch
+    or so in width and about a quarter of an inch thick, is held securely
+    down by the foot or knee, and the drill stick rapidly revolved back
+    and forth in an upright position, with the lower end in one of the
+    cavities. The revolving motion is secured by the palms of the hands,
+    which are allowed to slide down the shaft to gain downward pressure,
+    each time being brought quickly back to the top for a repetition of
+    the motion, so that it is practically continuous. A pinch of sand is
+    sometimes added to increase the friction and create dust more speedily.
+    The superheated dust, or spark, is skilfully flung into the tinder of
+    moss or rubbed-up bark and a few puffs of breath bring a flame. All
+    the materials are kept very dry, and an expert will secure a fire in
+    a few seconds under favourable conditions.<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> This was the common
+    form of fire-drill throughout the continent. The “<em>new-fire</em>” of
+    the Aztecs,<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> produced at the termination of their fifty-two-year
+    cycle, when all fires were permitted to die out, was obtained with a
+    fire-drill similar to the one described. Even when a tribe had better
+    means of obtaining fire, it would preserve the primitive method in its
+    religious ceremonies. Before the invention of the fire-drill it was of
+    the greatest importance to guard and preserve the fire that had perhaps
+    been procured from a great distance or from some forest conflagration
+    which had passed away. Hence it assumed a sacred character, and those
+    who were entrusted with its preservation were high priests. Eternal
+    fires, or undying fires, were the result at first of the necessity of
+    preserving fire, and later, when the friction-drill was discovered,
+    those who possessed the knowledge of it were correspondingly endowed
+    with power over the remainder.</p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_251-1">
+      <img src="images/i_251-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>THE PALM-DRILL (FIRE-MAKING)</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_251-2">
+      <img src="images/i_251-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>THE PUMP-DRILL (FIRE-MAKING)</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_251-3">
+      <img src="images/i_251-3.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>PUEBLO PUMP-DRILL. ⅕<br>
+          (FOR BORING)</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_251-4">
+      <img src="images/i_251-4.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>ESKIMO STRING-DRILL. ⅙<br>
+        (FOR FIRE-MAKING WITH MOUTHPIECE)</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_251-5">
+      <img src="images/i_251-5.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>DRILL-POINT OF CHIPPED FLINT</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>After the palm-drill comes the string-drill, wherein the drill is
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span>operated by means of a cord twisted about it, the ends being pulled
+    back and forth, and the top of the stick being held firm by insertion
+    in a socket, the latter being grasped in one hand or, when there was
+    only one operator, taken in the mouth. The old Eskimo drill is of this
+    description, produced probably because the surroundings compelled
+    swifter and harder revolutions of the stick to obtain the desired
+    results. A further development is the bow-drill, used by the Eskimo and
+    others, where instead of pulling the ends of the string a bent piece
+    of wood, or bow, is attached to them, the movement of which back and
+    forth rotates the stick. This is used with a mouthpiece for a socket.
+    Another form, but one seldom used for fire-getting, is the pump-drill,
+    where the stick connected with the ends of the cord runs across the
+    drill stock, and sometimes has the stock passing through it, the string
+    being so adjusted around the stock that an up-and-down motion of the
+    crossbar imparts a rotary, reciprocating movement to the stock. This
+    is the form used by the Pueblos for stone drilling, etc.<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> The
+    fire-drill entered into the religious ceremonies of most tribes, and,
+    conventionalised in the so-called cross of the Palenque tablet, which
+    is a development, according to Bandelier, of the fire-drill through
+    ornamentation, it puzzled the Europeans, causing them for a time to
+    imagine that Christianity had preceded Columbus to the New World.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_253">
+    <img src="images/i_253.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SET OF FIRE-MAKING TOOLS, BRISTOL BAY ESKIMO, ALASKA<br>
+      Showing stepped hearth. Mouthpiece is set with a socket-bearing of black stone</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp56" id="i_254">
+    <img src="images/i_254.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO BOW-DRILL</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>To return to the bow again, the length of it varies in different
+    localities. In a densely wooded country, a long bow would often be
+    in the way, and this and other reasons would make it shorter. The
+    average length is about forty inches. The string is made of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>sinew,
+    well twisted and, at the ends, braided. Arrows are of different kinds
+    in the same tribe: some blunt or with wood points sharpened for bird
+    shooting, or for other small animals; arrows adapted for deer; for
+    large fowl; and others still for heavy game like bison or bear. The
+    head of the game arrow was set in the plane of the string—that is, the
+    notch was quite or nearly in line with the head, and, when adjusted
+    to the bowstring, stood at a slight angle, the bow always being held
+    diagonally across the shooter’s body. The head would thus strike
+    between an animal’s ribs. War arrows, on the other hand, had their
+    notches so placed that the head of the arrow went from the bow in a
+    horizontal position, because the ribs of a man lie that way.<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> It
+    will be seen that the head was not at right angles to the notch, for in
+    that case it would not have been projected horizontally. The adjustment
+    of the notch to produce the desired position would always be regulated
+    by the habit of holding the bow. Since the rifle came into use, little
+    attention probably has been given to this point. The arrow-shaft is
+    round, about a quarter inch in diameter, and from twenty to thirty
+    inches long, though some are longer.<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> Long ones are usually made
+    of reed with a hardwood tip, upon which the head is mounted; this, as
+    noted above, now being of hoop iron. Stone heads formerly were the
+    chief method of tipping the shaft. In 1875 I purchased a number of
+    these from an old arrow-maker of the Pai Ute tribe. The other end of
+    the shaft is feathered. This is done by attaching split feathers to
+    it with the web cut narrow, for the purpose of giving it guidance.
+    This feathering is a distinguishing feature, and an expert can place
+    the maker of an arrow by the style of feathering. Feathers of birds
+    of prey are almost invariably employed. The number is sometimes two,
+    but generally three. They are attached by strands of moist sinew
+    wound around the ends and when the sinew is dry it becomes a smooth
+    firm band. Three zigzag grooves are scratched down the shaft, some
+    say not, as popularly believed, for the purpose of aiding the flow of
+    blood, but because this is the lightning symbol, and is intended to
+    endow the arrow with speed and certainty. But Dorsey says the Omahas
+    told him their object was to increase flow of blood from the wound.
+    Poisoned arrows were made by dipping <span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>the points into rotting liver or
+    rattlesnake venom, etc. These were used for war. The arrow-shaft when
+    first made is by no means always straight, but the Amerind invented a
+    piece of horn or stone with perforations through which the heated shaft
+    is drawn till it is straight. See illustration at head of this chapter.
+    Quivers are all very similar in plan also, usually comprising a case
+    for the bow, one for the arrows, and in some tribes a pouch containing
+    arrow-making tools. The Eskimo make their quivers of sealskin, other
+    tribes use cat, deer, panther, otter, etc. The spear doubtless preceded
+    the bow and arrow. It is little used by the interior tribes, but in the
+    form of the harpoon, as well as the regular spear form, is common among
+    the Eskimo and other coast Amerinds.<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_255-1">
+    <img src="images/i_255-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MODERN ROD ARMOUR OF THE KLAMATHS, OREGON
+      <p class="hang">Made up of 44 oval rods of pine wood. The cord is of native hemp
+        and cords made of sisal, the latter probably derived from ropes
+        of white make. Cords are coloured red and yellow. Bound with
+        buckskin painted red; shoulder-straps of buckskin; tying straps
+        at the sides. Width, 38 in.; height, 21 in.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_255-2">
+    <img src="images/i_255-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HUPA ROD ARMOUR, CALIFORNIA
+      <p class="hang">“Made of 118 peeled rods, woven together with native twine,
+        bound with buckskin on upper and lower edges and arm-holes.
+        Shoulder-straps of leather; six horizontal stripes of red
+        cord cross the front. The red lines denote the number of
+        enemies slain or captives taken; also the rank of the wearer.
+        This class of armour was in common use among the Natanos and
+        Kennucks before the introduction of firearms; but it is now
+        obsolete, nearly.” Width, 41 in.; height, 21 in.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_257">
+    <img src="images/i_257.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO PLATE ARMOUR, DIOMEDE ISLAND, BERING STRAIT
+      <p class="hang">“Made of five imbricating rows of plates of walrus ivory of unequal
+        size in the different rows, pierced with from 6 to 13 holes,
+        lashed with sealskin thongs.” 164 plates in all. In form,
+        lashing and adjustment of plates it is identical with certain
+        types of Japanese armour. Width, extended, 49 in.; height, 24 in.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In armour, the Amerind was inventive, as in everything else, and he
+    devised some excellent means for defence for the body<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a>; <span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>and
+    borrowed one form, according to Hough, from Asia. His shields were made
+    of wood, basketry, cotton, and rawhide, and were usually circular. The
+    commonest material was rawhide, which was often contracted and hardened
+    by fire, and then covered with buckskin. It was variously ornamented,
+    and the decoration was the outcome of many a religious ceremony
+    conducted according to long-established rules. It was “invariably held
+    on the left arm, usually by a simple thong of buckskin attached to the
+    interior.” Many shields have two covers, each held on by a gathering
+    string. In New Mexico and Mexico some tribes used one that could be
+    shut up like a fan, and the Navajos had one that was made of cedar rods
+    tied together with cords.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_258">
+    <img src="images/i_258.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TLINKIT SKIN ARMOUR, ALASKA
+      <p class="hang">“Made of tanned hide; two thicknesses; sewed along the upper
+        edge. The ‘swallow-tail’ portion is reinforced with two extra
+        thicknesses, making four in all. The coat is very heavy. The
+        sewing is done with sinew. Width, 25 in.; height, 33 in.”</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_259">
+    <img src="images/i_259.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PREHISTORIC ALEUTIAN ROD ARMOUR
+      <p class="hang">“The small rods composing it are about ¾ in. diameter, painted
+        red. Width, 40 in.; height, 25 in. Position as on the body. It
+        was fastened behind with two loops of sinew, into which wooden
+        buttons were inserted”</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The body armour was made of rows of overlapping plates, lashed
+    together, of slats, of rods, of skins, and of cotton padded. The plate
+    armour is the one that was borrowed from Asia; a migration apparently
+    across Bering Strait. The cotton-padded armour was confined to the
+    Amerinds of Mexico and Central America, but the other varieties were
+    distributed over the whole <span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span>area. In the plate armour, “small, flat,
+    oblong plates of ivory or bone pierced near the edges with from four
+    to six or more holes,” were lashed in series with rawhide thongs.
+    The coat, made in this way of a number of rows, was tied at the back
+    with thongs, or had a toggle fastening. Some of these plates in iron
+    and in copper have been dug up at Cape Prince of Wales and on St.
+    Lawrence Island. This armour is very similar to that of the Japanese,
+    and if it was wholly an imported idea, it was probably a comparatively
+    recent one. The Tlinkits used the slat armour and also a rod armour,
+    the former being made of very hard wood fastened with cords of sinew.
+    A Tlinkit greave has also been found among the collections in the
+    National Museum, so that it is probable that the North-west coast
+    Amerinds protected arms and legs as well as body. The Iroquois are also
+    reported to have used armour of rods both on their limbs and their
+    vital parts. The rod armour was formed by sewing or lacing together
+    with native twine a series of straight slender rods sufficient to
+    pass around the body and tie in front, with places for the arms,
+    and straps over the shoulders. The skin armour was simply a sort of
+    heavy, sleeveless shirt made of thick hide, doubled and reinforced
+    and otherwise rendered as nearly as possible proof against arrow or
+    spear. In Mexico, where the padded cotton armour was chiefly worn,
+    a breastplate of the same material was put on under it. The common
+    Aztec soldiers wore armour of “reeds, grass, and hides, or ’nequen
+    cloth, coated with India-rubber.”<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> Veytia says the “private
+    soldiers painted the upper part of the body to represent armour, but
+    from the waist to the thighs they wore short drawers, and over them
+    fastened around the waist a kind of kilt that reached to the knee, and
+    availed them somewhat for defence. Across the body was a sash made of
+    feathers that passed from the right shoulder to the left side of the
+    waist.”<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> Many Amerinds also wore in conjunction with the various
+    kinds of armour, a helmet, ranging from the feathered war-bonnet to
+    a heavy mask-helmet of wood. The Tarascos of Mexico, according to
+    Brinton, specially excelled in defensive armour, which “consisted of
+    helmet, body pieces, and greaves for the legs and arms, all of wood
+    covered neatly <span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>with copper or gold plates, so well done that the
+    pieces looked as if they were of solid metal.”<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> The Mayas wore
+    cotton armour similar to that of the Mexicans, and bore a shield also.
+    Breastplates of copper have been found in the Atlantic region, and many
+    of the Amerinds there used body armour of wood, skins, and bark.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_261-1">
+    <img src="images/i_261-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CHIPPED FLINT
+      <span style="padding-left: 5%; padding-right: 5%;">CHIPPED FLINT BLUNT ARROW-HEAD, GEORGIA</span>
+      CHIPPED FLINT IMPLEMENT, TENNESSEE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_261-2">
+    <img src="images/i_261-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SPECIMEN “CORES,” OR BLOCKS OF FLINT<br>
+      From which flakes were struck off for making arrow-heads, etc. Usually
+      about 3 in. long in the U.&nbsp;S., but longer elsewhere</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_261-3">
+    <img src="images/i_261-3.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SPECIMEN OF CHIPPED FLINT DISCS, CALLED “TURTLEBACK,” MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+      GROOVED STONE AXE, TENNESSEE (GROUND)</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Another kind of defensive armour, though its qualities were purely
+    imaginary, is the so-called “ghost-shirt” (see illustration, page
+    157) made of cloth or skin, and resembling the ordinary war-shirt of
+    the Dakota. This shirt came into notice during the “Ghost Dance”<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a>
+    excitement that began about 1890 and lasted for six or eight years.
+    It was worn by all men, women, and children who accepted the “Ghost”
+    doctrine, either as an outside or under garment, and it was implicitly
+    believed that no bullet or other weapon could penetrate its sacred
+    material.<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> As already remarked in another chapter, the Amerinds
+    in modern times, of at least the United States region, usually went
+    into battle naked. The only defensive armour was, as Mooney records,
+    “his protecting medicine,” which consisted of “a feather, a tiny bag
+    of some sacred powder, the claw of an animal, the head of a bird, or
+    some other small object, which could be readily twisted into his hair
+    or hidden between the covers of his shield.... Its virtue depended
+    entirely on the ceremony of the consecration, and not on size or
+    texture. The war-paint had the same magic power of protection.... The
+    so-called ‘war-shirt’ was worn chiefly in ceremonial dress parades and
+    only rarely on the warpath.”<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> Just when the armour which protected
+    by its intrinsic strength was abandoned for the protection of the
+    “medicine” is not, so far as I am aware, at present known. At one time,
+    it seems quite certain, the material protection of armour was almost
+    universal over the whole of North America, while in our latter day no
+    one ever saw an Amerind fight with armour on. The idea of going into
+    battle nude was that the warrior’s movements were unincumbered, while
+    his “medicine” afforded him ample protection. A Navajo who <span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>posed for
+    me for a picture in Arizona described the Navajo manner of going to
+    battle, but never mentioned armour, or any kind of protection. He said
+    they always went naked, with even their hair untied from its customary
+    knot and falling loose on the shoulders.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp40" id="i_263">
+    <img src="images/i_263.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DIAGRAM EXPLAINING TERMS TO BE USED IN DESCRIBING STONE WEAPONS
+      <p class="hang"><i>a</i>, point; <i>b</i>, edge; <i>c</i>, face; <i>d</i>, bevel;
+          <i>e</i>, blade; <i>f</i>, tang; <i>g</i>, stem; <i>h</i>, base;
+          <i>i</i>, notch; <i>k</i>, neck; <i>m</i>, barb, or shoulder</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Stone arrow- and spear-heads are found in all parts of the continent,
+    but they are almost always chipped, seldom ground. Maguire, who has
+    made a special study of this subject, declares chipping to be one of
+    the most difficult of arts. “On examination,” he says, “it is found
+    that every rock has been worked in the best and most economical method
+    which its texture admits.” The usual way of making arrow-heads was to
+    place the bit of stone previously flaked from a nodule or fragment and
+    brought near the shape by percussion, on the palm of the left hand,
+    which is protected by a glove or a piece of buckskin, and hold it there
+    by the fingers of that hand while the right brings a down pressure to
+    bear on the edges by the point of a slender piece of horn or bone. The
+    chips spring off and the operation is continued till the desired shape
+    is attained. I tried this method once on a flake of chalcedony I had
+    picked up, and had no difficulty in bringing it to an arrow-head shape.
+    Maguire has made a great many successfully. Chisels, axes, and mauls
+    were made the same way or were ground into shape, a groove being made
+    in the axes across the sides to receive a split stick that was bound
+    on for a handle. It is almost unnecessary to say, perhaps, that there
+    never could have been a time when all tribes were equally proficient
+    in the art of stone working, some being skilful when others could make
+    nothing.<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p>
+
+  <p>In this country we know so well the origin of the stone implements
+    found in the fields that we smile when we read of people in Europe
+    treating them as charms and talismans. “When <span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>kept in a house they
+    protect it from lightning; the water in which a celt has been boiled
+    is a remedy against rheumatism; and sick cattle are cured by drinking
+    water in which a celt has been placed.” The Amerinds frequently treat
+    them as medicine.<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Some tools were produced in the rough at various sites, or workshops,
+    located at the quarries. Those in Ohio described by Moorehead are
+    probably the most extensive in North America, except the obsidian
+    mines of Hidalgo, Mexico. “The magnitude of the deposit is such,”
+    he says, “that it has given to the locality the distinctive name of
+    Flint Ridge.” It occupies an area about eight miles long by three
+    wide. Here thousands of cubic yards of earth had been removed to reach
+    the flint beneath. “Acre after acre has been so thoroughly excavated
+    that scarcely a single foot of earth and stone retains its original
+    position. Hundreds of wagon loads of spalls cover the ground.” One
+    of the pits formed in this extremely hard stone is almost a hundred
+    feet in diameter and more than eighteen feet deep. The method employed
+    was to build a fire on the rock and then throw cold water on the spot
+    till the edge was broken through and they could knock flakes off of
+    the under side with stone hammers. These were put roughly into shape
+    at some nearby spot and then perhaps taken far away to be finished.
+    This flint formed better tools than that found on the surface.<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a>
+    Many of the blades were often piled together for some unknown reason.
+    In sinking a well in a corner of a mound in Illinois, eighteen large
+    flint spades were found a few feet below the surface, closely packed
+    together, and Moorehead found in Ohio the largest “cache” ever brought
+    to light. This formed a mound in the Hopewell group, six feet high and
+    sixty feet in diameter at the base, and contained over seven thousand
+    flint discs about the size of a man’s hand.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_265">
+    <img src="images/i_265.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TLINKIT SLAT-AND-ROD ARMOUR, ALASKA, FRONT VIEW
+      <p class="hang">“Made of slats and rods of hard wood, 1¼ to 1½ in. wide, ⁵⁄₁₆ in.
+        thick, woven together by means of fine sinew cord so as to
+        admit of considerable flexibility. The rods and slats are pared
+        down to form channels for the reception of the cord weaving.
+        The front and back portions are woven separately. The neck
+        portions are made up of short slats, and sewed on by means of a
+        strip of rawhide 1½ in. wide. The shoulder supports are of very
+        thick elkhide, the one on the right being fastened by a slash
+        and toggle. Width of rear portion, 24 in.; height, 20 in.;
+        width of front portion, 18 in.; height, 19 in.”</p></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Some spear-points found are more than a foot long and three inches
+    wide, and they vary from this down to what may be termed large
+    arrow-heads. Some writers claim that only the very small smallest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span>
+    heads were from arrows, but this would vary according to the tribe
+    and the game hunted, just as we have various bores to our rifles. The
+    stone arrow-heads of the Pai Utes twenty-five years ago were small,
+    but the smallest were often attached to the longest arrows. The method
+    of securing the head to the shaft was generally similar everywhere. A
+    notch being cut in the end of the stick, a small quantity of pitch,
+    asphaltum, fish, or animal glue, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>or cement, was placed in it,
+    warmed, and the stone head squeezed into position, where it was held
+    by wrappings of wet sinew thread which, drying, gave it a firm grip,
+    and yet when moistened by blood would allow the head to come off in
+    a wound. The sinew was variously applied, according to the shape of
+    the head. The triangular head was held on by passing the sinew over
+    the outer edges, while in that with a tang, which went well down into
+    the shaft, the sinew was wound round and round the shaft and over the
+    tang at the same time. All iron heads were made and mounted in the
+    latter way. In the leaf-shaped head with deep notches, the wrapping
+    was thoroughly protected by the depth of the notches through which
+    it passed. The hafting of knives was much like that of arrows and
+    spears, the ordinary stone knife looking much like a spear-head, and
+    probably some implements <span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>that are classed as spear-heads were knives
+    instead. Many were double-edged, while others were single. Some of the
+    diminutive stone implements resembling arrow-heads were drill-heads
+    or awls, and also heads for the children’s play-arrows.<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> There is
+    also a great range in the size of the stone axes and hammers, from mere
+    toys to those so large as to be unwieldy. Grooved stone axes are found
+    all over the continent, except in the mounds of Ohio. Like other stone
+    implements, they have often been used successively by various tribes.
+    Those used to-day by the Mokis and Zuñis are some they have found, and
+    they use them as pounders and pestles. Many of the axes and hammers
+    were weapons of war.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_266">
+    <img src="images/i_266.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>APACHE WAR-BONNET</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Amerinds were so skilful in the use of stone tools that it is
+    related that in the early days of the West they would skin and dress
+    a deer with a stone almost as quickly as a white man could do it with
+    a hunting-knife. For this purpose they would pick up a thin stone and
+    with a few sharp blows from another stone bring it to a cutting edge.
+    Skins were dressed by scrapers of bone or stone to remove superfluous
+    flesh. Pins were used for stretching them on the ground.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp12" id="i_268-2">
+    <img src="images/i_268-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO BIRD BOLAS. ⅙</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp33" id="i_268-1">
+    <img src="images/i_268-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO THROWING-BOARDS FOR DARTS. ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Among the Eskimo the harpoon reached a high state of perfection, and
+    many of their weapons are beautifully made. Bone, wood, and ivory were
+    utilised for the shaft, and a specially unique one was made from the
+    single horn of the narwhal. Spears or lances were also used for land
+    animals before they had firearms. They are now pretty well supplied
+    with the latest Winchester rifles. The harpoon to-day has a blade of
+    thin iron or steel set into an ivory or bone piece which has a hole
+    through it that retains in place a sealskin thong to which a line
+    is attached. The bottom of the ivory piece has a socket in it that
+    fits on to the lance shaft. When the harpoon strikes an animal’s body
+    the head of it then hangs there on the end of the line, coming loose
+    from the shaft. There are various forms of the harpoon for different
+    animals, and they are also of different sizes according to the weight
+    and strength of the owner. Formerly the blades were of slate, jade,
+    or flint. Floats of sealskin inflated are used to mark the place
+    of a capture, so that carcass and harpoon can be easily recovered.
+    The Eskimo had a wolf-killer that was ingenious. A stout piece of
+    whalebone, about a foot long and half an inch broad, was sharpened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> at
+    the ends and then frozen in a piece of blubber in a Z shape. The wolf
+    swallowing it, its own heat released the whalebone, which penetrated
+    the sides of the stomach and killed the animal. Each tribe had a varied
+    assortment of implements according to locality and occupation, and it
+    would not be possible even to mention them all in a single chapter, so
+    I shall give only the most important. The bird spear of the Eskimo is a
+    singular weapon. The shaft is laid on a short board fifteen to eighteen
+    inches long, which has a groove to receive the shaft, a handle, and a
+    hole for the first finger. A spike in the shaft prevents slipping, and
+    when the board is hurled forward by a strong wrist motion, the fingers
+    let go the shaft, which, leaving the board, flies forward to the mark
+    with considerable force. These spears are also used by the Aleuts.
+    The Eskimo also use for bird killing six or seven ivory balls, each
+    attached to a string about thirty inches long, the ends of the strings
+    being supplied with tufts of feathers. The balls spread apart in flying
+    through the air and cover a wide space. For war all tribes had clubs
+    and tomahawks. The Mexicans used some with blades of obsidian set in
+    both edges.</p>
+
+  <p>In the line of throwing weapons is the <i>pūtchkohu</i> of the Mokis,
+    a first cousin to the Australian boomerang. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span>It is effective at thirty
+    or forty yards, but does not return. It is a flat piece of curved oak,
+    sawed out of a bend of a limb, about twenty inches long, one quarter to
+    one half inch thick, and two inches wide, with a small handle at one
+    end. It is thrown with the concave side forward.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_269">
+    <img src="images/i_269.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Ute stone knife. Handle of wood and blade set in a dark cement
+      Eskimo slate knives. Handles of wood<br>
+      AMERINDIAN KNIVES</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp75" id="i_270-1">
+    <img src="images/i_270-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI THROWING-STICK, OR PUTCHKOHU. ⅕</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft clear illowp14" id="i_270-2">
+    <img src="images/i_270-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PUEBLO PLANTING STICK. ⅒</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp14" id="i_270-3">
+    <img src="images/i_270-3.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ZUÑI WOODEN SPADE. ⅒
+      <p class="hang">Used for shovelling snow from roofs and for taking bread from ovens</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Nets were used for fishing and for hunting. The Pai Utes made a good
+    net of cord, from milkweed or sagebrush bark, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>about as thick as
+    telegraph wire. It was about fifty feet long and three feet broad, and
+    was propped up on the ground on a number of slender rods, one net being
+    joined to another’s end until a large semi-circle was formed into which
+    rabbits from a large area were frightened by noises. Caught in the
+    meshes, they were soon despatched by their pursuers. Many Amerinds used
+    nets for fishing, and the Eskimo make a fine, strong one of sealskin,
+    with which they catch the seal itself as it rushes after prey in the
+    waters near some beach where the net is stretched. I obtained one that
+    is fifty feet long and about six feet wide, with meshes seven inches
+    square.</p>
+
+  <p>For agricultural operations the Amerinds had various tools, which,
+    though primitive, answered the requirements. Of the plough, or anything
+    approaching it, they had no knowledge, the hoe being their chief
+    implement. This was made of flint, the shoulder-blade of a deer or
+    other animal, a turtle shell or some similar object. Spades were also
+    made, often of wood, and in the Mississippi region of flint, but these
+    are seldom found in the Atlantic division. In the Moki country corn is
+    still planted with a dibble, a stick sharpened at one end and having on
+    one side a projection to receive the foot, which pressed it into the
+    soil. Having cultivated a crop of maize, the grain had to be reduced
+    to meal before it would serve for winter use, and for this purpose
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>mortars of wood and stone were used, and also the <i>metates</i>,
+    or mealing stones. Other substances besides corn were also ground in
+    the mortars, as seeds of grass, dried fish, nuts, grasshoppers, paint,
+    etc. Sometimes natural depressions in rocks were utilised, but oftener
+    small bowlders were worked into the desired shape and stone pestles
+    were wrought out to accompany them. The cavity was of various depths.
+    Those tribes growing little corn made mortars neither large nor deep,
+    and some, like the Pai Utes, growing no corn at all, ground their grass
+    seeds on a flat stone, while those relying chiefly on corn for food,
+    like the Pueblos and the Mexicans, in the early days made large oblong
+    mortars, of hard basalt cut out to a depth of six or eight inches, with
+    sides not more than an inch and a half or two inches thick. While these
+    were really mortars, the grain was not pounded in them, but crushed
+    and rubbed into meal by means of another stone, flat and oblong, about
+    four and a half inches wide and some ten inches long and an inch or
+    two thick. When the Pueblos and Mexicans settled in permanent houses
+    they departed from the old way of hollowing out these stones, and used
+    instead a flat slab, set up at an angle of about thirty-five degrees in
+    a frame of slabs of stone, or of wood, about six or eight inches deep.
+    Several of these slabs were fixed in a row, usually three, and were
+    each made to produce different degrees of fineness by the girls behind
+    till at the last stone, or metate,<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> as they are usually called, the
+    meal was of the required condition. See <a href="#Page_194">page 194</a>. The Eastern Amerinds
+    usually pounded their corn with stone pestles in wooden mortars. Some
+    Western tribes used the same method. Diminutive mortars were used for
+    preparing face paints, while others were children’s toys. The so-called
+    cupped-stones have sometimes been supposed to be paint mortars, but, as
+    pointed out in a previous chapter (<a href="#Page_66">p. 66</a>), they may have been mostly
+    used for roughing and shaping the ends of fire-drills.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_271">
+    <img src="images/i_271.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attl">From a drawing by the author</div>
+    <figcaption>A MOKI THROWING THE PUTCHKOHU<br>
+      The “East Mesa” is seen in the right distance whereon are the three
+      villages of—left to right—Walpi, Cichumovi, Tewa. The dressing of the
+      hair is Navajo, as well as the turban, the model’s uncle being Navajo
+      but a Moki citizen</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Navajos carve moulds for their silver casting in sandstone, and it
+    seems likely that some of the so-called stone tablets, inscribed with
+    figures that are not clearly defined, may have been nothing more than
+    moulds, in those regions, at least, where it is known that copper or
+    other metals were worked.<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span></p>
+
+  <p>The spindle and loom, which belong among the implements and tools
+    enumerated here, have already been described in connection with weaving
+    and they will now be passed by. The tools used in metal working will be
+    mentioned in a following chapter.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_273">
+    <img src="images/i_273.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SHELL SPOON, MISSISSIPPI VALLEY<br>
+      Actual size</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Household utensils were made of various materials, of which
+    earthenware, as noted in the chapter on Pottery, was one of the chief.
+    There were also trays, boxes, buckets, and cups of wood. Others were of
+    whalebone, sealskin, soapstone, and ivory. Spoons were made from the
+    horns of the mountain sheep, from those of goats, and from bison horns.
+    Some of these spoons, made of horn by the North-west coast Amerinds,
+    are elaborately carved and polished. Clam, oyster, conch, and turtle
+    shells also served for ladles and spoons. Drinking cups, dippers,
+    water-bottles, and other vessels were made of gourds. Metallic cups
+    or pots have not been found antedating the arrival of the Spaniards.
+    Soapstone vessels, as well as earthenware, were made and used in the
+    Atlantic region; soapstone by the Eskimo. Quarries exist where the
+    material was obtained, especially in the Chesapeake-Potomac tidewater
+    region. Special pick-like stone tools were made for cutting out these
+    pots and masses. The Eskimo, who once ranged down as far as the mouth
+    of the Hudson and possibly farther, may have originally opened up some
+    of these quarries.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_274-1">
+    <img src="images/i_274-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PUEBLO MOUNTAIN SHEEP-HORN SPOON. ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_274-2">
+    <img src="images/i_274-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MENOMINEE WOODEN MORTAR AND PESTLE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the line of utensils, the Eskimo lamp, is, perhaps, one of the
+    most important and unique.<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> No other Amerinds had anything of
+    the kind. It was a necessity with the Eskimo, while tribes living in
+    wooded regions would have no use for it. They could obtain light from
+    camp-fires, especially with the addition of pitch pine. But the Eskimo
+    lamp is primarily a heating apparatus. What need then for Amerinds,
+    who had wood, to bother with a lamp, for which oil must be prepared?
+    Besides this consideration was the one of cleanliness, for the lamp is
+    very dirty, and even Amerinds have standards. “Far more remarkable than
+    being the unique possessors of the lamp in the Western Hemisphere,”
+    says Hough, “the Eskimo present the spectacle of a people depending
+    for their very existence upon this <span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>household belonging. Indeed, it is
+    a startling conclusion that the lamp has determined the occupancy of
+    an otherwise uninhabitable region by the Eskimo, or, in other words,
+    the distribution of a race.”<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> When fuel can be obtained, which is
+    the case often in summer, fires are used instead of the lamp. This
+    fuel is peat, grass, driftwood, or shrubs. The lamp is generally of
+    soapstone, though some have been made of clay, earthenware, bone, or
+    wood. The usual shape is something like a clam shell, though they are
+    sometimes oval or pear-shaped, or round. They are modified in form
+    according to the use required of them, the traveller’s lamp being much
+    smaller necessarily than the ordinary lamp of the iglu. The lamps vary
+    in length from two or three inches to about two feet, and in width from
+    one half inch to nine or ten <span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span>inches, while the height is from less
+    than an inch to four or five. The smallest specimens are toy lamps of
+    the children, and the next in size the traveller’s lamp. Small lamps
+    are often balanced but the large ones are not, but are supported by
+    a wooden block or by pegs of wood or bone stuck into the snow. The
+    shallow hollow of the lamp is filled with seal oil, which is obtained
+    in winter by freezing the blubber, when the oil can easily be extracted
+    by beating; in summer often by chewing it out. The wick is of moss
+    and is arranged along the wide side of the lamp. It has to be trimmed
+    frequently, but when kept in good order gives a bright illumination
+    which Schwatka declared to be “certainly equal to the light from three
+    or four kerosene lamps.” The oil is kept in sealskins, which are made
+    into bottles by sewing, and the comfort and cheerfulness of the iglu
+    during the long night depend on the stock of oil which the family has
+    been able to secure. The farther north, the larger the lamp, because
+    the darkness is longer and the cold greater. <i>Vice versa</i>,
+    southward it finally disappears.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_275">
+    <img src="images/i_275.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>STONE HOUSE-LAMP, POINT BARROW, ALASKA. ¼<br>
+      3 in. to 2 ft. in length</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In transportation facilities the Amerinds were extremely deficient, the
+    Eskimo excelling all others in this direction. This was the result of
+    environment and does not indicate superiority of the Eskimo over other
+    stocks. They had vast treeless plains and ice sheets to traverse, and
+    the sledge was a necessity. Dogs all Amerinds had, and some of them
+    used them, to a certain extent, for beasts of burden, so that there
+    was not a great deal of invention required to attach one or several
+    to the sledge. On the other hand, most Amerinds were not so situated
+    that they could utilise the dog in this way, and the continent offered
+    them no substitute for it unless, as has been suspected, some of the
+    South-western tribes may have had an animal resembling the vicuna,
+    which they kept for its wool and presumably for transportation purposes
+    also. But there is as yet no trustworthy evidence of this, and it may
+    be said that the Amerinds of North America as a race possessed no beast
+    of burden but the dog. In time, had the bison not been exterminated,
+    and provided also that the whites had not come, it is possible that
+    this animal might have been domesticated for milk, for meat, and for
+    draught purposes. But the bison, after all, was ill adapted to work,
+    for he is clumsy, so that the Amerind really had only the dog that
+    was practicable, and this he utilised as far as possible, or at least
+    as far as necessity directed. The Amerinds encountered on the plains
+    of Texas in 1540 by Coronado were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>using the dog,<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> just as they
+    afterward used the horse, for transporting tents and tent poles. A
+    great many different forms of sledge are in use among the Eskimo, and
+    besides the regular sledges, walrus skins, rolls of sealskins, and
+    even packs of salmon are sometimes used for the purpose. When skins
+    are used they are soaked with fresh water and sewed in a bag which is
+    given the desired shape and then allowed to freeze solid, in which
+    condition it remains till the return of warm weather. The Eskimo is
+    never troubled with a “January thaw.” Sometimes sledges are made out of
+    slabs of fresh-water ice frozen together; or blocks of ice are hollowed
+    out. The runners of the ordinary sledge are usually made of driftwood
+    and are from five to fifteen feet long and twenty inches to two and a
+    half feet apart. The runners are connected by crossbars of wood or bone
+    and are shod with whalebone, ivory, jawbone of whale, and sometimes
+    with frozen fish. The shoe is either tied or riveted in place, and the
+    parts are generally tied together, though now iron nails are sometimes
+    used. When there is a back to the sledge it is made, in the Central
+    regions, of wood or of deer or caribou antlers. Very small sleds are
+    used for running boats out of water, and their runners are often single
+    walrus tusks, the rest being of any wood obtainable. “The dog <span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>harness
+    consists of a broad band or strap of stout rawhide, with three parallel
+    loops at one end.... The head is passed through the middle loop, and a
+    foreleg through each of the side loops, bringing the main part of the
+    thong over the back.”<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> This is the trace, and by means of a toggle
+    it is fastened to a long line that runs back to the sledge and connects
+    all the dogs with it. The Central Eskimo make two bights passing under
+    the forelegs, joined by two straps across the neck and breast. The
+    dogs are not driven in Alaska,<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> but they are in the Central and
+    Eastern regions, and Boas asserts that silence must be maintained
+    during the journey, for the dogs will stop, turn around, sit down, and
+    listen to any conversation that is carried on. The dogs are wolf-like
+    in appearance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> but are not given to barking. Indeed, they seem to pay
+    little attention to a stranger. A long whip is used for touching them
+    up when on the sledge. Steering is done by the legs of the driver. In
+    the late spring, when there are sharp ice needles, a sort of leather
+    boot, with holes for the nails, is tied to the dogs’ feet to keep them
+    from getting sore. In summer-time they have an easy life of it. The
+    Alaska sledge has no back, but has a rail on each side.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_277">
+    <img src="images/i_277.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO SLEDGES</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_278">
+    <img src="images/i_278.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CENTRAL ESKIMO DOG HARNESS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_279">
+    <img src="images/i_279.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ENCLOSED CANADIAN TOBOGGAN OR TRAVELLING SLED<br>
+      From Porcupine River, Alaska. Length about 8 ft.; width, 14 in.; height
+      of body, 18 in.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>“The sleds of the Chippewayan,” says Mason, “are formed of thin slips
+    of board, turned up in front, and are highly polished.”<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> This is
+    the toboggan, or Amerind sled without runners, developed and used in
+    the region lying between that occupied by the Eskimo and about the
+    northern limit of the United States. Dogs were attached to the toboggan
+    by some tribes, as the Tinne, who also used the dogs in summer as pack
+    animals. The toboggan, however, was usually pulled by men, and its
+    object was the transportation of a load which would otherwise need to
+    be carried. It was made of a single thin plank, or of two, fastened
+    together on the upper surface with battens, and having the forward
+    end turned up and over like a letter C and fixed in this position
+    by rawhide cords attached properly to the first cross batten, and
+    sometimes a rawhide line is also carried back to the last batten to
+    give additional strength. The toboggan is now in common use among the
+    whites of America, especially the Canadians.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp25" id="i_280">
+    <img src="images/i_280.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO SNOW-SHOE, POINT BARROW, ALASKA. ⅛</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In pulling the toboggan over the snow the traveller would sink deep
+    and become tired with only ordinary foot covering, so the Amerind
+    invented a shoe expressly for snow travel. This is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>familiar to almost
+    everybody, but a brief description will be added for the sake of those
+    who may not have seen it. There are two kinds of snow-shoe; those
+    represented by the Norwegian ski, made of wood, long and slender, and
+    not used in America before their introduction from Europe. The only
+    wooden shoe recorded is an Eskimo one made in the same shape as their
+    others. The other kind of snow-shoe<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> is the Amerind one made by
+    bending to an oval shape a slender piece of wood for a frame, and
+    filling the interval with rawhide netting; and it was in use all over
+    North America, where snow remained for any length of time. Among some
+    tribes these shoes were “rights and lefts,” but as a rule they were
+    interchangeable. They are generally the shape of a long, pointed oval,
+    but some are almost round. There are two crossbars to hold the frame in
+    shape, and also to form supports for the toe and heel. Some shoes were
+    four or five feet long and seven or eight inches wide, and turned up
+    at the forward end, while others were short and broad and not turned
+    up, the interval between being filled by a series in great variety. The
+    foot is held in position by suitable thongs or straps. These shoes are
+    now in common use by the whites.</p>
+
+  <p>In summer the means of travel, before the horse came with the European,
+    were, on land, nothing more than a good pair of legs, but, on the
+    water, it was different. There, many of the Amerinds were at home,
+    for they had some of the most admirable <span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>small boats ever devised.
+    Chief of these, for lightness and grace, is the birchbark canoe,<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a>
+    though the Eskimo kayak is not far behind it. The birchbark canoe is
+    made in various sizes and in different tribes has variations, but the
+    type is the same everywhere. There is a slender, well-made frame of
+    wood, consisting of ribs, gunwales, and stiffening strips, over which
+    the bark, which has previously been sewed together, is stretched. The
+    bow is a trifle broader across the beam than the stern, but both are
+    pointed. The bark covering is rendered water-tight, where there are
+    holes or seams, with pine gum. The paddle is similar to the paddle
+    in use everywhere by the Amerinds, having a sort of T-shaped top to
+    the handle, and being about five feet <span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>long and four to six inches
+    wide. This kind of canoe was made wherever there was birchbark and
+    water to float it. Another form of boat which was universal was the
+    dugout canoe. This varied in size and shape according to locality,
+    and was always hollowed out of a single tree, by fire and by gouging.
+    When completed it was spread open wider, so that one of these boats
+    has the appearance of being from a larger tree than is the case. The
+    finest dugout canoes are those of the North-west coast, where they are
+    constructed from cedar trees of huge proportions. One of these canoes,
+    made by the Haidas, now in the American Museum in New York, is almost
+    a ship and could be navigated in stormy waters. The Haida canoes are
+    often elaborately carved. Farther up the coast the Tlinkits are experts
+    likewise in canoe building and in the management of them. Their canoes
+    are also hollowed from single logs. Many of them are small, being
+    barely large enough for two persons. Some have a peculiar projection,
+    a point sticking out from the lower part in line with the place where
+    the keel would be if they had one, and also another at the top, rather
+    square; that is, the wedge-like end is hollowed out in the middle.
+    Either end is sent forward, but the prong end usually first. It seemed
+    as if this projection might be intended to ward off ice, for it is
+    in the regions of Yakutat and Glacier bays that it is the dominant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span>
+    type; and there ice is always floating from the glaciers. At Prince
+    William Sound the <i>baidarka</i>,<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> or kayak, comes into use.
+    This is certainly the perfection of a canoe. The frame is admirably
+    made, being tied together and covered with walrus hide, or sealskin,
+    and the boat rests on the sea seeming scarcely to sink into it. The
+    umiak is the boat for travelling and general transportation. In it the
+    whole family, or even two or three families, with all their trappings,
+    journey about—dogs, children, packages, and adults all combined. In the
+    sunlight its rich, translucent yellow colour is beautiful, and when
+    filled with the good-natured, ruddy-cheeked Eskimo, clad in soft and
+    elegant furs, the picture formed is one that is remembered ever after.
+    In the Eastern regions it is termed the woman’s boat. They are usually
+    about thirty feet long, five or six wide, and thirty inches deep.
+    The ends are both rather pointed, and the bottom is flat. Sometimes
+    there will be fifteen or twenty persons in one of the umiaks at the
+    same time. The frame is on the same general principle as all other
+    boats—that is, a combination of certain ribs, thwarts, braces, etc. All
+    these pieces are lashed together, and when the skin covering is on, the
+    umiak is a staunch and excellent craft, albeit it is entirely open. The
+    cover is laced on, and in winter <span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>it is removed and stored away till
+    the waters are open once more, when it is soaked in the sea to render
+    it soft and again stretched in place.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_281">
+    <img src="images/i_281.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CANOES OF THE NORTH-WEST COAST<br>
+      Models of the family or transportation type. Hunting and fishing canoes
+      are similar. All these boats are hollowed from single cedar logs, and
+      then somewhat widened by spreading. They often carry a great number of persons</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_282">
+    <img src="images/i_282.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>UMIAK OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO<br>
+      The Alaska umiak has no oars and is more pointed</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_283">
+    <img src="images/i_283.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO KAYAKS<br>
+      The framework is tied together and covered with walrus or other hide.
+      Sometimes, as in the Aleut kayaks, there are two or three hatch-holes</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The umiak<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> has a sail of the square sort, made in these days out of
+    cotton, though formerly of seal intestine, which is attached to a yard.
+    The mast is some twelve feet high. The paddles are about five feet long
+    and six inches wide, though there are smaller ones also. Sometimes oars
+    are used as well as the paddles in navigating the umiak. The kayak
+    is made in the same way by stretching skins over a wood frame tied
+    together most dexterously. The navigator sits in a hatchway, as the
+    kayak is entirely covered, and a sort of apron tied around his waist
+    and around the coaming renders the boat water-tight. It is said some
+    of the Alaskans will turn a somersault in the water, coming up on the
+    opposite side.</p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_284-1">
+      <img src="images/i_284-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>METHOD OF ATTACHING OARS TO UMIAK</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_284-2">
+      <img src="images/i_284-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>METHOD OF TYING FRAME OF KAYAK</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Besides the boats mentioned there were others on the continent made in
+    different ways,<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> but these are the chief ones and serve to show
+    that the Amerind was ready to adapt himself to water when occasion
+    demanded. Taken all in all, his weapons, armour, implements, and
+    his transportation methods show, as other things do, that he was a
+    progressing, thinking being, with a good brain directing his operations.</p>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_X">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter" id="i_285">
+      <img class="illowp45" src="images/i_285.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>THIN PLATE OF COPPER WROUGHT BY REPOUSSÉ METHOD, ILLINOIS MOUND</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">MINING, METALLURGY, AND SCIENCE</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">MINING operations were carried on in different parts of the continent,
+    but in a primitive, limited way. Some of the most extensive was the
+    mining for flint with which to make stone implements, mentioned before.
+    The mining was done by means of fire and cold water alternately
+    applied, and this was the method used in all mining operations on the
+    continent, so far as is now known, except in the steatite or soapstone
+    mining. But, even in Europe, until the invention of gunpowder, the fire
+    method was employed, and in one or two localities where fuel is plenty
+    it is said to be still considered an economical manner of extracting
+    ore. In the Far West, where the rocks and ledges were more exposed,
+    veins were discovered where the calcedony, or jasper, or other stone
+    desired for stone implements could be easily knocked out. It was then
+    carried away to some comfortable site and wrought into shapes. Along
+    Western rivers one occasionally comes upon a spot where the ground is
+    littered with “chips,” rejects, broken arrow-heads, and also perfect
+    ones, the latter probably <span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>having been dropped and lost; or possibly in
+    some way not being satisfactory to the arrow-makers.</p>
+
+  <p>In working out soapstone vessels of the larger kind, the mining and
+    rough shaping were frequently, if not always, accomplished at one and
+    the same time.<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Holmes describes the methods employed as follows:
+    “When a sufficient area of the solid stone had been uncovered, the
+    workmen proceeded with pick and chisel to detach such portions as
+    were desired. If this surface happened to be uneven, the projections
+    or convexities were utilized, and the cutting was not difficult; if
+    the rock was massive and the surface flat, a circular groove was cut,
+    outlining the mass to be removed, and the cutting was continued until
+    a depth was reached corresponding to the height of the utensil to be
+    made; then, by undercutting, the nucleus was detached or so far severed
+    that it could be broken off by means of sledges or levers. If the
+    stone happened to be laminated, a circular groove was cut through at
+    right angles to the bedding, and the discoid mass was removed without
+    the need of undercutting.... A notable feature of the cutting out of
+    these masses of stone is the attendant shaping of the mass which was
+    rudely sculptured as the work went on, the contour of the vessel being
+    approximately developed. Although I have seen no good examples of this
+    class, it is confidently stated by others that rude nodes were carved
+    at opposite ends of the mass as incipient handles, and that excavation
+    of the bowl was begun, so that when severed from the stem the vessel
+    was already well under way.”<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> These vessels were usually, in their
+    largest size, about two feet long, one foot or more in width, and about
+    seven or eight inches deep. Some are nearly circular. The tools used
+    were of stone, wood, bone, and horn, but chiefly of stone in the form
+    of chisels and picks. Some of the trenches formed in cutting out this
+    material were twenty-five feet wide, sixteen feet deep, and seventy
+    feet long. One described by Fowke near Culpeper, Va., is one hundred
+    and fifty feet in diameter and of considerable depth, being filled with
+    water and débris. Pits of varying depth and size from which steatite,
+    jasper, rhyolite, and other materials have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>been extracted by the
+    Amerinds are found in different parts of the continent. In Yucatan
+    there are numerous well-like holes in the ground that were “pockets”
+    of zahcab, and when this valued material was taken out the cavity
+    was either left or transformed into the strange, well-like affairs,
+    carefully walled up and covered over, called chultunes, the object of
+    which is often a mystery.<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_287">
+    <img src="images/i_287.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>AMERINDIAN METHOD OF MINING STEATITE FOR UTENSILS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Native metals, when discovered by the Amerinds, were mined in much the
+    same way as the flint, the largest workings known being those at the
+    Lake Superior copper mines, where copper of remarkable purity continues
+    to furnish this continent and the world with an abundant supply.
+    Doubtless most of the copper used on the North American continent
+    prior to the Discovery was derived from these mines and distributed
+    through the channels of Amerind trade. Bowlders or nuggets of this
+    pure copper were treasured in the homes of the tribes of the northern
+    lake region when first encountered by the whites, and the location
+    of the outcrops, both on the mainland and on the islands, appears to
+    have been well known to the Amerinds of that time. An Algonquin chief
+    presented Champlain with a piece of copper a foot long and told him
+    there were “large quantities” where he had obtained this. He also said
+    “that they gathered it in lumps, and, having melted it, spread it in
+    sheets, smoothing it with stones.”<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> The mining operations in the
+    Michigan-Minnesota copper region were evidently carried on for a very
+    long period in the laborious Amerind way, and in consequence at the
+    time they were first noticed had the appearance of extensive operations
+    by a few miners, leading to the erroneous supposition that they had
+    been worked by some other race.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp60" id="i_289">
+    <img src="images/i_289.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CHIPPED SPADE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>It must not be forgotten that before the arrival of white men, and even
+    to this day in certain localities, copper appeared about as valuable
+    as gold. If the Lake Superior mines had been gold instead of copper it
+    would not greatly have enhanced the value of the product in the opinion
+    of the Amerinds of the locality and their customers. They worked their
+    way down into the rock which carried native copper and broke off
+    nodules and fragments as they proceeded. Some of the pits were eighteen
+    or twenty feet deep, and in one case a huge bowlder of copper was found
+    lying <span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span>on oak supports several feet from the bottom. This mass had
+    been denuded of every projection, and the supposition generally has
+    been that it was being elevated to the surface by means of the wood
+    underpinning. This may have been the case, but it is possible that the
+    underpinning was inserted as the miners went down on the vein, because
+    the bowlder was too large to cut or handle. They therefore <em>left it
+    where found</em> and proceeded to mine under and around for the smaller
+    pieces. The large one was ten feet long, three feet wide, nearly two
+    feet thick, and weighed over six tons. Other bowlders of greater weight
+    have been found, moved, as is supposed, a considerable distance from
+    the original bed, but the same hypothesis might apply to these that is
+    suggested above. The famous Ontonagon bowlder,<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> which was found
+    on the river of that name, is a copper mass weighing somewhere near
+    five tons and has been the cause of much speculation as to how it
+    came there. The probability is that it was left by glacial action on
+    the surface, not far from, if not on, the spot where found. It is not
+    likely that the Amerinds would take the trouble to move so large a mass
+    far. If they had possessed the power of cutting it up, they would have
+    done it near its source, and the same remark applies to the bowlders
+    of copper that it has been supposed they were trying to lift to the
+    surface. Furthermore, if the Ontonagon bowlder were transported by them
+    to its position, and if the large bowlders in the mines were destined
+    for the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>surface and transportation in bulk, we ought to find somewhere
+    else records or evidences of the presence of great bowlders, but
+    nothing of the kind has been found; no such large copper mass has been
+    discovered in any ruined Amerind town, or on any Amerind village or
+    town site. It seems that the Ontonagon bowlder was a natural deposit.
+    These huge masses of copper were troublesome to modern miners with the
+    most approved machinery.</p>
+
+  <p>It must not be supposed that all the Amerinds of that region were
+    miners, any more than that all the Amerinds of any other region were
+    equally developed or skilful, or all did the same things. The Navajos
+    of the South-west are some of them expert silver-workers, yet their
+    neighbours, for the most part, can do little or nothing in that line.
+    But that is no reason for supposing the Navajos to be a race distinct
+    and apart from the rest. No more were the workers of the Lake Superior
+    copper mines any different from their neighbours in general. They had a
+    knack of working the native copper out of the ground, and they worked
+    it just as others mined for flint. When they ceased it was probably
+    because they had worked out all the easy places they could find, or
+    that their trade fell off owing to the introduction by the Europeans of
+    manufactured articles of copper and iron.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_290">
+    <img src="images/i_290.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO STONE MAUL. ⅜</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In one of the ancient pits a hemlock with 395 annular rings was
+    growing, and this has led to the supposition that the mines were worked
+    before the time of Columbus. The excavations undoubtedly extended over
+    a long period; from before Columbus to after Champlain. But it was over
+    three hundred years after Columbus before the first explorations of the
+    Lake Superior region were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>made by General Cass, and hence the tree had
+    time to grow since that date. On the whole, there seems to be no reason
+    for supposing that anyone but Amerinds worked these mines; Amerinds
+    lastly of Algonquin stock, though other stocks probably worked them
+    also.</p>
+
+  <p>The method of utilising this copper in the Northern regions, that is,
+    north of Mexico, was as primitive as the method of extracting it from
+    the ground. It seems often, perhaps generally, to have been hammered
+    into shape cold and then finished by grinding. Doubtless they knew how
+    to melt it out of the rock on a small scale, allowing it to drop or run
+    into a mould scraped into the surface of a flat stone, somewhat the
+    shape of the article to be made, which would afterward be finished with
+    hammering and grinding.</p>
+
+  <p>The objects found in the Mississippi valley, formed of copper, which
+    are probably the unaided work of the Amerinds, are chisels, arrow-
+    and spear-heads, knives, and perhaps certain thin plates wrought with
+    designs in the repoussé method. No camp utensils or other objects
+    have been found demanding a knowledge of the properties of the metal
+    sufficient to work it into articles requiring a quantity of copper to
+    be manipulated at once. Cushing maintains<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> that the production of
+    thin plates was an easy matter and he shows how the Zuñis made them,
+    but admitting that the Amerinds of the Mississippi valley could make
+    these plates, it does not prove that they did, for as copper in various
+    forms was very early an article of trade, it is possible that they used
+    the imported article. Cushing explains how the Zuñis, by a process of
+    alternate hammering and annealing and then grinding, produced thin
+    plates, which being pressed with a sharp tool would receive a design.
+    This pressed-out portion could be ground down with a flat slab to sever
+    it from the ragged edges of the sheet, and also to make any desired
+    perforations. The resulting turned-up edges could be hammered flat and
+    they then would be as if cut by a shear.</p>
+
+  <p>Cushing explains how in the South-west ore was quarried and roasted in
+    an open fire, and then smelted in a sort of oven, the copper or other
+    metal appearing finally at the bottom. Primitive furnaces of this kind
+    he found in the Salt River valley. The singular thing about it is the
+    almost total absence of metal objects in the ruins of the South-west.
+    Aside from several small copper
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
+    “hawk” bells found in the Salado and other Arizona ruins, I have not
+    heard of any metal object that was not positively European being found
+    in any mound or ruin of the South-west, with one exception.<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> In
+    1875 a man in my employ in southern Utah told me that several years
+    before that time his uncle either had found in a mound in southern
+    Nevada or northern Arizona, or had obtained from some natives who found
+    it, a small gold image, which he had melted down for the value of the
+    metal it contained. At the time I thought this tale belonged with that
+    of the “lost mine,” but I am now inclined to see a fact in it. It is
+    quite within bounds that one of the small Mexican or Chiriquian figures
+    may have found its way up into this region.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp40" id="i_292">
+    <img src="images/i_292.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SMALL FIGURE OF A FROG IN BASE METAL, PLATED WITH GOLD, CHIRIQUI
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>If there had been a wide knowledge of copper and other metal-working in
+    the South-west in the olden time, there ought to be signs of it in the
+    ruins other than an oven, and even the latter has been rarely found.
+    Coronado and his chroniclers, Espejo, and all the list of early writers
+    on that region, never, so far as I have been able to note, mention
+    copper or any other metal articles. In fact, from the testimony of
+    literature, history, and actual excavation among the ruins so far as
+    carried at present, we should conclude that none of the people of that
+    region knew about metals or the manner of working them before the year
+    1540.<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p>
+
+  <p>New Jersey also furnished the Amerinds some copper and those living in
+    the Atlantic region had ornaments, arrow-heads, and pipes supposed to
+    have been made from it or from Lake Superior copper. Brinton attributes
+    the scarcity of specimens in our collections to “its being bought up
+    and melted by the whites, rather than to its limited employment.”<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a>
+    A few examples have been found, but if they had been plentiful there
+    should be discovered many implements<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> antedating the arrival of the
+    whites. On Brinton’s hypothesis it would be necessary to assume that
+    there were few made before the coming of the whites or they could not
+    have been so easily bought up. As a matter of fact, the finds in copper
+    articles compared with the area occupied are astonishingly few, if
+    the natives turned off the amount of work some writers would have us
+    believe.</p>
+
+  <figure id="i_293">
+    <div class="col50">
+      <img class="figcenter" src="images/i_293-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <div>Painted design in black, representing a sea monster with bear’s head</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="col50" style="margin-bottom: 1.2em;">
+      <img class="figcenter" src="images/i_293-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <div>Painted design representing a hawk</div>
+    </div>
+    <figcaption>COPPERS FROM THE NORTH-WEST COAST. ¹⁄₁₂<br>
+      These are made of thin sheets of copper, and grow valuable by sale or
+      exchange, according to peculiar customs. Some rise as high as $5000 or $6000</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>On the North-west coast an article of great importance and value is
+    the “copper.” In former days these coppers were made of native metal
+    obtained from the mines of that region, and they must have been made
+    by cold hammering in the way that Cushing describes. To-day they are
+    made of metal obtained from the whites. The coppers are thin plates
+    of a peculiar shape; the nearest common thing that they resemble is a
+    gauntleted glove with the fingers cut off and with the gauntlet the
+    top. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>Across the wrist runs a ridge from one side to the other, and
+    from the middle of this another ridge extends downward to the bottom,
+    thus making with the first the shape of a letter T below the flaring
+    part. “The top is called the face,” says Boas in his valuable and
+    interesting account of the Kwakiutls, “the lower part the hind end.
+    The front of the copper is covered with black lead, in which a face
+    representing the crest animal (totem) of the owner is graven. These
+    coppers have the same function which bank notes of high denominations
+    have with us. The actual value of the piece of copper is small but it
+    is made to represent a large number of blankets, and can always be sold
+    for blankets. A white blanket at fifty cents is the unit. The value
+    is not arbitrarily set but depends upon the amount of property given
+    away in the festival at which the copper is sold. The oftener a copper
+    is sold the higher its value.”<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> Every copper has its own special
+    name, representing its peerless quality, or an animal; as, the killer
+    whale, the bear face, beaver face, etc. As ability to destroy valuable
+    property amongst these people distinguishes the great and wealthy,
+    these valuable coppers are demolished piecemeal till only the portion
+    with the T upon it remains. Sometimes all the fragments are bought up
+    by another person, who rivets them together and the copper then has a
+    greater price than ever. A broken copper is a more important piece of
+    property than a whole one, because the possession of it shows that its
+    owner is rich enough to destroy property. These plates are in use from
+    Yakutat to Comox. Sometimes a copper is cast into the sea.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp23" id="i_294">
+    <img src="images/i_294.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HOLLOW SILVER BEADS OF NAVAJO MAKE, ARIZONA<br>Actual size</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the South-west it is not the house-building Pueblo who is the
+    metal-worker <i>par excellence</i> but the semi-pastoral Navajo, who,
+    besides his flocks and herds, possesses a wealth of silver ornaments
+    that runs up into the thousands. Silver and copper ornaments are turned
+    out by the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>native silversmith not only for his own people but for
+    whites also, and a considerable trade exists between the Navajos and
+    other Amerinds in this native jewelry as well as in blankets. If you
+    desire to have an article made, you give the silver it is to contain,
+    usually in dollar pieces, and an equal quantity as wages. The objects
+    manufactured are globular and semi-globular buttons; bracelets like
+    a letter C in form and shape, buckles, rings, plate for the bridle,
+    tobacco canisters, flat buttons, beads, and various discs, and other
+    ornamental objects. These are often engraved quite artistically, and
+    sometimes elaborately. Copper seems to be a valued metal for ornaments,
+    and I have seen copper bracelets on a Navajo woman made exactly the
+    same as silver ones. The Navajo silversmith is up to a trick or two
+    as well as his white neighbour. At Manuelito there was a white trader
+    who often sold Navajo bracelets to passengers from the railway trains
+    that ran within a hundred feet or less of his door, and he was a man
+    who prided himself on “square” dealing. One day a gentleman who had
+    purchased several silver bracelets rushed in full of ire, demanding
+    the return of his money for the worthless bracelets which he threw
+    upon the counter. They were copper. The trader took down a string
+    containing a number, from which the returned ones had been originally
+    taken, and which he had purchased for silver, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span>and found that every one
+    was copper. They had been thinly washed over by the Navajo smith with
+    silver.</p>
+
+  <figure id="i_295">
+    <div class="col50" style="margin-bottom: 1.2em;">
+      <img class="figcenter illowp100" src="images/i_295-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <div>Engraved button</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="col50">
+      <img class="figcenter illowp35" src="images/i_295-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <div>Bracelet<br>Usually about 2½ inches long</div>
+    </div>
+    <figcaption>NAVAJO SILVER WORK, ARIZONA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>It has sometimes been suggested that the Navajos learned their
+    metal-working from the Pueblos, but if so it was a lesson obtained
+    in quite modern times, for the Pueblos themselves, as has been
+    mentioned, appear to have known nothing about the working of metals
+    before the arrival of the Spaniards. The art of metal-working both
+    among the Navajos and the Pueblos is probably a modern acquisition.
+    Washington Matthews, writing about 1883, says: “Old white residents of
+    the Navajo country tell me that the art has improved greatly within
+    their recollection.”<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> It is likely that the Navajos, having a keen
+    perception of mechanical matters, had wrought copper to a limited
+    degree and that through their intercourse with, and absorption of,
+    Pueblo tribes, this tendency was developed by a certain amount of
+    knowledge in this line which the Pueblos acquired from Mexicans who
+    followed in the train of the early Spanish explorers; but this skill
+    was not given a real impetus till after the South-west fell into our
+    possession, when tools and trade rapidly developed.<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p>
+
+  <p>When in 1871 I encountered Navajos for the first time, on their way to
+    trade with the Mormons, I do not remember seeing them have any silver
+    ornaments. This was so soon after their liberation from government
+    confinement following their war with us that they were, naturally,
+    very poor. But if they had before possessed much silver they would
+    have concealed it, and by the time I saw the ones referred to they
+    would again have been wearing it and trying to trade it for horses,
+    which they sadly needed. The Navajo silver-work is distinguished by
+    an extremely artistic quality. Their tools and appliances are very
+    rude and simple. As their method of operation is probably similar
+    to that of Amerinds who have not been observed as closely, I will
+    condense here some of the important details as given by Washington
+    Matthews.<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> Only a few have attained a degree of proficiency that
+    enables <span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>them to make large hollow articles, like flasks and the like,
+    but there are many who can turn out bracelets, buttons, buckles, etc.
+    Their appliances consist “of a forge, a bellows, an anvil, crucibles,
+    moulds, tongs, scissors, pliers, files, awls, cold chisels, matrix and
+    die for moulding buttons, wooden implements used in grinding buttons,
+    wooden stake, basin, charcoal, tools and materials for soldering
+    (blow-pipe, braid of cotton rags soaked in grease, wire, and borax),
+    materials for polishing (sandpaper, emery paper, powdered sandstone,
+    sand, ashes, and solid stone), and materials for whitening (a native
+    mineral substance—almogen—salt and water).” The forge is built up with
+    several old boards, an old box, or, when these cannot be procured, of
+    sticks. The nozzle of the bellows, being wood, is kept back from the
+    fire several inches and a continuation built in the mud with which the
+    fire-bed is constructed. The bellows is a tube of goatskin, a foot long
+    and ten inches in diameter, distended by two or three wooden hoops. The
+    back of it is a disc of wood with a valve in it. The nozzle is of four
+    pieces of wood tied together and having a hole an inch square through
+    the centre, the outside being dressed off till it is approximately
+    round. Any old piece of iron, like the king-bolt of a wagon, driven
+    into a log serves for an anvil, though in the absence of this a hard
+    stone is sufficient. They make their own crucibles of clay, generally
+    three-cornered, about two inches in every dimension, and baked hard.
+    “The moulds in which they cast their ingots, cut in soft sandstone with
+    a home-made chisel, are so easily formed that the smith leaves them
+    behind when he moves his residence.” “Metallic hemispheres for beads
+    and buttons are made in a concave matrix by means of a round-pointed
+    bolt.” Several matrices are made on a single bar of iron and a bolt
+    that will fit the smallest is sufficient to work all. They prepare
+    charcoal by building a large fire, and when it is “reduced to a mass of
+    glowing coals they smother it well with earth and leave it to cool.”
+    Blowpipes are made by themselves out of brass wire hammered flat and
+    then bent into a tube. The engraving and chasing of the objects made
+    are done with the sharpened end of a file, or any other suitable sharp
+    piece of steel. It will be seen from the foregoing that the Navajo
+    silversmith is dependent to a very great extent on materials and tools
+    obtained from the whites, and without these the practice of his art
+    would be difficult. Schools for mechanical processes like dyeing,
+    metal-working, etc., would accomplish much good among <span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span>these people.
+    They could readily be taught to use the lathe and other tools, and
+    would become good metal-workers.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_297">
+    <img src="images/i_297.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KWAKIUTL CHIEF HOLDING HIS COPPER, NORTH-WEST COAST
+      <p class="hang">The value of a copper is expressed in white single blankets of
+        American make at 50 cents each. It is rated according to the
+        amount of property given away at the festival where the copper
+        is sold, and each sale adds to its value proportionally. He who
+        can break a copper and cast away the fragment is considered great.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Prescott says of the Mexicans: “They were as well acquainted with the
+    mineral as with the vegetable treasures of their kingdom. Silver, lead,
+    and tin they drew from the mines of Tasco; copper from the mountains
+    of Zacotollan. These were taken, not only from the crude masses on
+    the surface, but from veins wrought in the solid rock, into which
+    they opened extensive galleries.... Gold, found on the surface, or
+    gleaned from the beds of rivers, was cast into bars, or, in the form
+    of dust, made part of the regular tribute of the southern provinces
+    of the empire.”<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> Their mining was doubtless carried on by the
+    fire-and-water process used by the Northern people, while gold from
+    the river beds was possibly obtained in much the same manner as I have
+    been told the Amerinds of Peru get it. Selecting a river that was known
+    to be rich in the metal, a series of stone “riffles” would be arranged
+    in the best place at the very lowest stage of the water. Then when the
+    freshets came and swept the gravel across these rude affairs the gold
+    would remain lodged there and on the subsidence of the stream could be
+    readily taken out. There was undoubtedly a vast quantity of gold in
+    the possession of the Mexicans and Central Americans, but this fact
+    does not signify that they conducted mining operations on a large or
+    continuous scale, for the metal had been accumulating, in the shape of
+    idols and ornaments, for centuries. There was little lost or worn away,
+    as they did not use it as a general medium of exchange. Their plumes
+    in their head-dresses were often set in gold; rings of gold were worn
+    in their ears and on their arms, and the same metal was wrought into a
+    great many forms of ornament.</p>
+
+  <p>Cortes ordered, says Valentini, eight thousand arrow-heads of
+    copper and they were “made ready for delivery in a single week.” It
+    seems, therefore, the Aztecs were accustomed to handling copper in
+    considerable quantities. It is said they made a mixture of copper and
+    tin which they used for tools, and certain implements and objects are
+    found with a percentage of tin in them, but nevertheless their keenest
+    weapons and their most serviceable tools were made of obsidian, which
+    was also the case with the Mayas. Their hardened copper was useful
+    for some purposes, but they were unable to harden it sufficiently to
+    sustain an edge. For cutting <span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>stone in two they used, as the Eskimo
+    does to-day, a thin blade and sand. In their case the blade was copper
+    tempered with tin, and in the Eskimo’s case it was formerly probably a
+    thin blade of bone, while now it is an old steel saw. Silver as well
+    as gold and copper was known to the tribes of the Central regions of
+    America, and lead also was one of their metals, though little was done
+    with it. There is a tendency to exaggerate the mechanical as well as
+    the art skill displayed in objects that were made on this continent,
+    before the whites came, or that were not discovered till recently.
+    The reason for this seems to be that we love mystery and it is too
+    tame to refer the finds to the ordinary “Indian,” who in the popular
+    mind has no ability in any direction, so they are ascribed to that
+    “mysterious” race that we have tried in vain to find some evidence of
+    besides mystery. Daniel Wilson gives an example of how this mystery
+    bubble bursts on the slightest accurate investigation. Some tools
+    were found in the neighbourhood of Brockville, Canada, of which Dr.
+    Reynolds, who exhibited them, stated: “There is also a curious fact,
+    which these relics appear to confirm, that the Indians possessed the
+    art of hardening and tempering copper, so as to give it as good an edge
+    as iron or steel. This ancient Indian art is now entirely lost.”<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a>
+    When these Brockville relics were submitted to careful examination it
+    appeared that they were not “different in any material respect from
+    the native copper of Lake Superior.”<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> This was all very well, but
+    Wilson was not satisfied with Reynolds’s ascribing these relics to the
+    “present Indian race” and goes on to say: “The evidences of antique
+    sepulture, however, are unmistakable; and other proofs suggest a
+    different origin,” and he proceeds to call in Squier’s aid and ascribes
+    them forthwith to our fabulous friends, the “Moundbuilders.” One of
+    his proofs was a terra-cotta mask found with the articles, in which
+    he saw a skill beyond that of the “Indians,” but which in reality,
+    judging by the illustration he gives of it, is nothing remarkable. Yet
+    Wilson continues: “It cannot admit of doubt that in them [the mining
+    operations] we look on the traces of an imperfectly developed yet
+    highly interesting native civilisation, pertaining to centuries long
+    anterior to the discovery of America in the fifteenth century,”<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a>
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>etc. This conclusion he is assisted to by certain quotations from
+    some of the old natives and from Claude Allouez. These convince him;
+    but a little later on he quotes Alexander Henry’s mention of his visit
+    to the Ontonagon, who says: “I found this river chiefly remarkable
+    for the abundance of virgin copper which is on its banks and in its
+    neighbourhood. The copper presented itself to the eye in masses of
+    various weight. The Indians showed me one of twenty pounds. They
+    were used to manufacture this metal into spoons and bracelets for
+    themselves.”<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> If they made bracelets and spoons, they probably
+    made other articles, “melting the lumps and spreading it in sheets” to
+    smooth it with stones, as the chief described to Champlain.</p>
+
+  <p>The Chiriquians seem to have possessed a skill in metallurgical
+    operations unsurpassed by any other people on the continent. Whether
+    they used gold dust in quills, and T shapes of tin or copper for
+    currency as did the Mexicans, does not appear, but they were skilled
+    in metal-working. They understood smelting, alloying, and plating,
+    and apparently were extremely skilful at casting. As before noted, no
+    weapons or implements have been found of metal, all the metal objects
+    being ornaments, and “almost exclusively,” says Holmes, “pendent
+    ornaments.” “They were, for the most part, cast in moulds, and in nine
+    cases out of ten represent animal forms. A few bells are found, all of
+    which are bronze. Pieces formed of alloyed metal are usually washed
+    or plated with gold.”<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> Many of these valuable relics of the past
+    have been disposed of for their money value and duly melted up to be
+    made into something modern. The gold is usually alloyed with copper
+    in varying proportions, though pure metals were also used. From the
+    fact that the alloy is so variable it would seem that the combination
+    already existed before it came into the Chiriquian hands; that is, it
+    was perhaps a natural combination.</p>
+
+  <p>Holmes believes almost all these metal objects were cast in moulds,
+    as noted, but he mentions other processes by which they may have been
+    made. They have the appearance of having been modelled in some plastic
+    material, and then coated with clay, when by the action of heat the wax
+    runs away, leaving the hollow clay as a mould to receive the metal.
+    This is the <i>cire perdue</i> process. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>Small figures of resin, in
+    all respects modelled like those found in metal, have been discovered
+    in the graves. This seems to add to the probability of a Chiriqui
+    acquaintance with the <i>cire perdue</i> process. Another method
+    suggested is that the various metallic parts of a figure were enclosed
+    in a clay matrix and then heated till the parts melted and joined,
+    but this appears to be too uncertain and difficult to have warranted
+    its practice. Still another method advanced is the coating of a wax
+    figure with sheet gold and melting the wax, when a hollow gold figure
+    would be the result. This is possible but not probable. Yet one more
+    suggestion is that the gold was reduced to an amalgam with mercury,
+    and thus modelled, when the mercury being driven off by heat the gold
+    figure would remain. One difficulty with this theory seems to be that
+    there is no evidence that the Chiriquians knew mercury. As many of the
+    objects are washed or plated with pure gold, it would seem that the
+    pure gold was the most difficult to obtain, and that, as before stated,
+    the gold-copper alloy was a natural one. There is neither engraving nor
+    carving on these objects; and the objects themselves are the same crude
+    productions that are indicative of pure Amerind art everywhere on the
+    continent. Some are more crude than others, but all Amerind sculpture,
+    modelling, and carving <span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span>are essentially rude and primitive. In the form
+    and artistic execution of the Chiriqui objects of gold and copper we
+    may be positive that there is no European influence, whatever there
+    may be in the method of production. It is probable that the objects
+    are entirely native, and they offer another lesson that the tribes of
+    North America were everywhere working and inventing, and gradually
+    conquering the secrets of nature just as our ancestors did and just as
+    we are still doing to-day; some doing more, others less; some being
+    quick, and others clumsy, ignorant, and dull. The bells are usually of
+    bronze, having the shape of our common sleigh-bell, and are frequently
+    gold-plated. The bells found in Arizona are of this description but not
+    plated.</p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure>
+      <img class="figcenter illowp100" src="images/i_302-1.jpg" alt="" id="i_302-1">
+      <figcaption>TRIPLE BELL OR RATTLE OF GOLD FROM NEAR PANAMA</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+  <figure class="col50">
+    <figure style="padding-bottom: 0.6em;">
+      <img class="figcenter illowp50" src="images/i_302-2.jpg" alt="" id="i_302-2">
+      <figcaption>BRONZE MEXICAN BELL</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Besides their sciences of mining and metallurgy, the Amerinds
+    understood some others, like the manufacture of glue and cement, the
+    production of paints and dyes, and astronomical reckonings. True, some
+    of these are more properly classed as arts, but requiring knowledge
+    that may be called scientific, they may be considered under that head.
+    Paints were usually obtained from clays and ochres. I once traced to
+    its source the red paint formerly used by the Amerinds of southern Utah
+    and found it in the second great bend of the Colorado River, about
+    three thousand feet below the surface and about two thousand feet above
+    the river, as the canyon is there about five thousand feet deep. The
+    paint was in a cave the mouth of which opened on a little gulch, and
+    the entrance was so small and narrow, and in such hard rock, that we
+    could barely wriggle our way on our bellies, along the eighteen feet
+    of passage, before we reached the cavern, thirty feet long, fifteen
+    wide, and high enough for a man to stand erect in. There were several
+    side passages leading farther, but this seemed to be the main cave, and
+    all over the walls were the marks of the sharp sticks with which the
+    Amerinds cut out the ochre. Our guide stated that it was customary to
+    send in the boys and squaws after the paint. The ochre was of a rich
+    red, but no match for the red lead and vermilion obtained by trade with
+    the whites. The remote and difficult position of this cave and its
+    narrow and repelling entrance show how eager the natives were to secure
+    paint. At the time of our visit, however, the mouth was considerably
+    overgrown with small brush, proving that for several years no visit
+    had been made. In every region there were special places for obtaining
+    paints, and Brinton states that in New Castle County, Delaware, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>the
+    vicinity of streams now known as White Clay and Red Clay creeks
+    furnished red, white, and blue clays in such abundance that they were
+    called by the natives <i>Walamink</i>, or Place of Paint.<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> Charcoal
+    was used for black.</p>
+
+  <p>Of dyes they had a fair assortment, but they were not able to obtain
+    the brilliant hues they now secure by means of the “Diamond” and other
+    aniline dyes. A black dye was made by the Navajos from the twigs and
+    leaves of the aromatic sumac, a native yellow ochre, and the gum of
+    the piñon.<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> These same Amerinds have three different processes for
+    dyeing yellow. The first produces a lemon yellow, the second an old
+    gold, and the third still a different shade.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_304">
+    <img src="images/i_304.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>BRONZE BELLS, PLATED OR WASHED WITH GOLD, CHIRIQUI<br>
+      These were cast in moulds. The largest is 1¼ in. high and ¾ in. diameter</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Red dyes are also made by the Navajos; and the Mokis possess the
+    skill to produce several colours, one being a deep, rich blue.
+    These processes are all too long to admit of description here.<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a>
+    The Lenapé and other Eastern Amerinds used the juice of the wild,
+    sweet-scented crab apple to fix the dyes, while among the Mokis the
+    liquid generally used is urine. It must have required long and careful
+    experiment before these people acquired their knowledge of dyeing, for
+    some of the preparations are rather intricately <span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span>compounded, but here
+    is evidence once more that the Amerind was by no means a vagabond, but
+    was constantly at work devising and inventing. Glue they made from
+    fish in some localities, and in others by boiling down the skin from
+    the head of the bison or elk, or the hoofs of animals. Cement for
+    attaching arrow-heads and for other purposes was made by combining
+    pine gum with other substances. In all these mixtures and combinations
+    the proportions were either guessed at or measured, never weighed, for
+    there was no scale or balance in use, so far as now known, in North
+    America, though certain round stones from Mexico in Madrid have been
+    supposed to be weights.</p>
+
+  <p>Remarkable progress had been made in many tribes in the matter of
+    calculating time, and the Mayas and Mexicans had advanced so far that
+    they were able to calculate the length of the year with accuracy.
+    What implements they employed is not known, but they were probably of
+    wood and stone, the latter of the form of the calendar stone, before
+    mentioned. Other tribes farther north made their calculations in a less
+    perfect way, yet they did and do keep time records. The Sun priests
+    of the Mokis use “what may be called a calendar stick,” says Fewkes.
+    “These sticks are about a foot and a half long, and are divided into
+    two parts, one section being round, the other flattened on one side.
+    The round section is girt by fifteen shallow parallel grooves, and
+    occupies about a third of the whole length of the stick. The remaining
+    two-thirds of the stick have a number of parallel grooves or notches
+    cut upon the flattened surface. Five of the latter grooves, which are
+    situated at equal distances, are deeper than the remaining, and between
+    each pair there are four smaller parallel grooves arranged at equal
+    distances. The space in which these grooves are cut occupies about
+    one-half of the flat portion of the stick. The remaining half, or that
+    more distant from the round section, is divided into two parts, which
+    are separated by a rectangular space, in the centre of which there is a
+    depression called the <i>nā-tā-l-tci</i>. On one side of the depression
+    there are three notches, on the other seven.”<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> The Eastern Amerinds
+    computed time in their own several ways, some computing twelve, others
+    thirteen moons to the year, usually reckoning from one planting time to
+    another. The Dakotas, Chipeways, and others reckoned by winters.</p>
+
+  <p>In the Zuñi country, still existed a few years ago, if it does <span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>not
+    to-day, a primitive astronomical station. It is a rude little structure
+    containing an erect slab of sandstone adorned with the circular face of
+    the sun, and it is used, as it was long ago, for determining the Zuñi
+    chronology.</p>
+
+  <p>The Aztec year had eighteen months of twenty days each and that of the
+    Mayas was the same. The Maya week had thirteen days, and the days were
+    counted from one to thirteen continuously throughout the year—that
+    is, each month did not begin with 1 but with whatever number happened
+    to fall on that day; it might be 2 or 5 or 8 or 13 or in fact any
+    number up to 13. The eighteen months gave them only 360 days, but
+    they intercalated at the end of each year the five days necessary to
+    round it out. At least so the early Spanish writers state, though
+    Thomas, who has given close attention to this subject, has said that
+    he felt doubtful on that point.<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> Prescott states without question,
+    concerning the Aztecs: “Five complementary days, as in Egypt, were
+    added, to make up the full number of three hundred and sixty-five. They
+    belonged to no month and were regarded as peculiarly unlucky. A month
+    was divided into four weeks of five days each.”<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp54" id="i_306">
+    <img src="images/i_306.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SMALL METAL FIGURE, CHIRIQUI<br>Copper-gold alloy</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The six hours over the 365 days which we make up in our leap year the
+    Aztecs allowed to run to the end of their fifty-two year cycle, when
+    they intercalated it all at one time, the actual period being twelve
+    and one half days. This brought them “within an almost inappreciable
+    fraction,” says Prescott, “to the exact length of the tropical year, as
+    established by the most accurate observations.”<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> The Aztecs <span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span>had
+    a second calendar used by the priests for keeping their own records
+    and making their own calculations, and doubtless the Maya had the same
+    practice.</p>
+
+  <p>The Cakchiquel year consisted of 366 days. That of the Maya was 365.
+    The former, therefore, says Goodman, “could have no fixed date for its
+    beginning, relative to solar or terrestrial phenomena, but must revolve
+    regularly through the seasons.... The year might begin at the summer
+    or the winter solstice, at the vernal or the autumnal equinox, or any
+    other period.”<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></p>
+
+  <p>A great Maya event, which Goodman cites, was “the observance of the
+    280,800th year of their era.... Nearly all the other dates in the
+    inscriptions of Copan and Quirigua either lead up to or recede from
+    it. It was the beginning of the last quarter of their grand era,
+    the completion of which, it is perhaps needless to say, they did
+    not, as a nation, live to see.”<a href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> But when we touch this subject
+    of chronology it at once opens up a vast and complicated field of
+    investigation. Goodman goes on to say: “How account then for such an
+    immense period?... The most reasonable answer that suggests itself is
+    that they had a juster appreciation of the antiquity of the earth than
+    most nations have had, and that they began their chronology with the
+    supposed date of its creation.... I look upon the Maya chronological
+    scheme as ranking among the most marvellous creations of the human
+    intellect.”<a href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter" id="i_307">
+    <img class="illowp32" src="images/i_307.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SILVER PLATE WITH SPANISH COAT OF ARMS,<br>
+      from a mound in Mississippi</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_XI">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="i_308">
+      <img src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>MOKI RATTLE OF ANIMAL HOOFS. ⅓</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, MUSIC, AMUSEMENTS, AND GAMES</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THE popular conception that there is no fun in red men is erroneous.
+    All of them, far from being taciturn, silent, morose, and lacking
+    desire for amusement other than scalping or torturing captives, are
+    full of humour and are fond of fun. To strangers, however, they are
+    often silent. In every village there is a great deal of amusement, and
+    while the race is deficient in musical instruments, and the music they
+    produce, if it can be designated by that term, is usually apart of some
+    ceremonial, they do sing and the singing is accompanied by rattles
+    and drums. These instruments, with a sort of flute or flageolet and
+    bells and whistles, make the sum-total of their musical apparatus. No
+    stringed instrument, it was believed, was known on the North American
+    continent before the Discovery, though recently Lumholtz has found a
+    primitive musical bow among the Huichols in Mexico that seems to show
+    no outside influence. Their drums were usually made out of a hollow
+    log and were of various sizes, though some tribes also used a sort of
+    tambourine-drum formed by stretching a piece of hide over a hoop. In
+    the case of the Mokis, the large drum was made by stretching hide over
+    the ends of a hollow log by means of strings on the outside running
+    from the edge of one skin to that of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span>the other, zig-zag. These drums
+    are about twenty inches in diameter by some three feet long, and the
+    ones I have seen had an appearance of age that seemed to indicate a
+    remote origin. Rattles are frequently made from deer hoofs, or from
+    hoofs of similar animals, and also from turtle shells, and garments
+    are trimmed with hoofs so that the movements of the wearer cause them
+    to strike together with a musical sound. Sometimes the hoofs are
+    attached in groups of three or more to the ends of a short stick which
+    is shaken to produce the desired sound. This is a form specially in
+    vogue among the Tlinkits, and these rattles are one of the articles of
+    trade with the tourists in the North-west. Another form is a gourd or
+    clay globe containing pebbles or something similar. Rattles of this
+    kind are common in the ceremonials of the Mokis. Bells, as we have
+    seen in the preceding chapter, were made by tribes of the Central
+    American region of copper in the so-called “hawk’s-bell” shape, but it
+    is not absolutely certain that this <span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span>form of bell was not derived from
+    European contact.<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> No other form of bell was known to any of the
+    natives.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_309">
+    <img src="images/i_309.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>
+      Gourd, Ojibwa <span style="padding-left: 22%;">Earthenware rattle from Chiriqui. ½</span>
+      <span style="padding-left: 15%">Tin, Ojibwa</span><br>
+      AMERINDIAN RATTLES</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Whistles were made of pottery and wood and of human and other
+    bones,<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> and were similar to our common whistles with one or more
+    holes in the tube for changing the note. The flute was of wood,
+    generally of cedar, which is considered a sacred wood. It was eighteen
+    or twenty inches long and was often ornamented with carving and tufts
+    of feathers, etc. In Mexico, some were made of terra cotta.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_310">
+  <img src="images/i_310.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>OMAHA LARGE FLUTE<br>
+      Made of red cedar. Flutes were also made of eagle wing bones and of reed
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>It is certain that the sounds produced on these various instruments
+    would in no way suggest or resemble what is understood by music among
+    people of European origin, and it is also probable that our music when
+    first heard by Amerinds seems to them more like wailing and lamentation
+    than sounds of pleasure. I remember an evening long ago, in Arizona,
+    when we had the interesting companionship of several intelligent Navajo
+    chiefs, who entertained us by singing, accompanying themselves by
+    drumming on the bottom of one of our camp kettles. At length someone
+    of our party exclaimed, “Now let’s give them <cite>Home, Sweet Home</cite>,”
+    and this song was accordingly rendered in a way that should have moved
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>the savage to tears, but, though the firelight was brilliant, I failed
+    to detect any; indeed their expression appeared to resemble that which
+    a professional musician of our own race might have exhibited. They
+    were perfectly satisfied with a single selection, and they politely
+    said <i>Buéno</i>. The Navajos have a peculiar drum, the basket drum,
+    described by Washington Matthews.<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> It is a bowl-shaped basket made
+    according to special rules and rites, and inverted is used as a drum
+    in certain ceremonials, being beaten by a stick, also manufactured
+    in a special way, and according to long-established religious rites.
+    Whenever a ceremony is completed this stick is always pulled apart
+    during an appropriate song, and its fragments “deposited, with prayer
+    and ceremony, in the fork of a cedar tree or other secure place.” It is
+    made from yucca leaves, four being the prescribed number, and every one
+    of these must be absolutely free from blemish. One from each cardinal
+    point of the compass is necessary, and the making of the drumstick from
+    them is a serious matter, even the rejected fragments being disposed of
+    in some safe place with a benediction:</p>
+
+  <div class="center-container">
+    <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i0">“Thus will it be beautiful.</div>
+        <div class="i1">Thus walk in beauty, my grandchild.”</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>“In none of the ancient Navajo rites is a regular drum or tom-tom
+    employed,” says Matthews. “The inverted basket serves the purpose of
+    one.”</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp50" id="i_312">
+    <img src="images/i_312.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DRUM OF TERRA COTTA, CHIRIQUI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>“The musical instruments,” says Bandelier, “which, while still in
+    use in Mexico, are known to antedate the Conquest, are but three in
+    number, one of which is already falling into oblivion. It is the
+    <i>tozacatl</i> (sounding-cane), described to me as a long cane, bent
+    round like an Alpine horn. I never saw one, but its sound is said to
+    be a sonorous bellowing. The other is the <i>chirimia</i>. It is made
+    of dark brown wood, called <i>tepehuaje</i>, brought to Cholula from
+    Matamoras-Yzucar, or near Atlixco. Its length is 0.46 metre (about 18
+    inches) and its width at the mouth is 0.06 metre (about 3 inches). It
+    has eleven holes irregularly arranged, and the mouthpiece is a thin
+    plate of horn on a stem of brass. The noise produced by this instrument
+    is a fit accompaniment to the shrill Indian voices, being horrible
+    beyond all description.... The big drum, the <i>tlapan-huehuetl</i>,
+    was formerly made out <span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>of the trunk of a tree properly hollowed, over
+    which, at one end, a deerskin or some other dried hide was stretched.
+    All the older authors make more or less mention of this instrument, but
+    more particularly Bernal Diez de Castillo, who says, when describing
+    the upper platform of the principal mounds of worship of Mexico: ‘And
+    there they had an exceedingly large drum, which, when beaten, gave
+    a sound as if from the infernal regions, which was heard at more
+    than two leagues off, and they said that the skin was that of large
+    snakes.’”<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> The <i>teponaztli</i> was a wooden instrument with two
+    tongues that were beaten with a stick. Conch shells were also used as
+    musical instruments. Some of these were of very great size.</p>
+
+  <p>The Eskimo drum is like a tambourine, a skin stretched over a hoop.
+    Some of the Chiriqui whistles were shaped like a top, while others
+    were straight with finger holes. These various types were distributed
+    over the whole area of the continent, the drum and the rattle always
+    predominating.</p>
+
+  <p>The Amerind singing at first seems extremely monotonous to our ears and
+    the impression is that all tribes sing alike, but each stock has its
+    own methods and peculiarities. A foundation principle with all in the
+    men’s singing seems to be an <span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span>explosive quality of vocalisation—that
+    is, violent explosive tones instead of, as with us, tones long drawn
+    out. The Moki seems generally to sing nothing but “ho, ho, ho, ho, he,
+    he, he, he, hay, hay, hay,” etc., and he has quite a different rhythm
+    from the Ute, while the singing of the Navajo, when the singer opens
+    out all the stops, is more like the voice of a cat in the back yard
+    than any other sound in civilisation that I can think of. Farther north
+    the sounds change again: the Tlinkit vocalisation suggests death by
+    strangulation.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_313">
+    <img src="images/i_313.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MENOMINEE TAMBOURINE DRUM<br>
+      A common form with many tribes</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp50" id="i_314">
+    <img src="images/i_314.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>OMAHA BOX DRUM<br>
+      A common form with most tribes. Originally made from a hollow log</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Fillmore states that the Navajo songs were the most primitive of any
+    he studied. “They form in fact the connecting link between excited
+    howling and excited singing. The quality of tone is indescribable,
+    being more like a yelp than anything else; but the intervals yelped
+    are unmistakably those of the major chord or of the minor chord.
+    The tone-quality is that of shouting, or even of howling, but the
+    pitch-relations into which they tend to fall are <span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span>those of the major
+    chord.... Some of the Navaho songs are illustrations of melody so
+    primitive as to bring us very near to the beginning of music-making....
+    I started my investigations with the impression that there might be
+    essential differences in structure between the Indian music and our
+    own. I studied the Indian music for ten years with the utmost care
+    and thoroughness of which I was capable. I have failed to find one
+    single interval in Indian music which we do not use. It is true,
+    I have often heard Indians sing these intervals out of tune; but
+    this is a phenomenon by no means confined to savage or uncivilised
+    races. In every such case, when I was singing with Indians and was
+    able to get at their real intentions, I have found that they meant
+    to sing exactly the interval we should sing in their place.... I
+    have also found that increase of power is almost always accompanied
+    with increased elevation of pitch, and diminution of intensity with
+    a lowering of pitch, seemingly without the Indian being aware of
+    it.... The evidence of the essential unity of all music, from the
+    most primitive to the most advanced, is cumulative. The Navaho howls
+    his song to the war gods directly along the line of the major chord;
+    Beethoven makes the first theme of his great ‘Eroica’ symphony out of
+    precisely the same material. The Tigua makes his ‘Dance of the Wheel’
+    out of a major chord, and its relative minor; Wagner makes Lohengrin
+    sing ‘Mein lieber schwan’ to a melody composed of exactly the same
+    ingredients. In short there is only one kind of music in the world.”
+    Like everything else pertaining to man, it is a matter of development
+    modified by circumstances. Fillmore’s <span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span>excellent investigation<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> in
+    this line only proves again that man is the same in all climes and ages
+    since first we get track of him, so far as his fundamental make-up is
+    concerned. Variations and differences are only those which come from a
+    development of latent talents or possibilities. He always moves, when
+    he moves, along certain lines that are prearranged by his constitution
+    and his environment. He may stop where circumstances direct, but he
+    will have stopped where others stopped before.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_315">
+    <img src="images/i_315.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SET OF PLAYING STICKS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>There is always a great deal of repetition in the songs. The Amerind
+    seems content to go over and over again the same few notes. In some
+    tribes the poet and singer stands in the interior of a circle formed by
+    all the members of the tribe—men, women, and children—around a cedar
+    tree from which all but the top branches have been removed. A time of
+    moonlight is chosen, and I remember well such a night with some Pai
+    Utes, of Arizona. The poet recited his refrain, then all took it up
+    and repeated it in song, circling round and round the cedar with their
+    peculiar shuffle, repeating and repeating. I joined the circle and the
+    singing till I became tired, and finally left them still enjoying it.
+    The poet would give out some such stanza as</p>
+
+  <div class="center-container">
+    <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i0">“No rabbit kill,</div>
+        <div class="i1">No rabbit eat,”</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span></p>
+
+  <p class="noindent">and it would serve the purpose for a considerable time, when he would
+    be obliged to announce a new one.</p>
+
+  <p>Mooney has translated some of the songs of the Arapahos used in the
+    Ghost or Resurrection Dance, and I give several as specimens of their
+    style<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a>:</p>
+
+  <div class="center-container">
+    <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i6">“O, my children! O, my children!</div>
+        <div class="i7">Here is another of your pipes—He eye!</div>
+        <div class="i7">Here is another of your pipes—He eye!</div>
+        <div class="i7">Look! thus I shouted—He eye!</div>
+        <div class="i7">Look! thus I shouted—He eye!</div>
+        <div class="i7">When I moved the earth—He eye!</div>
+        <div class="i7">When I moved the earth—He eye!</div>
+      </div>
+
+      <hr class="short">
+
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i6">“The sacred pipe tells me—E yahe eye!</div>
+        <div class="i7">The sacred pipe tells me—E yahe eye!</div>
+        <div class="i13">Our father—Yahe eye!</div>
+        <div class="i13">Our father—Yahe eye!</div>
+        <div class="i0">We shall surely be put again (with our friends) E yahe eye!</div>
+        <div class="i0">We shall surely be put again (with our friends) E yahe eye!</div>
+        <div class="i13">Our father, E yahe eye!</div>
+        <div class="i13">Our father, E yahe eye!</div>
+      </div>
+
+      <hr class="short">
+
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i10">“The cedar tree, the cedar tree!</div>
+        <div class="i13">We have it in the centre!</div>
+        <div class="i13">We have it in the centre!</div>
+        <div class="i16">When we dance,</div>
+        <div class="i16">When we dance,</div>
+        <div class="i13">We have it in the centre!</div>
+        <div class="i13">We have it in the centre!</div>
+      </div>
+
+      <hr class="short">
+
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i12">“My children, my children!</div>
+        <div class="i6">It is I who wear the morning star on my head!</div>
+        <div class="i6">It is I who wear the morning star on my head!</div>
+        <div class="i13">I show it to my children!</div>
+        <div class="i13">I show it to my children!</div>
+        <div class="i16">Says the father!</div>
+        <div class="i16">Says the father!</div>
+      </div>
+
+      <hr class="short">
+
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i0">“With the ba-qati wheel I am gambling!</div>
+        <div class="i1">With the ba-qati wheel I am gambling!</div>
+        <div class="i8">With the black mark I win the game!</div>
+        <div class="i8">With the black mark I win the game!”</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>
+
+  <p>“This (last) song is from the northern Arapaho. The author of it in
+    his visit to the spirit world, found his former friends playing the
+    old game of the <i>baqati</i> wheel, which was practically obsolete
+    among the prairie tribes, but which is being revived since the advent
+    of the Ghost Dance.... The game is played with a wheel (<i>baqati</i>,
+    large wheel) and two pairs of throwing sticks.... It is a man’s game
+    and there are three players, one rolling the wheel while the other two,
+    each armed with a pair of throwing sticks, run after it and throw the
+    sticks so as to cross the wheel in a certain position.”<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter" id="i_317">
+    <div class="col50">
+      <img class="illowp80" src="images/i_317-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <div class="small">Turtle shell, with hoofs of goats or sheep. Fastened to
+        the rear of the right leg near the knee in dancing</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="col50">
+      <img class="illowp90" src="images/i_317-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <div class="small">Painted gourd with wood handle</div>
+    </div>
+    <figcaption class="mt1">PUEBLO RATTLES. ⅓</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Among the Mokis, some of the old men are custodians of songs, according
+    to the societies to which they belong. Such a man is leader of the
+    singing. It is he who knows the old songs. He meets a lot of the young
+    men at a specified house, and placing an old tin pan on the floor to
+    spit in while smoking cigarettes, and beside it a candle for light,
+    they group themselves in a circle, sitting on the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>floor, while the
+    instructor takes his place on a stool at the large double-headed drum
+    at one end. He runs over a passage, beating time on the drum, and
+    then all join in with a vigour that well-nigh raises the roof. There
+    was something fine in the force and power with which these songs were
+    rendered, and it was the only time in my experience that my artistic
+    sense was stirred by Amerind singing. Later, on the same evening as
+    the gathering mentioned, when the same young men were rehearsing
+    further and also practising the dance with some small girls in a
+    neighbouring house, the singing lost its fire and was not at all
+    thrilling. Before the rehearsal with the young men the “choir master”
+    rehearses by himself. From my house at Tewa, on the “East Mesa,” I
+    could hear just after dark, every evening, through the stone wall,
+    continuous singing. It was in the next room or “house,” the entrance
+    to which, though on my level, was around a corner and not connected
+    in any way with my balcony. I had a ladder of my own. I was curious
+    to see who it was that was so devoted to this amusement. I mounted to
+    my house-top by means of steps on the end of a wall, and then I could
+    look down my neighbour’s chimney, from which little smoke and much
+    sound were arising. I could see plainly the singer, an old man, sitting
+    cross-legged before the fire, its light softly illuminating him, with
+    a small double-headed drum between his knees, which he was vigorously
+    beating in accompaniment to a “<span class="allsmcap">HO</span>, ho, <span class="allsmcap">HO</span>, ho,
+    <span class="allsmcap">HO</span>—<span class="allsmcap">HE</span>, he, <span class="allsmcap">HE</span>,” etc. When I went afterward
+    to the house of Anawita, the war-chief, to the rehearsal described,
+    this old fellow and Anawita were the leaders of the songs. They were
+    practising at that time for the Somaikoli or Soyaita ceremony.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter">
+    <div class="col33">
+      <img class="illowp60" src="images/i_319-1.jpg" alt="" id="i_319-1">
+      <div class="small">ZUÑI DANCE ORNAMENT ⅛<br>
+        <p class="hang">Yellow gourd with band of black and white squares. A stick is
+          passed through it for a handle. Generally used in social dances</p></div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="col33">
+      <img class="illowp60" src="images/i_319-2.jpg" alt="" id="i_319-2">
+      <div class="small">MOKI NOTCHED STICK ⅙<br>
+        <p class="hang">With shoulder-blade of deer or sheep for scraping it to make noise</p></div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="col33">
+      <img class="illowp55" src="images/i_319-3.jpg" alt="" id="i_319-3">
+      <div class="small">KWAKIUTL DOUBLE WHISTLE, WITH FOUR VOICES. ¼</div>
+    </div>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Amerind is fond of singing. He sings in ceremonials, sings in camp,
+    bursts out in yelps as he rides across country, and the women amongst
+    the Pueblos sing a shrill chant while they are grinding corn. Men of
+    some tribes sing at times without knowing what they are singing. I
+    once had a Uinkarets Ute with me in Arizona, and at night this man
+    would build a fire a few yards from us, and sitting by it would sing
+    the words <i>Lola-my, lola-my, lola-my</i> with great vigour and gusto
+    over and over and over again. When I asked him what the words meant, he
+    said he did not know, nor could he explain just why he performed thus,
+    but it was probably a gambling chant. Singing is used at night for
+    driving away evil spirits that may be near. We <span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span>had four Pai Utes once
+    travelling with us for a number of weeks, and almost every night, along
+    in the middle, one would wake and begin to sing in a low voice, then a
+    second would join, and a third, and so on till all were engaged, their
+    voices rising gradually, and finally as gradually diminishing till they
+    ceased altogether.<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> As <span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span>this performance woke us up there were
+    protests against it, but they were of no avail. The red men declared
+    they did it to drive off the “woonūpits,” or spirit of evil, and we
+    were forced to partake of their protection. Beginning a song low and
+    rising slowly is an effect often used. Fewkes mentions something of the
+    kind. “At the termination of this ceremonial smoke,” he says, “the four
+    priests nearest the bowl picked up the small gourd rattles and began
+    a low, rapid rattling. This continued for a few moments, and then the
+    priests began a song, at first low, rising gradually and increasing in
+    volume.” Fewkes recorded many songs by means of the phonograph. The
+    Harriman Expedition recorded a number of Tlinkit songs, and afterwards
+    some of these were reproduced for the benefit of men of the same stock
+    farther north, who immediately recognised the melodies and, as their
+    hilarity testified, enjoyed them hugely, though they had never before
+    heard a talking machine.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp55" id="i_320">
+    <img src="images/i_320.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE AWL GAME</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Most Amerind songs are connected with ceremonials, and some are
+    imported or adopted. Ceremonials are not always sacred. Many of them
+    are full of amusing features intended to entertain the onlookers. The
+    attendance at a camp or village on a ceremonial day is for amusement as
+    much as anything else.</p>
+
+  <p>The different tribes of a locality expect to meet friends then and
+    enjoy social intercourse. The Amerind is fond of games, races, and all
+    forms of sport on which a wager can be laid. A game without a stake
+    would be no game at all for him. He must put up something to lose,
+    and I once noticed after a distribution of goods among individuals
+    of a certain tribe that within twenty-four hours a few had all the
+    goods. In modern times many Amerinds play cards. Their own games are
+    numerous. In the “awl game,” played chiefly by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span>women, “the players,”
+    according to Mooney, “sit upon the ground around a blanket marked in
+    charcoal with lines and dots and quadrants in the corners as shown in
+    illustration on preceding page. In the centre is a stone upon which
+    the sticks are thrown. Each dot ... counts a point, making twenty-four
+    points for dots. Each of the parallel lines, and each end of the curved
+    lines in the corners, also counts a point, making sixteen points for
+    the lines, or forty points in all. The players start from the bottom,
+    opposing players moving in opposite directions, and with each throw
+    of the sticks the thrower moves her awl forward and sticks it into
+    the blanket at the dot or line to which her throw carries her. The
+    parallels on each of the four sides are called ‘rivers,’ and the dots
+    within these parallels do not count in the game. The rivers at the
+    top and bottom are ‘dangerous’ and cannot be crossed, and when the
+    player is so unlucky as to score a throw which brings her upon the
+    edge of the river (<i>i. e.</i>, upon the first line of either of
+    these pairs of parallels) she ‘falls into the river’ and must lose
+    all she has hitherto gained and begin again at the start. In the
+    same way, when a player moving around in one direction makes a throw
+    which brings her awl to the place occupied by the awl of her opponent
+    coming around from the other side, the said opponent is ‘whipped back’
+    to the starting-point and must begin all over again.... The game is
+    played with four sticks, each from six to ten inches long, flat on
+    one side and round on the other. One of these is the trump stick and
+    is marked in a distinctive manner in the centre on both sides, and is
+    also distinguished by having a green line along the flat side, while
+    the others have each a red line.... There are also a number of small
+    green sticks, about the size of lead pencils, for keeping tally. Each
+    player in turn takes up the four sticks together in her hand and throws
+    them down on end upon the stone in the centre. The number of points
+    depends upon the number of flat round sticks which turn up.... Only
+    the flat sides count except when all the sticks turn round side up. On
+    completing one round of forty points the player takes one of the small
+    green tally sticks from the pile and she who first gets the number of
+    tally sticks previously agreed on wins the game.”<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Another game, widely spread and in some respects resembling <span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span>the
+    Mexican game of <i>patolli</i>, is thus described by Fewkes as he found
+    it among the Mokis<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a>:</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_322">
+    <img src="images/i_322-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Set of bone dice, Arapaho. Length, 1¾ to 2¼ in.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100">
+    <img src="images/i_322-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Set of counting sticks, Blackfeet. Length, 5½ in.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80">
+    <img src="images/i_322-3.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Set of plum stones, Arikaree. Diameter, ¹¹⁄₁₆ in.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <div class="small center"><b>AMERIND GAMBLING TOOLS</b></div>
+
+  <p>“This game, <i>totolospi</i>, resembles somewhat the game of
+    checkers, and can be played by two persons or by two parties. In
+    playing the game, a rectangular figure divided into a large number
+    of squares is drawn upon a rock, either by scratching or by using a
+    different-coloured stone as a crayon. A diagonal line, <i>tuhkiota</i>,
+    is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>drawn across the rectangle from north-east to south-west, and the
+    players station themselves at each end of this line. When two parties
+    play, a single person acts as player, and the other members of the
+    party act as advisers. The first play is won by tossing up a leaf or
+    corn husk with one side blackened. The pieces which are used are bean
+    or corn kernels, stones and wood, or small fragments of any substance
+    of marked colour. The players are stationed at each end of the diagonal
+    line, <i>tuhkiota</i>. They move their pieces upon this line but never
+    across it. The moves which are made are intricate and the player may
+    move one or more pieces successively. Certain positions entitle him to
+    this privilege. He may capture or, as he terms it, kill one or more
+    of his opponent’s pieces at one play. In this respect the game is not
+    unlike checkers, and to capture the pieces of the opponent seems to be
+    the main object of the game.”</p>
+
+  <p>Horse-racing is a great sport among all Amerinds and much valuable
+    property changes hands on these occasions. There are also foot races.
+    Anything they can bet on constitutes a game, and they are much like
+    many white men in this respect. Arrows are shot into the air to see
+    who can shoot out of sight, or they are shot at a mark and dexterous
+    archers try to split the shaft of the preceding shooter. Or they
+    throw arrows or bows over the ground or the snow to see who can throw
+    farthest. In this line the Iroquois had the game known as “snow snake,”
+    wherein a specially formed stick was caused to glide over the snow or
+    ice. The Arapahos used for a similar purpose slender willow rods about
+    four feet long peeled and painted and tipped with a point of buffalo
+    horn. This is swung from one end like a pendulum and then let fly with
+    a sweeping motion.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the Pai Utes a common gambling game was played by four men
+    sitting down in two rows opposite each other, that is, two on a side,
+    and about five feet apart. In front of each side was a row of little
+    sticks placed diagonally in sand heaped up, the ends sticking out
+    toward the side to which the lot belonged. Two bits of bone formed the
+    pieces, one being plain and the other having a buckskin string around
+    it. These pieces were about two and a half inches long, tapering toward
+    their ends. The leader of one side tosses both pieces into the air
+    and, catching them, crosses his arms, pressing the fists against each
+    shoulder. The point is for the other side to guess in which hand is
+    the piece that is marked with the string, and the diagonally opposite
+    player chooses. He <span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>does not at once indicate a choice, but sways his
+    body back and forth, his right hand extended and waving to and fro
+    across the opponent’s breast, and slapping his own chest, all the while
+    fiercely uttering a gambling song. Finally he would point directly at
+    the hand he chose, and if his guess were correct he received a tally
+    stick, if not, the other side got one. The side that wins all the
+    tally sticks is victor and carries off the stakes, which are usually
+    put on the ground at one end of the group. This is something like the
+    “hunt the button” game of the prairie tribes described by Mooney.<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a>
+    “It is the regular game in the long winter nights after the scattered
+    families have abandoned their exposed summer positions on the open
+    prairie and moved down near one another in the shelter of the timber
+    along the streams.... The players sit in a circle around the tipi fire,
+    those on one side of the fire playing against those on the other. The
+    only requisites are the ‘button,’ usually a small bit of wood, around
+    which is tied a piece of string or otter skin, with a pile of tally
+    sticks.... Each party has a button, that of one side being painted
+    black, the other being red. The leader of one party takes up the button
+    and endeavours to move it from one hand to the other, or pass it on to
+    a partner, while those of the opposite side keep a sharp lookout and
+    try to guess in which hand it is.” This game is played by both sexes
+    but never together.</p>
+
+  <p>Still another game which was a great favourite all over the country,
+    and is yet, especially among the women, is the “plum stone” or dice
+    game. Five or six dice made of bone or plum stones, a small bowl or
+    basket, and the usual tally sticks are the implements. Two of the dice
+    are alike in shape and marking, while the others are different from
+    these but like each other. The dice are tossed up and the count made
+    according to the way the marks and blanks fall.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_325">
+    <img src="images/i_325.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TERRA COTTA RATTLE FROM CHIRIQUI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The camps and villages are particularly lively in winter, when there
+    is not much to do in the way of hunting, farming, or fishing. The
+    sound of the drum, gambling songs, and rattles make the evening merry
+    where the village is one of skin tipis or other light structures, but
+    among the Pueblos the walls of the houses are so thick that sounds
+    do not easily come through. The great drum is penetrating and its
+    deep “bum-bum-bum” could be heard vibrating on the winter air, but
+    other sounds were muffled or extinguished <span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>altogether by the walls.
+    One moonlight evening when I arrived before the town of Oraibi, about
+    eight o’clock, not a single sound was distinguishable, and to judge
+    by appearances, the place was a deserted ruin, till the dogs got a
+    sniff of our approach and then pandemonium ruled so far as they were
+    concerned. Many tribes have an assembly house, where there are various
+    congregations in the winter evenings, to sing and to dance. Among the
+    Pueblos these congregations, when there are women or girls involved,
+    take place in an ordinary dwelling; the kiva, which is council room,
+    club, and society lodge, seldom being open to women. An orchestra that
+    performed in a Kabinapek assembly hall described by Stephen Powers is
+    worth mentioning. “The orchestra, eight in number, all young men, were
+    squatted together opposite the entrance, four facing four. Between them
+    was a hollow slab, serving as a kind of drum to be beaten by a drummer
+    with the naked foot, and each of them held in his right hand a little
+    stick, split half way down, to be used as a clapper in keeping time.
+    The dancers were all young women, who stood in a curved row in front
+    of the orchestra.” This orchestra sang a chorus accompanied by the
+    clappers they held. “Like everything they sung it has no meaning. They
+    all sung in a high falsetto voice, the women especially, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>so that they
+    were less agreeable to listen to than the men. The sharp monotonous
+    clacking of the sticks and the dull tunk, tunk of the slab drum were
+    execrable.” He states that they kept perfect time, however, and also
+    that “there was one short passage in this chorus which when chanted
+    by the men alone was one of the most moving I ever heard. These three
+    rude, barbaric, and wholly unintelligible syllables, hu-di-go, were
+    trilled and prolonged out with a sweet, soft, and wild melodiousness
+    that I shall not forget to my dying hour.”<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a></p>
+
+  <p>The Eskimo, despite the severity of their surroundings, are a merry
+    people, and have many diversions. Football, strange to say, is a
+    favourite pastime, but neither their method nor their ball would pass
+    muster with a college expert. The ball is a pudgy affair from three to
+    seven inches in diameter, and is either kicked or whipped along. The
+    whip is a short stick with several loops of seal thong at the end. The
+    game, according to Turner, is a favourite with all. Throwing stones at
+    a mark is also a pastime. Another is a kind of wrestling or struggling
+    with each other, such as is in vogue with almost all the tribes of the
+    continent. Turner says: “The opponents remove all their superfluous
+    garments, seize each other around the waist and lock hands behind each
+    other’s backs. The feet are spread widely apart and each endeavours to
+    draw, by the strength of the arms alone, the back of his opponent into
+    a curve and thus bring him off his feet. Then with a lift he is quickly
+    thrown flat on his back. The fall must be such that the head touches
+    the ground.... The feet are never used for tripping.”<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Anything like scientific boxing is unknown among the tribes of the
+    continent. When they try anything of this sort it is a mere clawing
+    at each other’s heads, and one professional pugilist, if fists alone
+    were used, could knock out a whole tribe. Among the Hudson Bay Eskimo,
+    a popular game is played by trying to catch, on the end of an ivory
+    point, an ivory piece that looks something like a stumpy revolver. A
+    string is attached to it and to the ivory point, and the game is to
+    throw up the piece and cause the point to enter one of the holes and
+    catch it. Cards, such as we have, are known to almost all tribes, and
+    where they have not learned games from the whites they invent some of
+    their own.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_327">
+    <img src="images/i_327.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CAT-SHAPED WHISTLE OF TERRA COTTA, CHIRIQUI</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Ball games of various kinds were played and the Canadian game called
+    <em>lacrosse</em> is of Amerind origin. Parkman in his <cite>Pontiac</cite>
+    vividly describes one of these lacrosse games used in strategy to
+    gain entrance to an English fort. “The plain in front was covered
+    by the ball players. The game in which they were engaged, called
+    <i>baggattaway</i> by the Ojibwas, is still, as it always has been, a
+    favourite with many Indian tribes. At either extremity of the ground, a
+    tall post was planted, marking the stations of the rival parties. The
+    object of each was to defend its own post and drive the ball to that
+    of its adversary. Hundreds of lithe and agile figures were leaping and
+    bounding upon the plain. Each was nearly naked, his loose black hair
+    flying in the wind, and each bore in his hand a bat of a form peculiar
+    to this game. At one moment the whole were crowded together, a dense
+    throng of combatants all struggling for the ball; at the next they were
+    scattered again, and running over the ground like hounds in full cry.
+    Each, in his excitement, yelled and shouted at the height of his voice.
+    Rushing and striking, tripping their adversaries, or hurling them to
+    the ground, they pursued the animated contest amid the laughter and
+    applause of the spectators.”</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p>
+
+  <p>In Central America, a form of tennis was in vogue and stone courts
+    where the game was played have been found and described by some of our
+    modern archæologists.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_328">
+    <img src="images/i_328.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">George Catlin</div>
+    <figcaption>MANDAN GAME OF TCHUNGKEE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>I never saw any ball playing amongst the Uinkarets, Shevwits, or other
+    Amerinds of the northern Arizona-southern Nevada region. They all
+    appeared to be deficient in games, at the time I was first among them,
+    not knowing what our playing-cards were, and having even no games of
+    exterior origin. There were flat pieces of cedar bark, painted with
+    red stripes, said by some to have been used like dice, but I never saw
+    them engaged in playing with them. The children used a flat piece of
+    bark as a doll, and most Amerind children play with dolls made of wood,
+    terra cotta, and other materials.<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> The small boys devote themselves
+    to the bow and arrow for amusement in many tribes, and they will go
+    out in the woods, or on the plain, and bring down small birds and mice
+    with considerable skill. The whip-top, made of wood, is a favourite
+    everywhere, especially among the Moki boys, whose <span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span>life on the barren
+    mesas precludes much hunting with bow and arrow. The children also beat
+    the drum for fun.</p>
+
+  <p>Horse-racing is a sport in which many tribes, especially those of
+    the plains, are past masters. The Pueblos, particularly the Mokis,
+    owing to their sedentary life, have less opportunity to develop in
+    this line, but the Navajos, Sioux, Crows, Blackfeet, and Comanches
+    have little to learn about rough-and-ready racing. It goes without
+    saying that the Eskimo, Aleuts, Tlinkits, Haidas, and other North-west
+    tribes, whose range of life is on and by the sea, have no knowledge
+    of handling horses. They never adopted the horse, because it was as
+    useless to them as an elephant or a hippopotamus. But to the plains
+    tribes this animal came like a gift from the gods, and they appreciated
+    it fully, and horses became their standard of wealth. Some tribes, like
+    the Kaivavits, Uinkarets, and Shevwits Utes of northern Arizona have
+    never possessed many horses because of their poverty, but there were
+    always a goodly number owned, and horse-racing was a great amusement
+    with them, as well as with those tribes which counted their horses
+    by the thousand. Dodge describes an amusing race that took place
+    near Fort Chadbourne, Texas, between a horse of a Comanche chief and
+    three horses of the officers of the garrison, which illustrates the
+    Amerind cleverness in the jockeying line.<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> It took several days
+    of manœuvring to bring the chief to the point, and then a race was
+    arranged with the third best horse of the white men. The distance was
+    four hundred yards, and property to the amount of sixty dollars a side
+    was wagered on the result. “At the appointed time all the Indians and
+    most of the garrison were assembled at the track. The Indians ‘showed’
+    a miserable sheep of a pony with legs like churns; a three-inch coat
+    of rough hair stuck out all over the body, and a general expression
+    of neglect, helplessness, and patient suffering struck pity into the
+    hearts of all beholders. The rider was a stalwart buck of one hundred
+    and seventy pounds, looking big and strong enough to carry the poor
+    beast on his shoulders. He was armed with a huge club, with which,
+    after the word was given, he belabored the miserable animal from start
+    to finish. To the astonishment of all the whites, the Indian won by
+    a neck. Another race was proposed by the officers and, after much
+    ‘dickering,’ accepted by the Indians, against the next best horse of
+    the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span>garrison. The bets were doubled, and in less than an hour the
+    second race was run by the same pony, with the same apparent exertion
+    and with exactly the same result. The officers, thoroughly disgusted,
+    proposed a third race, and brought to the ground a magnificent Kentucky
+    mare, of the true Lexington blood, and known to beat the best of the
+    others at least forty yards in four hundred. The Indians accepted the
+    race, and not only doubled the bets as before, but piled up everything
+    they could raise, seemingly almost crazed with the excitement of their
+    previous success. The riders mounted; the word was given. Throwing away
+    his club, the Indian rider gave a whoop, at which the sheep-like pony
+    pricked up his ears and went away like the wind, almost two feet to the
+    mare’s one. The last fifty yards of the course were run by the pony
+    with the rider sitting face to his tail, making hideous grimaces, and
+    beckoning to the rider of the mare to come on. It afterwards transpired
+    that the old sheep was a trick and straight pony, celebrated among all
+    the tribes of the South.” Yet some people think the Amerind has no
+    sense of humour.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_330">
+    <img src="images/i_330.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>DOUBLE WHISTLE IN TERRA COTTA FROM CHIRIQUI<br>
+      Actual size</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Story telling is another amusement, and a good story teller, says
+    Dodge, is a man of importance. “The bucks, and squaws, and children
+    crowd to his lodge, or any other where he happens to be, and spend the
+    long winter evenings listening to his recitals. These stories are as
+    marvellous as the imagination of the teller can create, jumbling gods
+    and men, fabulous and living animals, the impossible and the possible
+    in the most heterogeneous confusion.”<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp60" id="i_331">
+    <img src="images/i_331.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SET OF STAVES FOR GAME<br>
+      The lowest shows obverse of one above. Length, 5½ in.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Navajos, or at least some of them, have considerable <span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span>dramatic
+    sense. On one occasion, when some Navajos camped near us, one of them
+    gave an exhibition of character delineation that would have done credit
+    to a professional actor. Choosing a large bush nearby as a screen for
+    his costuming, he came out to the fire successively representing the
+    various nationalities with which he was familiar. Some of these were
+    extremely well done. The Pai Ute, for instance, is poor in clothing
+    and always begging. Our actor took off all his clothing but the
+    breech-cloth, approached the fire timidly and cringingly, and crouched
+    down beside it, drawing the back of his hand across his nose with an
+    accompanying sniffle, and exclaimed in Pai Ute: <i>Tabac ashanty</i>
+    (I want some tobacco). Another was the American, who stepped nervously
+    to the fire, and restlessly turned first front, then back, extended
+    his hands, rubbing them over the heat; held up first one foot, then
+    the other, and so on. These impersonations were full of the character
+    of the types indicated. The exhibition finally culminated in a
+    representation of the characteristics of his own people. Retiring once
+    again behind the bush, he at last appeared with his full costume on,
+    carefully adjusted. His head bore a red turban, his shirt was held
+    by a fine belt, his broad Navajo trousers met at the knee the red
+    buckskin leggings, ornamented with silver buttons, and his feet were
+    protected by moccasins finely wrought, held by silver buttons. About
+    his shoulders was a fine blanket of Navajo make, and across his back a
+    large bow and its arrows in a panther-skin case and quiver. Approaching
+    the fire with a measured, haughty tread, head erect and folded arms, he
+    paused majestically before it, straightened to his full height, and in
+    a deep, dignified tone spoke the single word, “Navajo.”</p>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_XII">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_332">
+      <img src="images/i_332.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>“BANNER-STONE,” TENNESSEE</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">WORKS AND AGRICULTURE</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">FOR a long time it was believed by the whites that the “Indians” were
+    incapable of doing anything beyond weaving baskets, and from this
+    condition of ignorance much of the confusion concerning the Amerinds
+    has arisen. The line of reasoning was based on some such syllogism as
+    this: The “Indian” never worked; The Cliff-dweller and the Moundbuilder
+    worked at building houses and mounds; Conclusion, The Cliff-dweller
+    and the Moundbuilder were not “Indians.” Short, in his excellent book
+    on the Amerinds,<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> applies unfortunately this method of reasoning
+    to the copper-mine workers of the Lake Superior district, saying:
+    “The labour involved in a journey of a thousand miles from the Ohio
+    valley to the copper regions, the toil of the summer’s mining, and the
+    tedious transportation of the metal to their homes upon their backs,
+    and by means of an imperfect system of navigation, indicates either
+    industry and resolution such as no savage Indian ever possessed, or
+    a condition of servitude in which thousands occupied a position of
+    abject slavery.” This seems a complete misunderstanding of the people
+    and conditions existing on this continent. Without consuming space in
+    discussing these errors, I think my preceding pages have demonstrated
+    that far <span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span>from lacking industry and resolution, the “savage Indian” was
+    applying himself in his way to a solution of the life problems which
+    surrounded him. He knew nothing of the rules of commerce, book-keeping,
+    and exchange, but there are other things in the world besides figures
+    and accounts. The Amerind’s game-supply and clothing, and the soil
+    about him, were not overtaxed, at least not north of Anahuac, till the
+    whites arrived with their mania for “killing something,” and introduced
+    on this continent the destructive practice of hunting for the fun
+    of seeing how many animals could be killed in a certain time; or of
+    killing for a special part of an animal, as for the tongues, or the
+    hides and tallow, of the bison. When I first went to the Far West bison
+    were spread over the plains by thousands. Not a single specimen can
+    to-day be found alive outside of some private herd or the Yellowstone
+    Park. Hunting, as before mentioned, was with the Amerind labour, not
+    amusement, but in conjunction with their hunting most tribes carried on
+    farming operations. It has often been asserted that the “Indian” did
+    no work, even leaving the cultivation of the corn and squashes to the
+    women. That the women in some of the tribes tended the crops, is true,
+    but in others, like the Pueblos, they seldom or never touched hoe or
+    spade. The Eastern men were hunting or building boats, or were on the
+    warpath, hence it was necessary for the women to look after the fields.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_334">
+    <img src="images/i_334.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SO-CALLED ELEPHANT MOUND, WISCONSIN<br>
+      Has been ploughed over. Length, 140 ft.; greatest height, 4 ft.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the Eastern regions the crops grew without watering, but in the West
+    and South-west the soil was arid and irrigation was necessary, hence
+    there are found to this day remnants of extensive irrigation canals
+    built to bring rivers out on the dry land. The fact that the resident
+    Apaches do not irrigate does not prove that these great canals were
+    built by people who emigrated from China or India, in the absurd line
+    of argument that has so often been advanced in discussing Amerindian
+    affairs; it simply proves that the Apaches did not cultivate the soil,
+    or not extensively enough to require irrigating works, and also,
+    over again, that tribes and stocks exist in a region, in different
+    conditions or stages of development, either at the same time or at
+    different times. These irrigating canals are unquestionably the work
+    of tribes similar to the Pueblos; that is now well established. They
+    were constructed because, in an increasing population and a probable
+    decrease of precipitation, they were found necessary. An increase <span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>of
+    population diminishes the food-supply; in an arid country where game
+    is not plenty this diminution is rapid. A corresponding development
+    of a food crop is the inevitable course, unless the tribe were to
+    migrate to more humid regions. In this case, hostile people already
+    there might have to be met, and it would be easier to remain at the
+    old place and invent new methods of obtaining food. In some such way
+    irrigating and its attendant engineering developed. Irrigating canals,
+    then, are found not where any lost or mysterious race once dwelt, nor
+    where any particular Amerind stock were living, but where the climatic
+    conditions and population made irrigation imperative. These conditions
+    prevailed on this continent in Mexico and our South-west, and there
+    consequently are found the most important works of this kind. The
+    remains of irrigating canals in the south-western United States are
+    numerous. There are indications of them along the fertile bottoms
+    of the Colorado River in Glen Canyon. These bottoms are deposits of
+    alluvial soil, generally occupying the inside of a bend at the base of
+    the cliffs. They are of various extent, about three to eight feet above
+    ordinary high-water mark, and are fringed with willows. I remember
+    examining several <span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span>indications of these “ditches,” but as I made no
+    notes at the time, and it was long ago, I cannot give details. There
+    were ruins of houses here and there, both on the cliffs and below,
+    and the cliff faces bore pictographs. Amongst these I found, and
+    copied, one which suggested some kind of a scaffolding and sweep for
+    lifting water, and it is not improbable that something of this kind
+    was utilised for raising water from the river. As there would be no
+    opportunity to construct a canal or ditch sufficiently long to receive
+    water by natural flow from the river owing to the shortness of the
+    alluvial stretches, a system of lifting it into the ditches might have
+    been devised. Water might have been obtained also in another way. The
+    country on both sides of the river at this point is composed chiefly
+    of barren surfaces of homogeneous sandstone which collect enormous
+    quantities of water, like the roof of a house, during rain-storms,
+    and pour it over the edges of the cliffs and down the alcoves and
+    lateral canyons. This water may also have been utilised for irrigating
+    purposes. The Mokis utilise showers by collecting and guiding the
+    streamlets with low dams hastily thrown up by their hoes, so it is
+    certain that all these Amerinds understood thoroughly the importance of
+    utilising shower-water on their crops.<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_335">
+    <img src="images/i_335.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ANCIENT FABRIC DESIGN FROM IMPRESSION ON POTTERY, UTAH</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp60" id="i_336">
+    <img src="images/i_336.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ANCIENT FABRIC PRESERVED BY COPPER CELT, IOWA<br>
+      See <a href="#Page_108">page 108</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the Verde River region of Arizona some very large canals or
+    “ditches” have been observed. Mindeleff has described a number of
+    these, and I will mention one which he says is one of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span>the finest he
+    has seen.<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> This is “about two miles below the mouth of Limestone
+    Creek on the opposite or eastern side of the river.” The canal extends
+    across the northern and western part of an extent of fertile bottom
+    land. In one place it is marked “by a very shallow trough in the
+    grass-covered bottom, bounded on either side by a low ridge of earth
+    and pebbles, at another it was cut through a low ridge. It is probable
+    that the water was taken out of the river about two miles above this
+    place, but the ditch was run on the sloping side of the mesa which has
+    recently washed out.” It is supposed that this ancient canal irrigated
+    nearly the whole of the bottom land mentioned, which was recently
+    again reclaimed by another “ditch” or canal constructed by Americans.
+    “The ancient ditch is well marked by two clearly defined lines of
+    pebbles and small boulders.... Probably these pebbles entered into its
+    construction, as the modern ditch, washed out at its head ... shows no
+    trace of a similar marking.”</p>
+
+  <p>Farming was carried on very much as the Mokis carry it on to-day,
+    except that the Mokis do not have to build irrigating ditches, the
+    showers supplying by their method water enough to mature the crops.
+    A German has recently settled south-westerly from the Mokis and, I
+    have been told, grows good crops on his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span>place without irrigation.
+    Mindeleff further states that “on the southern side of Clear Creek,
+    about a mile above its mouth, there are extensive horticultural<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a>
+    works covering a large area of the terrace or river bench.... For a
+    distance of two miles east and west along the creek, and perhaps half
+    a mile north and south, there are traces of former works pertaining
+    to horticulture, including irrigating ditches, ‘reservoirs,’ farming
+    outlooks, etc.” The reservoirs are supposed by some to have been
+    threshing-floors, being large circular depressions lined with clay.
+    The produce derived from these farming operations was corn, beans,
+    squashes, and cotton, corn being the principal. Cotton was grown by
+    some, but not all, of the south-western tribes. A great many of the
+    tribes throughout the United States and Mexico were farmers to a
+    greater or less extent, and many of the earthworks of the Mississippi
+    valley were in all probability connected with agriculture. It was
+    necessary there to protect the crops from marauding parties from wilder
+    tribes, so, in all probability, some of the earthworks, surmounted
+    by palisades or by watch-houses, served to guard the crops from
+    depredations. Morgan thinks some of the square ones were foundations
+    for communal houses,<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> and this is also probable.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_337">
+    <img src="images/i_337.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">From a photograph</div>
+    <figcaption>LARGE MOUND OF THE ETOWAH GROUP, GEORGIA
+      <p class="hang">Next to the Cahokia, this is probably the most important work of
+        its kind remaining in the Mississippi valley. It is sixty-one
+        feet high, and the area of the base is about three acres. With
+        several smaller ones, it stands in the middle of a tract of
+        about fifty acres of rich land, bounded on one side by the
+        Etowah River, and on the other by a semi-circular artificial
+        waterway or moat. The top approximates a square, with a sort
+        of roadway adjoining and leading up on the left. The entire
+        contents are about 160,000 cubic yards. It is composed of earth
+        which was taken from the moat and adjoining excavations</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>On the upper Gila River in Arizona, Fewkes discovered traces of
+    reservoirs and irrigating canals. “The large circular or elongated oval
+    depressions,” he says, “in the immediate neighbourhood of some of the
+    house-mounds have been identified as the sites of former reservoirs....
+    The reservoir at Buena Vista is one of the largest that was discovered,
+    yet no irrigating ditches leading into it were distinctly traced....
+    There is abundant evidence that the ancient people of the Pueblo Viejo
+    Valley led the water from the Gila River over the plain by means of
+    canals for purposes of agriculture, for in many places the depressions
+    marking the old ditches may be traced for considerable distances.... I
+    have been informed by some of the older residents that when they came
+    into the country, before the Montezuma and San José irrigation ditches
+    had been constructed, the ancient aqueducts were much more conspicuous
+    than they are to-day, and that <span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>sections of the modern ditches follow
+    the course of the ancient waterways.”<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_339">
+    <img src="images/i_339.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">From <i>Monumental Records</i></div>
+    <figcaption>A VOTIVE ADZ OF JADITE FROM MEXICO, SHOWING FRONT AND SIDE
+      <p class="hang">Height, 10¹³⁄₁₆ in.; width, 6 in.; thickness, 4⅝ in. Highly
+        polished; color light grayish green with streaks of emerald
+        green on the back. A complete human figure. See <a href="#Page_341">page 341</a> for back.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Aztecs built long aqueducts to supply their towns, and the Mayas
+    constructed large reservoirs. Charnay says: “According <span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>to historians
+    of the Conquest, El Salto del Agua (a monumental fountain in the City
+    of Mexico) and the aqueduct which it terminates replaced the ancient
+    aqueduct of Montezuma constructed by Netzahualcoyotl, King of Tezcuco,
+    between the years 1427 and 1440. At that time it was brought through
+    an earthen pipe to the city, along a dyke constructed for the purpose,
+    and that there might be no failure in so essential an article, a double
+    course of pipes in stone and mortar was laid. In this way a column of
+    water the size of a man’s body was conducted into the heart of the
+    capital.”<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a></p>
+
+  <p>George Bancroft makes the statement that “of the labours of the Indians
+    on the soil of Virginia, there remains nothing so respectable as would
+    be a common ditch for the draining of lands,”<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> but in this Bancroft
+    was somewhat mistaken, for Thomas describes<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> some mounds in West
+    Virginia, which was Virginia when the above sentence was written, that
+    were undoubtedly the work of some of the Amerinds formerly occupying
+    that soil. “First the earth (unless the place selected is a bare rock)
+    is removed to the solid rock foundation and an approximately level
+    space from ten to thirty feet in diameter formed. Centrally on this was
+    placed a layer of flat stones, with the edge inward, around a circle
+    about three feet in diameter. Upon the outer edge of these, others were
+    placed with their outer edges resting upon the prepared foundation
+    running entirety round the circle. Then another inner layer with the
+    best edge inward and the thinner edge resting on the outer layer, the
+    stones of one layer breaking joints with those below, as far as the
+    size and form would admit. Outside of the inner row, and with the edges
+    resting on it, other circles were added until a diameter ranging from
+    twenty to fifty feet or even more was attained, thus extending upon
+    the sloping earth not removed in forming the foundation. The last or
+    outer circle usually consisted of but a single layer, over which earth
+    was thrown, being sometimes heaped up until it equalled in contents
+    the rock pile. The height of these piles was found to vary from four
+    to eight feet, in one or two instances reaching ten feet. But in all
+    cases the circular space or opening in the centre continued to the top
+    the same diameter as at the bottom, somewhat resembling the so-called
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>‘well-holes’ of the early western pioneers.” The stones used in these
+    constructions were obtained by “rude quarrying in stratified cliffs
+    one half mile distant. Some of them measure from four to six feet in
+    length, half as wide, and of a thickness which renders them so heavy
+    as to require from two to four stout men to handle them.” Skeletons
+    were found in cavities of these piles “with head or feet (generally
+    the latter) toward the central well-hole.” <span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span>Coarse pottery, rude
+    large celts, lance- and arrow-heads were also discovered, and “all
+    the cavities of the heap not originally used for burial are filled
+    with earth or mortar, often well baked by fire.”<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> Many mounds and
+    other earthworks have been found in the western Virginia region, and
+    in some of them copper articles have been brought to light.<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> In
+    New York there are many mounds called “old forts,” of various shapes,
+    with walls from one and one half to two feet or more high, and thence
+    westward, throughout the Mississippi valley, mounds and earthworks of
+    many shapes and sizes are found. They appear to be concentrated in
+    various centres, with a sprinkling in between suggesting a number of
+    different groups of Amerinds as their builders, which has been pretty
+    well established by evidence was the case. Some of the mounds were of
+    enormous size, the famous one at Cahokia, Illinois, being one of the
+    highest and largest on the continent. Its altitude is about ninety
+    feet, and it contains nearly 500,000 cubic yards of earth. Its purpose
+    is, of course, not known, but it probably supported some religious
+    structure of wood. Many of the mounds, as pointed out in the chapter on
+    dwellings, were merely supports for buildings, religious or otherwise.
+    Others were connected with religious rites in other ways. Doubtless the
+    figures of birds found in Wisconsin represented the “Thunder-bird,” of
+    which there are legends and traditions in many tribes. It was to the
+    Amerind the cause of the thunder and lightning. These great and small
+    earthworks were constructed in the United States by scooping up earth
+    from the vicinity and carrying it in baskets to the designated spot.
+    The United States mounds are, as a rule, made of earth, those of Mexico
+    and Central America of clay or adobe brick, faced with stone or wholly
+    of stone. “It is often the case,” says Thomas, speaking of the burial
+    mounds of the Mississippi valley, “when a mound is carefully excavated
+    and closely scanned as the work proceeds, especially where the material
+    is clay or muck, that the individual loads can be readily discerned.
+    As the earth of which the mounds is composed is usually gathered up
+    from the surrounding surface, the interior will vary in color and
+    character only as the soil so gathered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span>up varies.... The places from
+    whence material was taken to build the small or moderate-sized mounds
+    are seldom discernible at the present day, but depressions plainly
+    mark the points about the larger works, as the Cahokia and Etowah
+    mounds and some of the enclosures of Ohio and elsewhere.<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> In some
+    cases the one act has been made to serve two purposes, that is to say,
+    the earth used to construct the mound or other work has been taken
+    from one or two points so as to leave a basin-shaped excavation for
+    holding water, or to form a trench to serve as a protective moat, or
+    for drainage or other purposes.” For a long time it was believed by
+    a great many persons, scientific and otherwise, that these piles of
+    earth, often called pyramids quite erroneously, could not have been
+    made by ordinary Amerinds, but as the study of the native American
+    proceeded and the data of what he did and does actually do began to be
+    recorded, it was perfectly plain that it was not at all necessary to
+    look beyond the “Indian” for the origin of the mounds—that is, beyond
+    the “Indian” as he was known in the region where the mounds occur. It
+    was found that he had erected mounds after the arrival of the whites,
+    and if he built one or several he might have built all. It was not a
+    very difficult operation to dig up earth and carry it a few hundred
+    feet and drop it on a pile. The transportation of the stones referred
+    to above was far more laborious, and modern Amerinds do a great deal
+    harder work. The Navajos are fairly good labourers, and the Mokis carry
+    all their wood from forests fifteen miles away. It is work to carry
+    water up the cliffs where the Mokis live, it is work to hoe the corn,
+    it is work to tend and herd sheep. On full investigation it seems
+    strange that it should ever have been thought that the mounds were not
+    “Indian” because they represented work. Fowke has estimated that a
+    mound a hundred feet in diameter and twenty feet high could have been
+    erected by the “Indians” in forty-two days. I have seen Uingkaret Utes
+    in Arizona carry on their backs with ease for twelve or fifteen miles
+    loads that would average about thirty or forty pounds. People who can
+    do this could carry earth in short stretches for forty or fifty days.
+    It is probable, however, that the mounds were not built by steady and
+    consecutive labour, but rather by intermittent effort, after the usual
+    fashion of Amerindian work.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_341">
+    <img src="images/i_341.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">From <i>Monumental Records</i></div>
+    <figcaption>BACK OF VOTIVE ADZ<br>
+      For front and side see <a href="#Page_339">page 339</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp60" id="i_344">
+    <img src="images/i_344.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PATTERNS OF ANCIENT FABRICS FROM POTTERY<br>
+      See <a href="#Page_108">page 108</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Many mounds and earthworks were erected for defensive purposes at
+    points controlling river passages or trails, where the advance of foes
+    invading a country could be checked. There were also fortification
+    works like the so-called “hill-forts” of the eastern portion of the
+    United States, and the “cérros trinchéras” of northern Mexico. Quoting
+    again from Thomas,<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> one of the best authorities on mounds and
+    “Moundbuilders”: “The most extensive example of the ‘hill-forts’ is
+    that known as Fort Ancient, in Warren County, Ohio. This crowns a spur
+    of the bluff some two hundred and fifty or three hundred feet high,
+    which here overhangs the Miami River. The area embraced is only some
+    seventy-five or eighty acres, but the length of the wall, which follows
+    all the windings and zigzags of the margin of the bluff and of the
+    side ravines, is a little over three miles and a half. This is one of
+    the best-preserved monuments of the Ohio valley, the surrounding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> wall
+    being uninjured save at points where the turnpike cuts through it, and
+    at a few places where ravines have been formed since it was abandoned.
+    This wall, which is partly of stone, but chiefly of dirt thrown up
+    from the inner or upper side, varies in height from three or four to
+    nineteen feet, and from twenty-five to seventy feet in width at the
+    base. As the earth has all been taken from the inside (except along the
+    high wall which crosses the level at the rear) and thrown outward on
+    the crest of the slope, this has left an inside ditch. As a rule, the
+    wall is strongest and highest at the points of easiest approach; and at
+    some places the outside slope has been artificially steepened, proving
+    beyond any reasonable doubt that the work was one of defence.”</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp60" id="i_345">
+    <img src="images/i_345.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO MECHANICAL TOY. ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The Amerinds, though not always engaged in war, were always on the
+    defensive against stronger tribes whose warriors might appear on
+    the scene. These stronger tribes were not necessarily Amerinds of a
+    different stock or strangers; often, as in the South-west, defensive
+    works were erected against relatives as much as against different
+    tribes, just as we, in our time, have had three wars that were not with
+    another race. In New Mexico the villages, besides being built on the
+    communal principle, were often surrounded by a defensive wall. Such
+    a wall can still be traced around the ruins of Pecos, as well as in
+    parts at other ruins. The hill-forts of the Ohio kind were undoubtedly
+    the result of circumstances similar to those that prevailed in the
+    South-west: a desire <span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span>to combine as closely as possible defence and the
+    cultivation of the soil. They were often interdependent. If conditions
+    changed, or a tribe grew strong enough to dominate the situation, the
+    defences might be abandoned. These works do not necessarily imply that
+    their builders were defeated and driven back by wilder tribes. They
+    indicate only that the builders felt defensive works necessary at the
+    time of the building; their circumstances then demanded them. They do
+    not indicate difference in race or remote origin. The constructors were
+    Amerinds, though not all one stock. There were tribes of different
+    stocks in the Mississippi valley all the time, just as there were in
+    other parts of the land, and the attempt that has been made by some
+    writers to establish the idea that the Mississippi valley was once
+    occupied by a single mysterious race that was overpowered and driven
+    out or exterminated by the “Indians” has no good foundation.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the most extensive groups of these defensive village sites
+    is that known as the Newark group, in Ohio.<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> Here are circles,
+    squares, and straight-line mounds, all connected, covering an area
+    of two or three square miles. There are two large circles in this
+    group which approximate true circles, and have been the basis of much
+    unnecessary speculation as to how “Indians” could have “done it,” with
+    the conclusion that the “mysterious race” did it. When it is remembered
+    how easy it is to construct a fairly accurate circle in a great many
+    ways, it is surprising that anyone should have thought “Indians” could
+    not do it, when they did <em>and do</em> so many things that require
+    more skill. One clear-headed and accurate writer reminds the reader
+    that people who could manufacture cloth could certainly make a rope
+    with which to lay out a plan. Almost all Amerinds could make rope, the
+    Pai Ute, Uingkarets, and Shevwits Utes, who cannot make cloth at all,
+    making excellent rope and cord. But it was not necessary to make a rope
+    of fibre. Amerinds have always been skilful at tanning deerskins, and
+    buckskin strings braided make one of the best kind of ropes; indeed, it
+    does not even require to be tanned, as it can be worked in the rawhide
+    state. We should have to descend low in the scale of humanity, indeed,
+    to find a tribe that could not make a cord long enough to lay out any
+    circle yet discovered on this continent. There is nothing difficult
+    about it. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span>The largest circle at Newark has a diameter of about a
+    thousand feet. This would require a rope only five hundred feet long,
+    which would be nothing for any tribe on the continent to make.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_347">
+    <img src="images/i_347.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">George Catlin, 1832</div>
+    <figcaption>MÁHTOTÓHPA (THE FOUR BEARS), A MANDAN CHIEF</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Just why the Newark works have the particular arrangement they have
+    would be impossible to say without knowing the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span>customs of the tribe
+    that built them and the circumstances of the time. It is probable,
+    however, that some enclosures were farm fences. The plan suggests two
+    communal villages, closely allied and united by a sort of runway,
+    which, while preventing hostiles from separating the two villages
+    in time of attack, always afforded a safe passage for the women and
+    children from one town to the other. The builders were evidently beset
+    by enemies at the time the works were occupied, but this does not
+    necessarily imply that when the works were abandoned the occupants
+    were driven out or annihilated, for their enemies may have been people
+    of their own stock with whom they eventually became reconciled, or
+    the enemies may have passed on to other fields, or the occupants of
+    the works may have grown more powerful and at length have assumed
+    the offensive. Abandoned works, I repeat, do not necessarily mean
+    annihilation of the builders. The South-west offers countless examples
+    of the truth of this statement. Villages and works were abandoned
+    there for a variety of causes; sometimes it was little more than
+    caprice. Quoting Thomas again: “Nor is the theory that, while some of
+    the monuments are due to the Indians, others are to be ascribed to a
+    different race, justified by the data, or reasonable, as no one is
+    able to define the characters which distinguish the classes. If the
+    Indians built mounds of the most advanced type and of large size, as
+    history shows positively the natives of the Gulf States did, there
+    is no necessity for attributing the works of the middle and northern
+    sections to a different race. That the Moundbuilders were divided into
+    various and often contending tribes, is shown by the works for defence
+    and protection, as also by the evidences of varying customs. Yet there
+    is nothing in the antiquities to indicate a higher culture than that
+    of the southern Indians or a greater difference between the people
+    of the different sections than existed among the natives when first
+    encountered by the whites.” Granting this, there is still nothing to
+    prove that some of these tribes did not come from a long distance off,
+    for the Amerinds very often have been travellers.</p>
+
+  <p>Few mounds or earthworks are found east of the Alleghany Mountains,
+    north of Tennessee and North Carolina, but to my mind this is not
+    positive proof that the people who built earthworks in other places
+    did not live there. The Amerind changes his methods so completely when
+    circumstances demand, that it would <span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span>not be safe to say that those who
+    built mounds west of the Alleghany range did not live east of it. If
+    the Mokis should have migrated to Ohio in priscan days, they certainly
+    would not have built stone houses there. They would have erected mounds
+    and wooden houses, for the reason that the stone would have been
+    difficult to secure. Many tribes have readily changed from one method
+    to another in building, as pointed out in a previous chapter. With the
+    Amerind, it depends so much on circumstances what he will do in a given
+    locality. For example, the traditions of the Mokis require their kiva
+    to be under ground. This is easy in their cliff-land, but how would it
+    be in Louisiana? Even in Zuñi surface kivas are found acceptable.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter" id="i_349">
+    <img class="illowp75" src="images/i_349-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <img class="illowp75" src="images/i_349-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Photographed and described by M. H. Saville for the American Museum
+      <i>Bulletin</i>, vol. xiii., article xi., July 9, 1900<br>
+      AN ONYX JAR FROM MEXICO IN PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE<br>
+      Three-eighths natural size<br>
+      The excavating was being done by a hollow drill, probably of reed, and sand</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In Mexico there are numerous large mounds which, as noted before,
+    sustained buildings, now commonly called “temples.” “At Teotihuacan”
+    says Charnay, “the pyramid of the Sun is six hundred and eighty
+    feet at the base by one hundred and eighty feet high.... Like all
+    great pyramids they [the Sun and Moon pyramids] were divided into
+    four storeys, three of which are still visible, but the intermediate
+    gradations are almost effaced. A temple stood on the summit of the
+    large mound, having a colossal statue of the Sun, made of one single
+    block of stone.... The interior of the pyramid is composed of clay and
+    volcanic pebbles, incrusted on the surface with the light porous stone,
+    tetzontli. Over this was a thick coating of white stucco such as was
+    used for dwellings. Where the pyramid is much defaced, its incline is
+    from 31 to 36 degrees, and where the coatings of cement still adhere
+    47 degrees.”<a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> One of the largest mounds in Mexico and one of the
+    largest in North America is the Great Mound of Cholula. It is about
+    one thousand feet square at the base, of which the approximate area
+    is over twenty acres. It now has much the appearance of a natural
+    hill, surmounted by a church of modern construction. There are “three
+    distinct projections, surrounding and supporting a conical hill, and
+    separated from each other by wide depressions. The entire mass consists
+    of adobe bricks laid in adobe clay, undisturbed except where erosion,
+    earthquakes, or the hand of man have mutilated it. The bricks break
+    joints and are of various sizes.”<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> The altitude is about two
+    hundred feet. Limestone slabs were used <span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>for steps. Bandelier does not
+    ascribe it to the Aztec or Nahuatl stock which occupied the region at
+    the time of the Conquest, but to some anterior tribe.</p>
+
+  <p>It has been called a pyramid, with other mounds in Mexico and Central
+    America, but this is not a proper term for these Amerindian works.</p>
+
+  <p>They have not the character of the Egyptian pyramids, nor were they
+    constructed with the same object. The pyramids were tombs, while the
+    large Amerind mounds were <em>foundations</em> for buildings. Almost
+    every ancient building of any consequence in Mexico and adjoining
+    regions, as well as far up into the United States, stood on a mound
+    of greater or less elevation. The so-called “palace” of Palenque, in
+    which Stevens lived while studying the ruins, “stands on an artificial
+    elevation of an oblong form, forty feet high, three hundred and ten
+    feet in front and rear, and two hundred and sixty feet on each side.
+    This elevation was formerly faced with stone, which has been thrown
+    down by the growth of trees, and its form is hardly distinguishable.”
+    See illustration of a part of this palace, <a href="#Page_403">page 403</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>The chief ruins at Copan are all on a huge mound, and at Mitla the
+    edifices have mound foundations, or rather platforms. A more or less
+    elevated site for his dwelling-place or temple, whether natural or
+    artificial, seems to have been almost universal with the Amerindian
+    people from the Isthmus of Panama to British Columbia. The amount of
+    labour expended in constructing the artificial foundation platforms and
+    mounds was something prodigious.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="i_351">
+    <img src="images/i_351.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>WOODEN FOOD BOWL, HAIDA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_XIII">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_352">
+      <img src="images/i_352.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>DANCING MASK OF THE MAKAHS, WASHINGTON</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">CUSTOMS AND CEREMONIES</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">FEW Europeans can look at the world from the Amerind point of view,
+    because few know what it means to have lands free. Happy the man who
+    has trod the wilderness primeval, and tasted the world in its original
+    freshness. He alone can understand what the Amerind has lost forever.
+    When I first went into the West about thirty years ago, the regions we
+    traversed were untamed, and often we did not meet even Amerinds for
+    weeks at a time. Such a condition has its charms, and when we remember
+    that, except in the southern regions of Mexico, the native American
+    was born and bred to it, we can see that it must be a difficult matter
+    for him to suddenly change. But a few generations hence, where once he
+    scaled the cliffs, or followed the deer, he will be sitting down to
+    a course dinner in a swallow-tail coat. He has already conquered at
+    football, and the rest of the downward road will be easy for him!</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_353">
+    <img src="images/i_353.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI WICKER CRADLE WITH AWNING <span style="padding-left: 15%;">CARRYING BASKET OF THE ARIKAREES</span><br>
+      <span class="left">In the smaller figure the awning is over the bowed end</span></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Our general impression of the native American, the Amerind, is that he
+    is a kind of human demon, or wild animal, never to be trusted, unable
+    to keep a compact, always thirsting for gore; but it is a mistake. He
+    is not altogether unreliable. The Iroquois <span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span>maintained the “covenant
+    chain” with the British unbroken for a round century. The Amerind
+    never broke faith with Penn, and it is seldom that he will violate any
+    compact that he fully understands he has entered into. His daily life
+    in the earlier days was by no means bloodthirsty. Powell has truly
+    said that the scalping-knife was no more the emblem of pre-Columbian
+    society than the bayonet is of ours of the nineteenth century. In the
+    United States existence of a trifle over a hundred years have been
+    waged several long and bloody wars, one the most gigantic known to
+    history, all police records are full of horrible crimes the Amerind
+    was a stranger to, and within a year or so <em>white people</em> have
+    burned alive several victims. When anyone defends the Amerind he is
+    accused of trying to make an angel of him, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span>but this only shows again
+    how universally unjust toward him we are. We are blind to our own
+    shortcomings and exaggerate those of the Amerind. It was inevitable
+    that the weaker race should be forced to the wall, but we can at least
+    give it credit for any good that was in it without injuring ourselves.
+    In estimating their traits we do not regard them enough from their own
+    standpoint, and without so regarding them we cannot understand them.
+    The Amerind was something of a farmer, of an architect, of an engineer,
+    of a statesman, of an artist, the amount and quality of his interest
+    in these things depending, as with us, on circumstances. In most
+    localities, he achieved for all what all are with us still dreaming to
+    attain, “liberty and a living,” and his methods of government possessed
+    admirable qualities. We call him lazy and despise him for it, but many
+    of our people would not work if they could avoid it. One of Balzac’s
+    characters is made to say: “I fear God; but I am still more afraid of
+    the hell of poverty. To be without a penny is the last degree of misery
+    in our present social state.” The great philosopher here put European
+    life in a nut-shell. The Amerind was fortunate perhaps in not knowing
+    what poverty, as we understand it, is. With him the keen eye, the
+    woodman’s skill, and a generous and abundant soil gave him his daily
+    bread. The idea of piling up treasure for the satisfaction of holding
+    it did not occur to him any more than did killing of game for pleasure.
+    A tribe may have passed through famine, but the individual never knew
+    hunger in the midst of riches, as the civilised man so often meets
+    it. Not long ago a whole family wandering about the streets of New
+    York, homeless and without food, dropped from exhaustion at the corner
+    of Thirty-fourth Street and Broadway. In Amerind society, such an
+    occurrence would have been impossible. No friendly stranger ever left
+    an Amerind village hungry, if that village had a supply of food. And
+    “the hungry Indian,” says Powell, “had but to ask to receive, and this
+    no matter how small the supply or how dark the future prospect. It was
+    not only his privilege to ask, it was his right to demand.”</p>
+
+  <p>The Amerind distribution of food was based on long custom, on tribal
+    laws; food was regarded like air and water, as a necessity that should
+    in distress be without money and without price. Hospitality was a
+    law, and was everywhere observed faithfully till intercourse with the
+    methods of our race demolished it. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span>Among isolated tribes it is still
+    observed. Among the Mokis a hungry man of any colour is cheerfully fed.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_355">
+    <img src="images/i_355.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TLINKIT MAN AND WOMAN, 30 YEARS AGO, OR ABOUT 1870<br>
+      “The labret, a small cylinder of silver with a broad head, is the
+      modern style of lip ornament, differing materially from the large ones
+      worn until a few years ago.”—Niblack<br>
+      Many tribes wore lip, nose, and ear ornaments</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>We cannot seriously condemn the Amerind for not jumping at the
+    opportunity to tie himself to the plough, or to the ledger, or the
+    grindstone. He was, as a rule, close to Nature, and like all men who
+    live thus he imbibed some of her grandeur. He lived in independence;
+    and when he died, he died as the sun sets at evening, expiring in
+    glory, without a tear, without lamentations. In the hands of the enemy
+    at the stake, his passing away was sublime, like the summer cloud that
+    sails steadily out into the infinite blue and dissolves. The most
+    painful tortures failed to bring a moan to his lips, or a tear to his
+    defiant eye, and his proud spirit departed in silence. An offer of
+    liberty was frequently refused. Charnay tells of a Tlaxcaltec chief, of
+    great fame as a warrior, who was captured and who, on being recognised,
+    was offered his freedom. He refused to accept it and desired to be
+    devoted to the gods, as was the custom. He was tied to the gladiatorial
+    stone, where he killed eight warriors and wounded twenty others before
+    being overpowered and offered up to the war-god.</p>
+
+  <p>The habit of mind and body of dense commercial populations tends toward
+    degeneration because it is a concentration in one line. The Western
+    mountaineer exhibits the effect of removal from trade considerations
+    in a repose of manner and a tranquillity of nerves which strongly
+    suggest the Amerind. “There are incommensurable differences,” says
+    Balzac, “between the man who mingles with others and him who dwells
+    with Nature. Once captured, Toussaint Louverture died without uttering
+    a word, while Napoleon on his rock chattered like a magpie.”</p>
+
+  <p>Freedom of limb and strength of mind eliminated much disease from the
+    native races. Deformity amongst Amerinds was rare. There were seldom
+    cases of diseased spine, blindness, insanity, squinting eyes, deafness,
+    or any deficiency or excess of the organs.<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> Sitting Bull was a
+    fine specimen of the Amerind, and he was a man of great ability. Such
+    men could not be enslaved, and from the first the European efforts to
+    reduce the red race to slavery were failures. They held their own in
+    most localities, and often compelled governments to treat with them
+    as with a sovereign power. Where the treaties were kept by the other
+    side the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span>Amerind seldom violated them. Penn never had any difficulty
+    because he treated the Amerinds fairly and honourably. Oñate, in his
+    long journey across Arizona, had no conflict with the natives, but
+    found them without exception friendly, and this was the experience of
+    other explorers who were just. The native was a child. He expected
+    absolute fidelity and truthfulness from the whites, though he did
+    not always give this in return; once let him detect prevarication or
+    deceit, and his confidence vanished. He never forgave a white man for
+    talking “crooked,” and those who have been invariably truthful and
+    honourable toward him have commanded trust and respect. I know two men
+    who had great influence over the Navajos because they had always been
+    fair and just to them. “We call them cruel,” says George Bancroft, “yet
+    they never invented the thumb-screw, or the boot, or the rack, or broke
+    on the wheel, or exiled bands of their nations for opinion’s sake;
+    and never protected the monopoly of a medicine man by the gallows, or
+    the block, or by fire. There is not a quality belonging to the white
+    man which did not also belong to the American savage; there is not
+    among the aborigines a rule of language, a custom, or an institution
+    which when considered in its principle has not a counterpart among
+    their conquerors.”<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> Throughout the continent there was a general
+    homogeneity of customs and ceremonies which separates the Amerindian
+    races from the rest of the world, and argues an immense period of
+    isolation from all other people.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="i_357">
+    <img src="images/i_357.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A PAWNEE IN BATTLE ARRAY</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Some tribes have become civilised, like the Iroquois, the Cherokees,
+    and the Choctaws. Some tribes of Arizona and the contiguous regions are
+    at the other end of the scale, living a rude life, even for Amerinds,
+    and subsisting on uncultivated products of the soil, like piñon nuts,
+    fruits of cactus and yucca, “<i>yant</i>,” a kind of agave, and seeds
+    of grasses, as well as on what game the sterile region affords. The
+    grass seeds are, some of them, large and fat, and make nutritious
+    food. Many tribes cultivated a grain that has no superior in the world
+    for its yield, its ease of cultivation, and its nutritious qualities.
+    This was maize, or Indian corn, which grows in new ground with little
+    attention, and can be dried and stored indefinitely. No machinery was
+    required to separate it from the husk, and it was easily reduced to
+    meal or flour between two stones or in a mortar. Nor did it even need
+    to be <span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span>ground, but, roasted in pits, or prepared in other ways, it
+    offered a palatable and nutritious food, even before the ripening.
+    Dried, or parched, it was carried on journeys, and dried venison added
+    to it made a strengthening diet. There were, besides, other foods,
+    like beans, squashes, native fruits and berries, and nuts. Nor was the
+    native without beverages, some of them intoxicating; the <i>pulque</i>,
+    or <i>octli</i> of the Mexicans, extracted from the maguey, being a
+    well-known example. There are many varieties of this drink, though all
+    are made in the same way. In the spring the central part of the plant
+    is removed, leaving a cup-like cavity which fills up with juice, that
+    is taken out from time to time, and put into a kind of vat made of hide
+    stretched on four poles. After fermentation, bitter herbs are added.
+    <i>Mezcal</i> is another drink made from a smaller kind of maguey. It
+    is a colourless, brandy-like liquid, produced by distillation since
+    the Conquest, but before that made by boiling, just as the Comanches
+    make it to-day.<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> The Kaivavits and Uinkarets made a kind of wine
+    out of the fruit of the cactus. The fruit was put into a cloth and the
+    juice squeezed out. This was then allowed to ferment, and I was told
+    produced intoxication, though I never observed this result. The cake
+    resulting from the process was consumed as food, being sliced down like
+    bread, and eaten without further preparation. The Pimas and Maricopas,
+    after drying cactus fruit in the sun, macerate it in water, and after
+    fermentation get drunk on the compound.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_359">
+    <img src="images/i_359.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE KWAKIUTL WOLF DANCE CALLED WĀLASAXA, NORTH-WEST COAST</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><em>Tortillas</em> were made of maize, “shelled and soaked in an alkali
+    to remove the hull, then repeatedly washed in cold water.”<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a>
+    This product was then ground on a metate, beaten into flat cakes,
+    and baked on an earthen griddle called <i>comalli</i>. <i>Tiste</i>
+    was parched corn ground with chocolate and sugar and mixed with
+    water. <i>Atolli</i> was a drink made of cornmeal cooked in water.
+    <i>Chocolatl</i> was prepared “by grinding equal parts of cacao beans
+    and seeds of <i>pochotl</i> or <i>sequoia</i>, which were then boiled.
+    This liquid was shaken up to make it frothy, mixed with dough made of
+    maize and then submitted to a new cooking to thicken it.”<a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a></p>
+
+  <p>No tribe learned to use the milk of any animal. The bison was about the
+    only native animal that offered any. In the whisky of the whites they
+    found their fate, and this has done more than any <span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span>other single cause
+    except smallpox to destroy the race. For it they exchanged tobacco, and
+    the white man smokes as the Amerind drinks.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_361">
+    <img src="images/i_361.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>UTE WOMAN CARRYING CHILD</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Beckwourth, referring to the trading of the mixture of alcohol and
+    water called whisky on the frontier in his day, to the natives,
+    remarks: “This trading whisky for Indian property is one of the most
+    infernal practices ever entered into by man. Let the reader sit down
+    and figure up the profits on a forty-gallon cask of alcohol, and he
+    will be thunderstruck, or, rather, whisky-struck. When disposed of,
+    four gallons of water are added to each gallon of alcohol. In two
+    hundred gallons there are sixteen hundred pints, for each one of which
+    the trader gets a buffalo robe <span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>worth five dollars! The Indian women
+    toil many long weeks to dress these sixteen hundred robes. The white
+    trader gets them all for worse than nothing, for the poor Indian
+    mother hides herself and children in the forests until the effect of
+    the poison passes away <span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span>from the husbands, fathers, and brothers who
+    love them when they have no whisky, and abuse and kill them when they
+    have.... In short, the sixty gallons of fire-water realised to the
+    company over eleven hundred robes and eighteen horses, worth in St.
+    Louis six thousand dollars.”<a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_362">
+    <img src="images/i_362.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">George Catlin</div>
+    <figcaption>KEOKUK, A SAUK CHIEF</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>These were the honourable methods employed by the fur companies. They
+    secured from the Amerinds thousands on thousands of dollars’ worth of
+    valuable property for, as Beckwourth says, “worse than nothing,” and
+    no man knew better than he the fearful effect of the fire-water on the
+    native. To-day there are a great many white men engaged in the same
+    traffic, despite the government’s efforts to crush it out. And still we
+    cannot understand why the “Indian has degenerated”!</p>
+
+  <p>A Cheyenne chief said: “White man, I have given you my robes, which my
+    warriors have spent months in hunting, and which my women have slaved
+    a whole year in dressing; and what do you give me in return? I have
+    nothing. You give me fire-water, which makes me and my people mad; and
+    it is gone, and we have nothing to hunt more buffalo with, and to fight
+    our enemies.”<a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a></p>
+
+  <p>I never saw an Amerind smoke as much tobacco in a week as I have seen
+    Americans or English smoke in a single day. Tobacco and the pipe were
+    part of the Amerindian religious paraphernalia. The pipe seems not to
+    have been much used for ordinary smoking among the Nahuatl or Mexican
+    tribes, nor among the sedentary tribes of our South-west. They used
+    the cigarette chiefly, leaving the pipe for ceremonials, while the
+    West Indian tribes rolled the leaf up for smoking. Many Eastern tribes
+    cultivated tobacco extensively and were able to sell it to traders. It
+    was generally mixed with other leaves and bark for smoking, and among
+    the Eskimo with wood. The exact place of the pipe in the ceremonials of
+    the Eastern tribes is not yet thoroughly understood, but its function
+    was always an important one.<a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> Among the Iroquois, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span>when the horizon
+    was filled with “thunderheads,” or “sons of thunder,” in a period of
+    drought, it was a custom to burn tobacco, as an offering to bring rain.
+    Each family made an offering on its secret altar to Hinu<sup>n</sup>, God of
+    Thunder, and then bore a portion to the council-house, where a general
+    offering was burned in the council fire. “While the tobacco was burning
+    the agile and athletic danced the rain dance.”<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a></p>
+
+  <p>The Eskimo of Alaska, it is asserted, will eat with relish the oily
+    refuse from the bottom of a pipe, and they are also fond of the
+    ashes of tobacco. The smoke is deeply inhaled by them, as by all the
+    tribes. Among the Arikarees a special pipe was kept in a “bird box.”
+    Any criminal or enemy who could reach this box and smoke the pipe was
+    free from molestation. This right of asylum is noticed in other ways.
+    It is said that the first whites who came among the Apaches, tired
+    and hungry, were not molested by them. Everywhere, if an enemy were
+    permitted to smoke the pipe or partake of food with the Amerinds he
+    was absolutely safe for the time being, both because of the pipe and
+    because the law of hospitality was never violated. If Macbeth had been
+    an Amerind no blood would have been shed on that fatal night, and
+    Duncan would have passed unharmed beyond the castle walls. The pipe was
+    the invariable accompaniment of all councils and treaties among Eastern
+    tribes, and it was the emblem of peace. Each village had its calumet,
+    a pipe of peace made of sacred pipe-stone, and whoever travelled with
+    it, passed, even among the enemy, with impunity. Envoys coming within
+    a short distance of the town would utter a cry and seat themselves on
+    the ground. “The great chief,” says George Bancroft, “bearing the peace
+    pipe of his tribe, with its mouth pointing to the skies, goes forth to
+    meet them, accompanied by a long procession of his clansmen, chanting
+    the hymn of peace. The strangers rise to receive them, singing also
+    a song, to put away all wars and to bury all revenge. As they meet,
+    each party smokes the pipe of the other, and peace is ratified. The
+    strangers are then conducted to the village; the herald goes out into
+    the street that divides the wigwams, and makes repeated proclamation
+    that the guests are friends; and the glory of the tribe is advanced by
+    the profusion of bear’s meat, and flesh of dogs, and hominy, which give
+    magnificence to the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>banquets in honour of the embassy.”<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> Thus
+    would a war terminate. In beginning it among Eastern tribes, various
+    ceremonies preceded the departure of the warriors, especially the
+    war dance or scalp dance and accompanying songs, expressing contempt
+    for death and certainty of victory. Beckwourth remarks: “When war is
+    declared on any tribe, it is done by the council.<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> If any party
+    goes out without authority of the council, they are all severely
+    whipped; and their whipping is no light matter, as I can personally
+    testify. It makes no difference how high the offender ranks, or how
+    great his popularity with the nation—there is no favour shown; the man
+    who disobeys orders is bound to be lashed, and if he resists or resents
+    the punishment, he suffers death.”<a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> Faces were variously decorated
+    for the warpath; and sometimes when a tribe is full of anger and
+    resentment, but not engaged in actual war, they will paint themselves
+    strangely. Once I was among the Shevwits of Arizona (1875) when they
+    were nursing their wrath against the Mormons, and the faces of the men
+    were painted in a way that perhaps seemed terrible to them, but which
+    was laughable to me. Some had the face divided into three or four
+    sections by different colours, for example: forehead white; left side
+    of face, black; right side, red; with lines of each colour over the
+    others. Ordinarily the number of wounds received in battle is recorded
+    by streaks of vermilion.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_365">
+    <img src="images/i_365.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>SHRINE OF THE WAR-GODS, TWIN MOUNTAIN, PUEBLO OF ZUÑI, NEW MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Before the acquisition of firearms and the horse, and the crowding
+    back of tribe against tribe by the whites, wars were in some parts
+    rather infrequent. Night attacks were never made. Captives were
+    often compelled to run the gauntlet, and if they did it bravely they
+    were adopted into the tribe. Frequently a captive was given his life
+    without this ordeal if he would join the tribe of the captors and fill
+    the place of some slain warrior. Cooper utilises this custom where
+    Deerslayer is offered his liberty if he will take the wife and family
+    of one he has killed and become a member of the tribe. Such adoption
+    always rested, however, on the consent of the kindred of the deceased.
+    The war-gods were propitiated by acts of cruelty, and by human
+    sacrifices from among the prisoners. It is related by Bancroft<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a>
+    that on one <span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span>occasion the Iroquois sacrificed an Algonquin woman,
+    exclaiming, “Areskoni, to thee we burn this victim; feast on her
+    flesh and grant us new victories.” Her flesh was afterwards eaten as
+    a religious rite. Cannibalism of this kind prevailed in many tribes;
+    <em>always, ostensibly</em>, a religious ceremony, not a means of
+    satisfying hunger. The victims were often richly feasted and generously
+    treated for some time before being executed. Payne holds that the Aztec
+    custom of consuming captives at religious feasts was in reality a
+    means of procuring animal food resulting from the limited meat supply,
+    and that perpetual war was waged mainly to obtain prisoners for this
+    purpose.<a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> Prescott says: “Indeed the great object of war, with the
+    Aztecs, was quite as much to gather victims for their sacrifices as to
+    extend their empire.”<a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="i_367">
+    <img src="images/i_367.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A COSTUME OF A HĀMATSA IN THE KWAKIUTL CANNIBALISTIC
+      CEREMONY, WHERE SLAVES AND CORPSES WERE FORMERLY DEVOURED<br>
+      The head and neck rings were from his mother’s tribe, the Tongass (Tlinkit)</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp60" id="i_368">
+    <img src="images/i_368.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MEXICAN OPERATING THE PALM-DRILL FOR FIRE<br>
+      Fac-simile outline of an original Mexican painting presented to the
+      University of Oxford by Archbishop Sand</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>One of the great ceremonials of the Aztecs was the obtaining of the
+    “new-fire,” admirably described by Prescott, according to his custom.
+    “On the evening of the last day, a procession of the priests, assuming
+    the dress and ornaments of their gods, moved from the capital towards
+    a lofty mountain, about two leagues distant. They carried with them
+    a noble victim, the flower of their captives, and an apparatus for
+    kindling the new-fire, the success of which was an augury of the
+    renewal of the cycle. On reaching the summit of the mountain, the
+    procession paused till midnight; when as the constellation of the
+    Pleiades approached the zenith, the new-fire was kindled by the
+    friction of the sticks placed on the wounded breast of the victim. The
+    flame was soon communicated to a funeral pile, on which the body of
+    the slaughtered captive was thrown. As the light streamed up towards
+    heaven, shouts of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span>joy and triumph burst forth from the countless
+    multitudes who covered the hills, the terraces of the temples, and
+    the house-tops, with eyes bent anxiously on the mount of sacrifice.
+    Couriers, with torches lighted at the blazing beacon, rapidly bore
+    them over every part of the country; and the cheering element was
+    seen brightening on altar and hearth-stone, for the circuit of many
+    a league, long before the sun, rising on his accustomed track, gave
+    assurance that a new cycle had commenced its march and that the laws of
+    nature were not to be reversed for the Aztecs.”<a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_369">
+    <img src="images/i_369.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ZUÑI WOMAN CARRYING WATER<br>
+      Shows also style of moccasin and leg wrapping worn by Puebloan and
+      Navajo women</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>New-fire was also obtained by friction, with the Aztecs, once each
+    year, and once each four years, as well as at the fifty-two year
+    cycle. In Arkansas it was produced every year. On a certain day, “as
+    the sun began to decline the fires were extinguished in every hut,
+    and universal silence reigned.”<a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> A priest next produced fire by
+    friction. “It was then brought out of the temple in an earthen dish and
+    placed upon an altar that had been previously prepared in the square.
+    Its appearance brought joy to the hearts of the people as it was
+    supposed to atone for all past crimes except murder. A general amnesty
+    was proclaimed except for this one crime, and all malefactors might now
+    return to their villages in safety.”<a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> The Mokis still produce the
+    new-fire each November.<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Sacrifices to the gods were made by the Mayas at the sacred
+    <i>cenoté</i> of Chichen Itza, and similar places.<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> This sacred
+    well was one of the openings to the subterranean waters of Yucatan, and
+    was about one hundred and fifty feet in diameter and sixty-five feet
+    deep from the brink to the surface of the water, with perpendicular
+    sides. Pilgrims came here to make offerings and Landa states that
+    in time of drought they would cast live men into it as a tribute to
+    the gods, believing that though they disappeared they would not die.
+    Valuable property was also thrown in and still lies with the bones at
+    the bottom. Charnay tried to work some automatic sounding machines
+    there, but he failed to obtain satisfactory results. Among the Aztecs
+    a person to be sacrificed was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span>extended full length over a convex
+    stone, and the priest with a long obsidian knife made a gash in the
+    breast through which he extracted the living heart and laid it at
+    the feet of the idol. Parts of the victim were afterward served at
+    a grand ceremonial banquet. “Forty days previous to the festival of
+    Quetzalcohuatl,” says Bandelier, “a slave was selected, who must be
+    in perfect health and of faultless body. He was dressed in the same
+    manner as the idol, and, after having been carefully bathed, and kept
+    in ‘honourable confinement,’ as an object of worship for that length
+    of time, he was sacrificed at midnight. The heart was tendered to the
+    moon, and afterwards thrown at the idol, and the body cut up, cooked
+    and publicly devoured.”<a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> In times of drought children from six to
+    ten years old were offered up; they were not eaten, but buried before
+    the idol. The priests who officiated were medicine-men, or shamans.
+    Every tribe on the continent had shamans. These individuals held a
+    peculiar power, and among tribes known to us now they still exercise
+    it. Even among the Christian Pueblos of New Mexico, the authority of
+    the shaman has not altogether waned and ancient rites are said to be
+    still enacted in secret. For some of these it is believed rattlesnakes
+    have been carefully guarded for years. “Among Indians,” Mooney
+    states,<a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> “the professions of medicine and religion are inseparable.
+    The doctor is always a priest and the priest is always a doctor. Hence
+    to the whites in the Indian country the Indian priest-doctor has come
+    to be known as the ‘medicine-man’ and anything sacred, mysterious, or
+    of wonderful power or efficacy in Indian life or belief is designated
+    as ‘medicine,’ this term being the nearest equivalent of the aboriginal
+    expression in various languages. To make ‘medicine’ is to perform some
+    sacred ceremony, from the curing of a sick child to the consecration
+    of the Sun-dance lodge.” An Iroquois student states,<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> that, “among
+    the Indians, the knowledge of the medicine-man and the more expert
+    sorceress is little above that of the body of the tribe. Their success
+    depends entirely on their own belief in being supernaturally gifted and
+    on the faith and fear of their followers. I do not <span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span>believe that the
+    Iroquois lives to-day who is not a believer in sorcery, or who would
+    not in the night time quail at seeing a bright light the nature of
+    which he did not understand.”</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_372">
+    <img src="images/i_372.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>UTE CRADLE, FRAME OF RODS COVERED WITH BUCKSKIN<br>
+      Carried on the back. In principle the majority of Amerind cradles are similar</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The functions and powers of the shamans or medicine-men have never
+    been completely understood, but over the sick they carried on various
+    incantations and administered decoctions of native vegetable and animal
+    substances. Powell defines a shaman as “a person who has the power to
+    control ghosts through magic.” They mortified their own flesh and the
+    priests of Mexico would pierce their tongues and draw through the wound
+    thus formed a long knotted cord, or twigs fastened together, or a cord
+    set with some animal’s claws or teeth. Speaking of Mexico, Prescott
+    says:<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span></p>
+  <p>“In no country, not even in ancient Egypt, were the dreams of the
+    astrologer more implicitly deferred to. On the birth of a child he was
+    instantly summoned. The time of the event was accurately ascertained,
+    and the family hung in trembling suspense as the minister of Heaven
+    cast the horoscope of the infant and unrolled the dark volume of
+    destiny. The influence of the priest was confessed by the Mexican in
+    the first breath which he inhaled.” Other tribes were not behind.
+    In some the shamans were hereditary, but it would seem that their
+    selection and appointment were due to various regulations existing
+    in the secret orders and also to a reputation for the possession of
+    occult power. Some writers hold that the shamans are self appointed,
+    but this does not seem to correspond with the intricacies of the
+    Amerindian social organisation. Powell adopts the Algonquin name for
+    them, <i>jossakeeds</i>, and describes them as the head men of the
+    fraternities. Whatever he may do to obtain his supposed magical powers,
+    it would appear reasonable to believe that so prominent a functionary
+    as this shaman, or jossakeed, would require in the beginning to be
+    a man of some distinction, or special initiation. In making such
+    decoctions as he used the shaman boiled various plants together with
+    a stone arrow-head, or similar article. Out of twenty plants used by
+    the Cherokees, only seven are noted in the United States Dispensatory.
+    “Five plants or 25 per cent.,” says Mooney, “are correctly used; 12
+    or 60 per cent. are presumably either worthless or incorrectly used,
+    and three plants or 15 per cent. are so used that it is difficult
+    to say whether they are of any benefit or not. Granting that two of
+    these three produce good results as used by the Indians, we should
+    have 35 per cent., or about one third of the whole, as the proportion
+    actually possessing medical virtues, while the remaining two thirds
+    are inert, if not positively injurious.” “For a disease caused by the
+    rabbit the antidote must be a plant called ‘rabbit’s food,’ ‘rabbit’s
+    ear,’ or ‘rabbit’s tail’; for snake dreams, the plant used is ‘snake’s
+    tooth,’” and so on, “an empiric development of the fetich idea.”<a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a>
+    No sanitary precautions were taken during the treatment except fasting.
+    When the patient eats, certain kinds of food are forbidden, but on the
+    ground of some fancied connection between the disease and the food. If
+    squirrels are supposed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span>to be at the root of the trouble, the patient
+    is prohibited from eating squirrel meat.<a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_374-1">
+      <img src="images/i_374-1.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>ESKIMO WOMAN OF POINT BARROW CARRYING CHILD<br>
+        Photograph by Capt. Healy, U.&nbsp;S. R. M.</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_374-2">
+      <img src="images/i_374-2.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>APACHE WOMAN CARRYING CHILD<br>
+        Shows also moccasins and leg wrappings similar to the Puebloan and Navajo</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The sweat bath was, and is, the great cure-all among the Amerinds,
+    except the Central and Eastern Eskimo. It was also a means of religious
+    purification. Sometimes the sweat house was a large structure, but
+    usually it was only large enough to hold one or two persons in a
+    squatting posture, and was constructed of poles covered with skins,
+    blankets, or earth. The patient entered and those outside heated stones
+    and passed them in to him by means of sticks. Water or some decoction
+    was then poured over the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span>stones and the opening closed. Profuse
+    perspiration was the result. At the proper time, if a stream were near,
+    the patient would run out and plunge in; otherwise cold water was
+    poured over him. This was the chief remedy for smallpox, which has made
+    such ravages in all tribes, but of course it was ineffective. The sweat
+    lodge and the sweat bath connected with it must not be confounded, as
+    is often the case, with the <i>estufa</i>, (or <i>kiva</i>). The latter
+    has no connection with the sweat bath, but is an entirely different
+    thing, the confusion arising from the Spanish term, which means a
+    hothouse, derived from the fact that the kivas are kept stiflingly
+    close and hot in winter.</p>
+
+  <p>Most Amerinds believe that all living things, even trees, once had
+    human shape, and “have been transformed, for punishment or otherwise,
+    into their present condition.” They had no understanding of a single
+    “Great Spirit” till the Europeans, often unconsciously, informed them
+    of their own belief.</p>
+
+  <p>The Iroquois in many ways were the finest Amerinds of all. Brinton
+    says, “unsurpassed by any other on the continent [physically], and I
+    may even say by any other people in the world.”<a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> “In legislation,
+    in eloquence, in fortitude and in military sagacity they had no
+    equals,” says Morgan.<a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> He also maintains that they represented
+    “the highest development the Indian ever reached in the hunter state.”
+    “Crimes and offences were so unfrequent under their social system that
+    the Iroquois can scarcely be said to have had a criminal code.” Theft
+    was barely known, and “on all occasions, and at whatever price, the
+    Iroquois spoke the truth without fear and without hesitation.”<a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a>
+    The Iroquois, Algonquins, and other stocks carried on a considerable
+    commerce with far-distant points. “The red pipe-stone was brought to
+    the Atlantic coast from the Coteau des Prairies, and even the black
+    slate highly ornamented pipes of the Haidah on Vancouver Island have
+    been exhumed from graves of Lenapé Indians.”<a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> The wide extent of
+    Amerindian commercial traffic has hardly been appreciated.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp60" id="i_376">
+    <img src="images/i_376.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photograph (reversed)</div>
+    <figcaption>MOKI “SNAKE DANCE” AT WALPI<br>
+      Snake priests in action</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The religion of most of the Amerinds was zoötheism—that is, their gods
+    were deified men and animals. The heavenly bodies, personified as
+    men and animals, also formed a part of their galaxy. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span>Their worship
+    of these various deities, who were believed to control each his
+    division of human affairs and earthly phenomena, was through numerous
+    ceremonials, many of them embodying their form of dancing, and called
+    by the whites “dances,” though this term fails properly to describe
+    them. Often there is very little dancing, and even that has a minor
+    part. The ceremonials take place at all times and seasons, many being
+    as absolutely fixed to a certain date as our own holidays or church
+    celebrations. The Eastern tribes had ceremonials on tapping the maple
+    trees, and others for the close of the maple-sugar season. There were
+    also the Corn-Planting Festival, the Strawberry Festival, the Bean
+    Festival, and the famous Green Corn Dance of the Iroquois, followed
+    by the Harvest Dance. Some ceremonials occur in their perfection only
+    at specified intervals, as the Snake Dance of the Mokis, which, while
+    performed annually at some one of the towns, is seen in its full glory
+    only once every two years at the village of Walpi. This now famous
+    ceremonial, in which a hundred or more rattlesnakes are used alive,
+    covers altogether a period of nine days, including the search for the
+    snakes, as well as rites performed in the kiva. It is only on the
+    last two days that there are public ceremonies. Spectators who are
+    known or have a proper introduction are sometimes allowed to visit a
+    kiva when it is reserved by the order owning or controlling it; at
+    other times a visitor is generally freely admitted. During my stay in
+    the Moki country I never was barred from any place that I desired to
+    enter; though it may have happened that I never tried to enter at a
+    time when outsiders were forbidden. The snakes are brought out of the
+    kiva by one set of priests, or shamans, and dropped on <span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span>the ground
+    to be picked up by another set with much ceremony. At the end all
+    the snakes are carried to the valley and liberated to return through
+    their holes to the underworld, there to communicate the desires of
+    the people to the gods. The towns of the Mokis on the East Mesa are
+    now frequently visited by whites, but Oraibi and the others are not
+    so often approached. When I went to Oraibi, in 1885, we were followed
+    about by a band of curious small boys, and the women peered at us from
+    the roof hatchways, quickly ducking out of sight if one of us happened
+    to look their way. The men declined to talk except in monosyllables,
+    and I am free to confess that it was a relief to finally mount and ride
+    away. Oraibi has never had a reputation for hospitality. From there we
+    went to Shimopavi, where our reception was exactly the reverse of what
+    it had been at Oraibi, and I shall always remember with pleasure the
+    frank, genial, smiling men who received us in one of the chief kivas,
+    and the alacrity with which a clean repast of watermelon and piki was
+    brought and placed before us. This only shows what a difference in
+    manners may exist in the divisions of one tribe, and how easy it would
+    be to denounce all the Mokis as being surly and ugly, if one saw only
+    the Oraibi branch.</p>
+
+  <div class="col50t">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_377">
+    <img src="images/i_377-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Sixth Ann. Rept., Pl. V.<br>
+      Drawings by the Central Eskimo. See <a href="#Page_59">page 59</a>.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50t">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85">
+    <img src="images/i_377-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. XXXVIII.<br>
+      <p class="hang">Page of the Dakota Winter-Counts, also called by them “Counts
+        Back.” See <a href="#Page_60">page 60</a>.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50t">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90">
+    <img src="images/i_377-3.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. LXIII.<br>
+      Page from Red Cloud’s Census, Dakota.<br>See <a href="#Page_60">page 60</a>.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50t">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85">
+    <img src="images/i_377-4.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. IV.<br>
+      Ojibwa Mnemonic Record of a Midē Song.<br>See <a href="#Page_58">page 58</a>.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="center small bold mb5">AMERINDIAN PICTURE-WRITING</div>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp70" id="i_378">
+    <img src="images/i_378.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photograph (reversed)</div>
+    <figcaption>BEGINNING OF THE MOKI “SNAKE DANCE” AT WALPI<br>
+      Antelope priests lined up<br>
+      This scene precedes the one on <a href="#Page_376">page 376</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>A simple occurrence means to the superstitious mind of the Amerind
+    a great deal. In illustration of this I may mention that two men I
+    knew were one day at one of the Moki towns and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span>carelessly entered a
+    kiva where the preparing and blessing of certain sacred water were in
+    progress. When they had departed, a frightened rock-wren fluttered in.
+    This was accepted as an evil omen. The bird was immediately killed and
+    some of its blood sprinkled over the floor of the kiva. Then it was
+    taken to the first house the whites had entered when they arrived at
+    the town, and more blood sprinkled wherever they had stood. After this
+    the bird’s body was carefully laid outside, near the door.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus the struggles of a dazed bird are considered by these people a
+    portentous circumstance.</p>
+
+  <p>The dancing of the Amerinds is everywhere much alike, and it is
+    generally performed in a circle. It has been described as a heel dance,
+    and with some tribes is apparently that because they seem to strike
+    the ground only with the heel, but it is usually a toe-and-heel step,
+    the toe first touching and then the heel being brought down with more
+    or less force. When rapidly done the separate touching of the toe
+    is hardly noticeable. The movement of the circle is commonly from
+    left to right, and during this progress various contortions are gone
+    through with, more or less violently according to the intensity of
+    the occasion. In the remarkable <i>Okeepa</i> ceremony of the Sioux
+    fearful tortures were submitted to, and sometimes a bison skull was
+    dragged around by means of ropes attached to skewers thrust through the
+    bodies and limbs of the performers. They were also pulled aloft in the
+    dancing-lodge by these skewers, and the pain was often so intense that
+    the devotee would faint. (See <a href="#i_382">page 382</a>.) When Catlin first described
+    this ceremonial and its ordeals it was received with doubt, but it has
+    since been seen by others and fully authenticated. It is, of course,
+    not possible to more than touch on the customs and ceremonies of the
+    Amerinds in this short chapter. A large volume would be required to
+    exhibit even a quarter part of the details.</p>
+
+  <p>The ceremonials<a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> of the Pueblos are marked by elaborately costumed
+    katcinas,<a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> but perhaps not more so than those of other tribes.
+    Those of the North-west coast are full of strange costumes <span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span>also, and
+    the plains tribes executed their wild scalp dance, bear dance, buffalo
+    dance, etc., in costumes that were as singular as the dance itself.
+    In the ceremony of the Mokis called Soyaita or Somaikoli, I counted
+    sixteen different katcinas with extraordinary costumes weighing them
+    down, except one who wore nothing but a round bullet-like mask and a
+    breech-cloth. The others were so loaded that it was nearly impossible
+    to recognise in them human beings. The preparations for a ceremonial
+    occupy a week or two beforehand. One evening, some time before the
+    public performance of the Somaikoli, as I was walking from one village
+    to the other on the East Mesa, I was about half way when I suddenly
+    became aware of a hideous yelling ahead of me, and discovered the
+    flaring of torches in the darkness. There being no rock, tree, or shrub
+    near, I was fully illumined by the glare as the torches approached.
+    Then I saw six stalwart fellows, entirely nude, except for the
+    breech-cloth, though it was a chilly night in November. I paused to
+    await results, as I perceived they meant to come tip with me. I could
+    not understand their object. They were marching in single file. When
+    they saw that I was not a native, but the solitary white visitor to
+    the mesa who lived at Hano, they grinned and passed on without a word.
+    What they would have done with one of their people I do not know, but I
+    heard afterwards that they captured anyone they found out and kept them
+    in one of the kivas till the day of the public ceremony. At any rate,
+    I found that everybody took care to be indoors on this night between
+    certain hours. The mysteries of the different secret orders are not
+    known to outsiders, not even if members of the tribe.<a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_380">
+    <img src="images/i_380.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HORNED RATTLESNAKE, CROTALUS CERASTES<br>
+        <p class="hang">Commonly called “Sidewinder” because of its sidling motion.
+          Inhabits desert plains and valleys of Southern Arizona,
+          California, and Nevada, and south-western Utah. One killed by
+          the author in 1875 was about three ft. long. The rattlesnake
+          was identified with religious ceremonials of most of the tribes
+          from Ohio to Central America</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Photographs and paintings were considered “bad-medicine” by most
+    tribes, and I had no success whatever in persuading the Mokis to pose
+    for me when I was there. One who finally consented ran away when it
+    came to the test. I was permitted to use my snap-camera and to sketch
+    buildings freely, but when it came to painting persons they rebelled.
+    They believed that the possessor of a likeness held power over the
+    person represented.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_382">
+    <img src="images/i_382.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">From a painting by George Catlin, 1832</div>
+    <figcaption>THE OKEEPA CEREMONY OF THE MANDANS, LASTING FOUR DAYS
+      <p class="hang">“A number of the young men are seen (inside the Mystery Lodge)
+          reclining and fasting ... others are yet seen in the midst of
+          those horrid cruelties. One is seen smiling whilst the knife
+          and the splints are passing through his flesh. One is seen
+          hanging by the splints run through the flesh on his shoulders
+          and drawn up by men on the top of the lodge. Another is seen
+          hung up by the pectoral muscles with four buffalo skulls
+          attached to splints through the flesh on his arms and legs; and
+          each is turned round by another with a pole till he faints,
+          etc.”—Catlin’s <i>Eight Years</i>, vol. i; also <i>Smithsonian
+          Report</i>, 1895, p. 362</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp15" id="i_383">
+    <img src="images/i_383.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE SACRED POLE OF THE OMAHA<br>
+      Now in the Peabody Museum</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Murder in most tribes was settled by property atonement, or by the
+    assumption by the guilty one of the victim’s duties, and when <span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span>once
+    settled the matter could never again be reopened. No controversy was
+    ever permitted, and to terminate it there were three methods: 1. When
+    controversy arises in relation to ownership, the property is usually
+    destroyed by the clan or by the tribal authorities. This is one
+    reason why property is found buried with Amerinds. By thus disposing
+    of it all controversy is avoided. Or the property may be completely
+    abandoned by all concerned, as in the case mentioned by Powell, where
+    a war party of Sioux surprised and killed a squad of sleeping soldiers
+    at the first volley. “Their arms, blankets, and other property were
+    untouched because the attacking party being large, it could not be
+    decided by whose bullets the soldiers were slain.” 2. If two persons
+    come to blows, it is, unless serious injury be done, considered a final
+    settlement. Appeal to authority is thereby forever barred in that
+    matter. 3. Establishment of a day or festival once a month, usually
+    once a year, beyond which crimes do not pass. Marriage is by what is
+    called legal appointment. In this way controversy over the women of
+    a tribe is largely avoided, for little is left to personal choice.
+    But kinship groups allowed to intermarry do not remain stationary in
+    numbers, hence, one set of men may have many wives to choose from,
+    another few, which, says Powell, leads to modification of the principle
+    and three additional forms of marriage are the result, by elopement,
+    by capture, and by duel. That is, if a pair elope and can evade their
+    pursuers till the day limiting controversy has passed, they are safe
+    from molestation. We once met an interesting example of this class in
+    the Uinta Valley, Utah, and with our boats put the runaways across
+    Green River, thus obliterating their trail, though at the time we did
+    not so well understand the situation. A group of men who have but a
+    limited class to choose wives from sometimes combine to capture for one
+    of their number a wife from some other group within their own tribe.
+    A fight is often the result, but without weapons. A <span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span>second battle
+    for the same woman at that time is not permitted.<a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> Or one man, if
+    he feel strong enough, may deprive some other fellow in his own tribe
+    of his wife. In southern Utah, Tom came to our camp one night weeping
+    bitterly, and when I could get at his statement it was to the effect
+    that someone had deprived him of his wife. Our men were indignant and
+    wished to proceed forthwith to the Amerind camp and compel the thief to
+    restore the wife to Tom, but they finally decided to abandon him to the
+    established customs of his people.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_384">
+    <img src="images/i_384.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photographed by Saville</div>
+    <figcaption>CRUCIFORM STONE TOMB, OAXACA
+      <p class="hang">This tomb, recently discovered and excavated by Saville, is one of
+        the remarkable monuments of Amerindian antiquity. It lies five
+        miles east of Mitla and one thousand feet above it on the spur
+        of a mountain.</p>
+
+      <p class="hang">About a mile north-west are the quarries from which the great
+        stones were obtained. The tomb was never finished. It fronted west.</p>
+
+      <p class="hang">The north, east, and south arms of the cross do not vary in
+        dimensions by the fraction of an inch. The length of each is
+        11.7 ft. and the width 5.2 ft., while the depth is 7.5 ft.
+        There are three courses of huge stones, the largest measuring
+        12 ft. long by 3.3 ft. high and 3 ft. thick.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp65" id="i_385">
+    <img src="images/i_385.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>GROUND PLAN OF CRUCIFORM TOMB, OAXACA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Sometimes a woman is assigned to a man who already has a wife, while
+    some other man has none, because the group into which he is permitted
+    to marry is exhausted. He then challenges the man who is entitled to
+    more than one and endeavours to win the woman by success in battle.
+    On one occasion in southern Nevada a white man’s sympathies were so
+    aroused by one of these affairs, in which the girl was being roughly
+    pulled about, that he threw off his coat and, taking an active part in
+    the struggles, rescued her. Then he was amazed at the information that
+    the girl belonged to him and he must keep her. This he declined to do
+    and turned her over again to their tender mercies. These three forms of
+    marriage become roundabout methods of personal choice. When the supply
+    of wives is normal the young man in some tribes goes out into the woods
+    by a certain trail, and if the girl of his choice follows him, it is
+    considered a marriage, and is celebrated with prescribed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span>ceremonies.
+    Polygamy was practised by most tribes. Among the Navajos, who buy their
+    wives, it is very common, but there a wife can depart at pleasure, and
+    as the husband acquires no right to her property, she takes it with her.</p>
+
+  <p>Totemism is an important custom in vogue among all the stocks of the
+    continent, and it was probably a custom the world over when tribes
+    were in a certain stage. The word totem is derived from the Ojibwa,
+    and is said to have first been introduced into literature by one Long,
+    an interpreter. Totems are of three kinds: clan totems, sex totems,
+    and individual totems. The first are the most important.<a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> Totemism
+    is at the same time a religious and a social system. The totem is
+    usually an animal, as a frog, bear, bat, etc. The Amerind believes that
+    between these objects and himself there is a particular bond, and he
+    has for them the most profound respect. From them he believes himself
+    descended. Therefore he would not harm an animal that was his totem.
+    The Bear clan would not kill a bear, the Red Maize clan would not eat
+    red maize, and so on. Totemism existed among the Israelites, and the
+    objection to eating pork is supposed by some to rest on the pig having
+    been one of their totems. The Amerind also generally derived his name
+    from some animal or object, and he represented this as his individual
+    totem mark. In the totem poles of the North west coast, these various
+    representations of totems were combined and set up before the door to
+    indicate the relationships of the persons who lived there.<a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Cleanliness varies among the tribes, and is sometimes in proportion
+    to the ease or difficulty with which water can be procured. The Mokis
+    who live in an arid country and have to carry water long distances
+    seldom waste it in bathing or washing, though I did once see an old
+    Moki fill his mouth with water and blow it out in instalments over his
+    hands. The Omahas, according to Dorsey, generally bathe twice every day
+    in warm weather. They used to help women and children to alight from
+    horses, and sometimes carried them over streams on their backs. Old
+    men and women were never abandoned by them. Some men were not wanting
+    in gallantry. Dorsey tells of a young woman who <span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span>wished to halt at a
+    spring. Her brother was with her. The ground was muddy and she would
+    have soiled her clothes had she knelt to drink, but another man rode up
+    at the moment, and, jumping from his horse, he pulled a lot of grass,
+    placing it on the wet ground so that she could drink without soiling
+    her dress.</p>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_387">
+    <img src="images/i_387-1.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Fifth Ann. Rept., Pl. XV.<br>
+      A Navajo “Dry” Painting made with sand in the Mountain Chant Ceremony.
+      See <a href="#Page_61">page 61</a>.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75">
+    <img src="images/i_387-2.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Fourth Ann. Rept., Pl. LII.<br>
+      Page of an Oglala Roster—“Big-Road” and band. See <a href="#Page_59">page 59</a>.</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70">
+    <img src="images/i_387-3.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Third Ann. Report, Pl. IV.
+      <p class="hang">Copy of Plates 65 and 66, Vatican Codex B. Each figure is a tree
+        with a person clasping the trunk. See <a href="#Page_72">page 72</a>.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="col50">
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100">
+    <img src="images/i_387-4.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>See Twelfth Ann. Rept., Pl. XVII.
+      <p class="hang">Drawing restored from fragments of a thin copper plate, in repoussé
+        work, from a mound of the Etowah group, Georgia.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="center bold small mb2">AMERINDIAN ART</div>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp50" id="i_388">
+    <img src="images/i_388.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MOKI EARTHEN CANTEEN, ARIZONA. ¼</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>When he died the Amerind was disposed of in a number of different ways.
+    There were burials in pits, graves, mounds, cists, caves, and so on;
+    there was cremation; there was embalming; there was aërial sepulture
+    in trees or scaffolds; there was burial beneath water, or in canoes
+    that were turned adrift. The Navajos leave the dead in the place where
+    they die, or throw them into a cleft in the rocks and pile stones upon
+    the corpse. In Tennessee graves are found which were made by lining
+    a rectangular excavation with slabs of stone. These are ancient and
+    resemble the graves of the reindeer period in France. Yarrow<a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a>
+    speaks of them as being almost identical. I found graves of similar
+    description in southern Utah near the Arizona line, but in the two or
+    three that I opened there were no bones, only on the bottom a shallow
+    layer of what appeared to be fine dark earth with thin slabs upon it;
+    doubtless the slabs once forming the top.<a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> Some tribes wrapped
+    their dead in fine furs or in grasses <span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span>and matting;<a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> others buried
+    in urns. In the North-west a living slave was buried with the deceased.
+    If the slave were not dead in three days, he was strangled by another
+    slave. In Mexico the custom of burying slaves with the dead was common.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_389">
+    <img src="images/i_389.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MODERN LACED SANDAL OF LEATHER FROM COLIMA, MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_XIV">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_390">
+      <img src="images/i_390.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>ESKIMO PIPE WITH STONE BOWL. ⅓</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">MYTHS, TRADITIONS, AND LEGENDS</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">PERSONS who are obliged to rely on memory find that memory develops
+    with use and becomes more reliable. The Amerinds, having no written
+    language, if we except the Nahuatl and Mayan tribes, had no way of
+    preserving their tales, traditions, and legends except to remember
+    them, and there can be no doubt that everywhere on the continent memory
+    was highly developed. To assist in recalling them they had their
+    picture-writing, already described. The method is well illustrated in
+    the remarkable <i>Walam Olum</i>, or Red Score of the Lenapé, where
+    a most poetic account of the origin of things is recorded by means
+    of a few rude pictures made by lines and dots.<a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> There has been
+    some doubt as to the genuineness of this score, first recorded by
+    Rafinesque, but Brinton, who was a scholar of fine intellect and calm
+    judgment and thoroughly versed in all the intricacies of the situation,
+    accepted it as a genuine Amerind production “which was repeated orally
+    to someone indifferently conversant with the Delaware language, who
+    wrote it down to the best of his ability. In its present form it
+    can, as a whole, lay no claim either to antiquity, or to purity of
+    linguistic form. Yet, as an authentic modern version, slightly coloured
+    by European teachings, of the ancient tribal traditions, it is well
+    worth preservation.... The narrator was probably one of the native
+    chiefs or priests, who had spent his life in the Ohio and Indiana
+    towns of the Lenapé, and who, though with some knowledge of Christian
+    instruction, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span>preferred the pagan rites, legends, and myths of his
+    ancestors. Probably certain lines and passages were repeated in the
+    archaic form in which they had been handed down for generations.... The
+    cosmogony describes the formation of the world by the Great Manito,
+    and its subsequent despoliation by the spirit of the waters, under the
+    form of a serpent. The happy days are depicted, when men lived without
+    wars or sickness, and food was at all times abundant. Evil beings of
+    mysterious power introduced cold and war and sickness and premature
+    death. Then began strife and long wanderings.”<a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> We can readily
+    understand how a few rude lines could recall to the Amerind mind a
+    whole story, and especially to the mind of one trained to exercise
+    his memory in such directions. It is not necessary for me to do more
+    for the Christian reader than write “<em>Xmas</em>,” and he can from it
+    review the whole wonderful story of Christ in all its details. So it
+    was with the Amerind. Those entrusted with the preservation of the
+    legends, etc., learned them perfectly and year by year repeated them on
+    the proper occasion to their followers. Changes were probably sometimes
+    made in the text of some to suit them to changed conditions, but the
+    accuracy was so great that myths and legends have been found to contain
+    archaic words which the members of the tribe were unable to explain,
+    and which yielded only to the expert analysis of a white linguist.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="i_391">
+    <img src="images/i_391.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photographed by M. H. Saville</div>
+    <figcaption>TEOCALLI (TEMPLE) OF TEPOZTLAN, STATE OF MORELOS, MEXICO
+      <p class="hang">This view is from the west or back and shows a stairway and also
+        the built up mound forming the foundation. The front is entered
+        by a broad flight of about fourteen steps. The construction is
+        stone. The site, formerly approached by flights of steps, is on
+        the summit of a high and dangerously precipitous mountain. The
+        ground plan, about 30 ft. square, is similar to the first plan
+        on <a href="#Page_238">page 238</a>, with a front like the second. The outer walls are
+        1 meter, 90 centimeters thick. They were covered with a smooth
+        cement, which was painted in different colors. See <a href="#Page_240">page 240</a>.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_392">
+    <img src="images/i_392.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>KWAKIUTL WOOD CARVING OF THE SISUL, NORTH-WEST COAST<br>
+      Worn in front of the stomach. Length, 42 in. See <a href="#Page_168">page 168</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span></p>
+
+  <p>With the Amerind a group of myths, traditions, and legends developed
+    along with each particular stock. Each language had its own
+    accumulation of these tales, etc., relating to animals, to natural
+    forces personified, and sometimes to real personages. Savage races
+    worship animal gods and natural objects personified as animals.<a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a>
+    In the middle state called barbarism the religion becomes a worship
+    of the phenomena of nature, pure and simple, frequently personified
+    as animals or beings, as in the case of the thunder and lightning
+    generally attributed by the Amerinds to the mysterious “thunder-bird,”
+    which is also believed by some to be a great being who takes on the
+    form of a bird. In civilisation the worship of one God takes the place
+    of all the others, while the myths and legends of earlier days survive
+    in mythological literature and in unconscious thoughts and acts of
+    individuals. Looking at the moon over the right shoulder for luck,
+    objections to a certain number, the belief that one stone is lucky and
+    another unlucky, are all remnants of the era of zoötheism, physitheism,
+    and other early beliefs.<a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> Races cannot shake off earlier beliefs
+    entirely, but continue them under changed forms. Thus we celebrate many
+    pagan rites in our holidays, and pay a tribute to the Druid priests
+    every time we suspend a branch of mistletoe in our parlours in the
+    season when the sun turns his course towards the vernal equinox.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_394">
+    <img src="images/i_394.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>RUSHING EAGLE, 1872<br>
+      Second chief of the Mandans and son of Four Bears, Catlin’s great friend</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>To primitive man night was a mysterious phenomenon, and dawn often
+    became personified to him as a bright and fair deliverer, a beneficent
+    being who comes out of the east bringing a train of blessings. Many
+    myths recounting the coming of a hero, prophet, and teacher among the
+    Amerinds and other races are accounted for as being dawn myths, but
+    there is danger of overworking this convenient hypothesis.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp30" id="i_395">
+    <img src="images/i_395.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>FINE CLOTH PRESERVED BY COPPER BEADS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In our literature many Amerind myths and legends have become firmly
+    implanted, and they are now as much a part of it as the tale of
+    Orpheus, or of Theseus, or of Hercules. Some of them have been
+    beautified by the diction of our poets, and Longfellow’s rendering of
+    <cite>Hiawatha</cite> is admired the world over. This is good literature,
+    but it is not good ethnology, because in it an Iroquois <span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span>hero-god is
+    placed in a setting of Algonquin legends, but this was not Longfellow’s
+    mistake, but Schoolcraft’s, on whose work Longfellow based his poem.
+    Jeremiah Curtin says: “Schoolcraft, with his amazing propensity to
+    make mistakes, with his remarkable genius for missing the truth and
+    confusing everything with which he came in contact, gave the name
+    Hiawatha to his patchwork.... In the face of all this Schoolcraft
+    makes Hiawatha, who is peculiarly Iroquois, the leading personage in
+    his Algonkin conglomerate: Hiawatha being an Iroquois character of
+    Central New York (he is connected more particularly with the region
+    about Schenectady), while the actions to which Schoolcraft relates
+    him pertain to the Algonkin Chippewas near Lake Superior. It is as if
+    Europeans at some future age were to have placed before them a great
+    epic narrative of French heroic adventure in which Prince Bismarck
+    would appear as the chief and central Gallic figure in the glory and
+    triumph of France.”<a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a></p>
+
+  <p>But Hiawatha, nevertheless, is incorporated in our language and our
+    literature, and altogether the conquered race, as was inevitable, has
+    left an impress on our character, on our language, on our geography,
+    and on our literature which can never, even if desired, be effaced. The
+    mark of our contact with the red man is upon us indelibly and forever.
+    George Bancroft is not quite right when he says, “The memorials of
+    their former existence are found only in the names of the rivers and
+    the mountains.” These memorials have not only permeated our poetry and
+    literature generally, but they are perpetuated in our daily food, and
+    every mention of “succotash,” of “mush,” of “chocolate,” is a tribute
+    to their existence, while the fragrance of the “tobacco” we smoke is
+    incense to their memory. Mrs. Sigourney touched this subject prettily
+    in the little poem entitled <cite>Indian Names</cite>:</p>
+
+  <div class="center-container">
+    <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i0">“Ye say they all have passed away,</div>
+        <div class="i3">That noble race and brave,</div>
+
+        <div class="i1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span>That their light canoes have vanished</div>
+        <div class="i3">From off the crested wave;</div>
+        <div class="i1">That mid the forests where they roamed</div>
+        <div class="i3">There rings no hunter’s shout,</div>
+        <div class="i1">But their name is on your waters,</div>
+        <div class="i3">Ye may not wash it out.</div>
+      </div>
+
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="i0">“Ye say their cone-like cabins</div>
+        <div class="i3">That clustered o’er the vale</div>
+        <div class="i1">Have fled away like withered leaves</div>
+        <div class="i3">Before the autumn gale.</div>
+        <div class="i1">But their memory liveth on your hills,</div>
+        <div class="i3">Their baptism on your shore;</div>
+        <div class="i1">Your everlasting rivers speak</div>
+        <div class="i3">Their dialect of yore.”</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>And she might have added that their gods have seated themselves
+    with those of the Greeks in our libraries; that Michabo, Tlaloc,
+    Quetzalcohuatl, and others are now companions of Jupiter and Neptune;
+    in short, that their literature, which relied on oral transmission, has
+    to a large extent been crystallised in our printed pages.</p>
+
+  <p>The Amerind, not fortified by our modern knowledge and philosophy,
+    regarded the outer world in a far different way from what we do. To him
+    it was not a place where a gold mine might be found, or good grazing
+    or tillable soil, but he looked upon the far distance as the home of
+    magical beings. Did the wind blow? It was the breath of some monster
+    dwelling in a cave in the far west, or it was the beating of the wings
+    of giant birds living at the four quarters of the compass. It was not
+    to the sky alone that he looked for the abode of his gods; they came
+    to him from every direction, even from the bowels of the earth. We
+    know what the earth contains and we grope for the unknown. The Amerind
+    did not know what the earth contains; it was still to him the abode of
+    monsters and ghosts.</p>
+
+  <p>There is in some respects so great a similarity between the myths of
+    the New World and those of the Old, that it was at first assumed that
+    there must have been early communication with Europe, but more careful
+    analysis has shown that this is but another evidence of what may be
+    called the parallelism of human development. Even where the similarity
+    is greatest there is nothing to prove that the myths did not originate
+    independently, and they <span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span>are merely the results of similar thoughts, in
+    similar stages of ignorance, about the sun, the sky, and natural forces.</p>
+
+  <p>The <i>Popol Vuh</i>, the great collection of Quiche myths, presents
+    Gukumatz as one of the four principal gods who created the world.
+    Gukumatz means shining or brilliant snake, and hence seems to be
+    the same character as that known to the Nahuatls, or Aztecs, as
+    Quetzalcohuatl, whose name also means bright or shining snake. But
+    among the Aztecs Quetzalcohuatl is represented as a man, while Gukumatz
+    is purely a god. Quetzalcohuatl was the third of the four Mexican or
+    Aztec gods, and to him is ascribed all the wisdom which came to the
+    Aztecs. He appears under two forms, as a god and as an historical
+    personage. He has been frequently identified with the dawn, but there
+    seems to be good reason for believing that he was a real character, who
+    became deified as his good deeds passed down to successive generations.
+    Such prophets and teachers rise up in all times, in all ages, by the
+    wayside of tribal or national development, like some rare and favoured
+    tree of the forest which out-tops all the others. A divine origin may
+    be claimed for these teachers and prophets, but generally they are only
+    men endowed with an extremely fine moral sense and with a perception
+    and knowledge beyond their time. “Among the Tzendals of Chiapas, the
+    tradition of Votan, who is said to have been the first founder of
+    that tribe, bears great resemblance to Quetzalcohuatl.”<a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> After an
+    admirable discussion of the subject of the character and origin of
+    Quetzalcohuatl, Bandelier sifts the matter down to this: that he was “a
+    prominent gifted Indian leader, who certainly preceded the coming of
+    those Nahuatl tribes that subsequently formed the valley confederacy,
+    as well as that of the later tribe of Tlaxcallan. The claim to his
+    origin accordingly rests between the so-called Toltecs on one side
+    and the Olmeca and Xicalanca on the other.”<a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> Brinton believed
+    that Quetzalcohuatl was a pure personification of the dawn myth,<a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a>
+    but there is too much testimony on the opposite side to permit the
+    acceptance of this opinion as final. It must not be forgotten that
+    there were very good, extremely good, almost saintly, men, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span>women,
+    too, among the Amerinds. The historical Mexican tribes were preceded
+    by other tribes, some of which had apparently reached a higher state
+    of culture than the Aztecs, and Quetzalcohuatl possibly came from one
+    of them as a teacher to the newer and less cultivated people; newer
+    in the sense of having come into that region from some distance off.
+    There is nothing preposterous in supposing that there were teachers
+    and moralists in the early days of this continent. The character of
+    a high-thinking teacher is not incompatible with some of the tribes
+    that have lived and died on North-American soil. As stated previously,
+    never were all the tribes of the continent in one culture condition;
+    there were always tribes that could teach something to other tribes,
+    and undoubtedly philanthropic individuals sometimes attempted the
+    rôle of missionaries, just as they do in other races to-day. In fact,
+    the recent “Resurrection Dance” or “Ghost Dance” had its prophet who
+    preached to the natives that “the earth was to be all good hereafter;
+    that we must be friends with one another.” Fighting, he declared, was
+    “bad and all must keep from it.” “There is no doubt that his religious
+    teachings rest on a well-ordained religious system, and in spite of
+    the numerous false reports that are spread about him, he does not
+    claim to be either God or Jesus Christ, the Messiah, or any divine,
+    superhuman being whatever. ‘I am the annunciator of God’s message from
+    the spiritual world and a prophet for the Indian people,’ is the way he
+    defines the scope of his work among men.... Thus he considers himself a
+    messenger of God appointed in a dream, and has on that account compared
+    himself to St. John the Baptist.”<a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> This man is a full-blood, and
+    it is evident that such an inspiration might have seized a man of a
+    similar temperament at any period of Amerind history, and given rise
+    finally to legends and worship that would incorrectly be ascribed to
+    the myth of the dawn.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_398">
+    <img src="images/i_398.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ANCIENT FABRIC-MARKED POTSHERDS, WITH CLAY CASTS BY HOLMES<br>
+      See <a href="#Page_108">page 108</a></figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Quetzalcohuatl at length departed with a promise to return, and it
+    was the belief that he would return that caused Montezuma to at first
+    mistake the bearded Spaniards for his emissaries. Quetzalcohuatl also
+    wore a beard.</p>
+
+  <p>Michabo, the Algonquin counterpart of Quetzalcohuatl, was considered to
+    be the ancestor of the whole tribe, the founder of their ceremonies,
+    the inventor of picture-writing, the ruler of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span>weather, the
+    creator and preserver of earth and heaven. “From a grain of sand,” says
+    Brinton, “brought from the bottom of the primeval ocean he fashioned
+    the habitable land and set it floating on the waters till it grew to
+    such a size that a strong young wolf, running constantly, died of old
+    age ere he reached its limits.”</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_400">
+    <img src="images/i_400.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">George Catlin, 1832</div>
+    <figcaption>EHTOHKPAHSHEPEESHAH, THE BLACK MOCCASIN, CHIEF OF THE MINATAREES<br>
+      OVER 100 YEARS OLD</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Among the Iroquois the hero-god was called Ioskeha, and he possessed
+    many of the qualities of Michabo and Quetzalcohuatl, etc., though in
+    his case as well as that of Michabo there seems to be no historical
+    evidence of existence, as there is with Quetzalcohuatl, and therefore
+    they may be, as claimed by Brinton and others, merely dawn myths. It
+    is possible that they may be compounds of a dawn myth and one or more
+    actual personages.</p>
+
+  <p>The hero-god of the Mayas was Itzamna, and he was a beneficent
+    personage like the others. Like Cadmus, he invented letters, and he
+    also devised their calendar. He is spoken of as an historical personage
+    and “is intimately associated with the noble edifices of Itzamal,
+    which he laid out and constructed, and over which he ruled, enacting
+    wise laws and extending the power and happiness of his people for an
+    indefinite period.”<a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> Brinton identifies him with the dawn myth, but
+    here again it is not conclusive. It seems quite as probable that he was
+    a real person, upon whose history certain myths have been engrafted.</p>
+
+  <p>In putting the Amerind stories into other languages, embellishments and
+    variations have often been introduced, or the translators have been
+    deceived by interpreters or by the Amerinds themselves, while sometimes
+    both causes have operated to colour or to alter the tales. Schoolcraft
+    has generally been regarded as a faithful recorder, but in some
+    instances he has gone considerably astray. In his time the Amerinds
+    were not so well understood, nor were they, in all their various
+    stocks, so accessible as now.</p>
+
+  <p>Formerly the European was prepared to find in the Amerind rites
+    evidences of the Lost Tribes of Israel, of the Chinese, or some other
+    extraordinary or romantic idea. He was not content to take things as
+    they were. Marquette on arriving at Green Bay was delighted with what
+    he believed to be an evidence of Christianity, a large cross set up
+    in the middle of the village, adorned with skins, bows, etc., which
+    the people were offering to their gods. It was only one of the symbols
+    of the Midē society, and was in use long before the Discovery. In the
+    same way Coronado found <span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span>crosses in New Mexico, and there were also in
+    Yucatan the tablets of the cross referred to in a previous chapter. The
+    early Spaniards turned loose their own myths in the New World and then
+    started in pursuit of them. Columbus himself was the first to float
+    the Amazon myth to these shores, for in a letter to Rafael Sanchez he
+    speaks of an island inhabited solely by women, and the Spaniards had
+    a long and fruitless chase after it.<a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> Thus they also pursued the
+    myth of the <em>Seven Cities</em>, <em>El Dorado</em>, and similar tales.
+    <em>El Dorado</em>, or, “The Gilded Man,” really existed in a ceremony
+    in New Granada, where a man was sprinkled with gold dust, but when the
+    Spaniards had taken all the gold from these people they went on hunting
+    for El Dorado just the same, though they never found him again.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_402">
+    <img src="images/i_402.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>LACANDON (MAYAN) AMERIND FROM CHOCOLHAO, YUCATAN</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Certain resemblances between the myths of the Amerinds and those of
+    the Israelites increased the belief that the American race is the
+    Lost Tribes. The Mormons specially hold to this opinion. But there is
+    positively no ground for the belief. The peculiar interest, however,
+    which attaches to a comparison of Amerind and Israelite myths lies
+    in the fact that they resemble each other, not only genetically, but
+    specifically. They are alike in their details. Mallery has given much
+    attention to this subject, and he says that “an Ojibway tradition
+    tells the adventures of eight, ten, and sometimes twelve brothers, the
+    youngest of whom is the wisest and the most beloved of their father,
+    and especially favoured by the high powers. He delivers his brothers
+    from many difficulties which were brought about by their folly and
+    disobedience. Particularly he supplies them with corn.... The Chahta
+    have an elaborate story of their migrations, in which they were
+    guided by a pole leaning in the direction which they should take, and
+    remaining vertical at each place where they should encamp. A still
+    closer resemblance to the guidance of the Israelites in the desert by
+    a pillar of fire is found in the legendary migrations of the Tusayan
+    (Mokis), when indication was made by the movement and the halting
+    of a star. The Pai Utes were sustained in a great march through the
+    desert by water that continually filled the magic cup given to the
+    Sokus Waiunats in a dream until all were satisfied; and a similarly
+    miraculous supply of food to the starving multitude is reported by the
+    same people. In the genesis myth of the Tusayan, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span>the culture hero
+    was enabled to pass dry-shod through lakes and rivers by throwing a
+    staff upon the waters, which were at once divided as by walls.... Mr.
+    W. W. Warren, in his <cite>History of the Ojibway Nation</cite>, tells that
+    he sometimes translated parts of Bible history to the old Ojibway men,
+    and their expression invariably was, ‘The book must be true, for our
+    ancestors have told us similar stories generation after generation
+    since the earth was new.’” There is also a strong resemblance between
+    many of the Amerind myths and stories, and those of the negro, as
+    anyone may see who will compare them with Harris’s delightful <cite>Uncle Remus</cite>.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_404">
+  <img src="images/i_404.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ONE OF THE BUILDINGS OF THE PALENQUE GROUP<br>
+      House “C” on Maudsley’s plan<br>
+      Construction: stone. Site: tropical forest, Chiapas, Yucatan. Abandoned
+      in prehistoric time. There was but one room with the five openings as
+      shown. Stucco ornamentation. See <a href="#Page_244">page 244</a> and <a href="#i_front">Frontispiece</a>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>All races have malignant sprites that haunt rocks and watering places,
+    and the Amerind was no exception. The Uinkarets of Arizona declared
+    that a certain water-pocket where we camped was a favourite resort of
+    the Woonupits, a little elf that is full of mischief, and Chuar one
+    night insisted that he heard one whistling in the forest. He fired a
+    shot out into the darkness to drive it away. He did this with great
+    solemnity and deliberation, and there was no question as to his faith
+    in the belief. The same little elf crops out in the Moki country in
+    the form of the Kwokwuli, a malignant sprite lurking in out-of-the-way
+    places. He is about knee-high and conceals himself behind a rock
+    or bush, like the Breton Korrigans inhabiting the Dolmens, and
+    when a Moki appears he calls out in a shrill falsetto voice,
+    “<i>Kwo-kwul-i-ul-i</i>.” If the hearer gives no heed to the cry he may
+    pass by in safety, but should he willingly or unwillingly express any
+    notice he must approach the elf, who immediately climbs on his back and
+    holds fast round his neck—Sindbad’s Old-Man-of-the-Sea over again. The
+    elf has only rudimentary legs and no wings, and this is his method of
+    journeying from place to place.</p>
+
+  <p>The Amerinds of the straits of Fuca have distinct traditions of the
+    Eskimo as a race of dwarfs, who live in the “always dark country,”
+    on the ice, dive and catch whales with their hands, and produce the
+    aurora by boiling out the blubber, the fires reflecting on the sky.
+    The Iroquois had legends of great giants, as also had other tribes,
+    which were due probably to the same cause as the dwarf Eskimo myths:
+    ignorance of the outside world. These were stone giants, and they
+    inhabited the west. Once upon a time they started to come and destroy
+    the Senecas, and a war party of the latter proceeded to the encounter.
+    Before the battle came off a mighty wind came out of the west and
+    swept all the giants into <span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span>a vast abyss from which they could not
+    escape, and because of this friendly act the West Wind became one of
+    the Seneca gods, and was revered ever after. And the Eskimo, while
+    themselves furnishing the material for more southerly tribes to build
+    myths on, have their own tales of a tribe called Ardnainiq, living in
+    the extreme North-west. The men of this people are small as children,
+    but entirely covered with hair. They are carried about in the hoods
+    of their wives like babies, the wives being of normal size. They have
+    also stories of a race of women. The Iroquois believed that there was
+    a strange creature consisting simply of a head with large eyes and
+    long hair, called “Great Head.” When he saw any live thing he growled,
+    “I see thee, I see thee, thou shalt die.” They also had their race of
+    dwarfs with wonderful powers, who carved the cliffs and caves and could
+    destroy monster animals.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_406">
+    <img src="images/i_406.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>COSTUME WORN IN THE KWAKIUTL FESTIVALS CALLED LAŌLAXA, NORTH-WEST COAST</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The coyote, the bear, the sun, and all the animals are endowed with
+    speech and great cunning, the coyote especially so among some of the
+    Western tribes, and are conceived as possessing human attributes, like
+    the “Brer Rabbit” and other animals whose prowess is related by Uncle
+    Remus. But the Eskimo, according to A. L. Kroeber, have comparatively
+    few animal stories. Examples of these animal stories may be found in
+    the reports of the U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology and other publications.
+    Lack of space prevents me from introducing any here.</p>
+
+  <p>The slightest misunderstood noise is sufficient to rouse the Amerind
+    imagination, of which I had an illustration in Arizona. I arrived
+    at an out-of-the-way mine one night with two Amerind guides. It was
+    winter and a stone cabin was placed at my disposal, to which I sent
+    the natives while my white companions and I visited the men in charge.
+    The natives presently came in, saying there was something wrong at
+    the cabin, and they would not stay in it or even near it. When we
+    investigated we discovered that the whole trouble arose from the
+    ticking of a small clock, which we forthwith stopped; but nevertheless
+    they would not remain there alone.</p>
+
+  <p>Flood stories are numerous with all tribes, and whether they arose
+    in local inundations or in some vast and general flood cannot now be
+    determined. If in the latter, it would be melting ice of the glacial
+    period. A fabulous being in Eskimo mythology is Kalopaling, who lives
+    in the sea. His body is like that of a human being and he wears
+    clothing made out of eider ducks’ skins. His <span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span>jacket has an enormous
+    hood, into which he thrusts any boatman that may be drowned. He cannot
+    speak, but merely cry, “Be! be! be! be!” An Eskimo flood tale relates
+    how the ocean long ago rose till it covered the whole land, even to the
+    tops of the mountains, till the ice drifted over them. When the flood
+    subsided the ice stranded and has ever since formed a cap on their
+    summits.</p>
+
+  <p>The keepers of the mythological tales were the shamans, and they are
+    the real powers, generally, in a tribe. Had Cortes understood this
+    point he would have seized, not the war-chief, Montezuma, but one of
+    the shamans, who would have been more valuable as a hostage. Many of
+    the shamans are believed to be able to pass through fire unharmed,
+    and to handle it with impunity; to be able to change themselves into
+    coyotes, etc., and then return to their normal shape, all at their own
+    pleasure.</p>
+
+  <p>A legend of Montezuma’s coming has been attributed to the Pueblos of
+    New Mexico, but this is an error, for they knew nothing about Montezuma
+    till the whites came into the country. There are a great many legends
+    concerning the occupation of this or that place, and one of these,
+    the legend of the former occupation of the <i>Mesa Encantada</i>, or,
+    “Enchanted Mesa,” New Mexico, has recently caused a lively discussion
+    between two distinguished ethnologists, as to whether some Puebloans
+    did or did not once live on top of the mesa as related. Both succeeded
+    in reaching the top. One found no evidence of any continued occupation
+    of the mesa top; the other found what he accepted as sufficient
+    evidence of the truth of the legend that Pueblos had once lived there
+    and had been cut off from the world below and destroyed by a fearful
+    storm.</p>
+
+  <p>Large portions of the Maya chronicles relate the predictions of the
+    astrologers, seers, or prophets, and after the habit of the class
+    they foretold all manner of evil, but strangely enough they seem to
+    have foretold the arrival of the Spaniards, for they said that white
+    and bearded strangers would come and control the land and alter the
+    prevailing religion. What was it that instilled them with this faith
+    or fear? Was it coincidence, or was it what is now termed telepathy?
+    Whatever it was, the terrible fulfilment came upon their race like a
+    cyclone; and when one more century has passed away the Amerind race
+    will be more truly even than now, the North-Americans of Yesterday.<a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_409">
+  <img src="images/i_409.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photographed by Lumholtz</div>
+    <figcaption>GOD-HOUSES OF THE HUICHOLS AT TEAKÁTA, NEAR SANTA CATARINA, STATE OF JALISCO, MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_XV">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="i_410">
+      <img src="images/i_410.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>ESKIMO MASK OF WOOD, PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">ORGANISATION AND GOVERNMENT</div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">TRIBES often had a definite organisation and a regular government,
+    and each held sway over a territory with fixed boundaries. When the
+    limits were not placed at a river, lake, or mountain range they were
+    marked by certain trees or stones, or other natural features along the
+    trails. When at peace, those who entered another domain were considered
+    visitors, and they were expected to be friendly with all friends of the
+    occupants of the region. “Both the Kuchins and the Eskimos are very
+    jealous,” says H. H. Bancroft, “regarding their boundaries.”<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a></p>
+
+  <p>When I was once coming out of the Shevwits country, my Uinkarets guide
+    exclaimed as we passed a certain bowlder near the trail, “Now we are
+    out of the Shevwits land.” Beyond that point the Shevwits would not
+    venture except in a friendly way, so long as they were friendly with
+    the owners of the land. I rejoiced in this fact at the time because the
+    Shevwits had not been entirely agreeable, and I was glad to pass the
+    point where I was certain they would not bother us. We were now in the
+    country of the Santa Clara tribe.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span></p>
+
+  <p>The Iroquois had the habit of occupying both banks of a river or lake,
+    hence they did not utilise these as boundaries, but ran straight lines,
+    marked here and there by some well-known object. “On the boundary
+    line between the Onondagas and Oneidas,” says Morgan,<a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> “the most
+    prominent point was the Deep Spring (Deosongwa) near Manlius, in the
+    county of Onondaga. This spring not only marked the limital line
+    between them, but it was a well-known stopping-place on the great
+    central trail or highway of the Iroquois.... From Deep Spring the
+    line ran due south into Pennsylvania, crossing the Susquehanna near
+    its confluence with the Chenango. North of this spring the line was
+    deflected to the west, leaving in the Oneida territory the whole
+    circuit of the lake. Crossing the She-u-ka or Oneida outlet, a few
+    miles below the lake, the line inclined again to the east, until it
+    reached the meridian of the Deep Spring. From thence it ran due north,
+    crossing Black River, at the site of Watertown, and the St. Lawrence to
+    the eastward of the Thousand Islands.”</p>
+
+  <p>This line separated territories belonging to two tribes of the
+    celebrated league, and was not a boundary between hostile or different
+    tribes. The Iroquois were exact about their internal boundary lines,
+    because it served to keep each member of the confederacy distinct and
+    independent, and enabled the idea of home rule to be properly carried
+    out. They always knew just whose ground they were on, just as we know
+    to-day which county or State we are in. It was another mark of the
+    wisdom with which the confederacy was planned.</p>
+
+  <p>When the whites came to these shores and took possession right and
+    left of the soil, they immediately stirred up the hostility of the
+    owners, who naturally desired to be considered in the matter. Penn did
+    consider them, and he had no trouble; and I have no doubt much of the
+    fighting and enmity which followed our coming might have been avoided
+    if Europeans had more fully recognised the native rights and had paid a
+    fair equivalent for what they wanted. But there was nothing to compel
+    this attention to the moral side, and justice must have force to bind
+    it; besides, owing to the large influx of whites, the Amerinds were
+    inevitably driven back. The English in a measure finally recognised
+    the Iroquois rights and then afterwards turned this to good account
+    by claiming sovereignty over the territory on the ground that the
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span>Iroquois were British subjects. The Navajos recognise the San Juan
+    River as their northern limit and the Southern Utes correspondingly
+    accepted it as their southern limit. “The claims of the Susquehannocks
+    extended down the Chesapeake Bay on the east shore, as far as the
+    Choptank River and on the west shore as far as the Patuxent. In 1654
+    they ceded to the government of Maryland their southern territory to
+    these boundaries.”<a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> Thus it is proved that Maryland recognised
+    their ownership. These examples are enough to show that the territorial
+    rights of each tribe were definitely understood, just as nations to-day
+    have established limits. When the settlements of our people finally
+    crowded tribes back upon each other’s domain, a great deal of confusion
+    and dispute arose as to ownership, and when the government began to
+    pay for lands it was often necessary to pay for the same tract several
+    times, owing to the conflicting claims.</p>
+
+  <p>Scattered over the territory claimed or held by a tribe were the houses
+    and villages of the tribe or the sub-tribes. Powell states that “every
+    tribe lived in a village, and every village constituted a distinct
+    tribe.” But the village was often spread over a wide region. Speaking
+    of this, Adair says: “A stranger might be in the middle of one of their
+    populous, extensive towns without seeing half a dozen houses in the
+    direct course of his path.”<a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> But this was only in the interior of
+    the country of a tribe. Along the frontier the towns would be more
+    compactly arranged, in order that the people might easily be called
+    to defend them. The villages were usually permanent, though they were
+    frequently, some annually, abandoned temporarily at certain seasons
+    for the pursuit of game or for some other good reason, all the people
+    coming together again as the cold weather approached. The Navajos often
+    have a winter home in the lower, sheltered lands of their territory,
+    while in summer they proceed to the higher levels where the winter
+    snows are deep and the summer grass is high. Each Amerind village
+    always had at least one assembly place for which they had their special
+    names, but the general term that is now often used by ethnologists
+    is that of <i>kiva</i>,<a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> borrowed from the Mokis, because the
+    Moki kiva is a representative of the general assembly hall and
+    council-chamber, or lodge. The kiva, besides <span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">414</span>being used for social
+    purposes, as a lounging-place and a working-place for the men, is
+    also used for religious functions. Those structures, therefore, which
+    crowned the mounds of the United States and Mexico, and are usually
+    designated as “temples,” were possibly more of the nature of kivas,
+    a temple in our usage being a structure devoted solely to worship,
+    whereas many Amerind buildings of this class were used for various
+    purposes. Often there were several, depending on the size of the tribe.
+    The tribe was organised on the basis of the gens or the clan, and each
+    gens or clan might have its own kiva. They might also belong to some of
+    the secret orders, so that we may enumerate three kinds: the tribal,
+    or chief kiva, the kiva belonging to the gens or clan, and the kiva
+    belonging to the phratry, or secret society. The gens and the clan were
+    groups of blood relations, or, as put by Powell, “an organised body
+    of consanguineal kindred.”<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> The members of a gens often lived in
+    one house or in a group of houses; for example, among the Iroquois in
+    the long-house,<a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> with its row of camp-fires, while in some other
+    tribes each family might have its own house or tent, but they would
+    then generally pitch or build it contiguous to the other habitations
+    of their gens. It was this principle, in vogue in almost all the
+    tribes of America, which directed the character of most of the Amerind
+    structures. Everybody in a tribe belonged to a gens or clan, otherwise
+    he could not be in the tribe. The complete organisation of the tribe
+    then was: a group of families forming a gens or clan, two gentes being
+    represented in each family; the “father must belong to one gens and
+    the mother and her children to another,” descent being commonly in
+    the female line, and marriage within a gens being forbidden; a group
+    of gentes formed the phratry, and a group of phratries formed the
+    tribe, while a group of tribes formed the confederacy, probably the
+    highest form of government the Amerinds reached. The phratry as an
+    organisation was often absent, and the tribe was then composed of the
+    gentes without any further grouping. Powell seems to use “phratry” in
+    a different sense from Morgan and some other writers. Morgan described
+    a phratry as a group of gentes, whereas Powell defines it as simply
+    a brotherhood or society. Each gens governed itself so far as its
+    internal affairs were concerned; that is, it had home rule, just as
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span>we have it to-day in our towns, counties, etc. It sent delegates
+    to the council of the tribe to represent it, and it elected its own
+    officers. There was sometimes no tribal or head chief. I never could
+    learn of any among the Navajos, and the Iroquois had none. When, as was
+    frequent, there was a sachem, or tribal chief, he was chosen or elected
+    by the chiefs of the various clans or gentes forming the council,
+    but in some tribes he inherited the office, or at least the right to
+    hold it. I understood this to be the case among the Kaivavits Utes of
+    southern Utah. A gens had the right to take into its ranks any alien
+    it chose to. Such a person was then a member of that gens and partook
+    of all the benefits or disadvantages, as the case might be. He was a
+    son or brother or husband, or the corresponding relationships if a
+    woman, and on all occasions was treated as if he had been born into the
+    gens or clan instead of adopted into it. He was therefore eligible for
+    all offices in the tribe, and white men in this way sometimes became
+    chiefs. Beckwourth,<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> who, however, was really supposed by a Crow
+    woman to be her long-lost son, became head chief of the Crows, and held
+    the office with distinction for a number of years. He began by being
+    fifth councillor. “In the Crow nation there are six councillors, and by
+    them the nation is ruled. There are also two head chiefs, who sit with
+    the council whenever it is in session. The office of first councillor
+    is the highest in the nation next to the head chiefs, whose authority
+    is equal. If in any of these divisions, when a matter is brought to
+    the vote, the suffrages are equal, one of the old pipemen is summoned
+    before the council and the subject under discussion is stated to him,
+    with the substance of the arguments advanced on both sides; after
+    hearing this he gives his casting vote, and the question is finally
+    settled.”<a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_413">
+    <img src="images/i_413.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attl">Photographed by J. K. Hillers, U.&nbsp;S. Geological Survey</div>
+    <figcaption>PLENTY-HORSES, A CHEYENNE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_415">
+    <img src="images/i_415.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>NORTH-WEST COAST BASKETRY HATS<br>
+      Made of grass and spruce roots
+      <ul class="left hang">
+        <li>A. Parasol-shaped hat with totemic design on top and painted in solid colour on remainder of outside surface. Tlinkit</li>
+        <li>B. Has wooden appendages representing the beak of the raven. Tlinkit</li>
+        <li>C. Cedar bark hat. G shows method of plaiting it</li>
+        <li>E. Top view of D, showing totemic design of hooyeh, the raven. Haida</li>
+        <li>H. Is method of weaving the top, F of the bottom part of D</li>
+      </ul>
+      See also figures on pp. <a href="#i_146">146</a>, <a href="#i_160">160</a>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>George Bancroft says, “There have been chiefs who could not tell when,
+    where, or how they obtained power.... Opinion could crowd a civil
+    chief into retirement, and could dictate his successor.” Opinion was a
+    most potent factor in all tribes, and this would be largely directed
+    by those having popularity and power. Officers, in fact all persons,
+    become extremely well known in the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span>small community of an Amerind
+    tribe. Every peculiarity of temperament was understood, and the
+    individual was respected or despised according to his predominating
+    characteristics. Those who were bold and fierce and full of strategy
+    were made war-chiefs, while those who possessed judgment and decision
+    were made civil chiefs or governors. In many tribes the civil and the
+    military branches of government are separate and distinct. Certain
+    chieftains were the peace chiefs. “They could neither go to war
+    themselves, nor send nor receive the war belt—the ominous string of
+    dark wampum, which indicated that the tempest of strife was to be let
+    loose. Their proper badge was the wampum belt, with a diamond-shaped
+    figure in the centre, worked in white beads, which was the symbol
+    of the peaceful council fire, and was called by that name. War was
+    declared by the people at the instigation of the ‘war-captains,’
+    valorous braves, of any birth or family, who had distinguished
+    themselves by personal prowess, and especially by good success in
+    forays against the enemy. Nor did the authority of the chiefs extend
+    to any infringement on the traditional rights of the gens, as, for
+    instance, that of blood revenge. The ignorance of this limitation of
+    the central power led to various misunderstandings at the time, on the
+    part of the colonial authorities, and since then, by later historians.
+    Thus in 1728 the Delaware Indians on Brandywine were summoned by the
+    Governor to answer about a murder. Their chief, Civility, answered that
+    it was committed by the Minisinks, ‘over whom they had no authority.’
+    This did not mean but that in some matters authority could be exerted,
+    but not in a question relating to a feud of blood.”<a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> War-chiefs as
+    well as civil chiefs were elected by the council, and could be deposed
+    also by the council whenever it was desirable.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_417">
+    <img src="images/i_417.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>NORTH-WEST COAST MORTUARY AND COMMEMORATIVE COLUMNS
+      <ul class="left hang">
+        <li>A. Kaigani. Contains a box holding ashes of the dead</li>
+        <li>B. Kaigani. Compartment boarded up contains the remains in a box</li>
+        <li>C. Kaigani. Supported box contains the dead</li>
+        <li>D. Different form of C</li>
+        <li>E. Haida. Commemorative column put in front of the house of deceased, the body being placed at a distance</li>
+        <li>F. Haida. Commemorative column same as last but with two posts</li>
+      </ul>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Brinton says, “The gentile system is by no means universal, ... where
+    it exists, it is often traced in the male line; both property and
+    dignities may be inherited directly from the father.... In fact, no one
+    element of the system was uniformly respected, and it is an error of
+    theorists to make it appear so. It varied widely in the same stock and
+    in all its expressions.”<a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> This intricate subject cannot be fully
+    understood till the organisation of many tribes has been studied in
+    detail. “In some tribes, as the Dakota, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span>the gentes had fallen out;
+    in others as among the Ojibways, the Omahas and the Mayas of Yucatan
+    descent had been changed from the female to the male line.”<a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> But
+    Powell and Morgan both hold that the majority of the Amerind tribes
+    were organised on the basis of descent in the female line. “The gens
+    came into being,” says Morgan, “upon three principal conceptions,
+    namely: the bond of kin, a pure lineage through descent in the female
+    line, and non-intermarriage in the gens.”<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Powell in his article on the “North American Indians” in Johnson’s
+    <cite>Cyclopedia</cite> seems to use the term “clan” to describe a body of
+    kindred with descent in the female line, and “gens” where the descent
+    is in the male line. “In most of the tribes the fundamental unit of
+    organisation was the clan,” he says, and then again, “a few of the
+    tribes were organised on the gentile plan and in the gens kinship is
+    reckoned in the male line.” Such a distinction would be convenient,
+    but Morgan did not recognise it at the time of his writing, as is
+    evident from the quotation above from his <cite>Ancient Society</cite>,
+    and general usage seems not to have defined gens to mean descent in
+    either line specifically. Nevertheless, there is probably no reason
+    why the distinction should not be made with regard to the Amerinds, at
+    least, if it should be agreed upon. Powell also says: “As a clan is a
+    group of people who reckon kinship through females to some ancestral
+    female, real or conventional, so a gens is a group of people who reckon
+    kinship through males to some ancestral male, real or conventional.
+    It seems that the primordial constitution of the tribe is by clanship
+    and that the clanship tribe is developed into the gentile tribe. Most
+    of the tribes of North America have clanship organisation, yet there
+    is a goodly number with gentile organisation, while perhaps it may be
+    said that a majority of the clanship tribes have some elements of the
+    gentile organisation; so that it may be justly affirmed that a great
+    many of the tribes on this continent are in the stage of transition,
+    and there is scarcely a gentile tribe which has not some feature
+    of clanship organisation as a survival.”<a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> The privileges and
+    obligations of the gens (or clan) were, according to Morgan as follows:</p>
+
+  <p>“I. The right of electing its sachem or chief.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span></p>
+
+  <p>“II. The right of deposing its sachem or chief.</p>
+
+  <p>“III. The obligation not to marry in the gens.</p>
+
+  <p>“IV. Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members.</p>
+
+  <p>“V. Reciprocal obligations of help, defence, and redress of injuries.</p>
+
+  <p>“VI. The right of bestowing names upon its members.</p>
+
+  <p>“VII. The right of adopting strangers into the gens.</p>
+
+  <p>“VIII. Common religious rites.</p>
+
+  <p>“IX. A common burial-place.</p>
+
+  <p>“X. A council of the gens.”<a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a></p>
+
+  <p>Among the Wyandots there is a council in each gens composed of four
+    women. “These four women councillors select a chief of the gens from
+    its male members—that is, from their brothers and sons. This gentile
+    chief is the head of the gentile council. The council of the tribe is
+    composed of the aggregated gentile councils. The tribal council then is
+    composed of one-fifth men and four-fifths women.”<a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> This is not the
+    case with other tribes, however. Among the Tlinkits it is the richest
+    who “obtain the highest places,” the selection of the chiefs depending
+    entirely on the amount of property they have; that is, on a property
+    basis. These Amerinds have a better appreciation of property than any
+    others I have ever seen. They seldom haggle, but in selling they state
+    a price and adhere to it. A smaller amount offered is usually treated
+    with scorn.</p>
+
+  <p>The sign of clan or gens membership was the totem, all members of the
+    same gens having the same totem, and his or her name usually indicating
+    this totem. For example, if we know an Amerind woman’s name to be
+    Spotted Fawn, we place her at once in the deer clan. The deer is the
+    animal that she looks up to as being most intimately connected with
+    her past and her future, and from which her ancestors were descended.
+    This is the clan or gens totem. As mentioned in a previous chapter,
+    there are also two other kinds of totems, those pertaining to sex and
+    those pertaining to the individual alone. Totems are always chosen from
+    a class of organic objects, while a fetich may be anything at all.
+    Thus the totems are deer, frogs, bears, snakes, corn, etc., while a
+    fetich may be a pebble, a piece of glass wrapped in a bit <span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span>of buckskin
+    together with a feather, or some similar object. The fetich was a
+    talisman, the totem a beneficent attending spirit and a sign of family
+    and origin.</p>
+
+  <p>The Iroquois confederacy was planned by Hiawatha through Däganowédä
+    as an interpreter of his ideas and wishes. Some, Horatio Hale for
+    one, think that Hiawatha was a real person, and others that it
+    was Däganowédä who did the work under the guise of representing
+    Hiawatha.<a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> However this may be, the organisation of the several
+    tribes into the confederacy was a work of genius, and this was one
+    of the highest governments that was discovered on this continent. We
+    cannot say, however, that it was <em>the</em> highest that ever existed,
+    next to that of the Aztecs or the other Central Amerinds, for we really
+    do not know what there may have been before, not only in Mexico and
+    Central America, but in the Mississippi valley or even in the State
+    of New York. As noted in a previous chapter, if the Iroquois had
+    disappeared before our arrival, we could have gained no conception
+    of their remarkable government from any remains that we would have
+    found. The Mississippi valley and the South-west, as well as Mexico and
+    Central America, exhibit traces of tribes who may easily have arrived
+    at a governmental development equal to, if, indeed, not superior to,
+    that of the Aztecs or the Iroquois. These tribes were undoubtedly
+    Amerind, but there is nothing to prove that earlier Amerind tribes were
+    inferior in their political development to later ones.</p>
+
+  <p>The misconceptions of the Spaniards due to ignorance of Amerind
+    organisation gave false colouring to the Aztec confederacy; and the
+    flowing diction of Prescott, gemmed with terms and titles applicable
+    to Old-World society, but having no place in that of the New, added to
+    the confusion. Pages relating to “nobles,” “princes,” “royal allies,”
+    “sovereigns,” “lords,” etc., do not help in fathoming the intricacies
+    of Amerind government. Had the Spaniards met with the Iroquois we
+    should have had something similar in their case; and the fact that they
+    had no head chief would not have been discovered by the conquistadores,
+    so eager for other prey. One of the war-chiefs would again have been
+    taken for a royal personage, and the sachems and councillors would
+    have been nobles and princes, while the outlying tribes of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span>the Five
+    Nations would have filled the bill for royal allies. It is likely
+    that the Aztec government was in advance of that of the Iroquois,
+    but that there was any royalty about it must be doubted till better
+    evidence is available. On the other hand, Morgan’s attempt to prove
+    that the Aztec organisation was not beyond that of the Pueblos or the
+    Iroquois is to be taken with caution. Brinton says: “The government
+    of these states did not differ in principle from that of the northern
+    tribes, though its development had reached a later stage. Descent was
+    generally reckoned in the male line, and the male children of the
+    deceased were regarded as the natural heirs both to his property and
+    his dignities. Where the latter, however, belonged rather to the gens
+    than the individual, a form of election was held, the children of the
+    deceased being given the preference. In this sense, which was the usual
+    limitation in America, many positions were hereditary, including that
+    of the chieftaincy of the tribe or confederation. The Montezuma who
+    was the ruler who received Cortez, was the grandson of Axayacatl, who
+    in turn was the son of the first Montezuma, each of whom exercised the
+    chief power.”<a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> The daughter of the first Montezuma seems to have
+    occupied the position of head chief for a time, or, as Prescott would
+    put it, she was queen. It is possible that while Montezuma was a war
+    chief he may have combined certain civil powers with his war office,
+    and that the confederacy was actually on the road to an absolute
+    monarchy<a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> or something of the kind, which, if human progress
+    takes always the same general directions, was the next stage to be
+    expected on this soil. Bandelier, Morgan, and others see in the various
+    Mexican tribes and confederacies little that is different from the
+    organisation of the Amerinds to the northward, and probably when all is
+    well understood we may find that they are not far from correct; that,
+    while there are differences, they are yet not sufficient to entitle
+    the Mexicans to the separation from other Amerinds that has been
+    claimed for them by romantic writers. Speaking of Tlaxcala, the famous
+    “province” where Cortes found a resting-place on his inward journey,
+    Bandelier says: “Owing to a misconception of aboriginal institutions,
+    it has been palmed off as a kind of Mexican Switzerland, as a free
+    republic in the midst of despotically ruled communities. Such was not
+    the case. There was not <span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">424</span>the slightest fundamental difference between
+    the social organisation and mode of government of the Tlaxcaltecos and
+    that of the Mexican tribe; but the exceptional geographical position of
+    the latter and the natural barrenness of their land led them to seek
+    means of subsistence from abroad. The confederacy of tribes grew out of
+    tribal organisation, and the greater ability of the inhabitants of the
+    Central Valley gave to their confederacy a power of aggression superior
+    to that of any other aboriginal cluster in the same country.... The
+    Tlaxcaltecos were organised in four localised <i>phratries</i>, like
+    the Mexicans. Two elective chiefs—that is, elective in regard to the
+    individual, but with heredity of office in a certain <i>gens</i>—formed
+    the nominal head of the tribe. The true directive power, however,
+    lay in the council of the tribe. The tribe of Mexico had a similar
+    organisation. What created an apparent dissimilarity was the
+    confederacy of the valley tribes, with its chief-captain always taken
+    from the Mexicans. As, in the single tribe, the war-chief office was
+    hereditary in the <i>gens</i>, so, in the confederacy, the same office
+    becomes hereditary in the <em>tribe</em>.”<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> How different is the
+    wording of Prescott when speaking of the Aztec organisation! “The
+    government was an elective monarchy. Four of the principal nobles, who
+    had been chosen by their own body in the preceding reign, filled the
+    office of electors, to whom were added, with merely honourary rank,
+    however, the two royal allies of Tezcuco and Tlacopan. The sovereign
+    was selected from the brothers of the deceased prince, or, in default
+    of them, from his nephews. Thus the election was always restricted
+    to the same family. The candidate preferred must have distinguished
+    himself in war, though, as in the case of the last Montezuma.”<a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a>
+    In other words, the election was restricted to a certain gens. Morgan
+    says: “Nearly all American Indian tribes had two grades of chiefs,
+    who may be distinguished as sachems and common chiefs. Of these two
+    primary grades all other grades were varieties. They were elected in
+    each gens from among its members. A son could not be chosen to succeed
+    his father when descent was in the female line, because he belonged to
+    a different gens, and no gens would have a chief or sachem from any
+    gens but its own.” (Morgan here evidently forgot the right of adoption.
+    It would be perfectly regular, should a gens wish to do so, to adopt
+    a son into <span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span>the gens in order that he might succeed his father.) “The
+    office of sachem was hereditary in the gens, in the sense that it was
+    filled as often as a vacancy occurred; while the office of chief was
+    non-hereditary, because it was bestowed in reward of personal merit,
+    and died with the individual. Moreover, the duties of a sachem were
+    confined to the affairs of peace. He could not go out to war as a
+    sachem. On the other hand, the chiefs who were raised to office for
+    personal bravery, for wisdom of affairs, or for eloquence in council,
+    were usually the superior class in ability, though not in authority
+    over the gens. The relation of the sachem was primarily to the gens, of
+    which he was the official head, while that of the chief was primarily
+    to the tribe, of the council of which he, as well as the sachem, were
+    members.”<a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_422">
+    <img src="images/i_422.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ANCIENT PUEBLOAN MOCCASINS OF FIBRE, ARIZONA
+      <p class="hang">Except lower left hand one worn by the Ainos of Yezo, Japan.
+        Introduced for comparison. The Ainos were probably the earliest
+        inhabitants of Japan. In language and character they are
+        different from Japanese</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>As the Iroquois league was such an important affair, and as it was so
+    thoroughly studied by Morgan, I will quote him further by giving his
+    statement of the main points in the organisation.</p>
+
+  <p>“I. The Confederacy was a union of Five Tribes (afterwards Six),
+    composed of common gentes under one government on the basis of
+    equality, each Tribe remaining independent in all matters pertaining to
+    local self-government.</p>
+
+  <p>“II. It created a General Council of Sachems, who were limited in
+    number, equal in rank and authority, and invested with supreme powers
+    over all matters pertaining to the Confederacy.</p>
+
+  <p>“III. Fifty Sachemships were created and named in perpetuity in
+    certain gentes of the several Tribes; with power in these gentes to
+    fill vacancies as often as they occurred, by election from among their
+    respective members, and with the further power to depose from office
+    for cause; but the right to invest these Sachems with office was
+    reserved to the General Council.</p>
+
+  <p>“IV. The Sachems of the Confederacy were also Sachems in their
+    respective Tribes, and with the Chiefs of these Tribes formed the
+    Council of each, which was supreme over all matters pertaining to the
+    Tribe exclusively.</p>
+
+  <p>“V. Unanimity in the Council of the Confederacy was made essential to
+    every public act.</p>
+
+  <p>“VI. In the General Council the Sachems voted by Tribes, which gave to
+    each Tribe a negative upon the others.</p>
+
+  <p>“VII. The Council of each Tribe had power to convene the General
+    Council; but the latter had no power to convene itself.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span></p>
+  <p>“VIII. The General Council was open to the orators of the people for
+    the discussion of public questions; but the Council alone decided.</p>
+
+  <p>“IX. The Confederacy had no Chief Executive Magistrate or official head.</p>
+
+  <p>“X. Experiencing the necessity for a General Military Commander, they
+    created the office in a dual form, that one might neutralise the other.
+    The two principal War-chiefs created were made equal in powers.”<a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_426">
+    <img src="images/i_426.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>CHIMMESYAN HEAD-DRESS REPRESENTING THE WHITE OWL
+      <p class="hang">It is made of maple; eyes, tongue, eye-ornament on wings, and
+        ornament at base of the wing-feathers inlaid in Haliotis shell.
+        Wings and eyebrows of owl, and eyebrows, eyes, and noses of
+        the surrounding men painted black; margin of beak and body of
+        the owl except talons and knees, mouths, arms, and legs of the
+        surrounding men and the broad band surrounding the owl’s body,
+        painted red. 6¼ in. wide, 7½ in. high. In the American Museum</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Such was the remarkable construction of the government of these Amerind
+    people of New York. In its conception, in its details, and in its
+    execution it was one of the most extraordinary primitive governments
+    ever recorded. From a comparatively weak people it placed the Iroquois,
+    though they were far inferior in numbers to surrounding tribes, in a
+    commanding position, and enabled them to extend their sway over a vast
+    territory. They made no attempt to hold the region that was subject to
+    their devastation, but probably, had not the European appeared on the
+    scene, they would have gradually expanded until their villages covered
+    many times the area which they specifically claimed when our people
+    first came. An increase of population which would have overtaxed the
+    game-supply would have pushed the development of their agriculture and
+    forced the confederacy to move along higher and broader lines. One
+    great drawback to Amerindian progress, internecine wars, was entirely
+    obliterated by the masterly organisation of the Iroquois league,
+    while at the same time they gained by their union a strength for
+    offence and defence that, together with their fertile and well-watered
+    domain, rendered their organisation impregnable. This and the Mexican
+    confederacy prove that the Amerind was capable of great things in
+    governmental organisation. It only remained for him to discover the
+    secrets of smelting and forging, and he was apparently on the brink of
+    these discoveries, to step into a foremost place of development and
+    progress. In some respects it is a pity the Europeans did not remain in
+    ignorance of this continent for another five hundred years.</p>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Ch_XVI">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_428">
+      <img src="images/i_428.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>WOODEN “SEAL” DISH, HAIDA</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">ORIGIN, MIGRATIONS, AND HISTORY<a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a></div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">THE manner in which America was originally peopled has been the cause
+    of considerable speculation. For a long time it was generally believed,
+    and there are some who still hold that belief, that this peopling
+    occurred within comparatively recent times by way of Bering Strait, and
+    that before that the continent was not inhabited. But peoples do not
+    willingly migrate into frozen regions, and the Bering Strait and Alaska
+    down to Dixon Entrance were not many centuries ago buried under a
+    mantle of ice. I doubt if there were even Eskimo in Alaska five hundred
+    years back. It is my belief that all the tribes of the North-west
+    migrated there from the South and South-east, and not within recent
+    geologic time from the Asiatic direction.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp65" id="i_429">
+    <img src="images/i_429.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>TLINKIT SUMMER CAMP</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>That the continent was entirely peopled by way of Bering Strait
+    within the last thousand years, by migrations through a zone of ice,
+    is improbable. To assume that a population came over and passed down
+    to Mexico and Yucatan and even South America, carrying with them
+    their arts, but not exercising them on this interminable journey, is
+    ridiculous. No pottery has yet been found between the Yukon and the
+    Humboldt, or even farther south, probably because the Eskimo learned
+    what little they knew about it while in the St. Lawrence valley or the
+    Atlantic region, and the tribes of the North-west coast never came
+    into sufficiently close contact with potters to learn the art.<a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a>
+    Furthermore, no authentic trace <span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span>of any Old-World language thus far
+    has been found on this continent, and the only Asiatic language now
+    known to be allied to an American is that of a branch of the Eskimo
+    family which crossed from this side within the last three hundred
+    years. The Amerind languages change slowly. An immense period must
+    have elapsed since their separation from the rest of the world. It is
+    said that two Japanese vessels a year are wrecked on our California
+    coast, and some have peopled the continent from this source; a more
+    absurd theory than the other. The number of Japanese vessels that
+    were afloat a thousand years ago was as nothing compared with those
+    afloat to-day, and if only two per annum are wrecked on these shores
+    to-day, the wrecks a thousand years ago did not add materially to
+    the population.<a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> It is possible, however, that a few persons may
+    have reached either seaboard that way, and like Cabeza de Vaca, they
+    may have wandered for years among the various tribes as teachers and
+    medicine-men, giving rise to legends of “white and bearded strangers.”
+    But in the early days vessels were frail and did not venture far from
+    the coast, so that the chances of being driven to American shores
+    without foundering were very slight. The Northmen made the voyage,
+    however, and others may have done it. Yet the supposed visits of the
+    Irish and Danes are hardly worthy of serious consideration, although
+    it would be rash to deny the possibility of their having come. As for
+    the Lost-Tribes-of-Israel theory, on which Kingsborough was wrecked, no
+    archæologist of to-day would be willing to give it a second thought. A
+    multitude of stock languages, differing from each other, yet forming
+    a world-group by themselves, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span>are found here. The people who speak
+    them, from Panama to the Arctic, are in their habits, customs, and
+    physical characteristics wonderfully homogeneous,<a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> yet they
+    appear to exhibit several types that have been moulded into a family
+    resemblance by some strange circumstance. Toward Panama, some of them
+    attained a considerable degree of progress, but these were not of one
+    special stock but of diverse stocks. Farther north there was another
+    group attaining to a less but a similar kind of progress, and they
+    also were, and are, of diverse stocks. In the Mississippi valley are
+    evidences of another similar culture group, probably also of diverse
+    stocks because some of them were allied to, or were part of, the
+    stocks found there when the whites came. The same general conditions
+    prevailed farther east, and a centre of development was rapidly
+    forming in New York when it was destroyed by our coming. One of the
+    most widespread stocks, the Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan, is composite,
+    containing within it tribes of the highest culture and tribes of the
+    least culture, tribes that were peaceful and tribes that were warlike.
+    It is evident then that <em>culture was no evidence of relationship</em>
+    or the reverse among the Amerind people. By some powerful influence
+    and long association they had, whatever their origin, been moulded
+    into one race. “Where had they come from?” “How did they come to be
+    so much alike?” “Why did their highest development take place down by
+    the Isthmus instead of by the Great Lakes or in the fertile valley of
+    the Mississippi?” These are pertinent questions. Attempts have been
+    made to answer them by importing different people from different parts
+    of the world and their recent culture with them. But the more the
+    Amerinds are studied, the more homogeneous do we find them and the
+    more isolated from Old-World influences. Culture, as mentioned, was
+    not confined to one stock; it permeated through unrelated stocks. The
+    languages too are totally different from all others. Thus the more
+    the matter is investigated, the more closely are we confined to the
+    Western Hemisphere for the origin of the Amerind people, <em>as we know
+    them</em>. Toward Panama, that is below the City of Mexico, a kind of
+    civilisation was attained, and there we find was the densest population
+    on the continent. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">431</span>Culture never develops in a game country with a
+    sparse population, and there is, therefore, an intimate connection
+    between a crowded population and “culture” or “civilisation.” It may
+    be broadly asserted, I think, that <em>civilisation is crowding</em>;
+    it is man’s effort at self-preservation. Where the game-supply is
+    exhausted or insufficient and subsistence must be wholly or largely
+    wrested from the soil, there will be found the culture centres, the
+    hothouses of art and science, from which a filtration occurs into all
+    the contiguous regions and peoples. On this continent the chief centre
+    of culture was the narrowest part; the population was packed there
+    as in the narrow end of a funnel, leaving the whole broad top thinly
+    peopled. The question immediately arises: “Why was this so?” It is
+    evident at a glance that there was some preponderating, irresistible
+    influence which compelled the inhabitants to draw into these narrow,
+    restricted regions, there to act and react one tribe on another,
+    and this influence was constantly at work moulding them all. If the
+    continent had been peopled within any comparatively recent time, it is
+    not reasonable to suppose that the tribes would willingly have huddled
+    together far down in the most limited area. It is also from this area
+    apparently that all the arts have spread. The crowding and the culture
+    development were coincident. What was the cause of it? If we can arrive
+    at a satisfactory understanding of the cause, it seems to me that we
+    have the solution of the whole matter. The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">432</span>explanation appears to be
+    that the continent was peopled before the beginning of the glacial
+    epoch, and the crowding into the narrow regions, and consequently
+    the development of culture there, were due to the encroachment from
+    the north of the great cold. Wright says: “Just before the beginning
+    of the ice age, a temperate climate corresponding to latitude 35 on
+    the Atlantic coast extended far up toward the north pole, permitting
+    Greenland and Spitzbergen to be covered with trees and plants similar
+    in most respects to those found at the present time in Virginia and
+    North Carolina. Here indeed in close proximity to the north pole were
+    then residing, in harmony and contentment, the ancestors of nearly
+    all the plants and animals which are now found in the north temperate
+    zone.” It is not unreasonable to suppose, then, that man was also
+    here, though as yet the scientific evidence is perhaps not sufficient
+    to prove it. If he circled the globe in the Northern regions at that
+    time, and was also occupying Central portions, the cold drove all
+    south and together with changes of land levels cut off the American
+    division from the other world.<a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> Migration legends are useless in
+    determining the origin of the Amerinds, for they can only relate to
+    the <em>comparatively recent changes</em> of location before which, for
+    a long period, the people drifted up and down and across the continent
+    under the influences I have suggested. However man first originated,
+    or where, he was doubtless distributed, like the flora and fauna, at
+    some exceedingly remote period, over the whole world, by causes not now
+    understood, but one of which was probably a greater continuity of land
+    surfaces than exists to-day.<a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> Some of the earlier-world people were
+    possibly more advanced than we have been willing to concede, and there
+    was, from a very early day, a differentiation of tribes. Some were
+    making respectable weapons and tools of stone while others were using
+    clubs. Too much stress has been placed upon the European classification
+    of stone implements. It may exhibit conditions that existed in Europe,
+    but it has nothing to do with a standard of measurement for the world.
+    When Moses was leading his enlightened people, the European was a
+    painted savage. The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">433</span>period of time in which man used stone implements
+    is enormous; that in which he has used metal tools, comparatively
+    insignificant. It stands to reason, therefore, that during this long
+    use of stone, tribes attained to varying degrees of culture, and
+    varying degrees of perfection in stone tools. There never could have
+    been a single period of time when all tribes the world round made a
+    certain quality of implements, then another period when they all made
+    other quality of implements. Classification of tribes and races in a
+    time-scale, or even in a culture scale, according to the kind of stone
+    implements they used, is impossible. The Pai Ute and the Iroquois
+    made equally good tools in the seventeenth century, while in other
+    lands still inferior tribes were making implements about as good, and
+    others were struggling on with poorer ones. At the time of the Aztec
+    confederacy, their stone tools were not greatly superior to those of
+    the Pai Ute. Therefore, it would seem that any resemblance between
+    so-called American “paleolithic” implements and modern stone implements
+    cannot be used as an argument to disprove the age of the former, nor
+    that a polished stone implement <span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">434</span>found in a supposed ancient gravel
+    is necessarily an indication of intrusion or that the gravel is not
+    ancient. The implements thus far found in the California auriferous
+    gravels have been similar to those found on the surface to-day, and
+    this has been held by some to be a suspicious circumstance. It is not.
+    Some tribes in California in those remote times were probably making
+    stone implements quite as good as anything made to-day. Stone-working
+    is not capable of high development. The range is limited. Some tribes
+    compassed it early. Because also we do not find stone implements
+    abundant in the North-American glacial drift proves nothing concerning
+    man’s condition, presence or absence on the continent at that time. The
+    population <em>was almost entirely below the glacial limit</em>, only
+    a few inferior tribes skirting its southern fringe. We should, then,
+    expect to find few northerly pre-glacial evidences,<a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> as the main
+    culture development took place south of the ice line, and tribes above
+    this in pre-glacial times would be the most primitive.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_431">
+    <img src="images/i_431.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>ESKIMO SUMMER CAMP, PORT CLARENCE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_433">
+    <img src="images/i_433.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>WOODEN SNOW GOGGLES OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The material evidences concerning the antiquity of man in America
+    are many, but few are entirely satisfactory. The Calaveras skull and
+    other remains in the auriferous California gravels seem to place him
+    here as early as the Tertiary, and this, says Holmes,<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> would make
+    man older on this continent than anywhere else in the world according
+    to present evidence. A rudely chipped arrow-head has also been found
+    in another region under some elephant bones. A primitive hearth was
+    discovered in well digging in an old beach of Lake Ontario which dates
+    back to the glacial time. Many specimens of stone implements have been
+    found throughout the land in deposits which appear to be of great age.
+    There is always the question of modern introduction through burials,
+    overturned trees, etc., but the number and varying positions seem to
+    indicate that some of these tools have been found in their original
+    places. I excavated a mound in southern Utah from the depths of which I
+    brought out an exceedingly primitive grinding-stone, yet not a single
+    stone implement of any <span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">435</span>other kind was found. The grinding-stone was
+    twenty feet below the top of the mound and ten below the present
+    general level of the surface. The mound was formed of many layers of
+    earth interspersed with thin layers of charcoal and ashes. All around
+    the site there were house ruins on the surface, but in the mound not
+    a trace of a building stone was seen. I was told that in digging a
+    well not far from this locality a small earthen jug of antique type
+    was found about thirty feet below the present level. I did not see it
+    nor even the man who found it, but the great abundance of such finds
+    must indicate antiquity, for they could not all be fraudulent, nor all
+    recent intrusions.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_436">
+    <img src="images/i_436.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Prepared by M. H. Saville</div>
+    <figcaption>PRINCIPAL KNOWN RUINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp65" id="i_437">
+    <img src="images/i_437.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>NECKLACE OF DRIED HUMAN FINGERS OBTAINED ON BATTLEFIELD
+      OF WOUNDED-KNEE BY CAPTAIN BOURKE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The cause of the glacial period has been much discussed. It seems to
+    have been largely due to changes in land levels,<a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> and to other
+    causes not now understood. The people inhabiting the world before it
+    may have been originally much alike in kind and colour with local
+    variations, and the isolation produced by glacial conditions modified
+    this colour and increased the variations, those finally left in hot
+    lands becoming darker, medium temperatures producing brown, still
+    cooler the reds and yellows, and the forests of Europe evolving a shade
+    or shadow people, shrinking from the strong sun; the so-called white
+    race. The glacial epoch is often spoken of as if the whole world were
+    frozen solid, whereas in North America, from the Ohio and the Columbia
+    to the Isthmus, the climate was doubtless about relatively the same
+    as it is now from Davis Strait to the Potomac and from Yakutat Bay to
+    northern California. The ice extended down about to the Ohio River
+    in the East and on lowlands not below the Columbia in the West. The
+    Western mountain tops must have been completely glaciated and all
+    elevated regions were cold, the conditions prevailing resembling those
+    now found in Southern Alaska. The Sierra Nevadas, receiving the warm,
+    moist airs from the Pacific, must have been far more heavily glaciated
+    than the Rockies, which received less moisture in consequence. The ice
+    period is estimated to have endured from ten to twenty thousand years,
+    with an interval of recession in it and subsequent advance. The people
+    were driven southward, and those most favourably situated developed
+    the most. The people most favourably situated were all <em>who were
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">437</span>already in</em>, or could fight their way to, the temperate lowlands
+    of southern Mexico and Central America, which were rendered somewhat
+    more extensive by the recession of the sea, caused by the withdrawal of
+    the immense quantities of water that were heaped up in ice thousands
+    of feet in thickness.<a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> This has been estimated to have lowered
+    the waters of the ocean by from 600 to 1000 feet.<a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> The lands thus
+    laid bare were climatically inviting and probably were soon covered
+    with vegetation. In South America the people were crowded northward,
+    or held there by the cold coming from the south. It would be in the
+    northern portions, particularly the lowlands, that we ought to find
+    evidence of the highest development, especially on the side receiving
+    warm currents, and there is where we do find it. We apparently have
+    then a northern and a southern limit to the ancient inhabitants of
+    this hemisphere, within which climatic conditions during the period
+    of great cold, and for some time thereafter, were most favourable to
+    human development. This limit in the Northern continent is latitude 23
+    and in the Southern also 23. Within these lines the great precolumbian
+    development took place, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">439</span>and the heart of this development on the
+    Northern continent seems to have rested between the Isthmus of
+    Tehuantepec and the present upper frontier of Honduras, chiefly on the
+    lowlands, and probably also on lands now beneath the ocean.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_438">
+    <img src="images/i_438.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Prepared by M. H. Saville</div>
+    <figcaption>PRINCIPAL KNOWN RUINS OF MEXICO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In North America, south of latitude 23, then, most of the tribes of
+    the continent were crowded by the great cold, and here they developed
+    their chief characteristics, so that by the time the ice began its
+    last recession they had become a homogeneous people, with the greatest
+    advancement and the greatest similarities in the region where the
+    population had been densest, with a diminishing scale outward, those
+    tribes farthest from the culture centre varying most from the highest
+    culture attained. The tribe on the extreme edge was, and is now,
+    represented by the Eskimo.<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> The development and the distribution
+    of the arts were in the same order, and here apparently is the
+    explanation of the superior excellence of Central-American arts, and
+    the seeming derivation of all the arts on the continent from this
+    centre. Finally the recession of the ice caused renewed trouble. The
+    melting of it and the return thereby of the locked-up waters to the
+    ocean caused a submergence of lowlands that had been made habitable by
+    their withdrawal. There were floods and floods. Tribes were overwhelmed
+    or were driven to higher ground. There was a renewed shifting of
+    populations over the whole continent. Those which had been held back
+    toward the highlands and toward the ice, accustomed to the cool airs
+    and to a particular food, readily followed the retrogression of the
+    ice, impelled always by pressure of the tribes farther south. They
+    were inured to cold. The most southerly tribes became inured somewhat
+    to heat, and clung to their lands, impelled also to do this by the
+    pressure of wilder tribes recoiling from contact with still other
+    tribes. But heat being debilitating, and especially so to the Amerind
+    constitution, the Yucatec peoples, who were those who had attained the
+    highest development, gradually degenerated under its influence, and
+    before the voyage of Columbus whole cities were depopulated. Some held
+    their own for a longer period, but were already on the way to decline
+    when the Spaniards appeared. In some cases their towns were occupied
+    by an inferior tribe of perhaps the same stock, or an inferior tribe
+    dwelt around <span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">440</span>them and, not knowing the origin of the architectural
+    works, attempted to account for them by fairy tales like the legend of
+    the <cite>Dwarf’s House</cite>, which Stephens learned. The people nearest
+    the ice front are still represented by the Eskimo, and their next
+    neighbours, as of yore, are the Athapascans, and Algonquins, and so
+    on down in zones more or less distinct, but considerably deranged
+    by subsequent migrations, to the builders of the Yucatec ruins.
+    The Apaches and Navajos are usually said to have <em>come down</em>
+    from their kin in the North, but it is equally possible that they
+    <em>remained <span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">441</span>behind</em> in the high mountains while their kin pushed
+    on.<a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> The table-lands of Mexico, being high and temperate, formed
+    a final refuge for many tribes, some of whom had profited by contact
+    with the centre of development, and these roamed the plateau, one
+    branch finally settling around the lake of Mexico, and there planting
+    again the seeds of the lowland culture. Many tribes were early crowded
+    into the California coast region, because the lowland climate there
+    remained comparatively mild, and the supply of fish, seals, etc. was
+    so great that they were not compelled to till the soil for subsistence
+    (if indeed they were possessed of sufficient knowledge, or if the land
+    were in condition to produce), as was the case farther south, where the
+    population was denser and natural supplies insufficient. But the region
+    was so inhospitable that only fragments of these tribes survived. They
+    did not multiply.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_440">
+    <img src="images/i_440.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photographed by the author</div>
+    <figcaption>PROBABLE ASPECT OF ALASKA SUMMER LANDSCAPE SOME 600 YEARS AGO</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The reason the Eastern continents produced many and diverse peoples
+    is that the glacial period temperate zone, or warm zone, extended
+    through many degrees of <em>longitude</em>, offering extensive areas of
+    settlement to the races in that hemisphere, where they remained more or
+    less isolated and independent, to advance in their own way and along
+    their own lines; that is, on the Eastern continents there was ample
+    <em>latitudinal</em> land space, while on the Western there was a very
+    limited latitudinal land space that retained a salubrious climate. This
+    was the cause of North American race homogeneity.</p>
+
+  <p>The period of time that has elapsed since the so-called disappearance
+    of the ice was formerly believed to be very great, but latterly views
+    on this point have been much modified. Gilbert has declared, after
+    a study of the Niagara gorge, that the time since the ice left that
+    region is not more than seven thousand years, perhaps less. More recent
+    investigations have tended to confirm his suggestion of fewer years.
+    Immediately after the recession of glacial ice, as may be seen in
+    Alaska to-day, erosion is extremely rapid. I have not space to discuss
+    this point at length, but it is apparent that the rate of erosion is
+    variable, and I doubt if more than five thousand years have passed
+    since the ice left the vicinity of the Niagara gorge. As it still
+    lingers in the North, far down on the Pacific side, it <em>is probably
+      not more than a thousand years since its <span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">443</span>influence was powerful in
+      affecting the climate of all the region southward</em>. The North is
+    undoubtedly growing warmer. Some five hundred years ago Alaska was
+    still covered with glacial ice. Five hundred years from now there
+    will scarcely be a glacier to be found there, except in the highest
+    mountains. “The next generation will find few of them with their fronts
+    still in the sea,” says Henry Gannett.<a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_442">
+    <img src="images/i_442.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>A PUEBLOAN WARRIOR OF NAMBÉ, NEW MEXICO, IN BATTLE ARRAY</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The most widely spread stocks are made up of those that were forced
+    to occupy a middle position during the cold, like the Algonquins
+    and Athapascans, who were invigorated by it. Other stocks, for
+    reasons not understood, dwindled to mere handfuls of people, like
+    the Karankawan, now extinct, the Adaizan, the Natchezan, the Uchean,
+    the Zuñian, Keresan, and others. The oldest people of the Valley
+    of Mexico mentioned are the Xicalancas, Olmecas, and the Toltecs.
+    Brinton believed the latter never existed, but other authors, fully as
+    distinguished, accept them as a <i>bona-fide</i> tribe. They may have
+    been kindred to the Nahuatls, coming from the crowded lowlands, as the
+    waters rose and the heat increased, and occupying the cooler plateau.
+    Their wilder relatives later became influenced by them and adopting
+    their learning began the famous development in the Valley of Mexico.
+    The period of evolution in the crowded region was very long. Tribes
+    rose to power and declined.<a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> Other tribes, profiting by their
+    experience, took up some of their ways and progressed. Many of these
+    tribes we have no reminiscence of.</p>
+
+  <p>Back of the Conquest of Mexico by Cortes, the thread of authentic
+    history becomes most uncertain. It begins about the sixth century.
+    Ixtlilxochitl, the native Mexican, has written a good deal, but it
+    must be taken, oftentimes, with extreme caution. The history of the
+    Amerind race is written mainly by their conquerors. It is a one-sided
+    affair, and even so is not pleasant reading. Balzac says: “Historians
+    are privileged liars, who lend their pen to popular beliefs.” Certainly
+    the character of the Amerind and his doings have not often been too
+    charitably drawn, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">444</span>while, on the other hand, our actions toward him,
+    even as related by ourselves, are enough to make one sometimes doubt
+    the benefits of civilisation. Morgan, speaking of the remnant of the
+    Senecas, says: “To embitter their sense of desolation as a nation, the
+    pre-emptive right to these last remnants of their ancient possessions
+    is now held by a company of land speculators, the Ogden Land Company,
+    who, to wrest away these few acres, have pursued and hunted them
+    for the last fourteen years with a degree of wickedness hardly to
+    be paralleled in the history of human avarice. Not only have every
+    principle of honesty, every dictate of humanity, every Christian
+    precept been violated by this company in their eager artifices to
+    despoil the Senecas; but the darkest frauds, the basest bribery, and
+    the most execrable intrigues which soulless avarice could suggest,
+    have been practised in open day upon this defenceless and much injured
+    people.”<a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figleft illowp55" id="i_444">
+    <img src="images/i_444.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>APACHE WOMAN CARRYING WATER IN A WICKER BOTTLE</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>On one occasion in 1643, out of a spirit of revenge for a murder
+    committed by an Indian who had been infuriated by whisky, but whose
+    friends, according to Amerind custom, offered to pay a blood indemnity,
+    Governor Kieft, heading a band of soldiers and freebooters from Dutch
+    privateers, fell upon the unsuspecting Algonquins and slaughtered over
+    a hundred of them. Little children were tossed into the river, and the
+    parents <span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">445</span>who plunged to the rescue were prevented from landing by the
+    soldiers, and child and parent both perished. In this incident began
+    the Dutch and Indian War, which lasted two years. Can anyone condemn
+    them for going to war after such treatment?</p>
+
+  <p>Acts of white brutality of this character could be quoted to fill a
+    volume, but these are sufficient to indicate the manner of the European
+    approach, except in the case of Penn. The more docile the Amerinds
+    were, the more abuse they got. If they became self-supporting like the
+    Navajos, the government gave them nothing; if they were murderous and
+    deadly, like the Apaches, the government took care of them and fed
+    them. Issuing rations is a proper thing, when we have destroyed the
+    native means of subsistence, but the tribe that works and helps itself
+    ought to be aided further toward civilisation in other ways. One of
+    the most stubborn of the numerous Amerind wars was the Seminole in the
+    Everglades of Florida. Our whole available force was engaged in this
+    war, besides some fifty thousand militia and volunteers. Though there
+    were probably not more than four hundred warriors, the cost of the
+    war was over $30,000,000, and three thousand lives were sacrificed.
+    The wars with the Apaches were long and difficult. The Modocs also
+    carried on a disastrous war, and recently the Sioux took their turn.
+    These wars could generally have been averted by proper diplomacy. The
+    battle of Wounded Knee was precipitated by a wild and unauthorised
+    shot at a critical moment by one of our soldiers. Had he remained
+    inactive the battle would probably never have occurred. Many tribes
+    were exterminated at an early period. Most of the Carolina tribes were
+    destroyed between 1714 and 1740. To-day very few Amerinds exist in the
+    United States east of the Mississippi. Those who were not destroyed, or
+    who are not still living on lands reserved for them, are mostly west
+    of the Mississippi, either on lands belonging to them in the Indian
+    Territory, or on scattered reservations. Tribes in Indian Territory
+    have long conducted a sort of civilised government, but some of them
+    are now on the eve of selling their lands and purchasing broader tracts
+    with the funds obtained, in Mexico. The Navajos are in possession of
+    an enormous area lying across the line of Arizona and New Mexico,
+    and their vast herds of sheep, cattle, and horses require extensive
+    grazing, so that it will be impossible to reduce the area allotted
+    to them, especially as the tribe is steadily increasing in numbers.
+    Schools of mechanic arts should <span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">447</span>speedily be established among them,
+    in order that when they eventually are obliged to look to other avenues
+    of support than stock-raising, they can do work that will command a
+    price. It makes not the slightest difference whether or not they are
+    able to read English, if they have wares to sell that white people
+    need and want, and the Navajo is capable of great development on the
+    mechanical side. They will learn English when necessity requires it.
+    The Mokis have a reservation adjoining the Navajos, and it is ample for
+    them for all time, as they are not increasing, and their herds of sheep
+    are small.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_446">
+    <img src="images/i_446.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Permission of E. H. Harriman</div>
+    <figcaption>GROUP OF ESKIMO, PORT CLARENCE, ALASKA</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp40" id="i_447">
+    <img src="images/i_447.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>Pl. LXI.—Second Ann.<br>
+      SHELL SPIDER GORGETS<br>
+      From mounds in Missouri, Illinois, and Tennessee</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>In the West the history of the Amerind is linked mainly with that of
+    but two other races, the Spanish and the Anglo-Saxon, while in the East
+    it is intimately bound up with the wars and history of the Dutch and
+    French as well. All the struggles of these European races for supremacy
+    affected the Amerind, and in the East he is found sometimes on one
+    side, sometimes on another.<a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> He did not for some time discover
+    that his doom was in the European regardless of kind. At first, too,
+    the Amerind extended the law of hospitality to the newcomers, and the
+    Europeans would have starved to death in some instances had it not
+    been for the timely aid of the race in possession of the soil, and
+    whose reward was subsequent destruction. The Amerinds at last tried
+    to combine, as in the conspiracy of Pontiac, against their increasing
+    foe, and had they been able to throw aside some of their peculiar
+    regulations and form a wide-spreading and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">449</span>close confederacy, they
+    could have compelled the Europeans to halt on the Atlantic slopes of
+    the Appalachian chain for a long period. “In our ignorance,” says Simon
+    Pokagon, chief of the Pokagon Pottawatomies, “we did not comprehend
+    the mighty ocean of humanity that lay back of the advance waves of
+    pioneer settlement. But being fired by as noble patriotism as ever
+    burned in the hearts of mortals, we tried to beat back the reckless
+    white man who dared to settle within our borders—and vast armies were
+    sent out to punish us. We fought most heroically against overpowering
+    numbers for home and native land; sometimes victory was ours, as when,
+    during the last decade of the eighteenth century, after having many
+    warriors killed, and our villages burned to the ground, our fathers
+    arose in their might, putting to flight the alien armies of Generals
+    Harmer and St. Clair, hurling them in disorder from the wilderness
+    across our borders into their own ill-gotten domain.”<a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> But the
+    whites who had already come to America, however much they might have
+    desired to leave the Amerinds alone, were powerless to prevent other
+    whites, in search of better fortunes, from dispossessing them, and
+    so impelled by the pressure of European population, numbers came and
+    numbers came again and again, and yet still others behind them. The
+    result, the final result, was inevitable. The Amerind was doomed when
+    Columbus first saw the Western land, and nothing that the Amerind
+    could have done would have greatly changed the final course of events.
+    Tecumseh made an heroic effort to unite his people in a stubborn stand
+    against the enemy, but the difficulty was that there were not enough
+    Tecumsehs. The powerful league of the Iroquois, that once promised to
+    dominate the whole continent, began its decline with the very first
+    intercourse with the Europeans, so that in 1750 they were about half
+    their former number. The league was probably formed about the middle
+    of the sixteenth century, and in these two hundred years they reached
+    their highest power and were on the wane. As it must have taken them
+    some time to reach the point where they could form such a body as the
+    league, they must have been a powerful and progressive people at least
+    a hundred years before, so that their main existence as a progressive
+    people probably covered a period of some three hundred years if not
+    more. Had they not been wrecked by contact with Europeans, it is safe
+    to assume that they <span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">451</span>would have advanced to double their power, at
+    least, in another century. They destroyed the Siouan tribes of the
+    East, held the Lenapé in subjection, and terrorised the Algonquins as
+    far as the banks of the Mississippi.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_448">
+    <img src="images/i_448.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">George Catlin</div>
+    <figcaption>BLACK HAWK<br>
+      The great central figure in the Black Hawk War, 1832</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_450">
+    <img src="images/i_450.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photographed by M. H. Saville, 1890</div>
+    <figcaption>PORTION OF THE SO-CALLED “PALACE” OF LABNA, YUCATAN<br>
+      Construction: stone. &nbsp;Site: tropical forest. &nbsp;Abandoned in prehistoric times
+      <p class="hang">Saville says: “The entire surface of the country is covered with
+        forests.... Immediately to the south and west no white man
+        has ever penetrated beyond the first range of hills; and who
+        can tell what gems of ancient architecture lie buried in the
+        wilderness”</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>King Philip, Red Jacket, Pontiac, Black Hawk, and many other Amerinds
+    distinguished themselves as men of wide capacity, and in our later day
+    may be mentioned the famous Sitting Bull, whose sagacity, intelligence,
+    and military skill were of an extremely high order. He gave us much
+    trouble, to be sure, but if all is fair in war, Sitting Bull deserves
+    great praise for his ability.</p>
+
+  <p>In war the Amerinds were given to killing all they could, but as this
+    is the business of war, and as white armies use weapons that are also
+    meant to kill, and seem to try to do killing in battle, we cannot be
+    too hard on the Amerind warrior if he did not always do his killing
+    exactly in the way we do it. “Murder as a fine art” was not one of his
+    studies. He killed and we kill; where is the difference? Wars may be
+    necessary; I think they sometimes are; so did the Amerind.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="i_451">
+    <img src="images/i_451.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>MUSICAL BOW OF THE SOUTHERN TEPEHUANES AND THE AZTECS, MEXICO
+      <p class="hang">The sounding-board is a gourd with a hole in it. The other end
+        of the brace attached to the bow rests on a stone. The cord
+        of the bow was struck by a stick to produce the desired
+        noise. Found by Lumholtz in use. Length of bow, 1 metre 36.5
+        centimetres. See <a href="#Page_308">page 308</a>; and also article on “Geographical
+        Distribution of the Musical Bow” by O. T. Mason, <cite>American
+        Anthropologist</cite>, November, 1897; <cite>Natural History of
+        the Musical Bow</cite>, by Henry Balfour; and “Symbolism of the
+        Huichol Indians,” by Carl Lumholtz, <cite>Memoirs of the American
+        Museum</cite>, vol. iii, pages 206, 207</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>Long before any permanent settlers pushed to the wilderness,
+    adventurous traders penetrated to remote regions with the whisky keg,
+    and as they seldom expected to go to the same place twice, they usually
+    swindled the native outrageously. Many of these were Frenchmen, and
+    they were given the name of <em>Coureurs du Bois</em>. There were also
+    always certain outlaws who found safety in putting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">453</span> a great distance
+    between themselves and the law. These classes were more apt to stir
+    the native up against the European than to render intercourse easy,
+    and often, in early times as well as in our day, they incited the
+    Amerinds to war for the sake of their own gains. But it was the coming
+    of actual settlers which caused the greatest trouble. They appropriated
+    the soil, killed the game, and otherwise interfered with rights which
+    the tribe concerned had for centuries, perhaps, regarded as theirs
+    alone. In the case of the Hudson Bay Company, it being well understood
+    that they occupied certain points merely for trade, no trouble was
+    ever experienced. <em>For two hundred years this company traded all
+      over the northern part of the continent without a serious rupture with
+      any tribe!</em> Each tribe held its own lands as before, so far as the
+    company was concerned, hence there was no clashing; but with settlers
+    taking up choice places it becomes another matter.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="i_452">
+    <img src="images/i_452.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>GENERAL TYPE OF CHIMMESYAN, HAIDA, AND TLINKIT CHIEF’S COSTUME, NORTH-WEST COAST
+      <p class="hang">The Chilkat blanket which this man has over his shoulders “is
+        so called because the best specimens come from the Chilkat
+        country,” says Niblack. All the North-west coast tribes use
+        it. The warp is cedar bark twine and the woof a yarn made of
+        mountain-goat wool. See pages <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_453">
+    <img src="images/i_453.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>PERFORATED DISCOIDAL STONE, ILLINOIS</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>The stories of Cabeza de Vaca, Soto, Cortes, Coronado, John Smith,
+    La Salle, Tonti, Joliet, Lewis and Clark, Fremont, and many others
+    are valuable, not only for the adventures contained in them and the
+    descriptions of new country, but because of the descriptions of
+    Amerinds as they existed in the beginning. Our understanding of the
+    routes of some of these explorers is not always strictly accurate,
+    and the accuracy of the route has much to do with our properly
+    placing geographically the Amerinds named therein. There are grave
+    discrepancies in the tracing of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">455</span>that of Coronado, for example. In
+    another place I have presented my views on this subject.<a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter" id="i_454">
+    <img class="illowp70" src="images/i_454.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>HOBOBO, THE FIRE KATCINA IN THE SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY, CICHUMOVI, 1884<br>
+      From a drawing by the author, after one of his photographs. The mask
+      enclosed the whole head, and was of cloth, stained green, with globular eyes attached
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <figure class="figright illowp65" id="i_455">
+    <img src="images/i_455.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>
+      <p class="hang">CIRCLE OF DANCERS IN THE INTERVALS BETWEEN THE APPEARANCES OF THE
+        VARIOUS KATCINAS IN THE MOKI SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY, CICHUMOVI, ARIZONA, 1884</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p>As there were outlaws among the whites, so too there were outlaws among
+    the Amerinds. These were men from various tribes who had committed
+    crimes and escaped the punishment they should have received according
+    to the law of their people, and coming together they sometimes formed a
+    band by themselves in some strong and isolated position. A good example
+    of such a band of renegades was that of one Patnish in south-eastern
+    Utah near the Navajo mountain. It was composed of outlaws from the
+    surrounding tribes, chiefly Utes and Navajos, and was the terror of
+    the country, though in 1872, when I first knew of it, nothing in the
+    way of serious depredation had been attempted for several years. The
+    Mormons of southern Utah looked upon Patnish as a dangerous man, yet
+    he sometimes came to their frontier villages in a peaceful way. He
+    had three or four stalwart sons who usually accompanied him in his
+    travels, and they were always ready for emergencies. The band wore the
+    Navajo dress and, I understood, preferred to be considered Navajos.
+    Beckwourth mentions a renegade band of this sort in his time, a village
+    “composed of outlaws from all the surrounding tribes, who were expelled
+    from their <span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">456</span>various communities for sundry infractions of their rude
+    criminal code; they had acquired a hard name for their cruelties and
+    excesses, and many white traders were known to have been killed by
+    them.... The village numbered three hundred lodges, and could bring
+    from twelve to fifteen hundred warriors into the field.... We called it
+    the City of Refuge.”<a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> He speaks of them as Cheyennes, but I suppose
+    they were Cheyennes in the same way that Patnish’s band were Navajos;
+    because they preferred to be called so.</p>
+
+  <p>These outlaws often caused trouble between the better class of Amerinds
+    and the whites, because, especially in the earlier days, an “Indian”
+    was an “Indian” always and everywhere, and a crime of the outlaws or
+    others was revenged upon the first “Indian” that was met with. There
+    never was any inquiry to find out if he committed the crime; he was
+    generally shot on sight. Innocence was a quality never thought of in
+    dealing with “Indians.” By reason of their birth, they were all guilty
+    of any crime perpetrated.</p>
+
+  <p>But I have already exceeded the limits prescribed for this book. In
+    concluding, I would say that it seems from all the evidence available
+    that this continent was peopled at a period so remote that other races
+    had not yet developed their present characteristics. This was probably
+    before the glacial epoch began, while the Northern climate was mild,
+    and while land surfaces were distributed more on latitudinal lines,
+    separated by narrower waters. Afterwards there was a rearrangement by
+    the forces of nature, which, together with the extreme cold of the
+    North, effectually separated the Amerinds from other peoples, and
+    caused them to mingle and react on each other till even the affinities
+    which had before developed in different localities and had produced
+    some differentiation of types were almost rubbed out and remain to-day
+    only as tinges of the earlier qualities. The other world tribes,
+    subjected to other influences, have developed other differences and
+    have diverged from their original stocks. It is also probable that
+    in the redistribution of land surfaces and rearrangement of land
+    levels, many stocks, some highly developed, were obliterated. Slight
+    modifications may have occurred through later accidental intrusions
+    from the Eastern Hemisphere, but if there had been any considerable
+    intercourse within a recent period <span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">458</span>between outside peoples and the
+    Amerinds we should have found distinct traces of it in the writings
+    of early days. People as different and extraordinary as the Amerinds
+    were would have produced a vivid impression on any who might have
+    seen them and contrariwise a European, for example, would have left
+    a lasting impression. On the extreme North-west coast there seems to
+    be a type resemblance to Asiatics, but this is more likely due to an
+    extremely early colouring which was preserved by special isolation on
+    this continent, rather than to any considerable infusion of Asiatic
+    blood in recent time. As before remarked, I am of the opinion that
+    the Alaska and North-west coast tribes reached those regions from the
+    South and South-east in comparatively late times.<a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> Taking a broad
+    view of the question, it seems to be an inevitable conclusion that the
+    Amerind race, or rather <em>the various races of which it was originally
+    composed</em>, were early cut off on this hemisphere from intercourse
+    with the remainder of the world, and held in isolation by a change
+    in land distribution and by the continued glaciation of the northern
+    portions of the continent which in a measure endures to this day.
+    The climate of North-eastern Siberia was also glacial and prevented
+    migrations from milder regions. Many eminent archæologists agree
+    that the Amerind was here before the great cold moved down, although
+    the evidence of implements and remains as we now understand them is,
+    perhaps, insufficient. Languages, traits, customs, and arts are also
+    to be considered, and they seem all to favour, as outlined above,
+    the theory of an exceedingly remote peopling of this continent from
+    various directions. But this slight attempt to outline vast movements
+    must be brought to a close. To sum briefly up, then, it seems that the
+    Amerindian race, while originally composed of different elements, was,
+    as a body, separated from the other peoples of the world, at a remote
+    epoch, and by peculiar climatic and geographic influences, welded into
+    an ethnic unity, which was unimpressed by outside influences till
+    modern times.</p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_457">
+    <img src="images/i_457.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Photographed by M. H. Saville</div>
+    <figcaption>FRONT OF THE HOUSE OF THE COLUMNS, MITLA, OAXACA
+      <p class="hang">The excavation is shown that was made by Saville in January, 1900.
+        A cement floor was uncovered and the base of a square that was
+        probably a shrine. On the left, behind, is seen the top of the
+        Catholic church that has been built on the site of one of the
+        ancient structures. Excavations at the sites of old cities will
+        doubtless yield valuable returns. Recently (October, 1900) a
+        sewer excavation in the City of Mexico, near the Cathedral, the
+        site of the great teocalli, furnished several wagon-loads of
+        idols, gold objects, jade beads, etc. See also pages <a href="#i_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—For an excellent <i>résumé</i> of facts on “The
+      Prehistoric Archæology of North America,” see the article by
+      Henry W. Haynes, p. 329, Winsor’s <em>Narrative and Critical
+      History of the United States</em>, vol. i.; also “The Progress
+      of Opinion Respecting the Origin and Antiquity of Man in
+      America,” by Justin Winsor, <i>ibid.</i>, p. 369; also the
+      “Critical Essay on Sources of Information,” p. 316; and for
+      pre-Columbian explorations see p. 76; and, <cite>The Fundamental
+      Principles of Old and New World Civilisations</cite>, by Mrs.
+      Zelia Nuttall, Peabody Museum.</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">459</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter" id="i_459">
+    <img class="illowp25" src="images/i_459.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="right xsmall" style="padding-right: 25%;">Harlan I. Smith</div>
+    <figcaption>A COSTUMED HUMAN FIGURE FROM TAMPICO, WASHINGTON<br>
+      ½ natural size.
+      <p class="hang">The material is antler. Found in a stone cist somewhat resembling
+        the stone graves of Kentucky and Ohio, but covered by a heap of
+        jagged basaltic rocks about 8 feet in diameter. The skeleton
+        of a child was found in the cist. The antler figure is 247 mm.
+        long and from 2 to 5 mm. thick. The front is engraved as shown
+        above. The back is plain. See paper on this subject by Harlan
+        I. Smith.—<cite>Bulletin American Museum</cite>, vol. xx, pp. 195–203.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">460</span></p>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_460">
+    <img src="images/i_460.jpg" alt="">
+    <div class="attr">Marshall H. Saville</div>
+    <figcaption>ENTRANCE OF A TOMB AT CUILAPA, MEXICO
+      <p class="hang">It was around the entrances of such tombs as this that the
+        terra-cotta funeral urns were found, shown on pp. xii, xxviii,
+        115. They were usually in series of five with nothing in them.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Appendix">
+    <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">461</span></p>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_461">
+      <img src="images/i_461.jpg" alt="">
+      <figcaption>STICK USED IN THE AWL GAME</figcaption>
+    </figure>
+
+    <h2>APPENDIX<a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a></h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="drop-cap">A LIST of the principal stocks or families, tribes, and many
+    sub-tribes of the North American Amerinds, based on the linguistic
+    classification of the U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology, as given in the
+    <cite>Seventh Annual Report</cite>; on Brinton’s classification in his
+    <cite>The American Race</cite>, on Mason’s “Linguistic Families of Mexico,”
+    in the <cite>American Anthropologist</cite>, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1; in
+    <i>Mexico</i>, Washington, 1900, Bureau of American Republics;
+    Dall’s Tribes of the Extreme Northwest, <cite>Contributions to North
+    American Ethnology</cite>, vol. i.; James Mooney’s <cite>Siouan Tribes of
+    the East</cite>; and on lists in the <cite>Bibliographies</cite> of James C.
+    Pilling, with tribal names from other sources.</p>
+
+  <h3 class="smcap">List of Stocks and Sub-Stocks<a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a></h3>
+
+  <p>The abbreviations are the ones used in the alphabetical list of tribes.
+    By referring back from that list to this, the linguistic affinity
+    and general geographical location of a tribe may be determined. The
+    author has added the term “<span class="smcap">Hopitan</span>” as a sub-stock of the
+    <span class="smcap">Shoshonean</span> to designate the group of Hopi tribes, which,
+    while showing strong linguistic affinity, are otherwise, like the
+    <span class="smcap">Piman</span> and <span class="smcap">Nahuatlan</span>, so markedly separated in
+    habits from the true <span class="smcap">Shoshonean</span> stock that an individual
+    classification for them seems desirable. As the <span class="smcap">Hopitan</span>
+    are ranked as <span class="smcap">Shoshonean</span> in the general scheme the harmony
+    of the classification is not interfered with. <span class="smcap">Puebloan</span> is
+    also given as a comprehensive descriptive term for all the permanent
+    house-building tribes, regardless of linguistic affinities, or ancient
+    or modern existence. This is necessary because it is not possible to
+    assign a linguistic place to the former occupants of ruins like those
+    of the Chaco, yet it is settled that they were of a kind with the other
+    town builders. Thus, also, the Cliff-dwellers may be conveniently
+    classed under this head. Tusayan and Cibola, as applied respectively to
+    the <span class="smcap">Hopitan</span> and the <span class="smcap">Zuñian</span>, should never be used, for
+    the reason that it is not certain that these are the places that were
+    so designated by Coronado in 1540. The author believes they were not
+    seen by Coronado.<a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> It is in the interest of accuracy to avoid these
+    unnecessary designations, which confuse ethnological and geographical
+    matters.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">462</span></p>
+
+  <ul class="hang">
+    <li><i>Ada.</i> <span class="smcap">Adaizan.</span> Western Louisiana.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Alq.</i> <span class="smcap">Algonquian.</span> North-east third of the continent, from Tennessee and Montana.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ath.</i> <span class="smcap">Athapascan.</span> North-west part of the continent, and from the Utah-Colorado line southward
+      into Mexico. There are also some small groups on the Pacific coast in south-western Oregon and north-western California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Att.</i> <span class="smcap">Attacapan.</span> Southern Louisiana.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Beo.</i> <span class="smcap">Beothukan.</span> Northern Newfoundland. Extinct. Formerly all Newfoundland.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Cad.</i> <span class="smcap">Caddoan.</span> Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and North Dakota.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Crb.</i> <span class="smcap">Caribbean.</span> Caribbean Islands and British Honduras. Also probably Florida and S. E. United States at a very early period.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Cpn.</i> <span class="smcap">Chapanecan.</span> Chiapas, Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Chi.</i> <span class="smcap">Chimakuan.</span> North-west Washington.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Chrk.</i> <span class="smcap">Chimarikan.</span> Northern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Chyn.</i> <span class="smcap">Chimmesyan.</span> British Columbia, near Dixon Entrance, and the neighbouring Annette Island, in Alaska.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Cit.</i> <span class="allsmcap">CHINANTECAN.</span> Oaxaca, Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Chik.</i> <span class="smcap">Chinookan.</span> Lower portion of the Columbia River.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Cht.</i> <span class="smcap">Chitimachan.</span> Southern Louisiana.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Chon.</i> <span class="smcap">Chontal.</span>See Zap., My., Tqs., also Tzental.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Chm.</i> <span class="smcap">Chumashan.</span> Southern California coast.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Coh.</i> <span class="allsmcap">COAHUILTECAN.</span> Lower valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Cop.</i> <span class="smcap">Copehan.</span> Northern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Cso.</i> <span class="smcap">Cusaboan.</span> Coast of South Carolina; possibly mainly related to the Muskhogean.
+      It is a group title. See Gp.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Cost.</i> <span class="smcap">Costanoan.</span> California, south of the Golden Gate.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Dak.</i> <span class="smcap">Dakota.</span> See Siu.</li>
+
+    <li><i>E. Siu.</i><span class="smcap">Siouan of the East.</span>Same as Siu.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Esk.</i> <span class="smcap">Eskimauan.</span> From Prince William Sound, Alaska, all along the northern coasts, islands,
+      and inlets to Hudson Bay, Greenland, and northern Newfoundland.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Alk. Esk.</i> Alaska Eskimo.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Alu. Esk.</i> Aleut Eskimo. Aleutian Islands.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Gr. Esk.</i> Greenland Eskimo.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Lab. Esk.</i> Labrador Eskimo.</li>
+
+    <li><i>M. Esk.</i> Middle or Central Eskimo. North of Hudson Bay.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Gp.</i> <span class="smcap">Group title.</span> Several tribes of different stocks classed erroneously together.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Gua.</i> <span class="smcap">Guatusoan.</span> Nicaragua.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ess.</i> <span class="allsmcap">ESSELENIAN.</span> South coast of California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Hai.</i> <span class="smcap">Haida.</span> See Skit.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Hua.</i> <span class="smcap">Huavan.</span> Isthmus of Tehuantepec.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ho.</i> <span class="smcap">Hopitan.</span> North-east Arizona. Classed as Shoshonean.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ir.</i> <span class="smcap">Iroquoian.</span> Around lakes Erie and Ontario, and down the St. Lawrence
+      <span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">463</span> as far as Quebec; along the Susquehanna and its branches as far as the mouth,
+      and also a belt through northern Georgia, eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina, and southern Virginia.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kal.</i> <span class="smcap">Kalapooian.</span> Western Oregon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kar.</i> <span class="smcap">Karankawan.</span> Southern Texas. Extinct.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kers.</i> <span class="smcap">Keresan.</span> Northern New Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kio.</i> <span class="smcap">Kiowan.</span> Indian Territory, formerly in the Platte valley.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kit.</i> <span class="smcap">Kitunahan.</span> British Columbia and Oregon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kols.</i> <span class="smcap">Koluschan.</span> Dixon Entrance to Prince William Sound, Alaska.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kuln.</i> <span class="smcap">Kulanapan.</span> North-western California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Kus.</i> <span class="smcap">Kusan.</span> Western Oregon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ln.</i> <span class="smcap">Lencan.</span> Honduras.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Lut.</i> <span class="smcap">Lutuamian.</span> Southern Oregon and northern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Mar.</i> <span class="smcap">Mariposan.</span> Southern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Mgn.</i> <span class="smcap">Matagalpan.</span> Nicaragua.</li>
+
+    <li><i>My.</i> <span class="smcap">Mayan.</span> Northern border of Honduras to Isthmus of Tehuantepec.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Mex.</i> <span class="smcap">Mexicana.</span> See Nah.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Mixt.</i> <span class="smcap">Mixteca.</span> See Zap.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Mo.</i> <span class="smcap">Moquelumnan.</span> Central California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Mus.</i> <span class="smcap">Muskhogean.</span> Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, and western Tennessee.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Nah.</i> <span class="smcap">Nahuan.</span> See <span class="smcap">Nahuatlan</span>.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Nah.</i> <span class="smcap">Nahuatlan.</span> Southern portion of Mexico and parts of Central America. Classed as Shoshonean.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Nah.</i> <span class="smcap">Nahuatlaca.</span> See <span class="smcap">Nahuatlan</span>.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Nat.</i> <span class="smcap">Natchesan.</span> Northern Louisiana, western Mississippi. Now in Indian Territory.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ot.</i> <span class="smcap">Otomian.</span> Central Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Pal.</i> <span class="smcap">Palaihnihan.</span> North-eastern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Pa.</i> <span class="smcap">Pani.</span> See Cad.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Pim.</i> <span class="smcap">Piman.</span> The Sonoran region of Mexico, and southern Arizona. Classed as Shoshonean.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Pbl.</i> <span class="smcap">Puebloan.</span> See Ho., Kers., Pim., Tan., Zun., etc. Northern Mexico and the south-western
+      part of the United States. The stone and adobe house building tribes.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Puj.</i> <span class="smcap">Pujunan.</span> North-eastern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Qrs.</i> <span class="smcap">Queres.</span> See Kers.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Qor.</i> <span class="smcap">Quoratean.</span> Northern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Sli.</i> <span class="smcap">Salinan.</span> Southern California coast.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Salh.</i> <span class="smcap">Salishan.</span> North-west Oregon, northern Washington, northern Idaho, western Montana, south-western British Columbia.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Sas.</i> <span class="smcap">Sastean.</span> Northern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ser.</i> <span class="smcap">Serian.</span> Tiburon Island and adjacent coast of Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Shap.</i> <span class="smcap">Shahaptian.</span> South-east Washington, north-west Oregon, western Idaho.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Sho.</i> <span class="smcap">Shoshonean.</span> Southern Texas to northern Montana and north of the
+      Colorado River, west to the Sierra Nevada. In southern California <span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">464</span>
+      through to the Pacific. Under Shoshonean are classed by some authorities not only the true Shoshonean but the Nahuatlan,
+      Piman, and Hopitan. Including the Piman and Nahuatlan the stock range would extend throughout Mexico and to parts of Central America.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Siu.</i> <span class="smcap">Siouan.</span> Continuously from northern Louisiana to the province of Saskatchewan, eastward to
+      the Mississippi, and in Wisconsin as far as Lake Michigan. Westward to the eastern boundaries of Colorado and Idaho. There were also
+      formerly a number of tribes of this stock in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. See E. Siu.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Skit.</i> <span class="smcap">Skittagetan.</span> Queen Charlotte Island, North-west coast.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Sub.</i> <span class="smcap">Subtiaban.</span> Nicaragua.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tak.</i> <span class="smcap">Takilman.</span> South-west Oregon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tan.</i> <span class="smcap">Tañoan.</span> Valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, New Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tar.</i> <span class="smcap">Tarascan.</span> Michoacan, Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tqs.</i> <span class="smcap">Tequistlatecan.</span> Oaxaca, Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Te.</i> <span class="smcap">Tewan</span> or <span class="smcap">Tehuan</span>. See Tan.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tim.</i> <span class="smcap">Timuquanan.</span> Florida.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tl.</i> <span class="smcap">Tlinkit.</span> See Kols.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tkn.</i> <span class="smcap">Tonikan.</span> Eastern Louisiana and western Mississippi.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tow.</i> <span class="smcap">Tonkawan.</span> Western and southern Texas.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tot.</i> <span class="smcap">Totonacan.</span> State of Vera Cruz, Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Tzl.</i> <span class="smcap">Tzental.</span> Tabasco, Mexico. See also Chon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Uch.</i> <span class="smcap">Uchean.</span> Georgia.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ulv.</i> <span class="smcap">Ulvan.</span> Honduras.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Un.</i> <span class="smcap">Unidentified.</span> Region, state, or possible affinity following.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Uto-Az.</i> <span class="smcap">Uto-Aztecan.</span> See Ho., Nah., Pim., Sho.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Wlp.</i> <span class="smcap">Waiilatpuan.</span> North-east Oregon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Wak.</i> <span class="smcap">Wakashan.</span> Coast of British Columbia.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Wash.</i> <span class="smcap">Washoan.</span> Eastern California; western Nevada.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Wei.</i> <span class="smcap">Weitspekan.</span> North-west California; south-west Oregon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Wish.</i> <span class="smcap">Wishoskan.</span> North-west California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Ykn.</i> <span class="smcap">Yakonan.</span> Coast of Oregon.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Yan.</i> <span class="smcap">Yanan.</span> Northern California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Yuk.</i> <span class="smcap">Yukian.</span> Western California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Yma.</i> <span class="smcap">Yuman.</span> Arizona, southern California, and Lower California.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Zap.</i> <span class="smcap">Zapotecan.</span> Southern Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Zo.</i> <span class="smcap">Zoquean.</span> Chiapas and Oaxaca, Mexico.</li>
+
+    <li><i>Zun.</i> <span class="smcap">Zuñian.</span> Western New Mexico.</li>
+  </ul>
+
+  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">465</span></p>
+
+  <h3 class="smcap">List of Tribes</h3>
+
+  <p>The stocks are also included and are printed in capitals. In order to
+    facilitate reference several titles of the same tribe are sometimes
+    given.</p>
+
+  <ul>
+    <li>Abbāto-tenā. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Abnaki. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Absáruqe. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Acadiau. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Acaxees. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Acconeechy. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Acha. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Achē’to-tin’neh. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Achis. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Achomâwi. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Acolhua. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Acoma. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Acomita. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Acquera. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Acxoteca. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Adahi. <i>Ada.</i></li>
+    <li>Adáí. <i>Ada.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Adaizan.</span> <i>Ada.</i></li>
+    <li>Adaize. <i>Ada.</i></li>
+    <li>Adees. <i>Ada.</i></li>
+    <li>Adshusheer. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Aggomiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Agualulco. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Aguateca. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Aguile. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Agutit. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ahaknanelet. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ahántchuyuk. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Ahome. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Ahowsaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Aht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Ahtena. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Aicale. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Aivillirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Aiyan. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Ajoye. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Akansea. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Akbat. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Akenatzy. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Akoklako. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Akorninak. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Akudliarmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Akudnirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Alaguilac. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Alame. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Alasapa. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Aleut. <i>Alu. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Algonkin. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Algonquian.</span> <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Algonquin. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Alibamu. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Aliche. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Alikwa. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Alimacani. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Alsea. <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li>Altatin. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Aluik. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Amitormiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Amuchgo. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Amusgo. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Anaddakka. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Anani. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Anarnitsok. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Anasitch. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Andaste. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Angmagsalik. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Annocchy. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Anouala. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Apache. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Apalachi. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Appalou. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Aquamish. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Aquonena. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Arapaho. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Arctic Highlander. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ariquipa. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Arikara. } <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Arikaree.}</li>
+    <li>Aripa. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Arispa. <i>Pim.?</i></li>
+    <li>Arivaipa. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Arkansa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Arra-arra. <i>Qor.</i></li>
+    <li>Arvillirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Aseguang. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Ashochimi. <i>Yuk.</i></li>
+    <li>Asomoches. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Assinaboin. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Assinai. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Assiwikales. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Astina. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Ătaăkût not Ā]. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Atakwa. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Atai. <i>Ada.</i></li>
+    <li>Ateacari. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Atfálati. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Athabascan. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Athapacca. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Athapasca. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Athapascan.</span> <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Atka. <i>Alu. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Atnah (1). <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Atnah (2). <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Atore. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Attacapa. <i>Att.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Attacapan.</span> <i>Att.</i></li>
+    <li>Atuamih. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Auk. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Awani. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Axion. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Ayankēld. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Ayapai. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Ayhuttisaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Aztec. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Babiocora. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Backhooks. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Baiyu. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Balló Kai Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Baluxa. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Bannock. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Basirora. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">466</span>Basisa. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Batemdikáyi. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Batucari. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Batuco. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Beaver. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Belbellah. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Bellacoola. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Benixono. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Beothuk. <i>Beo.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Beothukan.</span> <i>Beo.</i></li>
+    <li>Bethuck. <i>Beo.</i></li>
+    <li>Biara. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Bilkula. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Biloxi. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Binukhsh. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Blackfeet. <i>Siu.</i> (<i>See</i> Sihasapa.)</li>
+    <li>Blackfeet. <i>Alq.</i> (<i>See</i> Siksika.)</li>
+    <li>Blood Indians. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Boka. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Bollanos. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Braba. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Brulé. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Bulbul. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Búldam Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Cacalote. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Cachopostate. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Cacores. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Cadapouce. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Caddo. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Caddoan.</span> <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Cadica. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Cahita. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Cahokia. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Cahrok. <i>Qor.</i></li>
+    <li>Cahuillo. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Cailloux. <i>Wlp.</i></li>
+    <li>Cajono. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Cakchiquel. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Calabaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Calanay. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Calapooya. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Canai. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Caniba. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Canaway. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Capaha. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Cape Fear. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Carcha. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Carib. <i>Crb.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Caribbean.</span> <i>Crb.</i></li>
+    <li>Carrizo. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Casa Chiquita. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Casa Grande. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Casas Grandes. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Cascade. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Casti. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Catajano. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Catawba. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Cathlamet. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Cathlapotle. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Cathlascon. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Cattoway. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Caughnawaga. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Cayuga. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Cayuse. <i>Wlp.</i></li>
+    <li>Cenis. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Ceri. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Chaco (Ruins). <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Chahta. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Chainímaini. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Chalca. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Chalqueño. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Chamule. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Chaneabal. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Changuaguane. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Chapa. <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li>Chapanec. <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chapanecan.</span> <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li>Charack. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Charaeo. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Charense. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Chasta Costa. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Chata. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Chatcheeni. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Chatino. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Chauchila. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chawishek. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Chayopine. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Chehalis. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Chelamela. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Chele. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Chelekee. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Chemehuevi. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Chenposel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Chepewyan. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Cheraw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Cherokee. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Chetco. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Cheyenne. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Chia. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Chicasa. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Chichen Itza. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Chichilticalli. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Chichimec. <i>Gp.</i></li>
+    <li>Chichominy. <i>Alq.?</i></li>
+    <li>Chickasaw. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Chicklesaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Chicora. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Chiglit. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Chikakokim. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Chikaree. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Chikelaki. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Chilicothe. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Chilili. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Chilkat. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Chilluckquittequaw. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Chillúla. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Chilpain. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chimakuan.</span> <i>Chi.</i></li>
+    <li>Chimakum. <i>Chi.</i></li>
+    <li>Chimalakwe. <i>Chrk.</i></li>
+    <li>Chimalapa. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chimalapas. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chimalpanec. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chimarikan.</span> <i>Chrk.</i></li>
+    <li>Chimariko. <i>Chrk.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chimmesyan.</span> <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Chimsian.}</li>
+    <li>Chimsyan.} <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chinantecan.</span> <i>Cit.</i></li>
+    <li>Chinanteco. <i>Cit.</i></li>
+    <li>Chinarra. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Chinipa. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Chinook. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chinookan.</span> <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Chinquíme. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chipeway. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Chippewa. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">467</span>Chippewyan. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Chiricahua. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Chiroehaka. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Chitimacha. <i>Cht.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chitimachan.</span> <i>Cht.</i></li>
+    <li>Choam Chadila Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Chochona. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Choctaw. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Chokuyem. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chole. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Cholupaha. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Chontal (1). <i>Gp.</i></li>
+    <li>Chontal (2). <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Chontal (3). <i>Tqs.</i></li>
+    <li>Chopunnish. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Chorotega. <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li>Chorti. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Chowanoc. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Choya. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Chozetta. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Christanna. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Chuchaca. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Chuchona. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Chugachigmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Chukaímina. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Chūkchansi. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Chumash. <i>Chm.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Chumashan.</span> <i>Chm.</i></li>
+    <li>Chumâwa. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Chumaya. <i>Yuk.</i></li>
+    <li>Chumidok. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chūmteya. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chumtiwa. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chumuch. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chumwit. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Chunut. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Chwachamajù. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Cia. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Cicumovi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Cicuye. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Cimopavi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Cipaulovi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Clackama. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Clahoquaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Clallam. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Clamets. <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li>Clatsop. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Clickass. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Cliff-Dwellers. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Clowetsus. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Coahuiltecan.</span> <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Coahuilteco. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Coaquilenes. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Cochimi. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Cochiti. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Coco. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Cocomaricopa. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Cocome. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Coconino. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Coconūn. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Cocopa. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Cœur d’Alêne. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Coguinache. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Cohonino. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Cohuixca. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Colotlan. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Colouse. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Colville. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Comanche. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Combahee. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Comecrudo. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Comeya. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Comiteco. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Comopari. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Comupatrico. <i>Pim.?</i></li>
+    <li>Comuripa. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Comux. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Concho (1). <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Concho (2). <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Conestoga. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Confitachiquí. <i>Uch.</i></li>
+    <li>Congaree. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Coninos. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Conoy. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Cook-koo-oose. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Cooniac. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Coosa. <i>Un. Mus.? Cso.?</i></li>
+    <li>Cootenai. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Copalis. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Copan. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Copeh. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Copehan.</span> <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Coquilth. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Cora. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Coraru. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Coree. <i>Ir.?</i></li>
+    <li>Corsaboy. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Coshatta. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Cosninos. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Costano. <i>Cost.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Costanoan.</span> <i>Cost.</i></li>
+    <li>Cotober. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Cotoname. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Coutani. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Covisca. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Covisco. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Cowichin. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Cowlitz. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Coyotero. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Cree. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Creek. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Crow. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Cuchan. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Cuicateco. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Cuitlateco. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Culua. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Cumshawa. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Cûñopavi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Cusabo. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Cusaboan.</span> <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Cushna. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Cusso. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Cuthead. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Cuttawa. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Dāho′-tenā. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Dakota. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Dakubetede. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Dápishul Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Daupom. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Delamateno. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Delaware. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Didja-Za. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Diegueño. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Digger. <i>Gp.</i></li>
+    <li>Digothi. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Dirian. <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">468</span>Dog Rib. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Dohme. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Dowaganha. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Dwamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Eastern People. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Eataubau. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Echeloot. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Edelano. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Edisto. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Ehiamana. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Ehnek. <i>Qor.</i></li>
+    <li>Ekŏg´mint. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Eloquale. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Enecaqua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Eno. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Erie. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Erío. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Eriwoneck.</li>
+    <li>Erússi. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Esaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Eskimauan.</span> <i>Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Eskimo. <i>Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Eskin. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Esopus. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Esquimaux. <i>Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Esselen. <i>Ess.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Esselenian.</span> <i>Ess.</i></li>
+    <li>Estakewach. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Etchemin. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Etiwaw.}</li>
+    <li>Eutaw. } <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Euchre Creek. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Eudeve. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Éukshikni. <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li>Eurok. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Faraone. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Flachbogen. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Flanahaskie. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Flatbow. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Flathead (1). <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Flathead (2). <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Flathead-Cootenai. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Flonk´o. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Fox. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Gallinomréo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Ganawese. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Gaspesian. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Gileño. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Gohunes. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Gosiute. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Grand Pawnee. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Gros Ventres. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Guaicuru. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Guailopo. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Guajiquero. <i>Ln.</i></li>
+    <li>Gualála. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Guatuso. <i>Gua.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Guatusoan.</span> <i>Gua.</i></li>
+    <li>Guaymas. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Guazapari. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Guetares. <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li>Guilito. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Guimen. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Gyidesdzo. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Gyitgāata. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Gyitksan. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Gyitqātla. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Gyitsalaser. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Gyitsumrälon. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Haeltzuk. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Haida. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Hailtzuk. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Haishilla. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Hammonasset. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Hanahaskies. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Hanega. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Hano. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Hanocoroucouay. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hantewa. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Hapaluya. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hare. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Hasatch. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Hasinninga. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Hatteras. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Havasupai. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Helto. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Hemes. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Hettitoya. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Heve. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hicaranaou. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hichucios. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hidatsa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Himeri. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hiouacara. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hirrihiqua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hishquayquaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Hitchitee. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Hizo. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hoak. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Hoankut. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Hololúpai. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Homolua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hoodsunu. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Hoopah. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Hopi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Hopitan.</span> <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Hopitu. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Howakan. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Howchuklisaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Hualapai. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Huasteca. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Huavan.</span> <i>Hua.</i></li>
+    <li>Huaves. <i>Hua.</i></li>
+    <li>Huaztonteco. <i>Hua.</i></li>
+    <li>Huecos. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Huichol. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Huite. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Huma.}</li>
+    <li>Hume.} <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Humâwhi. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Hunah. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Hupa. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Huron. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Husky. <i>Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Husorone. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Hutchnom. <i>Yuk.</i></li>
+    <li>Hydah. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Igdlolnarsuk. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Iglulingmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ikogmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Illinois. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Ilmâwi. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Imahklimiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Inguhklimiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">469</span>Innies. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Innuit. <i>Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Iowa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Ipapapan. <i>Tot.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Iroquoian.</span> <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Iroquois. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Isantei. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Isleta, New Mex. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Isleta, Texas. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Issa. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Iswa. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Itafi. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Itara. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Itaziptco. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Ititcha. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Itivimiut. <i>Lab. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Itza. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Ivimiut. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ixil. <i>My.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Janos. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Jaripecha. <i>Tar.</i></li>
+    <li>Jemez. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Jicarilla. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Jocolabal. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Jonaz. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Jope. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Joshua. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Kabinapek. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kadapaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Kagutl. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaialigmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaigani. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaimé. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaiowe. <i>Kio.</i></li>
+    <li>Kai Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaivavitz. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaiyuh-khotānā. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kakamatsis. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Kalapooian.</span> <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Kalapuya. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Kăltsuerea tûnnĕ. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kamalel Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kangivamiut. <i>Lab. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kangmaligmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaugormiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kani. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Kāniăgmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kansa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Karankawa. <i>Kar.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Karankawan.</span> <i>Kar.</i></li>
+    <li>Karok. <i>Qor.</i></li>
+    <li>Karsuit. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaskaskia. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Kassooo. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Kassovo. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Kastel Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kasua. <i>Sli.</i></li>
+    <li>Katchan. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Kato Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kauía. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaulits. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaus. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Kauvuyas. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaviagmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaw. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaweah. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Kaweya. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Kâwiasuh. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Kayowe. <i>Kio.</i></li>
+    <li>Kayung. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kcaltana. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kechemeches. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Kechis. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Keimanoeitoh. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Kek. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Kēlta. <i>Un., Ath.?</i></li>
+    <li>Kemisak. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kenai. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kenay. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kenesti. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kera. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Keres. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Keresan.</span> <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Keswhawhay. <i>Ker.</i></li>
+    <li>Keyauwee. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Kiawaw. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>K’iapkwainakwin. <i>Zun.</i></li>
+    <li>Kiawétni. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Kichai. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Kickapoo. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Kiguaqtagmiut. <i>Lab. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kikapoo. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Kikkertarsoak. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Killamuk. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Kinarbik. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kingnaitmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>King’s River. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Kinnepatu. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kiowa. <i>Kio.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Kiowan.</span> <i>Kio.</i></li>
+    <li>Kioway. <i>Kio.</i></li>
+    <li>Kisani. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Kiscapocoke. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Kitsmaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Kittegareut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kittuwa. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Kitunahan.</span> <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kizh. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Klallam. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Klamath (1). <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li>Klamath (2). <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Klanoh-Klatklam. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Klaokwat. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Klenekate. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Klikitat. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>K’naia-khotona. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Knik. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Knisteneau. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Koasáti. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Koloma. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Kolomum. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Kolosch. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Koluschan.</span> <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Komácho. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kombo. <i>Un., Yan.?</i></li>
+    <li>Komuk. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Konjagen. <i>Esk.?</i></li>
+    <li>Konkau. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Kootenai. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kopagmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kopé. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Korusi. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Kouksoarmiut. <i>Lab. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kowagmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">470</span>Kowelits. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Kowilth. <i>Wish.</i></li>
+    <li>Koyukukhotānā. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kramalit. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kuagmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kuchin. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kuitc. <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li>Kulá Kai Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Kulanapan.</span> <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kulanapo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Kūlmeh. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Kulomum. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Kung. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kunxit. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kupule. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Kusa. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Kusan.</span> <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Kuscarawock. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Kuskwogmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kutani. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kŭtchā-Kŭtchin´. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kutchan. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Kutchin´. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kutenay. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwaiantikwoket. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwakiutl. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwalhioqua. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwantlen. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwapa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwashilla. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwatóa. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwazami. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwikhpăgmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Kwokwoos. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Kyoquaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Lacandon. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Laguna. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Laimono. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Lákmiut. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Láma. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Las´sik. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Leaf-shooters. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Lenapé. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Lenca. <i>Ln.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Lencan.</span> <i>Ln.</i></li>
+    <li>Lenni-Lenapé. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Likatuit. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Likwiltoh. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Lilowat. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Lipan. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Liwaito. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Llanero. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Loldla. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Lolon´kūk. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Lolsel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Long Island. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Long Valley. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Lopolatimne. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Loucheux. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Lower Coquille. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Lucururu. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Lummi. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Lutuami. <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Lutuamian.</span> <i>Lut.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Macaw. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Machapunga. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Machaua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Machemni. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Machemoodus. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Macock. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Magemiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Mahican. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mablemiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Mahoc. <i>Un., E. Siu.?</i></li>
+    <li>Maidu. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Maiera. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Makah. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Makhelchel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Malaka. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Malica. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Maliseet. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mam. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Mamaleilakitish. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Manahoac. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Manakin. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Mandan. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Maneetsuk. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Mangoac. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Mangue. <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li>Manhattan. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mano de perro. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Manosaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Mantese. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mareschit. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Maricopa. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Mariposa. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Mariposan.</span> <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Marracou. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Mascoutin. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Maskegon. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Maskoki. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Massachuset. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Massawomek. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Massett. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Massinacak. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Matagalpan. <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Matapane. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Matelpa. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Mathaica. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Matlaltzinco. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Matlame. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Mattamuskeet. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mattapony. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mattoal. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Mauvais-Monde. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Maya. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Mayan.</span> <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Mayapan. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Maya-Quiche. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Mayarca. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Mayáyu. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Mayo. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Mazahua. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Mazapil. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Mazateco. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Mecos. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Meewoc. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Mehemencho. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Meherrin. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Meidoo. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Meipontsky. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Melchora. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Meliseet. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Melona. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Melukitz. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Mengwe. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Menominee. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">471</span>Mequachake. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mescal. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Mescalero. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Met’how. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Mexicana. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Meztitlateca. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Miakan. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Miami. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Michoa. <i>Tar.</i></li>
+    <li>Michōpdo. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Micikqwûtme tûnnĕ. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Micmac. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mico. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Micoñinovi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Mije. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Mikono tûnnĕ. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Mimbreño. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Mingo. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Minisink. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Minitaree. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Minneconjou. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Minsi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Misálamagūn. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Mishongnovi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Misisauga. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Missouri. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Mita. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Mitoám Kai Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Miwok. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Mixe. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Mixtec. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Mixteca-Zapoteca. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Moan´auzi. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Moapariats. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Mobilian. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Mochilagua. <i>Pim.?</i></li>
+    <li>Mocoso. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Mocossou. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Moctoby. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Modoc. <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li>Módokni. <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li>Mogollon. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Mohave. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Mohawk. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Mohegan. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mohetan. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Mohican. <i>Alq.?</i></li>
+    <li>Mokelumni. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Moki. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Molale. <i>Wlp.</i></li>
+    <li>Molua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Monachi. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Monagan. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Monahasanugh. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Monasiccapano. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Mono. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Monocan. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Monqui. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Monsey. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Monsoni. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Montagnais (1). <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Montagnais (2). <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Montagnard. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Montauk. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Moose. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Moosonee. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Mopan. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Moquelumnan.</span> <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Moquelumne. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Moquis. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Moscoso. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Mosilian. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Moundbuilder. Composite. <i>Gp.</i></li>
+    <li>Mowachat. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Mowhemcho. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Muclaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Muctobi. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Mukaluk. <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li>Mulluck. <i>Kus.</i></li>
+    <li>Multnoma. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Munsee. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Musakakūn. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Muskhogean.</span> <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Muskhogee. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Muskoki. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Musquito. <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Mūtsūn. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Muutzizti. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Naas. <i>Gp., Chyn., Salh.?</i></li>
+    <li>Nachitoches. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Nacu. <i>Kus.?</i></li>
+    <li>Nadowessiwag. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Nagailer. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Nageuktormiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Nahauni. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Nahsuzi. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Na’htchi. <i>Nat.</i></li>
+    <li>Nahua. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Nahuatl. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Nahuatlan.</span> <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Nahuatleca. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Nahyssan. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Na-isha. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Naktche. <i>Nat.</i></li>
+    <li>Nakum. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Nakwahtoh. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Naltun netûnnĕ. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Nambé. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Nanaimo. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Nanoos. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Nantic. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Nanticoke. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Naolingo. <i>Tot.</i></li>
+    <li>Napa (1). <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Napa (2). <i>Yuk.</i></li>
+    <li>Napetuca. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Narraganset. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Narsuk. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Nascapee. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Nasquá. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Nataco. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Natches. <i>Nat.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Natchesan.</span> <i>Nat.</i></li>
+    <li>Natchez. <i>Nat.</i></li>
+    <li>Natchitoches. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Natowek. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Natowesieux. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Nātsit-Kŭtchin´. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Naugatuck. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Nauset. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Navaho.}</li>
+    <li>Navajo.} <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Nawiti. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Nayerit. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Nehalim. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Nehantic. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">472</span>Nehaunee. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Nehethawa. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Nenenot. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Nespelum. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Netchillirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Netela. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Netzicho. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Neusiok. <i>Alq.?</i></li>
+    <li>Neuter. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Nevome. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>New Gold Harbour. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Newichumni. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Nez Percé. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Nicaraos. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Nicassias. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Nicoutamuch. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Nihaloth. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Nikonha. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Nimkish. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Nipissing. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Nipmuc. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Nipnet. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Niquiran. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Nīshinam. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Nisqualli. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Nitinaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Niwiti. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Noema. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Noje. <i>Yan.</i></li>
+    <li>Nomlaki. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Nommuk. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Nootka. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Norelmuk. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Normuk. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Norridgewock. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Notchee. <i>Nat.</i></li>
+    <li>Notoánaiti. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Nottoway. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Noyùki. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Nozi. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Nuchalaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Nugumiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Nuksahk. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Numpali. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Num´su. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Nunatogmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Nuncock. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Nunivagmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Nuntaly. <i>Un., E. Siu.?</i></li>
+    <li>Nuntaneuck. <i>Un., E. Siu.?</i></li>
+    <li>Nusdalum. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Nushagagmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Nusulph. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Nūtchu. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Nūtha. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Nutka. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Nuwungmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Oathcaqua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Occaneechi. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Ochíngita. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Ocotlano. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Oenock. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Ogalalla.} <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Oglála. }</li>
+    <li>Oglemiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ohiat. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Ojadagochroene. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Ojibwa. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Okahoki. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Okeeogmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Okinagan. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Okkiosorbik. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Okomiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Olamentke. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Olelato. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Olhone. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Olla. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Olmeca. <i>Un., Mex.</i></li>
+    <li>Olowidok. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Olowit. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Olowiya. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Olposel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Oluláto. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Olumpali. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Omaha. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Onathcaqua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Onava. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Oneida. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Onochaquara. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Onondaga. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Ontponas. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Oohenopa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Opata. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Opatoro. <i>Ln.</i></li>
+    <li>Opechisaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Openango. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Opuhnarke. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Oraibe. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Orarian. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Orejone. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Orista. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Orotina. } <i>Cpn.</i></li>
+    <li>Orotinan.}</li>
+    <li>Osage. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Osile. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Otaki. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Otari. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Otayachgo. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Oto. } <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Otoe.}</li>
+    <li>Otomi. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Otomian.</span> <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Ottawa. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Ounángan. <i>Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Oustaca. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Owilapsh. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Paanese. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Paboksa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Pacaos. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pachenaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Pachera. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Pacuâche. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Padlimiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Paduca. <i>Gp.</i></li>
+    <li>Paguate. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Pah Ute.}</li>
+    <li>Pai Ute.} <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Paiuti. }</li>
+    <li>Pajalate. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pakamalli. <i>Pal.?</i></li>
+    <li>Pakawá. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Palaihnih. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Palaihnihan.</span> <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">473</span>Palaik. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Palenque. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Paléumni. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Palligawonap. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Paloos. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Paluxsi. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Pamaque. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pamawaioc. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pame. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Pamlico. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pampopa. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pamticoke. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pamunkey. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pani. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Panpakan. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Pantasma. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Panteco. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Papabuco. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Papago. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Parrastah. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Paskagula. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Pasquotank. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Passamaquoddi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pastancoya. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Patacale. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Patawat. <i>Wish.</i></li>
+    <li>Patáwe. } <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Patcháwe.}</li>
+    <li>Patchica. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Patshenin. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Patwin. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Paugusset. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Paupákan. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Pausane. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pavant. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Paviotso. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Pawnee. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Paya. <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Payseya. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pea. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pecos. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Pedee. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Pehtsik. <i>Qor.</i></li>
+    <li>Pekwan. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Pend d’Oreille. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Penobscot. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pennacook. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pentlash.} <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pentlatc.}</li>
+    <li>Peoria. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pequot. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pericu. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Perquiman. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Peten. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Piankishaw. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Picuris. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Pi Ede. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Piegan. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pihique. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pilingmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Pima. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Piman.</span> <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Pinal Coyotero. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Pinome. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Pintahae. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Pipile. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Piqua. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pirinda. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Piros. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Piscataway. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pisquow. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Pitkachì. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Pitt River. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Pi Ute. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Poam Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Pocomtock. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Podunk. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Poélo. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Pohállin Tinleh. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Pohonichi. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Pojoaque. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Pokomam. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Pokonchi. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Poluksalgi. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Pomouik. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Ponca. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Ponderay. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Popoluca. <i>Gp., Mex.</i></li>
+    <li>Poquonnoc. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Potanou. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Poteskeet. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Potlapigua. <i>Pirn.</i></li>
+    <li>Pottawatomi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pottawattomi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Powhattan. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Pueblito. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Pueblo. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Puebloan.</span> <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Pujunan. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Pujuni. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Pulairih. <i>Pal.</i></li>
+    <li>Punyeestye. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Punyekia. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Pusityitcho. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Pusúna. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Putum. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Puyallup. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Qagutl. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Qaumauangmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Qinguamiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Quaitso. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Quapaw. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Quatquiutl. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Quatsino. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Quekchi. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Queniut. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Queptlmamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Querechos. <i>Un., Sho.?</i></li>
+    <li>Queres. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Quiahanless. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Quiche. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Quile-Ute. <i>Chi.</i></li>
+    <li>Quinnebaug. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Quinnipiac. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Quinpi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Quivira. <i>Un., Siu.?</i></li>
+    <li>Quoddy. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Quoratean.</span> <i>Qor.</i></li>
+    <li>Quoratem. <i>Qor.</i></li>
+    <li>Qwinctûnnetûn. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Rama. <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Ramapoo. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Ramcock. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Reho. <i>Un.</i>, <i>Cali.</i></li>
+    <li>Republican Pawnee. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Riccaree. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">474</span>Rickohockan. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Rikwa. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Rogue River. <i>Ath.</i> and <i>Tak.</i></li>
+    <li>Runsien. <i>Gp.</i></li>
+    <li>Rurok. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Saagit. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Sabaquis. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Sabaibo. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Sac. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Sac and Fox. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Sacumehu. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sagdlirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Saharipa. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Sahewamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sahkey. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Saiaz. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Saidyuka. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Saint Regis. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Saiwash. <i>Sas.</i></li>
+    <li>Sakaiakumni. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Salinan.</span> <i>Sli.</i></li>
+    <li>Salish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Salishan.</span> <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Saluda. <i>Alq.?</i></li>
+    <li>Samamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Samish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>San Antonio. <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Sandia. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Sanetch. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>San Felipe. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Sanhican. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>San Ildefonso. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Sanipao. <i>Con.</i></li>
+    <li>San Juan. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>San Juan de Guacara. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>San Mateo. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>San Rafael. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Sans Arcs. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sans Puell. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Ana. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Barbara. <i>Sli.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Clara, New Mexico. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Clara, Utah. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Cruz, Cali. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Elena. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Inez. <i>Sli.</i></li>
+    <li>Santa Lucia de Acuera. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Santee. <i>E. Siu</i> and <i>Siu</i>.</li>
+    <li>Santiam. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Santo Domingo. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Saponi. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Saps. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Saptin. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Sara. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sarcees. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Saste. <i>Sas.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Sastean.</span> <i>Sas.</i></li>
+    <li>Satsika. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Satsop. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Saturiwa. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Sauk. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Saumingmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Sauteux. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Savanna. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Sawákhtu. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Sawamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Saxapahaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sayúskla. <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li>Scatacook. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Sebasa. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Secoffie. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Secotan. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Seemunah. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Seguas. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Sekamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sekumne. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Selawigmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Selish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Seminole. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Seneca. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Senecú. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Senel. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Sequas. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Seri. <i>Ser.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Serian.</span> <i>Ser.</i></li>
+    <li>Sermiligak. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Sermilik. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Seroushamne. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Serrano. <i>Ot.</i></li>
+    <li>Seshaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Sewee. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Shacco. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Shackaconias. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Shahaptaní. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Shahaptian.</span> <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Shakan. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Shanktonwan. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Shasta. <i>Sas.</i></li>
+    <li>Shastika. <i>Sas.</i></li>
+    <li>Shasty. <i>Sas.</i></li>
+    <li>Shawano. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Shawnee. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Sheshtapoosh. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Shetimasha. <i>Cht.</i></li>
+    <li>Shevwitz. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Sheyenne. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Shibal´ni Pómo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Shingwauk. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Shinomo.}</li>
+    <li>Shínumo.} <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Shiwapmuk. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Shiwokugmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Shoccori. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Shódo Kaí Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Shomamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Shooswap. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Shoshokoes. <i>Sho.?</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Shoshonean.</span> <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Shoshone.} <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Shoshoni.}</li>
+    <li>Shotlemamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sia. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Síako. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Sicatl. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sicaunie. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Sihasapa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sikonesse. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Sikosuilarmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Siksika. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Silets. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Silla. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Similaton. <i>Ln.</i></li>
+    <li>Sinaloa. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Sinimiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">475</span>Sinnager. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Siouan.</span> <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sioux. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Siquai. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Sisseton. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sissipahaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sitcaxu. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sitcomovi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Sitka. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Siuslaw. <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li>Skagit. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Skedan. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Skidi. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Skihwamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Skiteiget. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Skitsuish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Skittaget. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Skittagetan.</span> <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Skoffi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Skokomish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Skopamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Skoyelpi. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sktehlmish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Skwaksin. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Skwallyamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Slave. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Sluacus tinneh. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Smoos. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Smulkamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Snake. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Snohomish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Snoqualmi. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sobaipuri. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Sochimiloco. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Soke. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sokóa. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Solteco. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Songish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Sonomi. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Sonora. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Sonorense Opata. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Sorrocho. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Souriquoi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Spirit Lake. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Spokan. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Squawmisht. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Squaxon. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Squonamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Stahkin. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Stegara. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Stehtsasamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Stenkenocks. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Stillacum. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Stono. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>St. <i>Regis. Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Subirona. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Subtiaba. <i>Sub.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Subtiaban.</span> <i>Sub.</i></li>
+    <li>Sugan. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sugaree. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Sugon. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Suinyi. <i>Zun.</i></li>
+    <li>Suisun. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Sumass. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Supi. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Suquamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Suquinimiut. <i>Lab. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Susquehannock. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Swali. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Swinamish. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Tâcame. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Tacatacura. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Táchi. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Taculli. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Taderighrone. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Taensa. <i>Nat.</i></li>
+    <li>Tagish. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Tahichapahanna. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Tahkaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Tahkali. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tāh´ko-tin´neh. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tablewah. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tahltan. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tâiakwin. <i>Zun.</i></li>
+    <li>Tait. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Taitchida. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Takilma. <i>Tak.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Takilman.</span> <i>Tak.</i></li>
+    <li>Taku. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Talamanca. <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Talamo. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Talatui. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Talirpingmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Taltûctun tûde. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tamal. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tamaroi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Tamoleka. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tanek. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Taño. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Tañoan.</span> <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Tantoyoc. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Tanu. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Taos. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Tapaneco. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tapijulapane. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tappas. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Taqagmiut. <i>Lab. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Tarahumara. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tarasca. <i>Tar.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Tarascan.</span> <i>Tar.</i></li>
+    <li>Tarasco. <i>Tar.</i></li>
+    <li>Tarelepa. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Tarratine. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Tartanee. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Tataten. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tatera. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Taterat. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Tatimole. <i>Tot.</i></li>
+    <li>Tatsāh-kutchin. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tatu. <i>Yuk.</i></li>
+    <li>Tauxsnitania. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Tawakomie. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Taywaugh. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Tcême. } <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tchême.}</li>
+    <li>Tcĕtlĕstcan tûnnĕ. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tchĭkûn. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tchishi. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tchokoyem. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Teacualitzistis. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Teata. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tebaca. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Teco. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tecojine. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tecoripa. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tecualme. <i>Pim.?</i></li>
+    <li>Tigninatio. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Teguima. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tehama. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">476</span>Tēhānin-kŭtchin. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tehua. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Tehuan.</span> <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Tehueco. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tejano. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Tektikilhatis. <i>Tot.</i></li>
+    <li>Télumni. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Tenaino. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Tenăn-kŭtchin. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tenez. <i>Cit.</i></li>
+    <li>Tenime. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tennŭth-Kutchin´. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Teotenanca. <i>Un., Mex.</i></li>
+    <li>Tepaneco. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tepehuane. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tepozcolul. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Tequis. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tequistlateca. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Terwar. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tessuisak. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Tesuque. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Tetero. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Teton. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Teuteca. <i>Cit.</i></li>
+    <li>Tewa. <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Tewan.</span> <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Texano. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Texas. <i>Cad.?</i></li>
+    <li>Texone. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Teyas. <i>Cad.?</i></li>
+    <li>Tezcucan. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tezcuco. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Thlinket. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>T’ho. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Tientien. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Tigua. } <i>Tan.</i></li>
+    <li>Tiguex.}</li>
+    <li>Tillamook. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Timoga. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Timucua. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Timuquana. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Timuquanan.</span> <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tínlinneh. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Tinné. }</li>
+    <li>Tinneh.} <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tinney.}</li>
+    <li>Tionontate. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Tipatolápa. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Tisèchu. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Tíshum. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Titõwā. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Tiutei. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlacopán. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlahuico. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlamatl. <i>Lut.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlaoquatch. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlapanec. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlapaneco. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlascalan. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlascaltecan. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlatluican. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlatscanai. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlingit.} <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Tlinkit.}</li>
+    <li>Toámtcha. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Tobikhar. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Tocaste. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tockwhogh. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Toderichroone. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Todetabi. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Tokar. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Tokoaat. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Tolemato. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tolewa.} <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tolowa.}</li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Toltec.</span> <i>Nah.?</i></li>
+    <li>Tongass. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Tonika. <i>Tkn.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Tonikan.</span> <i>Tkn.</i></li>
+    <li>Tonkawa. <i>Tow.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Tonkawan.</span> <i>Tow.</i></li>
+    <li>Tonto. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Topaidisel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Topoqui. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Toquaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Tosikoyo. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Totero. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Toto. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Totonacan.</span> <i>Tot.</i></li>
+    <li>Totonaco. <i>Tot.</i></li>
+    <li>Towiachies. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Towakarehu. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Triqui. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Tsamak. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Tsawadinoh. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Ts’emsián. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Tshinkitani. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Tshokoyem. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tsimshian. <i>Chyn.</i></li>
+    <li>Tsinuk. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Tubare. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Tucano. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Tucururu. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Tŭkkūth-kŭtchin. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tukuarika. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Tulare. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tumidok. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tumun. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tunglas. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Tununirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Tununirusirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Tunxi. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Tuolomne. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Tusayan. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Tuscarora. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Tutahaco. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Tŭtchoné-kŭtchin. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tutelo. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Tututena. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Tutu tûnnĕ. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Twaka. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Twana. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Twichtwicht. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Twightwee. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Two Kettle. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Tyigh. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Tzendal.} <i>Tzl.</i></li>
+    <li>Tzental.}</li>
+    <li>Tzotzil. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Tzutuhil. <i>My.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Ucalta. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Uché. <i>Uch.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Uchean.</span> <i>Uch.</i></li>
+    <li>Uchita. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Ucita. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Ugalakmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ugaqpa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">477</span>Ugjulirmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Uinkarets. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Ukiah. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Ukivokgmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ūkumnom. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Ukusiksalingmiut. <i>M. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Ukwulta. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Ulva. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Ulvan.</span> <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Umaha. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Umanak. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Umatilla. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Umerik. <i>Gr. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Umkwa. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Umpqua. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Unakhotānā. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Unalachtigo. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Unalashka.} <i>Alu. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Unalaska. }</li>
+    <li>Unaligmiut. <i>Alk. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Unami. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Uncapapa. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Unechtgo. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Ungavamiut. <i>Lab. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Unquachog. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Ūnŭnǵŭn. <i>Alu. Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Urriparacuxi. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Usheree. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Ushiti. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Uspanteca. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Ustóma. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Uta. }</li>
+    <li>Utah.} <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Ute. }</li>
+    <li>Utchium. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Utina. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Utlateca. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Uttewa. <i>Skit.</i></li>
+    <li>Uxmal. <i>My.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Vacissa. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Valiente. <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Varogio. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Vebetlateca. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Venaambakaiia. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Venado. <i>Coh.</i></li>
+    <li>Viard. <i>Wish.</i></li>
+    <li>Vŭntā-kŭtchin´. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Waccamaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Waco. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Wagluxe. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wahaikan. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Wahkiacum. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Wahpeton. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Waicurru. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Waiilatpu. <i>Wlp.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Waiilatpuan.</span> <i>Wlp.</i></li>
+    <li>Waikenmuk. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Waikosel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Waikur. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Wailaki (1). <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Wailakki (2). <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Wailaksel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Wailatpu. <i>Wlp.</i></li>
+    <li>Wairika. <i>Sas.</i></li>
+    <li>Wakash. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Wakashan.</span> <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Walakumni. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Walapai. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Walla Walla. <i>Shap.</i></li>
+    <li>Walli. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Walpi. <i>Ho.</i></li>
+    <li>Wampanoag. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Wangum. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Wangunk. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Wapanachki. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Wapanoc. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Wapoo. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Wappinger. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Wappo. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Wapuchuseamma. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Wapúmni. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Warren nuncock. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wasco. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Washaki. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Washita. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Washo. <i>Wash.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Washoan.</span> <i>Wash.</i></li>
+    <li>Waskiteng. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wateree. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Watlala. <i>Chik.</i></li>
+    <li>Waxhaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wazaza. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wea. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Weapemeoc. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Weenee. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Weeyot. <i>Wish.</i></li>
+    <li>Weitspek. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Weitspekan.</span> <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Wendat. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Wepawaug. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Westo. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Whīlkut. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Whonkenteae. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wíchikik. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Wichita. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Wihinasht. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Wikchúmni. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Wikenak. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Wíksachi. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Wilaksel. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Willamat. } <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Willamette.}</li>
+    <li>Wima. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Wimbee. <i>Cso.</i></li>
+    <li>Winangik. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+    <li>Winatsha. <i>Salh.</i></li>
+    <li>Winnebago. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wintoon. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Wintu. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Wintun. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Winyaw. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wisack. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wishosk. <i>Wish.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Wishoskan.</span> <i>Wish.</i></li>
+    <li>Witchita. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Wiwash. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Wíyot. <i>Wish.</i></li>
+    <li>Woccon. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Wolokki. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Woolwa. <i>Ulv.</i></li>
+    <li>Wyandot. <i>Ir.</i></li>
+    <li>Wylackker. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+
+    <li><span class="smcap">Xicaque.</span> <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Xicayan. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">478</span>Xime. <i>Nah.</i></li>
+    <li>Ximena. <i>Pbl., Pim.?</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Xinca.</span> <i>Un.</i></li>
+    <li>Xicalanca. <i>Un., My.?</i></li>
+    <li>Xuala. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Yaketahnoklatakmakanay. <i>Kit.</i></li>
+    <li>Yakon. <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Yakonan.</span> <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li>Yakutat. <i>Kols.</i></li>
+    <li>Yakwĭna. <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li>Yamacraw. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Yamasi. <i>Mus.</i></li>
+    <li>Yamil. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Yamkally. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Yanan.</span> <i>Yan.</i></li>
+    <li>Yankton. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Yanktonnais. <i>Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Yaqui. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Yatasses. <i>Cad.</i></li>
+    <li>Yavipais. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Yellow-knives. <i>Ath.</i></li>
+    <li>Yecpin. <i>Alq.</i></li>
+    <li>Yesang. <i>E. Siu.</i></li>
+    <li>Yodetábi. <i>Cop.</i></li>
+    <li>Yokáya Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Yokultat. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Yokut. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Yonkalla. <i>Kal.</i></li>
+    <li>Yope. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Yosemité. <i>Mo.</i> See Awani.</li>
+    <li>Yótowi. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Youkone. <i>Ykn.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuba. <i>Puj.</i></li>
+    <li>Yucatec. <i>My.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuchi. <i>Uch.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuclulaht. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuit. <i>Asiatic Esk.</i></li>
+    <li>Yukai. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuke.} <i>Yuk.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuki.}</li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Yukian.</span> <i>Yuk.</i></li>
+    <li>Yúkol. <i>Mar.</i></li>
+    <li>Yukulta. <i>Wak.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuloni. <i>Mo.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuma. <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Yuman.</span> <i>Yma.</i></li>
+    <li>Yupaha. <i>Tim.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuqueyunque. <i>Pbl.</i></li>
+    <li>Yurok. <i>Wei.</i></li>
+    <li>Yusâl Pomo. <i>Kuln.</i></li>
+    <li>Yuta. <i>Sho.</i></li>
+
+    <li>Zapotec. <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Zapotecan.</span> <i>Zap.</i></li>
+    <li>Ziamma. <i>Kers.</i></li>
+    <li>Zoque. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Zoquean.</span> <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Zoque-Mixe. <i>Zo.</i></li>
+    <li>Zuaque. <i>Pim.</i></li>
+    <li>Zuñi. <i>Zun.</i></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap">Zuñian.</span> <i>Zun.</i></li>
+  </ul>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_478">
+    <img src="images/i_478.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>WOODEN SEAL-DISH, HAIDA, NORTH-WEST COAST</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter" id="Index">
+    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">479</span>
+    <h2>INDEX</h2>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="subheadc">See also list of illustrations, page xv.</div>
+
+  <ul>
+    <li class="ifrst">A</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Abandoned works, meaning of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Aboriginal dress, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Adobe, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">brick, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Adoption, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Adoratorio, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Alaska, peopled from S. and S.-E., <a href="#i_457">457</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Albornoz, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Aleut houses, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Aleutian islands, when inhabited, <a href="#i_457">457</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Aleuts, range of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Algonquin, dress, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">records, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Alloy of gold and copper, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Alosaka, the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Alphabet, Bureau of Ethnology, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Cherokee, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Sauk, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Amazon myth, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">America, when peopled, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Amerind, a village dweller, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">definition of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">literature, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Amerindian race composed of different elements, <a href="#i_457">457</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Amerinds a stone-age people, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Amnesty, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Amusements, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ancient fabrics, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Antiquity of man in America, evidences of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Antiquity of Mayas, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Apaches and Navajos remaining behind, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Appendix, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Aqueduct, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Arch, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ardnainiq, tribe called, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Armour, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#i_255-1">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Arrow- and spear-heads, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Assembly place, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Astrology, reliance of Aztecs on, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Astronomical, knowledge, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">reckonings, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">station at Zuñi, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stone, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Atlantis, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Atolli, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Authentic history, beginning of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Awatuwi, ruins of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Awl game, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Aztec, books, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">cannibal banquet, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">confederacy, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">descent, how reckoned, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">sculptures, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">states, government of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stone tools, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">towns, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">writing, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">year, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">B</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bag, sacred, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Baggattaway, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Baidar, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Baidarka, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Balance not known, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ball games, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Baqati wheel, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Barábara, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bark for rope-making, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Basket-drum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Basketry hats, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#i_415">415</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Basque, resemblance of language to Amerind, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bathing, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Battle, costume, <a href="#i_357">357</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">for a wife, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of Wounded Knee, how begun, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bayeta cloth, how used by Navajos, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Beads, wampum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Beadwork, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bear-mother carving, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Beckwourth, head chief of the Crows, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bells, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Belts, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bird box, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">spear, Eskimo, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bird-stones, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bison, disappearance of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">possibility of domestication, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Black dye, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">480</span>Blanket and basket designs symbolic, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Blanket-loom, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Blanket-making, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Blanket-pole, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Blue dye, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Boats, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Omaha, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Boiling-basket, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bolas, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bologna codex, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Books, of Chilan Balam, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of the Mayas, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Borgian codex, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Boundary lines, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bow and arrow, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bow-drill, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Boxing, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bronze tools, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Buffalo wool blankets, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Building methods, change of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Bunch-word, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Burial, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Burning pottery, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">C</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cactus-fruit wine, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cahokia mound, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cajon, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cakchiquel year, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Calaveras skull, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Calculiform writing, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Calendar, stick, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stone, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">California houses, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Calumet, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cannibal banquet, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Canoe, dugout, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Haida, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Captain David, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Captives, treatment of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Card-playing, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Carved panthers, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Carving, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Casa Grande, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#i_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Casas Grandes, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Casting metals, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cause of North-American race homogeneity, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cavate lodge, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">plan and sections, <a href="#i_227">227</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cedar mats, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cement, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cenoté, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Central-American arts, why superior, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Centre of culture, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ceremonials, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cérros trinchéras, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chac-Mool, statue, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chaco ruins, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chalchivitl, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Change in building methods, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cherokee, alphabet, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">syllabary, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">writing, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chiefs, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">civil, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">grades of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">war, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chief’s office hereditary in the gens, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chilkat blanket, <a href="#i_452">452</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chimney, Puebloan, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chinook jargon, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chirimia, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chiriqui, pottery, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stools, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chocolatl, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cholula, Great Mound of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Chultune, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cigarette used, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><i>Cire perdue</i> process, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">City of Refuge, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Civil and military branches often separate, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Civilised tribes, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Clan, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">crest, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">privileges and obligations of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Classification by stone implements impossible, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cleanliness, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Codex, Bologna, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Borgia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Cortesianus, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Dresden, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Mendoza, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Peresianus, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Telleriano-Remensis, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Troano, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Vaticanus, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Coil-process pottery, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Comalli, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Commerce, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Communal, buildings, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">living, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Complementary days, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Confederacy, Aztec, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Iroquois, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Conical cap, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">hat, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Continent peopled before glacial period, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Controversy, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cooking-basket, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Copan, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Copper, bells, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">bowlder, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">hardening, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">implements, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">mines, date of working, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">plates, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">working, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Coppers, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Corbel, arch, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">vault, <a href="#i_235">235</a>, <a href="#i_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cord, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">481</span>Cord-marked pottery, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Coronado, error in tracing of route of, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cortesianus codex, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Costume, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> to 144, <a href="#i_367">367</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cotton, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cotton-padded armour, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cotton weaving, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Council, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">general, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of women, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">tribal, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Councillors, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Counterfeiting, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">“Counts back” of the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#i_377">377</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><i>Coureurs du Bois</i>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Covenant chain of the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Crest, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Crops, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cross, the, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">in America, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Crotalus, <a href="#i_380">380</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cruciform tomb, <a href="#i_003">3</a>, <a href="#i_384">384</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">ground plan, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cueitl, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Culture not evidence of relationship, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cup-markings, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Cupped-stones, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Curtains for doors, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">D</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dagänowédä, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Daily life not bloody, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dakota winter counts, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dance, around a cedar tree, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Ghost, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Rain, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Resurrection, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Snake, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Somaikoli, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#i_454">454</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dancing, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dead, disposal of, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Death-house, Natchez, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Death-masks in Amerindian pottery, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Declaration of war, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Decoration of pottery, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Defensive, village, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">walls, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Deformity rare, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Degeneration of Yucatecs, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Descent, basis of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Destruction of Amerinds by Gov. Kieft, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Details of Puebloan house architecture, <a href="#i_211">211</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dibble, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Diseases introduced by whites, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Distinction between gens and clan, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Distribution of, arts, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">food, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dog, harness, Eskimo, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">whip, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dogs, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dolls, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Doors, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Doorways, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Double-headed snake, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dramatic sense, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dresden codex, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dress, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Drill, <a href="#i_261-1">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Drums, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dry-painting, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#i_387">387</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dugout canoe, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dwarfs, races of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dwellings, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Dyes, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">E</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Early advancement, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Earthenware burial casket, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Earth, iglu, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">lodge, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Earthworks, Cahokia mound, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">connected with agriculture, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Etowah group, <a href="#i_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">foundations for houses, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">method of construction, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Newark group, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">East Mesa, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Effigy jars, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Eldorado myth, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Election of Aztec chief, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Election of chiefs, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Elephant mound, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">pipe, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Elephant’s trunks, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Elopement, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Emblem of peace, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Embroidery, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Enchanted mesa, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Eskimo, boots, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">cloak, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">clothing, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">derivation of term, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">dog harness, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">drum, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">fuel, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#i_221-1">221</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">lamp, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">light from lamp, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">not in Alaska 500 years back, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">southern range of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">wick for lamp, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Estufa, not a sweat-house, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Etchings, rock-scratchings incorrectly called, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Eternal fires, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Etowah mound, <a href="#i_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">F</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fabric-marked pottery, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Face decoration, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">482</span>Farming, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Farm products, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Feather, garments, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">mail, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">mantles, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Feather-work, method of making, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Feathered, horned serpent, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fetich, of what consisting, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fire-drill, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">by friction, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">eternal, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Firing pottery, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Five Nations (or Tribes), <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Flageolet, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Flax, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Flint Ridge, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Flood stories, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Floods, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Flute, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fondness for singing, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Football, Eskimo, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Foot-races, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Forbidden food, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Foreign influence, no, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fort Ancient, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fortifications, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fraudulent implements, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Funeral, jars, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">urns, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Fur companies, methods of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">G</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gallantry, <a href="#i_387">387</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gallatin’s work, <a href="#Page_20">20–26</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gambling, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Games, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Garments, primitive, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Garters, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gauntlet, running the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Genesis, myth of the Mokis, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gens, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">basis of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">definition of, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">privileges of, and obligations, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gentes, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gentile system, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Georgia costume, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gesture language, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ghost dance, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ghost-shirt, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gilded man, the myth of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Glacial period, cause of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Glaciation, duration of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">extent of, in North America, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Glue, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">God-houses of the Huichols, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gold, alloy, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">plating, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Government, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Governor’s palace, Uxmal, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Grass seeds for food, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Grave monuments, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Graves, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stone box, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Grease feast, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Great Heads, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Great Mound of Cholula, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Great Spirit, no knowledge of a single, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Gukumatz, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">H</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Haida canoes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hair dressing, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hall of Columns, <a href="#i_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hano, establishment of village of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hard pottery, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hardened copper, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Harpoon, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hawk bells, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Head at Izamal, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Head chief, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Head roll for carrying, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Health, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Heat, debilitating to Amerinds, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Helmet, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hereditary offices, <a href="#Page_423">423–424</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hero-gods, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hiawatha, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">in Longfellow and Schoolcraft ranked as an Algonquin, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hieratic languages, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hill forts, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hinu<sup>n</sup>, God of Thunder, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">History, linked with other races, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hodenosaunee, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hodenosote, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hollow square earthworks, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Homogeneity, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hopewell cache, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Horse-racing, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hospitality, a law, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">House, column, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of the dead, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">post, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Household utensils, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Houses on piles, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hudson Bay Co., peaceful success of, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Huepilli, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Human flesh eaten, <a href="#i_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hunt-the-button game, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Hut of the Great Sun, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">I</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ideographic records, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Iglu, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">483</span>Iglugeak, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ikonographic writing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ikonomatic, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Imaginary animals, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Indian, corn, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">names, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stocks or families, list of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">tribes, list of, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Indio Triste, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Intercalation of days, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">denied, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Interkilling, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Internecine wars, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Irish and Danes in Ancient America, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Irrigating, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">canals, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Iroquois, confederacy, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">costume, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">unsurpassed, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Israelite and Amerindian myths compared, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Itzamna, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Izamal, head at, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">J</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Jacal construction, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Jargon, Chinook, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Joint tenements, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Jossakeed, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">K</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kabinapek orchestra, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kalopaling, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Karankawa, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kashim, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Katcina, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kayak, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kishoni, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kisi construction, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kiva, <a href="#i_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_414">414</a>
+    </li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Knives, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kwakiutl, house front, <a href="#i_239">239</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">statues, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Kwokwuli, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">L</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Labna, palace of, <a href="#i_450">450</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Labret, <a href="#i_355">355</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Lacandon idol, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Lack of carving in the South-west, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Lacrosse, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ladders, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Lamp, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of Vancouver Island, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">wick, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Landa’s alphabet, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">legacy, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Language, classification, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">roots, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Languages, number of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">polysynthetic, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Laōlaxa costume, <a href="#i_406">406</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Law of hospitality, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">League of the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Legends, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Leggings, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Lenapé houses, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Length of year calculated, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Limits of ancient inhabitants, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Linguistic map, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Long-house, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Loom, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Lost-Tribes-of-Israel theory, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Louisiana costume, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">M</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Main points of Iroquois organisation, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Maize, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Makah house, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Malignant sprites, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Man always the same, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Manatee pipe, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mandan costume, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Manner of dying, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mantle of fur, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Map, Central-American ruins, <a href="#i_436">436</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">linguistic, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Mexican ruins, <a href="#i_438">438</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Masks, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mats, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Maxtlatl, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Maya, alphabet, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">books, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">buildings, ground plans, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">chronicles, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">chronology, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">greatness, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">numeral system, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">numerals, <a href="#i_086">86</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">paper, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">parchment, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">war and rain gods, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">week, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">writing, origin of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">year, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mealing stones, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Medicinal remedies, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Medicine-men, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mendoza codex, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mesa Encantada, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Messiah, the, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Metates, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Method of attaching arrow-heads, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Methods of the fur companies, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Metlatl, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mexican, bronze tools, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">costume, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">hardened copper, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">houses, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">knowledge of metals, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">mining, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">484</span>Mezcal, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Michabo, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Midē, society, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">songs, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Migration theory, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Milk not used, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mining, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">by fire method, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Misconceptions of the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mississippi valley, houses, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">pottery, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mitla, <a href="#i_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">roof construction, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mnemonic records, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Moccasin, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
+      <a href="#i_369">369</a>
+    </li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Modoc houses, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Moki, hair dressing, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">house plan, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">loom, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">method of watering crops, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">putchkohu, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">reservation, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">sacred blanket, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">throwing-stick, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">women’s costume, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Monitor pipe, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Monolithic monuments, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Montezuma, legend of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">rank of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Moons computed to the year, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Morgan’s classification, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mormon protective garment, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mortar, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Most widely spread stocks, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mound foundations, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Moundbuilder pipes, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Moundbuilders, lack of skill, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mounds, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">builders of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Murder, settlement of, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Musical, bow, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">instruments, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Mustache, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Myths, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">resemblances to those of Israelites, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">N</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Nahuatls, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>. <i>See</i> Mexican <i>and</i> Aztec</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Names, derivation of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">indicating totem, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Natchez temple, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Navajo, costume, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">dramatic sense, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">dry-painting, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">loom construction, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">reservation, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">silversmiths, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">silver-work, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">songs the most primitive, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">summer and winter homes, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">women’s costume, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Navajos remained behind, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Nenenot tent, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Nets, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">New-fire, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Moki, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Newark group of earthworks, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Nicaragua costume, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Night attacks, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">North growing warmer, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">North-west coast, “coppers,” <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">houses, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#i_241">241</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">totem poles, <a href="#i_241">241</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">North-western tribes, costume, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Notched doorway, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Numerals of the Mayas, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#i_086">86</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">O</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Object of Aztec war, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Observatories, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Obsidian, mines, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">tools, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Octli, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Oglala roster, <a href="#i_387">387</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Okeepa ceremony, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Oldest people of Valley of Mexico, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Olmecas, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Omaha boat, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Only one kind of music, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ontonagon bowlder, the, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Opinion, effect of, on civil chief, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Oraibi at night, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Organisation and government, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Organisation of Iroquois confederacy, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Origin, migrations, and history, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Origin of Maya writing, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ornamentation of Yucatec architecture, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Outlaws, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">P</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pai Ute Messiah, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pai Utes, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Painting faces, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Palace of Palenque, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Palenque buildings, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#i_404">404</a>, Frontispiece;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">transverse section of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Palm-drill, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Paper of the Mayas, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Parallelism of human development, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Patnish and his band, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Patolli, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Peace chiefs, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">envoys, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Penn’s dealings, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Peopling of America, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Peresianus codex, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Period of time since recession of ice, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">485</span>Permanent houses, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Phonetic element in Mayan and Mexican writing, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Phonographic records of songs, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Photographs bad medicine, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Phratry, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pictographs, painted, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Picture-writing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">classified, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Piki (Moki bread), <a href="#i_377">377</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pima house, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Piñon nuts for food, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pipe, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of peace, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stone, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pisé, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Platforms, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Plumaje, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Plum-stone game, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pochotl, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Poet, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pokagon, Simon, quoted, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pole, sacred, of the Omahas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Polygamy, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Polysynthetic languages, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><i>Popol Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Population, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">before glacial cold, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Portable houses, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Potlatch, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pottery, area, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">burnished, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">cloisonné, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">coil made, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">decoration of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Eskimo knowledge of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">glaze, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">invented, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">preparation of clay for, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Priest doctor, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Primitive, fabrics, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">garments, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">loom, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pronunciation, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Protective, armour, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">medicine, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Protruding tongue, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pueblo, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Puebloan, costume, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">ignorance of metals, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">use of term, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pulque, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pump-drill, <a href="#i_261-1">251</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Putchkohu, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Pyramid, not a proper term, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of Cholula, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of the Sun, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">Q</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Quarries, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Quetzalcohuatl, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">R</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rabbit-skin robe, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rain dance, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Raised houses, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rapidity of erosion after recession of ice, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rations, issue of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rattles, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rattlesnake, centre of distribution, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">designs, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">horned, <a href="#i_380">380</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">species, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">venerated, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Recession of the sea, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Records of Tecpan, Atitlan, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Red Cloud’s census, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Red dye, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Red pipe-stone, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Red score, authenticity of, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of the Lenapés, <a href="#i_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rehearsal, a, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Religion, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Religious feasts, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Remedies, medicinal, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Remedy for smallpox, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Repoussé method of working copper, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Resemblance to Asiatics, <a href="#i_457">457</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Resemblances of Amerinds and Old World people, cause of, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Reservoirs, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Resurrection dance, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Right of asylum, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Roasting tray, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rock, carving, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">peckings, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Roof construction, Mitla, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Moki, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Rope-making, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Round towers, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Ruins in Honduras and Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Running the gauntlet, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">S</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sachems, duties of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sacred, bag, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">buffalo-cow skin, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Moki blanket, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">pole, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">structures, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">tent, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">tipi, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sacrifice, method of Aztec, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of children, Aztec, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sacrificial stone, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sail of umiak, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sauk alphabet, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sealskin, bottles, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">floats, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Secret society, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Section of Yucatec building, <a href="#i_235">235</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Seminole, costume, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">war, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sequoia, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sequoyah (George Gist) syllabary, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">486</span>Seven cities myth, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Shamans, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">definition of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Shell carvings, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Shields, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Shoshokoes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sign-language, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sign of clan or gens membership, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Silversmith’s tools, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Silversmiths, Navajo, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Tlinkit, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Similarities between Amerind and European words, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Singing, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">in the night, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">“Singing-girl,” statue, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sīsul, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sitting Bull, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Six Nations, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Skin armour, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Skull-cap, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Slab houses, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sledge, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Smallpox remedy, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Smelting ore, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Smoking, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Snake dance, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Snow-house, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">iglu, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">knife, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">shoe, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">snake, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Soapstone quarries, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">vessels, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sod house, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Soft pottery, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sokus Waiunats and the magic cup, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Somaikoli ceremony, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#i_454">454</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Songs of the Ghost dance, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sorceress, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sound writing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Soyaita ceremony, <i>see</i> Somaikoli</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Spades, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Spear- and arrow-heads, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Spindle, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Spinning, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Statue of the Sun, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Stelæ, Copan, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Stock names, how derived, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Stocks, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Stone, cutting, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">graves, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">implements as charms, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">statues in Georgia and Tennessee, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Stools of Chiriqui, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Story telling, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">String-drill, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sun priests of the Moki, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Superstition, <a href="#i_377">377</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Swastika, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Sweat, bath, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Syllabary, Cherokee, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Symbol of the peaceful council fire, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Symbolic writing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">T</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tablet of the, Cross, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Sun, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tablets, Maya, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Taensa house, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tambourine-drum, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Taos, <a href="#i_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tattooing, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tchungkee game, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tecumseh, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tegua (moccasin), <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Telleriano-Remensis Codex, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Temple, of the Cross, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of the Natchez, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of the Sun, Frontispiece, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of Tepoztlan, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#i_391">391</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">of Xochicalco, <a href="#i_023">23</a>, <a href="#i_031">31</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Temples, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Temporary house, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tennis, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Teocalli, Frontispiece, <a href="#i_391">391</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tepehuaje, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Teponaztli, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tepoztlan, temple of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#i_391">391</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Terms for describing stone weapons, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Terra-cotta, figures, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#i_113">113</a>, <a href="#i_115">115</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">tubing, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#i_117">117</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tetzontli, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tewa, village of, when established, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Thought writing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Thread, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Throwing-stick of Mokis, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Thunder-bird, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tilmatli, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Time calculations, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tipi, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">construction, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">decoration, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">derivation of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">sacred, of the Omahas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tiste, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tlaloc, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tlapan-huehuetl, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tlaxcala, not a Mexican Switzerland, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tlaxcalteco organisation, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tlinkit silversmith, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tobacco, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">pipe, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Toboggan, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Toltecs, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tongue in Amerindian carving, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">487</span>Tools, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Topek, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tortillas, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Totem, and totemism, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">poles, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Totems, where chosen, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Totolospi game, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Towers, round, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tozacatl, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Traditions, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Traits, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Translation of picture-writing by Mormons, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Transportation, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Triangular arch, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tribal, chief, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">organisation, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tribes, change building methods, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">exterminated, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Troano Codex, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">True arch, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Tupek, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Turf house, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Turtleback flints, <a href="#i_261-1">261</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">U</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Umiak, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">sail, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Unity of all music, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Unseen ruins, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Utahs, costume of 1776, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">V</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Value of a “copper,” <a href="#i_297">297</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Variation in culture, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Vase from Labna, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Vatican Codex, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Veils, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Vicuna in Arizona, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Village dweller, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Villages, location of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">permanent, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Virgin copper, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Votan, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Votive stones, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">W</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Walamink, or Place of Paint, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wālasaxa dance, <a href="#i_359">359</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wall, steps on, Moki, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Walls, Moki, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Walam Olum, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wampum, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">belt, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">War, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">belt of Iroquois, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">bonnet, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">chief’s office hereditary in the tribe, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">chiefs, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">costume, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#i_357">357</a>, <a href="#i_442">442</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">declaration of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">infrequent, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">object of, with Aztecs, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">Seminole, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">shirt, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Water-pocket, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Waterproof, boots, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">garment, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Weaving, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Weighing, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Whalebone dish, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Whip, of Eskimos, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">top, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Whisky, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Whistles, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">White, brutality, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">buffalo-cow skin, sacred, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">men as chiefs, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wicker-work, in house construction, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">plastered, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wigwam, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wikiup, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wilson, Jack, the Pai Ute Messiah, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Windows, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wine, from cactus fruit, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Winter counts, Dakota, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#i_377">377</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wolf-killer, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wooden, house, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">walls in ancient Puebloan construction, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Woonupits, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Wrecks of Japanese vessels on Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">X</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Xicalancas, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Xochicalco, temple of, <a href="#i_023">23</a>, <a href="#i_031">31</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">Y</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Yant, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Yellow dye, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Yokuts houses, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Yourt, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Yucatec, buildings, ground plans, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+    <li class="isub1">stone, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+    <li class="ifrst">Z</li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Zahcab, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+    <li class="indx">Zoötheism, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+  </ul>
+
+  <figure class="figcenter" id="i_488">
+    <img class="illowp20" src="images/i_488.jpg" alt="">
+    <figcaption>THE SWASTIKA<br>
+      A primitive and universal sign</figcaption>
+  </figure>
+
+  <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+  <div class="chapter">
+    <div class="footheader" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+  </div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> See the last chapter.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> See linguistic map p. 33, and list of tribes and stocks in
+      Appendix.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> When the ice front was along the Ohio, the Eskimo
+      naturally were distributed along the southern fringe.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> For many details of the life of the American Indians,
+      or Amerinds, see <i>The Indians of To-Day</i>, by George Bird
+      Grinnell. For the origin of the word Amerind see the <i>American
+      Anthropologist</i>, N. S., vol. i., No. 3, p. 582.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> It must be borne in mind that the general estimate of the
+      Amerind is entirely drawn from white men’s writings. The Amerind side
+      has never been presented.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> <i>Narrative of James P. Beckwourth</i>, p. 254; Irving’s
+      <i>Bonneville</i>, p. 225.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> “Amidst all the devastating incursions of the Indians in
+      North America it is a remarkable fact that no Friend who stood faithful
+      to his principles in the disuse of all weapons of war, the cause of
+      which was generally well understood by the Indians, ever suffered
+      personal molestation from them,” vol. v., p. 63, Brinton’s <i>Library
+      of Am. Ab. Literature</i>, from <i>An Account of the Conduct of the
+      Society of Friends toward the Indians</i>, p. 72. London, 1844.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Payne says, “Anahuac was becoming a military despotism.”
+      <i>History of the New World called America</i>, vol. ii., p. 494.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> See Preface and the last chapter.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Brinton’s “Uto-Aztecan.” The connection between the
+      Nahuatl, or Aztec, and Shoshonean is not well established.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Lewis H. Morgan, <i>Houses and House Life</i>, Dr. W. J.
+      McGee has added a fourth stage, “Enlightenment.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> For a full statement of this story, see the fascinating
+      book, <i>Atlantis: The Antediluvian World</i>, by Ignatius Donnelly.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See Chap. XVI. and also the Preface.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> The widest differences were in the Maya and the
+      Timuquanan. Each of these differed greatly from the bulk of the Amerind
+      languages and from each other, probably because both stocks held more
+      isolated positions than the others during the glacial period, and
+      preserved more of their earlier life, whatever it may have been.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> See J. N. B. Hewitt, <i>American Anthropologist</i>,
+      October, 1893.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> “There are well-known examples in the ethnography
+      of other races, where reliance on language alone would lead the
+      investigator astray; but all serious students of the native American
+      tribes are united in the opinion that with them no other clue can
+      compare to it in general results.”—D. G. Brinton, <i>The American
+      Race</i>, Preface.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> As to the value of linguistics as a means of
+      classification, Cyrus Thomas says: “On the one side, it is held by some
+      authors that affinity of languages implies racial identity or unity of
+      origin; on the other, it is contended that the theory that the affinity
+      of languages necessarily implies identity of race is not warranted.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> D. G. Brinton, <i>The American Race</i>. He does not
+      approve wholly of these terminations.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> <i>Seventh Annual Report, U.&nbsp;S. Bureau of Ethnology</i>,
+      contains complete list of American race stocks, north of Mexico, as far
+      as known. See Appendix.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> <i>Essays of an Americanist</i>, p. 35.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Hopi is the singular; Hopituh the plural. Dr. Fewkes and
+      others having decided in favour of the singular form, it is so given
+      here.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> They have intermarried with the Hopi and Navajo till
+      Fewkes believes that in “the next generation the percentage of pure
+      Tañoan blood will be so small that we cannot regard the stock as
+      Tañoan.”—<i>American Anthropologist</i>, April, 1894, p. 167.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> See Chap. XVI.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> <i>The American Race</i> and <i>Chronicles of the
+      Maya</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> For further coincidences see Payne, <i>History of the New
+      World Called America</i>, vol. ii., p. 78, <i>et seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> See the <i>American Anthropologist</i>, July, 1894, vol.
+      vii., “The Chinook Jargon,” by Myron Eells.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> <i>Snake Dance of the Mokis</i>, p. 190.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> There are analogies between the Nahuatl and some
+      languages of the North-west and Alaska, especially that of the
+      Koluschan, or Tlinkit, living along the sea from Dixon Entrance to
+      Prince William Sound.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> The Maya, however, has been found a useful language by
+      Europeans. Dr. Berendt met “whole families of pure white blood” who
+      used this language and did not know Spanish. This is not the usual fate
+      of the Amerind tongues.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> This word was popularly written Esquimaux, after the
+      French. Then the Bureau of Ethnology wrote it Eskimo, and this has been
+      the accepted spelling and pronunciation. But it is from the Abnaki
+      dialect of Algonquin, according to Brinton (<i>The American Race</i>,
+      p. 59), and is properly Eskimwhan. This is better represented by Eskimä
+      than by Eskimo.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> See the list of stocks in the Appendix.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> “Their language was reduced to writing some sixty years
+      ago and has now a considerable literature. Nearly all the men of
+      the tribe are able to conduct personal correspondence in their own
+      language.”—Mooney, <i>American Anthropologist</i>, N. S., vol. i., No.
+      1, p. 137, 1899.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> The “l” like “cl” in “exclaim.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> See also Payne’s <i>History of the New World</i>, vol.
+      ii., p. 96 <i>et seq.</i>, for an excellent discussion of Amerind
+      languages.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> “Cherokee Formulas,” Mooney, <i>Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> For a complete presentation of the subject of
+      sign-language, see paper by Garrick Mallery, <i>First Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, and for that of picture-writing see <i>Tenth Ann. Rept.</i>,
+      a paper by same author, and one in <i>Fourth Ann. Rept.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> Note in Preface and last chapter statement as to
+      irregularity of culture progress.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> The Mayas, however, had passed the zenith of their
+      development.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> “Etching” is the word commonly used, but as etching is a
+      totally different thing it has no place in this connection, and only
+      adds to the incongruities already existing in writings on the Amerind subject.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> <i>Painted</i> characters are found in southern
+      California, west and south-west of Sierra Nevada; <i>painted</i>
+      and <i>scratched</i>, from Colorado River to Georgia, north to West
+      Virginia and along the Mississippi. Remaining parts of United States
+      show rock scratchings almost exclusive of paintings, according to Mallery.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> The name applied by the Pai Utes to the old Puebloans.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> That is, the rock faces change slowly. Other changes may
+      occur, as, for instance, the foothold from which the pictures were
+      made. I remember seeing in Keam’s Canyon, Arizona, some pictographs on
+      a cliff wall that were far above reach, ten or twelve feet above my
+      head. My explanation was that the ground had been washed away after
+      they were made.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> I say “type,” because the Pueblo culture was not confined
+      to one stock. “Puebloan” may be used to designate them.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> A rock near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, is inscribed with
+      characters supposed to be Runic, which have been translated by
+      Phillips, “<i>Harkussenmen varu</i>” = “Harko’s son addressed the
+      men.” The Dighton inscription was read as an account of the party of
+      Thorfinn, while other interpreters have made out Scythian and Phœnician
+      characters. It is possible that there may have been a few Runic
+      characters mingled with the Algonquian on the Dighton Rock.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> For a full account of the Walam Olum, see Brinton’s “The
+      Lenapé and their Legends,” in vol. v. of his <i>Library of American
+      Aboriginal History</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> The pronunciation of this word always sounded to me
+      “<i>kat-chee´-nah</i>,” but Dr. Fewkes eliminates the “h” sound from
+      this and other words, and as he has devoted much attention to the
+      subject I follow his spelling.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> See Brinton, <i>Essays of an Americanist</i>, p. 213.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> At Newark, Ohio, a business was carried on in the
+      manufacture of inscribed stones, buried and dug up to suit occasion.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> See “A Remarkable Counterfeiter” by A. E. Jenks,
+      <i>American Anthropologist</i>, April-June, 1900.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> J. T. Goodman, <i>Biologia Centrali Americana</i>, part
+      ix., p. 11.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> The Sauk, of Algonquian stock, “have a syllabic alphabet,
+      apparently the work of some early French missionary, by means of which
+      they keep up a correspondence with friends on their various scattered
+      reservations.”—Mooney, <i>American Anthropologist</i>, January, 1899, p. 143.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> For an explanation of the Lost Tribes theory see Payne’s
+      <i>History of the New World Called America</i>, vol. ii., p. 75 <i>et seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Finally, after 1714, the machine-made beads grew in
+      favour, because the supply of native beads diminished with the
+      diminution of the number of Amerinds. These machine-made beads were of
+      uniform size, while the native beads varied considerably. See Horatio
+      Hale, <i>Pop. Sci. Monthly</i>, February, 1897.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> “The best blanket-makers, smiths, and other artisans
+      among the Navajos are the descendants of captives from Zuñi and other
+      Pueblos.”—J. G. Bourke, <i>Jour. Am. Folk-Lore</i>, p. 115.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Garrick Mallery, <i>Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Mallery, <i>Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> See “The Mountain Chant,” by Washington Matthews,
+      <i>Fifth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i> The dry-paintings also occur in the
+      “Yebitchai” ceremony, described by James Stevenson, <i>Eighth Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> “Pictographs of the feathered, horned serpent are also
+      found on the cliff to the south-west of Walpi. These pictographs have
+      the head, with a representation of a horn and feathers, and the same
+      conventionalised markings of parallel lines and arrow-points which
+      are found on the kilts of the Snake priests.”—Fewkes, <i>Journal of
+      American Ethnology</i>, vol. ii., p. 38.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> <i>Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. of Eth.</i>, p. 92.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> By Dr. Nicolas Leon. <i>Science</i>, Jan. 27, 1899,
+      p. 156. Still another lately turned up in possession of an English
+      gentleman.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> “They may have passed through some of the same stages of
+      growth, but the general consensus of opinion is that the Mayan is the
+      older of the two classes, and that these two classes have developed
+      independently.”—Thomas, <i>Study of American Archæology</i>, p. 360.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> P. 213 <i>et seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Several have recently been splendidly reproduced and may
+      be found at large libraries.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Suggested by the Abbé Brasseur.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Egypt had three kinds of writing.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> <i>Biologia Centrali Americana</i>, part ix., p. 11.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> For a fac-simile of part of the Landa MS. and
+      bibliographic notes on Mayan and Mexican writing see <i>Winsor’s Nar.
+      and Crit. Hist. of the U.&nbsp;S.</i>, vol. i., p. 197.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> See the Preface, p. vii., and the last chapter.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Cyrus Thomas, Introduction to <i>Study of American
+      Archæology</i>, p. 361.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 343.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> <i>Queen Moo</i>, by A. Le Plongeon, p. xv.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Pp. 95 and 100.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> The “Codex Cortesianus is considered to furnish a
+      connecting link between Maya and Mexican symbols.”—Powell.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Written in 1558. An abridgment of an older book.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Goodman gives these three signs for 20
+      <img class="iglyph" src="images/i_084-12.jpg" style="height: 2.6em;" alt="symbol"> and remarks, “the last of the three being drawn with a great
+      variety of detail.”—<i>Biologia Centrali Americana</i>, part viii., p. 64.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> <i>Sixth Ann. Rep. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 337.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> See the monumental work on basketry by Otis T. Mason, and
+      other writings on this subject by the same author.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> See the <i>American Anthropologist</i>, April, 1894, vol.
+      vii., “The Basket Drum,” by Washington Matthews, as an illustration of
+      how a certain specialty in an art may survive after the art itself is
+      neglected.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Murdoch found fragments of a cooking pot at Point
+      Barrow.—<i>Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 91. Rude cups were also
+      sometimes made.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> <i>Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 276.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> W. H. Holmes, <i>Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, “Pottery
+      of the Ancient Pueblos.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> The Amerind paste was generally quite dark, a light
+      surface colour being obtained by a “slip.” But I have found fragments
+      of a pinkish-white ware in Arizona the same colour all the way through.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> The earthenware of the Greeks and Romans was not glazed,
+      but covered with wax, bitumen, etc.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> With all the differences, however, an examination of
+      pottery from all over North America will convince any close observer of
+      its general homogeneity.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Pottery of the Mississippi
+      Valley,” <i>Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 372.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,”
+      <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 56.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Death-Masks in Ancient American
+      Pottery,” <i>American Anthropologist</i>, February, 1897.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> In this connection it may be mentioned that Swallow found
+      a human skull enclosed in an earthen jar, the opening of which was too
+      small to admit of the skull’s extraction.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> W. H. Holmes, “Prehistoric Textile Fabrics,” <i>Third
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>; <i>Ibid.</i>, “Prehistoric Textile Art,”
+      <i>Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Fabric-Marked Pottery,” <i>Popular
+      Science Monthly</i>, March, 1898.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> Brinton states that the art of the potter was extensively
+      practised by the Lenapé, but if this were accurate fragments of pottery
+      ought to be commoner than they are in the region formerly their home.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Compare Preface and last chapter.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> M. H. Saville, “Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in
+      Southern Mexico,” <i>American Anthropologist</i>, N. S., April, 1899.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> <i>American Anthropologist</i>, N. S., 1899, i., p. 355.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,”
+      <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,”
+      <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Rib is the term applied by our potters to the small thin
+      pieces of wood used for smoothing the ware. The Moki “rib” corresponds
+      closely in size, shape, and use to that I have seen employed by our
+      potters.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> For soapstone or steatite vessels, see Chap. X.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Hoffman, <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 260.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Holmes, <i>Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 22.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Boas, <i>Report U.&nbsp;S. Nat. Museum</i>, p. 319.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Gibbs, <i>U. S. G. S., Contrib. to N. A. Ethnology</i>,
+      vol. i., part ii., p. 219.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> National Academy of Sciences, <i>Bones of the Hemenway
+      Expedition</i>, Introduction by Washington Matthews, p. 157.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> See for description of kiva the chapter in this
+      book on Architecture, etc., and also Macmillan’s <i>Dictionary of
+      Architecture</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Dr. Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers.” <i>Third Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 375.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> Washington Matthews, <i>Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>,
+      p. 377.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Some of the finest Navajo blankets command high prices.
+      A two faced blanket is described by Matthews in the <i>American
+      Anthropologist</i>, vol. ii., No. 4.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Bandelier, <i>Final Report</i>, part i., p. 158.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, vol. i., pp. 439, 442.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii., p. 13.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 71.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> The <i>timatli</i> or <i>tilmatli</i> for men was a
+      piece of cloth, according to Biart, “four feet long, which enveloped
+      the body, and two corners of which were knotted upon the breast or upon
+      the shoulder.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 73.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> Du Pratz, <i>Hist. de la Louisiane</i>, vol. ii., pp.
+      191, 192.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, vol. ii., pp. 133, 134.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Lucien Biart, <i>The Aztecs</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Squier, <i>Nicaragua</i>, p. 289.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> <i>The History of Erie County, N. Y.</i>, pp. 58, 59,
+      edited by H. Perry Smith.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Quoted in Captain Simpson’s <i>Report</i>, p. 494.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Buckingham Smith’s translation.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Lieutenant Mowry, <i>Report</i>, p. 587, Ex. Doc. No.
+      11, 35th Cong., 1st Session.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> John W. De Forrest, <i>History of the Indians of
+      Connecticut</i>, pp. 9–11.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> Catlin had wonderful success in persuading Amerinds to
+      pose for him. When I went amongst the Navajos and Mokis in 1884–85
+      I found it next to impossible to get them to sit for me. Only one
+      solitary specimen in the whole region was willing to run the risk. It
+      was considered very “bad medicine.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> The Crows, Sioux, Mandans, and Assiniboins are the same
+      stock—the Dakota or Siouan.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> Catlin, <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1885, pp. 450, 451.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” <i>Third Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 310.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> Geo. Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and
+      North-western Oregon,” <i>U. S. G. S. Contrib.</i>, vol. i., part ii.,
+      p. 220.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 219.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 176.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> The same kind of a wicker cap is worn by many California
+      Amerinds.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Cushing says of the early Zuñis: “They wore but scant
+      clothing besides their robes and blankets—breech-cloths and kilts,
+      short for the men, long for the women, and made of shredded bark and
+      rushes or fibre; sandals also of fibre.... The hair was bobbed to the
+      level of the eyebrows in front, but left long and hanging at the back,
+      etc.”—<i>Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 358.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> “Coronado Letter,” <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 562.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> “Narrative of Jaramillo,” <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 586, 587.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> “Relación Postrera de Sívola,” <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 569.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” <i>Fifth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 486.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> <i>Memoirs Long Island Hist. Soc.</i>, vol. i., p. 99,
+      “Journal of a Voyage to New York in 1679–80.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> See chapter on Weapons, and note also the quotation from
+      Prescott—pp. 134 and 136.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” <i>Fourteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp. 789, 790; see also Chap. IX., this work.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> Murdoch, “The Point Barrow Eskimo,” <i>Ninth Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>; Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” <i>Sixth Ann. Rept.
+      Bu. Eth.</i>; Turner, “Hudson Bay Eskimo,” <i>Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> Murdoch.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> Dr. Kane, <i>Arctic Exploration</i>, vol. i., p. 203.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> John D. Hunter, <i>Memoirs of a Captive among the
+      Indians of North America</i>, London, 1823, pp. 289, 290.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> Sometimes two high poles are set up, between which, at a
+      potlatch or “grease feast,” the piles of blankets forming payment for a
+      “copper” are laid. These are called “blanket-poles.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> There is a fine specimen in the American Museum of
+      Natural History, New York.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> See <i>Tenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 478.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> W. H. Dall, <i>Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 112.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” <i>Rep. Nat.
+      Mus.</i>, 1895, pp. 323, 324.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” <i>Rep. Nat.
+      Mus.</i>, 1895, pp. 370, 371.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> <i>Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Chap. V., and <i>American Anthropologist</i>, February,
+      1897.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> <i>Prehistoric Art</i>, p. 477.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> Joseph D. McGuire, “American Aboriginal Pipes,” <i>Rep.
+      Nat. Mus.</i>, 1897, p. 468.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> H. W. Henshaw, “Animal Carvings,” <i>Second Ann. Rept.
+      Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 166.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Warren K. Moorehead, <i>The Bird-Stone Ceremonial</i>
+      (pamphlet).</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> The Pai Utes make rude clay and wood dolls, but nothing
+      larger, and no pottery.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> A. F. Bandelier, <i>Final Report</i>, p. 152.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> A. F. Bandelier, <i>Final Report</i>, p. 153.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 161.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> A painted design, similar to that of the “Calendar
+      Stone,” was found on one of the inside walls at Mitla. See pl. xxv.,
+      Fig. 1, Bandelier’s <i>Archæological Tour</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> A compass card has five concentric circles, and the
+      Calendar Stone appears to have the same number. The compass was known
+      in Europe in the twelfth century, in China earlier.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> A. F. Bandelier, <i>Report of an Archæological Tour in
+      Mexico</i>, p. 78.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Two structures at Palenque are so called on account of
+      the tablets in them bearing emblems that resemble a cross. In that
+      designated by Stephen as No. 2, by Charnay later as No. 1, and by H. H.
+      Bancroft as No. 4, the cross form is the more pronounced, and it is the
+      one usually referred to by the above title.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> For the exterior of the Temple of the Sun, see
+      Frontispiece.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> Leonhard Stejneger, “Poisonous Snakes of North America,”
+      <i>Rep. U.&nbsp;S. Museum</i>, 1893, p. 421.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> Edward S. Holden, “Studies in Central American
+      Picture-Writing,” <i>First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 229.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Charnay found at Palenque that some of the figures
+      were modelled first nude and draperies applied afterwards, the latter
+      separating from the figure itself.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Desiré Charnay, <i>Ancient Cities of the New World</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” <i>Sixth Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 27.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> For definitions of aboriginal architecture, see
+      Macmillan’s <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Bandelier, <i>Final Report</i>, part i., p. 103.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Or, if the climate should change, the character of the
+      house might change with it.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> For full information on Dakota customs, etc., see the
+      papers of the late Rev. James Owen Dorsey in the third, eleventh,
+      thirteenth, and fifteenth <i>Ann. Repts. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Wigwam is frequently used in a general sense to
+      designate any Amerind house of the skin or earth or wood type.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> See “ti” and “pi” in <i>Dakota-English Dictionary</i>,
+      vol. vii.; <i>Cont. U. S. G. S.</i>, pp. 421, 467.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> Lewis H. Morgan, “Houses and House Life of the American
+      Aborigines,” <i>Contributions to N. A. Ethnology</i>, vol. iv., p. 114.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> Castañeda describes the Querechos and Teyas in 1540 as
+      travelling, “like the Arabs, with their tents and troops of dogs loaded
+      with poles, and having Moorish pack-saddles and girths.”—Winship’s
+      translation, <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 527.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Morgan’s “Houses and House Life,” etc., p. 113.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> W. J. Hoffman, “The Menominee Indians,” <i>Fourteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp. 254–55.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> The Lenapé houses “were built in groups and surrounded
+      with a palisade.... In the centre was sometimes erected a mound of
+      earth, both as a place of observation and as a location to place the
+      children and women.”—Brinton, <i>The Lenapé</i>, p. 51.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> Cyrus Thomas, “Mound Explorations,” <i>Twelfth Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 647.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 649.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Cyrus Thomas, <i>Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p.
+      653.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Francis Parkman, <i>Discovery of the West</i>, p. 277.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> George Bancroft, <i>U.&nbsp;S. History</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> L. H. Morgan, <i>Houses and House Life</i>, p. 120; see
+      also <i>The Iroquois League</i>, by Morgan.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Brinton, <i>The American Race</i>, p. 77.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> Gibbs cites a split plank he saw in Puget Sound region,
+      24 feet long and 4½ feet wide.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Gibbs mentions a house of the Makah, north-west
+      Washington, 75 feet long, 40 wide, and 15 high, all one room; and
+      another used for festivals 520 feet long, 60 feet wide, 15 feet high
+      in front, and 10 feet in the rear.—George Gibbs, “Tribes of Western
+      Washington and North-western Oregon,” <i>Contributions U. S. G. S.</i>,
+      vol. i., p. 215.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> Stephen Powers, “Tribes of California,”
+      <i>Contributions</i>, etc., vol. iii., p. 255.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 215.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 45.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> W. H. Dall, “Tribes of Alaska,” <i>Contributions U. S.
+      G. S.</i>, vol. i., p. 82.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> The tree growth ceases at about the line of the village
+      of Kodiak on Kodiak Island. The Aleuts ranged over the Aleutian Islands
+      and eastward as far as Stepovak Bay on the peninsula.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> For definitions of these terms see Macmillan’s
+      <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> Schwatka found cliff-dwellings occupied by Tarahumaris
+      in northern Mexico. See <i>Cave and Cliff-Dwellers</i>, by Frederick
+      Schwatka, p. 187.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> In early days upper stories in New Mexico were sometimes
+      built of wood, plastered.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> For details of Pueblo architecture, see paper on the
+      subject by Victor Mindeleff, <i>Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i> And “The
+      Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly,” by Cosmos Mindeleff, <i>Sixteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> See Macmillan’s <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> See paper by Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of
+      the Verde Valley,” <i>Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> See illustrations, pp. 225, 227, 228.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> See the writings of Geo. H. Pepper, director of the Hyde
+      Expedition.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> <i>Commerce of the Prairies.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> See Macmillan’s <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>. Kiva
+      is a Moki term to replace the Spanish estufa, which is misleading. The
+      kiva is not a sweat house, as the Spanish term seems to imply. A sweat
+      house or lodge is expressly built and heated for the purpose of a sweat
+      bath.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> See <i>Mem. Nat. Acad. Sciences</i>, vii., p. 146.
+      Introduction by Washington Matthews.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> “And have five or six stories, three of them with mud
+      walls and two or three with thin wooden walls.”—“Relacion del Suceso,”
+      <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 575.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Littré gives <i>pisé</i> as “made with a species of
+      large bricks made in wooden moulds”; <i>piser</i>, “to construct by
+      beating earth between two planks.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> Prescott, <i>Mexico</i>, i., p. 474.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ii., p. 70.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ii., p. 110.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> Prescott, <i>Mexico</i>, ii., p. 109.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> <i>Voyages of Vancouver</i>, ii., p. 274.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> Morgan, <i>House Life</i>, p. 231. For the houses and
+      house life of some modern cave and cliff dwellers see <i>Unknown
+      Mexico</i>, by Carl Lumholtz.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> M. H. Saville, “Temple of Tepoztlan,” <i>Monumental
+      Records</i>, i., No. 1.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Goodman in <i>Biologia Centrali Americana</i>. From an
+      inscription on the back of the “Yucatec Stone” 10,731 years back to the
+      date of an action represented on the front of the stone from 1895.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> Cyrus Thomas (<i>American Anthropologist</i>, July,
+      1899) says: “Here we see the culmination of Mayan art.” There are
+      several terraces, but one is so large as to eclipse the others.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Viollet-le-Duc thinks these buildings and the Maya ones
+      originated in wooden structures. For details of construction, see
+      Bandelier’s <i>Archæological Tour in Mexico</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> For mining operations see Chap. X.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> The Lenapé had arrow-heads and pipes made of copper. See
+      Abbott’s <i>Primitive Industry</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> The Amerind muscles that came into play in bow shooting
+      were so highly developed that a white man untrained could not half pull
+      a bow that a generally weaker Amerind could pull with ease.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> Hoffman (<i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 281)
+      describes similar bows found in Arizona and Nevada, three feet long,
+      but made of wood in a composite way.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Hough says he has often made fire in thirty seconds with
+      the palm-drill and in five seconds with the bow-drill.—<i>National
+      Museum Report</i>, 1888, p. 531.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> See chapter on Customs for a quotation from Prescott
+      describing the festival of the new-fire.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> The Iroquois rigged large pump-drills out of saplings.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> Hoffman denies this, <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 279.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> For modern arrow-making among the Menominee, see
+      <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 275 <i>et seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> It is said that a blow-gun was also used by some North
+      American tribes. “Many of the Siouan Indians use the lance, javelin, or
+      spear.”—McGee, <i>Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 171.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> “Primitive American Armour,” <i>Report of National
+      Museum</i>, 1893.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> Bancroft, H. H., <i>Native Races</i>, vol. ii., p. 407.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Veytia, <i>Hist. Ant. Mej.</i>, tom. i., pp. 289, 290;
+      see also <a href="#Page_134">page 134</a>, this book.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> Brinton, <i>The American Race</i>, p. 138.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” by James Mooney,
+      <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>; see also Chap. VI., this book.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> The Utah Mormons wear an undergarment supposed to have
+      such resistance. The idea may have come from them.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” <i>Fourteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 790.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> See Preface pages iv. and v., and also the last chapter
+      of this book.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> For “Medicine Arrows of the Oregon Indians,” see A. S.
+      Gatschet, <i>Journal of American Folk-Lore</i>, 1893.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> The surface flint was in bowlders and nodules.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> For a valuable account of stone implements of the
+      “Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province,” see paper by W. H. Holmes in
+      <i>Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>; also, “The Obsidian Mines of
+      Hidalgo, Mexico,” by the same author, <i>American Anthropologist</i>,
+      vol. ii., No. 3, N. S.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Tylor declares that it is not possible to distinguish
+      stone weapons from one part of the world from those from any other part.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> From the Aztec: <i>metlatl</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> While the Eastern Amerinds generally seem not to have
+      known how to melt copper, some few may have experimented in a limited
+      way with it.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Walter Hough, “The Lamp of the Eskimo,” <i>Rep. Nat.
+      Mus.</i>, 1896, p. 1028.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> The Amerinds of Vancouver Island were said by Captain
+      Chase to use a lamp made of a clam shell, with oil from the whale or
+      porpoise. The wick was bark.—Hough, p. 1039.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> See Castañeda’s narrative, Winship’s translation,
+      <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 527; and Ternaux Compans,
+      <i>Relation de Castañeda</i>, p. 190, “ils ont de grands troupeaux
+      de chiens qui portent leur bagage; ils l’attachent sur le dos de
+      ces animaux au moyen d’une sangle et d’un petit bât”; also the same
+      narrative, <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 456.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> For excellent descriptions in detail of the Eskimo
+      sledge and methods of using it, see Boas, <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 529 <i>et seq.</i>; Murdoch, <i>Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 353 <i>et seq.</i>; and Turner, <i>Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 241 <i>et seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> Murdoch, <i>Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 358.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” <i>Rep. Nat. Mus.</i>,
+      p. 566; see also p. 564; and Turner, in the <i>Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 307.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> See O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” <i>Rep. Nat.
+      Mus.</i>, pp. 381–410; <i>Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp.
+      308–312; <i>Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp. 344–352.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> For details of construction see Turner, <i>Eleventh Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 305; and Hoffman, <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu.
+      Eth.</i>, p. 292.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> Baidarka is the Russian term used at Kodiak and along
+      the Alaska peninsula. Baidar = umiak; baidarka = kayak.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> For details of kayak and umiak construction, see
+      Murdoch, <i>Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 328; Boas, <i>Sixth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 527; Turner, <i>Eleventh Ann. Rept.
+      Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 235; see, also, for hunting weapons and methods,
+      “Aboriginal American Zoötechny,” by Otis Tufton Mason, <i>American
+      Anthropologist</i>, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, 1899.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> The Omahas made one out of dried bison hides, branches,
+      and saplings.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> Mines of steatite vessels have been found on Santa
+      Catalina Island, California, as well as on the Eastern United States
+      coast. Charles F. Holder describes the Santa Catalina mines in the
+      <i>Scientific American</i> for December 16, 1899.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> W. H. Holmes, <i>Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp.
+      108, 109.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> For a description of these chultunes, see “The Chultunes
+      of Labna,” <i>Memoirs of Peabody Museum</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> Champlain’s <i>Voyages</i>, Prince Society edition, vol.
+      ii., p. 236.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> Now in the National Museum, Washington. See article on
+      the subject by Charles Moore, <i>Report of U.&nbsp;S. Museum</i>, 1895.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> Frank Hamilton Cushing, “Primitive Copper Working, An
+      Experimental Study,” <i>American Anthropologist</i>, O. S., vol. vii.,
+      No. 1, 1894.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> Fewkes found several of these bells in his excavations
+      around the headwaters of the Gila.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> During my stay with the Mokis and in their vicinity and
+      in all the long time I have been observing them, I never saw nor heard
+      of a single object in metal wrought by them.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> Brinton, <i>The Lenapé</i>, p. 52.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> F. Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” <i>Rept. Nat. Mus.</i>,
+      1895, p. 344.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” <i>Second
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 171.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> The tribes of the North-west made some gold and silver
+      ornaments, and at Sitka to-day there is a jewelry establishment kept by
+      a native Tlinkit, who makes most of his own silverware.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” <i>Second
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 172.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Prescott, <i>Mexico</i>, vol. i., p. 138.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> Daniel Wilson, <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, vol. i., pp.
+      213–215.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 216.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 218.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> Daniel Wilson, <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, vol. i., p. 222.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,”
+      <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 186.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Brinton, <i>The Lenapé</i>, p. 53.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers,” <i>Third Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 376.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Squier describes a Tyrian purple of various shades
+      secured in Nicaragua from the murex shellfish by a slow and tedious
+      process; see his <i>Nicaragua</i>, p. 286.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, <i>Journal of American
+      Folk-Lore</i>, vol. ii., p. 151.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> Cyrus Thomas, <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 271.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> Prescott, <i>Mexico</i>, vol. i., p. 111.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 112. The intercalation of these 12½ or
+      13 days is denied by Payne, <i>History of the New World</i>, vol. ii.,
+      pp. 294–316 <i>et seq.</i>, but Mrs. Zelia Nuttall and other eminent
+      scholars are certain they were intercalated.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> Goodman, <i>Biologia Centrali Americana</i>, part viii.,
+      pp. 5, 8.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> This bell is supposed, however, to have developed here
+      from the rattle.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> The Peabody Museum contains an exhibit of forty-five
+      whistles made of bone, all found together in one basket. They were
+      wrapped with split reed and were seven to ten inches in length.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> Washington Matthews, “The Basket Drum,” <i>American
+      Anthropologist</i>, O. S., vol. vii., No. 2, April, 1894.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> A. F. Bandelier, <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 150.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> John Comfort Fillmore, “The Harmonic Structure of
+      Indian Music,” <i>American Anthropologist</i>, N. S., April, 1899.
+      See also Chas. K. Wead, “The Study of Primitive Music,” <i>Am.
+      Anthropologist</i>, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” <i>Fourteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp. 994, 995.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” <i>Fourteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp. 994, 995</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> Murdoch says the Point Barrow Eskimo wake up in the
+      night to sing.—<i>Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 388.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion, <i>Fourteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, pp. 1002, 1003.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> J. Walter Fewkes, <i>Jour. of Am. Eth.</i>, vol. ii., p.
+      159.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> James Mooney, <i>Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p.
+      1008.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> Stephen Powers, <i>Tribes of California</i>, pp. 211,
+      212.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> <i>Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 255.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> For a description of the “Cat’s Cradle” games of the
+      Amerinds, see the elaborate work <i>String Figures</i> by Caroline
+      Furness Jayne.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> Col. Richard Irving Dodge, <i>The Plains of the Great
+      West</i>, pp. 329, 330.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> <i>Plains of the Great West</i>, p. 324.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> John T. Short, <i>The North Americans of Antiquity</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> From the Moki method of guiding shower-waters amongst
+      the corn to guiding waters from a brook or river in that way would not
+      be a great step; indeed, it would be most simple and natural and would
+      easily be forced by circumstances.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of Verde Valley,”
+      <i>Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 238.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> The term “horticulture” as employed by some writers
+      means agriculture on a small scale, the operations not being considered
+      by them extensive enough to merit the title of agriculture.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> Refer to previous chapter on “Architecture and
+      Dwellings.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> J. Walter Fewkes, “Preliminary Account of Archæological
+      Field Work in Arizona in 1897,” <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1897, p.
+      613.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> Desiré Charnay, <i>Ancient Cities</i>, p. 36.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> Bancroft, <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. i.,
+      p. 209.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> Cyrus Thomas, <i>Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p.
+      408.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> Cyrus Thomas, <i>Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p.
+      408.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> In New England there was once a fortification in
+      Sanbornton, N. H., which had walls six feet thick and breast-high,
+      faced outside with stone.—Winsor, <i>Nar. and Crit. Hist.</i>, vol. i., p. 404.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> The great Cahokia mound in Illinois is seven hundred
+      feet by five hundred feet on the ground. For illustration of Etowah
+      mound see <a href="#i_337">page 337</a>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> Cyrus Thomas, <i>Study of North American Archæology</i>,
+      p. 125.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> Gerard Fowke describes in the <i>American
+      Anthropologist</i>, N. S., vol. ii, No. 3, “Points of difference
+      between Norse Remains and Indian works.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> <i>Ancient Cities.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Ad. Bandelier, <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 233 <i>et
+      seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> Contact with civilisation has, however, changed the
+      average health in many if not all tribes.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> Bancroft, <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. i.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> For further details of the Mexican drinks, see Charnay’s
+      <i>Ancient Cities</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> Squier, <i>Nicaragua</i>, p. 272.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> Biart, <i>The Aztecs</i>, p. 290.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> <i>The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth,
+      Mountaineer, Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of
+      Indians</i>, p. 444. Harper Bros., 1856.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 445.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> The council was opened by the sachem puffing smoke from
+      the pipe over the heads of the assembly, and then each councillor in
+      turn drawing at the pipe. This accomplished, business was begun.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,”
+      <i>Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 72.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> <i>History of the United States.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> Important announcements are made by appointed criers.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> <i>Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth</i>, p.
+      228.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> <i>History of the United States.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> Payne’s <i>History of the New World</i>, vol. ii., pp.
+      495, 499, and 501.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> <i>Conquest of Mexico</i>, vol. i., p. 81.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> <i>Conquest of Mexico</i>, vol. i., p. 126; see also pp.
+      251, 252 of this book.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> Lucien Carr, <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1891, p. 543;
+      see also Payne’s <i>History of the New World</i>, page 330.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> See Fewkes, “The New-Fire Ceremony at Walpi,”
+      <i>American Anthropologist</i>, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> For details of cenoté, etc., see Desiré Charnay’s
+      <i>Ancient Cities</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 204.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” <i>Fourteenth
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 980.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> Mrs. Erminnie Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” <i>Second
+      Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 68.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> <i>Conquest of Mexico</i>, vol. i., p. 121.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> James Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,”
+      <i>Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 328.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> “Our materia medica owes tobacco, gum copal, liquid
+      amber, sarsaparilla, resin of tecamaca, jalap, and huaca to the
+      Aztecs.”—L. Biart, <i>The Aztecs</i>, p. 285.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> D. G. Brinton, <i>The American Race</i>, p. 82.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 55.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 330–333.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> Brinton, <i>The American Race</i>, p. 77.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> These ceremonials often introduce historical matters. I
+      was surprised once to hear the song change to one of our Sunday-school
+      hymns. This portion of the ceremony was describing the establishment of
+      a Presbyterian mission at Keam’s Canyon years before.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> See J. Walter Fewkes, <i>Journal of American
+      Ethnology</i>, for a description of some of the Moki ceremonials and
+      other papers by the same author.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> In some of the pueblos there is a constant inter-killing
+      going on for supposed evil practices of witchcraft (Bandelier
+      <i>Report</i>, part i., p. 35), but whether this has any connection
+      with the secret orders, I do not know.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> For information on these and other social points see the
+      various writings of J. W. Powell.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> The clan totem is probably an expansion of the
+      individual totem by increase.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> See pp. 162, 164, 241, this book, for illustrations of
+      totem poles.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> Dr. H. C. Yarrow, “Mortuary Customs,” <i>First Ann.
+      Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> The head-stones of these graves were this shape, [**
+      symbol] and a portion in some cases protruded above the ground when I
+      was there. The ground was very sandy. The stones were natural slabs,
+      about 1½ in. thick.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> Stansbury, in his <i>Report</i>, describes graphically a
+      “death lodge” he found, but, unfortunately, space is lacking to reprint it here.
+
+      <p>It is important in studying burial customs of the Amerinds to remember
+        that all members of a tribe were not necessarily disposed of in the
+        same way. Cabeza de Vaca mentions that “sometimes common members of a
+        tribe were buried while medicine men were burned.”</p></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> See p. 46, this book.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> D. G. Brinton, <i>The Lenapé and their Legends</i>, pp.
+      158, 164.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> “The spirit of any plant, any star, or other personage
+      in creation may become a man’s attendant. In our popular phraseology
+      this is called his medicine.”—Jeremiah Curtin, <i>Creation Myths</i>,
+      p. 29.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> See “The Lessons of Folklore,” J. W. Powell, <i>American
+      Anthropologist</i>, vol. ii., No. 1, N. S., January, 1900.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> Jeremiah Curtin, <i>Creation Myths of Primitive
+      America</i>, p. 499.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> Bandelier, <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 180.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 193. See p. 170 <i>et seq.</i>
+      for his whole discussion of Quetzalcohuatl. See also the “Book of
+      Quetzalcohuatl.” Payne, <i>History of the New World</i>, II., p. 435
+      <i>et seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> <i>American Hero Myths</i>, p. 64 <i>et seq.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> A. S. Gatschet, “An Indian Visit to Jack Wilson, the
+      Payute Messiah,” <i>Journal of American Folk-Lore</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> <i>American Hero Myths</i>, p. 147.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> Payne accepts the Amazon stories as true. <i>History of
+      the New World</i>, vol. ii., p. 11.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> For some Amerind legends delightfully related, see
+      <i>Blackfoot Lodge Tales</i>, and other books, by George Bird Grinnell.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> <i>Native Races</i>, vol. i., p. 129.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 43.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> Brinton, <i>The Lenapé</i>, p. 15.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> <i>History of the American Indians</i>, p. 282.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> See Macmillan’s <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>;
+      pronounced <i>kee-vah</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> <i>First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 59.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> See Macmillan’s <i>Dictionary of Architecture</i>.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Parkman mentions Beckwourth in the <i>Oregon Trail</i>,
+      p. 124, as “a mongrel of French, American, and Indian blood.... He is a
+      ruffian of the worst stamp, bloody and treacherous, without honour or
+      honesty”; but other writers seem to give him a better character.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> Beckwourth, <i>Life and Adventures</i>, first ed., pp.
+      227, 228.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> Brinton, <i>The Lenapé</i>, p. 47.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> <i>The American Race</i>, p. 46.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> Morgan, <i>Houses and House Life</i>, p. 8. “In the
+      ancient gens descent was limited to the female line.” <i>Ibid.</i>, p.
+      5.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 69.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> <i>American Anthropologist</i>, N. S., vol i., No. 4,
+      October, 1899, p. 710.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 71, and <i>Houses and
+      House-Life</i>, p. 7.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> Powell, <i>First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i>, p. 61.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> Originally <i>Häyowenthä</i> in the Mohawk. He and
+      <i>Däganowédä</i> are usually considered mythical personages.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> <i>The American Race</i>, p. 130.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> Payne, as before noted, says “a military despotism.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 31, and footnote, p. 31.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> <i>Conquest of Mexico</i>, vol. i., p. 23.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> <i>Ancient Society</i>, pp. 71, 72.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> <i>Houses and House-Life</i>, p. 28.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> See the Preface of this book, and also Payne’s
+      <i>History of the New World</i>, vol. ii., which, unfortunately, the
+      author did not have the benefit of seeing till after this book was written.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> In this connection see “Archæology of the Thompson
+      River Region, British Columbia,” by Harlan I. Smith, <i>Memoirs of the
+      American Museum</i>, vol. ii., May, 1900. The Eskimo probably entered
+      Alaska along the coast from the east.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> It is of course possible that some infusion of blood
+      occurred in this manner, but it is not likely that it was ever
+      sufficient to tinge a whole stock.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> “This uniformity finds one of its explanations in the
+      geographical features of the continent, which are such as to favour
+      migrations in longitude, and thus prevent the diversity which special
+      conditions of latitude tend to produce.”—Brinton, <i>American Race</i>, p. 41.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> See also “On the Peopling of America,” by August R.
+      Grote, <i>Bulletin Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences</i>, February 2, 1877.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> The tinge of resemblance between certain Amerind
+      stocks and foreign stocks endures from the pre-glacial period, then,
+      when intercourse was on different lines, and does not indicate any
+      latter-day relationship.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> These tools might easily be quite as good as many found
+      on the surface to-day, and it would be difficult to distinguish them
+      from at least the ruder forms of modern implements.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> W. H. Holmes, “Preliminary Revision of the Evidence
+      Relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in California,” <i>American
+      Anthropologist</i>, October, 1899.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> An elevation of the ocean bottom in the Atlantic
+      tropical regions would probably disturb the existing climate of the
+      North Atlantic regions by deflecting the warm currents.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> See <i>A Naturalist in Nicaragua</i>, by Thomas Belt,
+      Chap. XIV.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> Payne believes that by this lowering of the waters
+      combined with land elevation, a Miocene land passage was formed leading
+      from Asia to the North-west coast and that the American continent was
+      then peopled by this route.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> See also, “Man and the Glacial Period in America,”
+      Payne’s <i>History of the New World</i>, vol. ii., p. 62 <i>et
+      seq.</i>, and discussion of the effects of glaciation, <i>ibid.</i>, p.
+      348.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> “When first met with the Navajos occupied the same range
+      of country they now inhabit.”—Bandelier, <i>Report</i>, part i., p. 175.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> <i>National Geographical Magazine</i>, December 1, 1899,
+      p. 509.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> “That there was a primitive empire ... seems to some
+      minds confirmed by other evidences than the story of Votan ... and
+      out of this empire ... have come, as such believers say, after its
+      downfall, somewhere near the Christian era, and by divergence, the
+      great stocks of people called Maya, etc.”—Winsor, <i>Nar. and Crit.
+      Hist.</i>, vol. i., p. 134.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> <i>League of the Iroquois.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> For information on the Amerindian wars, their efforts to
+      preserve their territory, etc., see Bancroft’s <i>History of the United
+      States</i>; Winsor’s <i>Narrative and Critical History of the United
+      States</i>; Winsor’s other works; Parkman, John Fiske; and numerous
+      other books to be found in any good library.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> <i>Harper’s Magazine</i>, March, 1899, p. 649.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” <i>Bulletin of
+      American Geographical Society</i>, December, 1897.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> <i>Life and Adventures</i>, p. 438.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> Bering found no inhabitants on the Aleutian islands and
+      his visit of discovery was recent—1741.</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> The thanks of the author are due to Prof. Otis Tufton
+      Mason, of the United States National Museum, for kindly reviewing this
+      appendix in proof. Prof. Mason writes, “Your work has my approval and
+      it is well done.”</div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> See map, <a href="#Page_33">page 33</a> this book, and also the original of it
+      in the <i>Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth.</i></div>
+
+    <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> See “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” by F.
+      S. Dellenbaugh, in the <i>Bulletin of the American Geographical
+      Society</i>, December, 1897.</div>
+
+  <div class="mt10"></div>
+  <div class="bbox">
+  <div class="center xlarge mt2 mb2 ws2">By F. S. DELLENBAUGH</div>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <div class="xlarge">The North-Americans of Yesterday</div>
+
+  <p class="ad">A Comparative Study of North-American Indian Life, Customs, and
+    Products, on the Theory of the Ethnic Unity of the Race.<br>
+    8<sup>o</sup>. Fully illustrated <span class="fright">net, $4.00</span></p>
+
+  <div class="xlarge">The Romance of the Colorado River</div>
+
+  <p class="ad">A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from
+    1540 to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the Two
+    Voyages of Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons.<br>
+    8<sup>o</sup>. Third Edition Revised. Fully illustrated <span class="fright">net, $3.50</span></p>
+
+  <div class="xlarge">Breaking the Wilderness</div>
+
+  <p class="ad">The Story of the Conquest of the Far West, from the Wanderings of
+    Cabeza de Vaca to the First Descent of the Colorado by Powell,
+    and the Completion of the Union Pacific Railway, with Particuvlar
+    Account of the Exploits of Trappers and Traders.<br>
+    8<sup>o</sup>. Fully illustrated <span class="fright">net, $3.50</span></p>
+
+  <div class="xlarge">A Canyon Voyage</div>
+
+  <p class="ad">The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the
+    Green-Colorado River from Wyoming, and the Explorations on Land in
+    the Years 1871 and 1872.<br>
+    8<sup>o</sup>. Fully illustrated <span class="fright">net, $3.50</span></p>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <div class="center xlarge ws2">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</div>
+  <div class="large">NEW YORK<span class="fright">LONDON</span></div>
+
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="center xxlarge mt10 bold">Breaking the Wilderness</div>
+
+  <p class="noindent large mt2"><i>The story of the Conquest of the Far West, from the Wanderings of
+    Cabeza de Vaca to the first Descent of the Colorado by Powell, and the
+    Completion of the Union Pacific Railway. With particular account of the
+    exploits of trappers and traders.</i></p>
+
+  <div class="center mt2"><span class="xlarge">By <span class="smcap">Frederick S. Dellenbaugh</span></span><br>
+    <i>With about 146 illustrations. 8<sup>o</sup>, net $3.50.</i></div>
+
+  <p class="p1">“Mr. Dellenbaugh has performed here an excellent and valuable service
+    in collecting a vast array of heretofore disconnected accounts of a
+    fascinating and wonderful region of land still fraught with mystery
+    and rich in glorious possibilities. It would be difficult to convey a
+    greater amount of useful and interesting information in a volume of
+    corresponding size and scope.”—<i>Phila. North American.</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="short">
+  <p>“Taken as a whole the book gives the most comprehensive account of the
+    history of Western exploration and discovery that has been given to the
+    public.”—<i>N. Y. Tribune.</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="short">
+  <p>“No other American was so competent to write this thrilling and
+    captivating story.”—<i>Henry Haynie in the Boston Times.</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="short">
+  <p>“A most readable book.... A book that will interest every student of
+    American history and every reader whose blood is stirred by deeds of
+    hardship and daring.”—<i>N. Y. Evening Telegram.</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="full2 mt10">
+  <div class="center xxxlarge bold ws2">A Canyon Voyage</div>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <p class="noindent large"><i>The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the
+    Green-Colorado River from Wyoming and the Explorations on Land in the
+    Years 1871 and 1872.</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <p class="center"><span class="xlarge">By <span class="smcap">Frederick S. Dellenbaugh</span></span><br>
+    Artist and Assistant Topographer of the Expedition</p>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <p class="noindent"><i>8vo with 50 Full-page Illustrations from Photographs and from
+    Drawings by the Author (2 in color) and Maps including reproductions of
+    the first maps made. Net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75.</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <p>Mr. Dellenbaugh’s new book is a narrative of the United States
+    Exploring Expedition, generally known as the Second Powell Expedition
+    down the Green and Colorado Rivers from Wyoming almost forty years
+    ago; an expedition which in all these years never has been described
+    in any government publication, nor by anyone in print excepting Mr.
+    Dellenbaugh, who was a member of the party. Yet it was the expedition
+    to make the first maps of the course of the river and of some of
+    the contiguous country. In the <i>Romance of the Colorado</i>, Mr.
+    Dellenbaugh gave a brief description of this expedition in order to
+    make his history of the remarkable river complete, but now feeling
+    the desirability of a fuller record in the interest of Western United
+    States history, he tells, in <i>A Canyon Voyage</i>, the whole
+    experience.</p>
+  <hr class="full2">
+
+  <div class="center mt10 gesperrt bold ws2" style="font-size: 250%;"><i>The</i> Romance <i>of the</i><br>
+    Colorado River : : :</div>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <p class="noindent large"><i>A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from
+    1540 to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the two Voyages
+    of Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <p class="center"><span class="xlarge">By <span class="smcap">Frederick S. Dellenbaugh</span></span><br>
+    <i>8<sup>o</sup>, with 200 Illustrations, net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <p>“As graphic and as interesting as a novel.... Of especial value to the
+    average reader is the multiplicity of pictures. They occur on almost
+    every page, and while the text is always clear, these pictures give,
+    from a single glance, an idea of the vastness of the canyons and their
+    remarkable formation, which it would be beyond the power of pen to
+    describe. And the color reproduction of the water-color drawing that
+    Thomas Moran made of the entrance to Bright Angel Trail gives some
+    faint idea of the glories of color which have made the Grand Canyon the
+    wonder and the admiration of the world.”—<i>The Cleveland Leader.</i></p>
+
+  <p>“His scientific training, his long experience in this region, and his
+    eye for natural scenery enable him to make this account of the Colorado
+    River most graphic and interesting. No other book equally good can be
+    written for many years to come—not until our knowledge of the river is
+    greatly enlarged.”—<i>The Boston Herald.</i></p>
+
+  <hr class="full">
+  <div class="center mt2"><i>SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR</i></div>
+  <div class="center xxlarge gesperrt mt1">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</div>
+  <div class="large mt1">NEW YORK<span class="fright">LONDON</span></div>
+
+  <hr class="full2">
+
+  <div class="transnote">
+    <div class="large center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></div>
+
+    <ul class="spaced">
+      <li>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.</li>
+      <li>Image attributions given in the List of Illustrations are not provided with the image.</li>
+      <li>Front advertisement was moved to the back.</li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76978 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
diff --git a/76978-h/images/colophon.jpg b/76978-h/images/colophon.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed3e9b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/colophon.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/cover.jpg b/76978-h/images/cover.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5084456
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/cover.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_001.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e67587
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_001.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_003.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_003.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e5d286
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_003.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_005.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b55d6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_005.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_007.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_007.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1548603
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_007.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_009.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_009.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e24fa60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_009.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_011.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_011.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c01bdb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_011.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_013.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_013.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb10072
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_013.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_015.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_015.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df17eab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_015.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_016.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_016.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62e6b71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_016.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_017.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_017.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72f10ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_017.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_019.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_019.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ba996c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_019.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_020.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_020.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..131cdbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_020.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_021.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_021.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7f2814
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_021.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_023.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_023.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69596aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_023.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_027.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_027.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c24964
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_027.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_031.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_031.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16dfd80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_031.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_033.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_033.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f797ae7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_033.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_035.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_035.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aed8939
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_035.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_037.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_037.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..854ea1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_037.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_038.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_038.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f95ce45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_038.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_039.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_039.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..32f39a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_039.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_040.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_040.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b881f78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_040.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_041.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_041.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33ec467
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_041.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_042.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_042.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e1ba59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_042.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_043.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_043.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fdcae59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_043.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_044.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_044.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6f144c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_044.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_045-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_045-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ece43fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_045-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_045-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_045-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..285395b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_045-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_046.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_046.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..418097a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_046.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_047.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_047.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..917abc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_047.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_048.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_048.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75e8e8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_048.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_049.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_049.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ddd4a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_049.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_050.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_050.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab9b1e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_050.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_051.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_051.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1acd85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_051.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_052.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_052.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c3e6dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_052.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_054.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_054.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28bb1f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_054.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_055-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_055-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5c6d87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_055-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_055-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_055-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01940da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_055-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_056.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_056.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcfd0ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_056.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_057.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_057.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1b057a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_057.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_058.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_058.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42f6c7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_058.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_059.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_059.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36397ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_059.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_060.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_060.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d2b234
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_060.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_061.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_061.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61477bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_061.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_062.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_062.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cea276
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_062.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_064.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_064.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03540a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_064.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_065.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_065.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8189204
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_065.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_067.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_067.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..96ed1d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_067.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_068.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_068.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35b8472
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_068.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_070.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_070.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c03bd2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_070.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_071.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_071.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c7a154
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_071.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_072.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_072.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..591086e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_072.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_074.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_074.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83b82be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_074.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_075.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_075.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cf2d22d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_075.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_079.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_079.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9bc74b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_079.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_081.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_081.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3db993c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_081.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_083-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_083-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8557465
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_083-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_083-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_083-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ff7fe2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_083-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b9bb24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-10.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3699a69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-10.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-11.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5ccb97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-11.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-12.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..144da06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-12.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b907deb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f23c547
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-4.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b14263
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-4.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-5.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7108e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-5.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-6.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b88a95
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-6.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-7.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e5d12b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-7.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-8.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-8.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7184d70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-8.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_084-9.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_084-9.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..050710f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_084-9.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba60a76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88e47a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56614a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-4.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..32e1cf5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-4.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-5.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fa822b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-5.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-6.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e34d17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-6.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-7.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5e7496
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-7.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_085-8.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_085-8.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1eefff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_085-8.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_086.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_086.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5764f34
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_086.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_087-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_087-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7776231
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_087-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_087-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_087-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b21622
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_087-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_087-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_087-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..107064a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_087-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_087-4.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_087-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e89943
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_087-4.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_087-5.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_087-5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9eca71a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_087-5.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_087-6.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_087-6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eca049f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_087-6.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_087-7.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_087-7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e06968e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_087-7.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_088.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_088.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b9b4c7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_088.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_089-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_089-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b688fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_089-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_089-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_089-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26bb5db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_089-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_089-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_089-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5fc6d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_089-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_090.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_090.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..71fd97a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_090.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_091-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_091-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43870fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_091-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_091-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_091-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5baf711
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_091-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_092.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_092.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0060fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_092.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_093-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_093-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..afa5887
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_093-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_093-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_093-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9298e7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_093-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_095-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_095-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcba58b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_095-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_095-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_095-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2226ca3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_095-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_096-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_096-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e4d4992
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_096-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_096-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_096-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d966176
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_096-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_097-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_097-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ce20cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_097-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_097-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_097-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0885ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_097-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_097-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_097-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d5043f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_097-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_097-4.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_097-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..19e04e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_097-4.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_100-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_100-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1633cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_100-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_100-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_100-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b0c9f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_100-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_100-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_100-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..939bf8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_100-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_102-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_102-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36e6f9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_102-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_102-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_102-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd51dd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_102-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_103-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_103-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05b2d97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_103-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_103-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_103-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c26574
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_103-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_105.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_105.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da6efba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_105.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_106.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_106.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16e5dc6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_106.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_107.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_107.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3464dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_107.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_109-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_109-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92b3929
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_109-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_109-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_109-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6bc7b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_109-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_111.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_111.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d849ea0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_111.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_113.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_113.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd49588
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_113.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_114.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_114.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fd0bf4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_114.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_115.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_115.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cdeb41b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_115.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_116.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_116.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38286fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_116.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_117.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_117.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0157681
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_117.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_118.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_118.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1006def
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_118.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_119.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_119.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f4c1c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_119.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_120.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_120.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e29e5c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_120.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_121.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_121.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f12c58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_121.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_122.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_122.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41ca121
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_122.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_123.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_123.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cec2500
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_123.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_125.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_125.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0da5a4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_125.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_127.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_127.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a33fa68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_127.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_129.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_129.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1b3499
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_129.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_131.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_131.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7ce940
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_131.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_135.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_135.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7329ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_135.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_137.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_137.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..429017b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_137.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_139.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_139.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d607a1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_139.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_142.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_142.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a6aa03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_142.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_144.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_144.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0a49a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_144.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_145.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_145.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ea0341
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_145.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_146.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_146.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f133f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_146.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_147.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_147.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4eb7569
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_147.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_148.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_148.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6aa7435
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_148.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_149.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_149.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8df85f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_149.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_151.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_151.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e023a87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_151.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_152.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_152.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ee66d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_152.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_154.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_154.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d20fa1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_154.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_155.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_155.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d9c069
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_155.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_157.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_157.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27240b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_157.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_158.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_158.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9238875
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_158.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_160.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_160.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4884492
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_160.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_161.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_161.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3ff3c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_161.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_162-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_162-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfd2936
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_162-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_162-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_162-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..321742e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_162-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_163.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_163.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28892a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_163.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_164.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_164.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6a44b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_164.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_165-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_165-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efa36a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_165-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_165-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_165-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eeebea1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_165-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_166.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_166.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a12ed87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_166.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_167.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_167.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b02624
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_167.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_168.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_168.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..881cbae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_168.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_170.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_170.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bac8963
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_170.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_171.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_171.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f97e1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_171.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_172-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_172-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c633554
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_172-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_172-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_172-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20eacf3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_172-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_173.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_173.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..833bece
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_173.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_175.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_175.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a6cc4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_175.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_176.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_176.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0f6bff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_176.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_177.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_177.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b7595f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_177.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_178.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_178.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d09e3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_178.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_179-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_179-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..30acb96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_179-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_179-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_179-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6dae36d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_179-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_180.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_180.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c4e2d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_180.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_182.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_182.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6d778e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_182.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_183.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_183.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1b8e03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_183.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_185.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_185.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ceb429d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_185.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_186.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_186.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ec1bdd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_186.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_187.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_187.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dbc4ffe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_187.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_188.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_188.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a13302f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_188.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_189.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_189.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56bda66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_189.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_191.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_191.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c9e939
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_191.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_192.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_192.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..802773b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_192.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_193.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_193.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc06bb8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_193.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_194.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_194.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31399fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_194.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_195.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_195.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6275732
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_195.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_196.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_196.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bfc7415
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_196.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_197.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_197.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..171adb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_197.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_198.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_198.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a92f458
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_198.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_199.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_199.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22176c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_199.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_201.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_201.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0b85b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_201.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_203.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_203.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b641ef0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_203.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_206.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_206.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..214fc0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_206.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_207.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_207.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fa6dd3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_207.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_209.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_209.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..692e164
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_209.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_210.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_210.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a836eba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_210.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_211.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_211.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3462648
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_211.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_213.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_213.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..887ede9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_213.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_215-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_215-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..572a5ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_215-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_215-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_215-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..74cfd43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_215-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_217.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_217.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee8e4fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_217.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_218.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_218.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb5ee83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_218.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_219.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_219.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..21b711c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_219.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_220.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_220.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..513cbbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_220.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_221-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_221-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1aa8c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_221-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_221-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_221-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..249bb1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_221-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_222.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_222.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c44fa15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_222.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_223.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_223.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5740f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_223.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_224.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_224.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c17b98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_224.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_225.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_225.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f492d55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_225.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_227.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_227.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..116a3b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_227.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_228.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_228.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cccde9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_228.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_230.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_230.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63428f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_230.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_231-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_231-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..90dde1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_231-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_231-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_231-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..354fca5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_231-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_232-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_232-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c6e934
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_232-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_232-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_232-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ffec0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_232-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_233.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_233.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f65fe9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_233.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_235.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_235.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51bdfa8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_235.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_237.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_237.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76ae0e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_237.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_238.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_238.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..019e58c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_238.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_239.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_239.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aeb7121
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_239.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_241.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_241.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9405cac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_241.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_243.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_243.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92c8eed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_243.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_244.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_244.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3bcc1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_244.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_245.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_245.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91e624f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_245.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_247.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_247.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b89973c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_247.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_248-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_248-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56ff548
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_248-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_248-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_248-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..350cc6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_248-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_249.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_249.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cc2bc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_249.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_250.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_250.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d0bbe6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_250.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_251-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_251-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cf9ee46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_251-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_251-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_251-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..331062a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_251-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_251-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_251-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c2bdd1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_251-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_251-4.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_251-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cfdad1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_251-4.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_251-5.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_251-5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67b38e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_251-5.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_253.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_253.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f71983f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_253.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_254.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_254.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af25f4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_254.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_255-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_255-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c931a07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_255-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_255-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_255-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..071df01
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_255-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_257.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_257.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77417c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_257.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_258.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_258.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e96a102
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_258.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_259.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_259.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc83b18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_259.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_261-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_261-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4de064c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_261-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_261-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_261-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf826f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_261-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_261-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_261-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1431a9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_261-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_263.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_263.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fee78a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_263.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_265.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_265.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebf2ae5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_265.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_266.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_266.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..011758c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_266.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_268-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_268-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a283187
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_268-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_268-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_268-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abf0772
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_268-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_269.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_269.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..667871f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_269.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_270-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_270-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e63e98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_270-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_270-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_270-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3da3dfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_270-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_270-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_270-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2308d58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_270-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_271.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_271.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6e2ca6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_271.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_273.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_273.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d55143
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_273.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_274-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_274-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d9b5c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_274-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_274-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_274-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c396ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_274-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_275.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_275.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4fc480
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_275.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_277.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_277.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76e5228
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_277.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_278.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_278.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..afa71d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_278.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_279.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_279.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..09ac38e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_279.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_280.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_280.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ab2e78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_280.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_281.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_281.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e38ab3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_281.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_282.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_282.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c829d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_282.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_283.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_283.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6b7008
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_283.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_284-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_284-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2dcb26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_284-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_284-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_284-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfa0fb7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_284-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_285.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_285.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a26ccd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_285.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_287.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_287.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c66427
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_287.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_289.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_289.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e9a516
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_289.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_290.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_290.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8396091
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_290.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_292.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_292.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..765ced6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_292.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_293-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_293-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fbef98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_293-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_293-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_293-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0a4b49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_293-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_294.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_294.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2970d0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_294.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_295-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_295-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c2c104
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_295-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_295-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_295-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..46d5a32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_295-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_297.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_297.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7d929e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_297.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_302-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_302-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a56f55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_302-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_302-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_302-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9fefed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_302-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_304.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_304.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abb5813
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_304.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_306.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_306.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..120184d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_306.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_307.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_307.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bff8015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_307.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_308.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_308.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18fae64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_308.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_309.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_309.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0fa675
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_309.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_310.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_310.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..74cc980
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_310.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_312.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_312.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e8cbae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_312.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_313.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_313.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b2e454
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_313.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_314.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_314.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4d7194
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_314.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_315.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_315.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45fd898
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_315.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_317-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_317-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16b798b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_317-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_317-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_317-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..746514f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_317-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_319-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_319-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8e6c4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_319-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_319-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_319-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..019ded1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_319-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_319-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_319-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e379076
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_319-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_320.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_320.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7552962
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_320.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_322-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_322-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df4d12a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_322-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_322-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_322-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5fb8eb7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_322-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_322-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_322-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..803a057
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_322-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_325.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_325.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c54cdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_325.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_327.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_327.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f5f825
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_327.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_328.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_328.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94a177e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_328.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_330.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_330.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56e11d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_330.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_331.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_331.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06ca0dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_331.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_332.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_332.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..498f142
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_332.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_334.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_334.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b86e0ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_334.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_335.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_335.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5468411
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_335.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_336.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_336.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a0da19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_336.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_337.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_337.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcb93f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_337.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_339.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_339.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2826a96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_339.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_341.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_341.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02d6963
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_341.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_344.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_344.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54a9de2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_344.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_345.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_345.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a53286
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_345.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_347.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_347.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea622b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_347.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_349-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_349-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eef0a13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_349-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_349-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_349-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ce8226
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_349-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_351.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_351.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e47bc5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_351.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_352.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_352.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7000530
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_352.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_353.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_353.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..564d21f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_353.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_355.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_355.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0b9122
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_355.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_357.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_357.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8dd2fcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_357.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_359.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_359.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af45e05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_359.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_361.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_361.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..98bd5b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_361.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_362.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_362.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79b5be8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_362.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_365.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_365.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05d52bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_365.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_367.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_367.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1de9758
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_367.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_368.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_368.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..168b3f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_368.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_369.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_369.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed2b8c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_369.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_372.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_372.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..438474e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_372.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_374-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_374-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d6529e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_374-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_374-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_374-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebc2e5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_374-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_376.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_376.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5aeb96e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_376.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_377-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_377-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..140efdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_377-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_377-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_377-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08d33dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_377-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_377-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_377-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..57c72cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_377-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_377-4.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_377-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..140efdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_377-4.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_378.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_378.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6354586
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_378.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_380.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_380.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0bb04fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_380.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_382.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_382.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e9ad9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_382.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_383.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_383.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..258c8df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_383.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_384.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_384.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e615967
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_384.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_385.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_385.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6234e44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_385.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_387-1.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_387-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..192ee2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_387-1.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_387-2.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_387-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d0cff6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_387-2.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_387-3.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_387-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f3285b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_387-3.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_387-4.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_387-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47a8095
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_387-4.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_388.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_388.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c9982a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_388.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_389.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_389.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc04594
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_389.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_390.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_390.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75e4233
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_390.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_391.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_391.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83e4247
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_391.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_392.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_392.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75f1d36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_392.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_394.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_394.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ef4c2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_394.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_395.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_395.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b42e97b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_395.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_398.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_398.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..255a952
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_398.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_400.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_400.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..922cb92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_400.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_402.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_402.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c9d43b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_402.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_404.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_404.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e1e025
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_404.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_406.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_406.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9125555
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_406.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_409.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_409.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a87d991
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_409.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_410.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_410.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1416e3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_410.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_413.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_413.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c84036
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_413.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_415.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_415.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d27f07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_415.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_417.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_417.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68d5ac2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_417.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_422.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_422.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38804a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_422.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_426.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_426.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b446ada
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_426.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_428.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_428.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af5e331
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_428.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_429.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_429.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edadfab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_429.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_431.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_431.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c5e7ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_431.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_433.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_433.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea27dd2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_433.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_436.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_436.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b798f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_436.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_437.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_437.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be37c62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_437.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_438.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_438.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d80f7d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_438.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_440.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_440.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4dce8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_440.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_442.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_442.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b2aa84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_442.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_444.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_444.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58788d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_444.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_446.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_446.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6589b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_446.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_447.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_447.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e9e5b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_447.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_448.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_448.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc102a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_448.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_450.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_450.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7233f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_450.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_451.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_451.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cef5184
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_451.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_452.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_452.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d404193
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_452.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_453.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_453.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f53ba3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_453.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_454.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_454.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f1f777
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_454.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_455.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_455.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca1d1bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_455.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_457.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_457.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80cda31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_457.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_459.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_459.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a559e8e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_459.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_460.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_460.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20f60d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_460.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_461.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_461.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c4778b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_461.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_478.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_478.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4317bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_478.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_488.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_488.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e65047
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_488.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_f005.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_f005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5645575
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_f005.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_f011.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_f011.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2a6f5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_f011.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_f012.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_f012.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93d266f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_f012.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_f013.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_f013.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b17e1d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_f013.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_f014.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_f014.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c386e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_f014.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_f030.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_f030.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d90fa03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_f030.jpg
diff --git a/76978-h/images/i_front.jpg b/76978-h/images/i_front.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07be914
--- /dev/null
+++ b/76978-h/images/i_front.jpg
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5dba15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this book outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54aa9af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for book #76978
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/76978)