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diff --git a/76773-0.txt b/76773-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb304c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/76773-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7648 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76773 *** + + + + + + OF THE + IMPORTANCE + OF + RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. + + TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH + + OF + + MR. NECKER. + + + LONDON: + + PRINTED FOR J. JOHNSON, N^o 72, ST. PAUL’S CHURCH-YARD. + + M.DCC.LXXXVIII. + + + + + ADVERTISEMENT. + + +_In rendering this Work into English some Liberties have been taken by +the Translator, which seemed necessary to preserve the Spirit of the +Original._ + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + CHAP. I. + _On the Connection of Religious Principles with public Order_ Page 1 + + + CHAP. II. + _The same Subject continued. A Parallel and of Laws and + Opinions_ 48 + + + CHAP. III. + _An Objection drawn from our natural Dispositions to Goodness_ 98 + + + CHAP. IV. + _An Objection drawn from the good Conduct of many irreligious + Men_ 104 + + + CHAP. V. + _The Influence of Religious Principles on our Happiness_ 118 + + + CHAP. VI. + _The same Subject continued. The Influence of Virtue on + Happiness_ 149 + + + CHAP. VII. + _On Religious Opinions, in their Relation with Sovereigns_ 169 + + + CHAP. VIII. + _An Objection drawn from the Wars and from the Commotions which + Religion has given Rise to_ 189 + + + CHAP. IX. + _Another Objection examined. The Sabbath_ 196 + + + CHAP. X. + _An Observation on a particular Circumstance of public Worship_ 206 + + + CHAP. XI. + _That the single Idea of a God is a sufficient Support of + Morality_ 210 + + + CHAP. XII. + _That there is a God_ 278 + + + CHAP. XIII. + _The same Subject continued_ 296 + + + CHAP. XIV. + _The same Subject continued_ 316 + + + CHAP. XV. + _On the Respect that is due from true Philosophy to Religion_ 382 + + + CHAP. XVI. + _The same Subject continued. Reflections on Intolerance_ 399 + + + CHAP. XVII. + _Reflections on the Morality of the Christian Religion_ 417 + + + CHAP. XVIII. + _Conclusion_ 446 + + + + + INTRODUCTION. + + +My thoughts having been detached from the study and disquisition of +those truths which have the political good of the state for their +object; and being no longer obliged to fix any attention on those +particular arrangements of the public interest, which are necessarily +connected with the operations of government; I found myself abandoned, +as it were, by all the important concerns of life. Restless and +wandering in this kind of void, my soul, still active, felt the want of +employment. I sometimes formed the design of tracing my ideas of men and +characters; I imagined that long experience in the midst of those active +scenes which discover the passions, had taught me to know them well; but +elevating my views, my heart was filled with a different ambition, and a +desire to reconcile the sublimest thoughts with those meditations from +which I was constrained to withdraw myself. Guided by this sentiment, I +remarked, with satisfaction, that there existed a natural connection +between the different truths which contribute to the happiness of +mankind. Our prejudices and our passions frequently attempt to disunite +them; but to the eye of an attentive observer, they have all one common +origin. From a similar affinity, the general views of administration, +the spirit of laws, morality, and religious opinions, are closely +connected; and it is by carefully preserving an alliance so beautiful, +that we raise a rampart round those works, which are destined for the +prosperity of states and the tranquillity of nations. + +One could not have taken an active part in the administration of public +affairs; or made it the object of stedfast attention; one could not have +compared the several relations of this great whole, with the natural +dispositions of minds and characters; nor indeed observed men in a +perpetual state of rivalry and competition, without perceiving, how much +the wisest governments need support from the influence of that invisible +spring which acts in secret on the consciences of individuals. Thus +whilst I am endeavouring to form some reflections on the importance of +religious opinions, I am not so far removed from my former habit of +thinking as may, at the first glance, be imagined; and as in writing on +the management of finances, I omitted no argument to prove that there is +an intimate connexion between the efficacy of governments, and the +wisdom with which they are conducted; between the virtue of princes, and +the confidence of their subjects, I think I am still proceeding in the +same train of sentiment and reflection, when struck with that spirit of +indifference which is so general, I endeavour to refer the duties of men +to those principles which afford them the most natural support. + +After having studied the interests of a great nation, and run over the +circle of our political societies, we approach nearer perhaps to those +sublime ideas which bind the general structure of mankind to that +infinite and Almighty Being, who is the first grand cause of all, and +universal mover of the universe. In the rapid course of an active +administration, indeed one cannot indulge similar reflections; but they +are forming and preparing themselves in the midst of the tumult of +business, and the tranquillity of retirement enables us to strengthen +and extend them. + +The calm which succeeds hurry and confusion, seems the reason most +favourable to meditation; and if any remembrance, or retrospective views +of what is past should inspire you with a kind of melancholy, you will +be involuntarily led back to contemplations which border on those ideas +with which you have been long conversant. It is thus the mariner, after +having renounced the dangers of the sea, sometimes seats himself on the +beach, and there, a more tranquil observer, considers attentively the +boundless ocean, the regular succession of the waves, the impression of +the winds, the flux and reflux of the tide, and that magnificent +firmament, where, during the night, among lights innumerable, he +distinguishes the lucid point, which serves as a guide to the +navigators. + +It is in vain, in those high stations under government, to interest +yourself about the happiness of mankind in general; it is in vain, that, +penetrated with a just respect for the important duties of office, a +public character shall dare to take in hand the cause of the people, and +incessantly apply himself to the defence of the weak, in opposition to +the attacks of the powerful; he soon perceives how bounded are his +abilities, and how limited are those, even of sovereignty itself. Pity +for the distresses of the individual is checked by the law of civil +rights; benevolence by justice; and liberty by its own abuses: you +perpetually behold merit struggling with patronage, honour with fortune, +and patriotism with the interest of the individual. There is no such +thing as real disinterestedness in the passions, only by fits and +starts; unless great circumstances, or vigorous virtue in an +administration, forcibly renewed the idea of public good, a general +langour would take place in every mind, and society itself would appear +one confused mass of opposite interests, which the supreme authority +keeps within bounds for the maintenance of peace, without any inquietude +about real harmony, or any revolution favourable to the manners or +happiness of the public. + +From the midst of these clashings and contradictions, continually +recurring, a minister, possessed of a reflecting mind, is incessantly +called back to the idea of imperfection; he will, undoubtedly, be sorry, +when he sees the great disproportion which exists between his duty and +his powers; and he will sometimes grieve and be discouraged, at +perceiving the obstacles he must surmount, and the difficulties he must +overcome: he raises, with labour and care, banks on the strand, the +waters swell, their course becomes more rapid, and the first precautions +rendered insufficient, oblige him to have recourse to new works, which, +thrown down in their turn, hurry on a continued succession of fruitless +toil and useless attempts. What then would be the consequence, if once +the salutary chain of religious sentiments were broken? What would be +the event, if the action of that powerful spring were ever entirely +destroyed? You would soon see every part of the social structure tremble +from its foundation, and the hand of government unable to sustain the +vast and tottering edifice. + +The sovereign, and the laws which are the interpreters of his wisdom, +should have two grand objects, the maintenance of public order, and the +increase of private happiness. But to accomplish both, the aid of +religion is absolutely necessary. The sovereign cannot influence the +happiness of individuals, but by a general solicitude; because the +sentiments which spring from the different characters of men, or merely +from the circumstances of their respective situations, are independent +of him. Neither can he ensure the preservation of public order, but by +rules and institutions, which are only applicable to actions, and to +those actions positively proved. It is necessary also that the laws +should extend their influence to society in a uniform manner; they +should always have a tendency to diminish the number of distinctions, +shades, and modifications, that are to be found in the actions of men; +in short, to prevent those abuses inseparably attendant on arbitrary +decisions. + +Such are the bounds of sovereign authority, and such the necessary +developement of its means and powers. Religion, to attain the same ends, +employs other motives essentially different: first, it is not in a vague +and general manner, that she influences the happiness of mankind; it is +by addressing all men individually; by penetrating the heart of every +human being, and pouring into it consolation and hope; by presenting to +the imagination every thing that can insensibly lead it captive; by +taking possession of men’s sentiments; by occupying their thoughts; and +by availing herself of this dominion over them, to sustain their +courage, and to afford them comfort under their afflictions and +disappointments. In this manner religion concurs to maintain good order, +by means absolutely distinct from those of government; for she not only +governs our actions, but even our sentiments: it is with the errors and +inclinations of each man in particular, that she seeks to combat. +Religion, in demonstrating the presence of the Deity, on all occasions, +however secret, exercises an habitual authority over the consciences of +men; she seems to assist them under the perturbations of fear, and yet +attends them in their flight; she equally notices their intentions, +projects, and repentance; and in the method which she takes, seems as +undulating and flexible in all her motions, as the empire of the law +appears immoveable and constrained. + +I should not, at present, extend these reflections any further; but, if +religion, in some measure, completes the imperfect work of legislation; +if it ought to supply the insufficiency of those means which government +is under the necessity of adopting, the subject I propose to treat of +seems not foreign to those objects of meditation, which the study of +administration ought to comprehend. + +I well know, that it is impossible to explain the importance of +religion, without, at the same time, fixing the attention on the grand +truths on which it depends; and you must also frequently touch on many +subjects that are closely connected with the deepest metaphysics. We +are, at least, obliged to seek for a defence against those arguments +which sap the foundation of the most necessary opinions; by which the +most impassioned sentiments have been discouraged; by which some would +reduce man to a vegetable, make the universe the result of chance, and +morality a state trick. + +As soon as I discovered how far my subject was likely to lead me, I felt +myself intimidated; but I could not allow this to be a sufficient reason +for relinquishing my undertaking; and since the greater part of the +philosophers of the present age are united in opposition to those +opinions, which the light of nature seems to have rendered sacred, it is +become indispensably necessary, to admit to the combat all that offer; +nay, even to select a champion from the main body of the army, when all +the strong ones are already gone over to the camp of the enemy. + +There is nothing which seems to engross the attention of mankind more +than metaphysical enquiries, for it is by thinking alone they can be +fathomed; the light gained by acquired knowledge is, in some measure, +lost in those obscure depths which it is necessary to sound, and that +immense space which it is necessary to traverse. Thus, it were better, +perhaps, that each should enter by chance into these labyrinths, where +the paths, already traced, lead to no one determined point. I have, +besides, often observed, that, even for those researches, where the +helps of science are most useful, we ought to set a certain value on the +particular excursion of each genius, which seeks out for itself a way, +and which, indebted to nature alone for its peculiar formation, +preserves in its progress a character of its own; it is then, and then +only, that we are not invested with the distinguishing marks of +slavishness of thinking; but when, by devoting ourselves to reflection, +we coincide with the opinions of others, this conformity has nothing of +servility in it, and the marks of imitation are not even recognized. + +In vain would man resist the impression of truth; in vain would he +defend himself by a ridiculous indifference for ancient opinions; there +never could be an idea more worthy to occupy our meditations, there +never could be an idea, on which we might be more fully permitted to +expatiate, according to our knowledge and penetration, than that sublime +one of a Supreme Being, and the relation we bear to him: an idea, which +though far removed from us by its immensity, every moment strikes the +soul with admiration, and inspires the heart with hope. + +It appears to me, that there are interests which may be considered as +patriotic by intelligent and feeling beings; and while the inhabitants +of the same country, and the subjects of the same prince, employ +themselves diligently in one common plan of defence, the citizens of the +world ought to be incessantly anxious to give every new and possible +support to those exalted opinions on which the true greatness of their +existence is founded, which preserves the imagination from that +frightful spectacle of an existence without origin, of action without +liberty, and futurity without hope. Thus after having, as I think, +proved myself a citizen of France, by my administration, as well as my +writings, I wish to unite myself to a fraternity still more +extended—that of the whole human race: it is thus, without dispersing +our sentiments, we may be able nevertheless to communicate ourselves a +great way off, and enlarge in some measure the limits of our circle: +glory be to our thinking faculties for it! To that spiritual portion of +ourselves which can take in the past, dart into futurity, and intimately +associate itself with the destiny of men of all countries, and of all +ages. Without doubt, a veil is thrown over the greater part of those +truths, to which our curiosity would willingly attain; but those which a +beneficent God has permitted us to see, are amply sufficient for our +guide and instruction; and we cannot, for a continuance divert our +attention without a species of slothful negligence, and a total +indifference to the superior interests of man. How little is every thing +indeed, when put in competition with those meditations, which give to +our existence a new extent, and which, in detaching us from the dust of +the earth, seem to unite our souls to an infinity of space, and our +duration of a day to the eternity of time! Above all, it is for you to +determine, who have sensibility—who feel the want of a Supreme Being, +and who seek to find in him that support so necessary to your weakness, +that defender and that assurance, without which painful inquietude will +be perpetually tormenting you, and troubling those soft, tender +affections which constitute your happiness. + +However, I must say, there never perhaps was a period, when it was more +essentially necessary to recal to the minds of men, the importance of +religious sentiments; at present they are but prejudices, if we may +credit the spirit of licentiousness and levity; the laws dictated by +fashion; and more particularly essential since we have had philosophical +instructions, which excite the various deviations of vanity, and rally +the wanderings of the imagination. + +There is not any form of religion, undoubtedly, to which ideas more or +less mystical have not been annexed; and of which the evidence has not +been in proportion to the dictatorial language, and authoritative tone, +which has been made use of in teaching and defending it; as such, one +might at any given period have been tempted to dispute about particular +parts of worship, which different nations have adopted; but it is +principally in the present age, that a certain class of men has sprung +up, distinguished for their wit and talents; and who, intoxicated by the +facility with which they have gained a victory, have extended their +ambition, and had the daring courage to attack the reserved body of that +army of which the front ranks had already given way. + +This struggle between persons, one of whom would imperiously rule by +faith alone, whilst the other thinks he has a right to reject with +disdain every thing that has not been demonstrated, will always be a +fruitless combat; and only serve to nourish blind aversion and unjust +contempt. Some seek to wound their adversaries, others to humble them; +in the mean time the good of mankind, and the true benefit of society, +are absolutely lost sight of; yes, the real love of useful truths, the +impartial search after them, and the desire of pointing them out, these +sentiments, so amiable and so truly laudable, seem to be entirely +unknown. I see, permit me to say it, I see at the two extremities of the +arena, the savage inquisitor, and the inconsiderate philosopher; but +neither the faggots lighted by the one, nor the derisions of the other, +will ever diffuse any salutary instruction; and in the eyes of a +rational man, the intolerance of monks adds no more to the dominion of +true religious sentiments, than the jests of a few licentious wits have +effected a triumph in favour of philosophy. + +It is between these opposite opinions, and in the midst of wanderings +equally dangerous, that we must attempt to mark out our way; but as all +the opinions of men are subject to change; at present, when their minds +are more averse to the maxims of intolerance, it is religion itself that +principally needs support; and such is the daily diminution of it, that +means supplying the deficiency seem to be already publicly preparing. +For some time past we have heard of nothing but the necessity of +composing a moral catechism, in which religious principles should not be +introduced, as resources that are now out of date, and when it is time +they were discarded. Without doubt these principles might be more +effectually attacked, could they ever be represented as totally useless +for the maintenance of public order; and if the cold lessons of a +political philosophy could be substituted for those sublime ideas, +which, by the spiritual tie of religion, binds the heart and mind to the +purest morality. Let us now examine if we should gain any thing by the +exchange; let us see, if the means they propose to employ can be put in +competition with those which ought to be made use of; and, if they are +more solid, and more efficacious; let us see, if this new doctrine, +which is recommended, will produce in the soul the same degree of +consolation; if it is calculated for those hearts which are possessed of +sensibility; and, above all, let us attentively consider, if it can be +suitable to the measure of intelligence, and the social situation of the +greater part of mankind. In short, in considering the various questions, +which in any manner, relate to the important subject we have undertaken +to treat, let us not be afraid to resist, as well as we can, the foolish +ambition of those, who, availing themselves of the superiority of their +understanding, wish to deprive man of his dignity, to place him on a +level with the dust under his feet, and make his foresight a +punishment:—melancholy and deplorable destiny! from which, however, we +are permitted to seek to defend ourselves; cruel and disastrous opinion! +which tears up by the roots every thing which surrounds it, which +relaxes the most necessary bands, and, in an instant, destroys the most +delightful charm of life. + +O thou God unknown!——but whose beneficent idea has ever filled my soul, +if thou ever throwest a look on those efforts which man makes to +approach thee, sustain my resolution, enlighten my understanding, raise +my thoughts, and reject not the desire I have to unite still more, if +possible, the order and happiness of society, with the intimate and +perfect conception of thy divinity, and the lively idea of thy sublime +existence. + + + + + OF THE + + IMPORTANCE + + OF + + RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. + + + + + CHAP. I. + _On the Connection of Religious Principles with public Order._ + + +We know not distinctly the origin of most political societies; but as +soon as history exhibits men united in a national body, we perceive, at +the same time, the establishment of public worship, and the application +of religious sentiments, to the maintenance of good order and +subordination. Religious sentiments, by the sanction of an oath, bind +the people to the magistrates, and the magistrates to their engagements; +they inspire a reverential respect for the obligations contracted +between sovereigns; and these sentiments, still more authoritative than +discipline, attach the soldier to his commander; in short, religious +opinions, by their influence on the manners of individuals, have +produced an infinite number of illustrious actions and instances of +heroical disinterestedness, of which history has transmitted us the +remembrance. But as we have seen a philosophy spring up among nations +the most enlightened, anxiously employed in depriving religion of all +that merited respect, dissertations on times far removed from us, and +the various systems that they would endeavour violently to associate +with religion, would become an endless source of controversy. It is +then, by reasoning alone, by that exercise of the mind, which belongs +equally to all countries and all ages, that we can support the cause +which we have taken in hand to defend. There is, perhaps, something weak +and servile in our wishing to draw assistance from ancient opinions; +reason ought not, like vanity, to adorn herself with old parchments, and +the display of a genealogical tree; more dignified in her proceeding, +and proud of her immortal nature, she ought to derive every thing from +herself; she should disregard past times, and be, if I may use the +phrase, the contemporary of all ages. + +It was reserved, particularly for some writers of our age, to attack +even the utility of religion; and to seek to substitute, instead of its +active influence, the inanimate instruction of a political philosophy. +Religion, say they, is a scaffold fallen into ruins, and it is high time +to give to morality a more solid support. But what support will that be? +we must, in order to discover, and form a just idea of it; distinctly +consider the different motives of action on which depend the relations +that subsist between men; and it will be necessary to estimate, +afterwards, the kind and degree of assistance which we may reasonably +expect from a like support. + +It appears to me, that in renouncing the efficacious aid of religion, we +may easily form an idea of the means that they will endeavour to make +use of to attach men to the observance of the rules of morality, and to +restrain the dangerous excesses of their passions. They would, +undoubtedly, place a proper value on the connection which subsists +between private and general interest; they would avail themselves of the +authority of laws, and the fear of punishment; and they would confide +still more in the ascendency of public opinion, and the ambition, that +every one ought to have, of gaining the esteem and confidence of his +fellow-creatures. + +Let us examine separately these different motives; and first, +attentively considering the union of private with public interest, let +us see if this union is real, and if we can deduce from such a principle +any moral instruction truly efficacious. + +Society is very far from being a perfect work; we ought not to consider +as an harmonious composition the different relations of which we are +witnesses, and particularly the habitual contrast of power and weakness, +of slavery and authority, riches and poverty, of luxury and misery; so +much inequality; such a motly piece could not form an edifice +respectable for the justness of its proportions. + +Civil and political order is not then excellent by its nature, and we +cannot perceive its agreement, till we have deeply studied, and formed +to ourselves those reflections which legislators had to make, and the +difficulties that they had to surmount. It is then only, with the +assistance of the most attentive meditation, that we discover how those +particular relations, which are established by social laws, form, +nevertheless, that system of equilibrium, which is most proper to bind +together an immense diversity of interests; but a great obstacle to the +influence of political morality is, the necessity of giving, for the +basis of the love of order, an abstract and complicated idea. What +effect on vulgar minds would the scientific harmony of the whole have, +opposed daily to the sentiment of injustice and inequality, which arises +from the aspect of every part of the social constitution, when we +acquire the knowledge of it, in a manner solitary and circumscribed; and +how limited is the number of those, who can continually draw together +all the scattered links of this vast chain! + +It could not be avoided, in the best regulated societies, that some +should enjoy, without labour or difficulty, all the conveniencies of +life; and that others, and far the greater number, should be obliged to +earn, by the sweat of their brow, a subsistence the most scanty, and a +recompense the most confined. It is not to be prevented, that some will +find, when oppressed by sickness, all the assistance which officious +tenderness and skill can afford; whilst others are reduced to partake, +in public hospitals, the bare relief that humanity has provided for the +indigent. We cannot prevent some from being in a situation to lavish on +their families all the advantages of a complete education; whilst +others, impatient to free themselves from a charge so heavy, are +constrained to watch eagerly for the first appearance of natural +strength, to make their children apply to some profitable labour. In +short, we cannot avoid perpetually contrasting the splendour of +magnificence with the tatters which misery displays. Such are the +effects, inseparable from the laws, respecting property. These are +truths, the principles of which I have had occasion to discuss in the +work which I composed on administration and political œconomy; but I +ought to repeat them here, since they are found closely connected with +other general views. The eminent power of property is one of the social +institutions, the influence of which has the greatest extent; this +consideration was applicable to the commerce of grain; it ought to be +present to the mind, in disquisitions on the duties of administration; +and it is still more important, when the question is to be examined, +what kind of moral instruction may be proper for mankind? + +In effect, if it appertains to the essence of the laws of right, +constantly to introduce and maintain an immense disparity in the +distribution of property; were it an essential part of these laws, to +reduce the most numerous class of citizens, to that which is simply the +most necessary; the inevitable result of such a constitution would be, +to nourish, amongst men, a sentiment of habitual envy and jealousy. +Vainly would you demonstrate, that these laws are the only ones capable +of exciting labour, animating industry, preventing disorder, and +opposing obstacles to arbitrary acts of authority; all these +considerations sufficient, we grant, to fix the opinion and the will of +the legislator, would not strike in the same manner the man thrown on +the earth, without property, without resources, and without hopes; and +he will never render free homage to the beauty of the whole, when there +is nothing for him but deformity, abjectness, and contempt. + +Men, in most of their political reasonings, are deceived by resemblances +and analogies: the interest of society is certainly composed of the +interests of all its members; but it does not follow from this +explication, that there is an immediate and constant correspondence +between the general and private interest; such an approximation, could +only be applicable to an imaginary social state; and which we might +represent as divided into many parts, of which the rich would be the +head, and the poor the feet and hands: but political society is not one +and the same body, except under certain relations, whilst, relatively to +other interests, it partakes in as many ramifications of them as there +are individuals. + +Those considerations, to which we annex an idea of general interest, +would be very often susceptible of numberless observations; but the +principles, we are accustomed to receive and transmit, in their most +common acceptation; and we discover not the mixt ideas which compose +them, but at the moment when we analyze the principles, in order to draw +consequences from them, in like manner as we perceive not the variety of +colours in a ray of light, till the moment we divide them by means of a +prism. + +The formation of social laws, with reason, ought to appear one of our +most admirable conceptions; but this system is not so united in all its +parts, that a striking disorder would always be the necessary effect of +some irregular movement: thus the man, who violates the laws, does not +quickly discover the relation of his actions with the interest of +society; but at the instant enjoys, or thinks to joy, the fruit of his +usurpations. + +Should a theatre be on fire, it is certainly the interest of the +assembly that every one go out with order; but if the people, most +distant from the entrance, believed they should be able to escape sooner +from the danger, by forcing their way through the crowd which surrounds +them, they would assuredly determine on this violence, unless a coercive +power prevented them; yet the common utility of restricting ourselves to +order in such circumstances, would appear an idea more simple, and more +distinct, than is the universal importance of maintaining civil order in +society. + +The only natural defence of this order, is government; its function +obliges it ever to consider the whole; but the need which it has of +power to carry its decrees into execution, proves evidently, that it is +the adversary of many, even when acting in the name of all. + +We are then under a great illusion, if we hope to be able to found +morality on the connection of private interest with that of the public; +and if we imagine, that the empire of social laws can be separated from +the support of religion. The authority of these laws has nothing +decisive for those who have not assisted to establish them; and were we +to give to the hereditary distinctions of property an origin the most +remote, it is no less true, on this account that the poor succeeding +inhabitants of the earth, struck with the unequal division of its rich +domains, and not perceiving the limits and lines of separation traced by +nature, would have some right to say; these compacts, these partitions, +this diversity of lots, which procures to some abundance and repose; to +others, poverty and labour; all this legislation, in short, is only +advantageous to a small number of privileged men; and we will not +subscribe to it, unless compelled by the fear of personal danger. What +are then, they would add, these ideas of right and wrong, with which we +are entertained? What are these dissertations on the necessity of +adopting some order in society, and of observing rules? Our mind bends +not to those principles, which, general in theory, become particular in +practice. We find some satisfaction and compensation, when the idea of +virtue, of submission, and of sacrifice, are united to religious +sentiments; when we believe we shall render an account of our actions to +a Supreme Being, whose laws and will we adore, and from whom we have +received every thing, and whose approbation presents itself to our eyes, +as a motive of emulation, and an object of recompense: but if the +contracted bounds of life limit the narrow circle in which all our +interest ought to confine itself, where all our speculations and our +hopes terminate, what respect owe we then to those whom nature has +formed our equals? To those men sprung from lifeless clay, to return to +it again with us, and to be lost for ever in the same dust? They have +only invented these laws of justice, to be more tranquil usurpers. Let +them descend from their exalted rank, that they may be put on our level, +or, at least, present us with a partition less unequal, and we shall +then be able to conceive, that the observance of the laws of right is of +importance to us; till then, we shall have just motives for being the +enemies of civil order, which we find so disadvantageous; and we do not +comprehend how, in the midst of so many gratifications which excite our +envy, it is, in the name of our own interest, that we ought to renounce +them. + +Such is the secret language which men, overwhelmed with the distress of +their situation, would not fail to use; or those who, merely in a state +of habitual inferiority, found themselves continually hurt by the +splendid sight of luxury and magnificence. + +It would not be an easy task to combat these sentiments, by endeavouring +to paint forcibly the vanity of pleasure in general, and the illusion of +most of those objects which captivate our ambition, and the apathy which +follows in their train. These reflections, without doubt, have their +weight and efficacy; but if we attentively consider the subject, every +thing that deserves the name of consolation in this world, cannot be +addressed with any advantage; but to minds prepared for mild sentiments, +by an idea of religion and of piety, more or less distinct; we cannot, +in the same manner, relieve the barren and ferocious despondency of an +unhappy and envious man, who has thrown far behind him all hope. +Concentred in the bare interests of a life, which is for him eternity, +and the universe itself; it is the passion of the moment which enslaves +him, and nothing can disengage him from it; he has not the means to +catch any vague idea, nor of being content; and as even reason has need, +every instant, of the aid of the imagination, he cannot be encouraged, +either by the discourse of his friends, or his own reflections. + +Besides, if we can maintain, in general, that the allotments of +happiness and misery are more equal than we imagine; if we can +reasonably advance, that labour is preferable to idleness; if we can +say, with truth, that embarrassments and inquietudes often accompany +wealth, and that contentment of mind appears to be the portion of the +middle state of life; we ought to acknowledge, at the same time, that +these axioms are only perfectly just in the eyes of the moralist, who +considers man in a comprehensive point of view, and who makes his +calculation upon a whole life: but, in the recurrence of our daily +desires and hopes, it is impossible to excite to labour by the +expectation of fortune, and detract, at the same time, this fortune, in +decrying the pleasures and conveniences that it procures. These subtle +ideas, without excepting those which may be defended, can never be +applicable to real circumstances; and if we sometimes use with success +such kind of reflections to alleviate unavailing sorrow and regret, it +is when we have only shadows to cope with. + +In short, when we have reduced to precept, all the well known +reflections, on the apparent, but delusive advantages of rank and +fortune, we cannot prevent uncultivated minds from being continually +struck with the extreme inequality of the different contracts which the +rich make with the poor; it might be said, in those moments, that one +portion of mankind was formed only for the convenience of another; the +poor man sacrifices his time and his strength to multiply round the rich +gratifications of every kind; and he, when he gives in exchange the most +scanty subsistence, does not deprive himself of any thing; since the +extent of his physical wants is bounded by the laws of nature: equality +then is only re-established by the lassitude and apathy which the +enjoyment even of pleasure produces. But these disgusts compose the back +ground in the picture of life; the people perceive them not; and as they +have only been acquainted with want, they cannot form any idea of the +langour attendant on satiety. + +Will any one imprudently say, that if the distinctions of property are +an obstacle to the establishment of a political system of morality, we +ought, therefore, to labour to destroy them? But if in past ages, when +the different degrees of talents and knowledge were not so unequal, men +were not able to preserve a community of possessions, can you imagine, +that these primitive relations could be re-established at a time when +the superiority of rank and power is enforced by the immoveable strength +of disciplined armies? + +Besides, when even in the composition of an ideal world, we should have +introduced the most exact division of the various possessions esteemed +by men, it would still be necessary, to preserve a system of real +equality, that every one should execute faithfully the duties imposed on +him by universal morality; since this is incumbent on every individual, +for the sacrifice that all the members of society have made; which +society ought to recompense every citizen in particular, for the +restriction to which he submits himself. + +It is essential to observe still further, that it is not only personal +interest, when clearly understood, which ought to be annexed to the idea +of public order; it is the same interest when led astray by the +passions, then a mere guide is no longer sufficient; a yoke must be +imposed; a check always acting, which must be used absolutely. Nothing +can be more chimerical than to pretend to restrain a man, hurried on by +an impetuous imagination, by endeavouring to recal to his remembrance +some principles and instructions, which, in the terms of an academic +thesis[1], ought to be the _result of analysis, of methodizing, of the +art of dividing, of developing, and circumscribing ideas_. + +It would be, at present, a hardy enterprize, to attempt to conduct men +by reason alone, since the first thing that reason discovers is its own +weakness; but when we want to rest on maxims which admit of controversy; +when we wish to oppose to the strong motive of personal interest, a +moral consideration which cannot act but with the concurrence of +profound reflection; we recollect the doctrine of the first œconomists, +who, in establishing the extravagant principles respecting an exclusive +right of exporting or monopolizing grain, put off the care of preventing +popular commotions till they should happen. + +It appears to me, that false reasoning, on the union of private with +public interest, arises from applying to the present state of society, +the principles which have served as the base for their formation; this +very natural confusion is one grand source of error. Let us try to +render clear a proposition, which, at first, appears difficult to +comprehend; and in this light we will suppose, for a moment the future +generation assembled in idea, in an imaginary world, and ignorant before +they inhabit the earth, who those individuals are that shall be born of +parents loaded with the gifts of fortune, and those who are beset with +misery from their cradle. They are instructed in the principles of civil +rights, and the convenience of the laws of order, has been represented +to them, and a sketch is drawn of the disorder, which would be the +inevitable consequence of a continual variation in the division of +property; then all those who are to compose the new generation, equally +uncertain of the lot that the chance of birth reserves for them, +subscribe unanimously to those events which await them; and at the very +moment in which the relations of society exist only in speculation, it +might be truly said, that the personal interest is lost in the public; +but this identity ceases, when each, arrived on the earth, has taken +possession of his lot; it is then no longer possible, that the various +personal interests should concur to the maintenance of these prodigious +gradations of rank and fortune, which are derived from the chance of +birth; and those to whom cares and wants have fallen, will not be +resigned to the inferiority of their condition, but by a grand religious +principle alone, which can make them perceive an eternal justice, and +place them in imagination before time, and before the laws. + +There is nothing so easy, as the establishment of conventions, and +making rules to be observed, till the moment of the drawing of a +lottery; every one then, at the same point of view, finds all good, all +just, and well contrived, and peace reigns by common agreement; but as +soon as the blanks and prizes are known, the mind changes, the temper +grows sour; and without the check of authority, it would become +unmanageable, envious, quarrelsome, and sometimes unjust and violent. + +We see, however, the consequence to be drawn from the preceding +reflections; that political societies in contemplation, and in reality, +present to our observation two different periods; and as these periods +are not separated by any apparent limits, they are almost always +confounded in the mind of the political moralist. He who believes in the +union of private interest with that of the public, and who celebrates +this harmony, has only considered society in its general and primitive +plan; he who thinks, on the contrary, that the whole is wrong and +discordant, because there is a great difference of power and fortune, +has considered it only under its actual vicissitudes. Both these +mistakes have received a sanction from celebrated writers. The man +hurried away by a lively imagination, and strongly impressed by present +objects, has been struck by the inequality of conditions; and the +philosopher, who, transported by his abstractions beyond the circle of +human society, has only perceived those relations and principles which +led men to form the first institution of civil laws. Thus, every where +we see, that most disputes relate to mere difference of positions, and +to the various points of view in which the same subject is considered; +there are so many stations in the moral world, that, according to that +which we choose, the picture changes entirely. + +Hitherto we have endeavoured to understand the effect which we might +expect from a system of morality, by applying this kind of instruction +only to private interest, when most clearly ascertained. It remains now +to show, that every species of education, which demands time and +reflection, cannot belong, in any manner, to the class of men most +numerous; and to be sensible of this truth, it is sufficient to turn our +attention on the social state of those who are destitute of property, +and talents which might supply its place; obliged to have recourse to +hard labour, where nothing is required but to employ their bodily +strength, their concurrence, and the power of riches reduce the wages of +this numerous class to what is absolutely necessary; they cannot without +difficulty support their children, and they may well be impatient of +qualifying them for useful occupations to relieve themselves; and this +prevents their being sent to public schools, except during their +infancy: thus, ignorance and poverty are in the midst of our societies, +and the hereditary lot of the greater part of the citizens; there is +only to be found an alleviation of this general law, in those countries +where the constitution of the government encourages the high price of +labour, and gives the poor some means of resisting the despotism of +fortune. However, if such is the inevitable effect of our civil and +political legislation, how shall we be able to bind men without +distinction, to the maintenance of public order, by any instruction, I +do not say complicated, but to which the exercise of long reasoning +forms only a necessary introduction? It would not be sufficient to endow +institutions; it would be still more necessary to pay the scholars for +their time; since, for the lower class, time is, even very early in +life, their only means of subsistence. + +Nevertheless, morality is not, like other human sciences, a knowledge, +that we may be at liberty to acquire at our leisure; the quickest +instruction is still too slow, since man has a natural power of doing +evil before his mind is in a state to apply to reflection, and connect +the most simple ideas. + +It is not then a political catechism which would be proper for the +instruction of the people; it is not a course of precepts founded on the +union of public and private interest, which can suit with the measure of +their understanding; when a doctrine of that kind would appear as just +as it seems to me liable to be disputed, they will never be able to +render the principles of it distinct enough, to apply them to the +purposes of instructing those whose education continues for so short a +time. Morality, founded on religion, by its active influence, is +precisely adapted to the particular situation of the greater number of +men; and this agreement is so perfect, that it seems one of the +remarkable features of universal harmony. Religion alone has power to +persuade with celerity, because it excites passion, whilst it informs +the understanding, because it alone has the means of rendering obvious +what it recommends; because it speaks in the name of God, and it is easy +to inspire respect for him, whose power is every where evident to the +eyes of the simple and skilful, to the eyes of children, and men +advanced to maturity. + +In order to attack this truth, let it not be said, that the idea of a +God is of all others the most incomprehensible; and if it is possible to +derive useful instruction from so metaphysical a principle, we ought to +expect more good from precepts which depend on the common relations of +life. Such an objection is a mere subtilty; the distinct knowledge of +the essence of a God, the creator of the world, is, undoubtedly above +the comprehension of men of every age, and all faculties; but it is not +the same with the vague idea of a heavenly power, who punishes and who +rewards; parental authority, and the helplessness of infancy, prepare us +early for ideas of obedience and command; and the world is such a +stupendous wonder, a theatre of such continual prodigies, that it is +easy to annex, at an early period, hope and fear to the idea of a +Supreme Being. Thus, the infinity of a God, creator and director of the +universe, is so far from having power to divert our respect and +adoration, that even the clouds with which he invelopes himself, lend a +new force to religious sentiments. A man often remains uninterested +amidst: the discoveries of his reason; but it is always easy to move +him, whenever we address ourselves to his imagination; for this faculty +of our mind excites us continually to action, by presenting to our eyes +a great space, and by keeping us always at a certain distance from the +object we have in view. Man is so disposed to wonder at a power, of +which he is ignorant of the springs; this sentiment is so natural to +him, that what we ought to guard against the most in his education, is +the inconsiderate insinuation of various terrors, of which he is +susceptible. Thus, not only the true idea of the existence of an +All-powerful God, but mere credulous faith in superstitious opinions, +will always have more power over the common class of men, than abstract +precepts, or general considerations. I know not even, if it might not be +said, with truth, that the future of this short life, when we +contemplate it, is further from us than the distant perspective offered +to the mind by religion; because our imagination is less restrained, and +the minutest description of reason can never equal in power, the lively +and impulsive ardour of the affections of our souls. + +I resume the series of my reflections, and set down here an important +observation: which is, that the more the increase of taxes keeps the +people in despondency and misery, the more indispensable is it to give +them a religious education; for it is in the irritation of wretchedness, +that we all have need of a powerful restraint and of daily consolations. +The successive abuse of strength and authority, in overturning all the +relations which originally existed between men, have raised, in the +midst of them, an edifice so artificial, and in which there reigns so +much disproportion, that the idea of a God is become more necessary than +ever, to serve as a leveller of this confused assemblage of disparities; +and if we can ever imagine, that a people should exist, subject only to +the laws of a political morality, we should represent, without doubt, a +rising nation, which would be restrained by the vigour of patriotism in +its prime; a nation which would occupy a country where riches had not +had time to accumulate; where the distance of the habitations from each +other contributed to the maintenance of domestic manners; where +agriculture, that simple and peaceful occupation, would be the favourite +employment; where the work of the hands would obtain a recompense +proportioned to the scarcity of the workmen, and the extensive +usefulness of the labour; we should represent, in short, a nation where +the laws and the form of government would favour, during a long time, +equality of rank and property. But in our ancient kingdoms in Europe, +where the growth of riches continually augments the difference of +fortunes and the distance of conditions;—in our old political bodies, +where we are crowded together, and where misery and magnificence are +ever mingled, it must be a morality, fortified by religion, that shall +restrain these numerous spectators of so many possessions and objects of +envy, and who, placed so near every thing which they call happiness, can +yet never aspire to it. + +It may be asked, perhaps, in consequence of these reflections, whether +religion, which strengthens every tie, and fortifies every obligation, +is not favourable to tyranny? Such a conclusion would be unreasonable; +but religion, which affords comfort under every affliction, would +necessarily sooth also the ills which arise from despotism; however, it +is neither the origin, nor the support of it: religion, well understood, +would not lend its support but to order and justice; and the +instructions of political morality proposes to itself the same end. +Thus, in both plans of education, the rights of the sovereign, as well +as those of the citizens, constitute simply one of the elementary parts +of the general system of our duties. + +I shall only observe, that the insufficiency of political morality would +appear still more obvious, in a country where the nation, subject to the +authority of an absolute prince, would have no share in the government; +for personal interest no longer having an habitual communication with +the general interest, there would be just ground to fear, that in +wishing to hold out the union of these two interests as the essential +motive of virtue, the greater number would retain only this idea, that +personality was admitted for the first principle; and consequently every +one ought to reserve to himself the right of judging of the times and +circumstances when self-love and patriotism are to be separated, or +united. And how many errors would not this produce? Public good, like +all abstract ideas, has not a precise definition; it is for the greater +part of mankind a sea without bounds, and it requires not much address +or shrewdness to confound all our analogies. We may know how we would +form, according to our taste, the alliance of all the moral ideas, in +considering with what facility men know how to reconcile with one +quality the habitual infirmities of their character; he who wounds +without discretion, prides himself in his frankness and courage; he who +is cowardly and timid in his sentiments and in his words, boasts of his +caution and circumspection; and by a new refinement of which I have seen +singular examples, he who asks of the sovereign pecuniary favours, +endeavours to persuade him that he is impelled to this solicitation, +only by a noble love of honourable distinction; every one is ingenious +in fixing the point of union which connects his passions with some +virtue: would they then be less expert at finding some conformity +between their own interest and that of the public? + +I cannot, I avow, without disgust, and even horror, conceive the absurd +notion of a political society, destitute of that governing motive +afforded by religion, and restrained only by a pretended connexion of +their private interest with the general. What circumscribed judges! What +a multiplicity of opinions, sentiments, and wills! All would be in +confusion, if we left to men the liberty of drawing their own +conclusions: they must absolutely have a simple idea to regulate their +conduct, especially when the application of this principle may be +infinitely diversified. God in delivering his laws on Mount Sinai, had +need but to say, _Thou shalt not steal_; and with the awful idea of that +God, whom every thing recals to our minds, whom every thing impresses on +the human heart, this short commandment preserves, at all times, a +sufficient authority; but when political philosophy says, _Thou shalt +not steal_, it would be necessary to add to this precept a train of +reasoning, on the laws of right, on the inequality of conditions, and on +the various social relations; in order to persuade us that it +comprehends every motive, that it answers all objections, and resists +all attacks. It is necessary, further, that by the lessons of this +philosophy the most uncultivated minds should be qualified to follow the +different ramifications which unite, disunite, and reunite afresh the +personal to the public interest: what an enterprize! It is, perhaps, +like wishing to employ a course of anatomy, in order to direct a child +in the choice of such aliments as are proper for it, instead of +beginning to conduct it by the counsels and the authority of its mother. + +The same remarks are applicable to all the virtues, of which the +observance is essential to public order: what method would plain +reasoning take to persuade a single man, that he ought not to deprive a +husband of the affections of his wife? Where would you assign him a +distinct recompense for the sacrifice of his passion? What windings +should we not be obliged to run over, to demonstrate to an ambitious +man, that he ought not, in secret, to calumniate his rival; to the +solitary miser, armed with indifference, that he ought not to remove +himself from every occasion of doing good; to a disposition ardent and +revengeful, that he ought not to obey those urgent impulses which hurry +him away; to a man in want, that he ought not to have recourse to +falsehood to procure attention, or to deceive in any other manner? And +how many other positions would offer the same difficulties, and still +greater? Abstract ideas, the best arranged, can never conquer us but by +long arguments, since the peculiar nature of these ideas is to disengage +our reasoning from the feelings, and consequently from striking and +sudden impressions; besides, political morality, like every thing which +the mind only produces, would be always for us merely an opinion; an +opinion from which we should have a right to appeal, at any time, to the +tribunal of our reason. The lessons of men are nothing but +representations of their judgment; and the sentiments of some draw not +the will of others. There is not any principle of morality, which, under +forms absolutely human, would not be susceptible of exceptions, or of +some modification; and there is nothing so compounded as the idea of the +connexion of virtue with happiness: in short, while our understanding +has a difficulty in comprehending and clearly distinguishing that union, +the objects of our passions are every where apparent, and all our senses +are preengaged by them. The miser beholds gold and silver; the ambitious +man, those honours which are conferred on others; the debauchee, the +objects of his luxury; virtue has nothing left but reasoning; and is +then in want of being sustained by religious sentiments, and by the +enlivening hopes which accompany them. + +Thus, in a government where you would wish to substitute political +morality for a religious education, it would become, perhaps, +indispensable to guard men from receiving any ideas calculated to exalt +their minds; it would be necessary to divert them from the different +competitions which excite self-love and ambition; they must withdraw +themselves from the habitual society of women; and it would be still +more incumbent on them to abolish the use of money, that attracting and +confused image of all kinds of gratifications: in short, in taking from +men their religious hopes, and depriving them thus of the encouragements +to virtue which the imagination gives birth to, every exertion must be +tried to prevent this unruly imagination from seconding vice, and all +the passions contrary to public order: it was because Telemachus was +accompanied by a Divinity, that he could, without danger, visit the +sumptuous court of Sesostris, and the enchanting abodes of Eucharis and +Calypso. + +It is indeed an age the most pleasant, as well as the safest of our +life, which we cannot pass without a guide; we must then, in order to +pass with security through the tempestuous days of youth, have +principles which command us, and not reflections to counsel us; these +have not any power but in proportion to the vigour of the mind, and the +mind is only formed by experience and a long conflict of opinions. + +Religious instructions have the peculiar advantage of seizing the +imagination, and of interesting our sensibility, those two brilliant +faculties of our early years: thus, then even supposing that we could +establish a course of political morality, sufficiently propped by +reasoning, for defending from vice men enlightened by maturity, I should +still say, that a similar philosophy would not be suitable to youth, and +that this armour is too heavy for them. + +In short, the lessons of human wisdom, which cannot govern us during the +ardour of our passions, are equally insufficient, when our strength +being broken by disease, we are no longer in a state to comprehend a +variety of relations; instead of which, such is the pleasing emotions +that accompany the language of religion, that in the successive decline +of our faculties, this language still keeps pace with them. + +Nevertheless, if we were ever to be persuaded, that there was on earth a +more certain encouragement to virtue than religion, its powers would be +immediately weakened; it would not be half so interesting, nor could +reign when divided; if its sentiments did not overflow, as we may say, +the human heart, all its influence would vanish. + +Religious instruction, in assembling all the means proper to excite men +to virtue, neglects not, it is true, to point out the relations, which +exist between the observance of the laws of morality and the happiness +of life; but it is as an accessary motive, that these considerations are +presented; and it is not necessary to support them by the same proofs as +a fundamental principle requires. Also, when people are taught early +that vices and crimes lead to misery on earth, these doctrines make not +a lasting impression on them, but in proportion as we succeed at the +same time, in convincing them of the constant influence of a Providence +over all the events of this world. + +One important reason still exempts religious professors, from attaching +themselves to demonstrate, that the principal advantages which excite +the envy of men, are an absolute consequence of the observance of the +laws of order: it is, that sacrifices, supported by an idea of duty, are +changed into real satisfactions; and the sentiments, which the virtuous +enjoy from piety, compose an essential part of their happiness. But what +consolation can a man have by way of return; what secret approbation can +we grant him, when we know not any other authority than that of +political morality, and when virtue is nothing but an opposition between +private and public interest? + +Religion certainly proposes to man his own happiness, as an object and +ultimate end; but as this happiness is placed at a distance, religion +conducts us to it by wholesome restrictions and temporary sacrifices; it +regards only the sublimest part of us, that which disunites us from the +present moment, in order to connect us with futurity; it offers us +hopes, which withdraw us from worldly interest, so far as is necessary +to prevent us from being immoderately devoted to the disorderly +impressions of our senses, and the tyranny of our passions. Irreligion, +on the contrary, whose lessons teach us, that we are only masters of the +present moment, concentres us more and more within ourselves, and there +is nothing beautiful or good in this condition; for grandeur, of every +kind, relates to the extent of those relations which we comprehend; and, +in a like acceptation, our sentiments submit to the same laws. + +Those who represent the obligations of religion as indifferent, assure +us, that we may repose safely the maintenance of morality on some +general sentiments, which we have adopted; but do not consider that +these sentiments derive their origin, and almost all their force, from +that spirit of religion which they wish to weaken. Yes, even humanity, +this emotion of a noble soul, is animated and fortified by the idea of a +Supreme Being; the alliance between men holds but feebly from the +conformity of their organization; nor can it be attributed to the +similitude of their passions, that continual source of so much hatred; +it depends essentially on our connexion with the same author, the same +superintendant, the same judge; it is founded on the equality of our +right to the same hopes, and on that train of duties inculcated by +education, and rendered respectable by the habitual dominion of +religious opinions. Alas! it is a melancholy avowal, that men have so +many infirmities, so much injustice, selfishness, and ingratitude, at +least, in the eyes of those who have observed them collectively, that we +never can keep them in harmony by the mere lessons of wisdom: it is not +always because they are amiable that we love them; it is sometimes, and +very often indeed, because we ought to love them, that we find them +amiable. Yes, goodness and forbearance, these qualities the most simple, +still require to be compared, from time to time, with an idea general +and predominate, the band of all our virtues. The passions of others +wound us in so many ways, and there is often so much depth and energy in +our self-love, that we have need of some succour to be constantly +generous in our sentiments, and to be really interested for all our +fellow-creatures, in the midst of whom we are placed. + +In short, not to dissemble, if a man once came to consider himself as a +being that is the child of chance, or of blind necessity, and tending +only to the dust from whence he sprung, and to which he must return, he +would despise himself; and far from seeking to rise to noble and +virtuous reflections, he would consider this species of ambition as a +fantastic idea, which consumes in a vain and illusory manner, a part of +those fleeting minutes which he has to pass on earth; and all his +attention being fixed on the shortness of life, and on the eternal +silence which must close the scene, he would only think _how to devour +this reign of a moment_. + +How dangerous then would it be, on this supposition, to show to men the +extremity of the chain which unites them together! It is in worldly +affairs this knowledge of having received the last favour, which renders +them ungrateful towards those from whom they no longer expect any thing; +and the same sentiment would weaken the power of morality if our lease +was manifestly only for this world. It is then religion which ought to +strengthen those ties, and defend the entire system of our duty against +the stratagems of reasoning and the artifices of our minds; it is +necessary, in order to oblige all men, to consider with respect the laws +of morality, to teach them early that the social virtues are an homage +rendered to the perfections and to the beneficent intentions of the +Sovereign Author of Nature, of that Infinite Being who is pleased with +the preservation of order, and the private sacrifices which the +accomplishment of this grand design requires. And when I see modern +philosophers tracing, with an able hand, the general plan of our duties; +when I see them fix with judgment the reciprocal obligations of +citizens, and giving, at last, for the basis to this legislation, +personal interest and the love of praise: I recollect the system of +those Indian philosophers, who, after having studied the revolutions of +the heavenly bodies, being perplexed to determine the power which +sustained the vaulted firmament, thought they had freed it from +difficulty, by placing the universe on the back of an elephant, and this +elephant on a tortoise. We shall imitate these philosophers, and, like +them, shall never proceed but by degradation, whenever, by endeavouring +to form a chain of duties and moral principles, we do not place the last +link above worldly considerations, and beyond the limits of our social +conventions. + + + + + CHAP. II. + _The same Subject continued. A Parallel between the Influence of + Religious Principles, and of Laws and Opinions._ + + +After having examined, as I have just done, in the preceding chapter, if +it were possible to found morality on the connexion of private with +public interest, it remains for me to consider, if the punishments +inflicted by the sovereign, if the sceptre, which public opinion sways, +have sufficient power to restrain men, and bind them to the observance +of their duty. + +It is necessary to proceed by common ideas, in order to advance one +degree in the research of truth: thus I ought at first, in this place, +to recollect, that the penal laws cannot be applied but to offences +known and proved; this consideration contracts their power within a very +narrow circle; however, crimes secretly committed, are not the only ones +which are beyond the cognizance of laws; we must place in this rank +every reprehensible action, which, for want of a distinct character, can +never be pointed out; the number of them is prodigious: the rigour of +parents, ingratitude of children, the inhumanity of abandoning their +nurses, treachery in friendship, the violation of domestic comfort, +disunion sown in the bosoms of families, levity of principles in every +social connexion, perfidious counsels, artful and slanderous +insinuations, rigorous exercise of authority, favour and partiality of +judges, their inattention, their idleness and severity, endeavours to +obtain places of importance, with a consciousness of incapacity, corrupt +flatteries addressed to sovereigns or ministers, statesmen indifferent +to public good, their vile and pernicious jealousies, and their +political dissensions, excited in order to render themselves necessary, +wars instigated by ambition, intolerance under the cover of zeal; in +short, many other fatal evils which the laws cannot either follow or +describe, and which often do much mischief, before they give any +opportunity for public censure. We ought not even to desire that this +censure pass certain bounds, because authority, applied to obscure +faults, or those susceptible of various interpretations, easily +degenerates into tyranny; and as there is nothing so transitory as +thought, nothing so secret as our sentiments; none but an invisible +power, whose authority seems to participate of the divine, has a right +to enter into the secrets of our hearts. + +It is then only, at the tribunal of his own conscience, that a man can +be interrogated about a number of actions and intentions which escape +the inspection of government. Let us beware of overturning the authority +of a judge so active and enlightened; let us beware of weakening it +voluntarily, and let us not be so imprudent as to repose only on social +discipline. I will even venture to say, that the power of conscience is +perhaps still more necessary in the age we live in, than in any of the +preceding; though society no longer presents us with a view of those +vices and crimes which shock us by their deformity; yet licentiousness +of morals, and refinement of manners, have almost imperceptibly blended +good and evil, vice and decency, falsehood and truth, selfishness and +magnanimity; it is more important then ever, to oppose to this secret +depravity, an interior authority, which pries into the mysterious +windings of disguise, and whose action may be as penetrating as our +dissimulation seems artful and well contrived. + +It is, undoubtedly, because a similar authority appears absolutely +necessary to the maintenance of public order, that several philosophic +writers have endeavoured to introduce it as a principle of atheism. In +such a system the whole is fictitious; they speak of our blushing at the +recollection of our follies, of dreading our own secret reproaches, and +of being afraid of the condemnation, which, in the calm of reflection, +we shall pronounce against ourselves; but these sentiments, which have +so much force with the idea of a God, they know not what to unite them +with, when they would give only for a guide the most active personal +interest, and when all the grand communications, established between men +by religious opinions, are absolutely broken; conscience is then an +expression void of meaning, a useless word in the language. We may still +feel remorse, that is to say, regret at being deceived in the pursuits +of ambition, in promoting our interest, in the choice of means which we +employ to obtain the respect and praise of others; in short, in the +various calculations of our worldly advantage: but such remorse is only +an exaltation of our self-love; we deify, in some measure, our judgment +and understanding, and we make at last all our actions appear before +these false idols, to reproach us with our errors and weaknesses; we +thus voluntarily become our own tormentors; but when this perfection is +too importunate, we have it in our power to command our tyrants to use +more indulgence towards us. It is not the same with the reproaches of +conscience; the sentiments which produce them have nothing compounded or +artificial in them, we cannot corrupt our judge, nor enter into a +compromise with him; that which seduces men never deceives him, and +amidst the giddiness of prosperity, in the intoxication of the greatest +success, his looks are inevitably fixed on us; and we cannot but with +terror enjoy the applause and the triumphs which we have not merited. + +We read in several modern books, that with good laws we should always +have morality sufficient; but I cannot adopt this opinion. Man is a +being so compounded, and his relations with his species are so various +and so fine, that to regulate his mind, and direct his conduct, he has +need of a multitude of sentiments, on which the commands of the +sovereign have not any hold; they are all simple and declared duties, +which the legislators have reduced to precepts, and this rough building, +termed civil laws, leaves vacancies throughout. The laws require merely +a blind obedience; and as they enjoin and defend only actions, are +absolutely indifferent to the private sentiments of men; the moral +edifice which they raise is in several parts a mere exterior form, and +it is at the roof, if I may say so, that they have begun. Religion +proceeds in a manner diametrically opposite; it is in the heart, it is +in the recesses of conscience, that it lays its first base; it appears +to be acquainted with the grand secrets of nature; it sows in the earth +a grain, and this grain is nourished, and transformed into numerous +branches, which, without any effort, spring up, and extend themselves to +all dimensions and in every kind of form. + +I will suppose, nevertheless, that we believed it sufficient for the +maintenance of public order, to reduce morality to the spirit of civil +laws, it would still be out of the power of men to draw from this +assimilation familiar instructions proper to form a code of education; +for these laws, simple in their commands, are not so in their +principles. We perceive not immediately why revenge, the most just, is +prohibited; why we have not the power to do ourselves justice by the +same means a ravisher would use; why we have not a right to resist with +violence the tyrannic oppressor; in short, why certain actions, some +indifferent in themselves, and some hurtful to others, are condemned in +a general and uniform manner: a kind of combination is necessary to +discover, that the legislator himself is wandering from natural ideas, +in order to prevent every person from being a judge in his own cause, +and to avoid that, those exceptions and distinctions, of which every +circumstance is susceptible, might never be determined by the judgment +of individuals. In the same manner, from those indirect motives, the +laws treat with more rigour an offence difficult to define, than a +disorder more reprehensible in itself; but of which the excesses might +be easily perceived: and they observe still the same rule with respect +to crimes which are surrounded by greater allurements, though this +seduction is even a motive for indulgence in the eyes of simple justice; +in short, the laws, in adopting a more determinate method, to constrain +debtors to the discharge of their obligations, prove that they are not +compassionate to unforeseen misfortunes, nor actuated by other motives +of equity which merit an equal interest; all their attention is fixed on +the relation of engagements with the political resources, which arise +from commerce and its transactions. There exists thus a multitude of +prohibitions of punishments, or gradations in the penalties, which have +not any connexion but with the general views of the legislation, and +agree not with the circumscribed good sense, which determines the +judgment of individuals. It is then often, by considerations very +extensive and complicated, that an action is criminal or reprehensible +in the eyes of the law: thus, we know not how to erect, on this base +alone, a system of morality, of which every one can have a clear +perception; and since the legislator carefully avoids submitting any +thing to private examination, because he sacrifices often to this +principle natural justice, how then can he wish, at the same time, to +give us for a rule of conduct a political morality, which is all founded +on reasoning? + +It is of consequence still to observe, that to the eyes of the greater +number of men, the sense of the laws, and the decrees formed by those +who interpret them, ought necessarily to be identified and blended, and +form only one point of view; and as the judges are frequently exposed to +error, the true spirit of legislation remains often in obscurity, and we +with difficulty discern it. + +It is, perhaps, because laws are the work of our understanding, that we +are disposed to grant them a universal dominion: but I will avow, I am +far from thinking that they can ever be substituted instead of the +salutary influence of religion, and that I believe them insufficient +even to regulate the things immediately under their jurisdiction; thus I +would request you to reflect, if the unfortunate errors with which we +reproach criminal tribunals, have not their source in the faults +committed by sovereign authority; when it has referred all the duties of +the judges to the injunctions of the law, and when it has refused to +confide any longer in the conscience and private sentiments of the +magistrates. + +Let us render this observation more clear by a single example chosen +from a number. We demand at present, that the legislator explain himself +afresh on the grand question, what witnesses are necessary? but will he +not always run the risk of being deceived, whether he absolutely rejects +a probable evidence, or whether he makes the fate of a criminal depend +upon it? How will he determine, that the testimony of an honest man, +identifying the person of an assassin, in his own cause, should not be +reckoned any thing by the judge; and how can he pretend also, that a +testimony of this nature is sufficient to determine a condemnation, when +he who gives the evidence appears suspicious, either from the motives, +which we must suppose actuate him, or from the improbability of his +assertion? Reason is then placed between two extremes; but intermediate +ideas not being consonant with the absolute language of law, we ought, +in such circumstances, to leave much to the wisdom and integrity of the +magistrates; and so far from serving innocence by acting otherwise, we +visibly endanger it; because judges habituate themselves to render the +laws responsible for every thing, and respectfully submit to the letter, +instead of obeying the spirit, which is the earnest desire of obtaining +truth. What then, some will say, would you wish that there should be no +positive instructions, neither to serve for a guide in the examination +of crimes, nor to determine the character by which these crimes may be +distinguished? This was never in my mind; but I could wish, that in an +affair of such serious importance, they would unite to the judgment +which proceeded from the prudence of the legislator, that which may be +brought by the wisdom of the judges; I could wish, that the criminal +legislation prescribed to the magistrates, not all that they are obliged +to do, but all from which they are not exempt; not all that is +sufficient to determine their opinion, but all which ought to be the +indispensable condition of a capital punishment. Guided by such a +spirit, the commands given by the law, would be a safeguard against the +ignorance, or possible prevarication of the judges; but as any general +rule, any immutable principle, is not applicable to an infinite +diversity of circumstances, I would give to innocence a new defender, +interesting in a more immediate manner the morality of the judges to +search for and examine the truth, and to recal continually all the +extent of their obligations; I could wish, that previous to their +passing a sentence of condemnation, raising one of their hands towards +heaven, they pronounced with earnestness these words: “I attest, that +the man accused before us, appears to me guilty, according to the law, +and according to my own private judgment.” It is not sufficient, that we +command a judge to examine with probity, if the proofs of an offence, +are conformable to those required by the statute; it is necessary to +inform a magistrate, that he ought to enquire into the truth by all the +means that scrupulous anxiety can suggest; he should know, that, called +to decide on the life and the honour of men, his understanding and his +heart, ought to be enlisted in the cause of humanity, and that there are +not any limits opposed to bound his duty; then, without failing in any +of the enquiries ordained by the laws, he would force himself to go +still further, that no evidence proper to make an impression on a +reasonable man might be rejected, at the same time, that none might have +so decisive a force, that the examination of circumstances would ever +appear useless; the judges then would make use of that sagacity, which +seems to discern instinctively; they would not then disdain to read even +the looks of the accuser and the accused, and they would not believe it +a matter of indifference to observe with attention, all those emotions +of nature, where sometimes truth is painted with so much energy; then, +in short, innocence would be under the protection of something as pure +as itself, the scrupulous conscience of a judge. + +We have never, perhaps, sufficiently considered how much a methodical +order, when we confine ourselves too servilely to it, contracts the +bounds of the mind; it becomes then like a foot-path traced between two +banks, which prevents our discovering what is not in a strait line. The +strict observance of method diverts us also from consulting that light, +sometimes so lively, of which the soul only is the focus; for in +subjecting us to a positive course of things always regular, and in +making us find pleasure in a determined path, which offers continual +repose to our thoughts, it incapacitates for thinking that delicate +perception of natural sentiments, which has nothing fixed or +circumscribed, but whose free flight often makes us approach to truth, +as by a kind of instinct or inspiration. + +I should stray too far from my subject, if I extended these reflections, +and I hasten to connect them with the subject of this chapter, in +repeating again, that if the laws are insufficient, even in those +decisions submitted to their authority, and if the they have absolute +need of the aid of religion, whenever they impose on their private +expounders duties a little complicated; they would be still less able to +supply the habitual and daily influence of that motive, the most +powerful of all, and the only one at the same time, of which the action +will be sufficiently penetrating to follow us in the mazes of our +conduct, and in the labyrinth of our thoughts. + +I ought now to direct your attention towards other considerations. All +that is required by public order, all that is of importance to society, +some will say, is, that criminals may not escape the sword of justice, +and that an attentive superintendance discover them under the cloud +where they seek to conceal themselves. I will not here recal the various +obstacles, which are opposed to the plenitude of this vigilance; every +one may perceive them, or form an idea of them; but I hasten to observe, +that in considering society in its actual state, we ought not to forget, +that religious sentiments have greatly diminished the talk of +government; a scene quite new would open, if we had for our guide only +political morality; it would not then be a few men without principles, +who would trouble the public order, more able actors would mix in the +throng, some conducted by mature reflection, and others, carried away by +seducing appearances, would be incessantly at war with all those, whose +fortune excited their jealousy; and then only we should know how many +opportunities there are of doing evil, and injuring others. It would +also happen, that all these enemies of public order not being +disconcerted by the reproaches of their conscience, would become every +day more expert in the art of avoiding the observation of justice; and +the dangers to which the imprudent exposed themselves, would not +discourage the ingenious. + +It is then, if I may be permitted so to express myself, because the laws +find men in a healthy state, prepared by religious instruction, that +they can restrain them; but if a system of education merely political +was ever to prevail, new precautions and new chains would become +absolutely necessary, and after having freed us from the mild ties of +religion, the projectors of such a system would increase our civil +slavery, would bend our necks under the hardest of all yokes, that which +is imposed by our fellow-creatures. + +Religion, whose influence they wish us to reject, is better appropriated +than they think, to the mixture of pride and weakness, which constitutes +our nature, and for us, such as we are; its action is far preferable to +that of the penal laws; it is not, before his equals, armed with the rod +of vengeance, that the culprit is made to appear; it is not to their +ignorance, or to their inexorable justice, that he is abandoned; it is +at the tribunal of his own conscience, that religion informs against +him; before a God, sovereign of the world, that it humbles, and in the +name of a tender and merciful Father that it comforts him. Alas! while +you at once take from us both our consolation and our true dignity, you +wish to refer every thing to private interest and public punishment; but +permit me to listen to those commands which come from on high; leave me +to divert my attention from the menacing sceptre which the potentates of +the earth weild in their hand; leave me to account with Him, before whom +they shrink into nothing; leave me, in short, to address myself to him +who pardons, and who, at the moment I have offended, permits me still to +love him, and rely on his grace!—Alas! without the idea of a +God,—without this connexion with a Supreme Being, author of all nature, +we should only listen to the vile counsels of selfish prudence, we +should only have to flatter and adore the rulers of nations, and all +those who in an absolute monarchy, are the numerous representatives of +the authority of the prince; yes, talents, sentiments, ought to bend +before these distributors of so much good and evil, if nothing exists +beyond worldly interest; and when once every one cringes, there is no +more dignity in the character, men become incapable of any great action, +and unequal to any moral excellence. + +Religious opinions have the double merit of maintaining us in the +obedience due to the laws and the soveriegn, and of nourishing in our +hearts a sentiment which sustains our courage, and which reminds men of +their true grandeur; teaches submission without meanness, and prevents, +above all, cowardly humiliations before transitory idols, in showing at +a distance the last period, when all must return to an equality before +the Master of the World. + +The idea of a God, at the same distance from all men, serves also to +console us for that shocking superiority of rank and fortune under the +oppression of which we live; it is necessary to transport ourselves to +the heights religion discovers, to consider with a kind of calmness and +indifference the frivolous pretentions of some, and the confident +haughtiness of others; and such objects of regret, or of envy, which +appeared a Colossus to our imagination, are changed into a grain of +sand, when we contrast them with the grand prospects which such sublime +meditations display to our view. + +They are then blind, or indifferent to our interest, who wish to +substitute, instead of religious instructions, political and worldly +maxims; and in like manner, those are inflexible and unfeeling, who +believe they shall be able to conduct men only by terror; and who, in +contesting the salutary influence of religious opinions, expect less +from them than the axe of the lictors, and the apparatus of execution. +What is then this wretched system? For supposing even that the different +means of securing public tranquillity were equal in their effect, should +we not prefer religious principles, which prevent crimes, to the strict +laws which punish them? I understand not besides, how, with the same +hand that they repel religious sentiments, they wish to raise every +where scaffolds, and multiply, without scruple, those frightful theatres +of severity; for if men, hurried onwards to crimes, were only governed +by blind necessity, alas! what do they deserve? And if we still +determine to destroy them as examples, we should assist at their +execution, as at that of beings devoted for the good of society, as +Iphigenia was sacrificed at Aulis for the salvation of Greece. + +Religion is, in another respect, superior to the laws, which are ever +armed for vengeance; instead of that, religion, even when threatening, +nourishes also the hopes of pardon and felicity; and I believe, contrary +to the generally received opinion, that man, by his nature, is more +constantly animated by hope, than restrained by fear; the former of +these sentiments compose the tenor of our life, whilst the latter is the +effect of an extraordinary circumstance, or particular situation; in +short, courage, or want of consideration, turns our attention from +danger, whilst ideas of happiness are perpetually present, and blended, +if I may use the expression, with our whole existence. + +I perceive, however, that some may say to me, it is not only of civil +and penal laws that we mean to speak, when we maintain that good public +institutions would be an efficacious substitute for the influence of +religion; it would be necessary to introduce laws of education, proper +to modify, beforehand, the mind and form the character. But they have +not explained, and I am ignorant that there are such laws, which they +wish to distinguish from the general doctrines we are acquainted with; +doctrines susceptible, undoubtedly, of different degrees of perfection, +which, before instructing us not only in the virtues simple and real, +but in all those mixed and conventional, have necessarily a vague +character, and could not separate themselves from the support that they +borrow from the fixed and precise ideas of religion. They may cite the +example of Sparta, where the state undertook the education of the +citizens, and formed by laws the extraordinary manners which history has +delineated; but that government, aided in this enterprize by all the +influence of paternal authority, nevertheless proposed but two great +objects, the encouragement of martial qualities, and the maintenance of +liberty: morality was not made interesting, though among us it requires +so much application; and it was rendered less necessary, as every +institution tended to introduce a perfect equality of rank and fortune, +and opposed all kind of communication with foreigners. In short, it was, +after all, a religious opinion which subjected the Spartans to the +authority of their legislator; and without their confidence in the +oracle of Delphos, Lycurgus had only been a celebrated philosopher. + +We are still further, at present, from the disposition and situation +which would allow laws of education to govern us, supported only by a +political spirit; in order to make the trial, we must be divided into +little associations; and by some means, not yet discovered, be able to +oppose invincible obstacles to the enlargement of them, and to preserve +us from the desires and voluptuousness which are the inevitable +consequence of an augmentation of wealth, and the progress of the arts +and sciences: in short, and it is a singular remark, at a period when +man is become a being the most compounded, on account of these social +modifications, he has need, more than ever, of a principle which will +penetrate to the very source of his numerous affections; consequently it +would be necessary suddenly to carry him back to his primitive +simplicity, to make him agree, in some measure, with the limited extent +of an education purely civil. Let me add, that a like education could +not be adapted to the commonalty, as in Sparta; they must be separated +from the citizens, and kept in servitude: an observation which leads me +to a very important reflection; it is, that in a country where slavery +would be introduced, where the most numerous class would be governed by +the continual fear of the severest chastisement, they would be able to +confide more in the mere ascendency of political morality; for this +morality only having to keep in order the part of society represented by +those who have property, the task would not be difficult; but among us, +where happily all men, without any distinction, are subject to the yoke +of the law, an authority so extensive, must necessarily be strengthened +and seconded by the universal influence of religious opinions. + +I shall conclude this part of my subject by one reflection more; +supposing, even in the sovereign authority, an exertion sufficiently +general to prevent or repress evil, religion would still have this great +advantage, that it inculcates the beneficent virtues, which the laws +cannot reach; and yet, in the actual state of society, it is become +impossible to omit those virtues. It is not sufficient to be just, when +the laws of property reduce to bare necessaries the most numerous class +of men, whose weak resources the most trivial accident disconcerts; and +I hesitate not to say, that such is the extreme inequality established +by these laws, that we ought at present to consider the spirit of +beneficence and forbearance, as constituting a part of social order; as +in all places and times, it softens by its assistance the excess of +wretchedness, and by an innumerable multitude of springs spreads itself +as the vital juice, through forlorn beings, whom misery had almost +exhausted. But if this spirit, properly intermediate between the rigour +of civil rights, and the original title of humanity, did not exist, or +should ever be extinct, we should see all the subordinate ties relax +imperceptibly; and a man, loaded with the favours of fortune, never +presenting himself to the people under the form of a benefactor; they +would more forcibly feel the great extent of his privileges, and would +accustom themselves to discuss them. Men must then find a way of +moderating the despotism of fortune, or render homage to religion, +which, by the sublime idea of an exchange between the blessings of +heaven and earth, obliges the rich to give what the laws cannot demand. + +Religion then comes continually to assist the civil legislation, it +speaks a language unknown to the laws, it warms that sensibility which +ought to advance even before reason; it acts like light and interior +warmth, as it both enlightens and animates; and what we have not +sufficiently observed, is, that in society its moral sentiments are the +imperceptible tie of a number of parts, which seem to be held by their +own agreement, and which would be successively detached, if the chain +which united them was ever to be broken: we shall more clearly perceive +this truth, in the examination we are going to make of the connexion of +opinion with morality. + +When we imagine we should be able to subject men to the observance of +public order, and inspire them with the love of virtue, by motives +independent of religion, we propose, undoubtedly, to put in action two +powerful springs; the desire of esteem and praise; and the fear of +contempt and shame. Thus, to follow my subject in all its branches, I +ought necessarily to examine what is the degree of force of these +different motives, and what is also their true application. I have +already spoken, in other works of mine, of the opinion of the world, and +of its salutary effects; but the subject I am now treating obliges me to +consider it under a different point of view, and it is by placing myself +behind the scene, that I shall be able to fulfil this task. + +I remark, at first, that the opinion of the world exercises its +influence in a very confined space, as it is particularly called in to +judge men, whose rank and employments have some splendour in the world; +the opinion of the public is an approbation or censure, exercised in the +name of the general interest; thus it ought only to be applied to +actions and to words, which either directly or indirectly affect this +interest. The private conduct of him who discharges in society the most +important functions, is indeed submitted to the judgment and +superintendance of the public at large; and we ought not to wonder that +it should, since in similar circumstances the principles of an +individual appear an earnest, or presage of his public virtues; but all +those, whose sole occupation is to spend their income, those who are +entirely devoted to dissipation, and have not any connexion with the +grand interests of the community, become independent of the opinion of +the world; or at least they do not experience its severity, till, by +foolish extravagance or inconsiderate pretentions, they draw the +attention of the public on their conduct. In short, a great number of +men, who, by the obscurity of their condition and moderate fortune, find +themselves lost in a crowd, will never dread a power that singles out of +the ranks its heroes and victims: thus people, concealed under humble +roofs scattered in the country, are as indifferent to the opinion of the +world, as are to the rays of the sun, those unhappy tribes who labour at +the bottom of mines, and pass their whole lives in a dark subterraneous +cavern. + +We cannot then form any kind of comparison between the peculiar +ascendency of reputation, and the general influence of religious +morality. + +Fame only recompenses rare actions; and would have nothing to bestow on +a nation of heroes. Religion tends continually to render virtue common; +but the universal success of its instructions would take away nothing +from the value of its benefits. + +In order to receive the rewards which fame bestows, men must appear with +splendour on the stage of life. Religion, on the contrary, extends its +most distinguished favours to those who despise praise, and who do good +in secret. + +The world almost always requires, that talents and knowledge should +accompany virtue; and it is thus that the love of praise becomes the +seed and spring of great actions. Religion never imposes this condition; +its recompenses belong to the ignorant as well as the learned, to the +humble spirit as well as to the exalted genius; and it is in animating +equally all men, in exciting universal activity, that it effectually +concurs to the maintenance of civil order. + +The world, only judging of actions in their state of maturity, takes not +any account of efforts; and, as men do not seize the palm till the +moment when they approach the goal, it is necessary, at the commencement +of the career, that every one should derive from his own force his +courage and perseverance. Religion, on the contrary, if I may say so, +dwells with us from the moment that we begin to think; it welcomes our +intentions, strengthens our resolutions, and supports us even in the +hour of temptation; it is, at all times, and in all situations, that we +experience its influence, as we are continually reminded of its rewards. + +Fame distributing only favours, whose principal value arises from +comparisons and competitions, often draws on its favourites the +envenomed breath of slander, and then sometimes they doubt about their +real value. Religion mingles no bitterness with its reward; it is in +obscurity that it confers content; and as it has treasures for all the +world, what is granted to some never impoverishes others. + +The world is often mistaken in its judgment, because in the midst of so +vast a circle it is often difficult to distinguish true merit and the +splendour which follows it, from the false colours of hypocrisy. +Religion extends its influence to the inmost recesses of the heart, and +places there an observer, who has a closer view of men than their +actions afford, and whom they cannot either deceive or surprise. + +In short, I will say it, there are moments when the opinion of the world +loses its force, and becomes enervated or governed by a servile spirit, +it searches to find faults in the oppressed, and attributes grand +intentions to powerful men, that it may, without shame, abandon one, and +celebrate the other. Ah! it is in such moments we return with delight to +the precepts of religion, to those independent principles, which, while +they illustrate every thing deserving of esteem or contempt, enable us +to follow the dictates of our heart, and speak according to our +conscience! + +Thus, the opinion of the world, whose influence I have seen increase, +which unites so many motives to excite men to distinguished actions, and +to exalt them even to the great virtues, still ought never to be +compared with the universal, invariable influence of religion, and with +those sentiments which its precepts inspire men of all ages, of all +conditions, and every degree of understanding. + +Would it be straying from my subject, to remark here the illusion we are +under, if we expect any important utility to arise from those marks of +distinction lately introduced into France, under the name of public +rewards for virtue? Those trivial favours of opinion can never be +decreed but to a few dispersed actions; and it might be apprehended, +that if we rendered such institutions permanent and general, they might +turn the attention of the people at large from the grand recompense, +which ought to be the spring and encouragement of all that is great and +virtuous. Experienced hunters, at the moment when all the pack is still +pursuing the most noble ranger of the forest, would not permit them to +turn, to run after a prey which darted out of a lurking hole or thicket. + +The establishments on which I here fix my attention, have, perhaps, also +the inconvenience of rousing a sentiment of surprise at the appearance +of a good action, and announcing thus too distinctly, that they believe +them rare, and above the common exertions of humanity; and if we +extended still further these institutions, they would only introduce a +spirit of parade, always ready to languish, when applause was distant; +and it would be a great misfortune, if such a spirit ever took place of +simple and modest integrity, which receives from itself its motives and +reward: virtue and vanity make a bad mixture; men are then accustomed +only to act to be seen, and these opportunities, at present not very +numerous, they wish to choose. There is besides a class of men so ill +treated by fortune, that we should commit a great mistake in habituating +them to connect continually calculations of probable rewards from men, +with the practice of their duty; they would too often be deceived. + +It is then, we cannot too often repeat it, it is respect for morality, +which it is necessary to maintain, by strengthening religious +principles, its most solid foundation; all other extraordinary helps +derive their force from novelty; and at the period when society would +have the greatest need of their succour, it would, perhaps, have arrived +at its greatest depravity. + +Thus far at present, I have considered the influence of opinion, only in +general; but men manifest more in a private manner, the idea that they +have conceived of each other; and this sentiment, which takes then the +simple name of esteem, is connected with a determinate knowledge of the +moral character of those with whom we have an habitual correspondence; +esteem under this view, has not the splendour of reputation; but as +every one can pretend to it in the circle where his birth and +occupations have placed him, the hope of obtaining it ought to be +reckoned among the grand motives which excite us to the observance of +morality. However, if we supposed that this esteem was entirely +separated from religious sentiments, it would be like many other +advantages, which every one would estimate by his own fancy; for +whatever comes solely from men, can only have a price relative to our +connexion with them: thus the esteem of one, or of several persons, +would not indemnify for such a sacrifice; and often also this sentiment, +on their part, would appear inferior to some other objects, of ambition; +in a word, from the moment every preference, every valuation was brought +to a standard, each would insensibly have his own book of rates; and the +justness of them would depend on the degree of judgment and foresight of +every individual. But how can we imagine that perfection in morality +would ever be secure, when it depended on wavering and arbitrary +comparisons, whose foundation would be continually changed by the +various circumstances and situations of life? The motives which religion +presents are absolutely different; it is not by confused contrasts, that +it directs men; it is a predominate interest to which they are recalled; +it is round a beacon, of which the brilliant flames are seen on all +sides, that they are assembled; in short the rules which it prescribes +are not uncertain, and the advantages which it promises do not admit of +an equivalent. + +Let us further observe here, that selfishness, after having compared the +enjoyment of esteem with pleasures of a different kind, would not fail +to reckon the chances which afford a hope of imposing on men; and in the +midst of these perplexed calculations, the passion of the moment would +be almost always victorious. Besides, we might ask, what is the esteem +of others, to that numerous class which misery makes solitary? And what +is it but a sentiment, of which the effect is never obvious, to those +whose view is limited to the present day, or the next, because they only +live by instantaneous resources? All the advantages annexed to +reputation are promisory notes, of which it is necessary to be able to +wait the distant expiration; reflection and knowledge only acquaint us +with their value; and the ignorance of the greater part of a nation +would render them unequal to this kind of combination. + +If then, after having taken a view of the lowest, I observe those who +compose the superior class, I will venture a reflection of a very +different kind; that in a country where we have the hope of obtaining +the most splendid marks of distinction, and where fame has power to +raise heroes, great ministers, and men of genius in every profession, we +do not find that the duties of private life are best known and the most +respected. Men, uniting to celebrate with ardour great talents and +actions, consider with more indifference the morals and manners of +individuals; they make an ideal beauty, composed of every thing which +contributes to the celebrity of their country and the honour of their +nation; but by accustoming themselves to refer every thing to these +interests, they become extremely negligent with respect to common +virtues, and sometimes they even decide, that the rare qualities of the +mind may absolutely dispense with them. Besides, if fame can serve to +reward the most assiduous labour and painful self-denial, it is far from +being necessary, that moderate sentiments of esteem should indemnify +those who obtain them for the sacrifice of their passions; it does not +follow, that this sentiment should give them strength to resist the +multiplied seductions that the hopes of ambition and the chances of +fortune present to our view; and this consideration acquires more force +in a kingdom, where, among the distinctions of which the favour of the +prince is the origin, there are some which attract so much homage, that +they resemble fame itself. + +In short, and what I am going to say comprehends, in a general manner, +the various questions which I have just treated: the esteem of men, even +when this sentiment seems the most foreign to religion, receives, +nevertheless, from it its principal strength, and even origin; it is a +reflection of great importance, and of which I will endeavour to +demonstrate the truth. + +We ought, at first, to ask what is the original principle of society, +which gives weight to the various expressions of the sentiment of +esteem: we shall find, undoubtedly, that it is a distinct idea of the +duties of men, a notion of good morals, as general as firm. Now the +duties of life cannot be fulfilled without the assistance of religion, +since the connexion of private and public interest, the only foundation +of the virtues of our framing, is, as we have demonstrated an imperfect +system, and susceptible of a multitude of exceptions, or arbitrary +interpretations. It is necessary then that our social obligations should +be fixed in an authentic manner, if we wish that our judgment and the +sentiments which we adopt should be a real indication of the relation +the conduct of men has with moral perfection; but, if this perfection +was only determined by human conventions, if it was despoiled of the +majesty which religion invests it with, reputation, and sentiments of +esteem, which are the pledge and stamp of good morals, would insensibly +lose their value; we should then recollect that coin, which some vainly +wished to preserve the current value of in commerce, after having +materially altered either the weight or the standard; and, in effect, to +follow the simile a moment longer, how could we alter the essence of +morality more, and lessen the respect which is due to it, than by +separating it from the sublime motives which religion presents, to unite +it only to political considerations. + +One objection I ought to obviate: it may be said, perhaps, that the +influence of honour in the army, seems to be a proof that reputation, +without the aid of any other impulse, would have sufficient influence to +direct the mind to the end which we propose to ourselves. This objection +does not appear to me decisive: honour in armies preserves a great +ascendency, because amongst men thus assembled, it is impossible to +escape shame, and the punishment incurred by cowardice; it is in war +that the power of authority and that of fame unite all their forces, +because that they exercise their influence on men engaged in one action, +actuated by the same spirit, by that singular subordination, termed +discipline. Thus, when in the commencement of the Roman republic, the +army participated more of the air of the city, and was not yet +familiarized to the military yoke, it was then only through the sanction +of an oath, supported by religious sentiments, that the general +contrived to prevent the inconstancy and defection of those who followed +him to the camp. Whatever then may be at present, the power of honour in +armies, whatever at present may be its influence in the field of battle, +where the actors, spectators, and judges, are on the same stage, and +have nothing else to do but to practise, remark, and praise a particular +virtue, we should not be able to draw any deduction from it, applicable +to the social relations, whose extent is immense, and to whose diversity +there is no bound. Besides, military honour is very far from being +foreign to the general principles of morality, and consequently to +religious opinions, the most solid support of those principles; for +sentiments which contain, in some manner, the idea of a noble sacrifice, +would lose great part of their force, if the great basis of our duty was +ever shaken. + +A perfect model is necessary to fix the admiration of men; and it is +only by an intercourse more or less constant with that first model, that +several opinions which seem, in appearance, to arise merely from +convenience have consistency. + +However, there has resulted from our warlike customs an opinion purely +social, which is very powerful: it is that of the point of honour, when +we consider it in its singular and simple acceptation, when a man is +ready to sacrifice his life to guard himself from the slightest +humiliation. This opinion, it is true, only dictates its rules among +equals, and the exercise of its authority extends to an inconsiderable +part of a nation, which, wholly given up to worldly concerns, are +occupied entirely with comparisons and distinctions; it is one of the +ancient appendages of military honour, and in uniting all its force +towards a single idea it is become a simple principle, which has been +blindly transmitted and as blindly respected. + +It is by the effect of a similar habit that savages affix all their +glory to a contempt of bodily pain, and to demonstrations of gaiety, in +the midst of the most cruel torments. Can we doubt, that their +supernatural exultation would not be weakened, at the very instant they +were acquainted with our most common ideas of virtue? likewise our +notions of honour, which, in its exaggerated state, resembles their +death songs, would not resist metaphysical arguments, if ever +metaphysics became our sole guide in morality; for after having analyzed +the motives of our most important obligations, we should analyze also +our fine-spun sentiment, which makes us regardless of danger. Yes, if +respect for religion was absolutely destroyed; if this simple opinion, +which carries with it so many obligations, and serves to defend so many +duties, had no other support, the idea of honour would soon be weakened; +and our personal interest, insensibly disengaged from all the ties of +the imagination, would take a character so rude, and so determined, that +our habitual impressions, and our relation with others, would be +absolutely changed. + +Permit me then to make another reflection: it will be always easy to +subject men to a governing opinion, when they themselves, and those who +govern them, unite al their efforts to attain the same end; but, if this +governing opinion is not, like religion, the general principle of our +conduct; if it cannot give us laws in the different situations of life, +it would serve only to throw us out of an equilibrium, or at least its +utility would be partial and momentary· Nevertheless, if, with a design +of remedying this inconvenience, we searched to multiply these opinions, +they would weaken each other; for every time we wish strongly to +restrain the imagination, it is necessary that a single idea, a single +authority, a single object of interest, should engage the attention of +men. Perfection, in this respect, is the choice of a single principle, +whose consequence extends to all; and such is the particular merit of +religious opinions. + +We can then, in the name of reason, of policy, and philosophy, demand +some respect for them; and I ought to repeat, since it is time for me to +resume my subject, that esteem or contempt, honour or shame, are so far +from being able to supply the place of the active influence of religion, +that its sentiments confirm the opinion of the world, and, more or less, +obviously direct it. It follows, that we should soon reason shrewdly, on +the value which we ought to set on the esteem of the world, if the +expression of its approbation was not united in our contemplation to +something more noble than the judgment of mankind, and if an awful +respect for virtue was not imbibed by means of a religious education. We +should soon experience that, in wishing to found every thing on the +calculations of worldly wisdom, these same calculations would destroy +all; and morality having at once lost its grand support, we should try +in vain to prop it by a scaffold of laws, and the vain efforts of an +opinion without a guide. Hypocrisy and dissimulation would become +immediately a necessary science, a legitimate defence, which would weary +the attention of every inspector; and testimonies of esteem appearing +only an ingenious encouragement granted to the sacrifices of +selfishness, the applause decreed to a generous mode of conduct would be +insensibly discredited by those who gave and by those who received them, +and would end, perhaps, in becoming a secret object of derision, as mere +play from one to another. + +Every thing is replaced and firmly established by religion; it +surrounds, I may say, the whole system of morality, resembling that +universal and mysterious force of physical nature, which retains the +planets in their orbits, and subjects them to a regular revolution; and +which, in the midst of the general order it maintains, escapes the +observation of men, and appears to their feeble sight unconscious of its +own work. + + + + + CHAP. III. + _An Objection drawn from our natural Dispositions to Goodness._ + + +Men, according to the opinion of some, have received from nature a +secret tendency towards every thing just, good, and virtuous; and from +this happy inclination, the task of the moralist is confined to prevent +the alteration of our original constitution: an easy task, add they, and +which may be fulfilled without any extraordinary effort, and without +having recourse to religion. + +We ought, at first, to observe, that the existence of this excellent +innate goodness has been a long time a subject of debate, as every +assertion always will be, of which we cannot demonstrate the truth, +either by argument or experience. We shall never be able to perceive +distinctly the natural dispositions of men, since, to our view, they are +never separated from the improvement, or the modification, which they +owe to education and habit. One or two examples they produce of children +arrived at maturity found in a forest; but we are ignorant at what +precise age they were abandoned by their parents, and what might have +been their dispositions, if, brought back to society, they had not been +guided by instruction, or restrained by fear and subordination. It is +not very probable, that man derived from his original nature all the +dispositions which lead to goodness; such a thought agrees not with his +pride or dignity, since the intellectual faculties with which he is +endowed, the power he has of gradually tending to perfection, announce +to him that he ought to fulfil his career with the assistance of reason, +and that, very different from those beings governed by an invariable +instinct, he should elevate himself as much above them, by cultivating +the abilities entrusted to him, as by the granduer of the destiny to +which he is permitted to aspire. + +Reason, however, our faithful guide, would be insufficient to attach us +to sentiments of order, justice, and beneficence, if it was not seconded +by a nature proper to receive the impression of every noble sentiment; +but such reflections, far from favouring any system of independence or +impiety, receive from religious opinions their principal force. What is, +in effect, in this respect the course of our thoughts? We attribute, at +first, to a Supreme and Universal Being all the perfections which seem +to constitute his essence; and from this principle we are led to +presume, that we, his intelligent creatures, and his most noble work, +participate, in some manner, of the Divine spirit, of which we are an +emanation: but, if we could ever be persuaded, that our confidence in +the idea of a God is a deceitful illusion, we should not have any reason +to believe that the mere child of nature, blind and without a guide, +would be disposed to good, rather than evil. We must derive our opinion +of innate goodness from a secret sentiment, and from a perfect +conviction of the existence of a power which keeps every thing in order, +the model of all perfection: but, as we obtain equally from this power, +the faculties which render us capable of acquiring knowledge, of +improving by experience, of extending our views into futurity, and +elevating our thoughts to God; we should not know how to distinguish +these last expedients of ability and virtue from those which belong to +our first instinct; and we have no interest in doing it. + +That which we perceive most clearly is, that there is a correspondence, +a harmony between all the parts of our moral nature; and therefore we +cannot deny the existence of our natural inclination towards goodness, +nor consider this inclination as a disposition which has not need of any +religious sentiment to acquire strength, and become a rational conductor +through the rough road of life. The production of salutary fruits +requires, before all things, a favourable soil; but this advantage would +be useless without seed and the labour of the husbandman, and the +fertilizing warmth of the sun: the Author of Nature has thought fit that +a great number of causes should concur continually to renovate the +productions of the earth; and the same intention, the same plan, seems +to have determined the principle and the developement of all the gifts +of the mind: it is necessary, in order to attach intelligent beings to +the love of virtue, and respect for morality, that not only happy +natural dispositions, but still more, a judicious education, good laws, +and, above all, a continual intercourse with the Supreme Being, from +which alone can arise firm resolutions, and every ardent thought, should +concur; but men ambitious of submitting a great number of relations to +their weak comprehension, would wish to confine them to a few causes. We +shall discover, every moment, the truth of this observation; actuated by +a similar motive, many wish to attribute every thing to education; +whilst others pretend, that our natural dispositions are the only source +of our actions and intentions, of our vices and virtues. Perhaps, in +fact, there is, in the universe, but one expedient and spring, one +prolific idea, the root of every other: yet, as it is at the origin of +this idea, and not in its innumerable developements, that its unity can +be perceived, the first grand disposer of nature: only ought to be in +possession of the secret; and we, who see, of the immense mechanism of +the world, but a few wheels, become almost ridiculous, when we make +choice sometimes of one, and sometimes of another, to refer to it +exclusively, the cause of motion, and the simplest properties of the +different parts of the natural or moral world. + + + + + CHAP. IV. + _An Objection drawn from the good Conduct of many irreligious Men._ + + +You may think, perhaps, after having read the preceding chapter, that I +have taken little room to treat a question on which so much has been +written; but if it be allowed that I have made some approaches to truth, +I shall not need any excuse. The researches after truth resemble those +circles which we trace sometimes one round another; the furthest from +the centre has necessarily the greatest extent. + +I will then endeavour, with the same brevity, to examine the objection +which is to make the subject of this chapter. + +Society, some say, is at present filled with persons, who, to borrow the +expression of the times, are absolutely disengaged from every kind of +prejudice, who believe not even the existence of a Supreme Being; and +yet, their conduct appears as regular as that of the most religious men. + +Before replying to this objection I ought to make an important +observation. The detractors of a religious spirit habitually confound, +in their discourse, devotion and piety; they attribute besides to +devotion an exaggerated sense, which its natural definition will not +bear; and derive from this misconception a great advantage. Piety, +simple in its sentiments and deportment, commonly escapes the heedless +glance of a man of the world; and the greater part of those who speak of +it, would have some difficulty to delineate it well; devotion, on the +contrary, such as we are accustomed to represent, seems to attach some +value to appearances; it displays itself, it makes a parade of the +austerity of its principles; and often soured by the sacrifices, of the +constraint, which it has imposed on itself as a law, it contracts a +rough and inflexible spirit, which banishes sentiment, amiable and +indulgent: in short, devotion is sometimes mixed with hypocrisy, and +then it is only a despicable assemblage of the most contemptible vices. +It is easy to judge, from these two pictures, that judicious piety, +rational and indulgent, forms the true characteristic of a religious +spirit, considered in its purity. It is then with morality, inspired by +a like spirit, that it is necessary to compare those men, who are guided +only by the principles they frame to themselves; and I believe, that one +of these two systems of morality is far superior to the other; but we +run a risk of deceiving ourselves in our observations, when we do not +extend them beyond the narrow circle, known amongst us by the name of +_society_. Men, in the circumscribed relations which arise from the +communications of idleness and dissipation, require of each other, only +qualities applicable to these kind of relations; their code of laws is +very short, integrity in the commerce of life, constancy in friendship, +or, at least, politeness in our intercourse, a kind of elevation in +their discourse and manner; in short, probity is the grand outline; and +this is all that is required, in order to display ourselves to the best +advantage in the midst of the active scenes which surround us, where we +sometimes form a confederacy proper to serve as a support of the great +virtues; but what they wish for before every thing is, a grant of +indulgence in favour of vices, which do not disturb the order or the +peace of their pleasures, and which only render unhappy parents, +husbands, and creditors, vassals and the commonalty. Far distant, +indeed, from a like tolerance, are those collective obligations which +morality dictates, obligations, of which I made a concise sketch, when I +compared them with those which are imposed by civil laws. It is then +only, after having retraced ourselves the entire system of our duties, +it is only after having compared them with the conventions softened by +fashionable society, that we are in a state to judge, if the conduct of +persons, disengaged from every religious tie, ought to be given as an +example, and if their morality can suffice for all the circumstances of +life. + +But in admitting, for a moment, this supposition, we should not have a +right to draw any deduction contrary to the truths, which I have +endeavoured to establish; for all those who free themselves at a certain +age, from the yoke of religion, have been at least prepared by it to +respect virtue. Principles inculcated early in life, have a great +influence on the human heart, a long time even after our understanding +has rejected the reasoning which served as the basis of those +principles: the soul, formed when the reason begins to dawn, to the love +of order, and sustained in this disposition by the force of habit, never +entirely loses this principle. So that, whatever be the opinions adopted +when the judgment is formed, it is slowly, and by degrees, that these +opinions act on the character and direct the conduct. Besides, while +religion maintains amongst the greater number of men, a profound respect +for morality, those who reject these sentiments know, nevertheless, that +probity leads to esteem, and to the various advantages which depend on +it. Of course, a virtuous atheist merely makes us recollect, that he +lives where virtue is respected; and it is not the inefficacy, but, on +the contrary, the indirect influence of religious opinions, which his +conduct demonstrates to me. I think I see, in a beautiful piece of +mechanism, a small part broken off from the chain, and which maintains +its place, by the force still subsisting of general equilibrium. + +What! would you have need of religion to be an honest man? Here is an +interrogative, with which they hope to embarrass those who wish to +preserve to morality its best support; and the dread that some have of +not giving an honourable idea of their sentiments, induces them to reply +with quickness, that certainly they should not need the check of +religion, and that the dictates of their heart would always be +sufficient to direct them. This answer is undoubtedly very respectable; +but for my part, I avow, I should merely say, that virtue has so many +charms, when it has been a long time practised, that a truly sensible +man would continue to be just, even when every religious sentiment was +annihilated; but that it is uncertain whether, with a political +education, his principles might have been the same; and I should add +further, that no one, perhaps, could be certain, that he would have +sufficient strength to resist a revolution of ideas similar to those +that we have just supposed, were he to fall at the same time into a +state of misery and dejection, which would make him revolt at the +enjoyments and the triumphs of others. It is always in a like situation, +that it is necessary to place ourselves, to judge properly of certain +questions; for all those who enjoy the favours of fortune, have, in +consequence of this fortunate condition, fewer objects of envy, and are +less subject to temptations; and in the midst of the different comforts, +which peaceably surround them, it is not the principles of others of +which they know the want. + +As for philosophical writers, if it were amongst them, that we are to +search for the principal defenders of the new opinions, and if, at the +same time, their moral conduct was cited as an example, we should have +to observe, that a retired life, love of study, and a constant habit of +reflection, ought to spread a kind of calm over their sentiments; +besides, delivered up to abstraction, or preoccupied by general ideas, +they know not all the passions, and they are seldom personally engaged +in those ardent pursuits which stimulate society. They cannot then +determine, with certainty, what would have been the degree of their +resisting force, if without any other defensive arms than their +principles, and no guide but convenience, they had to combat against the +allurements of fortune and ambition, which present themselves in every +step of our worldly career. They have also, like all the inventors and +the propagators of a new system, vanity, which engages them to multiply +the number of their disciples: and how, in fact, could they be able to +flatter themselves with any success, if, in attacking the most +respectable opinions, they had not endeavoured to prove that their +doctrines were not in opposition to morality. Besides, it is very +necessary, after having silently sapped the foundation of our dwelling, +that they support for some time the edifice, were it only while they +have with us a common habitation; were it only during the interval when +we should be able to judge in their presence, of the utility of their +instructions: in short, very often, perhaps, the dupes of their own +heart, they have been induced to believe that, because they were at the +same time irreligious by system, and just by character and habit, +religion and virtue have not a necessary union; and if it is true, that +in the grand interests of life, the slightest doubt has some influence +on our actions, would it be possible, that at the time when they would +seek to shake religious opinions, even when they are ridiculed in +conversation, that they would still endeavour to preserve a secret +connexion with them, by the propriety of their conduct? It is thus that, +in the disputes of princes, or in the quarrels of ministers, the members +of the same family have sometimes the art of dividing themselves, in +order, at all events, that one of their friends should be in each party. + +These different reflections ought necessarily to be taken into +consideration, before we give ourselves up to the inferences that they +would wish to draw from the manners of irreligious men; but, to +discredit their arguments, it is sufficient to observe, that we cannot +make any application of them to the most numerous class of men: honest +atheists have never existed among the commonalty, religion comprehends +all their knowledge in morality; and if once they were to lose this +guide, their conduct would be absolutely dependent on chance and +circumstances. + +It is still essential to observe, that, according to the motives to +which we can attribute the relaxation of moral principles, there exists +a great difference between the various characters which attend vicious +actions: a depraved man, though religious, does wrong by accident, +through weakness, and according to the successive transports of his +passions; but the wicked atheist has not a fixed time; opportunities do +not surprise him, he searches for them, or waits for them with +impatience; he yields not through the contagion of imitation; but he +takes pleasure in setting an example; he is not a corrupt fruit, he is +himself the tree of evil. + +Another objection is raised, but of a very different kind: they point +out the contrast, frequently perceived, between the conduct and the +religious sentiments of the greater part of men; an opposition from +whence they would wish to conclude, that these sentiments are not a +certain safeguard: and they add, to support their argument, that in +examining the belief of all those, whose licentious life is terminated +by an ignomious death, we perceive that the greater number is composed +of people blindly subject to religious opinions. + +Undoubtedly, these opinions form not, at all times, a complete +resistance to the different starts of our passions; but it suffices, +that they may be the most efficacious. There has been, and there ever +will be, vicious men in the bosom of society, even where religion has +the greatest influence; for it acts not on us like a mechanical force, +by weights, levers, and springs, of which we can calculate exactly the +power; it is not an arbitrary modification of our nature; but we are +enlightened, guided, and animated, according to our dispositions and +sensibility, and according to the degree of our own efforts in the +numerous conflicts which we have to sustain; it would be then an evident +piece of treachery, to attack religion, by drawing a picture of the +vices and crimes, from which it has not been able to guard society, +instead of fixing our attention on all the disorders which it checks or +prevents. + +They would be equally wrong, who represent the general languor of +religion, as a proof that it has, in our time, very little influence on +morality; it would be necessary rather to remark, how great must have +been that power, which even in the decline of its force is still +sufficient to concur to the maintenance of public order; we should be +authorized to say, how valuable is the whole, when we receive so much +advantage from a part? + +In short, the consequence that they would wish to draw from the +opinions, and from the faith of wretches sinking under the sword of +justice, in an abuse of reasoning: men termed religious, forming the +major part of the populace, we must among them necessarily meet the +greater number of malefactors; in the same manner that we are sure to +find, in this class, more men of a particular age, stature, or +complexion; but, if they have a right to use such an argument to censure +a religious education, they might, with the same reason, contest the +salubrity of breast milk, alledging, that many sick and dying persons +have received this nourishment. We should never confound a common +circumstance with a general cause; these are two ideas absolutely +distinct. + +There are other objections which equally deserve to be discussed; but +they will find a place, with more propriety, after the chapter where, I +shall examine, under different heads, the influence of religious +opinions on our happiness. You have seen, and you will perceive still +more, in the progress of this work, that I do not endeavour to elude +difficulties; for before I determined to defend, according to my +abilities, a cause which I could wish to render dear to mankind, I +carefully studied the means; and after having fortified myself against +the systems opposite to my sentiments, I fear not to examine the motives +which serve to support them. + + + + + CHAP. V. + _The Influence of Religious Principles on our Happiness._ + + +As we have shown the close connexion of morality with religious +opinions, we have already pointed out the principal relation of these +opinions with public good, since the repose and interior tranquillity of +society essentially depend on the maintenance of civil order, and the +exact observance of the laws of justice. But a great part of human +happiness does not arise from the community: thus, the benefits religion +imparts would be very imperfect, if they were not extended to our most +intimate sentiments, if they were not useful in those secret conflicts +of different affections which agitate our souls, and which pre-occupy +our thoughts. Religion is very far from deserving this reproach; that +which raises it indeed above every kind of legislation is, that it +influences equally public good and private happiness. We ought to +examine this truth; but to do it philosophically, we must necessarily +contemplate, and pry into our nature, and examine, for a moment, into +the first causes of the enjoyments or the anxieties of our minds. + +Men, when they have advanced a few steps in the world, and as soon as +their intellectual faculties begin to open, extend their views, and live +in the future; sensual pleasures and bodily pain only detain them in the +present; but in the long intervals which exist between the renewal of +these sensations, it is by anticipation and memory that they are happy +or miserable; and recollection is only interesting, as it is perceived +to keep up the connexion between the past and future. Undoubtedly, the +influence of the future, on all our moral affections, escapes often our +notice; to cite some examples of this truth, we believe, that only the +present moment produces happiness, when we receive elogiums, obtain some +mark of distinction, or are informed of an unexpected augmentation of +our fortune; and still more, when we are pleased with the sport of our +imagination, or the discoveries of our reason in our closet or in +conversation. These enjoyments, and many others similar, we call present +happiness; though there is not any one of them which does not owe its +value, and even reality, to the single idea of futurity. In fact, +respect, applause, the triumphs of self-love, the forerunners of fame, +and even fame itself, are the acquisitions which education and habit +have rendered precious, in exhibiting always beyond them some other +advantage, of which these first were only the symbols. Often, indeed, +the last object of our ambition is but an enjoyment of opinion, the +confused image of some possession more real. Every where we see vague +hopes hurry away our imagination; we see the expected good, the +immediate end of our meditation, or the obscure motive of the estimation +we annex to the various satisfactions, of which our present happiness is +composed. Thus, indirectly, and almost unknown to ourselves, all is in +perspective in our moral existence; and it is by this reasoning that, +always deluded, we are seldom perfectly deceived. Subjected by long +habit, it is in vain that we would wish to separate the imaginary +advantages of opinion from the delusions of hope which surround them, +and by which we have been seduced all our life. + +There is but a small part of the moral system, which we cannot make +agree with this manner of explaining the principal cause of our +pleasures and of our pains. I am very far, however, from wishing to make +the sentiments, which unite men by the charm of friendship, depend on +the same principle; and which have such an essential influence on their +happiness. All is real in these affections, since they are a simple +association of ourselves to others, and them to us; in this view it may +be considered as, in some measure, prolonging our own existence; but +this division, so intimate, of the good and evil of life, does not +destroy their essence. Friendship doubles our pleasures and our +comforts; and it is by the close alliance of two sympathizing souls that +we are fortified against all events; but it is always with the same +passions that it is necessary to combat; thus whether we remain +solitary, or live in others, the future preserves its influence over us. + +If such is, however, our moral nature, that the object of our wishes +will always be at some distance; if our thoughts, like the course of the +waves, are ever active, and pressing forward; if our present enjoyments +have a secret tie with the imaginary advantages of opinion, of which the +last term is still a fleeting shadow; in short, if all is future in the +fate of man; with what interest, with what love, with what respect, +ought we not to consider this beautiful system of hope, of which +religious opinions are the majestic foundation! What encouragement they +present! What an end to all other ends! What a grand and precious idea, +by its connexion with the most intimate and general sentiment, the +desire of prolonging our existence! That which men dread most, is the +image of an eternal annihilation; the absolute destruction of all the +faculties which compose their being, is for them the downfall of the +whole universe; and they are anxious to seek for a refuge against this +overwhelming thought. + +Undoubtedly, it is according to nature, according to the degree of +strength of their religious opinions, that men seize with more or less +confidence the hopes which they give, and the recompense they promise; +but, doubt and obscurity have a powerful action, while supreme happiness +is the object; for even in the affairs of this life, the grandeur of the +prize offered to our ambition excites still more our ardour, than the +probability of success. But where should we fix, where attach the +slightest hope, if even the idea of a God, this first prop of religion, +was ever destroyed; if, from the infancy of men, we did not present to +their reflection, that worldly considerations are as transient as +themselves; and if, early in life, they were humbled in their own eyes; +if men applied themselves to stifle the internal sentiments, which +inform them of the spirituality of their souls? Discouraged in this +manner, by the first principles of their education, slackened in all the +movements which carry thier reflections into futurity, they would often +take retrospective views: the past recalling an irreparable loss, would +too much captivate their attention; and their minds, in the midst of +time, would no more be in a necessary equilibrium to enjoy the present +moment; in short, this moment, which is not, in reality, but an +imperceptible fraction, would appear almost nothing to our eyes, if it +were not united in our contemplations, to the unknown number of days and +years which are before us. It is then, because that there is nothing +limited in the ideas of happiness and duration, with which religious +sentiments impress us, that our imagination is not forced to recoil on +itself, when it is insensibly lost in the immensity of futurity. + +When, in following the course of a noble river, a vast horizon is +presented to our view, we turn not our observation on the sandy banks we +are coasting: but if, changing our situation, or twilight narrowing this +horizon, our attention was turned on the barren flat we are near; then +only we should remark all its dryness and sterility. It is the same in +the career of life: when the grand ideas of infinity elevate our +thoughts and our hopes, we are less affected by the weariness and +difficulties strewed in our path; but, if changing our principles, a +gloomy philosophy were to obscure our perspective, our whole attention +drawn back on the surrounding objects, we should then very distinctly +discover the void and illusion of the satisfactions of which our moral +nature is susceptible. + +Let us recollect, then, all the happiness which we owe to religious +sentiments and obvious reflections, which, in attracting us continually +towards the future, seem willing to save from the present moment the +purest part of ourselves; these are, without our perceiving it, the +enchantments of the moral world; if it were possible that, by cold +reasoning, we at length destroyed them, a sad melancholy would ally +itself to most of our reflections; and it would seem as if a +winding-sheet had taken place of that transparent veil, through which +the prospects of life are embellished. Undoubtedly, there would be still +some charm in the days of youth, when the pleasures of the senses press +on us, and fill a considerable time; but when the passions are tempered +by age, when our strength has been broken by years, or prematurely +attacked by sickness; in short, when the time is arrived, when men are +constrained to seek, in the principles of morality, the chief support of +their happiness; what would become of them, if those hopes and opinions +were dissipated, which afford solid comfort and encouragement; and if an +imagination, thus active, were weakened, which enlivens all the objects +that anticipation can reach? + +Reflect, then, with attention, on the different consequences which would +be the fatal train of the annihilation of religious opinions; it is not +a single idea, a single view, that men would lose; it would be, besides, +the interest and the charm of all their desires and ambition. There is +nothing indifferent, when our actions and designs can be in any respect +attached to a duty; there is nothing indifferent, when the exercise and +the improvement of our faculties appear the commencement of an +existence, whose termination is unknown: but, when this period offers +itself on all sides to our view, when we approach it every moment, what +strong illusion would be sufficient to defend us from a sad despondency? +Strictly circumscribed in the space of life, its limits would be in such +a manner present to our mind, to every sentiment and enterprize perhaps, +that we should be tempted to examine, what it is which can merit, on our +part, an assiduous research; what it is which deserves close and painful +application. Indeed, fame itself, which is called immortal, would no +more hurry us on in the same manner, if we had a secret conviction, that +it cannot grow, rise, subsist, but in such portions of space, and such +durations of time, as our imagination cannot conceive. It is necessary, +that the uncertain future be still our country, in order that we should +be able to feel that unquiet love of a long celebrity, and those ardent +impulses towards great things which is the salutary effect of it. + +We deceive ourselves then, I think, when we accuse religion of +necessarily rendering the business and the pleasures of the world +uninteresting; its chief pleasures, on the contrary, are derived from +religion, from those ideas of eternity, which it presents to our mind, +which serve to sustain the enchantments of hope, and the sense of those +duties of which our moral nature is ingeniously composed. + +Religious opinions are perfectly adapted to our nature, to our +weaknesses and perfections; they come to our succour in our real +difficulties, and in those which the abuse of our foresight creates. But +in what is grand and elevated in our nature, it sympathizes most: for, +if men are animated by noble thoughts; if they respect their +intelligence, their chief ornament; if they are interested about the +dignity of their nature, they will fly, with transport, to bow before +religion, which ennobles their faculties, preserves their strength of +mind, and which, through its sentiments, unites them to Him, whose power +astonishes their understanding. It is then that, considering themselves +as an emanation of the Infinite Being, the commencement of all things, +they will not let themselves be drawn aside by a philosophy, whose sad +lessons tend to persuade us, that reason, liberty, all this immaterial +essence of ourselves, is the mere result of a fortuitous combination, +and an harmony without intelligence. + +We have never perhaps observed, with sufficient attention, the different +kinds of happiness which would be destroyed, or at least sensibly +weakened, if this discouraging doctrine was ever propagated. + +What would then become of the most sublime of all sentiments, that of +admiration, if, instead of the grand view of the universe, far from +reviving the idea of a Supreme Being, we retraced only a vast existence, +but without design, cause, or destination; and if the astonishment of +our minds was itself but one of the spontaneous accidents of blind +matter? + +What would become of the pleasure which we find in the developement, +exercise, and progress of our faculties, if this intelligence, of which +we love to glory, was only the result of chance, and if all our ideas +were but a mere obedience to the eternal law of motion; if our liberty +was but a fiction, and if we had not, if I may say so, any possession of +ourselves? + +What would become then of that active spirit of curiosity, whose charm +excites us to observe continually the wonders with which we are +surrounded, and which inspires, at the same time, the desire of +penetrating, in some measure, into the mystery of our existence, and the +secret of our origin? Certainly it would little avail us to study the +course of nature, if this science could only teach us to comprehend the +afflicting particulars of our mechanical slavery: a prisoner cannot be +pleased to draw the form of his fetters, or reckon the links of his +chains. + +But how beautiful is the world, when it is represented to us as the +result of a single and grand thought, and when we find every where the +stamp of an eternal intelligence; and how pleasing to live with the +sentiments of astonishment and adoration deeply impressed on our hearts! + +But what a subject of glory are the endowments of the mind, when we can +consider them as a participation of a sublime nature, of which God alone +is the perfect model. And how delightful then to yield to the ambition +of elevating ourselves still more, by exercising our thoughts and +improving all our faculties! + +In short, how many charms has the observation of nature, when, at every +new discovery, we believe we advance a step towards an acquaintance with +that exalted wisdom which has prescribed laws to the universe, and +maintains it in harmony! It is then, and only then, that the study is +truly interesting, and the progress of knowledge becomes an increase of +happiness. Yes, under the influence of opinions, arising from the +notions of materialists, all is languishing in our curiosity, all is +mere instinct in our admiration, all is fictitious in the sentiments +which we have of ourselves; but with the idea of a God, all is lively, +all is reasonable and true: in short, this happy and prolific idea +appears as necessary to the moral nature of man, as heat is to plants +and to all the vegetable world. You may think, perhaps, that in +examining the influence of religion on happiness, I have dwelt on +several considerations, which are not of equal importance to all men; +there are, indeed, some more particularly adapted to that part of +society, whose minds are improved by education; but I am very far from +wishing to divert a moment my attention from the numerous class of the +inhabitants of the earth, whose happiness and misery arises from a +simple idea, proportioned to the extent of their interests and +reflections. + +Those who seem to have a more pressing and constant need of the +assistance of religion, have been left by the misfortunes of their +parents to the wide world, devoid of property, and deprived also of +those resources which depend on education. This class of men, condemned +to hard labour, are, as it were, confined in a rough and uniformly +barren path, where every day resembles the last, where they have not any +confused expectations, or flattering illusion to divert them: they know +that there is a wall of separation between them and fortune; and if they +carried their views in life forward, they would only discover the +dreadful state any infirmity would reduce them to; and the deplorable +situation to which they might be exposed, by the cruel neglect which +attends old age. With what transport, in this situation, would they not +catch at the comfortable hopes which religion presents! With what +satisfaction would they not learn, that after this probationary state, +where so much disproportion overwhelmed them, there would come a time of +equality! What would be their complaints, if they were to renounce a +sentiment which still conforms itself, for their advantage, to a general +idea, the only one, in short, of which they can make use in all events +and circumstances of life. It is God’s will, they say to themselves, and +this first thought supports their resignation: God will recompense you, +God will return it to you, say they to others, when they receive alms; +and these words remind them, that the God of the rich and powerful is +also theirs; and that far from being indifferent to their fate, He +deigns Himself to discharge their obligations. + +How many other popular expressions continually recal the same sentiment +of confidence and consolation. It is this continual relation of the poor +with the Deity which raises them in their own eyes, and which prevents +their sinking under the weight of contempt with which they are +oppressed, and gives them sometimes courage to resist the pride of +earthly greatness. What grander effect could be produced by an idea so +simple? Thus, among the different things which characterise religion, I +remark, above all, what seems more particularly the seal of a divine +hand; it is, that the moral advantages, of which religion is the source, +resembling the grand blessings of nature, belong equally to all men; and +as the sun, in the distribution of its rays, observes neither rank nor +fortune, in the same way those comforting sentiments, which are +connected with the conception of a Supreme Being, and the hopes united +to it, become the property of the poor as well as the rich, of the weak +as well as the powerful, and can be as securely enjoyed under the lowly +roof of a cottage, as in a superb palace. It is civil laws which +increase, or give a sanction to the inequality of possessions; and it is +religion which sweetens the bitterness of this hard disproportion. + +We could not avoid feeling a compassion as painful as well founded, if, +in considering attentively the fate of the greater number of men, we +supposed them all at one stroke deprived of the only thought which +supported their courage; they would no more have a God to confide their +sorrows with; they would no more attend his ordinances to search for the +sentiments of resignation and tranquillity; they would have no motive +for raising their looks to heaven; their eyes would be cast down, fixed +for ever on this abode of grief, of death, and eternal silence. Then +despair would even stifle their groans, and all their reflections +preying on themselves, would only serve to corrode their hearts; then +those tears which they have a satisfaction in shedding, and which are +attracted by the tender persuasion, that there exists some where +commiseration and goodness, these consoling tears would no more moisten +their eyes. + +Who has not seen, sometimes, those veteran soldiers, who are prostrate +here and there on the pavement of a sanctuary, erected in the midst of +their august retreat? Their hair, which time has whitened; their +forehead marked with honourable scars; that tottering step, which age +only could impress on them, all inspire at first respect; but by what +sentiments are we not affected, when we see them lift up and join with +difficulty their weak hands, to invoke the God of the universe, of their +heart and mind; when we see them forget, in this interesting devotion, +their present pains and past griefs; when we see them rise with a +countenance more serene, and expressive of the tranquillity and hope +devotion has infused through their souls. Complain not in those moments, +you who judge of the happiness of this world only from its enjoyments; +their looks are humbled, their body trembles, and death awaits their +steps; but this inevitable end, whose image only terrifies us, they see +coming without alarm; they, through religion, have approached Him who is +good, who can do every thing, whom none ever loved without receiving +comfort. Come and contemplate this sight, you who despise religion, you +who term yourselves superior; come and see the real value of your +pretended knowledge for promoting happiness. Change the fate of men, and +give them all, if you can, some portion of the enjoyments of life, or +respect a sentiment which serves them to repulse the injuries of +fortune; and since even the policy of tyrants has never dared to destroy +it, since their power would be insufficient to enable them to succeed in +the savage attempt, you, to whom nature has given superior endowments, +be not more cruel, more inexorable than they; or if, by a pitiless +doctrine, you wish to deprive the old, the sick, and the indigent, of +the only idea of happiness which they can apply to, go from prison to +prison, and to those dreary cells, where the wretched prisoners struggle +with their chains, and shut with your own hands, if you have the heart +to do it, the only aperture through which any ray of light can reach +them. + +It is not, however, a single class of society which derives an habitual +assistance from religion, it is all those who have to complain of the +abuse of authority, of public injustice, and the different vicissitudes +of their fate; it is the innocent man who is condemned, the virtuous man +who is slandered, the man who has once acted inconsistently, and been +censured with too much rigour; all those, in short, who, convinced of +the purity of their own conscience, seek for, above all, a secret +witness of their intentions, and an enlightened judge of their conduct. + +A man of an exalted character, endowed with sensibility of heart, +experiences also the necessity of forming to himself an image of an +unknown Being, to which he can unite all the ideas of perfection which +fill his imagination; it is to Him that he refers those different +sentiments, which are useless amidst the corruptions which surround him; +it is in God alone that he can find an inexhaustible subject of +astonishment and adoration; and with Him alone can he renew and purify +his sentiments, when he is wearied with the sight of the vices of the +world, and the habitual return of the same passions. In short, at every +instant the happy idea of a God softens and embellishes our path through +life, and by it we associate ourselves with delight to all the beauties +of nature; by it every thing animated enters into communication with us; +yes, the noise of the wind, the murmurs of the water, the peaceable +agitation of plants, all serves to support, or melt our souls, provided +that our thoughts can rise to a universal cause, provided we can +discover every where the works of Him whom we love, provided we can +distinguish the vestiges of His footsteps and the traces of His +intentions; and, above all, if we can suppose, that we ourselves +contribute to the display of His power, and the splendour of His +goodness. + +But it is principally over the enjoyments of friendship that piety +spreads a new charm; bounds, limits, cannot agree with the sentiment +which is as infinite as thought, it would not subsist, at least would be +troubled with continual anxiety; we should not consider without terror +the revolution of years and the rapid course of time, if those +benevolent opinions, which enlarge for us the future, did not come to +our assistance. Thus, when we find ourselves separated from the objects +of our affection, lonely meditations bring them back to aid the general +idea of happiness, which, more or less, distinctly terminates our view; +then the tender melancholy, in which one is lost, is changed into +pleasing emotions: and you have, above all, need of those precious +opinions, you, who, timid in a bustling world, or discouraged by +disappointments, find yourself a solitary wanderer on the earth, because +you partake not of the passions which agitate the greater part of +mankind! You want a friend, and you only see pecuniary associations; you +want a comforter, and you only see the ambitious, strangers to all those +who have not power or a distinguished reputation; a tender confident is +at least necessary, and the active scenes of society disperses the +affections and diminishes every interest. In short, when you have this +friend, this confident, this comforter; when you have acquired it by the +most tender union; when you live in a son, a husband, or a cherished +wife, what other idea, but that of a God, can come to your relief, when +the frightful image of a separation presents itself to your thoughts? It +is, indeed, in such moments that we embrace with transport all those +opinions which tend to foster the idea of continuity and duration? How +gladly then we lend an ear to those words of comfort which are so +perfectly consonant with the desires and the wants of our soul! What +association of ideas, so frightful as that of the eternal annihilation +of life and love? How can we unite to that soft division of interests +and of sentiments, to that charm of our days; how can we unite to so +much of existence and happiness, the internal persuasion and habitual +image of a death without hope, a destruction without return? How can we +offer only the idea of oblivion to those affectionate minds, who have +centred all their self-love, all their ambition in the object of their +esteem and tenderness; and who, after having renounced themselves, are, +as it were, deposited entirely in the bosom of another, to subsist there +by the same breath of life and the same destiny? In short, near the +tomb, which, perhaps, they will one day bedew with their tears, how can +they pronounce the overwhelming words, forever!—forever!—Oh! horrors of +horrors, both for the mind and feelings! and if it be necessary that the +contemplations of a man of feeling approach a moment to the frightful +confines, let a benevolent cloud at least cover the dark abyss! Tears +and sorrow still afford some comfort, when we give them to a beloved +shade, when we can mix with our griefs the name of a God, and when this +name appears to you the cement of all nature: but if in the universe all +was deaf to our voice; if no echoes were to repeat our plaints; if the +shades of eternal darkness had hid from us the object of our love, and +if they were advancing to drag us into the same night; if he is the most +unhappy being, he who survives, and cannot even hope, that what death +has severed will again be united; if, when his whole soul was filled +with the recollection of a loved object, he could not say, he is in some +place, his heart so affectionate, his soul so pure and heavenly waits +for me, and calls me perhaps to be near that unknown Being, whom we +have, with common consent, adored; and if, instead of a thought so dear, +it was necessary, without any doubt, to consider the earth as a +sepulchre forever shut—my heart dies within me—unable to contend with +the dreadful images, the universe itself seems to dissolve, and +overwhelm us in its downfall. O source of so many hopes, sublime idea of +a God! abandon not the man who has sensibility; Thou art his courage, +Thou art his futurity, Thou art his life; leave him not desolate, and, +above all, defend him from the ascendency of a barren and fatal +philosophy, which would afflict his heart by pretending to comfort it. + +Well, I make another effort, and I address myself to you, who boast of +being enlightened by a fresh ray of wisdom. I am lost in the most +profound grief; a father, a mother, who guided me by their counsels, and +watched over me by their tenderness, these protecting parents have just +been taken from me; a son, a daughter, both my comfort and pride, have +been cut off in the prime of youth; a faithful companion, whose words, +sentiments, and actions, were the support of my life, has vanished from +my arms;—a moment of strength remains with me, I come to you, ye +philosophers; what have you to say?—“Seek for dissipation, turn your +thoughts to some other object, an abyss not to be fathomed separates +thee for ever from the objects of thy tenderness; and these +recollections, which pierce thee through with so many sorrows, they are +only a form of vegetation, the last play of organized matter.” Alas! +have you ever loved, and can you pronounce tranquilly these cruel words! +Banish far from me such consolations, I dread them more than my anguish. +And thou, O daughter of heaven, lovely and mild religion, what wouldst +thou say? Hope, hope; “what God gave thee—He can again restore.” What a +difference between these two languages! One abases, the other exalts us! +It is left to men to choose, amongst their different guides, or rather +to determine, whether they prefer darkness to light, death to life; +whether they prefer blighting winds to refreshing dews; the frost of +winter to the charms of spring; and the insensible stone to the most +brilliant gifts of animated nature. + +I will say it: the world, without the idea of a God, would be only a +desert, embellished by a few delusions;—yet man, disenchanted by the +light of reason, would find nothing throughout but subjects of sadness. +I have seen them, the dreams of ambition, the allurements of fame, and +the vain shews of grandeur; and even when the illusion was most +dazzling, my heart always retired into itself, and was attracted to an +idea more grand, to a consolation more substantial; I have experienced, +that the idea of the existence of a Supreme Being threw a charm over +every circumstance of life; I have found, that this sentiment alone was +able to inspire men with true dignity: for every thing which is merely +personal is of little value, all that places some an inch high above +others; it is necessary, in order to have any reason to glory, that, at +the same time we exalt ourselves, we elevate human nature; we must refer +it to that sublime intelligence, which seems to have dignified it with +some of its attributes. We then hardly perceive those trivial +distinctions which are attached to transitory things, on which vanity +exercises her sway; it is then that we leave to this queen of the world +her rattle and toys, and that we search elsewhere another portion; it is +then also that virtue, exalted sentiments, and grand views, appear the +only glory of which man ought to be jealous. + + + + + CHAP. VI. + _The same Subject continued. The Influence of Virtue on Happiness._ + + +It is not sufficient to have demonstrated, that religion, so necessary +to feeling minds, agrees perfectly with the moral nature of men; it is +still necessary to observe, that the habitual exercise of virtue, +enjoined as a duty in the name of God, is not in opposition with +happiness; and after having considered a truth so important, I will +prove, that it is not contrary to what has been said in the first +chapter of this work, on the impossibility of making men attentive to +public order, only by the motive of personal interest. + +We cannot deny, that virtue often obliges us to conquer our appetites, +and struggle with our passions; but if these conflicts, and the victory +which attends them, lead to more solid and durable satisfactions, than +those which folly and vice portrays the image of, they would misconceive +the restrictions of morality, who perpetually united the idea of +self-denial with that of a sacrifice. + +We cannot fix our attention on the various objects of desire which +occupy the thoughts of men, without seeing clearly, that if they +abandoned themselves, unrestrained, to all their wild propensities, they +would often stray far from the state of happiness which forms the object +of their wishes. Any of the blessings, strewed here and there in our +path, cannot fill the void of life. Are they the gratifications of the +senses which captivate us? Their duration is determined by our weakness; +and we cannot break loose from the immutable limits opposed by nature. +Are they the advantages dependent on opinion that we look for, such as +honour and praise; or the exterior splendour, which fortune gives? You +will soon perceive, that quickly after they are obtained the charm is +flown; they resemble Proteus in the fable, who only appeared a God at a +distance. Men then have more need than is supposed of an interest +independent of their senses and imagination; and this interest we find +in the duties morality inculcates and establishes. + +In all times, in all circumstances, we have a choice between good and +evil: thus, virtue may be continually in a state of action, and we may +find the application of it even in the most apparently indifferent +relations of life, because virtue only has the privilege of connecting +little things to a great object; and that it can only be encouraged by +conscience, which, in accompanying all our actions and meditations, +seems to augment our existence, and procure those satisfactions which +are not known to the crowd who do not act from principle. + +Sensual pleasures, the desires of vanity, the longings of ambition, +would soon extinguish themselves, if they were not fed by the continual +activity of society, which produces new scenes, and displays every +moment some changes of decoration. Virtue, satisfied with its views, has +not need of a succession of similar desires; its paths are varied, but +the end is ever the same. + +We cannot search for the enjoyments of life in the imaginary advantages +of opinion, without allowing others to construct the laws on which our +happiness is founded; and of course discord must result, which leaves us +a prey to every kind of emotion. Virtue has not any associates in her +counsels, she judges herself of all that is good; and in this respect a +virtuous man is the most independent of all beings, for it is from +himself alone that he receives commands, and expects approbation. Yes, +the obscure man, who does good in secret, is more master of his destiny, +than the being ever will be who seems loaded with all the favours of +fortune, and has need, that fashion and transient gratifications come to +determine his taste, and give laws to his vanity, to enable him to enjoy +them + +The little passions of the world, trying to render us happy, lead us on +from one illusion to another, and the last boundary always appears at a +distance. Virtue, very different, has its recompenses within itself: it +is not in events nor in uncertain success that it places contentment; it +is even in our resolution, in the calmness which accompanies it, and the +secret sentiment which precedes it. + +Recollection ever composes the principal happiness of virtue, whilst +worldly vanity is tormented by the remembrance of what is gone for ever; +and with regard to the passions in general, the past is but a gloomy +shadow, out of which proceed, from time to time, sorrow and remorse. + +The intervals which occur between the starts of violent passions, are +almost always filled by sadness and apathy; we all know, according to +the laws of nature, that lively and ardent sensations produce languor +the moment the tumult is over. Virtue, in the enjoyment of those +pleasures peculiar to itself, knows nothing of those irregular emotions, +because all its principles are firm, and it acts round its own centre; +besides, it also invites us continually to set a just value on that +happiness which is most proper for us; it dictates its first laws in the +bosom of domestic life, and employs all its strength to sustain, by the +ties of duty, our most rational and simple affections. + +Virtue, which is the offspring of religion, is of the greatest use in +delivering men from the tormenting solicitude of doubt, by presenting a +general system of conduct; and above all, by marking fixed points to +direct them, by telling them what to love, choose, and do. Thus, whilst +men, carried away by their imagination, continually allow that they are +deceived by phantoms, and lend the most glowing colours to those which +have just escaped them, virtue sets no value but on what it possesses, +and knows not regret. It would seem, at the first glance, that the +desires and caprices of the imagination cannot agree with any kind of +restraint; however, it is not less true, that these trifling forerunners +of our will have need of a guide, and often of a master; our first +inclinations and sentiments are frequently uncertain, weak, and +wavering; it is of consequence to our happiness, that this trembling +stalk should be fixed and supported; and such is the service virtue +renders to the human mind. + +We see not any uniformity in the conduct of those who are not influenced +by motives of duty; they have too many things to regulate, too many to +decide about every instant, when convenience is their only guide: to +simplify the management of ourselves, we should submit to the government +of a principle, which may be easily applied to most of our +deliberations. + +In short, virtue has this great advantage, that it finds its happiness +in a kind of respect for the rights and claims of the different members +of the community, and that all its sentiments seem to unite themselves +to the general harmony. The passions, on the contrary, are almost always +hostile; the vain man desires that others should grace his triumphs; the +proud wishes them to feel their inferiority; the ambitious, that they +keep clear of his pursuit; the imperious, that they bend to him. It is +the same of the different competitions, which an excessive love of +praise, high reputation, or fortune, gives birth to; in the path they +choose every one would wish to go alone, or advance before all the rest, +and occupied about their own interest, they clash inconsiderately with +those of others. Virtue, very different in following its course, fears +neither rivals nor competitors; it does not jostle with any one, the +road is spacious, and all may walk at their ease; it is an orderly +alliance, of which morality is the knot, drawing together, by the same +motives and hopes held in common, that chain of duties and sentiments +which unite the virtues of men to the ideal model of all perfection. + +Virtue, which guards us from the snares of our senses, and checks our +blind desires, is besides the basis of the most precious wisdom; but it +is not the interest of a day, or the pleasures of a moment, that it +protects, it is the whole of life, that it takes under its +superintendency; it is, to speak metaphorically, the vindicator of +futurity, the representative of duration, and becomes, to the feelings, +what foresight is to the mind. We must then, with respect to private +manners, consider virtue as a prudent friend, taught by the experience +of all ages, who directs our steps, and never lets the flambeau waver, +whose salutary light ought to guide them. Our tumultuous passions +dispute the honour of partaking the government: it is necessary a master +should assign to each its proper limits, one who can keep in peace all +these petty domestic tyrants; which reminds us of the image of Ulysses, +arriving suddenly in the midst of the hundred kings who had taken +possession of his palace. + +Virtue, some will say, severe in its judgments, and austere in its +forms, would it not deprive us of the greatest happiness, the pleasure +of being beloved? I reply, that virtue, in its most improved state, has +not this character; I represent it to myself as a just sentiment of +order, far from banishing all other comforts, it leads to them: thus, +benevolence and forbearance, which agree so well with human weakness; +the social spirit so consistent with our nature; urbanity in discourse +and manner; that amiable expression of a heart, which seeks to unite +itself with others; all these qualities, very far from being strangers +to virtue, are its attendants and brightest ornament. + +Virtue allies itself to all the ideas which can give extent to our mind, +and early in life accustoms us to discern relations, and to sacrifice +frequently our present affections to distant considerations; it is, of +all our sentiments, that which carries us farthest out of ourselves, and +consequently has the nearest resemblance with abstract thinking. It is +then, through the assistance of virtue, that a man acquires all his +knowledge of his strength and all his grandeur. Vice, on the contrary, +concentres us in a little space; it seems to be conscious of its own +deformity, and fears all that surrounds it; it endeavours to fix on a +single object, on a single moment, and would wish to have power to draw +into a point our whole existence. + +I must still add, that virtue, by uniting a motive to all our actions, +and by directing towards an end all our sentiments, habituates our mind +to order, and justness of conception; and prevents our wandering in too +great a space: thus I have often thought, that it was not only by his +vices, that an immoral man is dangerous in the administration of public +affairs; we ought to fear him also as unable to comprehend a whole, and +for his want of capacity to rally all his thoughts and direct them +towards any general principle: every kind of harmony is unknown to him, +every rule is become a burthen; he is busy, but only by starts; and it +is by accident that a man, always versatile, stumbles on what is right. + +It may then truly be said, that morality serves as ballast to our +sentiments, its aid enables us to go on without being agitated +continually by the caprices of our imagination, without being obliged to +turn back at the first appearance of an obstacle. + +Virtue then enlarges the mind, gives dignity to the character, and +invests it with every thing becoming. Of all the qualities of men, the +most rare, the most apt to create respect, is, that elevation of +thought, sentiment, and manners; that majestic consistency of character +which truth alone can preserve, but which the least exaggeration, the +most trivial affectation, would disconcert or banish. This resembles not +pride, and still less vanity, as one of its ornaments is, that it never +seeks for the homage of others: the man endowed with real dignity, is +placed above even his judges; he accounts not with them, he lives under +the government of his conscience, and, proud of such a noble ruler, he +does not wish for any other dependence: but as this grandeur is entirely +within himself, it ceases to exist, when he dictates to others what he +expects from them; it can only be restrained in its just limits by +virtues which do not pretend to dazzle. + +It is to the same principle, that men owe that noble respect for virtue, +the most graceful ornament of a great soul; they owe to it also that +simplicity in thinking and speaking, that happy habit of a conscience +not in want of being on its guard. A man truly honest considers disguise +as a detractor, and desires to appear as he really is; it is not his +interest to conceal his weaknesses, for in a generous heart they are +almost always united to something good; and perhaps frankness would have +become the policy of his mind, if it had not been one of the qualities +of his character. + +There is, in every virtue, a kind of beauty which charms us without +reflection: our moral sense, when it is improved by education, is +pleased with that social harmony which the sentiments of justice +preserves. These enjoyments are unknown to men, whose selfishness +renders them insensible to every kind of concord, and they appear to me +to deserve our contempt in one essential point; it is, that they profit +by the respect others have for order, without being willing to subject +themselves to the same rules, and without declaring publicly their +intention; it seems to me, that, in this view, a defect of morality is +indeed a breach of the laws of hospitality. + +In short, talents, those faculties of the mind which belong more +immediately to nature, can never be applied to great things without the +aid of morality; there is no other way of uniting the interest of men, +and of attaining their love and respect. Honesty resembles the ancient +idioms, according to which you must know how to speak, when you wish to +be understood by the generality; and a language is never well known, but +by constant practice. The understanding is sometimes sufficient to +acquire an ascendency in circumscribed relations; you there take men one +by one; and you often engage them by proportioning yourself to their +depth: but on a vast theatre, and principally in public administration, +where we have need of captivating men in a body, it is necessary to +search for a band which will embrace all; and it is only by a union of +talents and virtue that this chain can be formed. And when I see the +homage paid by a nation to virtuous characters; when I remark the almost +instinctive judgment which assists in discerning them; when I see that +they praise and love only what they can connect to pure virtue, and +noble intention, I return to my favourite sentiment, and believe I +recognize in these emotions the stamp of a hand divine. + +After having tried to give a feeble sketch of the various recompenses +and different satisfactions which seem to appertain to regularity of +principles, and propriety of conduct, you will perhaps ask, if you have +not a right to conclude from these reflections, that we can attach men +to morality by the mere motive of personal interest; I have already +mentioned, that I intended to answer such an objection, and now is the +time to do it. + +Virtue, in its most improved state; virtue, such as we have just +represented, is not the work of a moment; it is necessary that it should +be called forth and strengthened by degrees; but it would be nipped when +it first begins to unfold itself, if we destroyed the simple opinions +which serve to educate it, if we overturned the only end which can be +perceived by all minds; and if we weakened the sentiments which connect +it with those who respect the laws of morality, and who promote this +cultivation by their commendations and esteem. + +Besides, it is not virtue only, but virtue united to different motives, +which contributes to our happiness. This observation is very important, +and with great facility you may be made to feel the full force of it. +Employment is generally reckoned the surest source of agreeable +impressions of which we are susceptible; but its charm would vanish, if +it did not lead to some recompense, if it did not show, in perspective, +an increase of wealth, an enjoyment for our self-love, a chance for +fame, or some other advantages of which we are desirous. Vainly, say +some, that the exercise of our faculties is of itself a pleasure; +certainly, because that it offers to our view a train of prospects which +succeed each other. But there must always be a strong motive to direct +us to the right road, and make us set off; our bark must be driven by +the wind; in short, every kind of labour requires encouragement, +although this labour, proportioned to our strength, may be more +favourable to happiness then sloth and idleness; and this truth would +strike us still more, if we had ability to analyze a sentiment with +sufficient attention, to distinguish clearly the happiness which is +annexed to action and employment, from that which necessarily relates to +the end and to the motive of that action. + +The reflections, which I have just made, may be applied to virtue; we +can easily, in studying its different effects, perceive, that it is an +excellent guide in the course of life; but we discover, at the same +time, that it has need, as well as employment, of a spur, a simple +encouragement on a par with our understanding: it is in religion that +virtue finds this encouragement, and we shall not be able to separate it +from the motives and hopes it presents, without disconcerting every +connexion it has with human happiness. + +It will be easy to perceive the great benefit which must arise from +morality; but at the same time it must be remarked, that to follow its +dictates with confidence and firmness, knowledge and strong powers of +reflection are necessarily required in the study of so compounded a +truth: we are then in want of a motive to excite our first effort, which +subjects us to self-denial, and determines us to struggle with courage +against the dominion of the present moment. + +In short, even when, by the art of sophistry, some philosophers have, at +length, thrown into confusion the true principles of order and +happiness; when, by the force of address, they have led us to doubt +about the kind and degree of power which it is necessary to assign to +religion, it should not, however, be the legislators of the nation who +ought to lend an ear to their subtle distinctions. + +Metaphysical sentiments and ideas are not proper for statesman, but in +their own defence; to assist them to guard themselves from the +ascendency of brilliant errors, and to confirm the respect due to useful +truths: but when they have to guide minds, when they wish to excite +activity, it is always, if they are wise, the most simple idea that they +will make use of; and they will be very careful not to despise those +habitual principles, to which time, still more then knowledge, has given +a sanction. These are so many lessons, which long experience seems to +have gradually disengaged from every thing foreign to natural morality +and the secret sentiments of men. + + + + + CHAP. VII. + _On Religious Opinions, in their Relation with Sovereigns._ + + +Many nations, either by choice, or necessity, have deposited their wills +in the hands of an individual; and have thus erected a perpetual +monument to the spirit of discord, and injustice, which has so +frequently reigned amongst men. It is true, that from time to time they +have wished to recollect that they were capable of knowing themselves +their true interest; but monarchs mistrusting their inconstancy, have +taken care to fortify the springs of authority, by surrounding +themselves with standing armies; and they have only left them the power +of being disgusted with slavery: soldiers and taxes have supported each +other; and through the assistance of this corresponding action, they +have become masters and directors of every thing. How much good and evil +depend on them? We then necessarily wish them to possess a vigorous +morality, proportioned to their immense duties; but what force will your +morality have, if they perceive at last, that it is not supported by a +divine sanction; if they consider it as a human institution, which they +have power to break, and which they are in the habit of modifying? At +least they will have the liberty, like other men, to examine if their +private interest agrees with that of the public, and their conduct will +depend on the result of this calculation. + +I will acknowledge, that at the point of elevation, where kings find +themselves placed, they ought not to be acquainted with those passions +which proceed from our petty competitions; but how many other sentiments +have they not to repress? And with what celerity it is necessary to do +it; since they do not experience any contradiction, they are not, like +us, obliged to reflect and consider! Besides, though sovereigns are +supposed to be sheltered by their situation, from the irritations of +self-love, and from the desires of fortune and advancement, they are +not, however, disengaged from every passion of this kind; it is towards +other princes that they feel them; and envy, ambition, and revenge, +become often very dangerous, as they associate with these passions those +of the nation they govern, by means of a war. It is then that, freed +from religious ties, and sure of not accounting with any body, they +would find morality a very ingenious invention, to render the +maintenance of public order more easy, and to preserve the subordination +which secures their power; but, would not acknowledge such a master for +themselves, and would dispense with bowing to its dictates. + +You will say, undoubtedly, that a virtuous king would be recompensed by +the applause of his subjects: but I have already shown, that the +influence of public opinion would be very weak, if the principles of +morality, which serve to guide this opinion, were not supported by +religion. We should also observe, that elogiums and applause, homage so +encouraging to private men, have not an equal power over princes, who +cannot, like individuals, consider this suffrage as an earnest, or +forerunner of exaltation; it is by the continual view of the advantages +and triumphs of others, that the desire of respect and distinction is +continually kept alive; and it may, perhaps, proceed a little from the +stimulation of envy, or at least from those jarring pretentions, and +from those struggles of self-love, of which society alone is the +theatre. Princes without rivals are not subject to the same impressions; +and the flattery they have so early imbibed, and the praises which are +lavished on them from the simple motive of hope, all serve to render +them less sensible to deserved applause; in short, this exaggerated +praise soon becomes a dull monotony, which extinguishes, by its +uniformity, that emulation which a just homage sometimes inspires. There +would be then great danger in reposing too much on the power of public +opinion, if we were to consider it as a check able to replace with +princes the compressing force of religion. + +I must now make an essential remark: those who surround a monarch, often +mislead his judgment by the nature and the application of the elogiums +which they lavish on him. The praise of men, in a monarchy, always has a +taint of slavery: thus, in such countries, a look, a word from the +prince, which seems to efface, for an instant, the distance that +separates him from his subjects, delights them; and their enthusiasm in +those moments serves to persuade the monarch, that it is sufficient for +him to smile, to render his people happy: dangerous illusion, sad effect +of servility: in short, in consequence of the character which is +impressed by an habitual yoke, men are pleased with exalting the power +of him to whom they are obliged to submit; they love to see their +servile companions multiplied; and as the greater part of them have +seldom any access to the prince, vanity persuades them, that in +affecting to partake of the royal grandeur, they contract a kind of +familiarity with it; therefore, without reflecting whether it will be +more in the power of the sovereign to make them happy, when, by +enlarging his dominions, he shall have more subjects, and of course more +duties to fulfil, they celebrate, above all, the conquering warrior, and +thus invite princes to prefer the pursuit of military glory to every +other; and, as the multitude can quickly comprehend this kind of merit; +as the gaining of a battle is a simple idea, easily conceived by men of +every condition and turn of mind, it happens, by this reasoning, that +these triumphs are the most highly extolled; and even that men, on +account of them, can excuse every other failure, broken treaties, +violated oaths, alliances abandoned—In short, such is the mad folly of +our praise, that the tranquillity of the state, the repose of the +people, the mild benefits of peace, appear no more than the last +consequence of the labours and the success of a monarch; and even +history frequently represents this fortunate time, as the days of +obscurity in which heroes of blood and carnage are educated; kings, +discontented with their destiny, are warriors through ambition, and +happy by the victories, to which we annex our first honours, and the +most noble wreaths of fame. + +It is thus, however, that the prevailing opinion, and the rumour of +renown, can sometimes deceive princes, though inconsistent with the +instructions of morality and the legislation of yore, which point out +the true interest of the people as the first object of a sovereign’s +anxious solicitude; and instead of a sounding name, and dazzling +qualities, enforce those requisite to form the guardian and protector of +the felicity of the public; duties of a vast extent, and which are +discharged by the secret labours of paternal vigilance, still more than +by the noise of the drum and the instruments of destruction. + +Let us consider, however, the influence the opinion of the world will +have on sovereigns, in directing only our views towards the interior +functions of administration. An essential observation presents itself at +first to the mind: it is, that the thirst for glory is especially felt +when a great abuse is to be reformed, and when we can hope to make +regularity succeed to confusion; but when this task is fulfilled, and +that it is only necessary to preserve and support what is good, the love +of renown has not sufficient aliment, and it is then that the virtue of +princes becomes the only faithful guardian of the public interest. A +reign, such as we have formed an idea of, would carry away from the +following ones every subject of dazzling splendour; and it would be +necessary that new troubles and fears re-animated the sentiment of +admiration, to give it its ancient ascendency and original force. + +We should be able also, and this picture would be very different, to +figure to ourselves a period, when, by the successive degradation of +character, the opinion of the public would no longer indicate the way to +fame, nor resound to excite ambition; the recompenses it offers would +not be a motive sufficiently powerful to influence men. Thus, in a +country, in a metropolis, where covetousness seemed triumphant, where +every body would appear to pursue that fortune which is only acquired by +intrigue, and the vices of those who bestow it, respect for the real +interest of the people, and attention to lighten their burthens, would +no longer purchase renown. In like manner, in a country where despotism +reigns, and the people are accustomed to prostrate themselves before +power, they would acknowledge no other idol; we should not there be able +to acquire a contemporary fame by elevation of character, by tempering +with wisdom the exercise of authority, and allowing the citizens to +enjoy that degree of freedom, which does not degenerate into +licentiousness. It is then morality, and morality alone, which comes at +all times, and in all circumstances, to resist the revolutions of habit +and opinion, of which history furnishes examples, and of which men are +ever susceptible. + +I ought not to neglect another very important consideration: princes, by +the elevation of their rank, and influence on the national manners, find +that they are in that singular situation, where one is more called to +direct the reigning opinion, than to receive instruction and +encouragement from it: thus we are impelled to wish, that a monarch +should have principles which flow from his heart, and which depend on +his reflections, from which he may be able to derive, at all times, a +force properly his own, a natural courage. It is necessary for a prince +to investigate and decide on his own conduct; and a sublime morality +should nourish in his heart an ideal model of perfection, with which he +can continually compare the opinions of the world and the private +judgment of his conscience. + +In short, and this last reflection which I have made will apply, in a +general manner, to the preceding remarks; the opinion of the public, the +just complaints of the people, are sometimes a long while in reaching +the prince; they ring in the kingdom before he hears the rumour; they +wander round the palace, but the whispers do not reach him; vanity, +pride, and every vice excludes them; the old courtiers sneer, and the +insignificant pursuers of credit or favour amuse themselves by indulging +their turn for ridicule. The ministers, who are followed by the clamour, +are often importuned by it; and when it reaches their master, find some +method to weaken its impression, attributing these commotions to private +passions, and giving the name of cabal to a just indignation against +vice. Yes, such is the unhappy fate of princes, that the peace of a +state is often tottering, before the opinion of the world reaches them, +and discovers the truth; a new consideration, very proper to convince +us, that the power of opinion can never equal in utility those grand +principles of morality, which, by the aid of religion, are fixed, in the +hearts of men, to give them laws, without distinction of birth, rank, or +dignity. + +But if, from sovereigns, we carry our views to those who share their +confidence, we shall perceive still more the absolute necessity of an +active and governing morality. Ministers, without virtue, are more to be +feared than sovereigns indifferent to public good; newly come out of the +crowd they know better than the monarch the selfish use that they can +make of all the passions and vices; and as they are connected with +society, as they have a continual relation with the different orders of +the state, their corruptions are propagated, and their dangerous +influence spreads to a great distance. Attacked, nevertheless, by the +public, they become still more mischievous in their means of warding off +danger, for despairing of disguise before the attentive eyes of a whole +people, they turn their address against the prince; they study, they pry +into his weaknesses, and artfully encourage those which may protect or +cover the defects of their character; they apply themselves, at the same +time, to adorn immorality with every grace which can render it amiable, +and they endeavour to make virtue hateful, by delineating it as austere, +imperious, unsociable, and almost incompatible with our morals and +manners: it is thus that ministers, not restrained by principles, +occasion not only the misery of a country whilst their influence lasts, +but they poison the source of public felicity, by weakening in the +monarch his sentiments of duty, diverting his good dispositions, and +discouraging, if I may say so, his natural virtues. + +In short, the picture which I have just drawn will produce another +important observation: the prince, after having wandered out of the path +of true glory, may return, when he pleases, to the love of virtue and +greatness; all the avenues are open to him, all hearts ready to welcome +him, we have an inclination to love him, and desire to esteem him, whom +fate has placed at the head of the nation; and who, invested with the +majesty which he borrows from a long train of ancestors, exhibits +himself surrounded by all the enchantments of a diadem; we adopt with +pleasure any interpretation which can excuse his conduct; we impute to +ill counsels the faults which he has committed; and we are eager to +enter with him into a new contract of esteem and hope. It is not the +same with ministers; a like indulgence is not due to them, because they +cannot throw the blame on others, and all their actions proceed from +themselves; when they have once lost the opinion of the public, their +depravity will increase daily; because, to maintain their post they are +obliged to redouble their intrigues and dissimulation. + +I have maturely reflected: the religion of princes, of ministers, of +government in general, is the first source of the happiness of the +people; we despise it, because it is not our invention, and we often +give the preference to those artifices of the mind, which seduce us as +being our own work; and perhaps they are wanted, after having lost sight +of this sure and faithful guide, this companion of true genius, which, +like it, prefers easy and simple means. Yes, this exalted virtue, +resembling superior abilities, rejects equally those weak resources and +inventions, which derive not their origin from an elevated sentiment or +grand thought; and, whilst one obliges a statesman to respect honour, +justice, and truth, the other discovers the union of these principles +with the just means which strengthen authority, and with the true glory +and durable success of politics; in short, whilst one renders him +anxious about the happiness of the people, the other shows how, from the +bosom of this happiness, they would see rise insensibly an agreement of +interests and of wills, of whose extensive use we are still ignorant. + +If we wish to dwell a moment on the private happiness of princes, we +shall readily perceive, that they have a real want of the encouragement +religion affords. Their distinguished authority appears, indeed, to +their mind, a singular privilege; they believe this power should extend +to every thing, and they indiscretly endeavour to accelerate the moments +of enjoyment; but as they cannot change the law of nature, it happens, +that in delivering themselves up to every thing which seduces their +imagination, they experience as quickly the sad langour of indifference, +and the oppression of apathy. + +Kings, in the exercise of their intellectual faculties are exposed to +the same extremes; providence having placed them on the pinnacle of +fortune, they consequently have not been led from one view to another, +and know not those gradations which actuate their subjects in the name +of vanity, self-love, or fortune.—Alas! we obey so quickly, and their +desires are so soon gratified, that their taste and inclinations cannot +be renewed with the quickness necessary to enable them to fill the +irksome void which so frequently occurs. If the magnificent end which +religion offers were to be obscured, and if, henceforth, we were to +consider it as a fallacious illusion, unworthy of our attention, kings +would soon attain to that term when the future would appear to their +mind a barren uniformity, a space without colour or form. + +The numerous duties of princes, undoubtedly, afford a continual source +of satisfaction; but it is necessary that they should be able to connect +all their obligations to a grand idea, the only one which can constantly +animate their actions and thoughts, who have need of neither favour nor +advancement from their fellow-creatures. And how much would it +contribute to their happiness sometimes, to imagine themselves between +this world, in which they are weary of their own power, and that +magnificent future; the sublime contemplation of which would carry them, +with a new charm, to the exercise of their authority! What pleasure then +would flow from this authority, the source of so much good!—What +pleasure would they not find in more closely imitating the divine +beneficence, the most comfortable of all ideas, and what a moment for +him, when particularly conscious of the presence of the exalted friend +of the whole human race, he should be able to reflect, in the morning, +on the people he was going to make happy; and in the evening, on those +he had actually done good to. What a difference between these delicious +moments, whose influence the nation feels, and those insignificant +levees, only known to courtiers, in which the monarch is the spectacle, +and tastes the sad pleasure of seeing so many men cringing before his +own image. What a difference, even between these rapturous sensations, +and those raised by flattery, or the dazzling parade which surrounds +him, in the midst of which he cannot discern himself, whether he is a +great man, or only a king. + +In short, we ought to acknowledge, that the more extensive the horizon, +which opens before sovereigns, the greater is the number of duties +presented to their reflections, the more they must feel the want of that +sustaining power so infinitely superior to their own strength: they are +conscious of the disproportion which exists between the extent of their +authority and the means entrusted to human nature; and it is only by +supporting themselves against that mysterious pillar, erected by +religion, that they can be firm, and consider without affright, that +Providence has called them to regulate and direct the destiny of a whole +empire. It was when profoundly meditating on the existence of a God; +reflecting on the influence and various relations of such a grand +thought, that Marcus Aurelius discovered all the extent of his duties, +and felt, at the same time, the courage and the will to fulfil them. The +happy and constant agreement of his actions and principles made his +reign an illustrious example of wisdom and morality. + +We must confess, that it is to virtue, supported by every sentiment +which it imprints on the human heart, that we should wish to confide the +sacred deposit of public happiness; this alone is always faithful and +vigilant, surpasses the spur of praise, and, by the ascendency of a +great example, leads men to the knowledge of every thing they ought to +admire. + + + + + CHAP. VIII. +_An Objection drawn from the Wars and from the Commotions which Religion + has given Rise to._ + + +I shall present, at first, this objection in all its force, or rather I +will not seek to weaken it; it would be needless to recal to the memory +of men all the evils that have happened during a long series of years, +with which we have reason to reproach the blind and savage zeal of +religious fanaticism. Every one has present to his mind those multiplied +acts of intolerance which have sullied the annals of history; every one +knows the scenes of discord, of war, and fury, which theological +controversies have caused amongst men; they have been informed of the +fatal consequences which these enterprizes have brought in their train, +and which the rare virtues of a great king have not been able to +justify. In short, to maintain, in all ages, a remembrance of the fatal +abuses which have been committed in the name of the God of Peace, it +would be sufficient to describe those direful days, when some different +tenet produced a sentence of proscription, and the frightful signal of +the most cruel frenzies. + +It is thus then, that in all times, by an absurd tyranny, or by a +ferocious enthusiasm, triumphs have been contrived for the eager +detractors of religion. Let us examine, however, if the deductions that +they wish to draw from these errors of the human mind, are founded on +reason and justice. + +I shall not stop to observe, that religion has oftener been the pretext, +than the true motive, of the unhappy convulsions of which it appears at +present the sole origin; or stop to recal the various political +advantages, which could only arise from such a grand principle of +action; those august testimonies are commemorated in history: I shall +only borrow the support of reason, and shall bound my discussion to a +few simple reflections. + +Do you think, that by relating the different abuses of authority we +could prove the advantage of anarchy? Could we decry every species of +jurisprudence, by recounting all the ills which have been produced by +chicane? Should we be able to throw an odium on the sciences, by +recalling all the fatal discoveries which are owing to our researches? +Would it be proper to stifle every kind of self-love and activity, by +reciting the different crimes which covetousness, pride, and ambition +have given rise to? And ought we, then, to desire to annihilate +religion, because fanaticism has made an instrument of it to distress +the human species? All these questions are similar, and all should be +resolved in the same manner: thus we may say with respect to them, that +in all our interests and passions, it is by acquired knowledge, and the +light of reason, that right is separated from wrong; but we ought never +to confound their proximity with a real identity. + +Fanaticism and religion have not any connection, though very often these +ideas are found united. It is not the worship of the common Father of +men; it is not the morality of the gospel, whose precepts lead to +goodness and forbearance, which inspires the spirit of persecution; we +should attribute it to a blind madness, resembling all those wild errors +and crimes which dishonour humanity. But since, at present, the excesses +to which men abandon themselves do not induce us to condemn, as a +misfortune, all the sentiments of which the criminal passions are only +the extreme, why do we wish to refuse religion the gratitude which is +its due, because sometimes it has given birth to hatred and unhappy +divisions? It would be necessary rather to remark, that intolerant zeal +is, of all the errors of the human mind, that on which the progress of +our knowledge appears to have had most influence. In fact, whilst +fanaticism, gradually weakened, seems to be now verging to its decline, +the disorders connected with the common passions of ambition, love of +wealth, and thirst of pleasure, remain in all their force. However, what +sentiment, what predominant idea, has a greater claim to pardon for its +mistakes than devotion? By what an infinite number of benefits the pure +spirit of religion makes amends for the abuses which spring from the +false interpretation of its precepts. It is to this spirit, as we have +shown, that men owe the stability of public order and the firm +principles of justice: it procures the indigent the succours of charity, +and virtue its encouragement; oppressed innocence its only refuge, and +sensibility its dearest hopes. Yes, the pure spirit of religion +surrounds us on every side, it makes the charm, of solitude, the band of +society, the invigorater of intimate affections; and can we calumniate +it and wish to destroy it, on recollecting the tyrannic opinions of some +priests and sovereigns, whose principles and conduct we now detest? + +I shall further remark, and ask why men denounce a sentence of +reprobation against religion, and give as the motive, the ancient wars +of which it has been the origin; whilst they never contest the +importance of commerce, though rivers of blood have been continually +shed for the smallest advantage on this account? Can they be so mistaken +in their judgment, as to compare a few pecuniary advantages, which one +political state never enjoys, but at the expence of another, with those, +as precious as they are universal, of which religion is the origin and +support? + +In short, among the various arguments that are employed to attack these +opinions, the most frivolous, undoubtedly, is that which derives all its +force from the errors and faults of which the present times do not +furnish any example. What should we say if, at the moment when a superb +edifice was firm on its foundation, we should be exhorted to level it +with the ground, by a relation of all the accidents its erection +occasioned? + +Throwing then a painful retrospect on the period of history, when +religion was made the pretext of wars and cruelty; let us oppose to the +return of those sanguinary scenes, let us oppose to the spirit of +intolerance all the force of wisdom, and the instructions of that +religion which they pretend to serve by a blind zeal. But far from +freeing us from the respect which we owe to such salutary opinions, +which men have abused, let us take advantage of experience, as a new +defence against the wanderings of our imaginations, and the surprises of +our passions[2]. + + + + + CHAP. IX. + _Another Objection examined. The Sabbath._ + + +I do not intend to place among the objections I ought to discuss, nor in +the number of arguments, that it is important to examine, the various +opinions on such and such parts of religious worship, nor the +difficulties raised against the adoption of some dogmatic notion, +thought essential by some, and considered with indifference by others: +it is not a treatise of controversial theology which I wish to compose; +and it is still less the doctrines of one particular church, which I +would oppose to that of another; all of them connect morality to the +commands of a Supreme Being; they all of them see in the public worship +the respectful expression of a sentiment of love and gratitude towards +the Author of Nature. Thus, those who might think they perceived some +imperfections in the system, or in the forms of worship, adopted in a +nation, should not use this objection to dispute the utility of +religion, since the reflections, which have been just made on its +importance, may be applied equally to the doctrines of all countries, +and the principles of every sect. + +I shall dwell then on the only difficulty which interests, without +distinction, the different religions of Europe. + +The establishment of public worship, and the necessity of consecrating +at least one day in every week, occasions, say some, a suspension of +labour too frequent; and this suspension injures the state, and +diminishes the resources of the people. + +I may at first observe, that such objections would appear very weak, if +compared with the great advantages which men owe to religion! An +increase of wealth can never outweigh order, morality, and happiness. +But I must go further to prove, that a day of rest, devoted amongst us +to public worship, cannot injure the political strength; and that so far +from being contrary to the interests of the people, it protects and +favours them; and as I invariably prefer such interests to all others, I +shall begin by demonstrating, in a few words, the justness of this +proposition. + +We should be mistaken if we thought, that in a given space of time, men +forced, by the inequality of conditions, to live by their labour, would, +by observing the precepts of religion, better their situation, if they +were not obliged to rest from labour one day in every week. + +It is necessary, in order to perceive this truth, to examine, first, +what is now the measure of wages; it is not an exact proportion between +labour and its reward. In fact, if we consulted only the light of reason +and equity, no one, I believe, would dare to decide, that the most +scanty necessaries is the just price of fatiguing and painful labour, +which commences at the dawn, and does not finish till the setting of the +sun: we should not be able to maintain, that in the midst of his +enjoyments, and in the bosom of luxurious idleness, the rich ought not +to grant any other retribution to those who sacrifice their time and +strength to increase their revenue and multiply their enjoyments. It is +not then by the principles of common sense or reflection, that the wages +of the generality have been fixed; it is a compact established by power, +a yoke to which the weak must submit. The possessor of a vast domain +would see all his riches vanish, if numerous labourers did not come to +cultivate his estate, and carry into his store-house the fruit of their +toil; but, as the number of men without property is immense, their +concurrence, and the pressing need that they have to labour for a +subsistence, obliges them to receive the law from him who can, in the +bosom of ease, wait quietly for their services; and it results from this +habitual relation between the rich and poor, that the wages for hard +labour are constantly reduced to the most scanty allowance, that is to +say, to what is only sufficient to satisfy their daily and indispensable +wants. + +This system once settled, if it were possible, that, by a revolution in +our nature, men could live and preserve their strength without allotting +every day some hours to repose and sleep, it is beyond doubt, that the +work of twenty hours would be required for the same wages now granted +for twelve. + +Or, by an assimilation, agreeing with the hypothesis I have just +mentioned, suppose that a moral revolution permitted labourers to work +the seventh day, they would consequently, in a short time, require of +them the extraordinary labour at the former rate; and this levelling +would take place through the gradual diminution of the price of labour. +The class of society, which, in exerting its power, has regulated the +present wages, not according to reason and equity, but according to the +necessities of the labourers, would quickly discern its own interest; +and that when a day more was paid for, the people could bear a +diminution of the seventh part of their wages, and be in their old +state. Thus, though before the change had thoroughly taken place, all +those who live by labour would think that they had acquired a new +resource; yet they would soon be brought to their former condition; for +it is the same with social order as with the law of equilibrium in +nature, which combines ranks and places, every thing according to the +immutable law of the proportion of force. + +Men, devoid of property, after having been some time deceived, would +only get an increase of work by the abolition of the Sabbath; and as +this truth does not present itself naturally to the mind, we ought to +consider, as an essential service of religion, its having secured the +greater number of men from a degree of oppression, to which they would +have run blindly, if they had been at liberty to make a choice. + +The daily labour of one class of society surpasses the reasonable +measure of its strength, and hastens the days of decripitude; it was +then absolutely necessary that the customary course of these labours +should be, for a time, suspended; but as the people, pressed by wants of +every kind, are exposed to be seduced by the slightest appearance of +advantage, it was further necessary to their happiness, that the +interruption of thier fatigues, fixed by a religious duty, appeared not +to them the voluntary sacrifice of fortune, and did not leave in them +any regret. In short, they are pleased when they think of those days of +rest, which produce a little alteration in their manner of living; and +they require that alteration, not to be depressed by a continual train +and repetition of the same occupations. Thus, were you to assert +artfully, that the people are not as comfortable of a Sunday, as during +the week, it would be at least true, that one is softened by the +expectation of the other; there are people so very wretched, and +probably, on that account, so bounded are their desires, that the most +trifling variety is a substitute for hope. It seems to me, that the +hearts of the common people may be sometimes cheered with the thought of +being once a week dressed like their superiors; when they are absolute +masters of their time, and can say,—and I also—I am free[3]. + +I must now examine the second proposition which I have mentioned. + +You have made obvious, some will say, that an augmentation of the days +of labour would occasion a reduction of the wages allowed for it, we may +then reasonably ask, if this result would not favour commerce, and +contribute, in some respect, to increase the political strength? +Undoubtedly you may consider under this point of view, the diminution of +the reward of industry; but the political strength being always a +relative idea, and derived from comparisons with other states, this +strength can never be augmented or diminished by a circumstance common +to all the countries of Europe. Were a barbarous ambition to abolish in +one state the Sabbath, the abolition would probably procure it a degree +of superiority, if it was the only one that adopted such a change; but +as soon as others followed their example, the advantage would disappear. +However, the same arguments ought to serve to convince us, that those +countries, where the intervals of inaction occur oftener, have +necessarily a political disadvantage, with regard to others, where +Sunday and a few solemn feasts are the only days of rest prescribed by +government. + +We may conclude from these observations, that so far from finding fault +with religion for appointing a day of rest, devoted every week to public +worship, we ought to acknowledge with pleasure, that such an institution +is a benevolent act, extended to the most numerous class of the +inhabitants of the earth, the most deserving our consideration and +protection; from which we require so much, and return so little: towards +that unfortunate class, whose youth and maturity the rich profit by, and +abandon them when the hour is come, when they have no more strength left +but to enable them to pray and weep. + + + + + CHAP. X. + _An Observation on a particular Circumstance of public Worship._ + + +It is not sufficient, that sovereigns are persuaded of the influence of +religion on the morality and happiness of men; they ought to make use of +proper means to maintain this salutary action; and, of course, every +part of public worship becomes of the greatest importance. Educated in a +religion, thought by some to approach nearer the first ideas of +christianity, yet as it has adopted several principles by no means +consonant with the Catholic faith, it would be unwise in me to discuss +any of the questions which divide the two churches; and I should do it +without any good accruing from it, so much are we disposed to refer to +early prejudices, the ideas which are most intimately blended with the +sentiments and feeling of a man; we like to take a general view, and +this method agrees with our indolence; but it leads us often astray. I +think, however, that the minds of the people are now sufficiently +enlightened, to permit me to advise the superiors of both church and +state, to examine attentively, if it is not full time to make more use +of the vulgar tongue, and if we are not warned, by the present depravity +of morals, to alter the manner of performing divine service in this +respect. + +It is only during an interval of the grand mass that the priest +addresses to country people some words of exhortation in their own +language; it was natural to consider this moment as the most proper to +dispose the mind to respect and attention; but perhaps, even the pomp of +an august ceremony, by attracting strongly the imagination, withdraws +the generality from the importance of the other parts of divine worship; +and it frequently happens in country places, that many people go out of +the church during the sermon, and return at the moment of consecration. + +I think also, that public prayers should always be in the vulgar tongue, +and they might easily be made interesting and affecting, as there are +not any religious discourses which sympathize more with human weakness; +and as our wants and anxieties may be made use of to raise us towards +the Supreme Being, the best of all bands might be chosen to win the +multitude. + +I must observe besides, that part of the country people, especially in +harvest time, and other seasons, when the husbandman is particularly +busy, assist only at early mass, and then they see but a part of the +religious ceremonies[4]. And, if the practice and liberty of working on +a Sunday was more extended, the inhabitants of the country, still more +confined to the first mass, would hear neither prayers nor instructive +discourses in their own language during the whole year. + +Certainly there must be something altered in these religious +institutions in order to make them more efficaciously serve to support +morality, and comfort the most numerous class of the human race. Country +people, whose labour produces our wealth, ought to be taken care of with +paternal anxiety; and since they are not exposed to those disorderly +passions which find nourishment in a metropolis; since mild and prudent +means still suffice to maintain them in the habit of duty; both the +superiors in church and state have to answer, in some measure, for the +corruption of their manners and dispositions. + + + + + CHAP. XI. + _That the single Idea of a God is a sufficient Support of Morality._ + + +After having shown that morality has need of a supernatural support, you +have reason to expect, that I should explain the intimate and immediate +relation which unites religion to the love of virtue, and the observance +of order. I will endeavour, then, to discuss this important question; +and in order to arrive at the truth, I shall follow first the course of +those simple sentiments and natural thoughts, which guide the mind and +the heart of man, in every climate and country under heaven. + +It is easy to unite all the moral legislation, and the entire system of +our duties, by means only of the idea of a God. + +The universe, notwithstanding its magnificence and its immensity, would +be a mere nothing, if its Supreme Author had not peopled it with +intelligent beings, capable of contemplating so many wonders, and of +receiving happiness from them; but the faculties with which we are +endowed, consciousness of possessing them, and the liberty to act, all +announce to us that we are united to a grand combination, that we have a +part to take on the vast stage of the world. + +The most simple reason, that which resembles instinct, would have been +sufficient to enable us to take care of the body, and to have concentred +us in ourselves; more would not have been necessary for those who have +so little to do. Thus, when I see that the mind is susceptible of +continual improvement, when I see that men enjoy the power of assisting +each other, and of communicating their ideas, in a manner so much +superior to other animals; when I fix my attention on our social +dispositions, and on all the relative qualities which compose our +nature, I cannot avoid thinking, that we have a plan of conduct to +follow towards others, and that in our pilgrimage on earth we must be +circumspect, having obstacles to conquer, sacrifices to make, and +obligations to fulfil. + +Men then appear to be led to religion by the most excellent gifts of +nature, and by all that they have in them of the sublime; but we ought +to remark, as a singular resemblance, that their wants also, and their +extreme weakness, lead them to the same object. + +Whatever may be my emotions, when I reflect on the present imperious +laws to which I am obliged to submit, and when I recal to mind the +grandeur and magnificence which I have been a witness of, I raise +continually my soul towards the Sovereign Director of events, and am led +by instinct, as well as by a rational sentiment, to address my prayers +to Him. It appears to the unfortunate, when they view so many wonders +which their understanding cannot grasp, that so little is wanting to +guard them from the dangers which threaten them, they implore the +commiseration of Him whose formidable power bursts from all sides. But, +while they admire and adore, they must imitate His perfections, and not +expect mercy when they show none. Purity of heart only can render an +intercourse with the Supreme Being interesting; and prayers are merely a +solemn kind of mockery, when they do not produce virtue and forbearance, +when they do not render us kindly affected to each other; our very state +of dependence, our wants and weaknesses, should bind us to those beings +who equally share the blessings so liberally bestowed, and have the same +evils to endure. Thus discontent, the fear of futurity, the anxiety +caused by misfortunes, all the sentiments, which engage men to disturb +social order, take another character, or are at least sensibly modified; +when, from their first suffering, they can elevate their wishes to God, +but dare not do it, with a heart sullied by criminal intentions. + +It is not only prayer which leads us to religion; another communication +with the Supreme Being, gratitude, produces the same effect. A man, +persuaded of the existence of a sovereign power, and who gladly connects +with the divine protection his success and happiness, feels, at the same +time, a desire to express his gratitude; and not being able to do any +thing for him who bestows all, he seeks to form an idea of the +perfections of that Supreme Being, in order to comprehend the system of +conduct most conformable to his attributes. At first, what reflections +possess our mind, what emotions agitate our souls, when we contemplate +the universe? When we respectfully admire that magnificent harmony, +which is the incomprehensible result of an innumerable multitude of +different powers: struck with this vast whole, where we discover an +agreement so perfect, how is it possible for us to avoid considering +order as a distinct mark of the wisdom and of the design of Omnipotence? +And how is it possible for us not to think, that we render him the most +worthy homage, at the time we make use of the free intelligence which he +has endowed us with. Then in the composition of a social structure, a +work which has been entrusted to us, we shall try to penetrate the ideas +of wisdom and order, of which all nature presents such a grand example; +then, in establishing the relations which unite men, we shall carefully +study the laws of moral order, and we shall find them all founded on the +reciprocation of duties, which submit to a regular movement different +jarring personal interests. In short, the idea of a God, Creator, +Regenerator, and Preserver of the Universe, by invariable laws, and by a +train of the same causes and the same effects, seems to call us to the +conception of a universal morality, which, in imitation of the unknown +springs of the natural world, may be as the necessary tie of this +succession of intelligent beings, who always, with the same passions, +come to pass and repass on the earth, to seek, or to fly, to assist, or +to hurt each other, according to the strength or the weakness of the +knot which unites them, and according to the wisdom or inconsistency of +the principles which direct their opinions. + +The attentive study of man and of his nature ought to contribute to +confirm in us the idea which we have just pointed out. We cannot, in +fact, consider the prodigious difference which exists between the minds +and characters of men; we cannot fix our attention on the length to +which this difference may be carried, by the perfectibility of which +they are susceptible; we cannot, in short, reflect on a like +constitution, without being induced to think, that the counterpoise of +these extraordinary means of force and usurpation must proceed from +reason, from that singular authority which only can establish, between +men, relations of justice and convenience, proper to maintain an +equilibrium and harmony in the midst of so many disparities: it is thus, +that respect for morality seems evidently to make a part of the general +view and primitive idea of the Supreme Disposer of the universe. And +what pleasure shall we not find in the persuasion, that the cultivation +of virtue, that the observance of order, offers us the means of pleasing +our Divine Benefactor! It is by that alone that we can hope to concur, +however feebly, in the execution of his grand designs; and in the centre +of so many blessings, surrounded by so many signs of a particular +protection, how highly ought we to value this means of communication +with the Author of our existence? Thus, then, the homage of adoration +and gratitude which we render to the Deity, leads us to a sentiment of +respect for the laws of morality; and this sentiment, in its turn, +serves continually to maintain in us the idea of a Supreme Being. + +Independent of the reflections which we have just presented, morality, +considered in all its extent, has need of being strengthened by this +disposition of the soul, which makes us interested in the happiness of +others; and it is besides, in one of the most glorious perfections of +the Deity, that we find the first model of this precious sentiment. Yes, +we cannot deny it: either our existence proceeds from no cause, or we +owe it to the goodness of the Supreme Being. Life, some will say, +undoubtedly is a mixture of pains and pleasures: but, if we are candid +we shall confess, that those moments, when it ceases to appear to us a +benefit, do not often occur in life: in youth, existence is thought the +greatest blessing, and the other seasons of life offer pleasures less +animated, certainly, but which agree better with the progress of our +understanding, and the increase of our experience. + +It is true, that in order to free ourselves from a sentiment of +gratitude, we often think that we would not accept of a renewal of life, +on condition of our running over a second time our career, and returning +step by step in the same track. But we should consider, that we do not +fix a just value on the benefits which we have received; for when we +take a retrospective view of life, we see it stripped of its two +principal ornaments, curiosity and hope; and it is not in this state +that it was given to us, and that we have enjoyed it. + +It is, perhaps, not in our power to replace ourselves, by contemplation, +in the situation where the imagination made our chief pleasure, a slight +breath has easily effaced it from our memory: it is evident that we +enjoy life, because we look forward with affright to the moment when we +shall be forced to renounce it; but, as this happiness is composed of +present pleasures, and those which we anticipate, we cease to be good +judges of the value of life, when this future prospect is not presented +to our eyes, but under the form of the past; for we know not how to +appreciate, with a languishing recollection, that which we have loved in +the moment of hope. + +Physical evils are not either the end or the condition of our nature, +they are its accidents: the happiness of infancy, which shows in its +primitive purity the works of the Deity, visibly point out the goodness +of the Supreme Being; and how can we avoid believing, that we owe our +origin to a benevolent design, since it is a desire of happiness, which +has been given to serve as the motive of all our actions? We should +indeed speak well of life, if we had not corrupted its comforts by +artificial sentiments, which we have substituted instead of nature; if +we had not submitted so many realities to pride and vanity; if, instead +of assisting each other to be happy, we had not employed our thoughts to +make others submit to us. Undoubtedly there are some sufferings annexed +to our existence, as in the natural world there are apparent defects. +Let us employ our minds on the most exalted subjects, and we shall no +longer be a prey to envy and discontent. + +It is on the consideration of detached events; it is in some particular +circumstances, that we raise doubts about the goodness of God; but we +immediately discern it when we compare particulars which wound us, with +the great whole of which they make a part; we discover then, that the +misfortunes which we are so quickly offended with are a simple appendage +of a general system, where all the characters of a beneficent +intelligence are evidently traced. It is necessary then to view the +whole of life to discover the intention of the author of nature; and in +meditating in this manner, we shall return always to a sentiment of +respect and gratitude. This simple idea is very extensive in its +application; it seems to me, above all, that it serves to console us +under the ills of life; the man who is penetrated by it can say to +himself, the transitory evil to which I am subject, is perhaps one of +the inevitable effects of this universal harmony, the most noble and the +most extensive of all conceptions. Thus, in the moments when I bemoan my +fate, I ought not to think myself forsaken, I ought not to accuse Him, +whose infinite wisdom is present to my view, Him whose general laws have +so often appeared to me a visible expression of real goodness. + +It is in vain, some will say, it is in vain that you would wish to make +us attend to these considerations; we only remark, that our earthly +happiness is at least inferior to that which our imagination so readily +forms the picture of; and we do not perceive, in such a disposition, the +union of perfections which ought to be ascribed to the Supreme Being. + +This objection is presented under different forms in the writings of all +the enemies to religion; and they have drawn consequences, sometimes +against the goodness of God, his power, his wisdom, and justice. It is +necessary, clearly to explain this difficulty, to be in a state to form +to ourselves an idea of the perfection of an Infinite Being; but in all +our attempts, we only carry to the extreme every quality which we +conceive; instead of that, perfection in the works of the Creator, +probably consists in a kind of gradation and harmony, the secret of +which we cannot either embrace, or penetrate; and we ought still more to +be on our guard, when we form any conception of the essence of the +Deity, as by confining ourselves solely to reconcile his sovereign power +with his perfect goodness, we should never fix the boundary when these +two properties will be in an equilibrium: for after having exhausted +every supposition, we might still ask, why the number of rational beings +is not more extended? We might ask, why every grain of sand is not one +of those beings? why there is not a number equal to that infinite +divisibility of which we form the idea? In short, from extreme to +extreme, and always in arguing on the sovereign power, the least +inanimate atom, the least void in nature, would appear a boundary to the +goodness of the Supreme Being. We see then to what a point we may +wander, when we abandon common sense for the vague excursions of a +metaphysical spirit. + +I think, if no other proofs could be found, the power of God would be +sufficient to demonstrate his goodness; for this power informs us every +instant, that if the Supreme Ruler of the World had intended the misery +of rational beings, he would have had, to fulfil this intention, means +as rapid as numerous. He needed not have created worlds; nor have made +them so convenient and beautiful; a terrific gulph, and eternal darkness +might have been sufficient to collect together those unfortunate beings, +and make them feel their misery. Let us not dwell on these gloomy +subjects, let us follow a just emotion of gratitude; we shall be eager +then to render homage to that indelible character of love and goodness +which we see stamped on all nature. An unknown power opens our eyes to +the light, and permits us to view the wonders of the universe: it +awakens in us those enchanting sensations which first point out the +charms of life; it enriches us with that intellectual gift which +re-assembles round us past ages, and the time to come; it confers, in an +early hour, an empire, by endowing us with those two sublime faculties, +will and liberty; in short, it renders us sensible to the real pleasure +of loving and being beloved; and when, by the effect of a general plan, +of which we have but an imperfect conception, it spreads here and there +some difficulties in the road of life; it seems to wish to soften them, +by showing us always the future through the enchanting medium of the +imagination. Could it be then without any interest or goodness, that +this magnificent system was conceived, and preserved by so many superb +demonstrations of wisdom and power? What should we be in the sight of +the Eternal, if he did not love us? We do not adorn his majestic +universe, or lend to the dawn its magnificent colours; neither have we +covered the earth with a verdant carpet, or bid the celestial bodies +revolve in the immense expanse; he asked not counsel of us—we should be +nothing in his eyes, if he was indifferent to our gratitude, and if he +took not any pleasure in the happiness of his creatures. + +In short, were we to turn our attention from so many striking proofs of +the goodness of God; were they to be effaced from our memory, we should +still find, in the recesses of our heart, a sufficient evidence of this +comfortable truth, we should perceive that we are good and affectionate, +when not perverted by passion; and we should be led to think, that such +an inclination in beings who have received every thing, must necessarily +be the seal of their Divine Author. In order to exalt this sentiment, we +must refer it continually to the idea of a Supreme Being; for there is, +we doubt not, a correspondence of instinct and reflection between our +virtue and the perfections of him who is the origin of all things; and +provided we do not resist our natural emotions, we shall perceive from +those very perfections all that is sufficient to excite our worship and +adoration; above all, whatever is necessary to serve as an example for +our conduct, and to afford principles of morality. + +I ought now to examine some important objections; for why should I fear +to present them? a love for systems and opinions ought not to exist, in +treating a subject on which so many have expatiated, and which belongs +equally to all men. Though we are allowed, when seeking truth eagerly, +to wish to find it united to the sentiments which form our happiness, +and the principles which are the foundation of public order. + +We admit, say some, that there are many perfections peculiar to the +Supreme Being, the study and knowledge of which ought to serve to +sustain the laws of morality; but one of the essential properties of the +divine essence oversets the whole structure, it is prescience: for, as +God knows beforehand what we are to do, it follows, that all our actions +are irrevocably determined; and thus man is not free. And, if such is +his condition, he deserves neither praise nor censure; he has no means +of pleasing or displeasing the Supreme Being, and the ideas of good and +evil, of virtue and vice, are absolutely chimerical. I shall, at first, +make a very simple reply to this objection, but a very decisive one: it +is that, if against appearances you should happen to persuade me, that +there now exists an absolute contradiction between the liberty of man +and the prescience of the Deity, it is on the nature and extent of this +prescience that I shall raise my doubts; for, forced to choose, I should +rather mistrust the judgment of my own mind, than that of an internal +persuasion. It is by these same considerations, that it will always be +impossible to prove to men that they are not free: we could only succeed +with the assistance of reasoning, and reasoning being already a +beginning of art, a kind of exterior combination of reflections, this +means, in some measure out of us, would not have power to eradicate a +sentiment which seems the first that we are conscious of. + +We soon discover the limits of our faculties, in the efforts which we +make to acquire a just idea of the divine prescience: we can very well +suppose, that God foresees with certainty what we only conjecture about, +and in extending without end the bounds which occur to our mind, we +shall proportion in our imagination, the knowledge of the Creator to the +immensity of space, and to the infinity of time; but beyond these vague +ideas we shall err in all our speculations. How is it possible, that +men, who know not even the nature of their own souls, should be able to +determine the nature of prescience? How is it possible, that they can +know whether this prescience is the effect of a rapid calculation of +him, who embraces at one glance the relation and effects of every moral +and natural cause? how can they discern, whether this prescience, in an +Infinite Being, is distinct from simple knowledge? How can they know +whether that Being, by a property beyond our conception, does not exist +before and after events, whether he is not, in some manner, the +intellectual time, and whether our divisions of years and ages, would +not disappear before his immoveable existence and eternal duration. + +It results, however, from these considerations, that on account of our +extreme ignorance we cannot accurately define prescience; but we are +reduced to examine whether this prescience, considered in a general +manner, is incompatible with the liberty of man. + +This opinion, I think, should not be adopted. Prescience does not +determine future events, for the mere knowledge of the future makes not +the future. It is not prescience which necessitates the actions of men, +because it does not change the natural order of things; but all future +events are fixed, whether foreseen or not; for constraint and liberty +conduct equally to a positive term: thus, all that will happen is as +immutable as that which is past, since the present was the future of +yesterday, and will be to morrow the past. It is then abstractedly +certain, that an event, either foreseen or not, will take place some +time; but if liberty is not contrary to this inevitable certainty, how +would it be more so, because their exists a Being who is acquainted +previously with the precise nature of events? We may then say, with +truth, that the knowledge of the future is no more an obstacle to +liberty, than the remembrance of the past; and prophecies, like +histories, are only recitals, whose place is not the same in the order +of time; but not having any influence on events, do not constrain the +will, cannot enslave the sentiments, or subject men to the law of +necessity. + +We will confess, however, that if prescience was founded on the +possibility of calculating the actions of men, like the movements of an +organized machine, liberty could not exist; but then it would not be +prescience which opposed this liberty, it would be because we are +automatons; for with such a constitution we should be without liberty, +were even the Supreme Being not to have any knowledge of futurity. + +It is in vain, in order to convince us we are not free, that some would +represent us as necessarily submitting to the impulse of various +exterior objects; comprehending, among those objects, every thing that +is subtle in moral ideas, and uniting them under the general name of +motives, and giving afterwards to these motives a physical force which +we are bound to obey; but to be free, is it necessary that we act +without motives? then man would be indeed evidently a piece of +mechanism. It is certain, that we are, in all our actions, determined by +reason, taste, or a cause of preference; but it is our mind which +comprehends these various considerations, which weighs, compares, and +modifies; it is our mind which listens to the counsels of virtue, and +which replies to the language of our passions; it is in order to +enlighten itself that it borrows from the memory the succours of +experience; it is then our mind which prepares, composes, and improves +every thing which we term motives, and it is after this intellectual +labour that we act. There is too much order, unity, and harmony in our +thoughts, to allow us to suppose them the mere effect of exterior +objects; which, under the form of ideas, come without order to impress +themselves on our brain; and until we are made acquainted with the works +of chaos, we shall believe with reason that every where there is that +unity, that order; that there is a faculty capable of re-assembling +every thing that is scattered, and uniting to one end all that is mixed +without design. + +As soon as we are impelled to believe, that there is a master of all our +perceptions, and that we feel this master act, how is it possible not to +be certain that it is our mind which acts? It is then, in breaking loose +from its operations, that we are stripped of our liberty, and that we at +length suppose that our will is the necessary consequence of all +exterior objects, as if it were the colours, and not the painter, which +produced a picture. However, if we secure our mind from that dependence +to which some wish to reduce it, our actions will not obey these +irresistible emotions; for if they grant that we have liberty of +thought, we have free will. + +We ought to consider our senses as messengers, which bring to our mind +new subjects of reflection; but they are in such a manner subordinate to +the sublime part of ourselves, that they act only under direction; +sometimes the ruling principle commands them to bring representations of +the beauties of nature, to examine assiduously the registers of the +human mind, to take the rule and the compass, and render an exact +account of that which it desires to know with precision; sometimes they +are taught to acquire more power, and when the soul wishes to +communicate with men, when it wishes to address posterity, it orders +them to perpetuate in indelible characters all that it has maturely +combined, all that it has discovered, and all it hopes to add to the +treasures of our knowledge. Is it not the master rather than the slave +of our senses, or the blind play of their caprice? + +There is besides another observation, which seems to contrast with the +absolute empire, that some are willing to grant to exterior objects over +the powers of our soul; for it is in the silence of meditation that the +action of our mind is not interrupted: we experience that we have the +power of recalling past ideas, and that we can connect those ideas with +the prospect of the future, and to various imaginary circumstances of +which we compose this picture; our reflection is then the result, but +not the work of those exterior objects we are acquainted with. These two +words, work and result, which in some acceptations have a great +resemblance, have here very different meanings; and it is only in +confounding them, that the objection against the existence of our +liberty is favoured. We cannot form any judgment, without previously +discussing every argument proper to throw a light on the subject; and +the result of such enquiries determines our will; but these enquiries +are themselves the work of our mind. + +In short, all the degrees which lead to the end of our intellectual +researches, are simple antecedents, and not absolute motives: there is, +in the operations of our mind, as in every thing which is not +immoveable, a train of causes and effects; but this train does not +characterize necessity more than liberty. + +In restoring thus to our soul its original dignity, do you not perceive, +that we approach nearer to nature, than in adopting those systems and +explications which assimilate our intellectual faculties to the regular +vibrations of a pendulum? or would you like better still to compare them +to those little balls which go out of their niches to strike our brain, +which by various ramifications, produce that shock which impels our +will? I see, in all this, only childish figures, put in the place of +those names which indicate at least, by their abstraction, the +indefinite extent of the ideas which they represent, and the respect +they merit. It is easy to call a motive a little moving ball; it is easy +to call uncertainty or repentance the combat of two of these balls, till +the arrival of a third forms a determination; and the concurrence of +many to the same point excites, in us, an impetuous passion: but who +sees not that, after having endeavoured to debase the functions of the +mind by these wretched comparisons, the difficulty remains undiminished? + +In short, if the meditations and the researches of our minds, on the +existence and the nature of our liberty, presents us only impenetrable +clouds and obscurity, is it not singular, that in the midst of this +darkness we should reject all the information of our instinctive +sentiments, which only can clearly explain every thing that we in vain +search for by other means? What would you say of a man born blind, who +would not be directed by the voice? We are assuredly better instructed +in the constitution of our nature by our feelings, than by metaphysical +arguments! they compose an internal part of the essence of our soul; and +we ought to consider them, in some measure, as a sally of the +incomprehensible formation, whose mysteries we cannot penetrate. Such a +doctrine, which came to us from a divine hand, is more deserving of +confidence than the interpretations of men. There are secrets which +philosophers try in vain to explain, all their efforts are useless to +represent by comparison, that which is alone and without resemblance. + +One would think, that nature, guessing the false reasoning which would +mislead us, has purposely bestowed an inward conviction of the existence +of our free will, in composing our natural life of two movements very +distinct: one depends on a necessity, whose laws we are not acquainted +with, and do not govern; whilst the other is entirely submitted to the +government of our reason. Such a comparison would be sufficient to +convince us, if we sought merely for the truth. + +When Spinosa desired to throw contempt on our instinctive perceptions, +he said, it is the same as if a weather-cock, at the very moment it was +the plaything of the winds, believed itself to be the cause, and +consequently that it had free will. What signifies such an argument, +unless it is to prove, that it is possible to suppose a fiction so +perfect, that it would apparently be equivalent to a reality? But I +would ask, by what foolish design of an intelligent being, or even by +what fortuitous assemblage of blind nature, is it that man should have +every moment a will precisely conformable to his actions, if there is +not a real correspondence between every part? + +We could oppose to the hypothesis of Spinosa another argument, which +would lead to a conclusion absolutely contrary; that is, if the most +apparent liberty may be only a fiction, by a particular concurrence of +our will with an action ordained; it is also incontestible, that were we +to suppose the existence, or simple possibility of a free-will, we could +not have a different idea of it, than that which we have already; and +the liberty of God himself would not appear to our thoughts under any +other form. It is very essential to remark, that when we reflect about +our faculties, we with ease imagine a superior degree of intelligence, +of knowledge, of memory, of foresight, and of every other property of +our understanding; liberty is the only part of ourselves to which our +imagination cannot add any thing. + +I shall not pursue other subtle arguments, which have been produced, to +corroborate my opinion; it is not to some men, but to all, that I desire +to speak, because I wish to be universally useful: I shall then always +dwell on the principal reflections, whenever they appear to me +sufficient to influence the opinion of sound minds, and to fix them on +those important truths which are the surest foundation of public +happiness. Self-love might induce many to follow a question as far as it +would go, and vainly glory in spinning it out; but self-love, applied to +profound meditations, is itself a great subtilty. + +Let us examine other arguments used to combat principles which we have +established. It is in vain, some will say, to endeavour to prove the +existence of a God, as a real support of the laws of morality; all this +system will fall to pieces, if we are not informed, at the same time, in +what manner this God rewards and punishes. + +I shall observe, at first, that such an objection cannot make a very +deep impression, but when it is connected in our minds with some doubt +of the existence of a Supreme Being: a question that I shall not yet +treat; for supposing an internal conviction of this last truth, +supposing, in all its force, the idea of a God present to our thoughts; +I ask, whether in order to please Him, we should not have need of +knowing precisely the period when we could perceive distinct signs of +his approbation and beneficence? I ask, again, whether, to avoid +incurring His displeasure, it would be equally necessary for us to know +how, and in what manner, He would punish us? Undoubtedly not: for in +taking a comprehensive view of the rewards and punishments which may +proceed from a Supreme Being, struck with His grandeur, and astonished +by His power, the vague idea of infinity would obtrude; and this idea, +so awful, would suffice to govern our sentiments, and fix our principles +of conduct. We should be careful not to propose conditions to Him who +has drawn us out of nothing, and we should wait with respect for the +moment, when, in His profound wisdom, He may think proper to make us +better acquainted with His attributes. Men may say to each other, secure +my wages, I want them on such a day, I demand them on such an hour; they +barter things of equal value, and during a short space of time; but in +the intercourse of man with the Deity, what a difference!—The creature +and the Creator—the child of dust and the source of life—a fleeting +moment and eternity—an imperceptible atom and the Infinite Being!—our +understanding is struck by the contrast! How then should we adapt to +such disproportions the rules and notions which we have introduced into +our trivial transactions? You require that in order to feel the desire +of pleasing the Supreme Being, He should every moment bestow gifts on +those, who, by their sentiments and actions, appear worthy of his +goodness; and, to inspire the fear of offending Him, you wish that, +without delay, He would let His vengeance crush the wicked. Certainly +you would be scrupulous observers of His will on such conditions, for +less stable hopes and fears detain you servilely near a monarch; and I +may venture to say, that you would be equally attentive to the Ruler of +the World, if, in order to reward or punish you, he was to alter the +laws of nature. + +But do we not, you may add, see that God does not interfere in any +manner to direct things here below: you do not perceive Him; but do you +more clearly discover the power which gives life and motion? It is not +because He does not exist, but because He is above the flight of your +mind. We do not know what to say to a man who rejects the opinion of the +existence of a God; for without that guide all our ideas are wandering, +and have not any other connexion but that of the wildest imagination; +but if you grant that the world had an origin, if you suppose a God, +creator and preserver, what arguments would you use to induce us to +believe that this God has no relation to us; that He does not take any +notice of us, and that He is thus separated from the offspring of His +intelligence and love? You add, vice is every where triumphant, an +honest man often languishes in despondency and obscurity; and you cannot +reconcile this injustice with the idea of a Divine Providence! One may +at first deny the assertion which forms the basis of this reproach, or +dispute at least the consequences that are drawn from it: these ideas of +triumph and abasement, of splendour and obscurity, are sometimes very +foreign to the internal sentiments, which only constitute happiness and +misery; and for my part, I am persuaded, that if we take for a rule of +comparison, not some particular situation, or some, scattered events, +but the whole of life, and the generality of men; we shall then find, +that the most constant satisfactions attend those minds which are filled +with a mild piety, firm and rational, such as the pure idea of the Deity +ought to inspire; and I am equally persuaded, that virtue, united to +this piety, which knows how to soften every sacrifice, is the safest +guide in the path of life. Perhaps, ignorant as we are of our nature and +destination, it is not our interest that uninterrupted rewards should +excite us to virtue; for if this virtue were our title and hope with God +for the present, and the time to come, we ought not to desire that it +should degenerate into an evident calculation, into a sentiment +bordering on selfishness. It would then be very difficult to give a +proper definition of liberty, if, by the effect of rapid justice, a +constant proportion of good and evil, accompanied every determination of +our mind; we should then, morally as well as physically, be impelled by +an imperious instinct, and the merit of our actions would be absolutely +destroyed. + +I mean by all this to ask, what would be our merit or demerit, if our +life is only for an instant, and if nothing is to follow? The persuasion +of the existence of a God, without a certainty of the immortality of our +soul, cannot impose any obligation; but the real connexion between these +two ideas is too frequently overlooked. + +Undoubtedly, left to our understanding, this word certainty is not made +for us, or at least it is not applicable to our relation with the Deity, +and to the judgment we form of his designs and will. We are too far +removed from the High and lofty One, who inhabiteth eternity, to pretend +to measure His thoughts by our bounded views. They are covered with a +veil, and we always obscurely discern that which is hid in the depths of +His wisdom: but the more this God, whom we adore, escapes by His +immensity from our conceptions, the less have we a right to limit His +perfections, in order to refuse Him the power of transporting our +existence beyond the narrow circle submitted to our view; and I know not +how it would be possible to persuade us, that this action of the Deity +would surpass in grandeur the creation of the world, or the formation of +animated beings: the habit of observing a great wonder may weaken our +astonishment, but should not eradicate our admiration. + +We cannot reach, but by reflection, to those events of which the future +is still the depository; but if every thing which surrounds us attests +the grandeur of the Supreme Being; if the mind, in its meditations, +without terror, approaches the confines of infinity, why mistrust that +he can perform in favour of men, a magnificent union of Omnipotence and +perfect goodness? Why reject, as an absurd confidence, the idea of +another existence? We see, without astonishment, the feeble chrysalis +force its way from the tomb it wove for itself, and appear under a new +form. We cannot be anticipated witnesses of the perpetuity of our +intelligence; but its vast extent would appear to us, were we not +familiarized with it, a greater phœnomenon than duration. + +In short, why do I resist an idea of a continuation of existence, since +I am forced to give credit to my birth? There is a greater distance from +nothing to life, than from life to its sequel, or renewal under a new +form: I am clearly acquainted with the commencement of existence, I know +death only by conjecture. We now enjoy the light and blessings brought +to us by a beneficent heavenly Teacher; could it be, that he alone would +be a stranger to his own glory and virtues? I cannot say, why this +contrast makes an impression on me; but it is among the number of +superficial ideas which occur to my mind, when I reflect on this +subject. + +A comforting thought still strikes me, the natural order of the universe +appears to me a finished system: we perceive a perfect regularity +between the revolution of the heavenly bodies, an invariable succession +in vegetable life, an almost incredible precision in that immense +quantity of volatile particles submitted to the laws of affinity; and +think every thing in its right place, and that all fulfil exactly their +destination in the grand and complete system of nature. + +But if we turn afterwards our attention on the multitude of beings +inferior to men, we shall discover also, that their action is as +complete and conformable in every respect to the faculties they are +endowed with, since they are governed by an imperious instinct. Full of +these ideas, struck with astonishment at the appearance of an harmony so +general, have we not just grounds to presume, that man, transported into +infinite space by his intelligence; that man, susceptible of +improvement, and continually combatting obstacles; that man, in short, +this most noble work of nature, only commences in this sublunary world +his race? And, since all which composes the material order of the +universe appears to us in an harmony so admirable, ought we not then to +conclude, that the moral order in which we perceive some things vague +and not determinate; that the moral order is connected with another life +more sublime and more astonishing than the other parts of creation, and +will one day be ultimately developed? This singular disproportion +between the harmony of the physical and apparent confusion of the moral +world, seems to announce a time of equilibrium and completion; a time +when we shall all know its relation with the wisdom of the Creator, as +we already perceive the wisdom of His designs, in the perfect agreement +of the innumerable blessings on sature with the present wants of man, +and every other animated creature. + +The grandeur of the human mind is indeed a vast subject of reflection; +this marvellous constitution seems to remind us perpetually of a design +proportioned to such a noble conception; it seems almost unnecessary +that God should have endowed the soul with such noble faculties for such +a short life as ours, to fulfil its limited plans and trivial pursuits: +thus every thing authorizes us to carry our views further; were I to see +such men as Columbus, Vesputius, Vasco de Gama, in a ship, I should not +suppose that they were mere coasters. + +Some try to destroy our hopes, by endeavouring to prove, that the soul +is material, and that it ought to be assimilated to every thing which +perishes before us; but the forms only change, the vivifying force does +not perish; perhaps the soul resembles it, but with this difference, +that as it is composed of memory, reflection, and foresight, it exists +only by a series of consequences, which forms the distinct attributes +and particular character of its essence: it follows then, that it cannot +be generalized like the blind force which animates in a universal manner +vegetation; but that every soul is in some measure a world to itself, +and that it ought to preserve separately an identity of interest, and +consciousness of preceding thoughts. Thus, in this system, the corporeal +body, which distinguishes us to the eyes of others, is only the +transitory habitation of that soul which is not to die; of that soul +susceptible of continual improvement, and which, by degrees we can have +no idea of, will probably approach insensibly to that magnificent +period, when it will be thought worthy of knowing more intimately the +Author of Nature. + +How can we conceive the action of the soul on our senses, without a +point of contact? and how conceive that contact, without the idea of +matter? For it is only by experience we are acquainted with the +necessity of it to occasion a motion; and without that previous +knowledge, the rapidity with which one body sometimes strikes another, +could only have been represented by the length of time necessary for its +approach to it: however, if we had not any metaphysical knowledge of the +cause of motion, and if experience only guided our judgment in this +respect, why resist an idea that there is within us a faculty which acts +of itself? the intimate feeling which we have of it, is certainly an +argument for its existence. We cannot, besides, maintain, that a like +property may be opposite to the nature of things; since if we adopt the +system of the creation of the world, this property may proceed, like all +others, from the Divine Power; and if we admit, on the contrary, the +irreligious opinion of the eternity of the universe, there must have +been from eternity a general movement without impulsion, without +exterior contact, or any cause out of itself; and the action of our +souls might be subject to the same laws. + +The idea of the necessity of a contact, to effect a movement, would +never have occurred, if we had bounded our observations to the influence +of our ideas on our determinations, and the influence of those +determinations on our physical being. In short, the laws of attraction +and repulsion are subject to great exceptions; which exceptions may +serve to support the system of the spirituality of the soul. We may be +allowed to say, that there exists a vacuum in the universe, since, +without this vacuum, there could not have been any motion? It is known +that this motion depends on the laws of attraction but how can +attraction act through a vacuum, unless it is by a spiritual force, +which acts without contact, and notwithstanding the absolute +interruption of matter? It is then this force, or its equivalent, that I +may adopt to define the cause of the impressions of which our souls are +susceptible. + +Let others explain, in their turn, by what material communication, the +sight of a few immoveable characters, traced on insensible marble, +disturbs my soul. It is very easy to comprehend by what mechanism the +eye distinguishes these characters; but there ends the physical action, +for we cannot attribute to that action, the general power of producing +sensations in the mind, since, perhaps, many other men may consider the +same characters, without receiving any impression. + +It is very possible, that our intellectual preceptions have not any +connection with motion, such as we conceive it. Our interior nature, +which we distinguish by the name of immaterial, is probably subject to +laws very different from those which govern nature in general; but as we +are obliged to apply to the mysteries of our souls, those expressions +which serve to delineate or to interpret the phœnomena submitted to our +inspection; these expressions, and their continual use, have insensibly +habituated us to certain opinions, about the causes and developement of +our intellectual faculties. It is thus that, after having used the words +motion, rest, agitation, and action, to discriminate different +affections of our souls, of which we know very little, we have +afterwards assimilated them, foolishly, to our moral nature, to all the +ideas which were represented by these denominations; and even death +itself, of which we have not any clear knowledge, but by the dissolution +of our physical being; death, an image borrowed from things which are +under the inspection of our senses, has not, perhaps, either relation or +analogy with the nature and essence of our spirit; all these are +incomprehensible secrets, not mixt with any thing we are acquainted +with. + +We act, in this respect, like men born deaf, who apply to sounds those +terms which they were accustomed to use, to express the sensations the +other senses produced. + +I shall only add another observation to the ideas on which I have just +dwelt: perhaps we should never have thought of applying the words which +express action and motion, to all the operations of our souls, if we had +not at first divided our spiritual being into a great number of +dependencies, such as attention, reflection, thought, judgment, +imagination, memory, and foresight; and if afterwards, in order to +render intelligible the variable relations of these abstract parts of +our mind (these parts of a unit which we have taken to pieces, though it +composed that single being ourself) we had not been obliged to have +recourse to some plain expressions, like those of action, motion, +attraction, and repulsion; but this familiar use of these expressions, +in order to explain the accidents of our intellectual system, very much +resembles the use which we make of X in Algebra, to express unknown +terms. + +In short, were we to submit the action of our souls to the laws of a +particular movement, forming one of the dependencies of the great one, +we should still have to explain the cause of the consciousness that we +have of this action, which Atheists refuse to nature itself, at the very +moment they make it the God of the Universe. Were reasoning able to +subject all the operations of our mind to the impressions of external +objects, we could not rank under the same laws, that consciousness which +we have of our existence, and of the different faculties of the soul. +This consciousness is not an effect, or the production of any known +force, since it has been always in us independent of any external +object, consequently we cannot investigate it. The conception of the +existence of our souls, is as incomprehensible to us as that of +eternity; what a profound thought, which even our imagination cannot +embrace! + +Let us admit, however, for a moment, that all the operations of our +souls are determined by some impulsion, whatever it may be, we shall +still be struck with the absolute difference which exists, according to +our knowledge between the regular movements of matter, and the almost +infinite and unaccountable emotions of our hearts and minds; so variable +and so differently modified, that the attention is lost in the +examination of them. And after having vainly endeavoured to conceive the +union established between our thoughts and exterior objects, we have +still to form an idea of the actions of these thoughts on themselves, +their progression and connection; our mind led astray, lost in such a +meditation, leaves us only a consciousness of our weakness, and we feel, +that there is an intellectual altitude which the human faculties can +never reach. + +We distinguish, in a single character which our judgment can decypher, +an absolute difference between soul and matter: we cannot avoid +representing the latter as infinitely divisible, whilst, on the +contrary, all the efforts of our imagination could never divide that +indivisible unit which composes the soul, and which is the sovereign +over our will, thoughts, and all our faculties[5]. + +But if we examine again, under another appearance, the properties of +matter, we know not how to assimilate to them the emotions of our soul; +for we distinctly feel those emotions, let their number be ever so +numerous, when even they act together and terminate in the same center, +which is that Indivisible Being before alluded to; whereas matter, by an +essential property, cannot, in the same instant be pressed or struck in +several manners, unless it is in parts which have a tendency to +different centres. + +There is not then any resemblance between the impressions that our souls +receive, and the various effects which may be attributed to the action +of all the material substances of which we can form any conception: they +are always connected with the idea of space and extent; but that centre, +where all our perceptions meet, that Judge, who dictates laws in the +internal empire, whose revolutions we only know, that last Director of +our will, this Indivisible Being, at the same time our friend and +master, is not to be found in any compounded idea; and this unity so +simple, ought necessarily to convince us, that nothing which is +submitted to the dominion of our senses, can serve as a type of the idea +which we are to form of the soul. + +We discover the traces of this truth, when we fix our attention on the +comparisons with which our spiritual unit, our identical self, is +continually occupied: we imagine it seated on a throne, listening, and +examining the various reasons which ought to determine its action; we +see it, like Nero, yielding sometimes to Narcissus, and sometimes to +Burrhus; but at the same time we distinctly perceive all the +counsellors, all the flatterers, all the enemies which surround it; we +never remark but a single master in the midst of the tumult and the +intrigues of this court. + +Whilst our soul then is thrown into motion by contemplation, and by the +imperceptible modification of a fugitive idea, as well as by every thing +which is opposed to material action, why should we not suppose that it +is purely intelligent and spiritual? It must be confessed, that +sometimes our corporeal infirmities influence our minds; but this +relation is not a proof of identity, since our body may be an instrument +entrusted to our soul, one of the organs which it is to make a +transitory use of. The continuity of existence, considered abstractedly, +certainly is in the universe a simple and natural state; and the +temporary existence is perhaps the only one which is heterogeneous and +accidental; the soul seems too noble to be assimilated to the latter +state, it may exist in a different manner when joined to a material +substance, but that connection does not make it lose its original +essence. + +It is to be acknowledged, that it is through the medium of our senses we +know all the force of our existence; and that they are those parts of +our mixt being which strike us most during a little while; and it is +perhaps by a law of the same kind that we see men, engrossed by a great +passion, entirely strangers to every other moral affection; but, why +should it be contrary to the nature of things, that the soul, once +stripped of its terrestrial cloathing, should be acquainted with the +nature of its existence, and at the same time perceive those truths +which now are obscured by clouds. An innate fire languishes a long time +unknown in a rough stone, that stone is struck, and we see issue out a +splendid light; this is perhaps a faint picture of the state in which +our soul is when death breaks its fetters. + +In short, in a matter so obscure every supposition is admissable, which +assures us that the soul is not on earth in a state of enchantment, or +in a kind of interruption of its ordinary existence. All that we see of +the universe is an assemblage of incomprehensible phœnomena; and when we +wish to discover the conclusion, through the aid of the ideas most on a +level with our intelligence, we wander perhaps from truth; since, +according to appearances, it is in the depths of infinity that it +reposes. + +I doubt, whether we can allow the authority of those metaphysical +arguments which are made use of to defend the spirituality of the soul +to be decisive; but they are sufficient to repulse the different attacks +of materialists. The most evident opinion to me is, that we are too weak +to comprehend the secret we search for. We have, according to our petty +knowledge, divided the universe into two parts, spirit and matter; but +this division serves only to distinguish the little we know from that +which we have no knowledge of; there is perhaps an infinite gradation +between the different properties which compose motion and life, instinct +and intelligence; we can only express the ideas conceived by our +understandings, and the general words which we make use of, serve only +to detect the vain ambition of our mind; but with respect to the +universe, in considering its immensity, we shall find, that there is +sufficient space for all the shades and modifications we have no idea +of. We confess, that it is the connection between our physical powers +and intellectual faculties, and the action that they seem to have on +each other, which nourishes our doubts and anxieties; but without this +relation, without the appearance of our fall, all would be distinct in +the fate of man, all would be manifest. It is then, because that there +is a shade in the midst of the picture, which continually catches our +attention, that we have need to collect the light of the mind and the +feelings, in order to see in perspective our destiny; and it is from +this motive that we find it necessary, above all, to be penetrated with +the idea of a God, and to search for, in his power and goodness, the +last explication which we want. + +There is, in the judgments of men, a contrast which I have often been +struck with. Those people, who, at the sight of the immensity of the +universe, at the view of the wonders in the midst of which they are +placed, fear not to attribute to our intellectual faculties the power of +interpreting and understanding every thing, and even the capacity of +attaining almost to the hidden secrets of our nature; these same people +are nevertheless most eager to strip the soul of its true dignity, and +the most obstinate in refusing it spirituality and duration, and every +thing else which can exalt it. + +But happily, these refusals or concessions fix not our fate: the nature +of the soul will always be as unknown as the essence of the Supreme +Being; and it is one of the proofs of its grandeur, to be wrapped up in +the same mysteries which hide from us the universal spirit. But there +are simple ideas and sentiments, which seem to bring along with them +more comfort and hope than metaphysical arguments. + +We cannot profoundly meditate on the marvellous attributes of thought; +we cannot attentively contemplate the vast empire which has been +submitted to it, or reflect on the faculty with which it is endowed, of +fixing the past, approaching the future, and bringing into a small +compass the expanded views of nature, and of containing, if I may use +the phrase, in one point the infinity of space, and the immensity of +time; we cannot consider such a wonder, without continually uniting a +sentiment of admiration to the idea of an end worthy of such a grand +conception, worthy of Him whose wisdom we adore. Shall we, however, be +able to discover this end, in the passing breath, in the fleeting +moments which compose life? Shall we be able to discover it in a +succession of phantoms, which seem destined only to trace the progress +of time? Shall we, above all, perceive it in this general system of +destruction? and ought we to annihilate in the same manner the +insensible plant, which perishes without having known life; and the +intelligent man, who every day explores the charms of existence? Let us +not thus degrade our fate and nature; and let us judge and hope better +of that which is unknown. Life, which is a means of improvement, should +not lead to an eternal death; the mind, that prolific source of +knowledge, should not be lost in the dark shades of forgetfulness; +sensibility and all its mild and pure emotions, which so tenderly unite +us to others, and enliven our days, ought not to be dissipated as if it +were the vapour of a dream; conscience, that severe judge was not +intended to deceive us; and piety and virtue are not vainly to elevate +our views towards that model of affection, the object of our love and +adoration. The Supreme Being, to whom all times belong, seems already to +have sealed our union with futurity by endowing us with foresight, and +placing in the recesses of our heart the passionate desire of a longer +duration, and the confused sentiment which it gives of obtaining it. +There are some relations still obscure, some connections between our +moral nature and futurity; and perhaps our wishes, our hopes, are a +sixth sense, a faint sense, if I may be allowed to express myself so, of +which we shall one day experience the satisfaction. Sometimes also I +imagine, that love, the most noble ornament of our nature, love, sublime +enchantment, is a mysterious pledge of the truth of these hopes; for in +disengaging us from ourselves, transporting us beyond the limits of our +being, it seems the first step towards an immortal nature; and in +presenting to us the idea, in offering to us the example of an existence +out of ourselves, it seems to interpret by our feelings that which our +minds cannot comprehend. + +In short, and this reflection is the most awful of all, when I see the +mind of man grasp at the knowledge of a God; when I see him, at least, +draw near to such a grand idea; such a sublime degree of elevation +prepares me, in some manner, for the high destiny of the soul; I search +for a proportion between this immense thought and all the interests of +the world, and I discover none; I search for a proportion between these +boundless meditations and the narrow picture of life, and I perceive +none: there is then, I doubt not, some magnificent secret beyond all +that we can discern; some astonishing wonder behind this curtain still +unfurled; on all sides we discover the commencement of it. How imagine, +how resolve the thought, that all which affects and animates us, all +which guides and captivates us, is a series of enchantments, an +assemblage of illusions? The universe and its majestic pomp would then +have been only destined to serve as the theater of a vain +representation; and such a grand idea, so magnificent a conception would +have had for an object a mere dazzling chimera. What would then have +signified that mixture of real beauties and false appearances? What had +signified that concourse of phantoms, which, without design or end, +would be less admirable than a ray of light, destined to enlighten our +abode? In short, what had signified in men that union of sublime +thoughts and deceitful hopes? Guard us from giving credit to such a +supposition! Is it to Him then, whose power has not any limits, that we +dare to attribute the artifices of weakness? Should we have seen every +where order, design, and exactness, as far as our understanding can +reach, and as soon as we are arrived at the utmost boundary of our +faculties, should we stop the views of the Supreme Intelligence, and +imagine that all is finished, because futurity is unknown? Alas! we +endure but a moment, and we presume to know the past and the future! But +grant us only the idea of a God; do not deprive us of our confidence in +Him; it is in relying on that grand truth, that we shall be able to +guard our hopes against all the metaphysical arguments which we are not +immediately prepared to answer. + +Would you object, that hope is not sufficient to determine men to the +observance of morality, and to subject them to the sacrifices which the +practice of virtue seems to impose? What then attracts them, in all the +bustle of life, unless it is hope; what is it that renders them greedy +of honour and of fortune, unless it is expectation? And when they obtain +the object of their wishes, they have frequently only the imaginary +advantages hope created. Why then would you ask for a demonstrated +certainty, in order to devote yourself to all the researches which the +human mind can conceive to be the most grand, the most worthy of an +ardent pursuit? On the contrary, the most trifling degree of expectation +should become a motive of encouragement. And what is it, of all our +interests, which could be put in competition with the most fugitive +idea, with the slightest hope of pleasing the Master of the World, and +maintaining the intercourse which seems to be indicated by our natural +sentiments, and by the first perceptions of our minds? + +I would wish to go still further, and I would demand, not of all men, +but of some at least, if, were even this life to be their only heritage, +they would think themselves freed from the desire of pleasing the +Sovereign Author of Nature. The moment that is given us to know and +admire Him, would it not still be a blessing? We celebrate the memory of +those princes who have done good to men; are we not to do the same with +Him to whom we are indebted for our existence; to Him who has contrived, +if I may be allowed to say so, the various enjoyments we are so +unwilling to detach ourselves from? Shall we dare, weak and ignorant as +we are, to measure the wisdom, and calculate the power of our +Benefactor, and rashly reproach him for not having done more for us? +This would be the language of ingratitude. But, as I have shown, our +sentiments have not been put to this test; and it is on more liberal +terms that we have been admitted to treat with the Supreme Being: He has +surrounded us with every thing that can encourage our expectations; He +allows us, by contemplation, to attain almost a knowledge of his +perfections; He lets us read them in that collection of glory and +magnificence which the universe displays; He permits us to perceive his +power and goodness, infinity and happiness; and by that succession of +ideas he has guided our wishes and our hopes. How grand is the +contemplation of the Eternal, they who have sensibility can tell! But +this idea should be very early implanted in the human heart, it is +necessary that it should be connected with our first feelings, that it +should rise by degrees, in order to gain strength before men are thrown +into the midst of that world which boasts of being freed from childish +prejudices; left, hurried along by its levity, they follow every day a +new master, and render themselves the slaves of pleasure and vanity. + +And that which is to maintain, amongst men, the principles first +inculcated, is public worship, an idea as beautiful as simple, and the +most proper to vivify all that is vague and abstract in reasoning and +instruction: public worship, in assembling men, and in turning them +without public shame to their weaknesses, and in equalising every +individual before the Master of the world, will be, in this point of +view a grand lesson of morality; but this worship, besides, habitually +reminds some of their duty, and is for others a constant source of +consolation; in short, almost all men, astonished and overwhelmed by the +ideas of grandeur and infinity, which the appearance of the universe, +and the exercise of their own thoughts, present to them, aspire to find +repose in the sentiment of adoration which unites them in a more +intimate manner to God, than the developement of their reason ever will. + +We should guard ourselves carefully from despising the emotions of +piety, which cannot be separated from its advantages; and philosophers +themselves know not how far they would go, when they try to reduce the +interests of men to the narrow circle of demonstrated truths: that which +we perceive confusedly, is more precious than all we have a certain +knowledge of; that which we anticipate, is of more value than the +blessings scattered round us. Thus, we should be miserably impoverished, +if they could retrench from the various comforts which we shall never +possess, but through the aid of the imagination. However, if we take +this imagination as a guide and encouragement, when we are engaged in +the pursuits of fortune and ambition, and if the wise themselves find +that to be good which serves to nourish our passions, why would you +reject it, when, simply more grand and more sublime in its object, it +becomes the support of our weaknesses, the safeguard of our principles, +and the source of our most interesting consolations? + +It is the part of legislators to study these truths, and to direct +towards them the spirit of laws, and the uncertain course of opinions. +How honourable is it for them to be called to form the august alliance +which is to unite happiness with morality, and morality with the +existence of a God! + + + + + CHAP. XII. + _That there is a God._ + + +That there is a God! How is it possible to avoid being penetrated with +an awful respect in uttering these words? How reflect on them without +the deepest humility, and even an emotion of surprise, that man, this +weak creature, this atom dispersed in the immensity of space, undertakes +to add some weight to a truth, of which all nature is the splendid +witness? However, if this truth is our supreme good, if we are nothing +without it, how can we banish it from our minds? Does it not constrain +us to dwell continually on the subject? Compared with it, all other +thoughts are insignificant and uninteresting; it gives birth to, and +sustains all the sentiments on which the happiness of an intelligent +creature depends. I confess I tremblingly discussed the different +objections which are employed to destroy our confidence in the existence +of a Supreme Being; I dreaded the melancholy which those arguments +produced; I was afraid to feel the impression of it myself, and thus to +hazard the opinion most dear to my heart, and most essential to my +happiness; it appeared to me, that a few general ideas, supported by +lively feelings, would have been sufficient for my tranquillity; and +without an interest more extended, without the desire of opposing, +according to my powers, a spirit of indifference and false philosophy, +which is every day gaining ground, I should never have stepped beyond my +circle. But, I am far from regretting the part I have taken: I have ran +over, without much trouble, those books where the most pernicious +doctrines are ingeniously disseminated; and have thought that a person, +endowed with common sense, on whom metaphysical subtleties were +obtruded, would resemble those savages who are brought sometimes amongst +us, and who, from the depraved refinement of our morals and manners, +have often recalled us, by some natural reflections, to those simple +principles which we have abandoned, to those ancient truths whose +vestiges are lost. + +The whole structure of religion would be overturned, if, by the strength +or artifices of reasoning, men could destroy our confidence in the +existence of a Supreme Being: morality, being detached from the opinions +which sustain it, would remain a wavering, unsupported notion, only +defended by a policy, whose power time would insensibly weaken. A fatal +languor invading every mind, where would be that universal interest, +that sentiment felt by all men, and proper to form a general alliance +between them? Then those, who, with pure intentions, can only be guided +and sustained by an intimate persuasion, would retire sad, and leave to +others the care of supporting moral order by fictions and falsehoods; +they would pity that dismayed race, called to appear and pass away like +flowers, which bloom but for a day; they would despise those animated +phantoms which only come to make a buz with their vanity and trivial +passions, and fall in a little while into eternal oblivion. All that +appears beautiful in the universe, and excites our enthusiasm, would +soon lose its splendour and enchantment, if we perceived nothing in this +brilliant scene but the play of some atoms, and the uniform walk of +blind necessity; for it is always because a thing may be otherwise, that +it acquires a claim to our admiration: in short, that soul, that spirit, +which vivifies man, that faculty of thought which surprises and +confounds those who reflect, would only appear a vain movement, if +nothing was before, or was to follow, if some unknown breath, or general +intelligence, did not animate nature. But we have dwelt too long on +those gloomy thoughts; reassume your light and life, admirable works of +God; come and confound the pride of some, and comfort others; come and +take possession of our souls, and direct our affections towards Him whom +we ought to love, towards Him who is the eternal model of perfect +wisdom, and unlimitted goodness! + +I shall not endeavour to prove that there is a God, by reciting all the +wonders the works of nature display to our eyes; several celebrated +writers have already done it, and have missed their aim. Infinity can +only be represented by astonishment and respect, which overwhelms all +our thoughts: and when we labour to explain the successive and varied +picture of the wonders of nature, this change of objects is more +calculated to relax our admiration than to increase it; for any change +eases our mind, by affording those relaxations which our weakness has +need of; and if we were to investigate only one phœnomenon, we should +soon discover the utmost extent of our faculties. We find the limits of +our understanding in the examination of the organization of the smallest +insect, as well as in observing the faculties of the soul; and the +mysteries of the simplest vegetation is as far above the reach of our +intelligence, as the principal agent of the universe. + +It is then as a hymn of praise to the Supreme Being, and not as +necessary instruction that I freely follow the course of my thoughts. I +shall begin by throwing a rapid glance on the principal characters of +wisdom and grandeur, which we are all equally struck with, when we +contemplate the wonder of the universe. + +What a sight is that of the world! What a magnificent picture for those +who can be roused out of the state of indifference, in which habit has +thrown them. We know not where to begin, or stop, when we expatiate on +so many wonders; and the most noble of all is, the faculty which has +been bestowed on us of admiring and conceiving them. What an astonishing +and sublime relation is that of the innumerable beauties of nature, with +the intelligence which permits us to enjoy, and to be made happy by +them! What relation so surprising, as that of the order and harmony of +the universe, with the moral intelligence which enables us to anticipate +the enjoyments of wisdom and unclouded knowledge! Nature is immense, and +all that it contains, all that it spreads with so much splendour, seems +within the reach of our sensibility, or the powers of our mind; and +these faculties, invisible and incomprehensible, unite to form, that +wonder of wonders, which we call felicity. Let not these plain words +turn our attention from the magical ideas which they represent. It is +because the grand phœnomena of our existence cannot either be defined or +expressed many ways, that they are so much more wonderful; and those +words, used by common consent, soul, mind, sensation, life, happiness, +and many others besides, which we pronounce so slightly, confound not +less our understanding, when we wish to discuss the essence of the +properties of which they are the sign. It is for this reason, among +several others, that the admiration of particulars, in the works of +nature, is always insufficient for those who have sensibility, as such +admiration is necessarily placed between two ideas susceptible of being +known; ideas which we connect through the aid of our own knowledge; but +the charm of our relation with the wonders which surround us, arises +from experiencing every instant the impression of an infinite grandeur; +and feeling the necessity of flying to that mild refuge of ignorance and +weakness, the sublime idea of a God. We are continually carried towards +this idea by the vain efforts which we make, in order to penetrate the +secrets of our own nature; and when I fix my attention on those +astonishing mysteries, which seem to terminate, in some manner, the +power of our thoughts, I represent them with emotion, as the only +barrier which separates us from the infinite spirit, the source of all +knowledge. + +Men endowed with the greatest genius, perceive quickly the bounds of +their faculties when they wish to go very far in the study of abstract +metaphysical truths; but the simplest and least exercised mind, can +distinguish the proofs of that order, which announces with so much +splendour the end and design of sovereign wisdom. It seems, that all the +knowledge proper to interest men has been placed within their reach. The +learned astronomer, observing the course of our globe round the sun, +perceives the cause of that regular succession of repose and vegetation, +which secures the earth its fecundity, and adorns every season with +renewed beauties; but the simple cultivator, who sees the treasurers of +the earth renovated every year, and answer, with singular precision, to +the wants of animated beings, is not less a witness of a phœnomenon +which is sufficient to excite his admiration and gratitude! Newton +analyzed light, and calculated the swiftness with which it runs over the +immensity of space; but the ignorant herdsman, who sees, when he wakes, +his hut enlightened by the same rays which animate all nature, is +equally benefitted by them. The indefatigable anatomist attains a just +idea of our inimitable structure, and the ingenious texture of our +different organs; but the man most devoid of instruction, who reflects +an instant on the pleasures, and the variety of the sensations, which we +find ourselves susceptible of, partakes the blessing equally. + +The transcendent knowledge of some people, is a degree of superiority +which disappears when contrasted with the incomprehensible grandeur of +nature; when we contemplate infinity, those talents which exalt one man +above another are no more seen; and probably it is beyond the limits of +our intelligence that the greatest wonders of nature begin. The +knowledge of all ages has not explained what is the imperious authority +of our will over our actions, nor how our thoughts could reach the most +remote ages, how our souls could investigate that innumerable multitude +of present objects, of recollections and anticipations; neither has it +informed us how all those excellencies of the mind, sometimes remain +unknown to itself, nor how they are sometimes at its command, issuing +out of their long obscurity, and succeeding each other with method, or +are profusely poured forth. At the sight of these astonishing phœnomena, +we think man presumptuous, when, puffed up with pride, he mistakes the +measure of his strength and wishes to penetrate into the secrets, whose +confines are shut by an invisible hand. He should be content to know, +that his existence is united to so many wonders; he should be satisfied +with being the principal object of the liberality of nature, and he +should adore with reverential respect that powerful Sovereign, who +bestows so many blessings on him, and who has made him to sympathize +with all the powers of heaven and earth. + +The globe on which we live runs over every year a space of two hundred +millions of leagues; and in this immense course, its distance from the +sun, determined by immutable laws, is exactly proportioned to the degree +of the temperature necessary to our feeble nature, and to the successive +return of that precious vegetation, without which no animated being +could subsist. + +That celestial body, which fertilizes the seeds of life shut up in the +bosom of the earth, is, at the same time, the source of that light which +opens to our view the glorious sight of the universe. The rays of the +sun run over in eight minutes about thirty millions of leagues: such an +impetuous motion would be sufficient to pulverize the largest masses of +matter; but, by an admirable combination, such is the incomprehensible +tenuity of these rays, that they strike the most tender of our organs, +not only without wounding it; but with a measure so delicate and +precise, that they excite in us those extatic sensations, which are the +origin and the indispensable condition of our greatest enjoyments. + +Man, in immensity, is only an imperceptible point; and yet, by his +senses and intelligence, he seems in communication with the whole +universe; but how pleasant and peaceable is this communication! It is +almost that of a prince with his subjects: all is animated round man, +all relates to his desires and wants; the action of the elements, every +thing on earth, like the rays of light, seems to be proportioned to his +faculties and strength; and whilst the celestial bodies move with a +rapidity which terrifies our imagination, and whilst they hurry along in +their course our dwelling, we are tranquil in the bosom of an asylum, +and under the protecting shelter allotted us; we enjoy there in peace a +multitude of blessings, which, by another wonderful affinity, ally +themselves to our taste, and all the sentiments we are endowed with. + +In short, and it is another favour, man is permitted to be, in some +things, the contriver of his own happiness, by his will and ingenuity; +he has embellished his habitation, and united several ornaments to the +simple beauties of nature; he has improved, by his care, the salutary +plants; and even in those which seemed the most dangerous he has +discovered some wholesome property, and carefully separated it from the +envenomed parts which surrounded it; he can soften metals, and make them +serve to augment his strength; he obliges the marble to obey him, and +assume what form he desires; he gives laws to the elements, or +circumscribes their empire; he stops the invasion of the sea; he +restrains the rivers in their natural bed, and sometimes obliges them to +take a different course, in order to spread their benign influence; he +erects a shelter against the fury of the winds, and by an ingenious +contrivance, makes use of that impetuous force, which he could not at +first dream of defending himself from; even the fire, whose terrible +action seems to presage destruction, he subjugates, and renders it, if I +may so express myself, the confident of his industry, and the companion +of his labours. + +What a source of reflections is this dominion of the mind over the most +dreadful effects of the movement of blind matter. It seems as if the +Supreme Being, in submitting thus to the intelligence of men the most +powerful elements, chose to give us an anticipation of the empire which +His sovereign wisdom has over the universe. + +However, it is in the influence of our spiritual faculties on +themselves, that we observe, above all, their admirable nature; we see, +with astonishment, the perfections which they acquire by their own +action. Intelligence, considered in a general manner, undoubtedly is a +great phœnomenon; but it is a still greater wonder, to see the thoughts +of a man reach, by the most ingenious means, the knowledge of others, +and form an alliance between the past and present productions of the +mind. It is by such an alliance that the sciences have been improved, +and that the mind of man has been acquainted with all its strength. The +mighty of the earth cannot break this association, nor subject to their +tyrannic divisions the noble heritage of knowledge; this gift, so +precious, preserves the stamp of a divine hand;—and no one has yet been +able to say it is mine. + +The most noble use that has ever been made of the admirable union of so +many talents, and so much knowledge, was to demonstrate how every thing +in nature relates to the idea of a first cause; which forcibly announces +a design full of wisdom, and a beneficent intention; but now, unhappily, +these proofs of the existence of a God are not sufficient; imperious +philosophers have laboured to subvert every thing founded on the +connection and wonderful harmony of the system of nature; it is not +sufficient to oppose to these new opinions the mere authority of final +causes; they do not contest that there is a perfect conformity between +our desires and wants, between our senses and the bounties of nature; +they do not contest, from the cedar to the hyssop, from the insect to +man, that there is a beauty of proportion in the whole, which is to be +found equally in the relation that objects have with each other, as well +as in their different parts; but this admirable harmony, in which the +pious man, the man of feeling, perceives with delight the stamp of an +eternal intelligence; others less fortunate, undoubtedly, obstinately +present it to us as a fortuitous collision, as a play of atoms agitated +by a blind movement, or as nature itself, existing thus from all +eternity. What trouble they take to invent and defend these systems +destructive of our happiness and hopes! I prefer my feelings to all this +philosophy; but, to avoid an encounter would be to favour their +presumption, and give additional strength to their opinions. + +Thus I shall treat the most important question that man can consider. I +shall endeavour first to show, that the different conjectures on the +origin of the world all centre in the single opinion of the eternal and +necessary existence of every thing which is; and I shall afterwards +compare the basis of that system with the reason of that happy and +simple belief which unites the idea of a Supreme Being with all we see +and know; in short, to the universe, the most unlimitted of our +conceptions. + + + + + CHAP. XIII. + _The same Subject continued._ + + +When we see the authors of the different systems, concerning the +formation of the world, reject the idea of a God, under the pretext, +that this idea is foreign to the nature of our perceptions, should we +not have a right to expect some better substitute for it? But, far from +answering our expectations, they abandon themselves to all the +wanderings of the most fantastic imagination. In fact, whether we refer +the origin of the universe to the effect of hazard, the fortuitous +concourse of atoms, or whether we establish another hypothesis derived +from the same principle, it is necessary at least to suppose the eternal +existence of an innumerable multitude of little particles of matter, +placed without order in the immensity of space; and to suppose, +afterwards, that these atoms, disseminated to infinity, attracted each +other, and corresponded by the inherent properties of their nature; and +that there resulted, from their adhesion, not only organized, but +intelligent faculties; it is necessary, in short, to suppose, that all +those incomprehensible atoms have been settled with admirable order +through the effect of a blind motion, and by the result of some of the +possible chances in the infinity of accidental combinations. Indeed, +after so many suppositions without example or foundation, that of an +Intelligent Being, soul and director of the universe, had been more +analogous and more consonant with our knowledge. + +Let us return to the hypothesis we have just mentioned. We shall then +recognize the trifling habit of the mind; it is accustomed to proceed +from simple to compound ideas, every time it meditates, invents, or +executes: thus, by an inverse method, the composers of systems have +thought, that, in order to connect the universe to its origin, it was +sufficient to detach, by the exercise of thinking, all its parts, and to +break and subdivide them afterwards to infinity; but whatever may be the +tenuity of these atoms, their existence, having organized and +intellectual properties, which we should be obliged to grant them, would +be a wonder almost equal to those phœnomena which surround us. + +When we see a plant grow, embellished with different colours, we only +think of the period when its vegetation may be perceived by our senses; +but the seed of this plant, or if you like better, the organized atoms, +the first principle of this seed, would have offered also a grand +subject of admiration, if we had been endowed with the faculties +necessary to penetrate into the occult secrets of nature. But perhaps, +in transforming into an imperceptible powder all the parts of matter, +which have been collected to compose the world, we have only before our +eyes a fugitive vapour, to which even our imagination cannot reach; and +those who unfortunately love and defend this admiration, find besides, +in the system of divisible atoms, means to defer, according to their +fancy, the moment of their astonishment. + +All these fantastic combinations serve only to lead us astray in our +researches; and I do not think it a matter of indifference to make a +general observation. The study of the first elements, of all the +sciences which we acquire, such as geometry, languages, civil +legislation, and several others, appear to us the simplest parts of our +instruction. It is not the same, when we seek to know the laws of the +physical world; for the works of nature never appear more simple than in +their compounded state; they are then, to our mind, that which harmony +is to the ear; it is the agreement of all parts which forms a union +perfectly proportioned to our intelligence. Thus, man, for example, that +wonderful alliance of so many different faculties, does not astonish our +understanding, but appears to us in one point of view, a simple idea; +but we are troubled, and, as it were, dismayed, when we try to analyze +him, or mount to the elements of his liberty, will, thought, and all the +other properties of his nature. + +We only advance towards infinity, and consequently towards the most +profound darkness, when we destroy the world in order to divide it into +atoms, out of the midst of which we make it issue afresh, after having +rallied all we have dispersed. + +Let us admit, for a moment, that there exists organized and intelligent +atoms, and that they are such, either by their nature, or by their +adhesion to other atoms. We are now, of all these scattered atoms, to +compose the universe, that master-piece of harmony, and perfect +assemblage of every beauty and variety, that inexhaustible source of +every sentiment of admiration; and in rejecting the idea of a God, +creator and preserver, we must have recourse to the power of chance, +that is to say, to the effects of an unknown continual motion, which, +without any rule, produces, in a limited time, all the combinations +imaginable; but, in order to effect an infinite variety of combinations, +it is not only necessary to admit a continual motion, but besides, to +suppose this continual motion changes its direction in all the parts of +space subject to its influence. The existence of such a change, and a +similar diversity in the laws of motion, is a new supposition which may +be ranked with the other wild ones. + +However, after these chimerical systems have been granted, we are not +freed from the difficulties which the notion of the formation of the +world by a fortuitous concourse of atoms produces. + +It is difficult to comprehend how particles of matter, agitated in every +manner, and susceptible, as has been supposed, of an infinity of +different adhesions, should not have formed such a mixture, such a +contexture, as would have rendered, the harmonious composition of the +universe in all its parts, impossible. + +When we represent to ourselves, abstractedly, the unlimmitted number of +chances that may be attributed to a blind movement, the imagination, +unable to conceive, is left to guess how an infinite number of atoms, +endowed with a property of uniting themselves, under an infinite +diversity of movements, could compose the heavenly bodies; but, as long +before that period, when such an accidental throw would become probable; +these same atoms might have formed an innumerable multitude of partial +combinations; if one of these combinations had been incompatible with +the harmony and composition of a world, that world could not have been +formed. + +The same considerations may be applied to animated beings: chance might +have produced men susceptible of life, and the transmission of it, long +before chance gave them all the faculties which they enjoy; and if they +had been formed with only four senses, they could not have acquired a +fifth; for the same reason that we do not see a new one spring up. +Besides, the chance which might have produced living beings, must have +always preceded the chance which afforded those beings every thing +necessary for their subsistence and preservation. + +It may indeed be supposed, that atoms assembled in a manner incompatible +with the disposition of the universe, have been separated by the +continuation of the motion introduced into the immensity of space; but +this continual motion, sufficient to sever that which it has joined, +would it not have destroyed that harmony which has been the result of +one of the fortuitous chances to which the formation of the world has +been attributed? + +Will some object, that all the parts of matter, once united in the +masses and proportions which constitute the heavenly bodies, have been +maintained by the impression of a predominant force at the same time +invariable? But how is it possible to reconcile the existence and +dominion of such a force with that continual motion, which was requisite +for the composition of the universe? + +It may be also demonstrated, that the formation of worlds, by the +chances of a blind motion, and their regular continuity of existence, +are two propositions which disagree. Let us explain this idea. The play +of atoms, necessary in order to produce the unformed masses of the +heavenly bodies, being infinitely less complicated than that which is +necessary to produce them, inhabited as they are with intelligent +beings, must have happened long before the other. Thus, in the system of +the composition of the universe, by the fortuitous concourse of atoms, +it is necessary to suppose, that these atoms, after having been united +to form the heavenly bodies, have been severed, and united again, as +many times as was necessary, to produce a planet inhabited by +intelligent beings. Since beings thus endowed add nothing to the +stability of the world, since they do not contribute to the grand +coalition of all its parts; why the same blind motion which has united, +dissolved, and assembled so often every part of the earth, before it was +composed, such as it is; why does it not produce some alteration now? It +should again reduce to powder our world, or at least, let us perceive +the commencement of some new form. + +It is not only to a world inhabited by intelligent beings, that the +arguments, just mentioned, may be applicable; for we perceive around us +an innumerable multitude of beauties and features of harmony, which were +not necessary to the preservation of our world, and which, according to +every rule of probability, would never have existed, unless we supposed, +that the earth has been formed, dissolved, and reproduced, an infinity +of times, before having been composed such as we see it; but then I +would ask, why there are no vestiges of those alterations, and why that +motion has stopped? + +It would be possible, however, by the assistance of a new supposition, +to resolve the difficulty I have just mentioned; some may say, that the +union, and the successive dispersion of the universal atoms, are +executed in a space of time, so slow and insensible, that our +observations, and all those which we have from tradition, cannot inform +us whether there will not be a separation of all the parts of the +universe, by the same causes which have occasioned their adhesion. + +It is obvious, that transporting us into infinity and admitting such a +series of arbitrary suppositions, they are not indeed exposed to any +rational attacks; but, making equally free with infinity, in order to +oppose nonsense to nonsense, why may I not be allowed to suppose, that +in the infinite combinations arising from perpetual motion, men have +been created, destroyed, and again called into being, with the same +faculties, remembrances, thoughts, relations, and circumstances; and why +each of us separated from our former existence, only by a sleep, whose +duration is imperceptible, should not be in our own eyes immortal +beings? Infinity permits the supposition of this absurd hypothesis, as +it authorises every flight of the imagination in which time is reckoned +for nothing. We see, however, how we risk running into error, when with +our limited faculties we wish to subject the incomprehensible idea of +infinity, and boldly adjust it to the combinations of finite beings. + +Let us produce, however, another objection. It may be said, that our +planet is the result of chance; but is not this chance improbable, if we +suppose that there existed in the infinity of space, an infinite number +of other assembled atoms, equally produced by the first throw of the +dice, which represent all the possible forms, and imaginable +proportions? And I would also ask, by what laws, all these irregular +bodies, necessarily subject, by reason of their number and masses, to an +infinity of movements, have not disconcerted the planetary system +formed, at the same time as they were, by chance? + +I ought to observe, above all, that the order which we are acquainted +with, is a proof of universal order; for, in immensity, where one part +is nothing compared with the whole, no part, without exception, could be +preserved, unless it was in equilibrium with every other. + +Thus, whether _an infinite succession of chances_ be supposed, to which +the entire mass of atoms has been uniformly subject, or whether the +first general throw is thought sufficient, but divided _into an infinity +of different sections_, our reason opposes invincible difficulties to +the result which some want to draw from these various systems. + +In short, we must observe, that in order to understand the accidental +formation of a world, such as we are at liberty to suppose, the eternal +existence of every kind of organized and intelligent atoms, must have +preceded the formation of that world. I must again observe, that when +they are obliged to such wonderful first principles, and to admit, in +the beginning, a nature so astonishing, we can scarcely conceive how +they can make it act suddenly a foolish part, in order to finish the +work of the universe: a more exalted supposition, would have prevented +their drawing a conclusion, so absurd. + +It seems to me, that notwithstanding the immensity which has given rise +to so many ridiculous notions about the formation of the world, they +have such a resemblance to each other, that we can scarcely discern any +difference; and considering the little circle which the imagination runs +over, when it applies its force to deep conceptions, we think we +discover something supernatural in its singular weakness: the authors of +these systems seem to have a slavish turn of thinking, and the marks of +their chains are very visible; it is always atoms, and atoms that they +make play together, either at different times, or all at once, in +infinite space; but when some want to form ideas of liberty and will, as +they do not know in what manner to analyze these properties, they +suppose them pre-existing in the elementary parts, which they made use +of to create their universe; and they prudently take care not to grant +any action to liberty and will, in order to prevent any resistance to +those notions on which they build their universe. + +They would not render either more simple or credible, the blind +production of worlds, by supposing not only innumerable multitude of +organized atoms, but, even an infinite diversity of molds to hold the +atoms, and of which force chemical analogy gives us an idea. Such a +system, which might serve to explain a few secondary causes of our known +nature, is not applicable to the first formation of beings; for with +such an assemblage of molds and atoms, all the great difficulties would +still subsist. In fact, how should the different molds have classed +themselves properly, in order to form the most simple whole, but which +beside required a fixed measure and gradation of ranks? The mold +destined for the organized atoms, of which the crystalline is to be +composed, how is it possible it should have placed itself in the centre +of that mold which is to form the pupil of the eye, and this last on +that one which is to form the whole, and so on, by an exact gradation, +whose divisions and subdivisions are innumerable? + +Were they to suppose an infinite succession of molds, of which the +largest attracted the smallest, in the same manner as the molds +attracted the atoms; this supposition, less ridiculous than any other, +is not sufficient to model, even in imagination, the most unimportant +phœnomena of nature; it is necessary, besides, that by the direction of +a wise and powerful force, the molds, and the atoms which belong to +them, set themselves in motion, without confusion; it is necessary that +those destined to compose the exterior fibres should not obstruct the +passage of those molds calculated to form the interior organs; in short, +that every one of those in its course and expansion, should artfully +observe those delicate shades which blend or separate all the parts of +the simplest of nature’s works. + +We are already acquainted with a force which acts in all directions, +which disposes every thing in due order, tends towards an end, stops, +begins again, and finishes, every moment, a complicated work; and this +is the intelligent will, and certainly we have reason to be astonished, +that the only faculty we have an intimate consciousness of, is the one +philosopher’s turn from, when they investigate the admirable order of +the universe. + +I allow, that they may, at the same time they reject the idea of a God, +admit, as a principle, the eternal existence of a mechanical force, +which, by an incomprehensible necessity, directed, towards a wise end, +every thing that was at first confusedly scattered in the immensity of +space; but this new supposition would form an hypothesis similar to the +system of the eternal existence of the universe; in fact, the eternal +existence of all the elements, of all substances, forces, and properties +which were necessary to produce a certain order of things, would be a +phœnomenon as incomprehensible as the existence of that order itself. + +We must add, that these two phœnomena would be separated in our thoughts +only by an indivisible instant, an instant that we can neither describe +nor imagine in the extent of the time represented by eternity; for any +chosen period would be still too late by an infinity of ages. The +necessary effect of an eternal cause has not, like that cause, any +period to which we can fix its commencement. + +We thus perceive, under another point of view, how vain and ridiculous +are the fantastic operations, they imagine, before the existence of the +world, and which are attributed sometimes to the disordered movements of +chance, and sometimes to the regular laws of blind necessity. + +There is then but one hypothesis to be opposed to the idea of a God: it +is the system of the eternal existence of the universe. Such an +atheistical system will always be more easily defended than any other, +because that being founded on a supposition without bounds, it does not +require to be embraced by reasoning, like all the hypothetical ideas, by +which men make nature act according to an order of their own invention. +We will, in the next chapter, consider this system, and discuss it by +every means in our power. + + + + + CHAP. XIV. + _The same Subject continued._ + + +Those who maintain that the world subsists of itself, and that there is +not a God, say, in favour of their opinion, that if the eternal +existence of the universe overwhelms our understanding, the eternal +existence of a God is a still more inconceivable idea; and that such a +supposition is only another difficulty, since, according to a common +mode of judging, a work the most wonderful appears a phœnomenon less +astonishing than the knowledge of which it is the result. + +Let us first fix our attention on this argument. It is useless to ask, +what is meant by another difficulty in infinity; those ideas which are +represented by familiar expressions, necessarily derived from +comparison, are only admissable in the narrow circle of our knowledge; +out of it, those ideas have not any application, and we cannot fix any +degrees in the immensity which exceeds the bounds of our views, and in +those unfathomable depths which are out of the reach of our intellectual +powers. + +Undoubtedly, our mind is equally lost, both in trying to form a distinct +idea of a God, and in endeavouring to describe the eternal existence of +the world, without any cause out of itself: however, when we try to +glance our thoughts towards the first traces of time; when we try to +rise almost to the beginning of beginnings, we feel distinctly that, far +from considering the eternal existence of an intelligent cause as +increasing the difficulty, we only find repose in that opinion; and +instead of forcing our mind to adopt such an opinion, and thinking we +wander in an imaginary space, we find it, on the contrary, more +congenial with our nature; whilst order unites itself to the idea of a +design, and a multiplicity of combinations to the idea of an +intelligence. Thus we rise from little to great things, and reasoning by +analogy, we shall more easily conceive the existence of a Being endowed +with various unlimitted properties, which we in part partake; we shall, +I say, more easily conceive such an existence, than that of a universe, +where all would be intelligent, except the first mover. The workman, +undoubtedly, is superior to the work: but according to our manner of +feeling and judging, an intelligent combination, formed without +intelligence, will always be the most extraordinary, as well as the most +incomprehensible phœnomenon. + +It is not indifferent to observe, that according to the system I combat, +the more the world would appear to us the admirable result of wisdom, +the less power should we have to draw any deduction favourable to the +existence of a God, since the author of a perfect work is not so easily +traced as the feeble re-iterated labours of mediocrity. Thus, all those +who particularized the beauties of nature, would stupidly injure the +cause of religion, and weaken our belief in the existence of a Supreme +Being. It seems to me, that it is easy to perceive what an ill-founded +argument that must be which leads us to a conclusion so absurd. + +The attentive view of the universe should make us mistrust the judgment, +which we form, of that which is the most simple in the order of things; +for all the general operations of nature arise from a movement more +noble and complicated than we can easily form an idea of. We should +surely find, contrary to a perfect simplicity of means, that a circuit +of two hundred millions of leagues, which our globe makes every year, is +necessary, in order to produce the successive changes of seasons, and to +assure the reproduction of the necessary fruits; we should find, that +the distance of thirty-four millions of leagues, between the sun and the +earth, was necessary to proportion the rays of light to the delicacy of +our organs. However, if even in the narrow circle we traverse, we do not +discover any constant application of that simple order, of which we form +an idea, how could such a principle serve to guide our opinions, at the +moment when we elevate our meditations to the first link of the vast +chain of beings; when we undertake to examine, whether, throughout the +immensity of the universe, there exists, or not, an intelligent cause? +What would become, in that immensity, of the insignificant phrase, _it +is one difficulty more_? The buzzing fly would be less ridiculous, if +capable of perceiving the order and magnificence of a palace, it +asserted, that the architect never existed. + +Every thing indicates, that, according to our different degrees of sense +and knowledge, what is simple, and what is easy, have a very different +application; we may continually observe, that these expressions are not +interpreted in the same manner, by a man of moderate abilities and a man +of genius; however, the distance which separates the various degrees of +intelligence with which we are acquainted, is probably very trifling in +the universal scale of beings. All our reflections would lead us then to +presume, that beyond the limits of the human mind, the simple is +compounded, the easy our wonderful, and the evident our inconceivable. + +After having examined the principal arguments of the partisans of +athiestical systems, which we now attack; let us change the scene, and +in the midst of the labyrinth, in which we are placed, try to find a +clue for our meditations. + +We are witnesses of the existence of the world, and intimately +acquainted with our own; thus, either God or matter must have been +eternal; and by a natural consequence, an eternal existence, which is an +idea the most incomprehensible, is, however, the most incontestible +truth. Obliged now, in order, to fix our opinion, to chuse between two +eternal existences, the one intelligent and free, the other blind, and +void of all consciousness, why not prefer the first? An eternal +existence is an idea so astonishing, so much above our comprehension, +that we decorate it with every thing sublime and beautiful, and nothing +deserves more those decorations than thought. + +Would it not be strange, that in our sysmatic divisions, it was only to +thought, and consequently to all that was most admirable in our nature, +that we refuse eternity, whilst we grant it to matter and its blind +combinations? What a subversion of all proportion! that we should +believe in the eternal existence of matter, because it is present to our +eyes, and yet not admit the eternal existence of an intelligence; whilst +that which we are endowed with becomes the source of our judgment, and +even the guide of our senses! + +And by what other singularity we should grant the faculty and the +consciousness of intelligence, only to that small part of the world +which is represented by animated beings? Thus, the whole of nature would +be below a part; and if no spirit animated the universe, man would +appear to have reached his ultimate perfection; though we see in him but +a faint sketch, a weak shadow of something more complete and admirable; +we perceive that he is, to speak thus, at the commencement of thinking; +and all his cares, all his efforts, to extend the empire of that +faculty, only inform him, that he tends continually towards an end, from +which he is always distant; in short, in his greatest exertions he feels +his weakness; he studies, but he cannot know himself; he makes a few +petty discoveries, sees some trifling wheels, whilst the main spring +escapes his search: he is fallen into the world, like a grain of sand +thrown by the winds; he has neither a consciousness of his origin, nor a +foresight of his end; we perceive in him all the timidity and mistrust +of a dependent being; he is constrained, by instinct, to raise to heaven +his wishes and contemplations; and, when he is not led astray by an +intoxicating reason, he fears, seeks to adore a god, and rejects with +disdain the rank which audacious philosophers assign him in the order of +nature. + +I must also add, that the sentiment of admiration, which I cannot +stifle, when I turn my attention on the spiritual qualities we are +endowed with, would be insensibly weakened, if I was reduced to consider +man himself as a simple growth of blind matter; for the most astonishing +production would only inspire me with a transitory emotion, unless I can +refer it to an intelligent cause: I must discover a design, a +combination, before I admire; as I have need to perceive feeling and +affection, before I love. + +But as soon as I see in the human mind the stamp of Omnipotence; and it +appears to me one of the results of a grand thought; it reasumes its +dignity, and all the faculties of my soul are prostrate before such a +wonderful conception. + +It is then united with the idea of a God, that the spiritual faculties +of man attract my homage and captivate my imagination; in reflecting on +these sublime faculties, studying their admirable essence, I am +confirmed in the opinion that there exists a sovereign intelligence, +soul of nature, and that nature itself is subject to its laws: yes, we +find in the mind of man the first evidence, a faint shadow of the +perfection which we must attribute to the Creator of the Universe. What +a wonder indeed is our thinking faculty, capable of so many things yet +ignorant of its own nature! I am equally astonished, by the extent and +limits of thinking; an immense space is open to its researches, and at +the same time it cannot comprehend the secrets which appear most +proximate with it; as the grand motive of action, the principle of +intellectual force, ever remains concealed. Man is then informed, every +instant, of his grandeur and dependence; and these thoughts must +naturally lead to the idea of Omnipotence. There are, in those limits of +our knowledge and ignorance, in that confused and conditional light, all +the evidence of design; and it seems to me, sometimes, that I hear this +command given to the human soul by the God of the universe: go to admire +a portion of my universe, to search for happiness and to learn to love +me; but do not try to raise the veil, with which I have covered the +secret of thy existence; I have composed thy nature of some of the +attributes which constitute my own essence, thou wouldst be too near me, +if I should permit thee to penetrate the mysteries of it; wait for the +moment destined by my wisdom; till then, thou canst only reach me by +reverence and gratitude. + +Not only the wonderful faculty of thinking connects us with the +universal intelligence; but all those inconceivable properties, known by +the name of liberty, judgment, will, memory, and foresight; it is, in +short, the august and sublime assemblage of all our intellectual +faculties. Are we, in fact, after the contemplation of such a grand +phœnomenon, far from conceiving a God? No, undoubtedly, we have within +us a feeble image of that infinite power we seek to discover; man is +himself a universe, governed by a sovereign; and we are much nearer the +Supreme Intelligence, by our nature, than by any notion of the primitive +properties of matter; properties, from which some wish to make the +system of the world and its admirable harmony flow. + +It seems to me, that our thinking faculty is too slightly treated in the +greater number of philosophic systems; and some have been so afraid of +honouring it, that they will not admit it to be a simple and particular +principle, when the subject of the question is the immortality of the +soul; nor will they consider it as a universal principle, when they +discuss the opinion of the existence of a God. + +It is equally singular, that they wish to compose of matter a soul +endowed with the most sublime qualities; and they pretend, at the same +time, that the world, in which we see intelligent beings, had not for a +contriver and principal any being of the same nature: this supposition, +however, would be as reasonable as the other is weak; but it seems to +me, that they like better to attribute order to confusion, than to order +itself. + +We seek to penetrate the secret of the existence of the universe; and +when we reflect on the causes of that vast and magnificent disposition, +we can only attribute it to what seems the most marvellous and analogous +to such a composition, thought, intention, and will. Why then should we +retrench from the formation of the world all those sublime properties? +Are we to act sparingly in an hypothesis in which all the wonders of +nature are concentred? It is by the spiritual faculties with which man +is endowed, that he remains master of the earth, that he has subdued the +ferocious animals, conquered the elements, and found a shelter from +their impetuosity: it is by these faculties that man has constructed +society, given laws to his own passions, and that he has improved all +his means of happiness; in short, nothing has ever been done, but by the +aid of his mind; and in his speculations on the formation of the world, +and on the admirable relations of all the parts of the universe, that +which he wishes not to admit, and will dare to reject is the intelligent +powers and action of thinking. It seems like men disputing about the +means which has been made use of to erect a pyramid, who name all the +instruments, except those that they found at the foot of the edifice. + +Habit only turns our attention from the union of wonders which compose +the soul; and it is thus, unfortunately, that admiration, lively light +of the mind and feelings, does not afford us any more instruction. We +should be very differently affected, if, for the first time, we +contemplated the meanest part of this admirable whole! But even then, in +a little time, the strong conviction of the existence of a God would be +worn away, and become what it is at present. But, let me be permitted, +in order to render this truth more striking, to have recourse, for a +moment, to fiction. Let us imagine men, as immoveable as plants, but +endowed with some one of our senses, enjoying the faculty of reflection, +and enabled to communicate their thoughts. I hear these animated trees +discourse about the origin of the world, and the first cause of all +things; they advance, like us, different hypothesis on the fortuitous +movement of atoms, the laws of fate and blind necessity; and among the +different arguments, employed by some, to contest the existence of a +God, creator of the universe, that which makes the greatest impression +is, that it is impossible to conceive how an idea should become a +reality; of how the design of disposing the parts should influence the +execution, since the will being a simple wish, a thought without force +has not any means to metamorphose itself into action: but in vain would +these immoveable spectators of the universe wish to change their +situation, to raise a shelter against the impetuosity of the winds, or +the scorching heat of the sun; yet then it would be evidently absurd to +imagine the existence of a faculty essentially contrary to the immutable +nature of things. Let however, in the midst of this conversation, a +supernatural power appear, and say to them, what would you think then, +if this wonder, whose existence you regard as impossible, should be +executed before your eyes; and if the faculty of acting, according to +your own will, was to be suddenly given you? Seized with astonishment, +they would prostrate themselves with fear and respect; and from that +instant, without the slightest doubt, would believe they had discovered +the secret of the system of the world; and they would adore the infinite +power of intelligence, and it is to a like cause we should attribute the +disposition of the universe. However, the same phœnomenon which would +appear above belief, and out of the limits of possibility, to those who +have never been a witness of it, that wonder exists in our world; we see +it, we experience it every instant; though the force of habit weakens +the impression and eradicates our admiration. + +The hypothesis I have just mentioned, might even be applied to the +sudden acquisition of all the means proper to communicate ideas; and to +the prompt discoveries of the other properties of our mind; but several +of these properties constitute, in such an essential manner, the essence +of the soul, that we cannot, even in imagination, separate them, any +more than we can detach action from will, and will from thought. There +are some spiritual faculties, and those the most wonderful, which we +cannot define, and which we should not have even supposed to exist had +we not possessed them; and if it had been possible to have known them +before we were endowed with them, the inventors of systems would have +pointed out this astonishing means, as the only one applicable to the +composition of the admirable harmony of the universe. + +We shall be led to the same reflections, when ceasing to expatiate on +the greatest wonders of our nature, we bound ourselves to consider the +human mind at the moment when its action may be perceived. To render +this observation clearer, let us follow a man of genius in the course of +his labours, and we shall see him at once embrace a multitude of ideas, +compare them, notwithstanding their distance, and form from such a +mixture a distinct result proper to direct his public or private +conduct; let us consider him extending and multiplying these first +combinations, and connecting them, by an invisible web, to some +scattered points which his imagination has fixed in the vast regions of +futurity; with the assistance of these magic succours we see him +approaching the time which does not yet exist; but we see him, in his +career, aided by accumulated knowledge, more subtle than the rays of the +sun and yet separated, with an admirable order; more fleet and dispersed +than the light vapours of the morning, and still subject to the will of +that inconceivable power, which, under the name of memory, heaps up the +acquisitions of the mind, in order to assist it afterwards in its new +acquirements: but let us examine still further this man of genius, when +he deposits, by means of writing, his different reflections; and let us +ask, how he knows quickly, that an idea is new, and that a style has an +original turn? Let us again enquire, how, in order to form such a +judgment, he makes with celerity a recapitulation of the thoughts and +images employed by others, to illustrate the subjects they have treated, +whilst years and ages were rolling away; in short, let every one, +according to his strength, try to penetrate into these mysterious +beauties of the human understanding; and let him enquire afterwards +about the impression which he receives from a like meditation. There is, +perhaps, as great a difference, if I may be allowed to say so, between +the most perfect vegetable and the human mind, as between it and the +Deity: to extend this idea, we have only to suppose, that in the +immensity which surrounds us, there exists a gradation equal to that we +have perceived in the little space we are permitted to inspect. + +The author of a celebrated work accuses men of presumption, because, +when they endeavour to trace the first principle of things, by comparing +their own faculties with it, they seem to think that they approach it. +But, what other part should we be able to take, when we are called to +reason and to judge? It is not sufficient that the idea of the Supreme +Being may be metaphysical; it is necessary further, some will argue, +that we even try to render it abstract, by removing it out of our +imagination, and that we seek for, in our judgment and opinions, a +support which may be in a manner absent from ourselves, and absolutely +foreign to our nature. All this cannot be understood: we confess that we +have not sufficient strength to know the essence and perfection of God, +but giving way to abstraction, we extinguish our natural light, and +deprive ourselves of the few means we have to obtain this knowledge; we +can only be acquainted with unknown things by the help of those we know: +we shall be led astray, if we are obliged to take another road; and +modern philosophers often seek to attack intimate sentiments by +arbitrary ideas, of which an imagination the most capricious is the only +foundation. + +It will then always be surprizing, that in our contemplations and habits +of thinking, the wisdom of the design, the harmony of the whole, and the +perfection of parts, are manifest traces of intelligence; and yet that +we should renounce, suddenly, this manner of feeling and judging, in +order to attribute the formation of the universe to the effect of +chance, or the eternal laws of blind necessity; and is it possible, that +we can deduce the same consequences from an admirable order, as from +wild confusion? Facts so different, principles so contrary, should not +lead to the same conclusion; the magnificent system of the universe +ought to have some weight, when we conjecture about its origin; and it +would be difficult to persuade us, that in investigating the most +exalted truths, we ought to consider all the knowledge we acquire by the +view of nature as merely indifferent. Men are carried very far, when +they reject the arguments drawn from final causes; it is not only a +single thought they would destroy, it is the source of all our knowledge +they would dry up. + +Men insensibly cease to perceive a connexion between the existence of a +God, and the different miracles with which we are surrounded; but all +would be changed, if God exhibited the numerous acts of his power +successively, instead of displaying them all at once; our imagination, +animated by such a movement, would rise to the idea of a Supreme Being; +it is then, because an accumulation of wonders aggrandizes the universe; +it is because a harmony, not to be equalled, seems to convert an +infinity of parts into an admirable whole; and that profound wisdom +maintains it in an immutable equilibrium; it is, in short, because +insensible gradations and delicate shades render still more perfect the +wonders of nature, that men are less struck with astonishment, or lost +in adoration. + +We want, say you, new phœnomena to determine our persuasion: do you +forget, that all which is offered to our view already surpasses our +understanding? If the least miracle was to be effected before you, you +would be ready to bend your proud reason; but because the most grand and +wonderful, which the imagination itself can form an idea of, has +preceded your existence, you receive no impression from it, all appears +simple to you, all necessary. But, the reality of the wonders of the +universe has nothing to do with the instant you are allowed to +contemplate them: your pilgrimage on earth, is it not a period +imperceptible in the midst of eternity? admiration, surprise, and all +the affections of which man is susceptible, do not change the nature of +the phœnomena which surround him; and his intelligence reflects but a +very small part of the wonders of the universe. + +We have no need of a revolution in the order of nature, to discover the +power of its author; the fibres of a blade of grass confound our +intelligence, and when we have grown old in study and observation, we +continually discover new objects, which we have not investigated, and +perceive new relations; we are ever in the midst of unknown things and +incomprehensible secrets. + +However, supposing, for a moment, the existence of extraordinary +miracles which we should be impressed with; it is easy to conceive, that +these miracles would not have on men the influence we presume; for if +they were frequent, and if they happened only at regular periods, their +first impression, would slowly be weakened, and, at last, men would +range them in the class of the successive movements of eternal matter. +But if, on the contrary, there was a long interval between these +miracles, the generations who succeeded the actual witnesses of them +would accuse their ancestors of credulity, or contest the truth of those +traditions, which transmitted the account of a revolution contrary to +the common course of nature. + +Some may still say, that, in order to render manifest the existence of +the Supreme Being, it would be necessary that men were punctually +answered, when they address their prayers; but the influence of our +wishes upon events, if this influence was habitual and general, would it +be sufficient to change the opinion of those who see, with indifference, +that innumerable multitude of actions which are so miraculously subject +to our will? Would they not still find some reason for considering such +an increase of power, as the necessary result of the eternal system of +the universe? Thus, whatever might be the measure of intelligence, added +to that we now enjoy, in short, though a number of new wonders were +accumulated, men could still oppose to that union of miracles the same +objections, and the same doubts they do not now fear to raise against +the wonders we are daily witnesses of. It is difficult, it is +impossible, to make a constant or profound impression on men who are +only susceptible of astonishment in the short transition from the known +to the unknown; they have but a moment to feel this emotion, and it is +from the slowness of their comprehension, or the continual succession of +the phœnomena submitted to their inspection, that the duration of their +admiration depends. And, perhaps, our faculties and powers would excite +more surprise, if, in order to subject our movements to our will, it +were necessary to give our orders, and to pronounce them with a loud +voice, as a captain does to his soldiers; however, such a constitution +would be a degree less wonderful than that we possess. + +I will anticipate another objection; we advance gradually, some will +say, in discovering the secrets of nature; the power of attraction, that +grand physical faculty, has only been known about a century, and +observations on the effects of electricity are still more recent; every +age, every year, adds to the treasure of our knowledge, and the time +will arrive, perhaps, when, without having recourse to any mysterious +opinions, we shall have explained all the phœnomena which still astonish +us. + +It is not at first conceivable, how our past discoveries, and all those +which may in future enrich the human mind, would ever free us from the +necessity of placing a first cause at the termination of our +reflections; for, the more we perceive of new links in the vast +disposition of the universe, the more we extend the magnificence of the +work, and the power of the Creator. A series of successful exertions may +reveal, perhaps, the secret of some physical properties, superior in +force to those we have experienced: but, even then, all the movements of +nature would be subordinate to a few general laws; and when we should +distinguish these laws, the result of our researches would demonstrate +simply the existence of a greater unity in the system of the world; and +this character of perfection would be impressed, if it was possible, +still more on us; for, in a work, such as the universe, it is the simple +and regular relations which announce, above all, the wisdom and power of +the Disposer; because our admiration could never be excited by an +assemblage of incoherent ideas, whose chain would every instant be +broken. But, I know not by what habit or blindness it is, that when men +have discovered a principle uniform in its action, and have given to +that principle a denomination, they believe that their astonishment +ought to cease: in fact, attraction and electricity are not so much now +subjects of surprise, as a means to free us from the admiration due to +the magnificent result of those singular properties; in short, we are +habituated to consider, with indifference, every general effect, of +which we acquire a conception, as if even this conception was not one of +the most noble of the phœnomena of nature. Some will say, that men, by +degrees, becoming familiarized with their own minds, despise all they +can easily understand; their competitions are then the only origin of +their vanity; for when they examine themselves individually, or when +they judge of men in general, they have such a mean opinion of +themselves, that they do not highly value their discoveries. + +We ought to place, amongst the number of ideas the most extensive and +general, that of Buffon on the formation of the earth; but this idea, +supposing it as just as it is beautiful, only explains to us one of the +gradations of this superb work. I see the earth formed by an emanation +of the sun; I see it animated and become fertile, when it has received, +by slow degree, its temperature; and I see, beside, issue out of its lap +all the beauties of nature; and that which surprises me still more, all +the beings endowed with instinct or intelligence; but if the elements of +these incomprehensible productions had been prepared or simply disposed +in the fiery body which animates our system, I transfer to it my +astonishment, and equally have to seek for the author of so many +wonders. + +I must now fix my attention, for a few moments, on the most metaphysical +part of this work. We can, perhaps, form an idea of a world existing +without a beginning, and by the laws of blind necessity, provided that +world was immoveable and invariable in all its parts; but how apply the +idea of eternity to a continual succession; as such a nature is +necessarily composed of a beginning and end, we cannot otherwise define +the idea of succession; thus, we are constrained to elevate ourselves to +a first Being existing by himself, when we have before our eyes a +constant revolution of causes and effects, of destruction and life. It +is impossible to have any idea of motion without that of a beginning. + +The difficulty would not be removed, by saying, that the whole of the +universe is immutable, and the parts only subject to change; for a whole +of this kind, without any relation whatever, either real or imaginary, a +like whole has only an ideal circumscription, which, in fact, is not +susceptible of an alteration; but such a circumscription only presents +us an assemblage of positive things contained in its circle; and it is +not in studying those, nor in examining the different parts of the +unknown whole, which we call the universe, that we are allowed to draw +consequences, or to form a judgment. Thus, seeing only a succession, we +rationally feel the necessity of a first cause. + +But, some will say, you are entangled in the same difficulty, when you +suppose the eternity of a God; for a series of designs in an intelligent +being should lead to the idea of a commencement, as well as the +successions of the physical world. + +This proposition, undoubtedly, is not easily cleared up, like all those +whose solution appears to be united to the knowledge of infinity. We +cannot, however, hinder ourselves from perceiving, that the physical +generations lead us, in a manner simple and manifest, to the necessity +of a first principle; and we ought to search for this principle out of +ourselves, since our nature does not furnish any idea of it; whereas, +the successive combinations of the mind may relate to an origin, of +which we have not any conception, and which seems united, in some +manner, to these same combinations. In fact, we can easily form a +distinct idea of a faculty of thought, antecedent to the action of +thinking, and which might even be separated by such intervals as the +imagination could conceive. It is the same with liberty, that +intellectual power of which we have the consciousness, at the same time +that it remains absolutely idle. + +I shall add, that, even in the narrow circle of our thoughts, it is +true, the operations of the mind appear to us often dependant on each +other; yet, sometimes their chain is so broken, that our ideas seem +really to issue out of nothing; instead of which, in every other +production, we know, there is always a visible tie between that which +is, and that which was. We must not forget, that at the very time our +ideas appear to us connected, that succession is to be attributed to our +weakness and ignorance, rather than to the mind, considered in a general +manner. Circumscribed in all our means, we are obliged to go continually +from the known to the unknown, from probability to certainty, from +experience of the past, to conjectures about the future; but this +gradation, this course, ought to be absolutely foreign to an +intelligence without bounds, which knows and which sees all at the same +time; and perhaps we are in the way of this truth, when we perceive, +amongst us, the claim of true genius, and the turbulent whirlpool of +folly. + +In short, it is not men persuaded of the existence of a God, that we +need require to transport themselves beyond, if I may say so, the domain +of thought, in order to search for proofs of their opinion; atheists +alone want such an effort, since they alone resist the influence of the +simplest sentiments and most natural arguments; since they alone bid us +mistrust that distinct connexion which we perceive between the Supreme +Intelligence and the perfection of order; that train of causes and +effects, between the idea of a God and all the propensities of the soul; +it is these considerations, intelligible to all, which give new force to +our opinions. + +Directed by these reflections, and wishing to investigate in a useful +manner the subject I have undertaken, I shall not engage in the +arguments which turn on the creation of the world. It is sufficient for +me to have perceived, that the idea of the creation of the universe is +not more inconceivable than the idea of its eternity; I am not indeed +obliged, with those who adopt the last system, to suppose something +growing out of nothing; but substituting the idea of an eternal +existence, instead of that of nothing, is a thought which equally +terrifies my imagination; for my mind knows not where to place that +eternity and in order to comprehend it still surrounds it with a vacuum. +In the system of a created universe, I see something coming out of +nothing, by the will of a Being whom I can form an idea of; but in the +system of the eternity of matter, my faculties are absorbed in +endeavouring to embrace it; in short, both of these modes of existence +appear to me in the midst of a vague infinity, which no human power can +conceive; and if sometimes the eternal existence of the universe seems +less incomprehensible than its creation, it is only because such an idea +eludes examination and precludes reasoning. + +The idea of a Creator is undoubtedly equally above our comprehension, +but we are led to it by all our feelings and thoughts; and if we are +stopped in the efforts which we make to reach the cause we seek, it is +by obstacles which we can even attribute to the will of that power we +are searching to discover; instead of that, contemplating the uniform +and insipid rotation of an eternal existence, we are almost driven to +despair, that is to say, we feel the impossibility of conceiving the +nature of things, and the certainty, nevertheless, that there exists not +any veil designedly placed between that nature and our understandings. + +I must still make some further observations; we see a resemblance of +creation in the continual reproduction of all the bounties of the earth; +and our moral system offers a still more striking one, in the formation +of ideas which did not exist antecedently. Our feelings appear another +proof of the same truth; for they have not any evident connexion with +the cause that we assign them: thus, without habit we might see as great +a difference between certain exterior emotions and the various +affections of our souls, as we can conceive between the existence of the +world and the idea of a Creator. + +We perceive also, that the universe has all the characters of a +production; characters which consist in the union of a multitude of +parts, whose relations are fixed by a single thought. In short, even the +succession of time announces intelligence; for we know not how to place +that succession in the midst of an eternal existence. We cannot conceive +any different periods in an extent in which there is not a beginning; +for before we arrive at any of these periods, there must have been +always an infinite space; besides, there being no beginning, considered +abstractedly, annihilates the idea of intervals, since they could not +have two fixed points: thus, the introduction of the past, the present, +and the future, into the midst of eternity, seems due to an intelligent +power, who has modelled this immense uniformity, and governs the nature +of things. + +I ought not to dwell long on these reflections; to give a basis to +religious opinions, it is not necessary to conceive of creation in its +metaphysical essence; it is sufficient, to believe the existence of a +Supreme Being, creator and preserver of nature, the model of wisdom and +goodness, the protector of rational beings, whose providence governs the +world. We lose all our strength when extending too far our meditations, +we aspire to know and explain the secrets of infinity; we then only +exhibit to the adversaries of religion the faint stretch of our +opinions, and the last struggles of a reason weakened by its own +efforts; it is much better to use those arguments which sense and +feeling are able to defend. We should candidly confess, that our noblest +faculties have immutable limits; one degree more would perhaps diffuse a +sudden light on the questions, whose examination disconcerts us. There +is not perhaps any mind accustomed to meditation, which has not had +several times pre-sentiments of this truth; for the first glimmering of +a new perception seems to out-run thinking, and such is its proximity +that we imagine one step more would enable us to catch it; but our hope +is dissipated, we cannot grasp the fleeting shadow, and fall back again +into the sad conviction of our impotence. Alas! in that infinite space +which our intellectual powers try to run over, there are only immense +deserts, where the mind cannot find repose, or the thoughts meet any +asylum; these are the regions whose entrance seems to have been +desolated, in order that the most unbounded imagination might not obtain +any knowledge of them; but will you dare to say, that there stops all +intelligence, there finishes the mysteries of nature? would you expect +to possess the secrets of time in attributing an eternal existence to +all we know? Certainly, we are too insignificant to promulge such +decrees, we enjoy too small a portion of eternity to determine what +belongs to it. + +The most probable thought is, that our reason is insufficient to reach +the explanations we wish to unfold; the chain of beings above us every +instant reminds us of this truth; and it appears singular, that +perceiving so distinctly the bounds of our senses, we should not be +induced to think, that our intelligence, apparently so extended, may +nevertheless run over a very circumscribed space. Our imagination goes +much farther than our knowledge, but its domain is perhaps only a point +in what is yet unexplored; and it is necessary to penetrate those +unknown regions, to discover the truths which illustrate the mysteries +that surround us; but there is a Being who knows them, Omniscience is at +the summit of those gradations of intelligence which we trace. We know +nothing, we do not discover any result but through the assistance of +experience and observation; and we only know the world by the little +front scene which meets our view: is it rational to suppose, that only +this kind of knowledge exists in the universe? Men, in the slow progress +of their judgment, resemble children; but even this condition recals the +idea of a father and a tutor. Every thing however shows us, that the +phœnomena of nature relate to a grand whole; we see that its dispersed +productions are united to some general cause; it is the same with human +knowledge; more admirable than the rays of light spread through +immensity, it is an emanation from the most perfect light. In short, if +space, if time itself, those two existences without bounds, are subject +to division, why should we not be induced to think, that the degrees of +knowledge we experience and conceive, are also only a part of a +universal intelligence? + +Of all the objections against the idea of a God, the weakest, in my +opinion, is that drawn from the mixture of troubles and pleasures to +which human life is exposed. A God, some will say, ought to unite every +perfection, and we cannot believe in his existence, when we perceive +limits in his power or goodness. + +This is a flimsy argument; for, if men do not admit as a proof of the +existence of a God, all that we discover of wisdom, harmony, and +intelligence in the universe, what right have they to use an apparent +contrast between sovereign power and goodness, in order to attribute the +formation of the world to chance. Would it be just, that the defects of +a work should be brought as a proof against the existence of a workman, +whilst the beauty of the same work was not allowed to support a contrary +opinion? We should reason in a different manner; disorder and +imperfection merely point out to us a negation of certain qualities; we +must, in general terms, throw an odium on the whole, in order to banish +the idea of an intelligent hand; whereas, to strengthen the other +opinion, it is sufficient that particular parts announce art and genius. +Thus, when we enter a palace, if we find there distinct marks of +talents, we attribute its erection to an architect, even though in a +part of the edifice we should not distinguish any traces of invention. + +I have already had occasion to show how we are led to these +incomprehensible extremes, when we endeavour exactly to proportion the +wisdom and power of an Infinite Being, and I shall not again dwell on +this argument: or repeat that from any imaginable hypothesis, we might +draw this deduction, that Omnipotence could have produced more +happiness. + +There are ideas which appear contrary to reason, only because we cannot +perceive them in one point of view; and we discover this truth, not only +in considering things which are foreign to our nature, but when we turn +our attention on the events which come daily under our inspection. Why +do we then suppose, that we can comprehend the most grand and noble +thoughts? Is it consistent with the idea of an Infinite Power that we +refuse to credit the existence of infinite goodness? Is it consistent +with the idea of Infinite Wisdom that we will not admit the existence of +Omnipotence? Nay more, is it consistent with the idea of infinite +chances that we imagine the absurd systems concerning the formation of +the world? We use infinity for every thing, except to place above us an +intelligence, whose properties and essence our reason cannot determine. + +We are lost in a boundless uncertainty, when we try to go beyond the +limits of human powers. Thus, after having collected all the forces of +our souls, to enable us to penetrate the existence of a God, we ought +not to exhaust ourselves in subtleties, vainly endeavouring to conceive +in a just acceptation, and under evident relations, various attributes +of an Infinite Being, who has chosen to make himself known to us in a +certain measure, and under certain forms; and it is too much to require +of the worshippers of God, to defend themselves against those who +contest his existence, and dispute about the nature of his perfections. +I am far from supposing any obstacle to the execution of his will; but I +should be full of the same religious sentiments, if I knew that there +existed order and laws in the nature of things, which the Divine Power +has a faculty of modifying, and that it cannot entirely destroy. I +should not less adore the Supreme Being, if, at the same time, his +various attributes were in constant union, it was nevertheless, by +degrees, that he produced happiness; I should silently respect the +secrets which would escape my penetration, and wait with respectful +submission, till the clouds were dissipated which still surrounded me. +What then! always in ignorance and obscurity? Yes, always: such is the +condition of men, when they wish to go beyond the limits traced by the +immutable laws of nature; but the grand truths which we can easily +perceive are sufficient to regulate our conduct, and afford us comfort. +That there is a God, every thing indicates and loudly announces; but I +cannot discover either the mysteries of his essence, or the intimate +connection of his various perfections. I plainly see in a crowd the +monarch encircled by his guards; I know his laws, I enjoy the order he +has prescribed; but I assist not at his councils, and am a stranger to +his deliberations. I even perceive, that an impenetrable veil separates +me from the designs of the Supreme Being, and I do not undertake to +trace them; I commit myself with confidence to the protection of that +Being whom I believe good and great, as I would rely on the guidance of +a friend during a dark night; and whilst I have my foot in the abyss, I +will depend on Him to snatch me from the danger and calm my terrors. + +If we might be allowed the comparison, we should say, that God is like +the sun, which we cannot stedfastly gaze at; but throwing our eyes down, +we perceive its rays and the beauties it spreads around. However, men +who, either through a mistrust of their understanding, or the nature of +it, have only by their reverence an intercourse with God, feel most +forcibly the impression of his grandeur; as it is at the extremity of +the lever that we strongly experience its power. + +We consider the general assent of nations and ages, in the opinion of +the existence of a God, as a remarkable presumption in favour of that +opinion; but such a proof would lose part of its force, if we, in time, +regarded as a kind of moral phœnomenon, the relation which all men may +have with an idea so sublime, notwithstanding the visible disparity +which exists between their different degrees of understanding and +knowledge; and this observation should lead to a thought, that in the +midst of the clouds, which obscure the idea of a God, sensibility +becomes our best guide: it seems the most innate part of ourselves, and +in this respect to communicate, in the most intimate manner, with the +Author of our Nature. + +The sight advances before our other senses, the imagination goes beyond +it; but as it is obliged to trace its own path, sensibility, which +bounds over all, goes still further. + +The reasoner, in his efforts to attain to profound metaphysical truths, +forms a chain whose links rather follow each other, than are joined: the +mind of man not being sufficiently subtle, and extended, cannot always +unite exactly that infinite multitude of ideas which crowd at the +determination of our meditations; sensibility is then the best +calculated to conceive the sublime truth, which not being composed of +parts, is not susceptible of section, and can only be comprehended in +its unity. Thus, whilst the mind often wanders in vain speculations, and +loses itself in metaphysical labyrinths, the idea of a Supreme Being is +impressed, without effort, in a simple heart, which is still under the +influence of nature: thus, the man of feeling, as well as the +intelligent man, announces a Supreme Being, whom we cannot discover +without loving; and this union of all the faculties of the soul towards +the same idea, this emotion, which resembles a kind of instinct, ought +to be connected with a first cause; as there is for every thing a first +model. + +It is, perhaps, also the confused sentiment of that first model, which +leads us to religion, when we see a virtuous man. Men, with their fatal +systems, would alter and annihilate every thing, but the comfortable +hopes and thoughts which arise from a profound and rational admiration, +will still resist that destruction. They vainly wish to make us consider +such a sentiment as the simple play of blind matter, whilst all within +us seems to invite us to search for a more noble origin. And how can we +avoid seeing, in these great qualities of men, nobleness of soul, +elevation of genius, expansion of heart, love of order, and interesting +goodness; how avoid seeing, in this rich picture, the reflection of a +celestial light, and concluding from it, that there is somewhere a first +intelligence. Do rays exist without a centre of light? I know not, but +hurried away by these reflections, I sometimes think, innate goodness, +which we admire as the first rank in the scale of intelligent beings, in +a more immediate manner, leads to the knowledge of the Author of nature; +and when this innate morality is found united in some persons with a +presentiment of the Divine Nature, there is, in this agreement, a charm +which impresses us; a kind of unknown character which attracts our +respect: as every tender and sublime thought is roused by the idea which +we form of the souls of Socrates and Fenelon. + +At the same time, actuated by similar sentiments we experience a painful +emotion, when we are informed, that there exist men, enemies to all +these ideas; men, who had rather debase themselves and humanity, by +attributing their origin to chance, than resolve to consider the +spiritual faculties which they enjoy as a faint sketch of the sovereign +intelligence. Thus, instead of employing their minds to lend some force +to these comfortable truths, or, at least probabilities so dear, they, +on the contrary, dispute their realty, and seek to embarrass by +sophistry, the doctrines which tend to fortify the first dispositions of +our nature: we see the materialists, rather then elevate themselves, +drag us with them from happiness and hope; they only grant eternity to +the dust, out of which, they say, we sprung. What honour, however, can +they derive from those more enlightened views which they boast of, if +they are only the result of a growth similar to that of plants; and if +our spiritual faculties, so far from being lost, in some measure, in the +infinite intelligence, so far from being united to a grand destiny, are +only associated to this frail structure, which is every day, every hour, +exposed to various dangers. What credit should we derive from these +faculties, if they only enabled us to describe, with precision, the +almost imperceptible circle of time, in which we live and die: if they +only served to raise us above our equals during that short moment of +life, which is hastening to lose itself in endless ages, as a light +vapour in the immensity of air? How can you speak with delight of fame +and promotion, when you voluntarily renounce the grandeur arising from +the most noble origin? You are proud of the celebrity of your country, +the renown of your families, and the only glory you desire not partake, +is that which ennobles the whole human race! + +In short, I would ask, by what strange error of the imagination it is, +that in meditating on the existence of a God, men do not go further than +to doubt it; since to support, to guide our judgment, we have only an +understanding whose weakness we continually experience; since it is +capable of gradual improvement, as knowledge is perpetually +accumulating? There exists not any proportion between the measure of our +knowledge and the unbounded extent which is displayed before us; there +is not any between the union of all our powers and the profound +mysteries of nature: how then shall we dare to say, that men are arrived +at the pinnacle of knowledge, and that in the endless ages to come, +there will never break forth a more penetrating faculty than our weak +reason? + +However, were men even to lose the hope of advancing one step in +metaphysical researches; and persisted to declare insufficient and +imperfect the various proofs of the existence of a God; it is not to be +contested, that all other systems are surrounded with still greater +obscurity, and they would only have a doubt as the result of their +reasoning. But have they ever reflected on the influence a simple doubt +has, when that doubt is applied to an idea, whose relations are without +bounds? Let us try to represent an equal probability in a circumstance +which only concerns the interests of this transitory life, and we shall +soon see what force the same degree of probability would have in the +immensurable relations of the finite to the infinite. Thus, not only an +uncertainty, but the slightest presumption of the existence of a God, +would, in the estimation of sound reason, be a sufficient foundation for +religion and morality. Yes, we might thus humbly pray, though depressed +by doubt:—O Thou God who art unknown! sovereign goodness whose image is +stamped on our hearts—if Thou existest, if Thou art Lord of this +magnificent universe, deign to accept our love and humble homage.—— + +Undoubtedly, these thoughts are sufficient to inspire with respect and +fear beings ignorant of their origin, who have so little to sacrifice +and so much to desire, who, on account of their extreme weakness, cannot +relinquish some hopes, and must attach themselves to a fixed and +predominate idea, which may serve as an anchor in the midst of the +inconsistencies and agitations of their minds. + +It is, perhaps, because the time when every thing will be explained, is +still far distant, that many exaggerate their doubts, and often confound +them with a decided incredulity. I form to my imagination, a solemn +period, when the inhabitants of the earth will be instructed in the +mysteries of their nature and the secrets of futurity; and that some +signal phœnomenon will mark the awful day proper to fix our attention; +and I am intimately persuaded, that, in such a moment, the men most +indifferent about religion will appear dismayed, and even recognize that +what they took for conviction, was but a wavering opinion, only +supported by self-love and a desire of distinction. + +At the same time that I form this judgment of the pretended incredulity +of several persons, I will venture a reflection of a different kind: it +is, that superficial faith in the existence of God, and the opinions +which depend on it, is not equivalent in effect to doubt retained in +proper bounds; and perhaps, if these bounds were determined, the belief +of one class of society would be less wavering. + +I anticipate another objection; those doubts, some may say, those doubts +which so many men cannot smother, are they not an argument against the +existence of a God? for a Powerful Being, such as we suppose Him, could +have inspired a general confidence in that noble truth; He needed not to +have recourse to supernatural means; His will was sufficient. I confess, +that we can easily add, in imagination, several degrees to our knowledge +and happiness; but that condition of our nature, of which the cause is +unknown, can never be contrary to the idea of the existence of a God: +all is limited in our physical properties and in our moral faculties; +but within these confines we see the work of a Supreme Intelligence, and +we discover every instant the traces of a divine hand, sufficiently +obvious to direct our opinions. Unstable reasoning, concerning what we +should be, can never weaken the distinct consequences which arise from +what we are. + +When the Laplander, in his cave, hears by chance the distant echo of +thunder, he says, that _God still lives on the high mountain_; and, is +it in the very bosom of munificent blessings, with the light of +philosophy, that men would wish to reject the idea of the existence of a +Supreme Being? What an abuse of reason! Infinity ought to overwhelm the +most vigorous and enlightened understanding, make the wise man timid in +his judgment, and inform him what he is; can man do better than give way +to the admiration the view of so many incomprehensible wonders must +necessarily inspire, and with fervour seize that chain of miracles which +seem to promise to lead to the knowledge of the Creator of them? Can he +be more nobly employed, than in tracing an opinion, not only the most +probable, but the most grand and interesting? Alas! if we should ever +lose it—the idea is not to be endured; clouds and thick darkness would, +overwhelm the feelings which seem to dart before our reason, to explore +the unknown country we pant after, and a melancholy and eternal silence +would appear to surround all nature: we should call for a comforter, +implore protection—but where is it to be found? We should search for +hope, but it is for ever fled—Alas! this is not all, a terrific thought +strikes me, I hesitate a moment to communicate it; yet, it seems to me, +that we lend new force to religious opinions, when we demonstrate, by +various ways, that the principles which destroy those opinions lead to a +result contrary to our nature. I will then conclude this chapter by a +reflection of serious importance. + +If there is not a God, if this world and the whole universe was only the +production of chance or nature itself, subsisting from all eternity; and +if this nature, void of consciousness, had not any guide or superior; in +short, if all its movements were the necessary effect of a property ever +concealed in its essence, a terrible thought would alarm our +imagination: we should not only renounce the hopes which enliven life, +we should not only see continually advancing towards us the image of +death and annihilation, these dreadful anticipations would not be all—an +uncertain cause of fear would trouble the mind. In fact, the revolutions +of a blind nature being more obscure than the designs of an Intelligent +Being, it would be impossible to discover on what base, in the universe, +reposed the destiny of men; impossible to foresee whether, by some one +of the laws of that imperious nature, intelligent beings are devoted to +perish irrevocably, or revive under some other form; if they are to +stumble on new pleasures, or suffer eternally: life and death, happiness +and misery, may belong indifferently to a nature whose movements are not +directed by any intelligence, are not connected by any moral idea, but +solely dependent on a blind property, which is represented by that word, +terrible and inexplicable _necessity_. A like nature would resemble the +rocks to which Prometheus was bound, that were equally insensible to the +agonizing groans of the wretch, and to the joy of the vultures who +preyed on his vitals. + +Thus, in a like system, nothing would be able to fix our opinion with +respect to futurity, and guard the sensible part of ourselves from +yielding to some unknown force: in short, can we reply without +trembling? nothing,—and of course eternal torments might accidentally +become our portion. + +The momentary experience of life might, perhaps, inspire us with a kind +of tranquillity; but what is that in immensity, but calculations founded +on the observance of a short interval? What is that hope which only a +fleeting moment gives weight to? It is as if the fluttering insect, +which lives but a day, should consider it as a representation of the +eternal condition of the universe. The mixture of pains and pleasures, +to which men are subject on earth, is not a certain proof of what may +happen in other times and places; for unity, equality, and analogy, all +those sources of probability, and principles to judge from, are +connected with general ideas of order and harmony, but those ideas are +not applicable to a nature subject to necessity. + +We have some difficulty to assure ourselves of the designs of a Supreme +Being: however, by a kind of analogy we shall be able to form an idea of +the divine will; and our minds, our feelings, and virtues, all aid us in +the search; but were we sprung from an insensible nature, we should not +have any connection with the different parts of its immense extent, and +the attentive study of our moral constitution would not throw a light on +the various revolutions of which the material world is susceptible. We +should only discover, that there would be much less reason to oppose, in +imagination, limits to the varied movements of a nature without a guide, +than to circumscribe, in some manner, the actions of an Omnipotent +Being, whose other attributes are also infinite; for the ideas of order, +justice, and goodness, which arise from a knowledge of His perfections, +seem to trace a circle in the midst of infinity, which the mind of man +may perceive. Yes, these ideas subject a great space to our +contemplations; but what advantage is there in trying to be acquainted +with the mysteries of an insensible nature, or to penetrate the secret +of the motion impressed by blind necessity? + +Let me repeat it then, as a termination to these reflections; all would +be obscure, all mere chance in the fate of man, if we did not attribute +the disposition and preservation of the world to the omnipotent will of +an Intelligent Being, whose perfections our feelings and thoughts +faintly represent. + +In short, when even in the system of the eternity of nature, men were +assured that death destroys individuality, and were they even able to +drive away the idea of the continuation or renewal of it, by any +sentiment or remembrance; would it be evident, that we should be +absolutely indifferent about the torments rational beings may endure in +that space which is represented by the idea of infinity and eternity? +The metaphysical idea, which determines us to place our consciousness on +that imperceptible and mysterious point, which unites our present +thoughts to the past, and our actual sentiments to our hopes and fears; +this thought is not sufficient to make us regardless of our fate, or +render us indifferent to the unknown effects which may result from the +revolutions of a nature, which we are not acquainted with: the anxieties +and troubles of the beings who are to live in the ages yet unborn, do +not interest us as belonging to any particular person; however, we have, +for those abstract misfortunes, in this instance, a sympathy which +escapes reasoning. + +I agree, that in the system of undirected nature, happiness or misery, +transitory or without end, have the same degree of probability: but what +a terrifying resemblance! Can we undismayed consider such a chance? + +How happens it then, that some pretend, that atheism frees us from every +kind of terror about futurity? I cannot perceive, that such a conclusion +flows from this fatal system. A God, such as my heart delineates, +encourages and moderates all my feelings; I say to myself, He is good +and indulgent, He knows our weakness, He loves to produce happiness; and +I see the advances of death without terror, and often with hope. But +every fear would become reasonable, if I lived under the dominion of an +insensible nature, whose laws and revolutions are unknown: I seek for +some means to escape from its power;—but even death cannot afford me a +retreat, or space an asylum. I reflect, if it is possible, to find +compassion and goodness; but here is no prime intelligence, no first +cause, a blind nature surrounds us, and governs imperiously. I in vain +demand, what is to be done with me? it is deaf to my voice. Devoid of +will, thought, and feeling, it is governed by an irresistible force, +whose motion is a mystery never to be unfolded. What a view for the +human mind, to anticipate the destruction of all our primitive ideas of +order, justice, and goodness! Shall I further say, when even, in every +system, the entrance of the future was unknown, I should be less unhappy +and forlorn, if it was to a father, a benefactor, that I committed the +deposit of life which I held from him; this last communication with the +Master of the World would mitigate my pains; my eyes, when closing, +would perceive His power; that I should not lose all, I might still hope +that God remained with those I loved, and find some comfort in the +thought, that my destiny was united to His will, that my existence and +the employments I devoted myself to, formed one of the indelible points +of His eternal remembrance; and that the incomprehensible darkness I was +going to plunge into, is equally a part of His empire. But when a +feeling and elevated soul, which sometimes enjoys a sentiment of its own +grandeur, should certainly know, that dragged by a blind motion, it was +going to be dissipated, to be scattered in that dreary waste, where all +that is most vile on earth is indifferently precipitated; such a thought +would blight the noblest actions, and be a continual source of sadness +and despondency. Save us from these dreadful reflections, sublime and +cherished belief of a God! afford us the courage and comfort we need, +and guard our minds, as from fatal phantoms, from all those vain +suppositions, those errors of reasoning and metaphysical subtleties, +which interpose between man and his Creator! And we, full of confidence +in the first lesson of nature, will take for a guide that interior +sentiment which is not thought, but something more, which neither +reasons nor conjectures; but perhaps forms the closest connexion and +most certain communication with those grand truths which the +understanding alone can never reach. + + + + + CHAP. XV. + _On the Respect that is due from true Philosophy to Religion._ + + +The view of the universe, the reflections of our minds, and the +inclinations of our hearts, all concur to strengthen the thought, that +there exists a God; and without power to comprehend this Infinite Being, +to form a just idea of His essence and perfections, the confused +sentiment of his grandeur, and the continual experience of their own +weakness, are so many imperious motives, which, in all ages and +countries, have impelled men to worship a God. Those natural ideas have +acquired new force by the light of revelation; but it is not in a +metaphysical work that the authenticity of the Christian religion ought +to be discussed; nor could we add much to the doctrines contained in +books composed at different periods on this important subject. All +discussions which are allied to truths, whose authenticity depends on +facts, are necessarily confined within certain bounds; and we are +obliged to pursue a beaten track, and run over the same circle, when we +enter on such a well-known subject. I shall then confine myself to some +general reflections, and make choice of those which are best adapted to +the particular genius of the present age, and the modifications which +our sentiments receive from predominate opinions; for our judgments, +like our impressions, vary with the change which happens insensibly in +habits and manners: one age is that of intolerance and bigotry; another +of relaxation and indifference, or a contempt of all ancient customs: +every century, every generation is distinguished by a general character, +a character which we take sometimes for new ideas; whilst it is nothing +but the natural effect of exaggeration in our preceding opinions. Men +are subject to moral laws, similar in several respects to mechanical +rules; and with all their knowledge and pride, they remind us of those +children, who, placed at the extremity of a long balance, rise and fall +successively. They can only be fixed by moderate sentiments, which are +sustained by their own force; any other has a borrowed action, and this +action is never in perfect equilibrium with truth. + +It is in the nature of revelation to appear less evident to the mind, in +proportion as the proofs of its authenticity are distant; and if, among +the dogmas united to a religious doctrine, some one contains a mystic +sense; if, among the forms of worship adopted, some one is not consonant +with the simple and majestic idea which we ought to have of the Master +of the World; it would not be extraordinary that this religious +institution, considered in its different parts, should give birth to +controversies; and we should not be exasperated against those, who, +after having faithfully examined, still have some doubts. It is in +proportion to the extent of our understanding that God has thought fit +to manifest Himself to us; thus, the exertion of those faculties of the +mind cannot be displeasing to Him. But reason left to itself, and even +when improved by philosophy, should, by no means, lead men to any kind +of contempt for religious worship in general, or any of the particular +opinions of which Christianity is the support. Any doctrine which leads +to the adoration of the God of the universe is worthy of the respect of +His creatures: thus, persons most disposed to contest the authenticity +of the sacred books, ought still to love precepts which seem to come to +the aid of the human mind, in order to assist men in the last efforts +which they make to know more of God; as the friendly bark, offered to +the forlorn wretch struggling on the surface of the immense waste of +waters, on which his feeble hands have vainly endeavoured to support +him. + +We cannot but have discovered, that the sentiments of gratitude and +respect which inspire men, the most capable of reflection, with the idea +of a God, are intimately connected with the Christian doctrines, such as +we find them in the New Testament; and in those moments, when, with the +desire of happiness, and the timidity which belongs to our nature, we +seek to unite our littleness to supreme grandeur, and our extreme +weakness to Omnipotence, the divine perfections which the gospel +delineates encourage our hopes and dissipate our fears; religion shows +us all that we have need of in our miserable condition, a sovereign +goodness, an inexhaustible compassion: thus then, the last link of the +Christian faith, like the termination of the deepest meditations, +reaches the same conclusion; and religion agrees with philosophy, in the +moment when it is most elevated. + +However, the Christian and the Deist unite, in some manner, in the +ultimate tendency of their thoughts; they meet when they throw their +attention on civil society, and when they seek to determine the duties +of men; for a wise man must ever pay homage to the morality of the +gospel, and the philosopher could not have imagined a more reasonable +system, or one more conformable to our situation[6]. If it is then true, +that opinions, in appearance opposite, approach, at their extremities; +and if it is true, that the adoration of a God, and respect for +morality, form by uniting, the circle of evangelical doctrines, it very +little concerns the reasonable philosopher, that the Christian faith is +placed between those two grand ideas; if he thinks he can himself +explore the space which separates man from his Creator, for what reason +would he condemn with bitterness the sentiments of those who are +attached to the comfortable system of intercession and redemption, of +which Christianity has laid the foundation? + +In short, were they even not to agree in every opinion with the +interpreters of the Christian doctrine, this would not be a sufficient +reason for breaking the religious alliance which ought to subsist +amongst men; an alliance represented and rendered authentic, in every +nation, by the public worship which has been made choice of by the +government. What idea then should we have of the genius or the abilities +of a philosopher, who, at the sight of the ceremonies of the public +worship which disgust him, could not rise above them, so as to consider +them, in some measure, as the atmosphere of religious opinions, which +turning his attention from the importance of those opinions, could not +preserve, at least, some respect for all the dependencies of the most +sublime and salutary thought? It is easy, however, to perceive, that, +for the generality of men, the duties of morality, religion, and all the +exterior homage rendered to the Deity, compose a whole so closely +connected, that the basis is in danger when the outworks are attacked. +The imagination of the vulgar cannot be guided in the same manner as +that of the solitary thinker; and it would be committing a great error, +to try to influence the opinions of the generality by the same +considerations which are sufficient for the man who profoundly reflects: +there is a system proportionate to the different faculties of +intelligent beings, as there is one applicable to the varied forces of +their physical nature. + +I know nothing more dangerous, than the inconsiderate censures of those +religious ceremonies received and respected in the country we live in: +some do not think that they are acting wrong when they speak slightingly +of the various symbols of public worship; yet, if they attentively +observed the kind of minds, and the first habits of the greater part of +those to whom they address such discourses, they would know how easy it +is to wound them in the sentiment which is the source of all their +tranquility, and the safeguard of their moral conduct. The deliverer of +Switzerland struck off with one of his arrows an apple placed on the +head of his only son; but every one cannot expect to be so fortunate. + +Some would contradict these assertions, by saying, that celebrated men +have occasioned rapid changes in the church of Rome without weakening +religion. The origin, the circumstances, and the result of a revolution +so marked in history, has not any connexion with the present question; +the reformers of the sixteenth century, preaching a new doctrine, openly +professed religious zeal and a fervent piety: thus, at the same time +that they disapproved of a part of the established worship, they more +rigidly recommended all the fundamental opinions of Christianity, and +sought to introduce a severity of manners which even extended to the +proscription of several indulgences that had not been before condemned: +and, in fact, if the new doctrines had not been united to the greatest +respect for the essential principles of the Christian religion, they +never would have had so many followers. + +They cannot then establish any kind of comparison between the censures +poured forth by the reformers, and the ridicule or contempt of those who +now insult our most respectable opinions; those men, who at present +abound, are sometimes excited by a libertinism of mind and conduct, by +self-love or the enthusiasm of false philosophy, and some of them are +seduced by an air of superiority, attached to the principles which they +themselves institute. There is a great difference between the grave and +serious course of the reformers, and the various evolutions of the +active opponents of religion: the latter do not take care to stop at +clearing up a point of doctrine, or a disputed interpretation of some +dogma; it is religion itself that they wish to attack, and if they begin +with the outworks, it is in order to undermine it; they take skilfully +their post, and know when to have recourse to a tone of pleasantry; +which is very dangerous, as it gives an air of confidence to those who +employ it, and they obtain a kind of ascendency in avoiding every idea +of an equal combat: one is disposed to think, that it is by disdain that +they glance slightly over the subject; we cowardly submit to the +appearance of their superiority; and that which is in them weakness or +impotence gives consequence. + +Men, in order to express their gratitude to the sovereign Master of the +World, must borrow from their imaginations every thing grand and +majestic: thus, when they detach from those reverential signs the ideas +that they represented and preserve, they only display a vain gravity, a +chimerical pomp; and it is easy to make a similar contrast a subject of +ridicule; but in acting thus, far from making us applaud their talents, +they insult, without any sense, the habit most men have acquired of +venerating, on the whole, every system of worship paid the Supreme +Being. + +Nevertheless, the bold and frivolous discourses which are permitted +against religion in general, have made such a progress, that at present +the persons who most respect these opinions, without ostentation or +severity, find themselves obliged to conceal or moderate their +sentiments, lest they should be exposed to a kind of contemptuous pity, +or run the risk of being suspected of hypocrisy. We are at liberty to +speak on every subject, except the most grand and interesting which can +occupy men. What strange authority gave rise to this imperious +legislation, which is termed fashionable? What a miserable conspiracy, +that of weakness against Omnipotence! Men are proud of knowing at what +hour the king wakes, goes to the chace, or returns; they are very eager +to be informed of the vile intrigues which successively debase or exalt +his courtiers; they pass, in short, their whole lives in panting after +objects of vanity and badges of slavery; they are continually brought +into conversation; and they proscribe, under the dreadful name of +vulgarity, the most remote expression, which would recal the idea of the +harmonious universe, and the Being who has bestowed on us all the gifts +of the mind; what is most excellent in our nature we overlook, to dwell +only on the inflations of vanity. Ungrateful that we are! Our +intelligence, our will, all our senses, are the seal of an unknown +power; and, is it the name of our Master and Benefactor that we dare not +pronounce? it is from your modern philosophers that this false shame +arises; you, who spread derision over the most respectable sentiments, +and employing in the dispute the frivolous shafts of ridicule, have +given confidence to the most insignificant of men; you have, for your +followers, a numerous race, which is taken promiscuously from every rank +and age. + +We now reckon, amongst those who oppose a contemptuous smile to +religious opinions, a multitude of young people, often incapable of +supporting the most trivial arguments, and who, perhaps, could not +connect two or three abstract propositions. These pretended philosophers +artfully, and almost perfidiously, take advantage of the first flight of +self-love, to persuade beginners, that they are able to judge at a +glance, of the serious questions which have eluded the penetration of +the most exercised thinkers: in short, such is in general the decisive +tone of the irreligious men of our age, that in hearing them so boldly +murmur about the disorders of the universe, and the mistakes of +Providence; we are only surprised to see how much they differ in stature +from those rebellious giants mentioned in the heathen mythology. + +I believe, however, that if contempt for religious opinions did not +produce a striking contrast, those who profess to feel this contempt +would quickly adopt other sentiments; they only superficially attend to +the pernicious tendency of their maxims, whilst they believe themselves +still in the opposition; but if they ever obtained a majority, not +having then the spur of self-love, they would soon discover the +absurdity of their principles, and hastily throw them aside. + +There are, undoubtedly, a great number of estimable persons, who highly +value the truths and precepts of religion, yet are a prey to doubt and +uncertainty, and who become the first victims of the inconsistencies of +their minds; but men of such a character do not aim at dominion, on the +contrary, they rather wish to be confirmed by the example of those whose +confidence is more assured; they would consider with interest the +sentiments that unfortunately have made too slight an impression on +them; and they would endeavour to strengthen their weak hopes, till they +reached the courageous persuasion which inspires the Christian:——yes, +even the enthusiasm of piety excites their envy, as it is more +delightful to yield to the emotions of a lively imagination, than to +struggle with apathy against the opinions calculated to diffuse +happiness. Thus, if amongst the number of persons that I have just +delineated, there were some to whom nature had granted superior talents, +wit or eloquence, they would carefully avoid exerting them to disturb +the repose of those peaceable souls who calmly rely on religion, and +receive all their consolation from that source. A wise man never permits +himself to spread sadness and discouragement, in order to gratify the +ridiculous vanity of exalting himself a little above common opinions, or +to show his abilities by making some ingenious distinctions concerning +particular parts of the established religion; in the same manner, as it +would be the height of folly to stop an army during its march, to +discriminate systematically the perfect justness of the different tones +of the warlike instruments of music. The bold and frivolous opinions of +several philosophers, have appeared to me to be weak, where they most +wish to rise; I mean, in the extent and loftiness of their views. + +I need not speak to those who deny even the existence of a God. Alas! if +they are so unhappy as to shut their eyes, and not to admit this +resplendant light; if they have a soul so insensible, as not to be +affected with the comfortable truths which flow from such a noble +thought; if they are become deaf to the interesting voice of nature; if +they trust more to their weak reasoning, than the warnings of conscience +and sensibility; at least, let them not spread their disastrous +doctrine, which, like the head of Medusa, would transform every thing +into stone. Let them remove from us that frightful monster, or let his +hoarse hissing be only heard in the dreary solitude, of which their +heart presents the idea; let them spare the human race, and have pity on +the distress into which they would be plunged, if the mild light, which +serves to guide them, were ever to be obscured: in short, if they really +believe that morality can agree with atheism, let them give the first +proof of it, by remaining silent; but if they cannot abstain from +publishing their opinions, let a remnant of generosity induce them to +inform us of their dangerous tendency, by placing in the frontispiece of +their works this terrible inscription of Dante’s: _Lasciat’ ogni +speranza voi ch’ entrate_. + + + + + CHAP. XVI. + _The same Subject continued. Reflections on Intolerance._ + + +The surface of the earth represents to us about the two hundred and +fortieth part of the surperfice of the different opaque bodies which +revolve round the sun. + +The fixed stars are so many suns, which, according to all appearance, +serve equally to enlighten and fertilize planets similar to those we are +acquainted with. + +A famous astronomer[7] has lately discovered fifty thousand new stars in +a zone fifteen degrees in length and two in breadth, a space which +corresponds with the thirteen hundred and sixty-fourth part of the +celestial sphere. + +Thus, supposing that we perceive an equal number of stars in every other +parallel section of the firmament, the quantity we should be acquainted +with would rise to near sixty-nine millions. + +And if each of these stars were the centre of a planetary system, +resembling the one we inhabit, we should have an idea of the existence +of a number of habitable globes, whose extent would be sixteen or +seventeen millions of times more considerable than the surface of the +earth[8]. + +However, the ingenious invention which assists us to explore the vaulted +firmament is susceptible of new improvement; and even at the period when +it may arrive at the greatest perfection, the space which our astronomic +knowledge may have taken possession of, will only be a point in the vast +extent which our imagination can conceive. + +This imagination itself, like all our intellectual faculties, is perhaps +only a simple degree of infinite powers; and the images that it presents +are but an imperfect sketch of universal existence. + +What then becomes of our earth, in the midst of that immensity which the +human mind vainly tries to grasp? What is it even now, compared with +that number of terrestrial bodies we can calculate or suppose? + +Is it then the inhabitants of this grain of sand, is it only a few of +them, that have discovered the true mode of worshipping the Creator of +so many wonders? Their dwelling is a point in infinite space; the life +which they enjoy is but one of the moments which compose eternity; they +pass away like a flash of lightning in that course of ages, in which +generations after generations are lost. How then dare any of them +announce to the present age, and to those to come, that men cannot +escape the vengeance of Heaven if they alter one tittle of the Ritual? +What an idea they give of the relation established between the God of +the universe and the atoms dispersed throughout nature? Let them then +raise one of the extremities of that veil which covers so many +mysteries, let them consider a moment the wonders on every side, the +starry firmament, and the inconceivably dreary immensity which their +imagination cannot embrace; and let them judge, if it is by the exterior +form of their adoration, the vain pomp of their ceremonies, that this +Omnipotent God can distinguish their homage. Is it then, by the pride of +our opinions, that we think to reach the Supreme Being? It is more +comfortable, more reasonable to believe, that all the inhabitants of the +earth have access to His throne, and that we are permitted to raise +ourselves to it by a profound sentiment of love and gratitude, as the +most sure and intimate relation between man and his Creator. + +Undoubtedly it is necessary that public worship should be constantly +regulated, and that distinct symbols should be respected, whose +essential character ought not to vary, that the sentiments of the +generality, so promptly affected by exterior objects, may not be exposed +to any alteration; it is necessary that weak minds easily find their +way, and that they are not embarrassed with doubt and uncertainty; in +short, it is to be desired, that the citizens, united by the same laws +and political interests, should be so by the same worship, in order that +the sacred band of religion may take them all in; and that principles of +education should be maintained and fortified by example. But as morality +is the first law of princes, and that always clear and distinct in its +motives and instructions, it ought to precede the uncertain combinations +of the politician. A government is never permitted to aim at any end by +unjust means, let it be ever so desirable; and I believe that this rule +is equally adapted to the opinions of men and their rights. It would be +possible to conceive a system of distribution, with respect to the +fortunes of men, more convenient than any other for the increase of +public wealth and the power of the state; but though this knowledge +should influence the general conduct of government, it receives no right +from its discernment, to arrange according to its will, the situation of +every citizen. The same principle has greater force applied to opinions: +it is reasonable to seek to direct their course by slow and mild means; +but the system of unity, which is certainly most conducive to the +happiness of a state, would cease to be good, if, in order to establish +that system, violence, or merely constraint, was had recourse to: +liberty of thought is the first of rights, and the most respectable +dominion is that of conscience. + +Some now talk of the union of civil tolerance and religious intolerance; +the one protects Protestants in Catholic countries, and Catholics in +Protestant countries; and the other would forbid every kind of worship +which is not conformable to the institutions of the predominant +religion: but upon this plan, if the number of Dissenters was to become +considerable, an important part of the nation would be without worship; +and the government should not appear indifferent to this, since it is of +great importance to mankind to maintain carefully every support of +morality. + +There is nothing more to be said on intolerance when we consider it in +its excess. We all now know what we ought to think of the severities and +persecutions which history has transmitted an account of, and we know +the opinion we should form of many acts of intolerance and inhumanity +which some have for a long time gloried in; and we cannot stifle our +indignation at the sight of the faggots that are still lighted round +those unhappy wretches scattered over the face of the earth, of whom +Jesus Christ himself said, with so much goodness, in the midst of his +agonies; _Father forgive them, for they know not what they do_. It is +time to abolish for ever those dreadful customs, ignominious remembrance +of our ancient phrensies! O God, are these Thy creatures that they dare +to torment in Thy name! Is it the work of Thy hand that they sacrifice +to Thy glory?—Petty tyrants! ferocious inquisitors! do you expect to +obtain the favour of Heaven, with a heart hardened, after mutilating the +members and tearing the bosoms of those whom you can only draw to you by +a sentiment of pity? whose emotions you are not acquainted with? The God +of goodness rejects such offerings—He cannot away with them. Who then +will pardon errors, if not men who are continually deceived! Alas! if +exactness of judgment, or the perfection of reason, were the only title +to divine benevolence, there is not any one who might not cast down his +eyes devoid of all hope. + +Those who proudly flatter themselves, that they alone know the worship +agreeable to the Supreme Being, lose all their claim to our confidence, +when, guided by a spirit of intolerance, they depart so visibly from the +character which ought to inspire the idea of a God, protector of human +weakness. But the absurd attempt to inspire faith by acts of rigour and +severity, has been so often and so ably combated, that I shall not dwell +on a principle, the truth of which common sense will discover. I shall +only make one observation sufficient to intimidate the conscience of +inquisitors, and all those who adopt their maxims. The operations of the +mind can only be influenced by reasoning, all the designs formed to +attain this end by violence are attempts to subvert the belief of the +spirituality of the soul, and indirect associations with materialists; +for we must believe in the identity of matter and thought to have a +right of presuming, that the empire exercised on us by rigorous +treatment can have an influence on our opinions; and then we must +consider man as a being governed by mechanical laws, to be able to +imagine, that with instruments of torture we can excite a sensation, +which, by an unknown conduit, might act instead of judgment and the +sentiment of persuasion. + +It is because, the indignant emotions of a worthy heart are more +powerful than the cool arguments of offended reason, that we rise with +warmth against intolerance; for without this motive it would only +deserve our contempt, as indicating a singular littleness of soul. Who +can remember without pity, those dissensions so long maintained, in +which men, both weak and blind, united in the name of devotion, actuated +by self-love, unintelligible decrees, to some important controversy? All +these disputes appear foolish when we coolly examine them; and we have +only to consider, abstractedly, those quarrels, to discover all their +absurdity. + +But as it is only by spreading knowledge and diffusing wholesome +precepts that we can hope to cure enthusiasm and intolerance; we ought +to be on our guard against the dangerous spirit of indifference, +otherwise one evil will be removed only to introduce another equally +fatal; when trying to divert men from fanaticism, we destroy the ideas +which served as a foundation for religion. There could not subsist any +sound opinion or estimable principle, if the different errors which +creep round them were torn away by an awkward or violent hand; and is +the evil, which continually mixes with the good, became the subject of +blind proscription. + +Let us loudly acknowledge the benefits which we have received from +distinguished writers, who have defended with zeal and energy the cause +of toleration; it is an obligation, added to many others, which it is +just to acknowledge, that we have received from genius and talents +united: but permit us also to observe, that several of those writers +have lost a part of the applause due to them, by seeking to depress +religion, in order to succeed in their attempt; such a proceeding was +unworthy of enlightened philosophers, who more than others ought to +assign limits to reason, and never despair of its influence. What should +we think, if, amongst those who justly attack the tyranny exercised over +conscience, there were some intolerant in the defence of toleration; and +if we had reason to reproach them with despising, and sometimes hating +those who do not concur with them; and by an inconsiderate imputation of +pusillanimity or hypocrisy, make the characters and intentions of those +who do not adopt their sentiments appear suspicious? What a strange +inconsistency, in a different way, do they not exhibit; forgetting, +sometimes, their own opinions, and contradicting, without thinking, +their acknowledged incredulity, they raise a clamour about the miseries +to which mankind are subject, and display the pretended disorders of the +universe, in order, afterwards, to throw an odium on the God whose +existence they contest, to ridicule a Providence they do not rely on! +One would think, that after having overturned the empire of the Deity, +that they might remain the only legislators of the world; they regretted +not having any longer a rival, and wished to rebuild the temple they +have destroyed, to have again a vain idol to insult. Another +inconsistency appears in their asperity against those who resist their +dogmas, whilst, in the system of fate, reason does not preserve its +empire, and the master, as well as the disciple, are equally subject to +the laws of necessity. + +To exercise an authority over the mind by the power of eloquence is a +great advantage; for such an authority is not confined to any place or +time; but to have a right to such an extensive reign, we must renounce +fashionable opinions, the counsels of vanity and the instigations of +self-love; and be only actuated by that universal and durable interest, +the happiness of mankind. + +I would not wish to prohibit the wise man or philosopher from treating +any subject proper to direct our judgment; for there are abuses and +prejudices every where, which we cannot destroy without making a step +towards reason and truth; but as there is a philosophy for the thoughts, +there is one also for the actions. I indeed wish that men of an enlarged +turn of mind, who perceive at a glance the moral order of things, would +attack with more caution and moderation, and at a proper season, that +which directly relates to the opinions most essential to our happiness; +and that a respect for these opinions should be manifest, even when they +censure fanaticism and superstition. + +Such a wish is far from being realized; and I cannot help lamenting, +when I consider the design of the greater part, who have written for +some time past on religious subjects: some seek artfully to destroy, or, +at least, relax the band which unites men to the idea of a Supreme +Being; and others shut up in some mystic idea, as in a dark den, blindly +level their anathemas against every kind of doubt and uncertainty; and +confound, in their rigorous censures, the accessary ideas with the +principal opinions. + +However, in taking a course so opposite, they unfortunately have an +equal interest in ranking the essential principles of religion with the +most insignificant symbols: but influenced by very different motives; +the former act with a view of making religious zeal serve to defend +every part of the worship of which they are the ministers; the latter, +guided by a motive of self-love, readily admit confusion, that they may +have an opportunity of undermining religion when they attack its +outworks. + +We have need, more than ever, to be directed to religion by wise and +moderate discourses, by a happy mixture of reason and sensibility, the +true characteristic of evangelical morality. It is only by these means +that the authority of salutary truths can be strengthened: we are easily +hurried beyond the just line, when the human mind is not in a state to +mark any limits; but the daily progress of knowledge obliges us to use +more exactness: it is necessary then to rein in the imagination, and to +allow reason to take place of it: yet it is still allowed us to animate +reason, and even useful to do so, but we must absolutely avoid +disguising it. False notions only have need of the assistance of +exaggeration; it seems that some are very fond of extremes, that common +sense may not investigate them. + +I will make another observation. Those who, to free us from +superstition, endeavour to relax religious restrictions; and those who, +to strengthen them, have recourse to intolerance, equally miss their +aim. The hatred so naturally excited by every kind of violence and +constraint, in matters of opinion, creates a repugnance in those persons +to religion who are insensibly led to consider this excellent system as +the motive or excuse for a blind spirit of persecution. And the direct +attacks against religious opinions engage well-disposed minds to adhere +more strenuously to every custom which appears a form of respect or +adoration; as we redouble our zeal for a friend in the midst of those +who neglect or slight him. + +Let us unite, and it is certainly time, to render to the Supreme Being +sincere worship; and let that worship always be worthy of the dignity of +our Creator: let us banish severity and superstition; but let us equally +dread that culpable indifference, the cause of so many misfortunes; and +when we shall have strengthened the influence of sound reason, let us +adhere more closely to the useful opinions which have been refined from +errors, and with all our force repulse those who wish us to bury our +hopes to free ourselves from the wanderings of the imagination. Yes, a +religion, disengaged from the passions of men, in its native beauty, +ought to dwell with us; public order and private happiness equally claim +it, and all our reflections lead us to elevate our hearts towards an +Omnipotent Being, of whose existence all nature reminds us: religion +well understood, far from being the necessary principle of rigour or +violence, should be the foundation of every social virtue, and of every +mild and indulgent sentiment. We are not called to tyrannize over the +opinions of others, or to give despotic laws to the mind; we must +observe, that a moderate and rational religion only will guide us to the +path of happiness and virtue, by addressing equally our hearts and +minds. + + + + + CHAP. XVII. + _Reflections on the Morality of the Christian Religion._ + + +I will venture a few reflections on a subject which has often been +treated; the course of my subject naturally leads to it: but in order to +avoid, as much as possible, what is generally known, I shall confine +myself to consider the morality of the gospel, under a point of view +which seems to me to distinguish its sublime instructions. + +The most distinct characteristic of christianity is the spirit of +charity and forbearance which pervades all its precepts. The ancients, +undoubtedly, respected the beneficent virtues; but the precept which +commends the poor and the weak, to the protection of the opulent, +belongs essentially to our religion. With what care, with what love, the +Christian legislator returns continually to the same sentiment and +interest! the tenderest pity lent to his words a persuasive unction; but +I admire, above all, the awful lesson he has given, in explaining the +close union established between our sentiments towards the Supreme Being +and our duties towards men. Thus, after having termed the love of God, +_the first commandment of the law_, the Evangelist adds; _and the +second, which is like unto it, is to love thy neighbour as thyself_. The +second, which is like unto it! what simplicity, what extent in that +expression! Can any thing be more interesting and sublime, than to offer +continually to our mind the idea of a God taking on himself the +gratitude of the unfortunate? Where find any principle of morality, of +which the influence can ever equal such a grand thought? The poor, the +miserable, however abject their state, appear surrounded with the symbol +of glory, when the love of humanity becomes an expression of the +sentiments which elevate us to God; and the mind ceases to be lost in +the immensity of His perfections, when we hope to maintain an habitual +intercourse with the Supreme Being, by the services which we render to +men; it is thus that a single thought spreads a new light on our duty, +and gives to metaphysical ideas a substance conformable to our organs. + +Justice, respect for the laws, and duty to ourselves, may be united, in +some manner, to human wisdom; goodness alone, among all the virtues, +presents another character; there is in its essence something vague and +undeterminate which claims our respect; it seems to have a relation with +that intention, that first idea which we must attribute to the Creator +of the world, when we wish to discover the cause of its existence. +Goodness then is the virtue, or to express myself with more propriety, +the primitive beauty, that which has preceded time. Thus the pressing +exhortations to benevolence and charity, which we find running through +the gospel, should elevate our thoughts, and penetrate us with profound +respect; it recals us, it unites us, to a sentiment more ancient than +the world, to a sentiment, by which we have received existence, and the +hopes which compose our present happiness[9]. + +But if, from these elevated contemplations, we, for a moment, descend to +the political principles which have the greatest extent, we shall find +there the influence of a truth on which I have already had occasion to +dwell; but I shall now treat it in a different manner. The unequal +division of property has introduced amongst men an authority very like +that of a master over his slaves; we may even justly say, that in many +respects the empire of the rich is still more independent; for they are +not bound constantly to protect those from whom they require services: +the taste and caprice of these favourites of fortune fix the terms of +their convention with men, whose only patrimony is their time and +strength; and as soon as this convention is interrupted, the poor man, +absolutely separated from the rich, remains again abandoned to +accidents; he is obliged then to offer his labours with precipitation to +other dispensers of subsistence; and thus he may experience, several +times in the year, all the inquietudes that must necessarily arise from +uncertain recourses. Undoubtedly, in giving the support of the laws to a +similar constitution, it has been reasonably supposed, that in the midst +of the multiplied relations of social life, there would be a kind of +balance and equality between the wants which oblige the poor to solicit +wages, and the desires of the rich which engage them to accept their +services; but this equilibrium, so essentially necessary, can never be +established in an exact and constant manner, since it is the result of a +blind concourse of combinations, and the uncertain effect of an infinite +multitude of movements, not one of which is subject to a positive +direction. However, since to maintain the distinction of property they +were obliged to leave to chance the fate of the greater number of men, +it was indispensably necessary to find some salutary opinion, proper to +temper the abuses inseparable from the free exercise of the rights of +property; and that happy and restoring idea could only have been +discerned in an obligation of benevolence imposed on the will, and a +spirit of general charity recommended to all men: these sentiments and +duties, the last resource offered to the unfortunate, can alone mitigate +a system, in which the fate of the most numerous part of a nation rests, +on the doubtful agreement of the conveniences of rich with the wants of +the poor. Yes, without the aid, without the intervention of the most +estimable of virtues, the generality would have just reason to regret +the social institutions, which, at the price of their independance, left +to the master the care of their subsistence; and it is thus that +charity, respectable under so many different views, becomes still an +intelligent and political idea, which serves to blend personal liberty +and the imperious laws of property. + +I know not if ever the christian precepts have been considered under +this point of view; but reflecting a little on this subject, we perceive +more than ever of what importance the salutary institutions are, which +place in the first rank of our duties the beneficent spirit of charity, +and which lends to the most essential virtue all the force and constancy +which religion gives birth to. Thus, at the same time that the doctrines +of the gospel elevate our thoughts, its sublime morality accompanies, in +some measure, our laws and institutions, to sustain those which are +really conformable to reason, and to remedy the inconveniences +inseparable from the imperfections of human wisdom. + +It is not, however, only to pecuniary sacrifices, that the gospel +applies its precepts respecting charity; it extends to those generous +acts of self-denial, that religion alone can render supportable; and +which makes some descend with a firm step into the dreary abodes, in +which the culprit is a prey to the remorse that tears his heart; and +when his very relations have abandoned him, he still beholds a +comforter, whom religion conducts to pour consolation into his afflicted +soul. The same motives and thoughts induce some to renounce the world +and its hopes, to consecrate themselves entirely to the service of the +sick, and to fulfil those sad functions with an assiduity and a +constancy, that the most splendid reward could never excite. O rare and +disinterested virtue, perfection of piety! what a tribute of admiration +is due to the sublime sentiment which inspires such painful self-denial! +Men are only stimulated by notions of right and justice; it belongs to +christianity to impose duties, whose base is placed beyond the narrow +circle of our terrestrial interests. I know not, but it seems to me, +that, notwithstanding a diversity of opinions, we cannot help being +affected, when we contemplate the sketch of the last day which the +gospel delineates: it exhibits a terrific and sublime picture of that +day, in which all actions are to be revealed, and the most secret +thoughts have the universe for a witness, and God as a judge; and at the +moment when we wait to see the retinue of virtues and vices which have +rendered men celebrated, it is a single quality, a virtue without +splendour, which is chosen by the Divine Arbiter of our fate, to derive +an immortality of happiness from, and He pronounces these memorable +words, which contain in a small compass our whole duty:—_I was hungry, +and ye gave me meat; thirsty, and ye gave me drink; I was a prisoner and +ye visited me. Come ye blessed of my father, inherit the kingdom +prepared for you_, &c. Men love to contemplate the triumphs of +goodness—love to exalt it under different forms. We have so many wants, +are so weak, and we are able to do so little for ourselves, that this +interesting virtue appears our safeguard and the mysterious tie of all +nature. + +The spirit of charity, so essential in its exact interpretation, may be +applied to the regard and delicate attention that different degrees of +talents, render necessary: society, under this relation, has also its +rich and poor; and we know the extent of charity and the secrets of our +moral nature, when we practice that general benevolence, which preserves +others from feeling a painful sentiment of inferiority, and which makes +it a duty to respect the veil, that a beneficent hand has designedly +placed between the light of truth and those imperfections which we +cannot entirely correct. + +It is always about the generality of men that the author of christianity +seems to be interested; the gospel takes cognizance of their private +sentiments, condemning pride, and recommending modesty; and it applies +itself to level those distances which appear to us so important, when we +only view the little points of gradation which compose our scale of +vanity. Religion enables us to discern that haughtiness and contempt, +only display our ignorance and folly: _what hast thou, that thou didst +not receive? now if thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory?_—What is +the pride that does not melt away before these awful words? Religion +seems ever to tend towards the same end, and by continually reminding us +of the brevity of life, to prevent strong illusions from engrossing our +thoughts. + +The greater part of ancient moral instructions were in general +addressed, either to man considered as an individual occupied with the +care of his destiny, or to the citizen connected by his duties to his +country, and none of them had sufficient extent: it is necessary, when +giving counsel to a solitary individual, only to try to free him from +those passions which would destroy his repose and happiness; and the +obligations that are imposed on the different members of a political +state, necessarily participate of a jealous spirit, which the will of +the government may turn into hatred. The Christian religion, more +universal in its views, turns its attention from the contrariety of +interests which divide men when they belong to different governments; it +considers us indistinctly as citizens of a great society, united by the +same origin, nature, and dependencies, and by the same sentiment of +happiness. Recommending the reciprocal duties of benevolence, the gospel +does not make any difference between the inhabitant of Jerusalem and +Samaria; it takes man in the most simple of his relations, and the most +honourable, those which arise from his intercourse with the Supreme +Being; and under this point of view, all the hostile divisions of +kingdom against kingdom, absolutely disappear; it is the whole human +race which has a right to the protection and the beneficence of the +Author of Nature, and it is in the name of every intelligent being that +we credit the alliance which unites heaven to earth. + +The rich and powerful made the first laws, or, at least, directed the +spirit of them; it was especially to defend their possessions and +privileges that they extolled justice: the legislator of our religion, +speaking of this virtue, has shown, that the interests of all men were +equally present to his thoughts; we might even say, that he made an old +obligation a new duty, by the manner in which he prescribed it: +_Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them_, +is a maxim ever remarkable, if we consider the extent of the precept +which it contains: there are so many acts of severity and oppression, so +much tyranny, which escapes the reach of the law, and the +superintendency of opinion, that we cannot too highly value its +importance; Christianity indeed affords a simple guide and measure for +all our actions. + +Religion, beside, in order to fix our determinations, strengthens the +authority of conscience: she saw, that every one of us has within +himself a judge, the most severe and clear-sighted, and that it is +sufficient to submit to its laws to be instructed in our duty; for it is +our hidden thoughts that this judge examines, and nothing is excused, no +subterfuge admitted. + +It is not the same with those censures which we exercise towards others, +the simple actions only strike us; and the different motives they result +from, the emotions, the conflicts which accompany them, and the regret, +the repentance, which follow them, all these essential characteristics +escape our penetration: thus religion, always wise, always benevolent in +its counsels, forbids our forming hasty and precipitate judgments; and +we cannot read, without emotion, that lesson of indulgence so mildly +addressed to the crowd which surrounded the woman taken in adultery, _he +that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her_. But +how resist being affected by admiration, when we see religion so warmly +employed about the fate of those whom the suspicions or false +accusations of men have dragged before their tribunals? by declaring +that it is better to let a hundred culprits escape punishment, than run +the risk of condemning a single person unjustly. This tender anxiety +corresponds with every sentiment of our hearts. Innocence delivered to +infamy, innocence encompassed with all the horrors of an execution, is +the most dreadful sight that the imagination can present; and we are so +struck by it, that we should be almost disposed to think, that before +the Supreme Being the whole human race is responsible for such a crime: +yes, it is under Thy protection, O my God, that unknown virtue and +injured innocence take shelter; men turn towards Thee for comfort when +pursued by men, and it is not in vain that they trust in that awful day +when all shall be judged before Thee. + +I wish only to dwell on the particular character of the Christian +religion, as it proportions the merit of our actions, not to the +grandeur or importance of them; but to the relation that they have with +our abilities, it is an idea absolutely new: this system, which presents +the same motives and rewards to the weak and strong, remarked the +widow’s mite, as well as the generous sacrifices of opulence; this +system, as just as rational, animates, in some measure, our whole moral +nature, and seems to inform us, that a vast circle of good actions and +social virtues are submitted to the same rules, as the immense domain of +physical nature, in which the simplest flower, or the most insignificant +plant, concurs to perfect the designs of the Supreme Being, and composes +one part of the harmonious universe. + +The superintendance of the Christian religion extends still further than +I can point out; and guided by a spirit not to be equalled, it estimates +our intentions, obscure dispositions, and internal determinations, often +separated from action by different obstacles: it directs men, in some +measure, from their first sentiments and designs; it continually reminds +them of the presence of God; warns them to watch over themselves, when +their inclinations are but dawning, before they have gained strength; in +short, at an early hour it forms the mind to the exercise of virtue, by +discriminating virtue and vice, and reminding us to cultivate a love of +order and propriety before the active scenes of life force those +sentiments to appear conspicuously displayed in actions. + +But the more the methods of meriting the divine approbation are +multiplied, the more essential is it that our confidence should not be +depressed, every instant, by the sentiment which arises from the +experience of our errors; it is necessary, that at the moments, too +frequent, when the chain which unites us to the Supreme Being would +escape from our grasp, the hope of again seizing it should remain with +us: it is then to succour our weak faith, that we see in the gospel that +idea at once so excellent and new, that of repentance and the promises +which are annexed to it. This noble idea, absolutely belonging to +Christianity, prevents our relation with the Deity from being destroyed +as soon as it is perceived; the culprit may still hope for the favour of +God, and after contrition confide in Him. Human nature, that singular +connexion of the spirit with matter, of strength with weakness, of +reason with the imagination, persuasion with doubt, and will with +uncertainty, necessarily requires a legislation appropriated to a +constitution so extraordinary: man, in his most improved state, +resembles an infant, who attempts to walk, and falls, rises and falls +again; and he would soon be lost to morality, if, after his first fault, +he had not any hope of repairing it; under a similar point of view, the +idea of repentance is one of the most philosophical which the gospel +contains. + +That pressing recommendation to do good in secret, without ostentation, +is the result of a salutary and profound thought: the legislator of our +religion undoubtedly had perceived that the praises of men was not a +basis sufficiently steady to serve for the support of morality; and he +discerned, that vanity, allowed to enjoy these kind of triumphs, was too +dissipated to be a faithful guide; but the most important part of that +precept is, that morality would be very circumscribed, if men only +adhered to those just actions which all the world might see; there are +not many opportunities to do good in public, and the whole of life may +be filled by unseen virtues: in short, from that continual relation with +our conscience, a relation instituted by religion, there results an +inestimable benefit; for it is easy to perceive, that if we have within +us a clear-sighted and severe judge, this same judge turns consoler and +friend every time that we are unjustly condemned, or when events do not +answer according to the purity of our intentions; and we believe then +that we have almost two souls, one aiding and sustaining the other on +every occasion in which virtue unites them. + +The severe censure of superstition, which we find throughout the gospel, +is derived from an idea as reasonable as enlightened; men are too much +disposed to make their religion consist of little exterior practices, +always easier than the conflicts with and triumphs over the passions: +our minds seize with avidity every extraordinary idea; when they are in +part of our own creating, they aid our self-love to subjugate our +imagination; man is not at the age of maturity terrified by those +phantoms which annoy his infancy; but mysteries, occult causes, +extraordinary appearances, continue to make an impression on his mind; +and like the wonders of nature, form too large a circle round his +thoughts; it is by ideas more proportioned to his strength, by mere +superstition, that he permits himself often to be led captive: we love +trivial commands, observances, and scruples, because we are little +ourselves, and that in our weakness we would wish to know every instant +the limits of our obligations. + +Sometimes, persons terrified by their imaginations, or by the confused +picture which they form of the duties of religion, attach themselves to +superstitious practices as a safeguard near at hand which may quickly +guard them from the different anxieties of their minds. The precepts of +the gospel are designed to destroy these dispositions; for on one side, +they facilitate the study of morality, by reducing to simple principles +the entire system of our duties; and on the other, they seek to render +our intercourse with the Supreme Being more easy, by teaching us that we +may unite ourselves to Him by the expansion of a pure mind; by informing +us, that it is not either on Mount Sion or Gerizim that we are to raise +an altar; but that every honest heart is a temple, where the eternal is +adored _in spirit and in truth_. The Christian religion is the only one +which, discarding ceremonies and superstitious opinions, leads us to the +worship more consonant to our nature: Christianity indeed, in that grand +thought, has pointed out the dictates of our conscience as most worthy +of respect; benevolence, as the worship most agreeable to the Supreme +Being, and all our moral conduct as the most certain prognostic of our +future state. There reigns a profound philosophy in the doctrines of the +gospel, men have only added a vain pageantry, a more sounding tone. + +Let us render homage to Christianity, for that sacred tie which it has +formed, in uniting not for a moment, but for the whole of life, the fate +of two beings, one having need of support, and the other of comfort: it +is religion which refines this alliance by rendering it immutable, and +obliges men not to sacrifice to the caprices of their imaginations the +unity and confidence which secures the repose of families, order in the +disposition of fortunes, the peaceable education of the succeeding +generation, and which, in giving to children, for an example, a union +formed by fidelity and duty, implants in their hearts the seeds of the +most important virtues; religion has taught us, that the friendships of +a world, in which selfishness reigns, have need of being cemented by +that community of interests and honours which marriage only gives us an +idea of; holy union, alliance without equal, which renders still more +valuable all the blessings of life, which seems to augment our hopes, +and fortify in us the comfortable thoughts and mild confidence which +piety gives birth to: the engagements entered into between men, which +being, for the most part, sounded on reciprocal services, a time might +come, when our weakness would be so great, others having no more +interest to associate with us, it might be necessary to find a support +in that friendship which time has matured, and of which a sentiment of +duty repairs the breaches, and which acquires a kind of sanctity from +the habit and the remembrance of a long and happy union: it is religion +in, short, which has ordained, that the delicate virtue, the most +excellent ornament of a weak and timid sex, should only be subject to +the ascendency of the most generous and faithful sentiment. + +These principles, indeed, are not formed for corrupt hearts; but the +service which religion renders, the end which it proposes, is to assist +us to combat our depraved dispositions; it is to point out the errors +and the snares of vice; it is to preserve, amongst us, the sacred +deposit of principles, which are the foundation of public order, and +still maintain some light to illuminate the path of wisdom and true +happiness. + +Religion recals us continually to those universal duties which we +describe under the name of good morals; duties that men would often +inconsiderately wish to separate from public interest, but which, +however, are bound to it by so many almost imperceptible and secret +ties. Every act of wisdom and virtue is not of immediate importance to +society; but morality must be cultivated by degrees, and fortified by +habit, as it is like those delicate plants which we rear with a kind of +fondness to preserve their beauty; if we make a distinction between +personal, domestic, and public manners, in order to neglect, as we find +convenient, one part of our duty, we shall lose the charm of it, and +every day virtue will appear more difficult. + +There is, I think, a connexion, more or less apparent, between every +thing good and worthy of esteem; and it seems to me, that this idea has +something amiable, which confusedly satisfies our most generous +dispositions and most comfortable hopes: and if, to sustain a truth so +important, I was permitted to interrogate the young man, whose virtues +and talents are the most remarkable in Europe, I should ask him, if he +did not experience that his filial tenderness, the regularity of his +domestic life, the purity of his thoughts, and all his rare private +qualities, are not united to the noble sentiments which make him appear +with so much splendour as a statesman? But without dwelling on such +instances, who has not been sometimes struck with the beauty attached to +that simplicity and modesty of manners which we often find in an obscure +situation? We then manifestly discover, that there exists a kind of +agreement and dignity, I could almost say, a kind of grandeur, +independent of refined language, polished manners, and all those +advantages due to birth, to rank, and fortune. + +I have only glanced over the benefits arising from the Christian +religion; but I cannot avoid observing, that we owe to it a consoling +idea, that of the felicity reserved for innocent babes; interesting and +precious hope for those tender mothers, who see slip from their embraces +the objects of their love, at an age when they have not acquired any +merit before the Supreme Being, whom they cannot have any relation with, +but through His infinite goodness. I feel that I involuntarily mix with +the elogiums of Christianity a sentiment of gratitude for the mild and +paternal ideas which are disseminated with its instructions; and there +is something remarkable in those instructions, that they are continually +animated by every thing which can captivate our imagination, and +associate with our natural inclinations. Sensibility, happiness, and +hope, are the strongest ties of a heart still pure; and all the emotions +which elevate towards the idea of a God exalt in our minds the doctrine +of morality, which recals us continually to the sublime perfections of +Him who was its author. + +In short, we cannot avoid admiring the spirit of moderation, which forms +one of the distinct characteristics of the gospel; we do not always +find, it is true, the same spirit in the interpreters of the Christian +doctrines; several constrained by a false zeal, and more disposed to +speak in the name of a threatening master, than in that of a God, full +of wisdom and goodness, have frequently exaggerated and multiplied the +duties of men; and to support their system, they have often obscured the +natural sense, or the general import of the precepts contained in the +scriptures; and sometimes also, collecting a few scattered words, they +have formed a body of divinity, foreign in several respects to the +intention of the apostles and first Christians. Servants always go +further than their masters; and as the first thought does not belong to +them, they only act by adding something heterogeneous: the spirit of +moderation consists, beside, in a kind of proportion, which mere +imitators have only an imperfect knowledge of; fortitude is even +necessary to impose limits on virtue itself; and to determine the +precise and exact measure of the multiplied duties of men requires a +profound and sublime intelligence. It was by his sublime precepts that +the institutor of a universal morality shewed himself superior to that +age of ignorance in which extremes reigned; when piety was changed into +superstition, justice into rigour, indulgence into weakness; and when, +in the exaggeration of every sentiment, a kind of merit was sought for +incompatible with the immutable laws of wisdom: it was by those sublime +precepts, in short, that a legislator rose above transitory opinions to +command all times and ages, and that he appears to have been desirous to +adapt his instructions, not to the instantaneous humour of a people, but +to the nature of man. + +We shall, beside, find easily in the gospel several characteristics +proper, essentially to distinguish it from philosophic doctrines; but in +an examination so serious and important I avoid every observation which +might appear to the greater number a simple research of the +understanding; it is the grand features only which belong to grand +things, and any other manner would not agree with a subject so worthy of +our respect. I must say, however, that when I am left alone to reflect +with attention on the different parts of the gospel, I have experienced, +that, independent of general ideas and particular precepts which lead us +every instant to profound admiration, there reigns, beside, in the whole +of that sublime morality, a spirit of goodness, of truth, and wisdom, of +which all the characters can only be perceived by our sensibility, by +that faculty of our nature which does not separate objects, which does +not wait to define; but which penetrates, as by a kind of instinct, +almost to that love, the origin of every thing, and that indefinite +model from which every generous intention and grand thought has taken +its first form. + + + + + CHAP. XVIII. + _Conclusion._ + + +What a time have I chosen to entertain the world with morality and +religion! and what a theatre is this for such an undertaking! Only to +conceive it is a great proof of courage; every one is employed about his +harvest; lives in his affairs; is lost in the present instant, all the +rest appears chimerical. When I was formerly engrossed by cares for the +public welfare, and writing on my favourite subject, I could draw the +attention of men by a series of reflections on their own fortunes and on +the power of their country; it was in the name of their most ardent +passions that I engaged them to listen to me; but in treating the +subject I have now made choice of, it is their natural dispositions, now +almost effaced, that I must address: thus I feel the necessity of +re-animating the sentiments which I wish to direct, and giving birth to +the interest I desire to enlighten. And when I fix my attention on the +actual course of opinions, I fear to have for judges, either men who are +indifferent to the subject, or who are too severe in their censurers; +but the reflections of vanity are trivial to the motives which have +guided me; and provided any of my thoughts have agreed with the +inclinations of feeling minds, and added something to their happiness, I +shall enjoy the sweetest reward. Such a wish I formed, when, with a weak +hand, I ventured to trace some reflections on the importance of +religious opinions. + +The more we know of the world, its phantoms, and vain enchantments, the +more do we feel the want of a grand idea to elevate the soul above +discouraging events which continually occur. When we run after honours, +fame, and gratitude, we find every where illusions and mistakes; and it +is our lot to experience those disappointments which proceed from the +infirmities or the passions of men. If we leave our vessel in the +harbour, the success of others dazzles and disturbs us; if we spread our +sails, we are the plaything of the winds: activity in action, ardour, +and indifference, all have their cares and difficulties; no person is +sheltered from the caprices of fortune, and when we have reached the +summit of our wishes, when we have by chance attained the object of our +ambition, sadness and languor are preparing to frustrate our hopes, and +dissipate the enchantment: nothing is perfect except for a moment; +nothing is durable but change; it is necessary then to have interest in +with those immutable ideas which are not the work of man, which do not +depend on a transient opinion: they are offered to all, and are equally +useful in the moment of triumph and the day of defeat; they are, as we +need them, our consolation, our encouragement, and our guide. What +strength, what splendour, those ideas would soon have, if, considered as +the best support of order and morality, men would try to render them +more efficacious, in the same manner as we see the citizens of a +political society concur, in proportion to their faculties, to promote +the welfare of the state. A new scene would open before us; men of +learning, far from following the counsels of vanity, far from searching +to destroy the most salutary belief of men, would, on the contrary, +allot for their defence a portion of their noblest powers; we should see +the penetrating metaphysician eager to refer to the common treasure of +our hopes, the light which he perceives through the continuity of his +meditations, and the perspicacity of his mind: we should see the +attentive observer of nature occupied with the same idea, animated by +the same interest; we should see him, in the midst of his labours, seize +with avidity every thing which could add any support to the first +principle of all religions; we should see him detach from his +discoveries, appropriate, with a kind of love, all that tended to +strengthen the happiest persuasion and most sublime of thoughts. The +profound moralist, the philosophic legislator, would concur in the same +design; and in such a grand enterprize, men, merely endowed with an +ardent imagination, would be like those wanderers, who, when they return +home, talk of some unknown riches. There are ways in the moral, as well +as in the physical world, which lead to unknown secrets; and the harvest +which may be gathered in the vast empire of nature is as extensive as +diversified. How excellent would be the union of every mind towards this +magnificent end! In this view, I represent sometimes to myself, with +respect, a society of men distinguished by their character and genius, +only employed to receive and place in order the ideas proper to augment +our confidence in the most precious opinion. There are thoughts +conceived by solitary men which are lost to mankind, because they have +not had the talent to connect a system; and if those thoughts were to be +united to some other knowledge, if they were to come like a grain of +sand, to strengthen the banks raised on our shore, the following +generations would transmit a richer heritage. We sometimes register with +pomp a new word, introduced into the language, and men of the most +exalted genius of the age are called to be present at that ceremony: +would it not be a more noble enterprize to examine, to choose, and +consecrate the ideas or observations proper to enlighten us in our most +essential researches? One of those researches would better deserve a +wreath, than any work of eloquence or literature. + +Let us suppose, for a moment, that in the most ancient empire of the +world there might have been priests, from time immemorial, who guarded +the deposit of all the original ideas which served to support the +opinion of the existence of a God, and the sentiment of the immortality +of the soul; and that, from time to time, every new discovery, +calculated to increase the confidence due to these most necessary +truths, was inscribed in a religious testament, called the book of +happiness and hope; how highly should we value it, and how eagerly +desire to be acquainted with it; and with what respect should we +approach the ancient temple, in which those superb archives were +deposited. But, on the contrary, could we imagine another retreat, where +subtle arguments and artificial discourses were collected, by which some +endeavour to destroy or shake those holy opinions which unite the +universe to an intelligent thought, to a sublime wisdom; and the fate of +men to infinite goodness, who amongst us would wish to enter into that +dark abode? who would wish to explore that fatal register? Let us learn +to know our nature better, and through the delirium of our blind +passions discover its wants: it is a God we feel the want of, a God, +such as religion presents; a God, powerful and good, the first source of +happiness, and who only can secure it to the human race: let us open all +our faculties to that splendid light, that our hearts and minds may +welcome it, and find pleasure in widely diffusing it. Let us be +penetrated in our youth, by the only idea ever necessary to our peace: +let us strengthen it when in our full vigour, that it may support us in +the decline of life. Ravishing beauties of the universe, what would ye +be to us without this thought? Majestic power of the human mind, +astonishing wonders of the thinking faculty, what could it represent if +we separated it from its noble origin? Souls affectionate and +impassioned, what would become of you without hope? Pardon, O Master of +the world, if not sufficiently sensible of my own weakness, and +abandoning myself only to the emotions of my heart, I have undertaken to +speak to men of Thy existence, Thy grandeur, and Thy goodness! Pardon me +if, lately agitated by the tumultuous waves of passion, I dare to raise +my thoughts to the realms of eternal peace, where Thou more particularly +exhibits Thy glory and sovereign power. Ah! I know more than ever that +we must love Thee, we must serve Thee. The powerful of the earth exalt +and depress their favourites capriciously; there is no relying on them; +after profiting by the talents devoted to them, they forsake the victim, +or crush him like a reed. There is in the universe but one immutable +justice, but one perfect goodness and consolatory thought: yet we go +continually towards other coasts, where we call for happiness, but it is +not to be found: there are phantoms accustomed to deceive men, who +answer when they call: we run towards them, and pursue them, and we +leave far behind religious opinions, which only can lead us back to +nature, and elevate us to its author. The blind passions of the world, +and the devouring desires of fame and fortune, only serve to harden us; +every thing is selfish and hostile in them. Ambitious men, who only wish +for a vain name, a childish triumph, acknowledge your features in this +sketch; a single object engrosses you, a single end fixes your views: +the heavens may be obscured; the earth covered with darkness; and the +future annihilated before you; and you are satisfied if a weak taper +still permits you to discern the homage of those who surround you; but +how is it possible to expect thus to pass a whole life? how be able to +retain that homage which appears so necessary to your dream of +happiness? how can you make stationary what so many concur to demand? We +have a more rational certainty of happiness, when a sentiment of piety, +enlightened in its principle and action, softens all our passions, and +bends them, in some measure, to the laws of our destiny. Piety, such as +I form an idea of, may be properly represented as a vigilant friend, +tender and rational. It lets us see the various blessings of life; but +it recals us to the idea of gratitude, in order to augment our +happiness, by referring it to the most generous of all benefactors: it +allows us to exercise our faculties and talents; but recals us to the +idea of morality and virtue, in order to assure our steps, and shield us +from regret: it allows us to run the race of glory or ambition; but +recals us to the idea of inconstancy and instability, to preserve us +from a fatal intoxication: it is always with us, not to disturb our +felicity, not to impose useless privations, but to blend itself with our +thoughts, and to unite to all our projects those mild and peaceable +ideas which attend wisdom and moderation: in short, in the day of +adversity, when our strength is broken, in which we have placed our +confidence, piety comes to succour and console us; it shows us the +nothingness of vanity and worldly illusions; it calms the remorse of our +souls, by reminding us of a particular providence; it softens our +regrets, by presenting more worthy hopes than any earthly object can +afford, in order to engage our interest and fix our attention. + +I am not led to these reflections by a temporary melancholy; I should be +afraid of it, if I had not always had the same thoughts, and if the +various circumstances of a life, often perturbed, had not led me to +think of the necessity of attaching myself to some principle independent +of men and events. Almost entirely alone at this instant, and thrown +into solitude by an unforeseen accident, I experience, it is true[10], +more than ever, the want of those rational ideas, the representations of +all that is great, and I approach with renewed interest the truths which +I always loved; grand and sublime truths, which I have recommended to +men at the moment when I see them more than ever inclined to neglect +them. How mistaken are they in their calculations, they trust to-day in +the strength of their minds, to-morrow they will find their weakness; +they imagine, that in turning their views from the termination of life +they remove the fatal boundary; but already the hand trembles on the +dial to give the signal of their last moment. What a dire sacrifice we +should make, if we gave up those consoling truths which still present to +us a future, when all the bustle of life is over! We should again demand +them, search for them with the most diligent anxiety, if ever the traces +of them were unfortunately effaced. + +All these ideas, some may say, are vague, and do not agree with the +humour of the age; but at a certain distance from the field of ambition +and vanity, is there any thing to every one of us more vague than the +passions of others? Are men employed about our interest? do they dream +of our happiness? No, they are like ourselves; they seek for precedency; +now and then indeed they pronounce the name of public good; but it is +only a watch word which they have stolen, to be able to run over our +ranks without danger. Where shall we find then a real tie? Where shall +we find a universal rendezvous, if not in those unalterable ideas which +are so consonant to our nature, which should equally interest us all, +being suited to all without distinction; and which are ready to welcome +us when we see the folly of earthly pursuits? They may not, indeed, +gratify the childish wishes of the moment; but they relieve our anxiety +about to-morrow, they are allied to objects of meditation which belong +to our whole life, and above all, they unite us to that spirit which +constitutes our true grandeur, to that sublime spirit, a few of whose +relations only are yet discovered by us, and the full extent of whose +power and goodness can be but faintly guessed at by finite beings. + + + FINIS. + + + + + _I was engrossed by the last Cares which the Publication of this + Book occasioned, when M. de_ CALONNE’S _Second Memorial made its + Appearance. I have read it; and I here publicly engage to answer + this new Attack, and fully to support the Credit which is justly + due to the Account I presented to the King in 1781._ + + NECKER. + +----- + +Footnote 1: + + Thesis proposed by the French Academy, with a prize, for the best + Catechism of Morals, the instructions of which were to be founded on + the principles of natural right only. + +Footnote 2: + + I should have enlarged this chapter, if I did not intend to make some + general reflections on intolerance in another part of this work. + +Footnote 3: + + These various reflections are very necessary in the place where I + live; since, for a short time, labourers have been permitted to work, + at Paris, of a Sunday. We see this publicly done at the new bridge, + which is building over the Seine, as if a work of mere convenience was + in such haste, that the laws should be dispensed with to accelerate + its execution. The labourers, some will say, are glad to gain a day + every week. Undoubtedly, because they see only the present instant, + they have reason to think so; but it is the duty of government to + consider, in a more comprehensive point of view, the interest of the + people, of that part of society, which is so blind, or so limited in + its calculation; and the church should examine also, if the sudden + alteration of a practice so ancient, may not give rise to an idea, + that the spirit of religion is grown feeble. For the nations where + this spirit is best preserved, have the greatest respect for the + Sabbath. + +Footnote 4: + + This mass is commonly called a low mass. + +Footnote 5: + + Some say, in order to weaken this argument, that we may attribute to + the indivisible unit all the qualities of matter, that a round body is + really divisible, but that roundness and impenetrability are not. Such + an objection is evidently not just. Roundness and impenetrability are + only qualities, and these qualities, when merely abstract, are + necessarily invariable: thus, it is as impossible to divide it, as it + is to multiply and increase it; but my soul, my thoughts, the + consciousness that I have of my own existence, forms a particular and + personal being; and if it were of the same nature as matter, ought to + be equally divisible. + +Footnote 6: + + I shall present some reflections on this truth in another Chapter. + +Footnote 7: + + Dr. Herschel. + +Footnote 8: + + It may be said, that the fifty thousand new stars perceived by Dr. + Herschel, being the result of observation directed to the milky-way, + we are not to expect to discover as great a number in other parts of + the heavens of a like extent; but independent of these stars which Dr. + H. clearly distinguished, he imagined that there were twice as many + more of which he had only an instantaneous glance. See the + Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1774. Dr. H. has + probably, since that time, made new discoveries; but they have not + reached me: I find, in the Transactions of the Royal Society, of which + he is a member, that he considers the new telescope as being still _in + its infancy_; these are his own words. + +Footnote 9: + + I think I perceive the traces of these philosophical ideas in the + censure Jesus passed upon one of his disciples, who called him _good + master_. _Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one._ + +Footnote 10: + + For I had begun this chapter during my exile. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES + + + Page Changed from Changed to + + 200 that a moral revolution that a moral revolution + permitted laboures permitted labourers + + ● Standardized spelling. + ● Retained dialect. + ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. + ● The caret (^) serves as a superscript indicator, applicable to + individual characters (like 2^d) and even entire phrases (like + 1^{st}). + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76773 *** |