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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76897 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+                           THE PENNY MAGAZINE
+
+                                 OF THE
+
+             Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ 17.]                   PUBLISHED EVERY SATURDAY.         [July 7, 1832
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+                     THE CAPE BUFFALO--BOS CAFFER.
+
+                        [From a Correspondent.]
+
+                     [Illustration: Cape Buffalo.]
+
+Of the South African buffalo I had not many opportunities for personal
+observation during my residence in that part of the Cape Colony of which
+this animal is still an inhabitant; but, living among people by whom he
+is frequently and eagerly hunted, I heard a good deal of his character
+and habits, which may be comprised in the following sketch.
+
+The Boors and Hottentots describe the buffalo to be, what his aspect
+strongly indicates, an animal of a fierce, treacherous, and cruel
+disposition. Even when not provoked by wounds or driven to extremity in
+the chase, they say he will attack, with the utmost ferocity, his great
+enemy man, if he happens to intrude incautiously upon his haunts; and
+what renders him the more dangerous is his habit of skulking in the
+jungle, when he observes travellers approaching, and then suddenly
+rushing out upon them. It has been remarked, too, (and this observation
+has been corroborated by the Swedish traveller Sparrman,) that if he
+succeeds in killing a man by goring and tossing him with his formidable
+horns, he will stand over his victim afterwards for a long time,
+trampling upon him with his hoofs, crushing him with his knees, mangling
+the body with his horns, and stripping off the skin with his rough and
+prickly tongue. This he does not do all at once, but at intervals, going
+away and again returning, as if more fully to glut his vengeance.
+
+Although I have no reason to question the truth of this description, it
+ought to be qualified by stating that though the buffalo will not
+unfrequently thus attack man, and even animals, without any obvious
+provocation, yet this malignant disposition will be found, if accurately
+inquired into, the exception rather than the rule of the animal’s
+ordinary habits.
+
+The _bos caffer_ is no more a beast of prey than the domestic ox, and
+though much fiercer as well as more powerful than the ox, and bold
+enough sometimes to stand stoutly on self defence even against the lion,
+it is, I apprehend, nevertheless his natural instinct to retire from the
+face of man, if undisturbed, rather than to provoke his hostility. The
+proofs that are adduced of his vicious and wanton malignity arise
+chiefly from the following cause. The males of a herd, especially at
+certain seasons of the year, contend furiously for the mastery; and
+after many conflicts the unsuccessful competitors are driven off, at
+least for a season, by their stronger rivals. The exiles, like some
+other species of animals under similar circumstances[1], are peculiarly
+mischievous; and it is while skulking solitarily about the thickets, in
+this state of sulky irritation, that they most usually exhibit the
+dangerous disposition generally ascribed to the species.
+
+It is, nevertheless, very true that the Cape buffalo is, at all times, a
+dangerous animal to hunt; as, when wounded, or closely pressed, he will
+not unfrequently turn and run down his pursuer, whose only chance of
+escape in that case is the swiftness of his steed, if the huntsman be a
+Colonist or European. The Hottentot, who is light and agile, and
+dexterous in plunging like an antelope through the intricacies of an
+entangled forest, generally prefers following this game on foot. Like
+all pursuits, when the spirit of enterprise is highly excited by some
+admixture of perilous adventure, buffalo hunting is passionately
+followed by those who once devote themselves to it; nor do the perilous
+accidents that occasionally occur appear to make any deep impression on
+those that witness them. The consequence is, that the buffalo is now
+nearly extirpated throughout every part of the Cape Colony, except in
+the large forests or jungles in the eastern districts, where, together
+with the elephant, he still finds a precarious shelter.
+
+It was in this quarter that the following incident in buffalo hunting,
+which may serve as a specimen of this rough pastime, was related to me
+by a Dutch-African farmer, who had been an eye-witness of the scene some
+fifteen years before. A party of Boors had gone out to hunt a troop of
+buffaloes, which were grazing in a piece of marshy ground, interspersed
+with groves of yellow wood and mimosa trees, on the very spot where the
+village of Somerset is now built. As they could not conveniently get
+within shot of the game without crossing part of the _valei_ or marsh,
+which did not afford a safe passage for horses, they agreed to leave
+their steeds in charge of their Hottentot servants and to advance on
+foot, thinking that if any of the buffaloes should turn upon them, it
+would be easy to escape by retreating across the quagmire, which, though
+passable for man, would not support the weight of a heavy quadruped.
+They advanced accordingly, and, under cover of the bushes, approached
+the game with such advantage that the first volley brought down three of
+the fattest of the herd, and so severely wounded the great bull leader
+that he dropped on his knees, bellowing with pain. Thinking him mortally
+wounded, the foremost of the huntsmen issued from the covert, and began
+reloading his musket as he advanced to give him a finishing shot. But no
+sooner did the infuriated animal see his foe in front of him, than he
+sprang up and rushed headlong upon him. The man, throwing down his empty
+gun, fled towards the quagmire; but the savage beast was so close upon
+him that he despaired of escaping in that direction, and turning
+suddenly round a clump of copsewood, began to climb an old mimosa tree
+which stood at the one side of it. The raging beast, however, was too
+quick for him. Bounding forward with a roar, which my informant (who was
+of the party) described as being one of the most frightful sounds he
+ever heard, he caught the unfortunate man with his horns, just as he had
+nearly escaped his reach, and tossed him in the air with such force that
+the body fell, dreadfully mangled, into a lofty cleft of the tree. The
+buffalo ran round the tree once or twice apparently looking for the man,
+until weakened with loss of blood he again sunk on his knees. The rest
+of the party then, recovering from their confusion, came up and
+despatched him, though too late to save their comrade, whose body was
+hanging in the tree quite dead.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1:
+
+  The elephant, for instance. See Menageries, vol. ii. p. 71.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+ON THE IMPORTANCE OF A PUBLIC DECLARATION OF THE REASONS OF DECISIONS IN
+                           COURTS OF JUSTICE.
+
+While a cause is pending I admit that all publications, and all the
+little arts of popularity, tending to raise the prejudices or to inflame
+the passions, are highly improper, and ought not to be permitted. But,
+after the decision of a cause, the freedom of inquiry into the conduct
+and opinions of the judges is one of the noblest and best securities
+that human invention can contrive for the faithful administration of
+justice.
+
+It is for this very purpose that it has been established in this
+country, that judges shall give their opinions and decisions
+publicly,--an admirable institution, which does honour to Britain, and
+gives it a superiority in this respect over most of the other countries
+in Europe.
+
+Laws may recommend or enforce the due administration of justice; but
+these laws are of little avail, when compared with the superior efficacy
+of the restraint which arises from the judgment of the public, exercised
+upon the conduct and opinions of the judges.
+
+It would be extremely fatal to the liberties of this nation, and to that
+inestimable blessing, the faithful distribution of justice if this
+restraint upon judges were removed or improperly checked.
+
+The public has a right, and ought to be satisfied with regard to the
+conduct, ability, and integrity of their judges. It is from these
+sources alone that genuine respect and authority can be derived; and an
+endeavour to make these the appendages of office, independent of the
+personal character and conduct of the judge, is an attempt which, in
+this free and enlightened country, most probably never will succeed.
+
+This freedom of inquiry is not only essential to the interests of the
+community, but every judge, conscious of intending and acting
+honourably, ought to promote and rejoice in the exercise of it. It is a
+poor spirit indeed that can rest satisfied with authority and external
+regard derived from office alone. The judge who is possessed of proper
+elevation of mind will, both for his own sake and that of his country,
+rejoice that his fellow-citizens have an opportunity of satisfying
+themselves with regard to his conduct, and of distinguishing judges who
+deserve well of the public, from those who are unworthy. He will adopt
+the sentiment of the old Roman, who, conscious of no thoughts or actions
+unfit for public view, expressed a wish for windows in his breast, that
+all mankind might perceive what was passing there.
+
+If these considerations are of any force for establishing the justness
+of the principle, the only objection I can foresee against this freedom
+of inquiry is, that it may happen sometimes to be improperly exercised.
+
+This is an objection equally applicable to some of the greatest
+blessings enjoyed by mankind, whether from nature or from civil
+institutions. It is no real objection to health or civil liberty, that
+both of them often have been, and are, extremely liable to be abused.
+
+When the freedom of inquiry now contended for happens to be improperly
+used, it will be found that the mischief carries along with it its own
+remedy. The most valuable part of mankind are soon disgusted with
+unmerited or indecent attacks made either upon judges or individuals;
+the person capable of such unworthy conduct loses his aim; the unjust or
+illiberal invective returns upon himself, to his own disgrace; and the
+judge whose conduct has been misrepresented, instead of suffering in the
+public opinion, will acquire additional credit from the palpable
+injustice of the attack made upon him.
+
+       ⁂ From ‘Letters to Lord Mansfield, by Andrew Stuart, Esq.’
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+              ON THE HOT WIND OF AFRICA CALLED THE CAMSIN.
+
+“On my route from Suez to Cairo,” says Rüppel, “I had an opportunity of
+observing a meteorological phenomenon of a very curious nature, which
+possibly may lead to some interesting results. In the year 1822, May the
+21st, being seven hours distant from Cairo, and in the desert, we were
+overtaken by one of those violent winds from the south, about which many
+travellers have told us such wonderful and incredible stories. During
+the night there had been a light breeze from the north-east; but a short
+time after sun-rise it began to blow fresh from the S.S.E., and the wind
+gradually increased till it blew a violent storm. Clouds of dust filled
+the whole atmosphere, so that it was impossible to distinguish any
+object clearly as far off as fifty paces; even a camel could not be
+recognised at this distance. In the mean time, we heard all along the
+surface of the ground a kind of rustling or crackling sound, which I
+supposed to proceed from the rolling sand that was dashed about with
+such fury by the wind. Those parts of our bodies which were turned
+towards the wind were heated to an unusual degree, and we experienced a
+strange sensation of smarting, which might be compared with the pricking
+of fine needles. This was also accompanied by a peculiar kind of sound.
+At first I thought this smarting was occasioned by the small particles
+of sand being driven by the storm against the parts of the body that
+were exposed. In order to judge of the size of the particles, I
+attempted to catch some in a cap; but how great was my surprise when I
+found I could not succeed in securing a single specimen of these
+supposed little particles. This led me to conceive that the smarting
+sensation did not proceed from the small stones or the sand striking the
+body, but that it must be the effect of some invisible force, which I
+could only compare with a current of electric fluid. After forming this
+conjecture, I began to pay closer attention to the phenomena which
+surrounded me. I observed that the hair of all our party bristled up a
+little, and that the sensation of pricking was felt most in the
+extremities and joints, just as if a man were electrified on an
+insulated stool. To convince myself that the painful sensation did not
+proceed from small particles of stone or sand, I held a piece of paper
+stretched up against the wind, so that even the finest portion of dust
+must have been detected, either by the eye or the ear; yet nothing of
+the kind took place. The surface of the paper remained perfectly unmoved
+and free from noise. I stretched my arms out, and immediately the
+pricking pain in the ends of my fingers increased. This led me to
+conjecture that the violent wind, called in Egypt Camsin, is either
+attended by strong electrical phenomena, or else the electricity is
+caused by the motion of the dry sand of the desert. Hence we may account
+for the heavy masses of dust, formed of particles of sand, which, for
+several days, darken the cloudless sky. Perhaps we may also go so far as
+to conjecture that the Camsin may have destroyed caravans by its
+electrical properties, since some travellers assure us that caravans
+have occasionally perished in the desert; though I must remark that in
+all the regions I have travelled through, I never could hear the least
+account of such an occurrence. At all events, to suppose that such
+calamities have been caused by the sand overwhelming the caravans, is
+the most ludicrous idea that can be imagined.
+
+“The Camsin generally blows in Egypt for two or three days successively,
+but with much less violence during the night than the day. It only
+occurs in the period between the middle of April and the beginning of
+June, and hence its Arabic name, which signifies, ‘the wind of fifty
+days.’”
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                                 FORKS.
+
+                        [From a Correspondent.]
+
+The interesting extract in your Magazine of the 26th May, on forks,
+induces me to send you a few scraps on the history of forks.
+
+The word fork occurs only once or twice in the Bible; once in the
+Pentateuch, where mention is made of “flesh forks,” evidently invented
+to take the meat out of the pot; the other instance is in an account of
+the riches of Solomon’s temple, where, singularly enough, the Vulgate
+has the word _furca_, which the English translation renders by spoon.
+Athenæus mentions also the word fork; but it does not appear whether it
+was a _bident_ (with two prongs), or a _trident_ (with three prongs),
+and it is quite certain that the Greeks were ignorant of the use of
+forks in eating. At that time even Lucullus was not acquainted with that
+luxury; a two-branched instrument or two were found at Herculaneum, but
+it seems clear that they were not used at table in any period of the
+Roman history. The first instance that history records of the use of
+forks was at the table of John the good Duke of Burgundy, and he had
+only two.
+
+At that period the loaves were made round; they were cut in slices which
+were piled by the side of the carver, or _Ecuyer Tranchant_ (Cutting
+Squire). He had a pointed carving-knife, and a skewer of drawn silver or
+gold, which he stuck into the joint; having cut off a slice, he took it
+on the point of the knife, and placed it on a slice of bread, which was
+served to the guest. This ancient custom of serving the meat on the
+point of the carver is still general throughout the continent of Europe.
+A leg or a haunch of mutton had always a piece of paper wrapped round
+the shank, which the carver took hold of with the left hand when he
+carved the joint, and such is still the custom in Lower Germany and
+Italy. We, who always imitate, and often without knowing why, have
+imported the custom of ornamenting the shank, but the _penetration_ of
+the fork is a decided improvement. Pointed knives are still general on
+the Continent, it being so difficult to leave off old customs, even
+after the occasion that gave them birth has ceased. It is only since the
+peace, when every thing English became fashionable, that round-topped
+knives have been adopted at Paris.
+
+Before the revolution in France it was customary, when a gentleman was
+invited to dinner, for him to send his servant with his knife, fork, and
+spoon; or if he had no servant, he carried them with him in his
+breeches-pocket, as a carpenter carries his rule. A few of the ancient
+regime still follow the good old custom, because it is old. The
+peasantry of the Tyrol, and of parts of Germany and Switzerland,
+generally carry a case in their pockets, containing a knife and fork,
+and a spoon.
+
+Few use a fork so gracefully as an English lady. The Germans grasp it
+with a clenched fist.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                           THE WEAVER’S SONG.
+
+      [From ‘English Songs, and other Poems, by Barry Cornwall.’]
+
+            Weave, brothers, weave!--Swiftly throw
+              The shuttle athwart the loom,
+            And show us how brightly your flowers grow,
+              That have beauty but no perfume!
+            Come, show us the rose, with a hundred dyes,
+              The lily, that hath no spot;
+            The violet, deep as your true love’s eyes,
+              And the little forget-me-not!
+                Sing,--sing, brothers! weave and sing!
+                  ’Tis good both to sing, and to weave
+                ’Tis better to work than live idle.
+                  ’Tis better to sing than grieve.
+
+            Weave, brothers, weave!--Weave, and bid
+              The colours of sunset glow!
+            Let grace in each gliding thread be hid!
+              Let beauty about ye blow!
+            Let your skein be long, and your silk be fine,
+              And your hands both firm and sure,
+            And time nor chance shall your work untwine;
+              But all,--like a truth,--endure!--
+                        So,--sing, brothers, &c.
+
+            Weave, brothers, weave!--Toil is ours;
+              But toil is the lot of men:
+            One gathers the fruit, one gathers the flowers,
+              One soweth the seed again:
+            There is not a creature, from England’s King,
+              To the peasant that delves the soil,
+            That knows half the pleasures the seasons bring,
+              If he have not his share of toil!
+                        So,--sing, brothers, &c.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+_Dances: the Tarantula._--“The Peccorara and Tarantella are the dances
+of Calabria: the latter is generally adopted throughout the kingdom of
+Naples. The music accompanying it is extravagant and without melody: it
+consists of some notes, the movement of which is always increasing, till
+it ends in producing a convulsive effort. Two persons placed opposite to
+each other make, like a pair of savages, wild contortions and indecent
+gestures, which terminate in a sort of delirium. This dance, originating
+in the city of Tarentum, has given rise to the fable of the Tarantula,
+whose venomous bite, it is pretended, can be cured only by music and
+hard dancing. Many respectable persons who have resided for a long time
+in the city of Tarentum, have assured me that they never witnessed any
+circumstance of the kind, and that it could be only attributed to the
+heat and insalubrity of the climate, which produce nervous affections
+that are soothed and composed by the charms of music. The Tarantula is a
+species of spider that is to be found all over the South of Italy. The
+Calabrians do not fear it, and I have often seen our soldiers hold it in
+their hands without any bad effects ensuing.”--_Calabria, during a
+Military Residence_
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+_Property._--The advantages of the acquisition of property are two-fold;
+they are not merely to be estimated by the pecuniary profit produced,
+but by the superior tone of industry and economy which the possessor
+unconsciously acquires. When a man is able to call _his own_ that which
+he has obtained by his own well-directed exertion, this power at once
+causes him to feel raised in the scale of being, and endows him with the
+capability of enlarging the stock of his possessions. A cottager having
+a garden, a cow, or even a pig, is much more likely to be an industrious
+member of society than one who has nothing in which he can take an
+interest during his hours of relaxation, and who feels he is of no
+consequence because he has nothing which he can call _his own_. The
+impressions which have been produced upon the minds of the peasantry, by
+affording them the means of acquiring property and of possessing objects
+of care and industry, are great, unqualified, and unvaried. In every
+instance the cottager has been rendered more industrious, the wife more
+active and managing, the children better educated, and more fitted for
+their station in life.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+_A Golden Rule._--Industry will make a man a purse, and frugality will
+find him strings for it. Neither the purse nor the strings will cost him
+anything. He who has it should only draw the strings as frugality
+directs, and he will be sure always to find a useful penny at the bottom
+of it. The servants of industry are known by their livery; it is always
+_whole_ and _wholesome_. Idleness travels very leisurely, and poverty
+soon overtakes him. Look at the _ragged slaves_ of _idleness_, and judge
+which is the best master to serve--INDUSTRY or IDLENESS.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                           WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+
+                   [Illustration: Western Entrance.]
+
+This magnificent and venerable pile, the second architectural glory of
+our metropolis, is, like St. Paul’s, the last of several successive
+structures which have occupied the same spot. The ground on which
+Westminster Abbey stands was anciently part of a small island, called
+Thorney Island, or the Isle of Thorns, formed by a branch of the Thames.
+This branch, leaving the main course of the river near the end of
+Abingdon Street, ran in a westerly direction along the line of the
+present College Street, and the south side of Dean’s Yard. It then
+turned northwardly, skirting the western side of Dean’s Yard, and,
+crossing Tothill Street, continued its course along Prince’s Street
+(then Long Ditch). From thence it ran in an eastern direction along
+Gardener’s Lane, crossing King Street, Parliament Street, and Cannon Row
+(formerly Channel Row), and rejoined the river near the southern
+termination of Privy Gardens. The hollow bed of this water-course is
+still mostly preserved, forming part of the sewers; and in the twelfth
+century, and probably for a long time afterwards, the open stream was
+crossed by a bridge at the place where it passed through King Street.
+Originally, as was indeed the case with the borders of the Thames along
+nearly the whole of its course to the sea, the ground beyond this hollow
+was probably to a considerable distance a mere marsh. There is reason to
+conclude that this was the case almost as far as the present Chelsea
+Water-Works in one direction, and to the north side of St. James’s Park
+in another. The island itself may be supposed to have been nearly in the
+same state. It is said to have derived its name of Thorney from the
+quantity of thorns with which it was covered. As our old legends have
+placed a temple of Diana on the site of the present Cathedral of St.
+Paul’s, so they have conceived it necessary to maintain the equal honour
+of the Abbey Church by making it the successor of a temple to Apollo; of
+the existence of which, however, no traces ever have been found. Thorney
+Island, nevertheless, is generally considered to have had its Christian
+church as early as its rival in sanctity, the mount on which St. Paul’s
+is built. The account which has been commonly received is, that Sebert,
+King of Essex, having been baptized about the year 605, immediately
+afterwards, to give proof of the sincerity of his conversion, built a
+church here and dedicated it to St. Peter. It is certain that Sebert was
+in old times universally regarded as the original founder of the Abbey;
+no better evidence of which can be desired than the care which is known
+to have been taken on more than one occasion to preserve his remains and
+those of his queen Ethelgotha on the repair or reconstruction of the
+building, and to re-deposit them in the most honourable place within it.
+Some writers, however, have contended that this church could not really
+have had any existence till more than a century after the time of
+Sebert. According to other accounts, again, Sebert was not only the
+founder of Westminster Abbey, but also of St. Paul’s Cathedral. So
+imperfect, obscure, and perplexing are the notices that have come down
+to us of those times.
+
+A fable of no ordinary audacity was invented by the monks in regard to
+the first consecration of this Abbey. It was pretended that the ceremony
+had been actually performed by St. Peter in person. We need not repeat
+the circumstantial details of the story; suffice it to mention, that
+towards the middle of the thirteenth century the brethren of the
+monastery actually sued the minister of Rotherhithe for the tithe of the
+salmon caught in his parish, on the plea, as Fleta informs us, that St.
+Peter had given them this right at the time when he consecrated their
+church. After the death of Sebert, his subjects relapsed into paganism,
+and the church fell into decay. It was restored by the celebrated Offa,
+King of Mercia, but was again almost entirely destroyed in the course of
+the Danish invasions. King Edgar, instigated by St. Dunstan, in the year
+969, once more repaired the establishment, and endowed it both with
+lands and privileges. But it was Edward the Confessor who, nearly a
+century after this, first raised it to the consequence which it has ever
+since maintained. This monarch, having fixed upon the Abbey for his
+burial-place, resolved to rebuild it from the foundation, and spared no
+cost in his endeavour to render the structure the most magnificent that
+had ever been erected in his dominions. He devoted to the work, we are
+told, “a tenth part of his entire substance, as well in gold, silver,
+and cattle, as in all his other possessions.” It was completed in the
+year 1065, and the 28th of December, the day of the Holy Innocents, was
+appointed for its dedication. The King, however, was seized on
+Christmas-day with the illness which proved fatal on the 4th or 5th of
+January following; and he was not, therefore, present at the ceremony.
+On the 12th of January his body was interred with great pomp before the
+high altar; and the Abbey has since received the remains of many of his
+royal successors. Here also, on Christmas-day the year following, was
+performed the coronation of William the Conqueror; and in the same place
+has been crowned (with the single exception, we believe, of Edward V.)
+every prince who has reigned in England during the nearly eight
+centuries that have since elapsed.
+
+The structure raised by the Confessor (which was built in the form of a
+cross, and is supposed to have been the first English church built in
+that form) remained without receiving any repairs or additions till the
+reign of Henry III. That king, finding the eastern portion of the
+edifice much wasted by time, took it down, and began to rebuild it in a
+style of still greater magnificence than before. Edward I. and
+succeeding monarchs continued the work which had been thus commenced;
+but, owing probably in great part to the distracted state of the
+kingdom, it proceeded so slowly that it was still incomplete when Henry
+VII. came to the throne, towards the close of the fifteenth century.
+Henry added the chapel dedicated to the Virgin, which is commonly known
+by his name, and which, admirably restored as it has recently been, may
+challenge competition, not certainly in magnitude or grandeur, but in
+elegance and richness of ornament, and in what we may almost call
+gem-like beauty and perfection, with any specimen of architecture which
+the world has elsewhere to show. The principal repairs or alterations
+that have been made since the time of Henry VII., are those executed by
+Sir Christopher Wren, under whose superintendence the western towers,
+which had been till then of unequal heights, were raised to the same
+elevation, and the whole building was strengthened and renovated. These,
+it must be confessed, are not in the best taste. Sir Christopher, who
+despised Gothic architecture, was not the most fit person to be employed
+in restoring such a structure.
+
+The following wood-cut is a view of the Abbey, from St. James’s Park,
+before the alterations of Wren. It is copied from a very rare print.
+
+              [Illustration: Westminster Abbey and Hall.]
+
+It is impossible for us, within our narrow limits, to attempt either an
+enumeration of the various curiosities and objects of interest which
+this Abbey contains, or even any description of the form and
+architectural character of the building. What is properly the church is
+in the form of a cross; but its eastern end is surrounded by chapels,
+varying both in their shape and dimensions. Of these there were formerly
+fourteen; there are still twelve; and although that called Henry VII.’s
+stands out from the rest in richness and beauty, several of the others
+also display considerable luxury of decoration. Here, as probably all
+our readers are aware, is preserved the famous stone which was brought
+from Scone in Scotland, by Edward I. in 1296, and upon which our kings
+have since been crowned. But the principal attraction of Westminster
+Abbey to the generality of its visitors, arises from the numerous tombs
+which it contains, some of which are monumental erections of great
+splendour. Here, all around us, and under our feet, are the mouldering
+remains of kings, queens, nobles, statesmen, warriors, orators,
+poets--of those who have been most illustrious during the successive
+centuries of our history, for rank, power, beauty, or genius. This is
+surely a field of graves that cannot be trodden by any without emotion,
+or without many of those thoughts that make us both wiser and better. “I
+know,” says Addison, in a paper on this subject, “that entertainments of
+this nature are apt to raise dark and dismal thoughts in timorous minds
+and gloomy imaginations; but, for my own part, though I am always
+serious, I do not know what it is to be melancholy; and can therefore
+take a view of nature in her deep and solemn scenes, with the same
+pleasure as in her most gay and delightful ones. By this means I can
+improve myself with those objects which others consider with terror.
+When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies in
+me; when I read the epitaphs of the beautiful, every inordinate desire
+goes out; when I meet with the grief of parents upon a tombstone, my
+heart melts with compassion; when I see the tomb of the parents
+themselves, I consider the vanity of grieving for those whom we must
+quickly follow; when I see kings lying by those who deposed them, when I
+consider rival wits placed side by side, or the holy men that divided
+the world with their contests and disputes, I reflect with sorrow and
+astonishment on the bitter competitions, factions, and debates of
+mankind. When I read the several dates of the tombs, of some that died
+yesterday, and some six hundred years ago, I consider that great day
+when we shall all of us be contemporaries, and make our appearance
+together.”
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+_Perseverance._--King Robert Bruce, the restorer of the Scottish
+monarchy, being out one day reconnoitring the enemy, lay at night in a
+barn belonging to a loyal cottager. In the morning, still reclining his
+head on the pillow of straw, he beheld a spider climbing up a beam of
+the roof. The insect fell to the ground, but immediately made a second
+essay to ascend. This attracted the notice of the hero, who, with
+regret, saw the spider fall a second time from the same eminence, It
+made a third unsuccessful attempt. Not without a mixture of concern and
+curiosity, the monarch twelve times beheld the insect baffled in its
+aim; but the thirteenth essay was crowned with success: it gained the
+summit of the barn; when the King, starting from his couch, exclaimed,
+“This despicable insect has taught me perseverance: I will follow its
+example. Have I not been twelve times defeated by the enemy’s force? on
+one fight more hangs the independence of my country.” In a few days his
+anticipations were fully realized by the glorious result to Scotland of
+the battle of Bannockburn.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                               THE WEEK.
+
+                      [Illustration: John Hunter.]
+
+July 14.--On this day, in the year 1728, was born at Kilbride, in the
+county of Lanark, Scotland, the celebrated JOHN HUNTER, one of the
+greatest anatomists of modern times. The early life of this remarkable
+man formed a strange introduction to the scientific eminence to which he
+eventually attained. His father having died when he was about ten years
+old, he seems scarcely, after this, to have received any further school
+education; but was allowed to spend his time as he liked, till at last
+he was bound apprentice to a cabinet-maker in Glasgow, whom one of his
+sisters had married. After some time, however, this person failed--an
+event which was probably regarded at the moment as a severe family
+misfortune; but it turned out a blessing in disguise. Hunter’s brother,
+William, who was ten years older than himself, had, after overcoming the
+difficulties arising from the expenses of a medical education at the
+University of Edinburgh, shortly before this settled in London, and was
+already fast bringing himself into notice. To him John applied when he
+found himself thrown out of any means of obtaining a living. He
+requested his brother, who was then delivering a course of lectures on
+anatomy, to take him as an assistant in his dissecting-room--and
+intimated that if this proposal should not be accepted he would enlist
+as a soldier. His brother, in reply, invited him to come to London. This
+was in September, 1748, when he was in his twenty-first year. Never,
+perhaps, did any learner make a more rapid progress than John Hunter now
+made in his new study. Even his first attempt in the art of dissection
+indicated a genius for the pursuit; and such was the success which
+rewarded his ardent and persevering efforts to improve himself, that
+after about a year he was considered by his brother fully competent to
+take the management of a class of his own. His subsequent rise entirely
+corresponded to this promising commencement. It was not long before he
+took his place in the front rank of his profession, and had at his
+command its highest honours and emoluments. The science of anatomy,
+however, continued to be his favourite study; and in this he acquired
+his greatest glory. Not only the chief portion of his time, but nearly
+the whole of his professional gains, were devoted to the cultivation of
+this branch of knowledge. One of the principal methods to which he had
+recourse in order to throw light upon the structure of the human frame,
+was to compare it with those of the various inferior animals. Of these
+he had formed a large collection at his villa at Earl’s Court, Brompton;
+“and it was to him,” says Sir Everard Home, “a favourite amusement in
+his walks to attend to their actions and their habits, and to make them
+familiar with him. The fiercer animals were those to which he was most
+partial, and he had several of the bull kind from different parts of the
+world. Among these was a beautiful small bull he had received from the
+Queen, with which he used to wrestle in play, and entertain himself with
+its exertions in its own defence. In one of these conflicts the bull
+overpowered him, and got him down; and had not one of the servants
+accidentally come by, and frightened the animal away, this frolic would
+probably have cost him his life.” The same writer relates that on
+another occasion “two leopards that were kept chained in an outhouse,
+had broken from their confinement, and got into the yard among some
+dogs, which they immediately attacked. The howling this produced alarmed
+the whole neighbourhood. Mr. Hunter ran into the yard to see what was
+the matter, and found one of them getting up the wall to make his
+escape, the other surrounded by the dogs. He immediately laid hold of
+them both, and carried them back to their den; but as soon as they were
+secured, and he had time to reflect upon the risk of his own situation,
+he was so much affected that he was in danger of fainting.” Mr. Hunter’s
+valuable museum of anatomical preparations was purchased by Parliament
+after his death for £15,000; and it is now deposited in the hall
+belonging to the Royal College of Surgeons, in Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields,
+where the public are admitted to view it on the order of any member of
+the society. This distinguished person died suddenly on the 16th of
+October, 1793, in the sixty-sixth year of his age.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                    THE LABOURERS OF EUROPE.--No. 1.
+
+                                [ITALY.]
+
+The condition of the Italian labourers varies in the different states.
+The following accounts are from the best authorities:--
+
+“The labourers in Lombardy (the most fruitful region in Italy) have
+remained, throughout all the changes of government, what they were
+before 1796, the servants of those whose lands they work; none have
+become proprietors. Before the revolution of 1796 the greater part of
+the land was in the hands of the high nobility and the clergy. Now it is
+partly in the possession of a small number of shrewd speculators who
+have known how to take advantages of political changes to enrich
+themselves. But the peasants have not been benefited by the change. They
+are still, not by law but by necessity, bound to the soil, in a state of
+degradation, all their food consisting of a sort of bread made of Indian
+corn flour, of beans and weak sour wine; they seldom taste meat. Those
+who are employed on the rice-grounds are still more wretched. They are
+obliged to remain for hours with their legs in marshy water, and this
+engenders a cutaneous disease known by the name of _pellagra_, which
+they generally neglect until they lose the use of their limbs and are
+obliged at last to go to the hospital where many of them die[2].”
+
+In the ‘Letters from the North of Italy,’ by Mr. S. Rose, the writer
+describes the following scene of misery,--one out of a thousand:--“A few
+days ago I saw a poor infant lying under a sack in the convulsions of an
+ague fit, and the next morning meeting another child whom I knew to be
+his brother, I asked him ‘How does your brother do?’ to which he
+answered; ‘Which brother, sir?’--‘Your brother that has the
+fever.’--‘There are five of us with the fever, sir.’--‘Where do you
+sleep?’--‘In an empty stable, sir.’--‘Where are your father and
+mother?’--‘Our mother is dead, and our father begs or does such little
+chance jobs as offer in the hotel.’--‘And what do you do?’--‘I get up
+the trees here and pick vine leaves for the waiters to stop the
+decanters with, and they give us our panada.’ This is bread boiled in
+water with an infusion of oil or butter. Had my pecuniary means been
+adequate to my desire to diminish this mass of misery, how was the thing
+to be accomplished? I do not believe that I could have found a family
+that would have boarded these melancholy little mendicants, and am quite
+sure that no one would have had the patience to bear with the
+waywardness of sickly childhood. In England the parish workhouse, or
+some neighbouring hospital, would have offered a ready resource. There
+are hospitals indeed here, but these are so thinly scattered (except
+those in the Roman States which are both numerous and magnificent), and
+are administered on such narrow principles, exclusive of particular
+diseases and particular ages, and always turning upon some miserable
+question of habitancy, within very confined limits, that they are
+usually insufficient to the purposes I have mentioned.” This was written
+from the Venetian States some twelve years ago, since which time
+workhouses have been introduced into some of the principal towns.
+
+In Tuscany the peasantry are much better off. Labourers’ wages are there
+between ninepence and a shilling a day, which, considering the low price
+of provisions, and the mildness of the climate, is comparatively a good
+remuneration. The women earn money by plaiting straw, out of which the
+Leghorn hats are made. The farmers are either small proprietors
+themselves, or, if tenants, share the produce with their landlord, who
+stocks the farm and provides half the seeds and implements. This mode of
+holding land by persons not possessing capital is very ancient;--and is
+now called by writers on political economy, “Metayer Rent.”
+
+Of the peasantry of the provinces of Bologna and Romagna, commonly
+called the Legations, and placed under the sovereignty of the Pope, we
+have the following interesting account in Simond’s Travels in
+Italy:--“The peasants are not proprietors and have not even a lease of
+their farms, but hold them from father to son by a tacit understanding
+most faithfully observed. The same roof often contains thirty or forty
+persons,--different branches of the same family, with one common
+interest, and governed by a chief who is chosen by themselves and is the
+sole person responsible to the landlord. He directs all without doors
+and his wife all within; one or two other women take care of all the
+children that the fathers and mothers may go to work. _We have lost a
+child during the night_, said one of them who was not herself a mother.
+There reigns in general a most perfect harmony in this patriarchal
+family. When the chief becomes too old, or otherwise incapable, another
+is chosen who succeeds alike to the engagements and power of his
+predecessor. He gives half the produce to the landlord, and pays half
+the taxes. The landlord seldom takes the trouble to inspect the
+divisions; he chooses only between the heaps laid out by the tenant, and
+the grain is carried home. The same plan is observed with the hemp,
+which is not divided till it is pounded and put up into packets. As to
+the grapes, they are picked into large barrels, and an equal number sent
+to the farm-house and to the landlord, an operation generally intrusted
+wholly to the farmer. There are few villages, each farm-house being on
+the farm. These family associations live much at their ease, but have
+little money; they consume much of their own produce and buy and sell
+very little. They have a great deal of poultry for home consumption. The
+women spin and plait and can even dye. The country diversions go little
+beyond the game of bowls: they have no dances and no merry-meetings, but
+in lieu they have fine processions with music, discharge of cannon, and
+sometimes horse-races. Though wine is very plentiful, a drunken man is a
+rarity; there are few bloody quarrels, and few thefts, at least domestic
+ones. The roads are safer here than in the Milanese, notwithstanding the
+Austrian police of the latter, for there the farms are large and the
+work is done by poor labourers who have no tie; while here the tenants
+work for themselves, are at ease, and have no temptation. The education
+of the people is intrusted to the priests, who give themselves little
+trouble, and very few peasants can read or write. Each large family
+generally consecrates a son to the Church; they call him priest Don
+Peter, Augustin, &c., and he becomes the oracle of the family, but all
+intimate ties with him are broken and he is called ‘brother’ no more.”
+
+The hardy natives of the Genoese coast, hemmed in between the mountains
+and the sea, resort mostly to maritime occupations, in order to better
+their fortunes. Their voyages are generally short, being chiefly
+confined to the Mediterranean. By strict economy and frugality they save
+the best part of their earnings which they bring home to their families;
+who, during their absence, are employed in cultivating their gardens and
+lemon-trees, or in fishing. By these joint exertions, a numerous
+population is thriving on a barren soil; and the whole line of the
+Riviera, or shore, for hundreds of miles, presents a succession of
+handsome bustling towns and villages, inhabited by a cheerful, healthy,
+and active race.
+
+Of the peasantry of Southern Italy and their condition we shall speak on
+a future occasion.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 2:
+
+  Amministrazione del regno d’Italia.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                            ART OF SWIMMING.
+
+                 [Written by Dr. Franklin to a Friend.]
+
+“Choose a place where the water deepens gradually, walk coolly into it
+till it is up to your breast, then turn round, your face to the shore,
+and throw an egg into the water between you and the shore. It will sink
+to the bottom, and be easily seen there, if your water is clear. It must
+lie in water so deep as that you cannot reach it up but by diving for
+it. To encourage yourself in order to do this, reflect that your
+progress will be from deeper to shallower water, and that at any time
+you may by bringing your legs under you and standing on the bottom,
+raise your head far above the water. Then plunge under it with your eyes
+open, throwing yourself towards the egg, and endeavouring by the actions
+of your hands and feet against the water to get forward till within
+reach of it. In the attempt you will find, that the water buoys you up
+against your inclination; that it is not so easy a thing to sink as you
+had imagined; that you cannot but by active force get down to the egg.
+Thus you feel the power of the water to support you, and learn to
+confide in that power; while your endeavours to overcome it, and reach
+the egg, teach you the manner of acting on the water with your feet and
+hands, which action is afterwards used in swimming to support your head
+higher above water or to go forward through it. I would the more
+earnestly press you to the trial of this method, because though I think
+I satisfied you that your body is lighter than water, and that you might
+float in it a long time with your mouth free for breathing, if you put
+yourself in a proper posture and would be still and forbear struggling;
+yet till you have obtained this experimental confidence in the water, I
+cannot depend on your having the necessary presence of mind to recollect
+that posture and the directions I gave you relating to it. The surprise
+may put all out of your mind. For though we value ourselves on being
+reasonable creatures, reason and knowledge seem on such occasions to be
+of little use to us; and the brutes, to whom we allow scarce a
+glimmering of either, appear to have the advantage of us. I will,
+however, take this opportunity of repeating those particulars to you,
+which I mentioned in our last conversation, as, by perusing them at your
+leisure, you may possibly imprint them so in your memory as on occasions
+to be of some use to you. 1st. That though the legs, being solid parts,
+are specifically something heavier than fresh-water, yet the trunk,
+particularly the upper part, from its hollowness, is so much lighter
+than water, as that the whole of the body taken together is too light to
+sink wholly under water, but some part will remain above, until the
+lungs become filled with water, which happens from drawing water into
+them instead of air, when a person in the fright attempts breathing
+while the mouth and nostrils are under water. 2ndly. That the legs and
+arms are specifically lighter than salt-water, and will be supported by
+it, so that a human body would not sink in salt-water, though the lungs
+were filled as above, but from the greater specific gravity of the head.
+3rdly. That therefore a person throwing himself on his back in
+salt-water, and extending his arms, may easily lie so as to keep his
+mouth and nostrils free for breathing; and by a small motion of his
+hands may prevent turning, if he should perceive any tendency to it.
+4thly. That in fresh-water, if a man throws himself on his back near the
+surface, he cannot long continue in that situation, but by proper action
+of his hands on the water. If he uses no such action, the legs and lower
+part of the body will gradually sink till he comes into an upright
+position, in which he will continue suspended, the hollow of the breast
+keeping the head uppermost. 5thly. But if, in this erect position, the
+head is kept upright above the shoulders, as when we stand on the
+ground, the immersion will, by the weight of that part of the head that
+is out of water, reach above the mouth and nostrils, perhaps a little
+above the eyes, so that a man cannot long remain suspended in water with
+his head in that position. 6thly. The body continuing suspended as
+before, and upright, if the head be leaned quite back, so that the face
+looks upwards, all the back part of the head being then under water, and
+its weight consequently in a great measure supported by it, the face
+will remain above water quite free for breathing, will rise an inch
+higher every inspiration, and sink as much every expiration, but never
+so low as that the water may come over the mouth. 7thly. If therefore a
+person unacquainted with swimming, and falling accidentally into the
+water, could have presence of mind sufficient to avoid struggling and
+plunging, and to let the body take this natural position, he might
+continue long safe from drowning till perhaps help would come. For as to
+the clothes, their additional weight while immersed is very
+inconsiderable, the water supporting it, though when he comes out of the
+water, he would find them very heavy indeed. But, as I said before, I
+would not advise you or any one to depend on having the presence of mind
+on such an occasion, but learn fairly to swim, as I wish all men were
+taught to do in their youth; they would, on many occurrences, be the
+safer for having that skill, and on many more the happier, as freer from
+painful apprehensions of danger, to say nothing of the enjoyment in so
+delightful and wholesome an exercise. Soldiers particularly should,
+methinks, all be taught to swim; it might be of frequent service either
+in surprising an enemy, or saving themselves. And if I had now boys to
+educate, I should prefer those schools (other things being equal) where
+an opportunity was afforded for acquiring so advantageous an art, which,
+once learned, is never forgotten.”
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                           THE STORMY PETREL.
+
+             [Illustration: A petrel flying over the sea.]
+
+       [From ‘English Song and other Poems, by Barry Cornwall.’]
+
+       A thousand miles from land are we,
+       Tossing about on the roaring sea;
+       From billow to bounding billow cast,
+       Like fleecy snow on the stormy blast:
+       The sails are scattered abroad, like weeds,
+       The strong masts shake, like quivering reeds,
+       The mighty cables, and iron chains,
+       The hull, which all earthly strength disdains,
+       They strain and they crack, and hearts like stone
+       Their natural hard proud strength disown.
+
+       Up and down! up and down!
+       From the base of the wave to the billow’s crown,
+       And amidst the flashing and feathery foam
+       The Stormy Petrel finds a home,--
+       A home, if such a place may be,
+       For her who lives on the wide wide sea,
+       On the craggy ice, in the frozen air,
+       And only seeketh her rocky lair
+       To warm her young, and to teach them spring
+       At once o’er the waves on their stormy wing!
+
+       O’er the deep! O’er the deep!
+       Where the whale, and the shark, and the sword-fish sleep,
+       Outflying the blast and the driving rain,
+       The Petrel telleth her tale--in vain;
+       For the mariner curseth the warning bird
+       Who bringeth him news of the storms unheard!
+       Ah! thus does the prophet, of good or ill,
+       Meet hate from the creatures he serveth still:
+       Yet he ne’er falters:--So, Petrel! spring
+       Once more o’er the waves on thy stormy wing!
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                            GOOD OLD TIMES.
+
+                 [From ‘Combe’s Constitution of Man.’]
+
+A gentleman who was subject to the excise laws fifty years ago described
+to me the condition of his trade at that time. The excise officers, he
+said, regarded it as an understood matter that at least one half of the
+goods manufactured were to be smuggled without being charged with duty;
+but then, said he, “they made us pay a moral and pecuniary penalty that
+was at once galling and debasing. We were required to ask them to our
+table at all meals, and place them at the head of it in our holiday
+parties; when they fell into debt, we were obliged to help them out of
+it; when they moved from one house to another, our servants and carts
+were in requisition to perform this office, and by way of keeping up
+discipline upon us, and also to make a show of duty, they chose every
+now and then to step in and detect us in a fraud and get us fined; if we
+submitted quietly, they told us that they would make us amends by
+winking at another fraud, and generally did so; but if our indignation
+rendered passive obedience impossible, and we spoke our mind of their
+character and conduct, they enforced the law on us, while they relaxed
+it on our neighbours, and these being rivals in trade undersold us in
+the market, carried away our customers, and ruined our business. Nor did
+the bondage end here. We could not smuggle without the aid of our
+servants, and as they could, on occasion of any offence given to
+themselves, carry information to the head-quarters of excise, we were
+slaves to them also, and were obliged tamely to submit to a degree of
+drunkenness and insolence that appears to me now perfectly intolerable.
+Farther, this evasion and oppression did us no good, for all the trade
+were alike, and we just sold our goods so much cheaper the more duty we
+evaded, so that our individual success did not depend upon superior
+skill and superior morality in making an excellent article at a moderate
+price, but upon superior capacity for fraud, meanness, sycophancy, and
+every possible baseness. Our lives were anything but enviable.
+Conscience, although greatly blunted by practices that were universal
+and viewed as inevitable, still whispered that they were wrong; our
+sentiments of self-respect very frequently revolted at the insults to
+which we were exposed, and there was a constant feeling of insecurity
+from the great extent to which we were dependent upon wretches whom we
+internally despised. When the government took a higher tone and more
+principle, and greater strictness in the collection of the duties were
+enforced, we thought ourselves ruined; but the reverse has been the
+case. The duties, no doubt, are now excessively burdensome from their
+amount, but that is their least evil. If it was possible to collect them
+from every trader with perfect equality, our independence would be
+complete, and our competition would be confined to superiority in
+morality and skill. Matters are much nearer this point now than they
+were fifty years ago, but still they would admit of considerable
+improvement.”
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+_Arab Account of Debtor and Creditor._--Corporal punishments are unknown
+among the Arabs. Pecuniary fines are awarded, whatever may be the nature
+of the crime of which a man is accused. Every offence has its fine
+ascertained in the court of justice, and the nature and amount of those
+graduated fines are well known to the Arabs. All insulting expressions,
+all acts of violence, a blow however slight, (and a blow may differ in
+its degree of insult according to the part struck,) and the infliction
+of a wound, from which even a single drop of blood flows, all have their
+respective fines fixed. The judge’s sentence is sometimes to this
+effect:--(Bokhyt and Djolan are two Arabs who have quarrelled and
+fought.)
+
+Bokhyt called Djolan “a dog.” Djolan returned the insult by a blow upon
+Bokhyt’s arm; then Bokhyt cut Djolan’s shoulder with a knife. Bokhyt
+therefore owes to Djolan--
+
+ For the insulting expression                     1 sheep
+ For wounding him in the shoulder                 3 camels
+
+Djolan owes to Bokhyt--
+
+ For the blow upon his arm                        1 camel
+ Remain due to Djolan, 2 camels and 1 sheep.
+
+                       _Burckhardt’s Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys._
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+ ⁂ The Office of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge is at
+                        59, Lincoln’s Inn Fields.
+
+                LONDON:--CHARLES KNIGHT, PALL-MALL EAST.
+
+  _Shopkeepers and Hawkers may be supplied Wholesale by the following
+ Booksellers, of whom, also, any of the previous Numbers may be had:--_
+
+ _London_, GROOMBRIDGE, Panyer Alley.
+ _Bath_, SIMMS.
+ _Birmingham_, DRAKE.
+ _Bristol_, WESTLEY and Co.
+ _Carlisle_, THURNAM; and SCOTT.
+ _Derby_, WILKINS and SON.
+ _Falmouth_, PHILIP.
+ _Hull_, STEPHENSON.
+ _Leeds_, BAINES and NEWSOME.
+ _Lincoln_, BROOKE and SONS.
+ _Liverpool_, WILLMER and SMITH.
+ _Manchester_, ROBINSON; and WEBB and SIMMS.
+ _Newcastle-upon-Tyne_, CHARNLEY.
+ _Norwich_, JARROLD and SON.
+ _Nottingham_, WRIGHT.
+ _Sheffield_, RIDGE.
+ _Dublin_, WAKEMAN.
+ _Edinburgh_, OLIVER and BOYD.
+ _Glasgow_, ATKINSON and Co.
+
+               Printed by WILLIAM CLOWES, Stamford Street.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+This file uses _underscores_ to indicate italic text. New original cover
+art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain. Itemized
+changes from the original text:
+
+ • p. 139: Added period after heading “A Golden Rule.”
+ • p. 139: Added period after phrase “which is the best master to
+   serve--INDUSTRY or IDLENESS.”
+ • p. 142: Replaced closing single quotation mark with closing double
+   quotation mark after phrase “Metayer Rent.”
+ • p. 143: Added closing double quotation mark after phrase “all
+   intimate ties with him are broken and he is called ‘brother’ no
+   more.”
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76897 ***