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diff --git a/76768-h/76768-h.htm b/76768-h/76768-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5680899 --- /dev/null +++ b/76768-h/76768-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,18125 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + English Grammar | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +a { + text-decoration: none; +} + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +h1,h2,h3 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; +} + +h2.nobreak { + page-break-before: avoid; +} + +hr.chap { + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; + width: 65%; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; +} + +div.chapter { + page-break-before: always; +} + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin: auto 10%; + padding: 0; +} + +li { + margin-top: .25em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -1em; +} + +li.indx { + margin-top: .5em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.ifrst { + margin-top: 2em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.isub1, li.sub1 { + padding-left: 4em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.sub2 { + padding-left: 6em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.sub3 { + padding-left: 8em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.sub4 { + padding-left: 10em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +p { + margin-top: 0.5em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + text-indent: 1em; +} + +table { + margin: 1em auto 1em auto; + max-width: 40em; + border-collapse: collapse; +} + +table#contents { + max-width: 30em; +} + +#contents td { + text-align: justify; +} + +th { + padding: 0.25em; + font-weight: normal; +} + +td { + padding-left: 2.25em; + padding-right: 0.25em; + vertical-align: top; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +.tdr, #contents .tdr { + text-align: right; +} + +#contents .tdpg { + vertical-align: bottom; + text-align: right; +} + +blockquote { + margin: auto 10%; +} + +.break { + margin-top: 1em; +} + +.center { + text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; +} + +.footnotes { + margin-top: 1em; + border: dashed 1px; +} + +.footnote { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; +} + +.footnote .label { + position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right; +} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none; +} + +.noindent { + text-indent: 0; +} + +.note { + font-size: 90%; +} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + right: 4%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; +} + +.poetry-container { + text-align: center; +} + +.poetry { + display: inline-block; + text-align: left; +} + +.poetry .stanza { + margin: auto; +} + +.poetry .stanza1 { + margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; +} + +.poetry .verse { + padding-left: 3em; +} + +.poetry .indent0 { + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poetry .indent2 { + text-indent: -2em; +} + +.right { + text-align: right; +} + +.section { + margin-top: 2em; +} + +.smaller { + font-size: 80%; +} + +.smcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; +} + +.titlepage { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 3em; + text-indent: 0; +} + +.x-ebookmaker .poetry { + display: block; + margin-left: 1.5em; +} + +.x-ebookmaker blockquote { + margin: auto 5%; +} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76768 ***</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p> + +<h1>ENGLISH GRAMMAR</h1> + +<p class="titlepage">BY<br> +LILLIAN G. KIMBALL<br> +<span class="smaller">FORMERLY HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL<br> +SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WISCONSIN<br> +AUTHOR OF “THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE”<br> +“ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK ONE,” AND<br> +“ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK TWO”</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO</span><br> +AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1912, by<br> +AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.</span></p> + +<p class="center smaller"><span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.</span></p> + +<p class="center smaller">KIMBALL’S ENG. GRAMMAR.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The purpose of this book is to set forth in a simple and +practical manner the principles of modern English Grammar. +The aim has been not only to give the pupils an insight into +the structure of the English sentence, but also to provide them +with exercises helpful to the formation of good habits of +speech.</p> + +<p>It is a matter of common knowledge among teachers of +grammar that a mere understanding of the rules of syntax +does not insure the avoidance of errors and the use of correct +forms. The use of language by young persons is instinctive +and spontaneous rather than reflective, hence the most effective +way for them to secure correctness of speech is through imitation +and practice. Recognizing this fundamental fact in language +teaching, the author has provided many exercises both +for the learning of correct forms and for practice in their use. +These the teacher is expected to supplement by constant criticism, +example, and stimulus.</p> + +<p>After the pupil has been led to appreciate and strive for +correctness of speech, he naturally wishes to understand why +a certain form is correct or incorrect, to have a test for his +own speech and a standard by which to judge the speech of +others. Only by such an understanding does he gain a mastery +of the form of a language so that he can use it with ease, +freedom, and certainty. To promote such a mastery of English, +the author has made each construction perfectly clear, +and has led the pupil through accurate reasoning to conclusions +which are strengthened and established by their application +to many illustrative sentences chosen from standard literature.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span></p> + +<p>The selection and the arrangement of subject matter have +been carefully considered in the light of experience in the +classroom. The arrangement is at the same time pedagogical +and logical. Each point is taken up where it is called for by +the preceding lesson and where it will be of greatest use in +making clear what follows. Technical points that have little +or no practical value have been omitted, but whatever is of +benefit in helping the pupil to use or to interpret the English +language has been included.</p> + +<p>Thanks are due to many teachers for helpful criticisms of +the manuscript of this book.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> + +</div> + +<table id="contents"> + <tr> + <td class="tdr smaller">LESSON</td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td>Declarative Sentences. Subject and Predicate</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#I">9</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td>Simple Subject. Nouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#II">11</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td>Classification of Nouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#III">13</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td>Verbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#IV">15</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">V.</td> + <td>Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#V">18</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VI.</td> + <td>Compound Subject and Compound Predicate</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#VI">19</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td>Transposed Subject and Predicate</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#VII">22</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> + <td>Interrogative Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#VIII">23</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">IX.</td> + <td>Adjectives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#IX">25</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">X.</td> + <td>Adverbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#X">28</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XI.</td> + <td>Phrases. Analysis of Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XI">31</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XII.</td> + <td>Prepositions</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XII">34</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> + <td>Term of Address. Exclamatory Noun</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XIII">39</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> + <td>Imperative Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XIV">41</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XV.</td> + <td>Interjections</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XV">43</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XVI.</td> + <td>Exclamatory Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XVI">44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XVII.</td> + <td>Conjunctions</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XVII">46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td> + <td>Clauses. Simple Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XVIII">48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XIX.</td> + <td>Compound Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XIX">50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XX.</td> + <td>Dependent Clauses. Complex Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XX">52</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXI.</td> + <td>Review: Classification of Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXI">55</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXII.</td> + <td>Review: Parts of Speech</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXII">57</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIII.</td> + <td>Transitive Verbs. Object of Verb</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXIII">60</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIV.</td> + <td>Intransitive Verbs asserting Action</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXIV">64</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXV.</td> + <td>Intransitive Verbs asserting Being. Nouns as Subjective Complements</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXV">66</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVI.</td> + <td>Adjectives as Subjective Complements</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXVI">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVII.</td> + <td>Review of Verbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXVII">72</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVIII.</td> + <td>Nouns: Number</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXVIII">74</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIX.</td> + <td>Nouns: Gender</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXIX">77</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXX.</td> + <td>Possessive Nouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXX">80</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXI.</td> + <td>Nouns: Case</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXI">83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXII.</td> + <td>Nouns: The Appositive</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXII">85</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXIII.</td> + <td>Appositive Adjectives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXIII">88</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXIV.</td> + <td>Indirect Object</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXIV">89</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXV.</td> + <td>Adverbial Noun Phrases</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXV">91</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXVI.</td> + <td>Adverbial Noun Phrases</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXVI">92</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXVII.</td> + <td>Objective Complement</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXVII">94</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXVIII.</td> + <td>Parsing of Nouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXVIII">96</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XXXIX.</td> + <td>Personal Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XXXIX">98</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XL.</td> + <td>Uses of Personal Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XL">100</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLI.</td> + <td>Uses of Possessive Personal Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLI">103</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLII.</td> + <td>Compound Personal Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLII">106</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLIII.</td> + <td>Interrogative Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLIII">108</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLIV.</td> + <td>Descriptive Adjectives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLIV">110</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLV.</td> + <td>Limiting Adjectives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLV">113</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLVI.</td> + <td>Comparison of Adjectives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLVI">116</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLVII.</td> + <td>Review of Adjectives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLVII">120</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLVIII.</td> + <td>Adjective Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLVIII">121</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XLIX.</td> + <td>Verbs: Tense</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XLIX">123</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">L.</td> + <td>The Indicative Mode</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#L">127</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LI.</td> + <td>The Interrogative Form of the Indicative Mode</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LI">129</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LII.</td> + <td>The Subjunctive Mode</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LII">131</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LIII.</td> + <td>The Imperative Mode</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LIII">134</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LIV.</td> + <td>Principal Parts of Verbs. Regular and Irregular Verbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LIV">135</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LV.</td> + <td>Voice</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LV">140</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LVI.</td> + <td>The Passive Voice</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LVI">144</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LVII.</td> + <td>The Progressive Conjugation</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LVII">148</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LVIII.</td> + <td>The Emphatic Conjugation</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LVIII">149</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LIX.</td> + <td>Parsing of Verbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LIX">150</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LX.</td> + <td>The Auxiliary Verbs <i>Shall</i> and <i>Will</i></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LX">151</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXI.</td> + <td>Defective Verbs. Verb Phrases</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXI">154</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXII.</td> + <td>Direct and Indirect Discourse</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXII">162</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXIII.</td> + <td>Agreement of Verb and Subject. Collective Nouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXIII">165</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXIV.</td> + <td>Review of Verbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXIV">168</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXV.</td> + <td>Classification of Adverbs. Simple Adverbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXV">169</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXVI.</td> + <td>Conjunctive Adverbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXVI">171</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXVII.</td> + <td>Summary of Adverbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXVII">173</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXVIII.</td> + <td>Coördinate Conjunctions</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXVIII">174</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXIX.</td> + <td>Subordinate Conjunctions</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXIX">176</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXX.</td> + <td>Adverbial Clauses of Time, Place, and Manner</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXX">180</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXI.</td> + <td>Adverbial Clauses of Cause, Purpose, and Result</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXI">183</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXII.</td> + <td>Adverbial Clauses of Condition and Concession</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXII">186</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXIII.</td> + <td>Adverbial Clauses of Comparison</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXIII">188</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXIV.</td> + <td>Analysis of Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXIV">191</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXV.</td> + <td>Adjective Clauses</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXV">193</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXVI.</td> + <td>Relative Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXVI">196</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXVII.</td> + <td>Noun Clauses</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXVII">200</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXVIII.</td> + <td>Introductory Words of Noun Clauses</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXVIII">203</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXIX.</td> + <td>Review of Clauses</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXIX">206</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXX.</td> + <td>Review of Pronouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXX">207</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXI.</td> + <td>Infinitives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXI">209</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXII.</td> + <td>Infinitives as Subjects or Complements</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXII">212</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXIII.</td> + <td>Infinitives as Modifiers of Nouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXIII">215</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXIV.</td> + <td>Infinitives as Parts of “Double Objects.” As Modifiers of Verbs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXIV">216</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXV.</td> + <td>Other Uses of Infinitives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXV">220</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXVI.</td> + <td>Summary of Infinitives</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXVI">224</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXVII.</td> + <td>Analysis of Sentences containing Infinitive Phrases</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXVII">225</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXVIII.</td> + <td>Participles</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXVIII">228</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">LXXXIX.</td> + <td>Participles modifying Nouns</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#LXXXIX">231</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XC.</td> + <td>Participial Phrases in the Predicate</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XC">234</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XCI.</td> + <td>Absolute Participial Phrases</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XCI">237</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XCII.</td> + <td>Agreement of Participles. Other Words in <i>-ing</i></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XCII">239</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XCIII.</td> + <td>Summary of Participles</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XCIII">243</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XCIV.</td> + <td>Analysis of Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XCIV">244</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XCV.</td> + <td>Anticipative Subject</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XCV">247</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XCVI.</td> + <td>Elliptical Sentences</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XCVI">249</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XCVII.</td> + <td>Review of Analysis</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#XCVII">252</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2">General Review</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#GENERAL_REVIEW">257</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2">Index</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INDEX">265</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="I">I. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section1"><b>1.</b> The purpose of English Grammar is to set forth the +laws and customs governing the use of the English language. +We study grammar in order that we may express our thoughts +correctly.</p> + +<p>A group of words, sometimes few, sometimes many, that +completely expresses a thought is called a <b>sentence</b>. In +speech one sentence is set off from another by a slight pause. +On the written or printed page sentences are separated from +each other by a slight space, while the first word of every +sentence begins with a capital letter, and the last word is +followed by some sort of terminal mark.</p> + +<p>Most sentences are made to state, or declare, something, +and hence are called <b>declarative</b> sentences. The following +are declarative sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Molly danced up and down with delight.</p> + +<p>My grandfather’s desk had the best light in the room.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section2"><b>2.</b> Declarative sentences consist of two distinct parts. +One part names the person, place, or thing which the sentence +tells something about. This part is called the subject. +The other part is the telling part. It is called the predicate.</p> + +<p>In the first example <i>Molly</i> is the subject, because it names +the person about whom something is told. <i>Danced up and +down with delight</i> is the predicate, because it tells something +about Molly.</p> + +<p>What is the subject in the second example? the predicate? +How do you know? What terminal mark follows a declarative +sentence?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>sentence</b> is a group of words that completely +expresses a thought.</p> + +<p>A <b>declarative sentence</b> is one that states, or declares, something.</p> + +<p>A declarative sentence is always followed by a period.</p> + +<p>The <b>subject</b> of a sentence is the part which names that +about which something is said.</p> + +<p>The <b>predicate</b> of a sentence is the part which says something +about the subject.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Tell why each of the following sentences is +declarative. Select the subject, and tell why it is the subject. +Select the predicate, and tell why it is the predicate. Tell all +this in good language. Write it about one of the sentences, +and be sure to underline the words that should be printed +in italics. (See <a href="#section2">§ 2</a>.) Remember that all the words in the +sentence belong either in the subject or in the predicate.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The village street was as quiet as the fields.</p> + +<p>2. The great crashes of deep bass notes sent little thrills down +our backs.</p> + +<p>3. The cat could not find anything to eat except a thin, dried-up +old mole.</p> + +<p>4. Little gray-eyed Caroline went to live with her Aunt Fogg.</p> + +<p>5. The traveler, being quite faint for lack of food, helped himself +to the leg of a roast chicken.</p> + +<p>6. Four is the right number for a pie.</p> + +<p>7. A young girl of wonderful beauty lay asleep on the bed.</p> + +<p>8. Mary shut the parlor door with a great slam.</p> + +<p>9. Beauty, full of surprise but very happy, permitted the prince +to lead her to his palace.</p> + +<p>10. The magic song still rose from the vines outside the chamber +window.</p> + +<p>11. We cats are confined entirely to the society of each other.</p> + +<p>12. The glassy water was sparkling with stars.</p> + +<p>13. Locusts devoured the green things of the valley.</p> + +<p>14. Not a living soul was to be seen.</p> + +<p>15. My little half-starved cat grew white and plump and pretty.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Find five interesting declarative sentences +in a story book. Write them with the subject underlined.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 3.</b>—Write a fitting predicate for each of the following +subjects:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. A boy with a fish pole</p> + +<p>2. Abraham Lincoln</p> + +<p>3. My last dime</p> + +<p>4. The man on the ice wagon</p> + +<p>5. Our old white rooster</p> + +<p>6. Not a girl in the class</p> + +<p>7. The battered old musket</p> + +<p>8. The haymakers</p> + +<p>9. The miner’s cabin</p> + +<p>10. Moving picture shows</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="II">II. SIMPLE SUBJECT. NOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section3"><b>3.</b> It is evident from the sentences in Exercise 1, <a href="#Page_10">p. 10</a>, that +the subject of a sentence may consist of one word or of a +group of words. In the sentence, “Peter was sitting by +himself,” the subject is only the one word <i>Peter</i>. In the +sentence, “A lovely old lady with white hair and a gentle, +noble face came to the door,” the subject is a group of twelve +words. What are they?</p> + +<p>When the subject of a sentence is a group of words, there is +always a base word in the group, which, more than any other +word, names or designates the person, place, or thing about +which something is said. This word is called the simple +subject.</p> + +<p>What is the simple subject in the sentence that tells who +came to the door? What are the simple subjects in sentences +1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 14, and 15 in Exercise 1, <a href="#Page_10">p. 10</a>?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section4"><b>4.</b> Every word in a sentence is used for a particular purpose. +Because words are used for different purposes they +have been divided into classes called <b>parts of speech</b>.</p> + +<p>In the sentences just studied the words <i>Peter</i> and <i>lady</i> are +used to name certain persons. Name words are called +nouns. A noun is a part of speech.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section5"><b>5.</b> Not every noun is the name of a person. Many are +names of places; as, <i>Oshkosh</i>, <i>pasture</i>, <i>corner</i>. Many more +are names of things of all sorts; as, <i>peach</i>, <i>violet</i>, <i>bee</i>, <i>thimble</i>, +<i>automobile</i>.</p> + +<p>In the sentence about the lovely old lady, find three nouns +that are names of things.</p> + +<p>Any noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence. +Write sentences in which the nouns <i>hair</i>, <i>face</i>, and <i>door</i> are +so used.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The <b>simple subject</b> of a sentence is the base +word, or most important word, of the subject.</p> + +<p><b>Parts of speech</b> are the classes into which words are divided +according to their use.</p> + +<p>A <b>noun</b> is a name word.</p> + +<p>A noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Write a list of all the nouns you can find in +the following paragraphs. Tell what each noun is the name +of. Point out five nouns that are simple subjects. What +are their predicates?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. At last Purun Dass went to England on a visit, and had to pay +enormous sums to the priests when he came back to India; for even +so high-caste a Brahmin as he lost caste by crossing the black sea. +In London he met and talked with every one worth knowing—men +whose names go all over the world—and saw a great deal more +than he said. He was given honorary degrees by learned universities, +and he made speeches and talked of Hindu social reform to +English ladies in evening dress, till all London cried, “This is the +most fascinating man we have ever met at dinner since cloths were +first laid.”</p> + +<p>2. Her godmother laughed, and touched Cinderella also with the +wand; at which her wretched, threadbare jacket became stiff with +gold, and sparkling with jewels; her woolen petticoat lengthened +into a gown of sweeping satin, from underneath which peeped out her +little feet, no longer bare, but covered with silk stockings and the +prettiest glass slippers in the world. “Now, Cinderella, depart; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>but remember, if you stay one instant after midnight, your carriage +will become a pumpkin, your coachman a rat, your horses mice, and +your footmen lizards; while you yourself will be the little cinder +wench you were an hour ago.”</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="III">III. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section6"><b>6.</b> There are certain beings in the world that are called +men, and certain other beings that are called horses, certain +things that are called cities, and certain other things +that are called rivers, hence the words <i>man</i>, <i>horse</i>, <i>city</i>, +and <i>river</i> are names, or nouns. Since these nouns belong in +common to a great many individuals, we call them <b>common +nouns</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section7"><b>7.</b> On the other hand, every man, every horse, every city, +and every river is likely to have a <i>special</i> name that distinguishes +that particular man or horse or city or river from all +others. <i>Cæsar</i>, <i>Gypsy</i>, <i>Denver</i>, and <i>Penobscot</i> are such +names. Since these names belong to only one thing instead +of to a class of things, we call them <b>proper nouns</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section8"><b>8.</b> A common noun is a name that belongs to a person, +a place, or a thing because of its nature or qualities. A +boat is entitled to the name <i>boat</i> because it has the characteristics +of boats. A proper noun is a name conferred or +given by some person, as when a certain boat was named by +its owners <i>Westernland</i>.</p> + +<p>It sometimes happens that the same name is conferred +upon several objects. There is more than one city named +Madison, more than one dog named Shep. Still these names +are proper names, because they are names conferred upon +a special city and a special dog to distinguish them from +other cities and other dogs.</p> + +<p>A proper noun always begins with a capital letter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section9"><b>9.</b> When a word denoting relationship, like <i>father</i>, <i>mother</i>, +<i>uncle</i>, is used as the name of a particular person, it is a proper +noun and should therefore begin with a capital letter; as, +“Did Father say that Grandma and Auntie are coming?”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section10"><b>10.</b> A title like <i>Colonel</i>, <i>Judge</i>, <i>Duke</i>, is a proper noun when +it is used to denote a special person; as, “Thousands had +gathered to welcome the Colonel home.” When such a +word is the name of a class of persons, it is a common noun; +as, “A new uniform was designed for the colonels.”</p> + +<p>When a title is followed by another name, as, <i>Colonel +Bouck</i>, <i>Judge Gary</i>, the two words are considered as one +proper noun. In the same way, any group of two or more +words forming one special name may be considered as one +proper noun; as, <i>Liberty Bell</i>, <i>Bay of Biscay</i>, <i>Mountains of +the Moon</i>. In such groups of words, each important word +begins with a capital letter.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Names of qualities, conditions, or actions are often called +<b>abstract nouns</b>; as, <i>honesty</i>, <i>power</i>, <i>boyhood</i>, the <i>passing</i> of the train, +sound <i>thinking</i>, <i>suspense</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>common noun</b> is a noun that belongs in +common to each one of a class of persons, places, or things.</p> + +<p>A <b>proper noun</b> is a name that has been conferred upon a +particular person, place, or thing.</p> + +<p>Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, +and tell whether they are common or proper nouns. Give +your reason in each case. Account for the capitalization.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The Bermudas are a cluster of small islands, lying as far +south as Charleston, as far east as Nova Scotia.</p> + +<p>2. Hotel Hamilton is a large, commodious building with many +pillars and broad verandas.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Tenedos</i> is lying off Grassy Bay, making herself fine +to receive the Princess Louise, and her jolly tars are in high +spirits.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span></p> + +<p>4. On the Sunday of the christening, Mrs. Howe and her children +watched the merrymaking in Poverty Lane from a second +story window.</p> + +<p>5. Where was Prospero’s cell? Where slept the fair Miranda? +Upon what bank sat Ferdinand when Ariel sang?</p> + +<p>6. The Duluth High School is a fine structure built of red +sandstone.</p> + +<p>7. The <i>Deliverance</i> was a ship of eighty tons.</p> + +<p>8. Old Lobo, or the King, as the Mexicans called him, was the +gigantic leader of a remarkable pack of gray wolves, that had ravaged +the Currumpaw Valley for a number of years.</p> + +<p>9. About this time I met with an odd volume of the <i>Spectator</i>.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Sailed off in a wooden shoe.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. Let us all go to the station Monday to meet Uncle.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The cows were coming one by one;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Brindle, Ebony, Speckle, and Bess,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Shaking their horns in the evening wind.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>13. Gunpowder had been a favorite steed of his master’s, the +choleric Van Ripper, who was a furious rider.</p> + +<p>14. Upstream, at the bend of the sluggish pool round the Peace +Rock, stood Hathi, the wild elephant, with his sons, gaunt and gray +in the moonlight.</p> + +<p>15. In his eighth year Charles Lamb entered Christ’s Hospital, +a famous school in London.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>It is evident from this exercise that several different sorts +of things, as hotels, streets, books, and ships, may have +special names conferred upon them. Think of ten other +things that may have special names, and write two names +for each one.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV">IV. VERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section11"><b>11.</b> Just as the subject of a sentence may consist of only +one word, so may the predicate. Hence it is that a declarative +sentence may contain only two words, one being the subject +and the other the predicate; as in the sentence, “Water +runs.” Here the noun <i>water</i> names the thing about which something +is told, and the word <i>runs</i> tells something about water.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section12"><b>12.</b> In every predicate, no matter how long it is, there is +always one word, or a little group of words, which does more +of the telling than all the rest of the predicate. In fact, without +this word or group of words, there would be no statement +at all. In the sentence, “A red sash with fringes of gold +wraps his waist several times,” the predicate consists of five +words, but the one word that counts for most in making the +statement is the word <i>wraps</i>. This word is called a verb. +A verb is a part of speech.</p> + +<p>A verb, being the essential part of a predicate, is called +the <b>simple predicate</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section13"><b>13.</b> Sometimes a verb consists of two, or three, or even +four words. What is the verb in each of the following +sentences?—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>All the cherries had been picked from the trees near the house.</p> + +<p>The watchman on the roof was listening for the first sounds of +day.</p> + +<p>A tall, dark figure might have been seen at the end of the avenue.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section14"><b>14.</b> When the verb in a given sentence has been found, the +subject may be discovered by asking the question formed by +placing the word <i>who</i> or <i>what</i> before the verb. For example, +in the sentence, “The parrot’s story, with the various +pauses and interruptions, occupied a good deal of time,” +<i>occupied</i> is the verb because it is the telling word. Asking +the question <i>what occupied</i>? we get the answer, <i>the +parrot’s story, with the various pauses and interruptions</i>, +hence this group of words is the subject. What is the simple +subject?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section15"><b>15.</b> In grammar we often use the word <i>assertion</i> instead of +<i>statement</i>, and the word <i>assert</i> instead of <i>make a statement</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>verb</b> is an asserting word.</p> + +<p>A verb may consist of one word, two, three, or four words, +but never of more than four words.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p> + +<p>A verb is the necessary part of every predicate, hence it is +called the <b>simple predicate</b>.</p> + +<p>To find the subject of a verb, ask the question made by +using the word <i>who</i> or <i>what</i> before the verb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Divide the following sentences into subject +and predicate. Select the predicate verb, and tell why it is a +verb. Find the simple subject of each sentence. Tell what +part of speech it is, and why.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The procession moved from the palace to the church with +great pomp.</p> + +<p>2. The blue eyes of the Greek sparkled.</p> + +<p>3. The magnificent buildings of the hospital stand on level +land near the river.</p> + +<p>4. The gentle young bride was frightened by the silent, mysterious +ways of the old Indian.</p> + +<p>5.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The poorest twig on the elm tree</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Was ridged inch deep with pearl.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>6. The great hall of the palace was illuminated with a thousand +lamps.</p> + +<p>7. His anvil makes no music on Sunday.</p> + +<p>8. The raccoon’s story was received with general approbation.</p> + +<p>9. This old hunter must have told many tales.</p> + +<p>10. Our conference under the peepul tree had been growing +noisier and noisier.</p> + +<p>11. One great name can make a country great.</p> + +<p>12. The camels slept.</p> + +<p>13. No European could have made five miles a day over the +ice rubbish and the sharp-edged drifts.</p> + +<p>14. The cows should have been milked before sundown.</p> + +<p>15.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The deep waters of the bay</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Stir with the breath of hurrying day.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>16. Wully could not have imagined any greater being than his +master.</p> + +<p>17. Everything out of doors was sheathed in silver mail.</p> + +<p>18. The duck mother would have liked the eel’s head herself.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In sentence 18 is <i>herself</i> in the subject or in the predicate?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="V">V. PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section16"><b>16.</b> When a person makes an assertion about himself he +uses for the subject of his sentence, not his name, but the +word <i>I</i> instead. Will Dunlap does not say, “Will Dunlap +saw a flock of wild geese this morning, and heard them too.” +He says, “I saw a flock of wild geese this morning, and heard +them too.” The word <i>I</i>, which is used instead of a name, or +noun, is called a <b>pronoun</b>. A pronoun is a part of speech.</p> + +<p>What pronoun besides <i>I</i> do you find in the sentence +quoted? For what noun is it used?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section17"><b>17.</b> Pronouns are used a good deal, especially in conversation, +for often instead of using the name of the person we +are speaking to, we use the pronoun <i>you</i>; and in speaking <i>of</i> +persons, we use, provided their names are already known to +our listeners, the pronouns <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, or <i>they</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>pronoun</b> is a word used instead of a noun.</p> + +<p>A pronoun can be the subject of a sentence.</p> + +<p>By the use of pronouns we avoid the repetition of nouns +and the use of clumsy expressions.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—In the following conversation select all the +pronouns. Rewrite a portion of the conversation, using the +nouns that the pronouns stand for. In changing pronouns +to nouns it is sometimes necessary to make a change in the +verb also. After using nouns for pronouns, tell what you +think about the usefulness of pronouns.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>“What do you think, Tirzah? I am going away.”</p> + +<p>Tirzah dropped her hands with amazement.</p> + +<p>“Going away! When? Where? For what?”</p> + +<p>Judah laughed, then said, “Three questions, all in a breath. What +a body you are!” Next instant he became serious. “You know the +law requires me to follow some occupation. Our good father set me +an example. Even you would despise me if I spent in idleness the +results of his industry and knowledge. I am going to Rome.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span></p> + +<p>“Oh, I will go with you.”</p> + +<p>“You must stay with Mother. If both of us leave her, she will +die.”</p> + +<p>The brightness faded from her face.</p> + +<p>“Ah, yes, yes! But—must you go? Here in Jerusalem you +can learn all that is needed to be a merchant—if that is what you +are thinking of.”</p> + +<p>“But that is not what I am thinking of. The law does not require +the son to be what the father was.”</p> + +<p>“What else can you be?”</p> + +<p>“A soldier,” he replied, with a certain pride of voice.</p> + +<p>Tears came into her eyes.</p> + +<p>“You will be killed.”</p> + +<p>“If God’s will, be it so. But, Tirzah, the soldiers are not all +killed.”</p> + +<p>She threw her arms around his neck, as if to hold him back.</p> + +<p>“We are so happy! Stay at home, my brother.”</p> + +<p>“Home cannot always be what it is. You yourself will be going +away before long.”</p> + +<p>“Never!”</p> + +<p>He smiled at her earnestness.</p> + +<p>“A prince will come soon and claim my Tirzah, and ride away +with her, to be the light of another house.”</p> + +<p>She answered with sobs.</p> + +<p>“War is a trade,” he continued, more soberly. “To learn it thoroughly, +one must go to school, and there is no school like a Roman +camp.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Lew Wallace.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI">VI. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section18"><b>18.</b> It frequently happens that a person performs several +actions at the same time, and that all of them are worth +telling. In such a case we do not make several separate +sentences, but one sentence with several predicates; as, +“I looked at my plate and winked back the tears.” Here +we have two predicate verbs, <i>looked</i> and <i>winked</i>, hence two +assertions. In such a sentence we say that there is a <b>compound +predicate</b>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section19"><b>19.</b> The compound predicate is used also when we tell of +a number of actions performed in succession by one subject; +as, “Father Wolf woke up from his day’s rest, scratched himself, +yawned, and spread out his paws one after the other to +get rid of the sleepy feeling in the tips.” How many predicates +are there in this sentence? What mark separates +them? Two or more predicates in succession, having the +same subject, form what is called a <b>series</b>. Words or groups +of words in a series are separated from each other by the +comma unless some joining word is used; but when only the +last two of a series are joined by some word, the comma is +used before this word.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section20"><b>20.</b> We frequently wish to make the same assertion about +several persons or things, but we do not make several sentences, +repeating the predicate each time, for that would be +tedious. Instead, we make one sentence with several subjects; +as, “The fresh fruit and milk and the slices of cold +chicken looked very nice.” This sentence has three distinct +subjects. What are they? In such a sentence we say that +there is a <b>compound subject</b>. Why is no comma used in this +sentence?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>compound subject</b> is one that consists of +two or more distinct subjects united into one.</p> + +<p>A <b>compound predicate</b> is one that consists of two or more +distinct predicates united into one.</p> + +<p>Two parts of a compound predicate are separated from each +other by a comma unless they are very short. When there +are more than two parts, and the last two are joined by some +such word as <i>and</i>, a comma is placed after each part, even +before the joining word.</p> + +<p>When a compound subject consists of more than two parts, +a comma is placed after each part, unless all the parts are +joined by some word.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p> + +<p>Any sentence may have a compound subject, or a compound +predicate, or both.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell why the following sentences are declarative. +Tell whether each has a compound subject, or a compound +predicate, or both. Write each sentence, and draw +a vertical line between subject and predicate. Underline +the simple subjects, and tell what part of speech they are. +Underline also the simple predicates, or predicate verbs. +Account for the punctuation.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The oars dipped, arose, poised a moment, then dipped again, +with winglike action, and in perfect time.</p> + +<p>2. The eyes and mouths of the auditors opened wide.</p> + +<p>3. This poor child became the scapegoat of the house, and was +blamed for everything.</p> + +<p>4. The four cane-seated chairs, the walnut table, the haircloth +sofa, and the little stand always spoke to me of my childhood days.</p> + +<p>5. She took the key bravely, but opened with a trembling hand +the door of the little room.</p> + +<p>6. Such timber and such workmanship don’t come together +often in houses built nowadays.</p> + +<p>7. Vast crowds of spectators lined the way, or gazed upon the +scene from the housetops.</p> + +<p>8. The rider then put his foot upon the camel’s slender neck, +and stepped upon the sand.</p> + +<p>9. The laborers paused, sat up, wrung the water from their +hands, and returned the salutation.</p> + +<p>10. The statue of the Indian chief or the soldiers’ monument +in the public square was given to the city by one of the pioneers.</p> + +<p>11. Spruce bachelors looked sidelong at the pretty maidens, and +fancied that the Sabbath sunshine made them prettier than on week +days.</p> + +<p>12. Grandmothers, mothers, and aunts sat across the end of the +hall.</p> + +<p>13. He brought a carpet or square rug from the litter, and +covered the floor of the tent on the side from the sun.</p> + +<p>14. Children with bright faces tripped merrily beside their +parents, or mimicked a graver gait in the conscious dignity of their +Sunday clothes.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII">VII. TRANSPOSED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section21"><b>21.</b> The sentences studied thus far have been arranged so +that the subject comes first, then the predicate. This is +called the <b>natural order</b>. Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, +we reverse this order, as in the sentence, “In a +long shed behind the church stood a score of wagons and +chaises and carryalls.” This is called the <b>transposed order</b>.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, for the sake of a pleasing arrangement, we put +only a portion of the predicate before the subject, as in the +sentence, “Over the highest peaks a vulture sailed on broad +wings into widening circles.” Here the subject is very +short and the predicate very long. The sentence balances +better with a portion of the predicate coming first. This +also is a case of transposed order.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The <b>natural</b> order in a sentence is first the +subject and then the predicate.</p> + +<p>When the words of a sentence are not in their natural +order, we say that the sentence is <b>transposed</b>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Rearrange the following sentences so that +they will be in the natural order, then proceed as you did +with the sentences in the exercise on <a href="#Page_21">p. 21</a>. Tell in each case +whether you like the natural or the transposed order better, +and why.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Around him, within hand’s reach, lie osier boxes full of almonds, +grapes, figs, and pomegranates.</p> + +<p>2. This challenge Fortunatus accepted.</p> + +<p>3. On traveled the lady and the bull through many dreadful +forests and lonely wastes.</p> + +<p>4. On that first Christmas morning in their own home, the children +found their gifts in little piles on two of the parlor chairs.</p> + +<p>5. Through the wide nostrils the camel drank the wind in great +draughts.</p> + +<p>6. Out of the wide hall could be heard in the stillness the old +clock.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span></p> + +<p>7. At full speed a genuine Syrian dromedary overtakes the ordinary +winds.</p> + +<p>8. Very hard Johnny worked on the house.</p> + +<p>9. “Come in,” said a warm, comfortable voice on the other side +of the door.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Down will come Baby,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Bough, cradle, and all.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. In the garret meet together all the broken-down chairs of +the household, all the spavined tables, all the seedy hats, all the +intoxicated-looking boots, all the split walking sticks that have +retired from business, “weary with the march of life.”</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Account for the commas in sentences 10 and 11.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Change the following sentences to the transposed +order. Tell why you like them better so.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Pussy walked along with a slow and deliberate gait directly +behind my sister and me.</p> + +<p>2. A red rose, a yellow rose, a woodbine, and a clematis grew up +the four walls.</p> + +<p>3. The roll of the drum was hushed at the old man’s word and +outstretched arm.</p> + +<p>4. A mat of long, uncombed hair hangs over his eyes and face, +and down his back.</p> + +<p>5. The whole carpet came out right on my head.</p> + +<p>6. A little rabbit sat on a bank one morning.</p> + +<p>7. Daylight and safety were on the other side of that door.</p> + +<p>8. The bird flew on and on, up the steep mountain.</p> + +<p>9. A very amusing thing in this story comes now.</p> + +<p>10. The remains of a great elephant have been found in the curious +potholes near Cohoes, New York.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="VIII">VIII. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section22"><b>22.</b> Most of the sentences in books are declarative sentences, +written to make statements, but in speech we frequently +make use of another kind of sentence, one that asks +a question; as, “Do you know how to tell a sheep’s age?” +This is called an <b>interrogative</b> sentence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section23"><b>23.</b> The interrogative sentence, “What dwarfs made that +armor?” is in the natural order, but this is not the usual +order in interrogative sentences. In the sentence, “Do you +know how to tell a sheep’s age?” we find first a part of the +verb, then the subject, then the other part of the verb and +the rest of the predicate. How would this sentence read if +it were in the natural order? Would it then be an interrogative +sentence?</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Since an interrogative sentence does not make a statement, +it may seem strange to define the verb in such a sentence as +an asserting word, but in making definitions we must think of the +fundamental nature and the typical use of what we are defining. +The primary office of the verb is to assert, as in declarative sentences; +hence, we define the verb as an asserting word, though it may also +be used in asking questions.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>interrogative sentence</b> is one that asks +a question.</p> + +<p>An interrogative sentence is usually in the transposed +order, and is always followed by a question mark.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell whether the following sentences are in +the natural or the transposed order. Put into the natural +order those which are transposed. Divide each sentence +into subject and predicate. Select the simple subject and +the predicate verb, or simple predicate.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Did you ever hear of a cat’s playing hide and seek?</p> + +<p>2. What became of you after the Princess’s death?</p> + +<p>3. Will no other diet serve you but poor Jack?</p> + +<p>4. Which flower does your mother like best?</p> + +<p>5. What harm can a naked frog do us?</p> + +<p>6. Will the town crier tell us of an auction, or of a lost pocket-book, +or of a show of beautiful wax figures, or of some monstrous +beast more horrible than any in the caravan?</p> + +<p>7. Why did no smile of welcome brighten upon his face?</p> + +<p>8. What did Peterson-Sahib mean by the elephant dance?</p> + +<p>9. How many people have ever come to know a wild animal?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span></p> + +<p>10. What important business made you late to dinner?</p> + +<p>11. What plant we in this apple tree?</p> + +<p>12. What other man would have discovered so many virtues +under so mean a dress?</p> + +<p>13. What do people fish for in this country?</p> + +<p>14.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Does that star-spangled banner yet wave</div> + <div class="verse indent0">O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>15. Where did you get your eyes so blue?</p> + +<p>16. Who will exchange old lamps for new ones?</p> + +<p>17. What makes your cheek like a warm, white rose?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="IX">IX. ADJECTIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section24"><b>24.</b> From the sentence, “The road led us to a gate, and +that to a dooryard and a house,” we get a picture, but it is +neither definite nor attractive. Contrast it with the picture +that we get from this sentence, “The pleasant, elm-shaded +road led us to a rustic gate, and that to a green dooryard, +and a long, low, brown house.” The difference is caused +by the descriptive words in the second sentence. Which +words describe the road? the gate? the dooryard? the +house?</p> + +<p>These descriptive words go with nouns, and describe the +object named by the noun. We call them <b>adjectives</b>. An +adjective is a part of speech.</p> + +<p>Adjectives are said to <b>modify</b> the nouns they go with, and +are called <b>modifiers</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section25"><b>25.</b> Most adjectives describe objects by telling size, shape, +color, texture, or other qualities. A few adjectives tell +number or amount; as, <i>five</i> minutes, <i>much</i> patience. A +few merely point out; as, <i>this</i> meadow, <i>next</i> Christmas. +The words <i>a</i>, <i>an</i>, and <i>the</i> are adjectives.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section26"><b>26.</b> When several adjectives modify the same noun, they +form a series, and are usually separated from each other by +commas; as, “A hollow, booming, ominous cry rang out +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>suddenly, and startled the dark edges of the forest.” In +such a sentence as this, “Four little old French ladies rose to +dance the minuet,” no commas should be used, because the +adjectives modify more than the noun <i>ladies</i>. <i>Four</i> modifies +<i>little old French ladies</i>; <i>little</i> modifies <i>old French ladies</i>; <i>old</i> +modifies <i>French ladies</i>; and <i>French</i> modifies <i>ladies</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section27"><b>27.</b> Sometimes adjectives modify a pronoun instead of a +noun, as in the sentence, “Tom missed the word, and I, +happy and triumphant, took his place at the head.” How +do we know that the adjectives <i>happy</i> and <i>triumphant</i> +modify the pronoun <i>I</i>?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>adjective</b> is a word used to point out or +describe an object and modify a noun or a pronoun.</p> + +<p>Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify but +follow the pronouns.</p> + +<p>When several adjectives modify a single noun, they are +separated by commas.</p> + +<p>A <b>modifier</b> is a word or a group of words that goes with +another word to affect its meaning.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select all the adjectives in the following +sentences, and tell what they modify. Account for the +punctuation.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. On another side stood an old piano, a tinkling, rattling, merrymaking +old piano, played by a young lady with a melancholy smile.</p> + +<p>2. In the dark valley that ran down to a little river, Father +Wolf heard the dry, angry, snarly, singsong whine of a tiger.</p> + +<p>3. A small girl, with twinkling eyes and a merry face, got up +and made her way to the front.</p> + +<p>4. Only loving fingers could have taken those tiny, even stitches.</p> + +<p>5. Charles carried water for the circus men, while I, scornful +and lazy but envious, sat on the fence and watched him.</p> + +<p>6. Mammy Tittleback is a splendid, great tortoise-shell cat.</p> + +<p>7. I found myself sinking into some horrible, soft, slimy, sticky +substance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span></p> + +<p>8. Few ships come to Rivermouth now.</p> + +<p>9. Cæsar has one of the finest, deepest-toned voices I ever heard.</p> + +<p>10. You can speak and smile cheerfully while you are enjoying +every comfort of a snug, warm fireside, but you should not expect +us, hungry, wet, and cold, to be in the same cheerful mood.</p> + +<p>11. Suddenly the church clock tolled a deep, dull, hollow, melancholy +“one.”</p> + +<p>12. The next best thing to cold potato and cream is cold roast +chicken, and occasionally I found a good fat drumstick or a curling +neck from whose corrugated bones I nibbled savory morsels.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Write sentences using the following words +as adjectives. Make your sentences such that they reveal +the meaning of the adjectives.</p> + +<ul> + <li>awkward</li> + <li>brilliant</li> + <li>clammy</li> + <li>false</li> + <li>glassy</li> + <li>graceful</li> + <li>greedy</li> + <li>huge</li> + <li>mild</li> + <li>moist</li> + <li>pathetic</li> + <li>shaggy</li> + <li>slight</li> + <li>sly</li> + <li>soggy</li> +</ul> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 3.</b>—Write sentences containing the following +nouns, each modified by two or more adjectives:—</p> + +<ul> + <li>cabbage</li> + <li>carpet</li> + <li>cloud</li> + <li>deed</li> + <li>garden</li> + <li>grapes</li> + <li>hand</li> + <li>hat</li> + <li>machine</li> + <li>mill</li> + <li>pupil</li> + <li>room</li> + <li>ship</li> + <li>story</li> + <li>teacher</li> +</ul> + +<p class="section" id="section28"><b>28.</b> In the following sentences, what word describes the +statue? the bureau? the lamp? the rings?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>A bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin stood in Lafayette Park.</p> + +<p>The mahogany bureau contained a desk with many drawers +and pigeon holes.</p> + +<p>We grew tired of the gorgeousness of our parlor lamp.</p> + +<p>Indians of both sexes are fond of bracelets, necklaces, and finger +rings.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>These four descriptive words are name words, hence by +nature they are nouns; but in these sentences they are used +as adjectives, and should therefore be called adjectives.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 4.</b>—Write sentences in which the following nouns +are used as adjectives:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>silver, copper, tin, iron, steel.</p> + +<p>maple, oak, pine, hickory, cedar.</p> + +<p>kitchen, hall, cellar, roof, library.</p> + +<p>hand, head, foot, cheek, neck.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Think of ten other nouns that may be used as adjectives.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="X">X. ADVERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section29"><b>29.</b> In the sentence, “The donkey ate an armful of +green grass,” we are told what action the donkey performed, +but we are not told the manner in which he performed +the action. Very often manner is worth telling, as in the +sentence, “The donkey ate leisurely an armful of green +grass.”</p> + +<p>Since the word <i>leisurely</i> tells how the donkey ate, it must +go with the word <i>ate</i>. We say of it what we said of adjectives, +that it <i>modifies</i> the word it goes with. Since it modifies a +verb, it is different from any part of speech that we have +studied before. We call it an <b>adverb</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section30"><b>30.</b> The great difference between adjectives and adverbs +is this, that the adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun, and +the adverb usually modifies a verb. Adjectives describe +objects, which are named by nouns, and adverbs usually +describe actions, which are asserted by verbs.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section31"><b>31.</b> Not all adverbs tell manner. They frequently tell +time, place, direction, degree, or other circumstances; as +in these sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><i>Now</i> the cow would be eating in one place, and <i>then</i> she would +walk to another.</p> + +<p><i>Here</i> and <i>there</i> a snag lifted its nose out of the water like a shark.</p> + +<p>For weeks his ship sailed <i>onward</i> over a lonely ocean.</p> + +<p>Mother’s sudden cry frightened me <i>terribly</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section32"><b>32.</b> It was pointed out in <a href="#IX">Lesson IX</a> that adjectives frequently +tell some quality of an object. Sometimes we wish +to tell in what degree this quality is possessed, as in the +expressions, <i>a very tall man</i>, <i>an exceedingly hot day</i>, <i>too ripe +fruit</i>. Here the words <i>very</i>, <i>exceedingly</i>, and <i>too</i> go with the +adjectives <i>tall</i>, <i>hot</i>, and <i>ripe</i> to denote degree. Such words +are said to modify the adjectives they go with. Words that +modify adjectives are also called adverbs.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—A group of words like <i>very tall</i> and <i>exceedingly hot</i> may +be called an <b>adjective element</b>. Its base word is an adjective, +modified by an adverb. It is the whole element, or group of words, +that modifies the noun.</p> + +<p>Adverbs of degree may modify adverbs as well as adjectives, +as in the sentences, “The fox ran very swiftly,” “You speak +too rapidly.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>adverb</b> is a word that modifies a verb, +an adjective, or another adverb.</p> + +<p>Adverbs usually tell time, place, manner, direction, or +degree.</p> + +<p>Unless a sentence is transposed, the adverb should be as +near as possible to the word it modifies.</p> + +<p>Adverbs in a series are separated from each other by +commas.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select all the adverbs in the following +sentences. Tell what each adverb modifies, and what it +denotes.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.</p> + +<p>2. The island is separated from the mainland by a scarcely perceptible +creek.</p> + +<p>3.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">And so the teacher turned him out,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">And still he lingered near,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And waited patiently about</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Till Mary did appear.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span></p> + +<p>4. Faintly, in gentle whiffs, the lilies on the low marble shelf +threw off their delicate fragrance.</p> + +<p>5. Quackalina was sitting happily among the reeds with her dear +ones under her wings, while Sir Sooty waddled proudly around her.</p> + +<p>6. In youth the tulip tree has a trunk peculiarly smooth.</p> + +<p>7. On one occasion Gypsy put in her head, and lapped up six +custard pies that had been placed by the casement to cool.</p> + +<p>8. No wild animals were ever trained by the ancients.</p> + +<p>9. The paper was passed skillfully from desk to desk until it +finally reached my hands.</p> + +<p>10. Messua’s husband had some remarkably fine buffaloes that +worried him exceedingly.</p> + +<p>11. The charcoal burners went off very valiantly in single file.</p> + +<p>12. Sometimes my head almost aches with the variety of my +knowledge.</p> + +<p>13. Knots of gossips lingered here and there near the place.</p> + +<p>14. This talk amused me greatly, but it went in at one ear and +out at the other.</p> + +<p>15. My father invested his money so securely in the banking +business that he was never able to get any of it out again.</p> + +<p>16. Yonder I shall sit down and get knowledge.</p> + +<p>17. Then he would crawl forward inch by inch, and wait till the +seal came up to breathe.</p> + +<p>18. No one can work well without sleep.</p> + +<p>19. This jackal was peculiarly low, a cleaner-up of village rubbish +heaps, desperately timid, or wildly bold, everlastingly hungry, +and full of cunning that never did him any good.</p> + +<p>20. The Black Panther raised his head and yawned—elaborately, +carefully, and ostentatiously.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Account for the commas in the last sentence.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Write sentences containing adverbs of +manner modifying the following verbs:—</p> + +<ul> + <li>comes</li> + <li>goes</li> + <li>plays</li> + <li>reads</li> + <li>sings</li> + <li>skates</li> + <li>speaks</li> + <li>studies</li> + <li>walks</li> + <li>works</li> +</ul> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 3.</b>—Write sentences containing the following +adverbs:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>upward, downward, forward, backward, headlong, north, southward.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span></p> + +<p>everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, anywhere.</p> + +<p>seldom, often, always, sometimes, forever.</p> + +<p>perfectly, unusually, unspeakably, positively, miserably.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Use the last five adverbs to modify adjectives or adverbs. +What will they denote when so used?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 4.</b>—Form adverbs from the following adjectives:—</p> + +<ul> + <li>careless</li> + <li>dreary</li> + <li>firm</li> + <li>gentle</li> + <li>hasty</li> + <li>noble</li> + <li>painful</li> + <li>sharp</li> + <li>slow</li> + <li>wide</li> +</ul> + +<p>What part of speech are the words <i>chilly</i>, <i>deadly</i>, <i>holy</i>, +<i>kindly</i>, <i>lively</i>, <i>lovely</i>? Use them in sentences to find out.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XI">XI. PHRASES. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section33"><b>33.</b> We cannot always describe or point out objects as +fully as we wish by means of adjectives, and so we use another +sort of modifier, which is not a single word, but a group +of words. In the sentence, “Broad, flat fields without fences +stretch in every direction,” we describe the fields by the +two adjectives <i>broad</i> and <i>flat</i>, and by the group of words, +<i>without fences</i>. Thus the noun <i>fields</i> has three modifiers, +and they are very well placed, two of them coming before the +noun, and one of them after it.</p> + +<p>In the group of words <i>without fences</i>, the two words are +closely related to each other. In fact, neither of them +could be in the sentence at all without the other. Such a +group of related words is called a <b>phrase</b>. When a phrase +modifies a noun, we say it is an <b>adjective phrase</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section34"><b>34.</b> In the same sentence there is another phrase, <i>in every +direction</i>, telling where the fields stretch. Since this phrase +modifies the verb, it performs the same office as an adverb, +and we therefore call it an <b>adverbial phrase</b>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section35"><b>35.</b> Phrases never consist of fewer than two words, and +they may consist of a good many, for it is possible to have +one or more phrases within a phrase. In the sentence, “I +was born in a stable on the outskirts of a small town in +Maine,” the verb <i>was born</i> is modified by a long phrase, <i>in a +stable on the outskirts of a small town in Maine</i>. The noun +<i>stable</i> in this phrase is modified by the phrase <i>on the outskirts +of a small town in Maine</i>. The noun <i>outskirts</i> in this second +phrase is modified by the phrase <i>of a small town in Maine</i>. +The noun <i>town</i> in this third phrase is modified by the fourth +phrase, <i>in Maine</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section36"><b>36.</b> Phrases do not always modify the word they come +next to; they modify the word whose meaning they tell +something about. In the sentence, “I scrambled through +the evergreens to my friend’s little hut just before sunset,” +there is no phrase within another phrase, but there are three +entirely distinct phrases. What are they?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section37"><b>37.</b> A series of phrases consists of two or more phrases +each modifying the same word; as, “Ours is a government +<i>of the people</i>, <i>for the people</i>, and <i>by the people</i>.” Phrases +in a series are separated from each other by a comma. +Why do not the phrases in the sentence in § 35 form a +series?</p> + +<p>It might seem at first thought that the sentence in § 36 +contains a series of three phrases; but it does not, for the +phrases do not modify the same word. <i>Through the evergreens</i> +modifies <i>scrambled</i>; <i>to my friend’s little hut</i> modifies +<i>scrambled through the evergreens</i>. What does the third phrase +modify?</p> + +<p>In the punctuation of phrases a good deal must be left to +the judgment of the writer. That punctuation is best which +most clearly reveals the structure and meaning of the sentence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>phrase</b> is a group of related words having +neither a subject nor a predicate, and used like a part of +speech.</p> + +<p>A phrase is often used like an adjective to modify a noun, +or like an adverb to modify a verb.</p> + +<p>Phrases in a series are separated from each other by a +comma.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the phrases in these sentences, +and tell what each phrase modifies. Account for the punctuation +of the phrases in sentences 2 and 9. Why are +commas omitted in sentence 5?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. I passed a very comfortable night in the carrot bin.</p> + +<p>2. The four little rabbits lived with their mother, in a sand +bank, underneath the root of a very big fir tree.</p> + +<p>3. He went along over hills and mountains, and on the third +day came to a wide forest.</p> + +<p>4. During those long winter evenings I read six of Scott’s novels +aloud to my mother.</p> + +<p>5. Mr. Jeremy Fisher lived in a little damp house amongst the +buttercups at the edge of a pond.</p> + +<p>6. On that evening, before sunset, some women were washing +clothes on the upper step of the flight that led down into the basin +of the Pool of Siloam.</p> + +<p>7. On the fourth day after our arrival came a letter from my +mamma.</p> + +<p>8. Jelly fishes generally float near the surface of the sea, and are +often washed up on the shore by the waves.</p> + +<p>9. Where no human hand would have dared to rest, the young +lions crawled fearlessly—across the knotty muscles of the back, +over the sinewy neck, across the death-dealing paws, even between +the frightful jaws.</p> + +<p>10. Tom arched his back like a contortionist at a circus.</p> + +<p>11. The women of the different provinces in Holland are known +by their head dresses.</p> + +<p>12. The last words rang out like silver trumpets.</p> + +<p>13. A farm without a boy would very soon come to grief.</p> + +<p>14. In winter I get up at night.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section38"><b>38.</b> <b>Analyzing</b> a sentence is the process of separating it +into its parts, and telling the relation between those parts. +In analyzing the sentences in the following exercise proceed +according to this outline:—</p> + +<p>(1) Tell whether the sentence is declarative or interrogative.</p> + +<p>(2) Divide it into subject and predicate.</p> + +<p>(3) Select the simple subject and give its modifiers.</p> + +<p>(4) Select the simple predicate and give its modifiers.</p> + +<p>(5) If a predicate is compound, select the two or more +predicate verbs, and then give the modifiers of each.</p> + +<p>Tell the exact truth in good, clear English. For example, +in analyzing the expression, <i>the four little rabbits</i>, do not say +that <i>the</i>, <i>four</i>, and <i>little</i> are adjectives modifying <i>rabbits</i>, but +say that <i>rabbits</i> is modified by the adjectives <i>little</i>, <i>four</i>, and +<i>the</i>. Why should they be given in this order?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, +and 14 in the exercise on <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XII">XII. PREPOSITIONS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section39"><b>39.</b> In the preceding lesson we considered a phrase as a +unit. We shall now examine its structure, and see what +parts it is composed of. If we look carefully at these +phrases,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>with their mother</p> + +<p>to a wide forest</p> + +<p>over the sinewy neck</p> + +<p>like silver trumpets</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="noindent">we see that the first word is not a noun, a pronoun, a verb, +an adjective, or an adverb. If we try to put this word anywhere +else in the phrase, we see that it must come at the +beginning; in short, that it is the introductory word of the +phrase. If we had only this introductory word given, the +word <i>with</i>, for instance, we should ask at once <i>with what?</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>or <i>with whom?</i> The answer to this second question is <i>their +mother</i>, the rest of the phrase.</p> + +<p>If we examine the other three phrases in the same way, +we shall come to the conclusion that a phrase is made up +of two parts: (1) an introductory word, (2) an answer to +the question made by putting <i>whom</i> or <i>what</i> after the introductory +word. We call the introductory word a <b>preposition</b>, +and we say that the rest of the phrase is the <b>object of the +preposition</b>. A preposition is a part of speech.</p> + +<p>A phrase that consists of a preposition and its object is +called a <b>prepositional phrase</b>. Not all phrases are of this +kind. We shall study the other kinds later.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section40"><b>40.</b> There are not a great many prepositions in the English +language, hardly more than a hundred in all. Most of them +are short words, and of very great usefulness. Some of the +commonest are: <i>across</i>, <i>after</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>between</i>, <i>by</i>, <i>for</i>, +<i>from</i>, <i>in</i>, <i>over</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>through</i>, <i>toward</i>, <i>under</i>, <i>with</i>, <i>without</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section41"><b>41.</b> The object of a preposition may be a single word, as +in the phrase <i>without fences</i>, but oftener it is a group of +words. The base word of the group is usually a noun. A +pronoun also may be the object of a preposition, as in the +phrases <i>for me</i>, <i>to him</i>, <i>with us</i>. The object of a preposition +may be compound, as in the phrases, <i>over land and sea</i>, <i>by +day and night</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section42"><b>42.</b> In <a href="#XI">Lesson XI</a>, it was pointed out that a phrase modifies +a noun or a verb. It does so because the preposition +shows a certain relation between its object and the noun or +verb that the phrase modifies. In the sentence, “The porters +at the German railroad stations are dressed in fine green +uniforms,” the preposition <i>at</i> shows a relation of place between +the porters and the German railroad stations, and the +preposition <i>in</i> shows a relation of manner between the act of +dressing and the fine green uniforms.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>prepositional phrase</b> consists of a preposition +and its object.</p> + +<p>A <b>preposition</b> is a word that is used with its object to form +a phrase, and shows the relation of its object to the word +the phrase modifies.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—A prepositional phrase in its natural order consists of +(1) the preposition and (2) its object.</p> + +<p>The <b>object</b> of a preposition is found by asking the question +made by putting <i>whom</i> or <i>what</i> after the preposition.</p> + +<p>The object of a preposition may be simple or compound.</p> + +<p>The base word of the object may be a noun or a pronoun.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select the prepositional phrases in the following +sentences. Tell what each phrase modifies. Divide +each phrase into preposition and object. Find the base +word of the object, and tell what part of speech it is.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. This monster lives in a den under yonder mountain with a +brother of his.</p> + +<p>2. I carried both letters in my apron pocket.</p> + +<p>3. At the age of ten years he fled from the multiplication table +and ran away to sea.</p> + +<p>4. In the dusk of spring evenings we sat on the window seat +and watched the lights come out on the high bluff and the long +bridge.</p> + +<p>5.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The stormy March is come at last,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">With wind, and cloud, and changing skies.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>6. With a fair and strong breeze we soon ran into the little cove +to the northward of Fort Moultrie.</p> + +<p>7. On the projecting bluffs, and occasionally on the very mountain +tops, stand the ruins of great castles of the olden times.</p> + +<p>8. In the ancient city of London on a certain autumn day in the +second quarter of the sixteenth century, a boy was born to a poor +family of the name of Canty.</p> + +<p>9. Now I was comforted by the thought of a tassel, and an ivory +handle, and blue and gold changeable silk.</p> + +<p>10. A polar storm can blow for ten days without a break.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span></p> + +<p>11. The aërial path of Hushwing, from his nest in the swamp +to his watchtower on the clearing’s edge, led him past the pool and +the crouching panther.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">All the little boys and girls,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The wonderful music, with shouting and laughter.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>What part of speech are these words: <i>yonder</i>, sentence 1, +<i>apron</i> 2, <i>multiplication</i> 3, <i>spring</i> 4, <i>very</i> 7, <i>autumn</i> 8, <i>break</i> 10?</p> + +<p>What is peculiar about the object of <i>at</i> in sentence 5, and +of <i>to</i> in sentence 6?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section43"><b>43.</b> Good English requires accuracy in the use of prepositions. +Study the following prepositions, and avoid errors +in their use.</p> + +<p><b>Among</b> and <b>between</b>. The word <i>between</i> usually refers to +only two persons or things, while <i>among</i> refers to more than +two.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I walked between my father and my mother.</p> + +<p>She walked among us like an angel.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>At</b> and <b>in</b>. We use <i>in</i> when speaking of countries and +large cities, <i>at</i> when speaking of villages or buildings.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>The train arrives in Los Angeles at noon.</p> + +<p>The train stopped at every little station.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>At</b> and <b>to</b>. <i>At</i> conveys the idea of <i>being</i> in a place, and +<i>to</i> conveys the idea of <i>going</i> to a place.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Were you at school yesterday?</p> + +<p>I came to school early this morning.</p> + +<p>My sister is at home.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>We speak of going to school, to church, to the factory, +to the store, to the office, etc., but we do not use <i>to</i> before +<i>home</i>. We say “I am <i>at</i> home,” or “Come home,” in the +latter case omitting the preposition entirely.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span></p> + +<p><b>Beside</b> and <b>besides</b>. <i>Beside</i> means by the side of, and +<i>besides</i> means in addition to.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Little Em’ly sat beside David.</p> + +<p>Nobody remained besides the old nurse.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>By</b> and <b>with</b>. <i>By</i> refers to the agent, or doer of an action, +and <i>with</i> to the instrument, or means employed.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>The cherry tree was cut down by George Washington with a +little hatchet.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>In</b> and <b>into</b>. <i>In</i> usually conveys the idea of rest, and <i>into</i> +of motion.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>We stayed in the library all the evening.</p> + +<p>Our hostess took us into the Simmons Library.</p> + +<p>I went into the Bank.</p> + +<p>I put my money in the Bank.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>Off.</b> This preposition should not be followed by <i>of</i>. We +should say,</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>The pitcher fell off the table.</p> + +<p>I got off the car.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In place of the word <i>onto</i> we should use <i>on</i> or <i>upon</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>He climbed upon the roof of the pilot house.</p> + +<p>He stepped on a loose board.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Some words are followed by certain prepositions to express +certain meanings; as,</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><i>Agree with</i> thine adversary.</p> + +<p>Brutus <i>agreed to</i> the plan.</p> + +<p>Brutus <i>differed with</i> Cassius.</p> + +<p>My watch is <i>different from</i> yours.</p> + +<p>Imogen <i>parted from</i> him with tears.</p> + +<p>Imogen would not <i>part with</i> her bracelet.</p> + +<p>Many people <i>died of</i> yellow fever.</p> + +<p>I am <i>sorry for</i> the mistake.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Supply the correct preposition in each of these +sentences, and give your reason in each case:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The fugitive slave ran —— the trees, and took his stand +—— two large cypresses.</p> + +<p>2. While we were —— New Orleans, we stayed —— the St. +Charles Hotel.</p> + +<p>3.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">And so —— the silent sea</div> + <div class="verse indent0">I wait the muffled oar.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>4. In that Sunday school class there was no girl —— Gertrude.</p> + +<p>5. This mark must have been made —— a knife.</p> + +<p>6. When you are —— Rome, you must do as the Romans do.</p> + +<p>7. Come —— the garden, Maud.</p> + +<p>8. Put the silver —— a safe place.</p> + +<p>9. John Gilpin’s wig fell —— his head.</p> + +<p>10. Get —— this stump so that you can see better.</p> + +<p>11. I left the programs —— home.</p> + +<p>12. Nobody agrees —— Kate about renting the cottage.</p> + +<p>13. Did Will agree —— your plans for the wedding?</p> + +<p>14. Charlie differed —— his family about saving his money.</p> + +<p>15. An apricot has a different flavor —— a peach.</p> + +<p>16. What did the crew die ——?</p> + +<p>17. Aren’t you sorry —— his misfortune?</p> + +<p>18. The child cried when he parted —— his playthings, and +would not be comforted when he parted —— his old playmates.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIII">XIII. TERM OF ADDRESS. EXCLAMATORY NOUN</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section44"><b>44.</b> When we speak directly to persons, we often call them +by name; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Anne, sister Anne, do you see any one coming?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>We do this for several reasons,—sometimes for politeness, +sometimes to show clearly just whom we are speaking +to. This name is not necessary to the structure of the +sentence; that is, it forms no part of the subject or the +predicate. We say, therefore, that it is <b>independent</b>. We +call it a <b>term of address</b>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section45"><b>45.</b> Sometimes, instead of using a person’s name, we invent +a term of address, as when the Arab said to his horse,</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>“We are far from home, O <i>racer with the swiftest winds</i>, but God +is with us.”</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>What noun is the base word of this term of address?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section46"><b>46.</b> A term of address may come at the beginning of a +sentence, or at the end, or somewhere within the sentence. +It must be set off by commas to show that it is independent.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section47"><b>47.</b> Sometimes a noun or a noun with modifiers is used as +an <b>exclamation</b>; thus,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>A rainbow! it is too late in the day for that.</p> + +<p>Joy to the world! the Lord has come.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>A noun used like <i>rainbow</i> and <i>joy</i> is called an <b>exclamatory +noun</b>. What feeling does the exclamatory noun in the +first sentence express? in the second?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>term of address</b> is a word or a group of +words used as a name to show to whom a remark is made.</p> + +<p>The base word of a term of address is usually a noun.</p> + +<p>An <b>exclamatory noun</b> is a noun used to express strong or +sudden feeling. It may be modified or unmodified.</p> + +<p>When a word or a group of words is no part of the subject +or the predicate of a sentence, it is said to be <b>independent</b>.</p> + +<p>A term of address and an exclamatory noun are independent +elements in a sentence.</p> + +<p>A term of address is set off from the rest of the sentence by +a comma.</p> + +<p>An exclamatory noun is set off by an exclamation point.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select the terms of address in the following +sentences. Find the base word of each. Select also the +exclamatory nouns, and tell what feeling they express.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Little brother, canst thou raise me to my feet?</p> + +<p>2. “Now, my dears,” said old Mrs. Rabbit one morning, “you +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>may go into the fields or down the lane, but don’t go into Mr. +McGregor’s garden.”</p> + +<p>3. Indeed I was seeking thee, Flathead, but each time we meet +thou art longer and broader by the length of my arm.</p> + +<p>4. Come, Lillie, it is time to go to bed.</p> + +<p>5. Sweet, sweet home! there’s no place like home.</p> + +<p>6. Why, Father, you are rather old to play cat’s cradle.</p> + +<p>7.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Sail on, sail on, O ship of State!</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Sail on, O Union strong and great!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>8. Sir, I humbly beg your pardon.</p> + +<p>9. I understand, noble lord, that you have lost two of your men.</p> + +<p>10. Jefferson, I think I will go down into the kitchen and bake +a pie.</p> + +<p>11. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!</p> + +<p>12. There is none like thee in the jungle, wise, old, strong, and +most beautiful Kaa.</p> + +<p>13. Our price, your royal highness, is three shillings.</p> + +<p>14. Grand old outlaw, hero of a thousand lawless raids, in a few +minutes you will be but a great load of carrion.</p> + +<p>15.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Brood, kind creature, you need not fear</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Thieves and robbers while I am here.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>16. Catch me, cowardly knaves, if you can.</p> + +<p>17. The stately homes of England! how beautiful they stand!</p> + +<p>18. O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIV">XIV. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section48"><b>48.</b> Besides declarative and interrogative sentences there +is another kind of sentence used when we speak directly to a +person for the purpose of telling him what to do; as, “Run +into the garden, and fetch me the largest pumpkin you can +find.” This is called an <b>imperative sentence</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section49"><b>49.</b> The imperative sentence is often used in giving orders, +commands, or directions, but it is used also in giving advice, +and in making requests or entreaties; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Fling away ambition.</p> + +<p>Kindly reply by return mail.</p> + +<p>Give us this day our daily bread.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section50"><b>50.</b> Usually only the predicate of an imperative sentence +is expressed, and so the first word of such a sentence is likely +to be a verb. The subject is the pronoun <i>you</i>, <i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i>, +signifying the person or persons addressed. It is customary +to omit this pronoun, and we say that the subject is “understood.” +Occasionally, however, it is expressed in familiar +conversation; as, “You go away.” Sometimes, too, in +solemn commands the pronoun <i>thou</i> or <i>ye</i> is expressed; +as, “Go and do thou likewise.” “Keep ye the law.”</p> + +<p>Note that the verb in an imperative sentence commands +rather than asserts.</p> + +<p>An imperative sentence is frequently preceded by a term +of address, but this must not be mistaken for the subject; +as, “Father, hear our prayer.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>imperative sentence</b> is one that expresses +a command or an entreaty.</p> + +<p>The subject of an imperative sentence is the pronoun <i>you</i>, +<i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i>. This pronoun is usually omitted.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell what the following imperative sentences +denote. Select the predicate verbs, and the subjects whenever +they are expressed. Select also the terms of address.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Open everything, go everywhere except to this little room.</p> + +<p>2. Come and hold this skein of yarn for me.</p> + +<p>3. Go and wash Kala Nag, and attend to his ears, and see that +there are no thorns in his feet.</p> + +<p>4. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.</p> + +<p>5. Rouse to some high and holy work of love.</p> + +<p>6. Don’t you show your face here with a pocket on you. If +your heavy pants have any in ’em, rip ’em out.</p> + +<p>7.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Give freely and receive, but take from none</div> + <div class="verse indent0">By greed, or force, or fraud, what is his own.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>8. Learn to box, to ride, to pull an oar, and to swim.</p> + +<p>9. Polly dear, say good morning to Mrs. Chatterton, and then +run away.</p> + +<p>10. Do the work first which is next at hand.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span></p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Turn again, Whittington,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Lord Mayor of London.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. O Lord of Hosts, provide a champion for thy people.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">O brave marsh Mary-buds, rich and yellow,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Give me your money to hold.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">O Columbine, open your folded wrapper</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Where two twin turtledoves dwell.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>15.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">O Cuckoopint, toll me the purple clapper</div> + <div class="verse indent0">That hangs in your clear, green bell.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>Account for the commas in sentences 1, 3, 8, 9, and 11.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XV">XV. INTERJECTIONS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section51"><b>51.</b> There are certain words like <i>oh</i>, <i>alas</i>, <i>pshaw</i>, <i>ugh</i>, that +are used to express strong feeling,—joy, surprise, pain, +disgust, anger, etc. These words are called <b>interjections</b>. +An interjection is a part of speech.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section52"><b>52.</b> Interjections are no part of the subject or the predicate +of a sentence; hence, like terms of address, they are said +to be independent. They are set off from the rest of the +sentence by some mark of punctuation, usually an exclamation +point, sometimes only a comma.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section53"><b>53.</b> We may use a noun or a verb in such a way that it +becomes an interjection; as, “<i>Goodness!</i> what a fright you +gave me!” “<i>Hurrah!</i> the lake is frozen over!” Such a +verb as <i>hark</i> is often used as an interjection, not to express +sudden feeling so much as to arrest attention; as, “<i>Hark! +hark!</i> the dogs do bark.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section54"><b>54.</b> The interjection <i>O</i> is often used before a term of address; +as, “O Lord, how manifold are thy works!”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>interjection</b> is a word used to express +sudden or strong feeling.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the interjections in the following +sentences, and tell what each one is used for:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Boom! Boom!—two of the guns had gone off together.</p> + +<p>2. Alas! Amanda, by mistake, had waked up the little boys an +hour too early.</p> + +<p>3. Bah! men are blood brothers of the monkey people.</p> + +<p>4. Hallelujah! in one day more we shall be sitting in the sunshine +on our own doorstep.</p> + +<p>5.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">O mother dear, Jerusalem,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When shall I come to thee?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>6. Ping! ping! ping! went the rifles; and Boom! boom! +boom! answered the waves.</p> + +<p>7. Aha! the world is iron in these days.</p> + +<p>8. Alas! it was the head of old Silverspot.</p> + +<p>9. Scrooge said, “Pooh! Pooh!” and closed the door.</p> + +<p>10. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings.</p> + +<p>11. Alack-a-day! travelers encounter all the unusual bits of +weather.</p> + +<p>12. Hey! Willie Winkie, are you coming then?</p> + +<p>13. O comrades, if we must fight, let us fight for ourselves.</p> + +<p>14. Hush! the winds roar hoarse and deep.</p> + +<p>15. Lo, the star which they saw in the east went before them till +it came and stood over where the young child was.</p> + +<p>16. Piff! the packet landed exactly as it was intended, on the +corn-husk mat in front of the screen door.</p> + +<p>17. Oh, London is a man’s town.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVI">XVI. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section55"><b>55.</b> We have found that sentences are made to <i>state</i>, or to +<i>ask</i>, or to <i>command</i>, and hence are classified as <i>declarative</i>, +<i>interrogative</i>, and <i>imperative</i>.</p> + +<p>There is a fourth class of sentence which resembles an +interjection, being used to express sudden or strong feeling; +as, “How calm and lovely the river was!” “What a pity it +is!” These are called <b>exclamatory sentences</b>. They are +always followed by an exclamation point.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section56"><b>56.</b> Such sentences as those just quoted, which begin with +<i>how</i> or <i>what</i>, are exclamatory in form as well as in sense, and +are therefore sometimes called pure exclamatory sentences. +They are always in the transposed order. Some sentences, +however, are exclamatory only in sense. They are in the +natural order, and when printed, could not be distinguished +from declarative or imperative sentences if it were +not for the exclamation point, which indicates that they +were spoken with strong feeling; as, “Now you may see that +noblest of all ocean sights for beauty, a full-rigged ship under +sail!” “Helen Maria! leave the room this moment!”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>exclamatory sentence</b> is one that expresses +sudden or strong feeling.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell why each of these sentences is exclamatory. +Rearrange in the natural order those which are +transposed. Divide each of them into subject and predicate. +Select the simple subject and the simple predicate.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. How soundly he sleeps! From what a depth he draws that +easy breath!</p> + +<p>2. What tales he had told that day!</p> + +<p>3. How doubly delicious things tasted in the clear, spicy air +of the woods!</p> + +<p>4. How keen a scent those children had for apples in the cellar!</p> + +<p>5. Oh, how sweet the water was! How it soothed the tender +spots under her weary wings! How it cooled her ears and her +tired eyelids!</p> + +<p>6. With what a glory comes and goes the year!</p> + +<p>7. What a racket those rusty cannon had made in the heyday of +their unchastened youth! What stories they might tell now if +their puffy, metallic lips could only speak!</p> + +<p>8. Burn the hut over their heads!</p> + +<p>9. Ugh! may the red mange destroy the dogs of this village!</p> + +<p>10. Talk of the curiosity of women!</p> + +<p>11. So blessedly evanescent is the memory of seasickness!</p> + +<p>12. Hark! how the music leaps out from his throat!</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVII">XVII. CONJUNCTIONS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section57"><b>57.</b> Notice the sentences,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Every pine and fir and hemlock wore ermine too dear for an earl.</p> + +<p>I stood and watched by the window.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>The parts of the compound subject in the first sentence +and of the compound predicate in the second are joined by +the word <i>and</i>. This very common word has a use different +from that of any word studied thus far; hence it is considered +another part of speech. Because it is a joining word, it is +called a <b>conjunction</b>.</p> + +<p>There are many conjunctions besides <i>and</i> that we all have +frequent occasion to use. Among these are <i>nor</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>but</i>, +<i>yet</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>so</i>, and <i>hence</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section58"><b>58.</b> Conjunctions may join not only single words, such as +nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs, but also +phrases, and even whole sentences; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>You may enter without money and without price.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The stiff rails were softened to swan’s down,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And still fluttered down the snow.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section59"><b>59.</b> Although the word <i>but</i> is commonly used as a conjunction, +yet, in the sentence, “I work every day but Sunday,” +it is a preposition, and means <i>except</i>. What is its object? +The great difference between a conjunction and a preposition +is that a preposition always has an object, whereas a +conjunction never has one.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>conjunction</b> is a word that joins sentences +or parts of sentences.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the conjunctions in the following +sentences, and tell what they join:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Crow was ten years old now, and he was very black and +polished and thin.</p> + +<p>2. Mount St. Michael was not only strongly fortified, but it +was well guarded by nature.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span></p> + +<p>3. The horse neither switches his tail, nods his head, nor stamps +his feet.</p> + +<p>4. Thirty years later, the remnants of her wedding gowns,—the +blue silk, the black silk, the striped silk, and the plaid silk,—were +cut into diamonds and squares, and then pieced together lovingly +and proudly into a patchwork quilt.</p> + +<p>5. There are several steamboats which run up and down the +Seine like omnibuses, and the charge to passengers is about two +cents apiece.</p> + +<p>6. After steaming for several hours over the smooth river and +between these flat lowlands, we reach the city of Rotterdam.</p> + +<p>7. These great ice streams are always moving slowly downwards; +hence they carry off, year by year, the snow which falls upon the +mountain above.</p> + +<p>8. The stars danced overhead, and by his side the broad and +shallow river ran over its stony bed with a loud but soothing murmur +that filled all the air with entreaty.</p> + +<p>9. The things that Mowgli did and saw and heard when he was +wandering from one people to another, with or without his four +companions, would make many stories.</p> + +<p>10. I drove the cows home through the sweet ferns and down +the rocky slopes.</p> + +<p>11. The sucker’s mouth is not formed for the gentle angleworm +nor the delusive fly of the fisherman.</p> + +<p>12. Our ancestors were very worthy people, but their wall +papers were abominable.</p> + +<p>13. The keeper of the lodgings did not supply meals to his +guests; so we breakfasted at a small chophouse in a crooked +street.</p> + +<p>14. The Northmen had no compass; they must steer by the +sun or by the stars, guess at their rate of sailing, and tell by that +how many more days distant was their destination.</p> + +<p>15. Through this silence and through this waste, where the sudden +lights flapped and went out again, the sleigh and the two that +pulled it crawled like things in a nightmare.</p> + +<p>16. There may be times when you cannot find help, but there +is no time when you cannot give help.</p> + +<p>17.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Over the meadows and through the woods,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">To grandfather’s house we go.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>18. The world has never had a good definition of the word +liberty, and the American people are much in want of one.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVIII">XVIII. CLAUSES. SIMPLE SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section60"><b>60.</b> We have learned that a sentence must contain a subject +and a predicate. We have another name for a combination +of subject and predicate. We call it a <b>clause</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section61"><b>61.</b> When a sentence consists of but one clause, we call it a +<b>simple sentence</b>; and we say that this clause is <b>independent</b>, +because it can stand alone and make sense.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section62"><b>62.</b> A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a +compound predicate, or both, and yet so long as these subjects +and predicates go together, we say that there is only +one clause; as in the sentence, “The lion and the mouse +helped each other and became friends.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>clause</b> is any combination of subject and +predicate.</p> + +<p>An <b>independent clause</b> is one that can stand alone and +make sense.</p> + +<p>A <b>simple sentence</b> contains but one independent clause.</p> + +<p>A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a +compound predicate, or both.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze the following simple sentences:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model.</span>—<i>Then a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a +highly polished leaf will flash like a heliograph.</i></p> + +<p>This is a simple, declarative sentence.</p> + +<p>The subject is <i>a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a +highly polished leaf</i>. The predicate is <i>will flash like a heliograph +then</i>.</p> + +<p>The subject is compound. The simple subjects are the +nouns <i>piece</i>, <i>pool</i>, and <i>leaf</i>, which are joined by the conjunction +<i>or</i>. <i>Piece</i> is modified by the prepositional phrase <i>of +mica</i> and the adjective <i>a</i>. <i>Pool</i>, is modified by the adjectives +<i>little</i> and <i>a</i>. <i>Leaf</i> is modified by the adjective element +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span><i>highly polished</i>, and the adjectives <i>a</i> and <i>even</i>. The base +word of the adjective element is the adjective <i>polished</i>, which +is modified by the adverb <i>highly</i>.</p> + +<p>The simple predicate is <i>will flash</i>. It is modified by the +prepositional phrase <i>like a heliograph</i>, and the adverb <i>then</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Through three good months the valley was wrapped in cloud +and soaking mist.</p> + +<p>2. In the very heart of London stands the great Bank of England.</p> + +<p>3. Would not any boy respond to the sweet invitation of those +ripe berries?</p> + +<p>4. A fool and his money are soon parted.</p> + +<p>5. A large, warm tear splashed down on the program.</p> + +<p>6. In the sunny days the sucker lies in the deep pools, by some +big stone or near the bank.</p> + +<p>7. The feeling of a boy towards pumpkin pie has never been +properly considered.</p> + +<p>8. Shall the adventures of the Peterkin family be published?</p> + +<p>9. No healthy boy could long exist without numerous friends in +the animal kingdom.</p> + +<p>10. No sound of joy or sorrow was heard from either bank.</p> + +<p>11. At length has come the bridal day of beauty and of strength.</p> + +<p>12. On one hot summer morning a little cloud rose from the sea +and floated lightly and happily across the blue sky.</p> + +<p>13. Donkeys, horses, negroes of every age, size, and shade, carts, +crates, sacks, barrels, and boxes are mingled in seemingly inextricable +confusion.</p> + +<p>14. In the midst of the wild confusion the voice of the Boots +was heard.</p> + +<p>15. Then he strolled across the pasture, between the black +stumps, the blueberry patches, the tangles of wild raspberry; +pushed softly through the fringe of wild cherry and young birch +saplings, and crept silently under the branches of a low hemlock.</p> + +<p>16. The moss was supported by solid earth or a framework +of ancient tree roots.</p> + +<p>17. Alas! with every blow of the chisel the brick crumbled at +my feet.</p> + +<p>18. A dish of apples and a pitcher of chilly cider were always +served during the evening.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span></p> + +<p>19. I sat down in the middle of the path and never stirred for a +long time.</p> + +<p>20. The mayor and other civic authorities in London came down +to Greenwich in barges.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIX">XIX. COMPOUND SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section63"><b>63.</b> We have seen that sentences may be joined together +by conjunctions. When two or more independent clauses +are joined together in this way, we say that the sentence is +<b>compound</b>; as, “Coral reefs resemble great rock ledges, and +vessels are often wrecked upon them.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section64"><b>64.</b> The conjunctions most used in compound sentences +are <i>and</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>yet</i>, <i>therefore</i>, and <i>so</i>.</p> + +<p><i>And</i> shows that two clauses are in the same line of thought; +as, “His eye was bright, and his face was ruddy.”</p> + +<p><i>Or</i> shows a choice between two clauses; as, “You must +work, or you must go hungry.”</p> + +<p><i>But</i> and <i>yet</i> show a contrast; as, “I mailed the letter, but +Uncle Joe never received it.”</p> + +<p><i>Therefore</i> and <i>so</i> show that the second clause is a consequence +of the first; as, “There are fires in the forests north +of us, therefore the air is full of smoke.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section65"><b>65.</b> Sometimes when the relation between clauses is +perfectly evident, the conjunction is omitted; as, “I came; +I saw; I conquered.”</p> + +<p>In order that the reader may have no doubt as to where a +clause ends, it is usually followed by a comma, which speaks +to the eye of the reader just as a pause speaks to the ear of +the listener. When the clauses are long or the conjunction +is omitted, a semicolon may be used instead of the comma.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>compound sentence</b> contains two or more +independent clauses.</p> + +<p>The clauses of a compound sentence are separated from +each other by a comma or a semicolon.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the clauses in the following compound +sentences. Tell the relation between them, and how +they are joined. Tell the subject and predicate of each +clause. Account for the punctuation.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Over the porch grew a hop-vine, and a brandy-cherry tree +shaded the door, and a luxuriant cranberry vine flung its delicious +fruit across the window.</p> + +<p>2. Mr. Peterkin liked to take a doze on his sofa in the room, but +the rest of the family liked to sit on the piazza.</p> + +<p>3. Prosperity makes friends; adversity tries them.</p> + +<p>4. The whole family planted the potatoes; George dug the +holes with his hoe, Mollie dropped into each one three pieces of an +old potato, Paul raked the black earth over them, and Mother +supervised and praised them all.</p> + +<p>5. Some of the letter-carriers must take very long walks, but +English people do not appear to object to that sort of thing.</p> + +<p>6. Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war?</p> + +<p>7. At the end of the first year the young lions shed their teeth, +the first indications of manes appeared on the males, and the +playfulness between brother and sister ceased.</p> + +<p>8. The clumsy wheels of several old-fashioned coaches were +heard, and the gentlemen and ladies composing the bridal party +came through the church with the sudden and gladsome effect of +a burst of sunshine.</p> + +<p>9. I had never been called pretty before, so I was flattered.</p> + +<p>10. The yellow cur has not the speed of the greyhound, but +neither does he bear the seeds of lung and skin diseases.</p> + +<p>11. The party did not return to Skarpsno until half-past eight +in the evening, yet the sun was still above the horizon.</p> + +<p>12. We cherish every memorial of our worthy ancestors; we celebrate +their patience and fortitude; we admire their daring enterprise; +we teach our children to venerate their piety.</p> + +<p>13. Every animal has some great strength, or it could not live; +every animal has some great weakness, or the other animals could +not live.</p> + +<p>14. Human action can be modified to some extent, but human +nature cannot be changed.</p> + +<p>15. Captain John Smith was exasperatingly sure of himself, and +older men found his pretensions well-nigh unbearable.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XX">XX. DEPENDENT CLAUSES. COMPLEX SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section66"><b>66.</b> We have seen that in both simple and compound +sentences the clauses are independent. There is a third +class of sentences, however, containing <b>dependent clauses</b>.</p> + +<p>In the simple sentence, “At night his antelope skin was +spread on the ground,” the prepositional phrase <i>on the ground</i> +tells place, and modifies the verb <i>was spread</i>.</p> + +<p>In the sentence, “At night his antelope skin was spread +<i>where the darkness overtook him</i>,” the group of words +where the darkness overtook him has the same use as the phrase +<i>on the ground</i>, for it tells place and modifies the verb <i>was +spread</i>.</p> + +<p>But this group of words contains a subject and a predicate; +hence it is a clause. It could not stand alone and +make sense; hence it cannot be an independent clause. It +could not be in the sentence at all unless the verb <i>was spread</i> +were there too for it to modify. It is therefore dependent +on the verb, and so we call it a <b>dependent clause</b>. It has +the same use as an adverb, because it modifies a verb. We +find many dependent clauses used in this way, because our +language does not afford enough adverbs or even prepositional +phrases to express our meaning.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section67"><b>67.</b> When dependent clauses modify verbs, they answer +such questions as these,—<i>was spread where?</i> <i>was spread +why?</i> <i>how?</i> <i>when?</i> <i>under what condition?</i> <i>for what purpose?</i></p> + +<p class="section" id="section68"><b>68.</b> In the sentence, “They went into a small parlor, +which smelt very spicy,” the parlor is described by the +adjective <i>small</i> and by the group of words <i>which smelt very +spicy</i>. What is this group of words? How do we know? +What words does it modify? What, then, is the use of some +dependent clauses? When dependent clauses modify nouns, +they point out or describe objects just as adjectives do.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section69"><b>69.</b> In the sentences that we have just been studying there +is an independent clause as well as a dependent clause. A +sentence of this kind is called a <b>complex sentence</b>.</p> + +<p>A complex sentence may contain any number of dependent +clauses, but only one independent clause, for as soon as a +sentence contains two independent clauses it becomes a +compound sentence.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>dependent clause</b> is one that is used like +a part of speech and does not make sense when it stands +alone.</p> + +<p>A dependent clause may be used like an adjective to +modify a noun, or like an adverb to modify a verb.</p> + +<p>A <b>complex sentence</b> consists of one independent clause and +one or more dependent clauses.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the clauses in the following sentences, +and classify them. Tell what the dependent clauses +modify. Tell the subject and predicate of each clause.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Frequently a dependent clause modifies more than the +verb. In the sentence, “The little boys wanted a house with a great +many doors, so that they could go in and out often,” the dependent +clause <i>so that they could go in and out often</i> tells the purpose of their +wanting a house with a great many doors; hence, it modifies not +merely the verb <i>wanted</i>, but the whole predicate <i>wanted a house with +a great many doors</i>. Try to tell the exact truth about each sentence +that you study.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. He was always catching sculpins when every one else with +the same bait was catching mackerel.</p> + +<p>2. If we cross the Atlantic by one of the fast steamships, we shall +make the voyage in about a week.</p> + +<p>3. The Rotterdam quays, which stretch for more than a mile +along the river, are busy and lively places.</p> + +<p>4. Every Sunday morning the wash boiler was filled with water, +and the largest tub was set in the middle of the kitchen floor, so that +the three children might have their weekly scrubbing.</p> + +<p>5. People who devote themselves too severely to study of the +classics are apt to become dried up.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span></p> + +<p>6. He charged upon the rows of the mullein stalks as if they +were rebels in regimental ranks, and hewed them down without +mercy.</p> + +<p>7. Every boy who is good for anything is a natural savage.</p> + +<p>8. Rude soldiers now eat, drink, and sleep, where popes and +cardinals once moved about in state.</p> + +<p>9. Mowgli, who had never known the meaning of real hunger, +fell back on stale honey three years old.</p> + +<p>10. Iron-clads are so called because their sides are covered with +thick plates of iron or steel, capable of resisting very heavy shot.</p> + +<p>11. Although many people ascend Mont Blanc every year, the +undertaking requires a great deal of muscular as well as nervous +strength.</p> + +<p>12. If a boy repeats <i>Thanatopsis</i> while he is milking, that operation +acquires a certain dignity.</p> + +<p>13. The thrill that ran into my fingers’ ends then has not run +out yet.</p> + +<p>14. Even a dog, who is very far removed from the wild wolf, +his ancestor, can be waked out of deep sleep by a cart wheel touching +his flank, and can spring away unharmed before that wheel comes +on.</p> + +<p>15. The boys slipped off down the roadside to a place where +they could dig sassafras or the root of the sweet flag.</p> + +<p>16. The little company of Englishmen who, in 1620, exchanged +Holland for America were not soldiers and traders like the men who +had led and established the colony at Jamestown.</p> + +<p>17. Miles Standish came with the Pilgrims to America because +he liked both them and their enterprise.</p> + +<p>18. The early settlers went to church in military array and laid +their arms down close by them while they worshiped and heard +the sermon.</p> + +<p>19. The colonists chose for their place of settlement a high bluff, +which rose upon the eastern bank of a little stream.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the part of speech and use of <i>always</i>, sentence 1, +<i>Sunday</i> 4, <i>too</i> and <i>severely</i> 5, <i>now</i>, <i>once</i>, and <i>about</i> 8.</p> + +<p>Analyze the predicate <i>was set in the middle of the kitchen +floor</i>.</p> + +<p>What is the grammatical use of the group of words <i>as well +as</i> in sentence 11?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXI">XXI. REVIEW: CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section70"><b>70.</b> We have seen that sentences are classified according +to <b>purpose</b>, as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.</p> + +<p>A <b>declarative</b> sentence is one that states, or declares, +something.</p> + +<p>An <b>interrogative</b> sentence is one that asks a question.</p> + +<p>An <b>imperative</b> sentence is one that expresses a command +or an entreaty.</p> + +<p>An <b>exclamatory</b> sentence is one that expresses sudden or +strong feeling.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section71"><b>71.</b> We have seen also that sentences may consist of one +clause or of several, and that clauses may be independent +or dependent. Sentences are therefore classified according +to <b>structure</b>, as simple, compound, or complex.</p> + +<p>A <b>simple</b> sentence is one that contains but one independent +clause.</p> + +<p>A <b>compound</b> sentence is one that contains two or more +independent clauses.</p> + +<p>A <b>complex</b> sentence is one that contains one independent +clause and one or more dependent clauses.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Write a complex declarative sentence, a compound +interrogative sentence, a complex imperative sentence, +and a simple exclamatory sentence.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Classify the following sentences according to +both purpose and structure. Give the reasons for your +classification. Tell what the dependent clauses modify. +Tell also the subject and predicate of each clause.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The oxen sagged along in their great clumsy way.</p> + +<p>2. Give me quickly my seven-league boots, that I may go after +those boys and catch them.</p> + +<p>3. How sweet and demure the girls looked!</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span></p> + +<p>4. Within sight of that tall elm tree were passed my happiest +years.</p> + +<p>5. Did you ever know a child who was not interested in animals?</p> + +<p>6. My grandfather never skipped over an advertisement, even +if he had read it fifty times before.</p> + +<p>7.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Woodman, spare that tree!</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Touch not a single bough!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>8. Must I keep order along the whole line?</p> + +<p>9. All the trees and the bushes and the bamboos and the mosses +and the juicy-leaved plants wake with a noise of growing that you +can almost hear.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When fond recollection presents them to view!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. Sometimes it is impolite to tell the truth, and then one can +only say nothing or talk of the weather.</p> + +<p>12. Toll ye the church bell sad and slow.</p> + +<p>13. Some boys go scowling always through life, as if they had a +stone bruise on each heel.</p> + +<p>14. Proud bird of the mountain, thy plume shall be torn!</p> + +<p>15. Mowgli had the good conscience that comes from paying +debts.</p> + +<p>16. Cease to do evil; learn to do well.</p> + +<p>17. The first was a brass band, the second was a string band, +the third was a rubber band, and the fourth was a man who played +on the jew’s-harp.</p> + +<p>18.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Lo, all our pomp of yesterday</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Is one with Nineveh and Tyre!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>19. On Sunday the hens went silently about, and the roosters +crowed in psalm tunes.</p> + +<p>20.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Up! up! my friend, and quit your books,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Or surely you’ll grow double!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>21. Is the world growing better or are we moving in a circle?</p> + +<p>22. Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth.</p> + +<p>23. When a man has heard the great things calling to him, how +they call and call, day and night!</p> + +<p>24. O ye who have young children, if it is possible, give them +happy memories.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Find an interjection in this exercise.</p> + +<p>What independent elements do you find in sentences 7, 14, +and 24? What is the base word of each?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXII">XXII. REVIEW: PARTS OF SPEECH</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section72"><b>72.</b> We have seen that words are classified according to +their use into eight parts of speech,—nouns, verbs, pronouns, +adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and +interjections.</p> + +<p>A <b>noun</b> is a name word.</p> + +<p>A <b>verb</b> is an asserting word.</p> + +<p>A <b>pronoun</b> is a word used instead of a noun.</p> + +<p>An <b>adjective</b> is a word used to point out or describe an +object and modify a noun or a pronoun.</p> + +<p>An <b>adverb</b> is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or +another adverb.</p> + +<p>A <b>preposition</b> is a word that is used with its object to form +a phrase, and shows the relation of its object to the word the +phrase modifies.</p> + +<p>A <b>conjunction</b> is a word that joins sentences or parts of +sentences.</p> + +<p>An <b>interjection</b> is a word used to express sudden or strong +feeling.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell what part of speech each word is in the +following sentences. Tell in each case how you know.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Toto’s good grandmother bore this commotion quietly for +some time.</p> + +<p>2. “Now, set those baskets down.” He spoke sharply.</p> + +<p>3. Mowgli knew the manners and customs of the villagers very +fairly.</p> + +<p>4. No other mother ever made such deep, smooth, golden custard +pies, or fried such light and spicy doughnuts.</p> + +<p>5. Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots are strongly associated +together in the minds of all readers of English history.</p> + +<p>6. The tamest tiger is a tiger still.</p> + +<p>7. The negro cleared for us a path to an enormously tall tree.</p> + +<p>8. Nobody scolded me or laughed at me.</p> + +<p>9. Then my eyes came back to the wall paper, and I studied +out figures in its spreading vines.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span></p> + +<p>10. Perhaps a little starch would have some effect.</p> + +<p>11. The roaring hot wind of the Jungle came and went between +the rocks and the rattling branches.</p> + +<p>12. Ring-ting! I wish I were a primrose.</p> + +<p>13. O love, they die in yon rich sky.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section73"><b>73.</b> In sentence 13 in the preceding exercise, it is evident +that the word <i>love</i>, which is often a verb, is used as a term of +address, and therefore is a noun. Many words may be used +as verbs or as nouns.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell what part of speech the italicized words +are in the following sentences. Give your reason in each +case.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Don’t scour your porcelain <i>sink</i> with sapolio.</p> + +<p>2. When bodies <i>sink</i> in Lake Superior, they never rise.</p> + +<p>3. Oh, what <i>fall</i> was there, my countrymen.</p> + +<p>4. We <i>fall</i> to rise, are baffled to fight better.</p> + +<p>5. Alice gave the branch a vigorous <i>shake</i>.</p> + +<p>6. Nay, do not <i>shake</i> your gory locks at me.</p> + +<p>7. Will you <i>show</i> me your lineage book?</p> + +<p>8. There are ten thousand moving picture <i>shows</i> in the United +States.</p> + +<p>9. What a good <i>catch</i> our right fielder made.</p> + +<p>10. Did you <i>catch</i> this sturgeon last night?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Make sentences in which the following words shall be +used as nouns and as verbs: <i>fight</i>, <i>pay</i>, <i>rap</i>, <i>shed</i>, <i>shoe</i>, +<i>sting</i>, <i>tread</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section74"><b>74.</b> Many words that are usually adjectives may also be +used as nouns. Such words fall into different classes:—</p> + +<p>(1) Adjectives denoting color; as, <i>black</i>, <i>white</i>, <i>red</i>. We +may say, “The blacks were once slaves of the whites.” We +may also say, “Red and green are complementary colors.”</p> + +<p>(2) Certain adjectives denoting qualities of persons, which +may also be used to name classes of persons having those +qualities; as, <i>rich</i>, <i>poor</i>, <i>old</i>, <i>young</i>, <i>bad</i>, <i>good</i>. We say, “The +rich should not scorn the poor,” “The good die young.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span></p> + +<p>(3) Certain adjectives denoting qualities, which may also +be used to name classes of things having those qualities; +as, <i>good</i>, <i>evil</i>, <i>true</i>, <i>false</i>. We say, “Love the good, cherish +the true, admire the beautiful.”</p> + +<p>(4) Certain other adjectives, such as <i>native</i>, <i>secret</i>, <i>fat</i>, +<i>lean</i>, <i>thick</i>. We say, “The natives had no secrets,” “Jack +Sprat would eat no fat,” “He was always in the thick of +the fight.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Make sentences containing the following +words used as adjectives and as nouns: <i>purple</i>, <i>blue</i>, <i>brave</i>, +<i>righteous</i>, <i>evil</i>, <i>wet</i>, <i>cold</i>, <i>sweet</i>, <i>right</i>, <i>wrong</i>, <i>solid</i>, <i>strong</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section75"><b>75.</b> Some words may be used both as adjectives and as +adverbs. When <i>well</i> means the opposite of <i>sick</i>, as in the +sentence, “Grace never was a well child,” it is an adjective. +When <i>well</i> means in a good manner, as in the sentence, +“Esther sings well,” it is an adverb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell what part of speech the italicized words +are in the following sentences. Give your reason in each +case.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The paper is large <i>enough</i>, but I have not <i>enough</i> string.</p> + +<p>2. As she came <i>near</i> I recognized one of my <i>near</i> neighbors.</p> + +<p>3. <i>All</i> flesh is grass.</p> + +<p>4. The girls playing basket ball are <i>all</i> tired out.</p> + +<p>5. The doctor liked a <i>fast</i> horse.</p> + +<p>6. We must walk <i>fast</i> this cold morning.</p> + +<p>7. Nobody could play golf <i>worse</i> than I.</p> + +<p>8. May I never do a <i>worse</i> deed!</p> + +<p>9. Have you <i>any</i> ribbon to match this sample?</p> + +<p>10. Will this color do <i>any</i> better?</p> + +<p>11. Somebody <i>else</i> will marry her then.</p> + +<p>12. How <i>else</i> could I get there in time?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Make sentences containing the following words used as +adjectives and as adverbs: <i>high</i>, <i>last</i>, <i>long</i>, <i>low</i>, <i>much</i>, <i>round</i>, +<i>slow</i>, <i>straight</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section76"><b>76.</b> Some words may be used both as adverbs and as +prepositions. In the sentence, “I looked in as I went by,” +both <i>in</i> and <i>by</i> are adverbs. How do we know this? In +the sentence, “As I went by the house, I looked in the +window,” both <i>in</i> and <i>by</i> are prepositions. What are their +objects? What do the phrases modify?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—What part of speech are the italicized words +in the following sentences? Give your reason in each case.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. <i>Beyond</i> lay the city of their dreams.</p> + +<p>2. Our house stands <i>beyond</i> the church.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Over</i> the Alps lies Italy.</p> + +<p>4. Come <i>over</i> this evening if you can.</p> + +<p>5. She fainted and did not come <i>to</i> for an hour.</p> + +<p>6. The granary is <i>behind</i> the barn.</p> + +<p>7. Ichabod looked <i>behind</i> for an instant.</p> + +<p>8. A storm of sleet was raging <i>without</i>.</p> + +<p>9. Civilized man cannot do <i>without</i> cooks.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Make sentences in which the following words are used +both as adverbs and as prepositions: <i>about</i>, <i>above</i>, <i>along</i>, +<i>down</i>, <i>off</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>through</i>, <i>under</i>, <i>up</i>, <i>within</i>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXIII">XXIII. TRANSITIVE VERBS. OBJECT OF VERB</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section77"><b>77.</b> We have seen that a noun may be related to a verb +as its subject. When the verb asserts action, as in the +sentence, “Many birds eat flies,” then the subject <i>many +birds</i> names the doer, or performer, of the action.</p> + +<p>There is another very common relation that a noun may +bear to a verb. In the sentence above, the verb <i>eat</i> asserts +an action that is not only performed <i>by</i> something, but is +also performed <i>upon</i> something. That is, there is a doer of +the action, many birds, and a receiver of the action, flies. +If we had merely the subject and the verb, our sentence +would be incomplete, and we should ask at once, <i>eat what?</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span></p> + +<p>Since the word <i>flies</i> completes the meaning of the verb +<i>eat</i>, we call it the <b>complement</b> of the verb. Since it names +the receiver of the action that is asserted by the verb <i>eat</i>, +we call it the <b>object</b> or <b>direct object</b> of the verb.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section78"><b>78.</b> Not all verbs require an object—only those which +assert action which the subject performs <i>upon</i> some person +or thing. Such verbs are called <b>transitive</b> verbs.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section79"><b>79.</b> The object of a verb is not always a single word. The +object may be compound, as in the sentence, “Many birds +eat flies and gnats and mosquitoes.” Again, the object may +be a group of words, of which a noun is the base word. +In the following sentence there are three transitive verbs. +What is the object of each verb? What is the base word of +each object?—“Miss Dorothea dusted the banisters round +the porch, straightened the rows of shoes in mother’s closet, +and folded the daily papers in the rack.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section80"><b>80.</b> Just as we can find the subject of a verb by asking +the question made by placing <i>who</i> or <i>what</i> before the verb, +so we can find the object of a verb that asserts action by +asking the question made by placing <i>whom</i> or <i>what</i> after the +verb.</p> + +<p>These questions are often a great help, especially if a sentence +is long or transposed. In the sentence, “A more +miserable little beast I had never seen,” what is the verb? +Ask a question to find the subject. Ask a question to find +the object.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>transitive verb</b> is one that asserts action +performed upon some person or thing.</p> + +<p>A <b>complement</b> is a word or a group of words used to +complete the meaning of a verb.</p> + +<p>The <b>direct object</b> of a verb is a word or a group of words +that completes the meaning of a transitive verb and names +the receiver of the action.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Not all transitive verbs denote action that is accompanied +by motion. Some denote action of the senses; as, “I <i>see</i> +the star,” “I <i>taste</i> the pepper.” Others denote action of the feelings; +as, “I <i>love</i> the truth,” “I <i>hate</i> a lie.” Still others do not denote +action at all; as, “I <i>mean</i> you,” “Our forefathers <i>owned</i> slaves,” +“I <i>kept</i> her letter.” We must enlarge our notion of transitive verbs +so as to make it include all verbs that take a complement which denotes +a different person or thing from the subject.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select all the transitive verbs in these sentences. +Find both their subjects and their objects by asking +the proper questions.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—A transitive verb may be modified before it is completed. +This is true of <i>lifts</i> in sentence 2. Oftener the idea expressed by +the verb and its object together is modified; as in sentence 1, where +the phrase <i>in despair</i> modifies not <i>shook</i> but <i>shook her head</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Dotty Dimple shook her head in despair.</p> + +<p>2. At the word of command, the two horsemen stop, each man +lifts up his right leg, throws it over the back of his horse, and drops +it to the ground so that the two boots tap the pavement at the same +instant.</p> + +<p>3. Her father found a pleasant seat on the shady side, hung +the basket in a rack, and opened a window.</p> + +<p>4. When the young surveyor left Detroit, he carried a huge green +bandbox, and his wife in her far frontier home received in due time +a beautiful blue bonnet.</p> + +<p>5. I threw off an overcoat, took an armchair by the crackling +logs, and awaited patiently the arrival of my hosts.</p> + +<p>6. All the world likes molasses candy.</p> + +<p>7. The children brought home great bunches of the brilliant +leaves, and some they pressed and varnished, while others Katherine +dipped in melted wax.</p> + +<p>8. John trod down the exquisite ferns and the wonderful mosses +without compunction. But he gathered from the crevices of the +rocks the columbine and the eglantine and the blue harebell; he +picked the high-flavored alpine strawberry, the blueberry, the boxberry, +wild currants and gooseberries and fox grapes; he brought +home armfuls of the pink and white laurel and the wild honeysuckle; +he dug the roots of the fragrant sassafras and of the sweet +flag; he ate the tender leaves of the wintergreen and its red berries; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>he gathered the peppermint and the spearmint; he gnawed the +twigs of the black birch; he dug the amber gum from the spruce-tree; +he brought home such medicinal herbs for the garret as the +goldthread, the tansy, and the loathsome “boneset,” and he laid +in for the winter, like a squirrel, stores of beechnuts, hazelnuts, +hickorynuts, chestnuts, and butternuts.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Analyze the following sentences:—</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—If any part of a sentence is compound, state that +fact before analyzing it. If the subject or object is compound, +give the base words first, and then the modifiers of each. If the +predicate is compound, analyze the first predicate completely, then +the second, and so on. If any adverb or prepositional phrase +modifies the idea denoted by the verb and the object, be sure to say +so in your analysis. For instance, in the sentence, “We have seen +his star in the east,” the predicate verb is <i>have seen</i>. It is completed +by the direct object <i>his star</i>, and then modified by the prepositional +phrase <i>in the east</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Sometimes a perfume like absinthe sweetened all the air.</p> + +<p>2. The little brown field mouse ran along in the grass, poked his +nose into everything, and finally spied a smooth, shiny acorn.</p> + +<p>3. My son, descend those steps and enter that door.</p> + +<p>4. Many and many a pair of mittens had those busy fingers +knit.</p> + +<p>5. Always within a few moments the rabbits would resume their +leaping progress through the white glitter and the hard, black +shadows.</p> + +<p>6. The visit of the tax collector seldom gives unmixed joy.</p> + +<p>7. Scrooge took his melancholy dinner in his usual melancholy +tavern.</p> + +<p>8. The first glimpse of a new country always quickens the +sense of the traveler.</p> + +<p>9. Rebecca took off her hat and cape and hung them in the +hall, put her rubber shoes and umbrella carefully in the corner, +and then opened the door of paradise.</p> + +<p>10. The scent of herbs and the fragrance of fruit filled the great +unfinished chamber.</p> + +<p>11. A polished brazen rod on a broad wooden pedestal beside +the armchair held half a dozen lamps of silver on sliding arms.</p> + +<p>12. Messala hugged the stony wall with perilous clasp.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span></p> + +<p>13. Amrah rubbed her eyes, bent closer down, clasped her hands, +gazed wildly around, looked at the sleeper, then stooped and raised +his hand, and kissed it fondly.</p> + +<p>14. The proprietor of the fruit stand has a bald head, a long face, +and a nose like the beak of a hawk.</p> + +<p>15. Without more ado Mr. Cary grasped his arm firmly, and +fairly lifted him into the room.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXIV">XXIV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING ACTION</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section81"><b>81.</b> Transitive verbs, as we have seen, assert action performed +upon some person or thing. There are many other +verbs in our language that assert action, but the action is not +performed <i>upon</i> anything. On the contrary, the action ends +in itself; as in the sentence, “The wind in the chimney sighed +and moaned and shivered.” Here the wind is said to perform +three actions, but these actions were not received by +anything. Verbs like <i>sighed</i>, <i>moaned</i>, and <i>shivered</i> are said +to be <b>intransitive verbs</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section82"><b>82.</b> Not all intransitive verbs assert action. The verb <i>be</i> +and a few others (see <a href="#XXV">Lesson XXV</a>) which assert merely +<i>being</i>, are also intransitive verbs; as, “I <i>am</i> hungry,” “You +<i>are</i> kind,” “He <i>is</i> extravagant,” “They <i>were</i> careless.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section83"><b>83.</b> It frequently happens that the same verb may be +used in one sentence as a transitive verb, and in another as +an intransitive verb. If we say, “The horse kicked his +master,” the verb <i>kicked</i> is transitive. Why? If we say, +“The poor boy kicked and squirmed and groaned,” the verb +<i>kicked</i> is intransitive. Why?</p> + +<p>We should always classify a verb as it is used in the particular +sentence under consideration.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>intransitive verb</b> is one that asserts +(1) being, or (2) action that is not received by any person or +thing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select all the verbs in the following sentences, +and classify them as transitive or intransitive. Tell the +subject of each verb. If the verb is transitive, tell its object.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The princess sat at table next to the king and queen.</p> + +<p>2. At these words a grave smile of approval lighted the gaunt +face of the Hindu.</p> + +<p>3. The spring murmured drowsily beside him. The branches +waved dreamily across the blue sky overhead. A deep sleep fell upon +David Swan.</p> + +<p>4.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">While shepherds watched their flocks by night,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">All seated on the ground,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">An angel of the Lord came down,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">And glory shone around.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>5. Mr. Jeremy stuck his pole into the mud, and fastened the +boat to it.</p> + +<p>6. The cat got up and stretched herself, and came and sniffed +at the basket.</p> + +<p>7. I would have spared the woman who gave thee the milk.</p> + +<p>8. His hair had fallen about his shoulders.</p> + +<p>9. They sang patriotic songs, they told stories, they fired torpedoes, +they frightened the cats.</p> + +<p>10. I could have killed a buck while thou wast striking.</p> + +<p>11. Away rolled the bogghun, away and away, over the meadows +and into the forest; away and away bounded the Princess in pursuit. +The golden nose ring flashed and glittered in the sunlight, the golden +bangles on her wrists and ankles tinkled and rang their tiny bells +as she went. The monkeys swinging by their tails from the +branches, chattered with astonishment at us; the wild parrot +screamed at us; all the birds sang and chirped and twittered.</p> + +<p>12. The chipmunk appeared at the mouth of his den, looked +quickly about, took a few leaps to a tussock of grass, paused a +breath with one foot raised, slipped quickly a few yards over some +dry leaves, paused again by a stump beside a path, rushed across +the path to the pile of loose stones, went under the first and over the +second, gained the pile of posts, made his way through that, surveyed +his course a half moment from the other side of it, and then +darted on to some other cover, and presently beyond my range, +where he must have gathered acorns, for no other nut-bearing trees +than oaks grew near.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Tell whether the italicized verbs in the following +sentences are transitive or intransitive. Give your +reason in each case. If a verb is transitive, tell how it is +completed. If it is intransitive, tell how it is modified.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. All the brooks <i>have burst</i> their icy chains.</p> + +<p>2. The boiler <i>burst</i> with a tremendous noise.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Do</i> your duty; that is best.</p> + +<p>4. Such language <i>will</i> never <i>do</i> for a teacher.</p> + +<p>5. Miss Clarissa <i>draws</i> and paints very well.</p> + +<p>6. Giotto <i>drew</i> a perfect circle with one sweep of his arm.</p> + +<p>7. The swallow <i>flies</i> with a graceful dipping motion.</p> + +<p>8. The boys <i>are flying</i> their kites on the common.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Give</i> us this day our daily bread.</p> + +<p>10. The rope was stretched so tightly that it <i>did</i> not <i>give</i> with +his weight.</p> + +<p>11. All day he sits in his arm chair and <i>reads</i>.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Have</i> you <i>read</i> “The Man without a Country”?</p> + +<p>13. The woodworkers <i>have struck</i> for shorter hours.</p> + +<p>14. David <i>struck</i> Uriah Heep on the cheek.</p> + +<p>15. Aunt Betsy <i>swept</i> down upon the trespassers.</p> + +<p>16. I <i>must sweep</i> the spiders off the porch.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXV">XXV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING BEING. NOUNS AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section84"><b>84.</b> There is no other verb used oftener than the verb <i>be</i>, +with its various forms,—<i>is</i>, <i>are</i>, <i>am</i>, <i>was</i>, <i>will be</i>, <i>has been</i>, +etc. In the sentence, “The lake is the mother of the great +rivers,” there would be no assertion without the verb <i>is</i>, and +yet it does not assert action of any sort. The sentence plainly +means that the lake and the mother of the great rivers are +identical; that is, they are one and the same thing. The +verb <i>is</i> enables us to assert identity. A verb of this kind is +intransitive. It is often called a verb of <b>being</b>, to distinguish +it from verbs that assert action.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section85"><b>85.</b> Some other verbs of this kind are <i>seem</i>, <i>appear</i>, <i>become</i>, +<i>grow</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>look</i>, <i>smell</i>, <i>taste</i>, and <i>sound</i>. They are classed as +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>verbs of being because they mean—to be in appearance, in +looks, in smell, in taste, etc., as, “You appear ill,” “She +looks young,” “The milk tastes sour.”</p> + +<p>Verbs that assert being are intransitive verbs.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section86"><b>86.</b> Intransitive verbs of being usually need a complement. +In the sentence, “I am a spinner of long yarns,” if +we had merely the subject and the verb, <i>I am</i>, we should ask, +<i>am what?</i> The group of words <i>a spinner of long yarns</i> answers +this question, and so completes the predicate. It is +not an object complement, however, for it cannot name the +receiver of an action since the verb does not assert action at +all. This complement denotes identity with the subject; +hence it is called a <b>subjective complement</b>.</p> + +<p>Often the subjective complement denotes the class to which +the person or thing named by the subject belongs; as, “Corn +is a grain,” “My friend is a farmer.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section87"><b>87.</b> The subject and the object complement denote two +different persons or things, but the subject and the subjective +complement always refer to the same person or thing.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section88"><b>88.</b> The subjective complement is sometimes a single noun, +as in the sentence, “Stars are suns.” When the subjective +complement is a group of words, a noun is usually the base +word; as, “Procrastination is the thief of time.”</p> + +<p>In sentences containing a subjective complement, the subject +comes before the verb, and the subjective complement +after the verb, unless the sentence is transposed; as, “Lords +of the sea are we.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section89"><b>89.</b> Sometimes, instead of having a complement, a verb +of being is modified by a prepositional phrase, or even by an +adverb, denoting place; as, “My bark is on the sea,” “Yonder +is my home.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—Verbs that assert <b>being</b> or <b>identity</b> are intransitive +verbs.</p> + +<p>A <b>subjective complement</b> is a word or a group of words that +completes a verb and refers to the same person or thing as +the subject.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in +the following sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, +and the base words of each. Analyze sentences +1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 14.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. This palace was the residence of the queen consort of England.</p> + +<p>2.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The king was in his counting house, counting out his money,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The queen was in the parlor, eating bread and honey.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>3. My name is Beautiful Joe, and I am a brown dog of medium +size.</p> + +<p>4. Her worship of God was unselfish service, and her prayers +were worthy deeds.</p> + +<p>5. The one great poem of New England is her Sunday.</p> + +<p>6. This guinea pig’s name was Jeff, and he and I became good +friends.</p> + +<p>7. Patient waiters are no losers.</p> + +<p>8. In this fine open square are magnificent fountains, handsome +statuary on tall pedestals, and crowds of vehicles and foot passengers +crossing it in every direction.</p> + +<p>9. A jackknife in his expert hand was a whole chest of tools.</p> + +<p>10. One of the best things in the world to be is a boy.</p> + +<p>11. Backbiting is the meanest kind of biting, not excepting the +bite of fleas.</p> + +<p>12. The rattle of a bucket in a neighbor’s yard, no longer mixed +with other weekday noises, seemed a new sound.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The sheep’s in the meadow, the cow’s in the corn.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14. I became an enthusiastic little cook.</p> + +<p>15. King Arthur’s son was a handsome, polite, and brave knight.</p> + +<p>16. The bees are abroad under the calling sky, and the red of +apple buds becomes a sign in the orchards.</p> + +<p>17. Always darker turns the growing hemp as it rushes upward.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 4, 6, 8, and 15.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXVI">XXVI. ADJECTIVES AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section90"><b>90.</b> In the sentences, (1) “The tomato is a fruit,” (2) +“That tall boy is the winner of the race,” the base word of +the subjective complement is a noun, because we wish to assert +(1) class, (2) identity.</p> + +<p>In the sentence, “The old gentleman’s face was serene and +rosy,” the base words of the subjective complement are the +two adjectives <i>serene</i> and <i>rosy</i>, because we wish to assert the +characteristics, or qualities, of the old gentleman’s face.</p> + +<p>This is a very common use of the adjective, as seen in the +familiar sentences, “Grass is green,” “Honey is sweet,” +“Ice is cold.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section91"><b>91.</b> The verbs of being that were given in <a href="#XXV">Lesson XXV</a>,—<i>be</i>, +<i>become</i>, <i>look</i>, <i>seem</i>, <i>appear</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>smell</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>sound</i>, and +<i>grow</i>,—often take adjectives for subjective complements; +as, “My head feels dizzy,” “This sentence sounds queer,” +“Mary grew plump and strong.”</p> + +<p>In some cases where the language affords no adjectives +that exactly express the meaning, we use a prepositional +phrase as subjective complement; as in the common expressions, +“The house is <i>on fire</i>,” “The girl is <i>in love</i>,” “The man +is <i>in debt</i>.” None of these phrases denote place, but each of +them denotes a condition.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—An adjective used as a subjective complement is often +modified by a prepositional phrase. If we say “The bin is full,” +somebody will ask “full of what?” If we say “full of apples,” it +is evident that the phrase <i>of apples</i> modifies <i>full</i>. We also say <i>glad +of it</i>, <i>tired of play</i>, <i>wild with joy</i>, <i>green with envy</i>, etc. These expressions +are different, however, from what we find in the sentence, +“I was tired in the evening,” where the phrase <i>in the evening</i>, denoting +time, modifies not the adjective <i>tired</i>, but the two words <i>was +tired</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An adjective, or a group of words of which +an adjective is the base word, may be the subjective complement +of an intransitive verb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in +the following sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, +and the base words of each. Analyze sentences +1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The sting of a bee is sometimes deadly.</p> + +<p>2. The woodchuck looked sulky, and scratched his nose expressively.</p> + +<p>3. The traveler’s limbs were numb, for the ride had been long +and wearisome.</p> + +<p>4. She might be poor in purse and weak in body, this brave +young mother, but she was rich in hope and strong in spirit.</p> + +<p>5. By the third day I felt too weak and sick to stir.</p> + +<p>6. At these words the king grew purple in the face.</p> + +<p>7. Conrad will keep quiet over his books.</p> + +<p>8. Mary was beautiful, feminine in spirit, and lovely. Elizabeth +was talented, masculine, and plain. Mary was artless, unaffected, +and gentle. Elizabeth was heartless, intriguing, and insincere.</p> + +<p>9. Your grandfather looked very funny in his red nightcap, +and without his teeth.</p> + +<p>10. Very few poetic people are good at arithmetic.</p> + +<p>11. The garden at the back of the house was sweet with the +scent of newly blossomed lilacs and the freshness of young grass.</p> + +<p>12. Snow-white was the foam that flashed upward underneath +the curving prow.</p> + +<p>13. Is not Little Annie afraid of such a tumult?</p> + +<p>14. His mouth felt as dry and stiff and hard as a chip.</p> + +<p>15. The people went nearly mad for joy.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section92"><b>92.</b> A common error is the misuse of an adverb for an adjective +as the subjective complement of a verb of being. We +should say, “I feel <i>bad</i>, or <i>ill</i>, or <i>unhappy</i>” (not <i>badly</i>).</p> + +<p>Another common error is the misuse of an adjective for an +adverb as a modifier of a verb of action. We should say, +“The child learns <i>easily</i>” (not <i>easy</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p> + +<p>If we wish to tell a quality or condition of the subject, we +should use an adjective; as, “The oak leaves turned <i>brown</i>.” +If we wish to tell the manner of an action, we should use an +adverb; as, “The leaves turned <i>quickly</i> this fall.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Tell the part of speech of each italicized +word in these sentences, and justify its use.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Mary dresses <i>neatly</i> and always looks <i>charming</i>.</p> + +<p>2. The children must keep <i>quiet</i> to-night.</p> + +<p>3. Stand <i>straight</i> and breathe <i>deeply</i>.</p> + +<p>4. Look at them <i>kindly</i> and speak <i>gently</i>.</p> + +<p>5. The old bishop looks <i>kind</i> and <i>gentle</i>.</p> + +<p>6. This pie tastes very <i>queer</i>.</p> + +<p>7. Mother feels <i>uneasy</i> if we are <i>out late</i>.</p> + +<p>8. The boy seemed <i>nervous</i> and felt <i>uneasily</i> of his watch chain.</p> + +<p>9. Poor oil made the lamp smell very <i>disagreeable</i>.</p> + +<p>10. All the doors stood <i>open</i>.</p> + +<p>11. The air grew <i>cold steadily</i>.</p> + +<p>12. Keep the box <i>carefully</i> till I return.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select the right word for each of the following +sentences, and give your reason in each case:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The light is so poor that I cannot see the picture (<i>plain</i> or +<i>plainly</i>).</p> + +<p>2. I am frightened when she speaks (<i>cross</i> or <i>crossly</i>) to me.</p> + +<p>3. Sit with me so that you can hear (<i>good</i> or <i>well</i>).</p> + +<p>4. Does he always deal (<i>honest</i> or <i>honestly</i>) with you?</p> + +<p>5. The miser died (<i>miserable</i> or <i>miserably</i>).</p> + +<p>6. You came so (<i>sudden</i> or <i>suddenly</i>) that I was taken by surprise.</p> + +<p>7. No wonder you fell, you move too (<i>quick</i> or <i>quickly</i>).</p> + +<p>8. How (<i>stylish</i> or <i>stylishly</i>) she dresses.</p> + +<p>9. I (<i>sure</i> or <i>surely</i>) mailed the letter.</p> + +<p>10. Next time I shall act more (<i>sensible</i> or <i>sensibly</i>).</p> + +<p>11. Money comes (<i>easy</i> or <i>easily</i>) to him, and is soon gone.</p> + +<p>12. I felt so (<i>bad</i> or <i>badly</i>) that I cried.</p> + +<p>13. I was ill yesterday, but I feel pretty (<i>good</i> or <i>well</i>) this morning.</p> + +<p>14. All my rose bushes look (<i>fine</i> or <i>finely</i>).</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXVII">XXVII. REVIEW OF VERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section93"><b>93.</b> A <b>verb</b> is an asserting word.</p> + +<p>A <b>transitive verb</b> is one that asserts action performed upon +some person or thing.</p> + +<p>A transitive verb is completed by a <b>direct object</b>.</p> + +<p>The <b>direct object</b> of a transitive verb is a word or a group of +words that completes the meaning of the verb and names +the receiver of the action.</p> + +<p>The <b>base word</b> of a <b>direct object</b> is usually a noun.</p> + +<p>An <b>intransitive verb</b> is one that asserts, (1) being, or (2) +action not performed upon any person or thing.</p> + +<p>An <b>intransitive verb of action</b> needs no complement.</p> + +<p>An <b>intransitive verb of being</b> is usually completed by a +subjective complement.</p> + +<p>A <b>subjective complement</b> is a word or a group of words that +completes a verb and refers to the same person or thing as +the subject.</p> + +<p>A subjective complement denotes identity with the subject, +or tells the class to which the subject belongs, or some quality +of the subject.</p> + +<p>The <b>base word</b> of a <b>subjective complement</b> may be a noun +or an adjective.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select and classify all the verbs in the following +sentences. Tell the subject of each verb, and tell how +each verb is completed or modified.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. As soon as he saw the cat in the soap barrel, he set the lamp +down on the cellar bottom, and laughed so that he could hardly +move.</p> + +<p>2. When night came, I felt still more lonesome.</p> + +<p>3. Little Toomai shall become a great tracker.</p> + +<p>4. The wind whistled around the low, unplastered chamber, but +the beds were soft and warm, and the guests were ready for sleep.</p> + +<p>5. The youngest daughter was the gentlest and most beautiful +creature ever seen, and the pride of all the people in the land.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p> + +<p>6. I am too stiff and sore from a terrible fall I have had, to +write more than one line.</p> + +<p>7. Next month, when the city had returned to its sunbaked +quiet, the Hindu did a thing that no Englishman would have +dreamed of doing; for, so far as the world’s affairs went, +he died.</p> + +<p>8. The knoll in the tamarack swamp was a haven of peace amid +the fierce but furtive warfare of the wilderness.</p> + +<p>9. Beauty rose by four o’clock every morning, lighted the fires, +cleaned the house, and prepared the breakfast for the whole family.</p> + +<p>10. More years sped swiftly and tranquilly away.</p> + +<p>11. What a place the old market must have been in the days of +Herod the Builder!</p> + +<p>12. The lizard belonging to my mistress was a very beautiful +creature.</p> + +<p>13. The rocky walls are red with the scarlet of the geranium, +aglow with the orange of the lantana, or they are hidden by the +purple veil of the wild convolvulus. The dainty sweet alyssum +clings to the rock in great patches, and the little rice plant lays its +pink cheek against it lovingly.</p> + +<p>14. The spring had been a trying season for the lank she-bear.</p> + +<p>15. Right proud the baron was of his gallant steed.</p> + +<p>16. There is the house with the gate red-barred.</p> + +<p>17. The big male cuffed the cubs aside without ceremony, mounted +the carcass with an air of lordship, glared about him, and suddenly +with a snarl of wrath, fixed his eyes upon the green branches wherein +the boy was concealed.</p> + +<p>18. Rip Van Winkle was a kind neighbor and an obedient, hen-pecked +husband.</p> + +<p>19. The great error in Rip’s composition was an insuperable +aversion to all kinds of profitable labor.</p> + +<p>20. The same sweet clover smell is in the breeze.</p> + +<p>21. David stooped down and piled the fagots in the hollow of +his arm.</p> + +<p>22. Gentle are the days when the year is young.</p> + +<p>23. The winter sunshine on the fields seems full of rest.</p> + +<p>24. I feel out of place under this roof.</p> + +<p>25. Strips of snow still whitened the fields, but on the stumps +were bluebirds, and they warbled of spring.</p> + +<p>26. The great limb of the cedar snapped off, rolled over in the +air, and lay on the ground like a huge animal.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXVIII">XXVIII. NOUNS: NUMBER</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section94"><b>94.</b> When we wish a noun to denote more than one object, +we often change its form slightly. <i>Man</i> becomes <i>men</i>, <i>child</i> +becomes <i>children</i>, <i>river</i> becomes <i>rivers</i>.</p> + +<p>This change in the form of a noun by which it denotes one +object or more than one is called <b>number</b>.</p> + +<p>Number is said to be one of the <b>properties</b> of a noun.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section95"><b>95.</b> When a noun denotes one object, it is said to be in the +singular number; as, <i>lion</i>, <i>mouse</i>, <i>knife</i>.</p> + +<p>When a noun denotes more than one object, it is said to +be in the <b>plural</b> number; as, <i>lions</i>, <i>mice</i>, <i>knives</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section96"><b>96.</b> Most nouns form their plural by adding <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to the +singular; as, <i>key</i>, <i>keys</i>; <i>hand</i>, <i>hands</i>; <i>rope</i>, <i>ropes</i>; <i>mass</i>, +<i>masses</i>; <i>fox</i>, <i>foxes</i>; <i>church</i>, <i>churches</i>; <i>bush</i>, <i>bushes</i>.</p> + +<p>This is said to be the <b>regular</b> way of forming the plural. +Why is it that some words add <i>es</i> instead of <i>s?</i></p> + +<p class="section" id="section97"><b>97.</b> Nouns ending in <i>o</i> preceded by a vowel form their +plural by adding <i>s</i>; as, <i>folio</i>, <i>folios</i>; <i>cameo</i>, <i>cameos</i>.</p> + +<p>Some nouns ending in <i>o</i> preceded by a consonant add <i>es</i>, +and others <i>s</i>; as, <i>potato</i>, <i>potatoes</i>; <i>mosquito</i>, <i>mosquitoes</i>; <i>solo</i>, +<i>solos</i>; <i>piano</i>, <i>pianos</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section98"><b>98.</b> Some nouns form their plural <b>irregularly</b>.</p> + +<p>(1) A few nouns change the vowel; as, <i>man</i>, <i>men</i>; <i>goose</i>, +<i>geese</i>; <i>mouse</i>, <i>mice</i>; <i>foot</i>, <i>feet</i>; <i>tooth</i>, <i>teeth</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) A few nouns add <i>en</i>; as, <i>ox, oxen</i>; <i>child, children</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) Nouns ending in <i>y</i>, preceded by a consonant sound, +change <i>y</i> to <i>i</i> and add <i>es</i>; as, <i>fly, flies</i>; <i>fairy, fairies</i>.</p> + +<p>(4) Some nouns ending in <i>f</i> or <i>fe</i> change <i>f</i> or <i>fe</i> to <i>v</i> and +add <i>es</i>; as, <i>wolf</i>, <i>wolves</i>; <i>knife</i>, <i>knives</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section99"><b>99.</b> Some nouns have the same form in both the singular +and the plural; as, <i>deer</i>, <i>grouse</i>, <i>salmon</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section100"><b>100.</b> Some nouns ending in <i>s</i> look like plural nouns, but +are regarded as singular; as, <i>news</i>, <i>athletics</i>, <i>gymnastics</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section101"><b>101.</b> Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, <i>scissors</i>, +<i>pincers</i>, <i>thanks</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section102"><b>102.</b> Compound nouns form their plural in three different +ways:—</p> + +<p>(1) By adding <i>s</i> to the last word; as, <i>forget-me-not</i>, <i>forget-me-nots</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) By adding <i>s</i> to the principal word; as, <i>son-in-law</i>, +<i>sons-in-law</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) By pluralizing both words; as, <i>manservant</i>, <i>menservants</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section103"><b>103.</b> When a title is used with one name, we may pluralize +either the name or the title. We may say the <i>Misses Gray</i> +or the <i>Miss Grays</i>, the <i>Messrs. Greenwood</i> or the <i>Mr. Greenwoods</i>.</p> + +<p>When a title is used with more than one name, we pluralize +the title. We say the <i>Misses Morgan and Adams</i>. The title +<i>Mrs.</i> has no plural, so we must say <i>Mrs. Morgan and Mrs. +Adams</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section104"><b>104.</b> Letters, signs, or figures form their plurals by adding +an apostrophe and <i>s</i>; as, 6’s, i’s, <i>t</i>’s.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section105"><b>105.</b> A few foreign nouns have kept their foreign plurals. +Some of these in common use are <i>stratum</i>, <i>strata</i>; <i>alumnus</i>, +<i>alumni</i>; <i>axis</i>, <i>axes</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section106"><b>106.</b> Some nouns have two plurals used with slightly +different meanings; as, <i>penny</i> has <i>pennies</i> and <i>pence</i>; <i>brother</i> +has <i>brothers</i> and <i>brethren</i>; <i>die</i> has <i>dies</i> and <i>dice</i>. Find out +from the dictionary the meanings of these plurals.</p> + +<p>The correct plural of a noun cannot always be reasoned +out. It should never be guessed. It can always be learned +from a dictionary.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Number</b> is that property of a noun by which +it denotes one object or more than one.</p> + +<p>A <b>singular</b> noun denotes one object.</p> + +<p>A <b>plural</b> noun denotes more than one object.</p> + +<p>Nouns form their plural <b>regularly</b> by adding <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to the +singular.</p> + +<p>Many nouns form their plural <b>irregularly</b>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Tell the plural of each of the following nouns. +Tell how it is formed. Consult the dictionary when you are +in doubt.</p> + +<ul> + <li>alto</li> + <li>apostrophe</li> + <li>box</li> + <li>brush</li> + <li>calf</li> + <li>chromo</li> + <li>crisis</li> + <li>cupful</li> + <li>deer</li> + <li>Dutchman</li> + <li>elf</li> + <li>enemy</li> + <li>fez</li> + <li>fife</li> + <li>foot</li> + <li>German</li> + <li>half</li> + <li>hero</li> + <li>hoof</li> + <li>lasso</li> + <li>lioness</li> + <li>loaf</li> + <li>monkey</li> + <li>motto</li> + <li>mouse</li> + <li>negro</li> + <li>noose</li> + <li>Norman</li> + <li>oasis</li> + <li>piano</li> + <li>pony</li> + <li>sheaf</li> + <li>size</li> + <li>soprano</li> + <li>tableau</li> + <li>tooth</li> + <li>vertebra</li> + <li>volcano</li> + <li>wharf</li> + <li>court-martial</li> + <li>Dr. Wright</li> + <li>eyelash</li> + <li>flagstaff</li> + <li>General Allen</li> + <li>hanger-on</li> + <li>jack-in-the-pulpit</li> + <li>Miss Davis</li> + <li>passer-by</li> + <li>postmaster general</li> + <li>will-o’-the-wisp</li> +</ul> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, +and tell whether they are singular or plural. Give +the singular of each plural word, and the plural of each singular +word.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Listen! In yonder pine woods what a cawing of crows!</p> + +<p>2. A washstand in the corner, a chest of carved mahogany +drawers, a looking-glass in a filigree frame, and a high-backed chair +studded with brass nails like a coffin constituted the furniture.</p> + +<p>3. There have always been medicine men, rain makers, wizards, +conjurers, sorcerers, astrologers, and fortune tellers, ready to trade +on the fears of the weak, the ignorant, and the superstitious.</p> + +<p>4. April brought the blue scylla and the sweet violet; May +brought the much-loved narcissus and lily of the valley.</p> + +<p>5. In came the three Miss Fezziwigs, beaming and lovable.</p> + +<p>6. People hardly ever do know where to be born until it is too +late.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p> + +<p>7. The bell in the church tower was striking six, but I undressed +for the night and buried myself under the bedclothes.</p> + +<p>8. As it fell out, the three princesses were talking one night of +whom they would marry.</p> + +<p>9. Poor Mrs. Wise! I’m sure she’s to be pitied, living here +with all these grandchildren.</p> + +<p>10. As soon as Pussy heard me shut the gate in the yard at +noon, when school was done, she would run up the stairs as hard +as she could go.</p> + +<p>11. The puppy’s nightly couch was outside the stable, even +during the coldest weather.</p> + +<p>12. The fish, strange creatures called groupers, with great sluggish +bodies and horribly human faces, come crowding up to be fed.</p> + +<p>13. What a hardy set of men they were, those Northmen of old!</p> + +<p>14. The streams that have entered into our American life come +from springs very wide apart,—from the Puritan whom James I +was persecuting, and from the courtiers whom he was patronizing; +from the Dutchmen whom Charles II was fighting, and from the +Covenanters whom he was trying to convert at the pistol’s point; +from the Scotchmen who had captured the north of Ireland, and +from the Huguenots who had been driven out of the south of France.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>What is the use of <i>listen</i>, sentence 1, <i>furniture</i>, 2, <i>horribly</i>, +12?</p> + +<p>How are the adjectives <i>weak</i>, <i>ignorant</i>, and <i>superstitious</i> +used in sentence 3?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXIX">XXIX. NOUNS: GENDER</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section107"><b>107.</b> One of the characteristics of living things is sex; that +is, all living things are male or female. Many nouns that are +names of living things indicate sex. The noun <i>king</i> indicates +the male sex. The noun <i>queen</i> indicates the female sex. The +property of a noun by which it indicates the sex of the object +named is called <b>gender</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section108"><b>108.</b> Since there are two sexes, there must be at least two +genders. Nouns that indicate the male sex are said to be +of the <b>masculine</b> gender; as, <i>hero</i>, <i>grandfather</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span></p> + +<p>Nouns that indicate the female sex are said to be of the +<b>feminine</b> gender; as, <i>hen</i>, <i>tigress</i>, <i>sister</i>.</p> + +<p>Note that sex, male or female, refers to a distinction, or +difference, in the living creatures themselves, while gender +is merely a property of their names that shows this distinction. +It is absurd, therefore, to speak of a person of the masculine +gender, but it is allowable to speak of masculine qualities, +masculine attire, a masculine voice, etc.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section109"><b>109.</b> Since things without life have no sex, the nouns that +name such things have no gender; as, <i>sky</i>, <i>tent</i>, <i>pie</i>. Such +words are said to be of the <b>neuter</b> gender. <i>Neuter</i> means +<i>neither</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section110"><b>110.</b> Some nouns that may be applied to persons of either +male or female sex are said to be of <b>common</b> gender; as, <i>child</i>, +<i>cousin</i>, <i>parent</i>, <i>clerk</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section111"><b>111.</b> Gender is denoted in three ways:—</p> + +<p>(1) By a pair of words; as, <i>man</i>, <i>woman</i>; <i>bull</i>, <i>cow</i>; <i>lad</i>, +<i>lass</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) By inflection, that is, by adding a syllable to the masculine +noun to form the feminine; as, <i>hero</i>, <i>heroine</i>; <i>lion</i>, <i>lioness</i>; +<i>host</i>, <i>hostess</i>.</p> + +<p>What can you say of the words <i>widow</i> and <i>widower</i>?</p> + +<p>(3) By prefixing a word whose gender is well known; as, +<i>bull moose</i>, <i>maidservant</i>, <i>she bear</i>.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span> —Some feminine nouns are going out of use. We no +longer use the words <i>poetess</i> or <i>authoress</i>. If a woman preaches, +she is a minister; if she practices medicine, she is a doctor, not a +“lady doctor.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Gender</b> is that property of a noun which indicates +the sex or non-sex of the object named.</p> + +<p>There are four genders:—</p> + +<p>A noun of the <b>masculine gender</b> indicates the male sex.</p> + +<p>A noun of the <b>feminine gender</b> indicates the female sex.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span></p> + +<p>A noun of the <b>neuter gender</b> indicates the absence of sex.</p> + +<p>A noun of <b>common gender</b> may indicate either the male +or the female sex.</p> + +<p>Gender is denoted (1) by different words, (2) by inflection, +(3) by prefixing some gender word.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell the gender of each noun in the following +sentences. Tell how its gender is denoted. If you are in +doubt about any word, consult the dictionary.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The she wolf lay agonizing in the darkest corner of the cave, +licking in grim silence the raw stump of her right foreleg.</p> + +<p>2. The wild goose winging at the head of the V knew of good +feeding grounds near by, which he was ready to revisit.</p> + +<p>3. Not vague was the fear of the brooding grouse in the far-off +thicket, though the sound came to her but dimly.</p> + +<p>4. At the captain’s signal the <i>Seabird</i> came alongside, and Mr. +Wintermute left Mrs. Howe and her little family to go on their +journey alone.</p> + +<p>5. Having sniffed the air for several minutes, without discerning +anything to interest him, the great bull moose bethought him +of his evening meal.</p> + +<p>6. Here on the ridge a buck, with his herd of does and fawns, +has established his winter “yard.”</p> + +<p>7. Without a second’s hesitation the cow flung up her tail, +gave a short bellow, and charged the bear.</p> + +<p>8. Another thing that attracts attention is the animals tethered +here, there, and everywhere. You see donkeys, goats, cows, even +cats, hens, and turkeys, confined by the inevitable tether.</p> + +<p>9. Never before since the nestlings broke the shell had her mate +been so long away.</p> + +<p>10. The pupils never entered the study except upon the most +formal occasions.</p> + +<p>11. A fine cock grouse alighted on a log some forty paces distant, +stretched himself, strutted, spread his ruff and wings and tail, and +was about to begin drumming.</p> + +<p>12. Pedestrians walk where they will, here, there, or yonder.</p> + +<p>13. Several men-of-war, with a multitude of smaller craft, are +at anchor in Grassy Bay, and the admiral’s ship is lying on the +great floating dock for repairs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span></p> + +<p>14. Some civilians are buried here, and many little children; +and I came upon a pathetic memorial to a fair young English wife, +who followed her soldier husband hither with her little child, only +to die on these far-off shores.</p> + +<p>15. Any animal that had died from natural causes the wolves +would not touch, and they even rejected anything that had been +killed by the stockmen. Their choice and daily food was the +tenderer part of a freshly killed yearling heifer. An old bull or cow +they disdained, and though they occasionally took a young calf or +colt, it was quite clear that veal or horseflesh was not their favorite +diet. It was also known that they were not fond of mutton, although +they often amused themselves by killing sheep.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXX">XXX. POSSESSIVE NOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section112"><b>112.</b> Instead of saying, “I borrowed the knife belonging +to Will,” we are likely to say, “I borrowed Will’s knife.” +Here we have a new form of the noun <i>Will</i>. It is used with +the noun <i>knife</i> to denote ownership of the knife, and is called +a <b>possessive</b> noun.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section113"><b>113.</b> Since a possessive noun denotes ownership, it must +be used with another noun, the name of the thing owned. +The possessive noun is said to modify this other noun. In +the expression <i>doctor’s car</i>, the possessive noun <i>doctor’s</i> modifies +the noun <i>car</i>.</p> + +<p>When the name of the thing owned is well known, it is +often omitted. We say, “I bought these skates at Percy’s,” +and omit the word <i>store</i>. A word omitted in this way is said +to be “understood.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section114"><b>114.</b> Possessive nouns have a certain form of their own. +The possessive singular of a noun is formed by adding to it +the apostrophe and <i>s</i>; as, <i>girl’s</i> desk; <i>friend’s</i> home; <i>George’s</i> +boat.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In a few common expressions, like <i>for Jesus’ sake</i>, <i>for conscience’ sake</i>, +the possessive is formed, for the sake of euphony, by +adding merely the apostrophe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span></p> + +<p>When the plural of a noun ends in <i>s</i>, the possessive plural +is formed by adding an apostrophe; as, <i>girls’</i> league; <i>ladies’</i> +bonnets.</p> + +<p>When the plural of a noun does not end in <i>s</i>, the possessive +plural is formed by adding the apostrophe and <i>s</i>; as, <i>women’s</i> +shoes; <i>oxen’s</i> yokes.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section115"><b>115.</b> When two persons are joint owners of one thing, we +give the possessive form to the name of the second person +only; as, <i>Lewis and Fred’s</i> boat.</p> + +<p>When two persons own separate things, the name of each +person must have the possessive form; as, I went to <i>Mandel’s</i> +and <i>Field’s</i>, meaning two different stores.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section116"><b>116.</b> Compound nouns form the possessive by adding the +sign of possession to the last word; as, singular, <i>son-in-law’s</i>; +plural, <i>sons-in-law’s</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section117"><b>117.</b> The possessive noun does not always express actual +ownership. Thus, “an <i>hour’s</i> walk” means a walk lasting +an hour, “<i>Lowell’s</i> poems,” means the poems written by +Lowell, “a <i>child’s</i> grief” means the grief felt by a child. +What is the meaning of <i>the day’s work</i>? <i>a good night’s rest</i>? +<i>a year’s vacation</i>? <i>the king’s death</i>?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section118"><b>118.</b> Possession may be denoted by a phrase beginning with +the preposition <i>of</i>. This phrase is much used. We say <i>the +back of the chair</i>, not <i>the chair’s back</i>; <i>the roots of the elm</i>, not +<i>the elm’s roots</i>. This phrase enables us to avoid some awkward +possessives. What may we say instead of <i>my cousin’s +wife’s sister</i>? <i>the king of Greece’s court</i>?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section119"><b>119.</b> In the expression “this book of John’s,” we have what +is called a <b>double possessive</b>, for we have the possessive noun +<i>John’s</i>, and the phrase introduced by <i>of</i>. We use the double +possessive when the noun denoting the thing owned is first +modified by some adjective, as <i>a</i>, <i>the</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>every</i>, <i>both</i>, <i>no</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>possessive noun</b> denotes ownership.</p> + +<p>A possessive noun modifies another noun, expressed or +understood.</p> + +<p>The possessive singular is formed by adding the apostrophe +and <i>s</i>.</p> + +<p>The possessive plural is formed by adding the apostrophe +and <i>s</i> if the noun does not end in <i>s</i>, and the apostrophe alone +if the noun does end in <i>s</i>.</p> + +<p>A <b>double possessive</b> is a phrase consisting of the preposition +<i>of</i> followed by some possessive word.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Write the possessive of each of these nouns. +Tell whether it is singular or plural.</p> + +<ul> + <li>attorney-general</li> + <li>chairman</li> + <li>city</li> + <li>colonies</li> + <li>Colonel Cleveland</li> + <li>commander in chief</li> + <li>Charles Dickens</li> + <li>daughters-in-law</li> + <li>dwarfs</li> + <li>foxes</li> + <li>geese</li> + <li>goddess</li> + <li>groomsman</li> + <li>Frenchman</li> + <li>John Keats</li> + <li>ladies</li> + <li>major generals</li> + <li>Miss James</li> + <li>mulatto</li> + <li>sailor boy</li> + <li>thief</li> + <li>witches</li> + <li>woodpecker</li> + <li>yeoman</li> +</ul> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select all the possessive nouns in the following +sentences. Tell what nouns they modify, and whether they +are singular or plural. Tell also the gender of each possessive.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The lady’s fondness and the gentleman’s blindness were +topics ably handled at every sewing circle in the town.</p> + +<p>2. St. Paul’s is the largest Protestant church in the world.</p> + +<p>3. Last year’s nuts are this year’s black earth.</p> + +<p>4. On the way home we stopped at the baker’s to get some +cream puffs.</p> + +<p>5. Every debt of my partner’s has been paid.</p> + +<p>6. The woodsman’s aim was true.</p> + +<p>7. The singers’ seats, where the pretty girls sat, were the most +conspicuous of all.</p> + +<p>8. A half hour’s tramp through difficult woods brought him to +the nearest of the waters.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p> + +<p>9. In August we had two weeks’ vacation.</p> + +<p>10. This editorial of Roosevelt’s is attracting much attention.</p> + +<p>11. Sulphur they could buy at the apothecary’s.</p> + +<p>12. The horse is coal-black, which is the regulation color of the +Horse-Guards’ horses.</p> + +<p>13. My clothes and my father’s were packed in a little leather valise.</p> + +<p>14. The backwoodsman cast a tender look on the sleepers’ faces, +and slipped out of the cabin door as silently as a shadow.</p> + +<p>15. Just where we leave the highway to go to Gibbs’s Hill we +pass a ruined house.</p> + +<p>16. He had melted up his wife’s gold thimble and his great-grandfather’s +gold-bowed spectacles.</p> + +<p>17. I called on Nancy because she was a friend of Miss Davis’s.</p> + +<p>18. Can you give a traveler a night’s lodging?</p> + +<p>19.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">When beechen buds begin to swell,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">And woods the bluebird’s warble know,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The yellow violet’s modest bell</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Peeps from the last year’s leaves below.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 16.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXI">XXXI. NOUNS: CASE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section120"><b>120.</b> We have seen that a noun may be used in different +relations to other words in the sentence. It may be related +to a verb, for instance, as subject, as object, and as subjective +complement. That property of a noun which shows +its relation to some other word in the sentence is called <b>case</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section121"><b>121.</b> The three most important and striking relations that +a noun may bear are these: subject of a verb, object of a +verb, and possessive modifier. Hence there are three cases.</p> + +<p>When a noun is the subject of a verb, we say that it is in +the <b>nominative</b> case.</p> + +<p>When it is the object of a verb, we say that it is in the +<b>objective</b> case.</p> + +<p>When it is a possessive modifier, we say that it is in the +<b>possessive</b> case.</p> + +<p>The pronoun has the same three cases as a noun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section122"><b>122.</b> A noun is said to be <b>declined</b> when we give its three +case forms in both the singular and the plural number.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Declension of</span> <i>child</i></p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Nom.</i></td> + <td>child</td> + <td>children</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Poss.</i></td> + <td>child’s</td> + <td>children’s</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Obj.</i></td> + <td>child</td> + <td>children</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section123"><b>123.</b> The noun in the nominative case is used in other relations +besides that of subject of a verb. The subjective +complement is in the nominative case, as well as the noun +used independently.</p> + +<p>When a noun is object of a preposition, it is in the objective +case.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Case</b> is that property of a noun or a pronoun +which shows its relation to some other word in the sentence.</p> + +<p>There are three cases.</p> + +<p>A noun used as subject of a verb, as subjective complement, +as an exclamatory noun, or as a term of address is in the +<b>nominative case</b>.</p> + +<p>A noun used as object of a verb or of a preposition is in the +<b>objective case</b>.</p> + +<p>A noun used as a possessive modifier is in the <b>possessive +case</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Declension</b> is the arrangement of the three case forms of a +noun in the two numbers.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell the use, the case, the number, and the +gender of every noun in these sentences.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The chill glitter of the northern summer sunrise was washing +down over the rounded top of old Sugar Loaf.</p> + +<p>2. Thank him according to our customs, Mowgli.</p> + +<p>3. What a good draught the nag takes!</p> + +<p>4. Alas! Kitty Clover, they say it is wicked; that I must not +catch grasshoppers for a pussy cat on Sunday.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p> + +<p>5. Why doesn’t your mother make a fresh cup of coffee?</p> + +<p>6. We might shovel off the snow, and dig down to some of last +year’s onions.</p> + +<p>7. Pilgrim fathers! why should we not glorify the pilgrim +mothers?</p> + +<p>8. What did Peterson Sahib mean by the elephant dance?</p> + +<p>9. The boy is the shoemaker’s friend.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Mistress Mary, quite contrary,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">How does your garden grow?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. I didn’t ask the captain’s leave when I attended this ceremony, +for I had a general idea that he wouldn’t give it.</p> + +<p>12. Cæsar is certainly the handsomest and most gentlemanly cat +I ever saw.</p> + +<p>13. How was the Princess’s nose ring the cause of your misfortune?</p> + +<p>14.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When the loosed storm breaks furiously?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>15. Indeed all the really pretty girls that you see are Americans.</p> + +<p>16. When I opened the goldfinch’s door on the morning of the +blackbird’s arrival, he paid no attention to his beloved bath, but +instantly flew over and alighted on the cage of the newcomer.</p> + +<p>17. These ten cows knew their names after a while, and would +take their places as I called them.</p> + +<p>18. Oh! but he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone, was +Scrooge.</p> + +<p>19.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">O time and change! how strange it seems</div> + <div class="verse indent0">With so much gone to still live on!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXII">XXXII. NOUNS: THE APPOSITIVE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section124"><b>124.</b> It is frequently necessary to explain some term we +use, and there is a convenient way for doing this without +making a new sentence. For instance, an author writes, +“One of these buildings belongs to the Horse Guards.” Then, +for fear we may not know who the Horse Guards are, he adds +these explanatory words, “a very fine body of English cavalry.”</p> + +<p>This group of words consists of the noun <i>body</i> used as a base +word, modified by the prepositional phrase <i>of English cavalry</i>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>the adjective element <i>very fine</i>, and the article <i>a</i>. The whole +group is placed beside the term it explains, and is separated +from it by a comma. Such a group of words is called an <b>appositive</b>, +and the base word <i>body</i> is called <b>a noun in apposition</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section125"><b>125.</b> Sometimes we explain who a person is by using his +name; as, “I heard your friend, <i>John Richards</i>, say that +he was going to write to you.”</p> + +<p>Sometimes the name of a person or animal or place is used +first, and then explained by a group of words; as, “Akela, +<i>the great gray Lone Wolf</i>, lay out at full length on his rock.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section126"><b>126.</b> The appositive and the term it explains are in reality +two names for the same person or thing. You might think +that either one could be called the appositive, but this is +not so. It is the explanatory term that is the appositive, and +this is the second of the two terms.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section127"><b>127.</b> Sometimes, when there is no danger of any misunderstanding, +the appositive comes at a little distance from the +word it modifies; as, “Splendid buildings meet our eyes at +every turn,—churches, private residences, places of business, +and public edifices.” Can you account for this arrangement?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section128"><b>128.</b> Sometimes an appositive has been used so long with +the word it modifies that the two have become united into +one name; as, Peter the Hermit, Peter the Great, William +the Conqueror. Such an appositive is not set off by a comma.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In the term Peter the Great, the adjective <i>great</i> has +become a noun, and is modified by the adjective <i>the</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section129"><b>129.</b> When ownership is to be denoted, the sign of possession +is added to the appositive instead of to the term that it explains; +as, “The poet Milton’s daughter,” “Mr. Taft, the +president’s, cow,” “My friend Julia’s husband.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>appositive</b> is a word or a group of words +placed after a term to explain it.</p> + +<p>When the base word of an appositive is a noun, it is called +a <b>noun in apposition</b>.</p> + +<p>The case of a noun in apposition is the same as that of the +noun it explains.</p> + +<p>An appositive is a modifier of a noun or a pronoun.</p> + +<p>An appositive is set off from the rest of the sentence by +commas unless it makes one term with the word it modifies.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the appositives in the following sentences, +and tell what they modify. Find the nouns in apposition. +Tell the case of each, giving the reason in each instance. +Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Alfred the Great loved books and strangers and travelers.</p> + +<p>2. In the neatest, sandiest hole of all lived Benjamin’s aunt and +his cousins,—Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail, and Peter.</p> + +<p>3. The conversation turned to rheumatism, a subject of very +remote interest to Polly.</p> + +<p>4. My son William became a telegraph operator before he was +seventeen.</p> + +<p>5. James II, the bigoted successor of Charles I, had annulled +the charters of all the colonies.</p> + +<p>6. The geography lesson that day was the rivers of Asia,—the +Obi, Yenisei, Lena, Amoor, Hoang Ho, and Yang-tse-kiang.</p> + +<p>7. Some writers tell us that Edward the Confessor had made a +will appointing Duke William his successor.</p> + +<p>8. Foremost among the envious ones was the Princess Panka, +the daughter of a neighboring king.</p> + +<p>9. Close to Charing Cross is Trafalgar Square, a fine open space +with a fountain, and a column to Lord Nelson.</p> + +<p>10. The body of Warwick the kingmaker was exposed for three +days on the pavement of St. Paul’s, and then deposited among the +ashes of his fathers in the abbey of Bilsam.</p> + +<p>11. The pass was crowned with dense, dark forest,—deodar, +walnut, wild cherry, wild olive, and wild pear.</p> + +<p>12. Kaa, the big Rock Python, had changed his skin for perhaps +the two hundredth time since his birth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span></p> + +<p>13. Eric the Red, a wandering Norseman who was dwelling in +Iceland, went to sea and discovered Greenland.</p> + +<p>14. There are so many things to distract a boy’s attention,—a +chipmunk in the fence, a bird on a near tree, and a henhawk circling +high in the air over the barnyard.</p> + +<p>15. Very soundly it slept, that doomed hare crouching under the +fir bush!</p> + +<p>16. They had never been accounted for, Rebecca’s eyes.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXIII">XXXIII. APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section130"><b>130.</b> Adjectives are not always placed before the noun they +modify. When they are used as subjective complements, they +follow the verb, although they modify the subject; as, “Life +is <i>real</i>,” “The air seems <i>moist</i>.” We also find many sentences +like the following, “The camel, restless and weary, +groans and occasionally shows his teeth.”</p> + +<p>Here it is evident that the adjectives <i>restless</i> and <i>weary</i> are +in the sentence to describe the camel; hence they modify the +noun <i>camel</i>; but instead of preceding this noun, they follow it. +Because of their position such adjectives are called <b>appositive +adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section131"><b>131.</b> An appositive adjective is usually set off by a comma +or commas. It is frequently modified by a phrase, as in the +expressions, “restless under his heavy load,” “weary with +the long journey.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An adjective with or without modifiers may +be used as an appositive.</p> + +<p>An appositive adjective is usually set off from the rest of +the sentence by a comma.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the appositive adjectives in these +sentences, and tell what they modify. Give the modifiers +of each adjective. Account for the punctuation. Analyze +sentences 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. His tunic, scarlet in color, is of the softest woolen fabric.</p> + +<p>2. The skirt drops to the knee in folds heavy with embroidery.</p> + +<p>3. Grandfather Nutter was a hale, cheery old gentleman, as +straight and as bald as an arrow.</p> + +<p>4. The pink rose, dear for its old associations, was transplanted +to a sunny place close by the south door.</p> + +<p>5. Presently the Colonel came in, bluff, warm, and hearty.</p> + +<p>6. From the other window one saw the distant forest, so deep, +black, and mysterious.</p> + +<p>7. The April night, softly chill and full of the sense of thaw, +was closing down over the wide salt marshes!</p> + +<p>8. Presently, from far along the dark heights of the sky, came +voices, hollow, musical, confused.</p> + +<p>9. Here is a foot passenger, dusty and tired, who comes with +lagging steps.</p> + +<p>10. There is no nation known to history in which all citizens, +male and female, old and young, native and foreign born, have had +the suffrage.</p> + +<p>11. Ginger hurried off into the darkness, wild with excitement.</p> + +<p>12. The chief engineer entered the smoking room for a moment, +red, smiling, and wet.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXIV">XXXIV. INDIRECT OBJECT</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section132"><b>132.</b> We have seen that the direct object names the receiver +of the action asserted by the verb. In the sentence, +“Kotuko made his dog a tiny harness,” the direct object of the +verb <i>made</i> is a <i>tiny harness</i>, for this group of words tells what +received the making, and answers the question <i>made what?</i></p> + +<p>If we go further and ask the question, <i>made a harness for +what?</i> the answer is, <i>his dog</i>. This group of words is called +the indirect object. It names the receiver of the direct object; +that is, the dog received the harness.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section133"><b>133.</b> An indirect object is always in the objective case, but +it is not a complement of the verb, because it is not a necessary +element of a sentence. We call it a modifier of the verb. The +sentence, “In the morning the old wife gave the princess +three nuts,” would be complete if we left out the indirect +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>object <i>the princess</i>, and merely told what the old wife gave, +namely, three nuts.</p> + +<p>Notice that the indirect object comes between the verb +and the direct object. If we place it after the direct object, +we must supply the preposition <i>to</i> or <i>for</i>, and then instead of +an indirect object we shall have a prepositional phrase.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>indirect object</b> is a word or a group of +words that tells to whom or for whom, to what or for what, +something is done.</p> + +<p>An indirect object names the receiver of the direct object.</p> + +<p>An indirect object precedes the direct object.</p> + +<p>An indirect object is a modifier of a verb.</p> + +<p>An indirect object is in the objective case.</p> + +<p>Only a few transitive verbs take both direct and indirect +objects. Some of them are <i>bring</i>, <i>buy</i>, <i>do</i>, <i>get</i>, <i>give</i>, <i>lend</i>, <i>make</i> +<i>pass</i>, <i>pay</i>, <i>promise</i>, <i>sell</i>, <i>send</i>, <i>show</i>, <i>take</i>, <i>tell</i>, <i>write</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Write sentences containing both direct and +indirect objects, using verbs in the list above.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select both the direct and the indirect objects +in the following sentences, giving reasons:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Carry your grandmamma a custard and a little pot of butter.</p> + +<p>2. Aladdin made his mother very little reply.</p> + +<p>3. I showed my comrades a large heap of stones.</p> + +<p>4. Mrs. Howe had promised the children presents, so she bought +George a gun, Mollie two gold rings, and Paul a checkerboard.</p> + +<p>5. I wish the Lord would give horses voices for just one week.</p> + +<p>6. Bring my mother six women slaves to attend her.</p> + +<p>7. If you offer Dash a bit of sheep’s wool now, he tucks his tail +between his legs, and runs for home.</p> + +<p>8. I never told my schoolmates that I was a Yankee.</p> + +<p>9. I paid Gypsy a visit every half hour during the first day of +my arrival.</p> + +<p>10. Then the magician gave Aladdin a handful of small money.</p> + +<p>11. Father Andrew also taught Tom a little Latin.</p> + +<p>12. The sultan granted Aladdin his request and again embraced +him.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXV">XXXV. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section134"><b>134.</b> We have learned that a frequent modifier of a verb +is a prepositional phrase telling the place or time of an action; +as, “So off we go in the cool, clear morning.”</p> + +<p>Sometimes a noun, or a group of words of which a noun is +the base word, takes the place of this prepositional phrase; +as, “<i>Last summer</i> the apple trees bore no fruit.”</p> + +<p>The words <i>last summer</i> tell time, and modify the predicate +<i>bore no fruit</i>, but there is no preposition in this group of words. +<i>Summer</i> is a noun modified by the adjective <i>last</i>. Such a +group of words we call an <b>adverbial noun phrase</b>. The noun +used as base word we call an <b>adverbial noun</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section135"><b>135.</b> An adverbial noun phrase tells not only time and +place, but it often answers such questions as <i>how far?</i> <i>how +long?</i> <i>how much?</i> as, “We walked <i>the whole distance</i> before +sunset.” “She stayed in London <i>ten days</i>.” “One orange +weighed <i>twelve ounces</i>.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>adverbial noun phrase</b> is a group of words +of which a noun is the base word, that tells the time or place +of an action, or how long, how far, or how much.</p> + +<p>An adverbial noun phrase modifies a verb.</p> + +<p>An <b>adverbial noun</b> is always in the objective case.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select the adverbial noun phrases and the +nouns used as base words. Tell what the phrases modify, +and what questions they answer. (Notice that these phrases +often modify more of the predicate than just the verb.) Analyze +sentences 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. He followed her to school one day.</p> + +<p>2. Each boy who failed to report himself was fined one cent.</p> + +<p>3. Elizabeth Eliza went home directly.</p> + +<p>4. Morning, noon, and night, Dame Van Winkle’s tongue was +incessantly going.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span></p> + +<p>5. His keen, sonorous, passionate cry rang strangely on the +night, three times.</p> + +<p>6. The trail was an easy one this time.</p> + +<p>7. There the wild plum each summer fruited abundantly; and +there a sturdy brotherhood of beeches each autumn lavished their +treasure of three-cornered nuts.</p> + +<p>8. I worked a whole week to get the traps properly set out.</p> + +<p>9. The next instant the panther received a smart blow on the +top of his head.</p> + +<p>10. Kala Nag, the elephant, stood ten fair feet at the shoulder.</p> + +<p>11. Ere the cow had gone twenty-five yards, Lobo was upon her.</p> + +<p>12. The next morning Mrs. Peterkin began by taking out the +things that were already in her trunk.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXVI">XXXVI. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section136"><b>136.</b> When we wish to tell how long, or wide, or deep, or +thick a thing is, we frequently make use of such statements +as these:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>The valley is nine miles long.</p> + +<p>The street is sixty feet wide.</p> + +<p>The water is ten fathoms deep.</p> + +<p>The slices were an inch thick.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>It is evident that in the first sentence the question <i>how +long?</i> is answered by the words <i>nine miles</i>. Hence this group +of words modifies the adjective <i>long</i>, having the same use as +the adverb <i>very</i> in, “The valley is very long.” But the base +word of this group is the noun <i>miles</i>, hence the whole group +must be an adverbial noun phrase. We conclude from this +familiar sentence that an adverbial noun phrase may modify +an adjective.</p> + +<p>What adverbial noun phrase modifies <i>wide</i>? <i>deep</i>? <i>thick</i>?</p> + +<p>Make sentences in which an adverbial noun phrase modifies +the adjectives <i>old</i>, <i>tall</i>, <i>high</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section137"><b>137.</b> The adverbial noun phrase may also modify an adverb, +as in the sentence, “She came two hours afterward,” +where <i>two hours</i> answers the question <i>how long afterward?</i> +How do we know that <i>afterward</i> is an adverb?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span></p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—A common illustration of this use is found in the familiar +expression <i>a short time ago</i>, where the adverb <i>ago</i> (which is never used +by itself) is modified by the adverbial noun phrase <i>a short time</i>. +Think of five other noun phrases often used to modify <i>ago</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An adverbial noun phrase may modify an adjective +or an adverb. In such a case it denotes a measure +of some sort.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select the adverbial nouns and the phrases of +which they are the base words. Tell what these phrases +modify, and what questions they answer.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. About an hour later a big red fox came trotting into the +glade.</p> + +<p>2. When the stone was pulled up, there appeared a staircase +about three or four feet deep, leading to a door.</p> + +<p>3. The trail was perhaps an hour old.</p> + +<p>4. After viewing old Fort Snelling, we walked a mile farther to +the parade ground, and watched the soldiers drill.</p> + +<p>5. An ordinary wolf’s forefoot is four and one half inches long.</p> + +<p>6. Lobo stood three feet high at the shoulder, and weighed one +hundred and fifty pounds.</p> + +<p>7. If the crows do not kill the owl, they at least worry him half +to death and drive him twenty miles away.</p> + +<p>8. It is a curious fact about boys that two will be a great deal +slower in doing anything than one.</p> + +<p>9. When the eagle returned an hour later to the point of shoals, +the net looked less strange to him.</p> + +<p>10. Twenty-five years ago the American minister at the court +of Turin was conversing with a young Italian of high rank from the +island of Sardinia.</p> + +<p>11. The largest aboriginal structure of stone within the limits of +the United States has a circuit of 1480 feet, is five stories high, and +once included five hundred separate rooms.</p> + +<p>12. How many years did Jacob serve for Rachel?</p> + +<p>13. The week before the election one of the candidates for mayor +spoke to an audience of laboring men every evening.</p> + +<p>14. That day I left the university, and my trial took place a +little while later.</p> + +<p>15. David reflected a few moments longer.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXVII">XXXVII. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section138"><b>138.</b> In the sentence, “The boys called the turtles Harry +Blake’s sheep,” the verb is followed by two noun elements. +What are they? The second element is not an appositive +of the first, neither have we here a direct and an indirect +object. Prove this.</p> + +<p>If we ask the question, <i>What</i> did the boys call Harry +Blake’s sheep? the answer is, <i>the turtles</i>; hence this must be +the direct object of <i>called</i>. But the sentence is not complete +here. We do not mean that the boys <i>called</i> the turtles, that +is, <i>summoned</i> them. We mean that they <i>named</i> the turtles. +If we ask the question, “What did the boys call the turtles?” +the answer is, “<i>Harry Blake’s sheep</i>.” This group of words +is necessary as a second complement of the verb, and at the +same time it tells what the turtles became as a result of calling, +or naming, them. Such an element is called an <b>objective +complement</b>, because it tells something about the direct object.</p> + +<p>The base word of an objective complement is in the objective +case.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section139"><b>139.</b> Not all transitive verbs take an objective complement; +but only verbs of making or causing, such as <i>make</i>, +<i>call</i>, <i>name</i>, <i>elect</i>, <i>appoint</i>, <i>choose</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section140"><b>140.</b> Sometimes the objective complement has an adjective +for its base word instead of a noun; as, “The great wood-fire +in the tiled chimney place made our sitting room <i>very +cheerful</i> of winter nights.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>objective complement</b> is a word or a +group of words that helps to complete the verb, and tells what +the direct object becomes as a result of the action asserted +by the verb.</p> + +<p>The base word of an objective complement may be either +a noun or an adjective.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Find all the objective complements in the +following sentences and tell about them in this way:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model.</span>—<i>Ben called this room his cabin.</i></p> + +<p><i>His cabin</i> is a noun element used as objective complement +of the verb <i>called</i>, because it tells what the direct object, +<i>this room</i>, becomes as a result of the calling. The base word +of this objective complement is the noun <i>cabin</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. His blue beard made him so ugly and so terrible in appearance +that women and children fled from him.</p> + +<p>2. She kept the cottage always as neat as a new pin.</p> + +<p>3. By much trampling we had made the salt marsh a mere +quagmire.</p> + +<p>4. This mother, proud of her knowledge of French, always +called her little daughter Mademoiselle.</p> + +<p>5. If ever I have a boy to bring up in the way he should go, I +shall make Sunday a cheerful day to him.</p> + +<p>6. To the great amusement of my grandfather, Sailor Ben +painted the cottage a light sky-blue.</p> + +<p>7. Then, inch by inch, the untempered heat crept into the +heart of the Jungle, turning it yellow, brown, and at last black.</p> + +<p>8. The fish had buried themselves deep in the dry mud.</p> + +<p>9. The natives of Bermuda call the tamarisk the “salt-cedar.”</p> + +<p>10. Nature meant him for a frontiersman, but circumstances +made him an innkeeper.</p> + +<p>11. The only way that they could set the king’s head straight was +to remove it.</p> + +<p>12. Columbus rechristened the island San Salvador, but its precise +identity has always been a little doubtful.</p> + +<p>13. A parrot would shriek me wild in a week.</p> + +<p>14. Skin changing always makes a snake moody and depressed +till the new skin begins to shine and look beautiful.</p> + +<p>15. The giver makes the gift precious.</p> + +<p>16. The sound of a bell struck the merrymakers dumb.</p> + +<p>17. Who appointed you judge of your brother?</p> + +<p>18. The dim light of stars rendered large objects near at hand +visible in bulk and outline.</p> + +<p>19. We call domestic animals dependent creatures; but who +made them dependent?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXVIII">XXXVIII. PARSING OF NOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section141"><b>141.</b> When we tell all that is true about a noun from a +grammatical point of view, we are said to <b>parse</b> it.</p> + +<p>In parsing a noun we should tell:—</p> + +<p>(1) Its class,—common or proper.</p> + +<p>(2) Its person,—first, second, or third. (See Note.)</p> + +<p>(3) Its number,—singular or plural.</p> + +<p>(4) Its gender,—masculine, feminine, neuter, or common.</p> + +<p>(5) Its case,—nominative, possessive, or objective.</p> + +<p>(6) Its use in the sentence.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Nouns do not change their <i>form</i> for <b>person</b>. Since they +are almost always the names of persons or things spoken of, they +are usually in the <i>third person</i>. A noun is in the <i>first person</i> when +it is used in apposition with a pronoun of the first person. (See <a href="#Page_98">p. 98</a>.) +A noun is in the <i>second person</i> (1) when it is used in apposition with +a pronoun of the second person; (2) when it is used as a term of +address.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Parse each noun in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. All the great men of the neighborhood were there on horseback,—militia +officers in uniform, the member of Congress, the +sheriff of the county, the editors of newspapers, and many a farmer, +too, had mounted his patient steed or come on foot.</p> + +<p>2. Next day Mowgli himself fell into a very cunning leopard trap.</p> + +<p>3. The Bermudas are, with the exception of Gibraltar, England’s +most strongly fortified hold.</p> + +<p>4. Then Mrs. Howe graciously showed the admiring ladies her +collection of fine lace and embroideries.</p> + +<p>5. The thoughtful, lonely ways of their admiral made Columbus +an object of terror to his ignorant seamen.</p> + +<p>6. I thought that nothing in the world was so beautiful as the +sultan my father’s palace.</p> + +<p>7. Perhaps your fish is eighteen inches long.</p> + +<p>8. Here comes the boat! This is your waterproof, Hetty. +Be careful now, Miss Alice. Mrs. Blank, you will need your sun +umbrella. Hold on a minute, skipper, till I get that basket.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span></p> + +<p>9. At nine o’clock, Williams, a bronze Hercules, low-voiced, +gentle-mannered, a trusty boatman, and an enthusiast in his calling, +met us at the dock.</p> + +<p>10. The savage sticks bright feathers in his hair, carries a tomahawk, +and wears moccasins upon his nimble feet.</p> + +<p>11. Some evenings afterward the same thing happened at another +corner of the pasture.</p> + +<p>12. The innocent savages gave Columbus a new world for Castile +and Leon, and he gave them some glass beads and little red caps.</p> + +<p>13. The sultan received the present from Aladdin’s mother’s hand.</p> + +<p>14. The elephant was thoughtfully chewing the green stem of a +young plantain tree.</p> + +<p>15. In the good old days the boys on the coast ran away and +became sailors.</p> + +<p>16. I was a favorite with the cooks, and so, although they denied +my cousins certain privileges of the kitchen, they freely granted +these to me.</p> + +<p>17. The Norsemen called gold “the serpent’s bed.”</p> + +</blockquote> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of Case Relations</span></h3> + +<p>Nominative.</p> + +<ul> + <li>(1) Subject of a verb.</li> + <li>(2) Term of address.</li> + <li>(3) Exclamatory noun.</li> + <li>(4) Subjective complement of a verb.</li> + <li>(5) Appositive.</li> + <li>(6) Nominative absolute (see <a href="#Page_237">p. 237</a>).</li> +</ul> + +<p>Possessive.</p> + +<ul> + <li>(1) Modifier of a noun.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Objective.</p> + +<ul> + <li>(1) Object of a verb.</li> + <li>(2) Object of a preposition.</li> + <li>(3) Appositive.</li> + <li>(4) Indirect object.</li> + <li>(5) Adverbial noun.</li> + <li>(6) Objective complement.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Make an original sentence to illustrate each of the case relations +of a noun.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXXIX">XXXIX. PERSONAL PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section142"><b>142.</b> Certain pronouns, as <i>I</i>, <i>you</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>it</i>, etc., show by their +form that they refer to the person speaking, the person spoken +to, or the person or thing spoken of.</p> + +<p>The pronoun <i>I</i> denotes the person speaking, and is said to +be a pronoun of the <b>first person</b>.</p> + +<p>The pronoun <i>you</i> denotes the person spoken to, and is said +to be a pronoun of the <b>second person</b>.</p> + +<p>The pronouns <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, and <i>it</i> denote the person or thing +spoken of, and are said to be pronouns of the <b>third person</b>.</p> + +<p>Such pronouns are called <b>personal</b> pronouns.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section143"><b>143.</b> The noun that a pronoun stands for, whether it is +expressed somewhere in the sentence or merely understood, +is called the <b>antecedent</b> of the pronoun.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section144"><b>144.</b> All the personal pronouns have several different forms, +and if we wish to speak our language correctly, we must know +these forms and be careful in their use. The personal pronouns +are declined as follows:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">First Person</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Second Person</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Nom.</i></td> + <td>I</td> + <td>we</td> + <td>you</td> + <td>you</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Poss.</i></td> + <td>my, mine</td> + <td>our, ours</td> + <td>your, yours</td> + <td>your, yours</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Obj.</i></td> + <td>me</td> + <td>us</td> + <td>you</td> + <td>you</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th colspan="4"><span class="smcap">Third Person</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th colspan="3"><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Masculine</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Feminine</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Neuter</span></th> + <th></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Nom.</i></td> + <td>he</td> + <td>she</td> + <td>it</td> + <td>they</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Poss.</i></td> + <td>his</td> + <td>her, hers</td> + <td>its</td> + <td>their, theirs</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Obj.</i></td> + <td>him</td> + <td>her</td> + <td>it</td> + <td>them</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section145"><b>145.</b> There is another personal pronoun of the second person—<i>thou</i>. +It is not used in conversation nowadays, but +is frequently found in the Bible and in poetry. It is declined +as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span></p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Nom.</i></td> + <td>thou</td> + <td>ye</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Poss.</i></td> + <td>thy, thine</td> + <td>your, yours</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Obj.</i></td> + <td>thee</td> + <td>you</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>personal pronoun</b> is one that shows by +its form whether it denotes the person speaking, the person +spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.</p> + +<p>The personal pronouns are <i>I</i>, <i>thou</i>, <i>you</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>, and their +various case forms in the two numbers.</p> + +<p>The <b>antecedent</b> of a pronoun is the word for which it stands.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the personal pronouns. Tell from +the form of each its person and number, and, if it is a pronoun +of the third person, tell also its gender. Where it is possible, +tell the antecedent of the pronoun.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Hide me in the oven.</p> + +<p>2. First lay aside your black veil, then tell us why you put it on.</p> + +<p>3. While we were following the direction of his finger, a sound of +distant oars fell on our ears.</p> + +<p>4. If you want a thing, and have no money to buy it, go without +it until you can pay for it.</p> + +<p>5. Though the Jungle People drink seldom, they must drink +deep.</p> + +<p>6. The whelps were evidently very young, but their ears were +wide open, and they stood up on strong legs when the boy touched +them gently with his palm.</p> + +<p>7. “Well,” said grandfather, “I tell you one thing; the game +will last me till that poor cat gets well again.”</p> + +<p>8. They sent him for troops only the sweepings of the galleys.</p> + +<p>9.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">My driftwood fire will burn so bright!</div> + <div class="verse indent0">To what warm shelter canst thou fly?</div> + <div class="verse indent0">I do not fear for thee, though wroth</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The tempest rushes through the sky.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>10. Caught in a steel trap, she had gnawed off her own paw as +the price of freedom.</p> + +<p>11. At recess he gave me the core of his apple, though there were +several applicants for it.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XL">XL. USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section146"><b>146.</b> The personal pronoun, since it takes the place of a +noun, has almost all the uses of a noun. It may be,—</p> + +<p>(1) The subject of a verb; as, “<i>I</i> only know <i>I</i> cannot +drift beyond His love and care.”</p> + +<p>The subject of an imperative sentence is always the pronoun +<i>you</i>, <i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i>, but this pronoun is seldom expressed; +as, “Telegraph for staterooms at once.”</p> + +<p>(2) The base word of a term of address; as, “Ho, <i>ye</i> who +suffer, know ye suffer for yourselves.”</p> + +<p>(3) The subjective complement of a verb; as, “This man, +good Ilderim, is <i>he</i> who told you of me.”</p> + +<p>(4) The base word of an appositive phrase; as, “The +fourth lackey, <i>he</i> of the two gold watches, poured the chocolate +out.”</p> + +<p>(5) A possessive modifier; as, “All the harmless wood folk +were <i>his</i> friends.”</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The possessive pronoun is often intensified by the adjective +<i>own</i>, which modifies the same noun that the possessive pronoun +modifies; as, “This is <i>my own</i>, my native land.”</p> + +<p>(6) The direct object of a verb; as, “The farm boy spreads +the grass after the men have cut <i>it</i>.”</p> + +<p>(7) The object of a preposition; as, “What a new world +did that party open to <i>him</i>!”</p> + +<p>(8) An indirect object; as, “Here will the cattle come to +drink, and I will kill <i>me</i> a yearling heifer.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select and parse all the personal pronouns +in the following sentences. In parsing a personal pronoun +we should tell its person, number, gender, antecedent, case, +and use in the sentence.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. I verily believe that my ill looks alone saved me a flogging.</p> + +<p>2. Taste the tamarisk, and you get the very flavor of the brine.</p> + +<p>3. Then I swung my lasso, and sent it whistling over his head.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span></p> + +<p>4. They worked together, read together, walked together, +planned together, she and her daughter, and in all things were +friends and companions.</p> + +<p>5. Mother Wolf would throw up her head, and sniff a deep +snuff of satisfaction as the wind brought her the smell of the tiger +skin on the Council Rock.</p> + +<p>6. The old crow spread the shells out in the sun, turned them +over, lifted them one by one in his beak, dropped them, nestled on +them as though they were eggs, toyed with them, and gloated over +them like a miser.</p> + +<p>7. The spirits have spoken to Kotuko. They will show him +open ice. He will bring us the seal again.</p> + +<p>8. The rank swamp grass concealed the nest where Raggylug’s +mother had hidden him.</p> + +<p>9.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Across the lowly beach we flit,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">One little sandpiper and I.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>10. Up jumped Scarface, for it was he, and ran.</p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">And a voice that was calmer than silence said,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">“Lo! It is I. Be not afraid.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. Nearly every cottage in England has its little garden full of +blooming plants and shrubs.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Who gives himself with his alms feeds three,—</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Himself, his hungering neighbor, and Me.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14. This is he that was spoken of by the prophet.</p> + +<p>15. Arise, and take the young child and his mother, and flee into +Egypt, and be thou there until I bring thee word.</p> + +<p>16.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">I called my servant, and he came;</div> + <div class="verse indent2">How kind it was of him</div> + <div class="verse indent0">To mind a slender man like me,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">He of the mighty limb.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>17. Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.</p> + +<p>18. It is so slippery and shiny down here, and the stage is so +much too big for me, that I rattle round in it till I’m almost black +and blue.</p> + +<p>19. These are they who have passed through much tribulation.</p> + +<p>20. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers, +whence comes thy everlasting light?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section147"><b>147.</b> Many errors are made in the form of personal pronouns.</p> + +<p>(1) When a pronoun is used as the subject of a verb, it +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>must have the nominative form, hence the correct answer to +the question, Who is there? is <i>I</i> (not <i>me</i>).</p> + +<p>(2) When several pronouns are used as the subject of the +same verb, the pronoun of the second person should come +first, and the pronoun of the first person should come last. +We should say,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><i>You and he and I</i> have been chosen.</p> + +<p><i>You and I</i> were on time.</p> + +<p><i>He and I</i> read the book.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Can you justify Whittier’s lines?</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Ah, brother, only <i>I and thou</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0">Are left of all that circle now.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>(3) For the subject of a sentence we may use the expressions +<i>we boys</i>, <i>we girls</i>, <i>we Americans</i>, etc.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><i>We girls</i> bought the pictures.</p> + +<p><i>We boys</i> set up the tents.</p> + +<p><i>We Baptists</i> had a church supper.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>(4) A pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive +verb of being must have the nominative form. We should +say,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Yes, it was <i>I</i>.</p> + +<p>No, it was not <i>she</i>.</p> + +<p>Perhaps it is <i>he</i>.</p> + +<p>It is surely <i>they</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>(5) A pronoun used as object of a verb must have the objective +form. We should say,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Mrs. Albee invited mother and <i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>Did you see Julia and <i>me</i> in the gallery?</p> + +<p>Didn’t you expect <i>him and her</i>?</p> + +<p>She will never suspect <i>you and me</i>.</p> + +<p>That team can’t beat <i>us boys</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></p> + +<p>(6) A pronoun used as object of a preposition must have +the objective form. We should say,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Leo wrote first to <i>her</i> and <i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>Father will call for <i>you</i> and <i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>Between <i>you</i> and <i>me</i> he was afraid.</p> + +<p>There is a great difference between Carrie and <i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>They can never catch up with <i>us girls</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Fill each blank in the following sentences with +a pronoun having the correct case form. Give your reasons.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Mother says that it was —— and not —— that paid off the +mortgage.</p> + +<p>2. Who left the room first? ——, but Mary was close behind +——.</p> + +<p>3. —— fellows are going to have a debating society.</p> + +<p>4. The German teacher gave you and —— the same passage to +translate.</p> + +<p>5. There must be no secrets between —— and ——.</p> + +<p>6. When do you expect Grandmother and ——?</p> + +<p>7. Perhaps —— girls are most to blame.</p> + +<p>8. Nobody chose —— or ——, so —— and —— sat on the stairs +and talked.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLI">XLI. USES OF POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section148"><b>148.</b> When we studied the declension of personal pronouns, +we learned that all of them except <i>it</i> and <i>he</i> have two +forms in the possessive case. These forms are <i>my</i>, <i>mine</i>; +<i>our</i>, <i>ours</i>; <i>thy</i>, <i>thine</i>; <i>your</i>, <i>yours</i>; <i>her</i>, <i>hers</i>; and <i>their</i>, <i>theirs</i>. +There is a difference in the use of these two forms.</p> + +<p>The pronouns of the first form,—<i>my</i>, <i>our</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>your</i>, <i>her</i>, +and <i>their</i>, as well as <i>his</i> and <i>its</i>, are used with nouns as possessive +modifiers. We say, <i>my father</i>, <i>our school</i>, <i>her hat</i>, <i>its +population</i>, etc.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section149"><b>149.</b> The pronouns of the second form,—<i>mine</i>, <i>ours</i>, +<i>thine</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>theirs</i>, and also <i>his</i>, are used alone, that is, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>they are not followed by a noun, the name of the thing possessed. +We say, “<i>Mine</i> is too heavy,” when the object +spoken of—a waterproof, for instance—is well known by +both speaker and listener. Or we say, “Her writing is clear, +but I like <i>his</i> better,” where it is unnecessary to repeat the +noun <i>writing</i> after <i>his</i>.</p> + +<p>In the first sentence <i>mine</i> is the subject of the verb is, and +in the second <i>his</i> is the object of the verb <i>like</i>. We even find +the possessive form used as the object of a preposition; as, +“If the book isn’t in my desk, it must be in <i>yours</i>.”</p> + +<p>This use of the possessive forms <i>mine</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>yours</i> as subject +or object is <b>idiomatic</b>; that is, it is peculiar to itself in grammatical +construction. The one word <i>mine</i> really means <i>my +waterproof</i>, <i>his</i> means <i>his writing</i>, and <i>yours</i> means <i>your desk</i>. +But we cannot say that the noun is understood after these +pronouns, for we cannot supply it except after <i>his</i>. It is not +English to say <i>mine waterproof</i> or <i>yours desk</i>. Instead of +being understood, the nouns are included in the pronouns. In +speaking of such pronouns we may say that they are possessive +in form, but are used idiomatically as subject, object, etc.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The two pronouns <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> are sometimes used to +modify a noun expressed, especially in poetry; as, “Mine eyes have +seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.” It is worth noting that +they are not used before words beginning with a consonant sound. +We do not say <i>mine country</i>, nor <i>thine liberty</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section150"><b>150.</b> In the expression “a friend of mine,” we have in the +phrase <i>of mine</i> a “double possessive” (see <a href="#section119">§ 119</a>); for the +preposition <i>of</i> denotes possession, and so does the object, the +possessive pronoun <i>mine</i>. In this use there is no noun included +in the pronoun. <i>Mine</i> does not mean <i>my friends</i>. +It means <i>me</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The possessive pronouns <i>mine</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>thine</i>, +<i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>his</i>, and <i>theirs</i> may be used idiomatically without +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>a noun to modify. These pronouns have then the same use +that the noun would have if it were expressed.</p> + +<p>These pronouns may be used as the object of the preposition +<i>of</i> to form “double possessives.”</p> + +<p><i>Mine</i> and <i>thine</i> are sometimes used to modify nouns expressed, +the same as <i>my</i> and <i>thy</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the possessive pronouns in these sentences, +and tell their use:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. You have no uncle by your father’s side or mine.</p> + +<p>2. To thine own self be true.</p> + +<p>3. The people of Europe did not know that America, this great +country of ours, was in the world at all.</p> + +<p>4. This young girl came to Wisconsin to live with an uncle of +hers who had seven sons and no daughters.</p> + +<p>5. Early in the spring I had begun Bingo’s education. Very +shortly afterward he began mine.</p> + +<p>6. Stand! The ground’s your own, my braves!</p> + +<p>7. A boy who lived in a street behind ours had an awkward +three-wheeled machine that he called a “verlosophy.”</p> + +<p>8.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">He will say, “O Love, thine eyes</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Build the shrine my soul abides in;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And I kneel here for thy grace.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>9. The boy saw big, clutching talons outstretched from thick-feathered +legs, while round eyes, fiercely gleaming, flamed upon his +in passing, as they searched the bush.</p> + +<p>10. Time hath his work to do, and we have ours.</p> + +<p>11. The sultan ordered that the princess’s attendants should +come and carry the trays into their mistress’s apartment.</p> + +<p>12. Susie could sew like a woman, and her patchwork quilts were +masterpieces of their kind. Neither mine nor Marty’s were well made.</p> + +<p>13. Your worthy father was my own brother.</p> + +<p>14. There was more joy in this little brown, battened house of ours +than in their mansion with its onyx mantels and mahogany doors.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Are the verbs in sentences 1, 7, 10, transitive or intransitive? +How do you know?</p> + +<p>Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 6, 10, 12, and +14.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLII">XLII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section151"><b>151.</b> Besides the personal pronouns that have already been +considered there are certain other forms such as <i>myself</i> and +<i>ourselves</i>, formed by uniting the noun <i>self</i> to a singular personal +pronoun, and the noun <i>selves</i> to a plural personal pronoun.</p> + +<p>These are called <b>compound personal pronouns</b>.</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td><i>First person</i></td> + <td>myself,</td> + <td>ourselves</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Second person</i></td> + <td>thyself, yourself,</td> + <td>yourselves</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Third person</i></td> + <td>himself, herself, itself,</td> + <td>themselves</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>What is the number of each of these pronouns?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section152"><b>152.</b> Compound personal pronouns are never in the possessive +case. They never change their form for case, but are +in the nominative or the objective case according to their +use. They have two main uses:—</p> + +<p>(1) A compound personal pronoun may be used for emphasis, +and is then in apposition with the noun it makes +emphatic; as, “Cæsar himself refused the crown.” The pronoun +does not always come next to the noun. We may say, +“Cæsar refused the crown himself.” The pronoun is in the +same case as the word it goes with.</p> + +<p>(2) It may be used reflexively, that is, to show that an +action comes back to the doer of it; as, “I scratched myself +with a pin.” Here the pronoun is object of a verb, hence in +the objective case.</p> + +<p>It may also be the object of a preposition; as, “I was +talking to myself.”</p> + +<p>It may even be an indirect object; as, “She bought herself +a watch.”</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The compound personal pronoun is used as object of a +preposition in some familiar idiomatic expressions; as, “He was +<i>beside himself</i> with joy.” “She was sitting <i>all by herself</i>.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The <b>compound personal pronouns</b> are <i>myself</i>, +<i>ourselves</i>, <i>thyself</i>, <i>yourself</i>, <i>yourselves</i>, <i>himself</i>, <i>herself</i>, +<i>itself</i>, and <i>themselves</i>.</p> + +<p>They are commonly used for two purposes:—</p> + +<p>(1) For emphasis, (2) reflexively.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select and parse all the compound personal +pronouns in the following sentences. Tell their person, number, +case, and use.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Love thyself last.</p> + +<p>2. The men folks, having worked in the regular hours, lie down +and rest, stretch themselves idly in the shade at noon, or lounge +about after supper.</p> + +<p>3. Very stupid people are never aware of their stupidity themselves.</p> + +<p>4. On cold, stormy evenings we would make ourselves toast at +the sitting room fire, and eat our supper on the little sewing table.</p> + +<p>5. At the more remote end of the island Legrand had built +himself a small hut.</p> + +<p>6. A masterly retreat is in itself a victory.</p> + +<p>7. Now make yourselves at home, and if you find an eel’s head, +you may bring it to me.</p> + +<p>8. The little fox ground his pearly milk teeth into the mouse with +a rush of inborn savageness that must have surprised even himself.</p> + +<p>9. They were returning home for the holidays in high glee, and +promising themselves a world of enjoyment.</p> + +<p>10. Pity for his gallant horse, rage and mortification at the ridiculous +plight he was in, anxiety lest he should be late for the tournament, +all combined to make the baron for a time beside himself.</p> + +<p>11. Rivermouth itself is full of hints and flavors of the sea.</p> + +<p>12. I think the ugly duckling will grow up strong, and be able to +take care of himself.</p> + +<p>13. With what awe, yet with what pride, did I look forward to the +day when I myself should enter the doorway of the high school.</p> + +<p>14. That I may have nobody to blame but myself should my +marriage turn out amiss, I will choose for myself.</p> + +<p>15. Although the English and we ourselves both speak the same +tongue, we do not speak it in the same way.</p> + +<p>16. Heaven helps those who help themselves.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLIII">XLIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section153"><b>153.</b> If we ask the question, “Who killed cock robin?” +the answer may be the declarative sentence, “The sparrow +killed cock robin.” The sentences are alike, except that in +the declarative sentence <i>the sparrow</i> is the subject, while in the +interrogative sentence <i>who</i> is the subject. It is clear then +that <i>who</i> is used instead of the noun <i>sparrow</i>. <i>Who</i> is therefore +a pronoun, and since it is used in asking a question, we +call it an <b>interrogative pronoun</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section154"><b>154.</b> The other interrogative pronouns are <i>whose</i>, <i>whom</i>, +<i>which</i>, and <i>what</i>. <i>Whose</i> is the possessive form of <i>who</i>, and +is used, like other possessive pronouns, to modify some noun +expressed or understood; as, “Whose house is the gray stone +mansion on the corner?”</p> + +<p><i>Whom</i> is the objective form of <i>who</i>, and is used as the object +of a verb or of a preposition; as, “Whom did he marry?” +“To whom did you speak?”</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In conversation, the preposition governing an interrogative +pronoun is often placed at the end of the question; as, “Whom +did you come for?”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section155"><b>155.</b> <i>What</i> is used when we inquire for the name, not of a +person but of a thing; as, “What did he have on his head?”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section156"><b>156.</b> <i>Which</i> is used when we wish to know the particular +one of several persons or things; as, “Which of these moon-stones +do you like best?”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section157"><b>157.</b> In a sentence like this, “Who is that tall man?” it +may be difficult at first thought to decide whether <i>who</i> is the +subject of <i>is</i> or the subjective complement. We can always +tell by the answer. In this case the answer is, “That tall +man is Joseph Choate.” It is clear that <i>Joseph Choate</i> is the +subjective complement, hence in the question the word <i>who</i>, +which means <i>Joseph Choate</i>, is the subjective complement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>interrogative pronoun</b> is one used in asking +a question.</p> + +<p>The interrogative pronouns are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, and <i>what</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Who</i> is declined: Nominative, <i>who</i>; possessive, <i>whose</i>; +objective, <i>whom</i>.</p> + +<p>An interrogative pronoun has the same use in the question +that the word which takes its place has in the answer.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the interrogative pronouns in these +sentences. Tell the use and case of each. Determine this +by answering the question that is asked.</p> + +<p>Analyze sentences 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What made you so late?</p> + +<p>2. Who is there?</p> + +<p>3. Who is this young and handsome officer now entering the +door of the tavern?</p> + +<p>4. Whose work is this crayon drawing of a castle in the moonlight?</p> + +<p>5. What do you mean by telling me such nonsense as that?</p> + +<p>6. What may so bold a hunter kill?</p> + +<p>7. Who should know better than I?</p> + +<p>8. What is all this talk about the Red Flower?</p> + +<p>9. What is gingerbread?</p> + +<p>10. Whose is this image and superscription?</p> + +<p>11. With whom did you take that memorable trip on Lake +Superior?</p> + +<p>12. Whose little girl are you, with your rosy cheeks and pretty +red hood?</p> + +<p>13. Whom did the superintendent mean when he announced that +the youngest pupil in the grammar school had made one hundred in +all her examinations?</p> + +<p>14. Which should you rather be, an artist or a poet?</p> + +<p>15. Which shall I take, a new piano or a trip to California?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section158"><b>158.</b> A common error in the use of interrogative pronouns +is the use of the nominative form <i>who</i> when the objective +<i>whom</i> is required. This error arises from the fact that the +pronoun comes at the beginning of the sentence, and is separated +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>by intervening words from the verb or the preposition +of which it is the object, as in these sentences,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Whom did the ball hit?</p> + +<p>Whom do you sit with this term?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Supply the proper pronoun, <i>who</i> or <i>whom</i>, in +each of the following sentences, and give your reasons:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. —— does the baby look like?</p> + +<p>2. —— do I see in the orchard?</p> + +<p>3. —— did you go to the station for this morning?</p> + +<p>4. —— are you smiling at, George?</p> + +<p>5. —— does Mr. Coburn work for now?</p> + +<p>6. —— will open this window for me?</p> + +<p>7. —— can we depend upon?</p> + +<p>8. —— is that child playing with?</p> + +<p>9. —— have you invited to your party?</p> + +<p>10. —— can keep a secret?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLIV">XLIV. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section159"><b>159.</b> We learned in <a href="#IX">Lesson IX</a> that adjectives are used (1) +to describe objects, (2) to point them out. Adjectives are +therefore divided into two classes,—(1) <b>descriptive adjectives</b>, +and (2) <b>limiting adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section160"><b>160.</b> Descriptive adjectives tell the qualities of objects. +They are very useful words, for they enable us to see things +with the imagination. In the following sentence the well-chosen +adjectives make us feel that we are looking into the +very eyes of the eagle,—“His eyes, clear, direct, unacquainted +with fear, had a certain hardness in their vitreous brilliancy, +perhaps by reason of the sharp contrast between the bright +gold iris and the unfathomable pupil.”</p> + +<p>It is also through descriptive adjectives that we are able +to identify things when we do see them. After reading this +sentence we could pick out a moose calf from a score of other +animals,—“The moose calf is uncouth, to be sure, with his +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>high, humped fore shoulders, his long, lugubrious, overhanging +snout, his big ears set low on his big head, his little eyes +crowded back toward his ears, his long, big-knuckled legs, +and the spindling lank diminutiveness of his hind quarters.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section161"><b>161.</b> One variety of descriptive adjective is the adjective +derived from a proper noun; as, <i>Scotch</i> from <i>Scotland</i>, <i>French</i> +from <i>France</i>, and <i>Greek</i> from <i>Greece</i>. These are called <b>proper +adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p>Proper adjectives include within themselves many other +adjectives. If we speak of a Scotch collie, a French costume, +or a Grecian nose, the listener gets the same picture that +he would get if we used a long series of other adjectives.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section162"><b>162.</b> Many proper adjectives may be used as proper nouns, +naming a class of people, as when we speak of the Scotch, +the French, the Russians, the Americans.</p> + +<p>What proper noun have we to name the inhabitants of +Spain? of Turkey? of Denmark? of Sweden?</p> + +<p>What proper noun have we to designate one man who is a +native of England? of Scotland? of France? of China? +Italy? Germany? What is the plural of each of these nouns?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Supply the correct word in each of the following +sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Three (<i>French</i> or <i>Frenchmen</i>) spent the evening at the house.</p> + +<p>2. The (<i>French</i> or <i>Frenchmen</i>) are said to be very polite.</p> + +<p>3. Why are so many (<i>Scotch</i> or <i>Scotchmen</i>) captains of steamships?</p> + +<p>4. Are the (<i>Irish</i> or <i>Irishmen</i>) as thrifty as the Germans?</p> + +<p>5. Are there many (<i>Welsh</i> or <i>Welshmen</i>) in this locality?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Descriptive adjectives</b> are those which tell +the qualities of objects.</p> + +<p><b>Proper adjectives</b> are those derived from proper nouns. +They always begin with a capital letter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Write a list of the proper adjectives derived +from the following proper nouns. Use them in sentences to +modify appropriate nouns.</p> + +<ul> + <li>Africa</li> + <li>Alaska</li> + <li>Asia</li> + <li>China</li> + <li>Christ</li> + <li>Denmark</li> + <li>England</li> + <li>Germany</li> + <li>India</li> + <li>Ireland</li> + <li>Italy</li> + <li>Japan</li> + <li>Jew</li> + <li>Malta</li> + <li>Norway</li> + <li>Paris</li> + <li>Portugal</li> + <li>Spain</li> + <li>Sweden</li> + <li>Turkey</li> +</ul> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—In the following sentences select all the +descriptive adjectives and tell what objects they describe. +In so far as you can, tell what qualities the adjectives denote, +as color, size, form, texture, surface, material, nature, etc. +Account for the punctuation and capitalization.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. All the time the crocodile’s little eyes burned like coals under +the heavy, horny eyelids on the top of his triangular head, as he +shoved his bloated barrel body along between his crutched legs.</p> + +<p>2. It is a little village of great antiquity, having been founded +by some of the Dutch colonists in the early times of the province.</p> + +<p>3. The dog and his master hunted together, fur-wrapped boy +and savage, long-haired, narrow-eyed, white-fanged, yellow brute.</p> + +<p>4. We always smiled to hear the judge’s wife talk about her +Turkish carpets, her little Chippendale chairs, her Wedgwood +china, and her Persian shawls.</p> + +<p>5. This crowded, lively, and interesting thoroughfare is over +two miles long.</p> + +<p>6. In queer little <i>châlets</i>, or Swiss huts, live the people who +attend to the cattle, and make butter and cheese.</p> + +<p>7. The split and weatherworn rocks of the gorge had been used +since the beginning of the Jungle by the Little People of the Rocks,—the +busy, furious, black, wild bees of India.</p> + +<p>8. At every stride the loose-hung, wide-cleft, spreading hoofs +of the moose came sharply together with a flat, clacking noise.</p> + +<p>9. Out comes the negro pilot, and scrambles up on deck.</p> + +<p>10. Yonder lies a Norwegian ship, with her sailors climbing the +shrouds like so many monkeys.</p> + +<p>11. Mowgli’s voice could be heard in all sorts of wet, starlighted, +blossoming places, helping the big frogs through their choruses, or +mocking the upside-down owls that hoot through the white nights.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLV">XLV. LIMITING ADJECTIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section163"><b>163.</b> Limiting adjectives are those which merely point out +an object without telling any quality of it. The most useful +limiting adjectives are <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, and their plural forms <i>these</i> +and <i>those</i>. These four words are often called <b>demonstrative +adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p>Some limiting adjectives tell number or amount, but in a +somewhat indefinite way, as <i>all</i>, <i>some</i>, <i>several</i>, <i>few</i>, <i>much</i>, <i>little</i>, +<i>more</i>, <i>most</i>.</p> + +<p>Some tell number definitely, as <i>one</i>, <i>two</i>, <i>six hundred</i>, <i>three +million</i>, <i>first</i>, <i>second</i>, <i>fiftieth</i>.</p> + +<p>Number words, like <i>one</i>, <i>two</i>, <i>three</i>, <i>four</i>, <i>five</i>, etc., are often +called <b>numeral adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section164"><b>164.</b> The limiting adjective <i>enough</i> may precede or follow +the noun it modifies. We may say <i>enough butter</i> or <i>butter +enough</i>; <i>enough time</i> or <i>time enough</i>.</p> + +<p>The limiting adjective <i>else</i> always follows the noun or pronoun +that it modifies. We say <i>who else</i>, <i>nobody else</i>, <i>everybody +else</i>, <i>nothing else</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section165"><b>165.</b> When the interrogative pronouns <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> are +used to modify a noun, as in <i>which picture?</i> <i>what city?</i> they +cease to be pronouns, and become limiting adjectives. Since +they are used to ask questions, we call them <b>interrogative +adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—<i>Which</i> and <i>what</i>, when used as adjectives, are sometimes +called <b>pronominal adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section166"><b>166.</b> Three very common words, <i>a</i>, <i>an</i>, and <i>the</i>, are classed +with limiting adjectives. They are called <b>articles.</b> <i>The</i> is +a <b>definite article</b>; <i>an</i> and <i>a</i> are the <b>indefinite article</b>. <i>A</i> is +really the same word as <i>an</i>, but when it is used before a word +beginning with a consonant sound, as <i>bicycle</i>, the <i>n</i> is dropped +for the sake of a more pleasing sound.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section167"><b>167.</b> We use <i>the</i> when we wish to specify a particular object, +and <i>an</i> or <i>a</i> when we do not care to be specific. What is the +difference between these sentences?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>The man on horseback came to the turn in the road.</p> + +<p>A man on horseback came to a turn in the road.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section168"><b>168.</b> We use <i>the</i> before a singular noun to designate a whole +class of objects; as, “The oak is a sturdy tree,” “The cow +is a domestic animal.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section169"><b>169.</b> We repeat the article when we wish to denote more +than one person or thing. What is the difference between +these pairs of sentences?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p class="noindent">(<i>a</i>) The secretary and treasurer came late.<br> +(<i>b</i>) The secretary and the treasurer came together.</p> + +<p class="noindent">(<i>a</i>) I saw a red and green signal.<br> +(<i>b</i>) I saw a red and a green signal.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section170"><b>170.</b> We use <i>an</i> or <i>a</i> after the adjectives <i>many</i> and <i>such</i> +instead of before them; as, <i>many</i> a man, <i>such</i> a storm.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section171"><b>171.</b> The sentence, “I have <i>few</i> books,” means I have few +compared with many; but the sentence, “I have <i>a few</i> +books,” means I have a few compared with none. What is +the difference in meaning between these sentences?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I have little time for sewing.</p> + +<p>I have a little time for sewing.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Limiting adjectives</b> are those which merely +point out.</p> + +<p>Limiting adjectives that denote a definite number are +called <b>numerals</b>.</p> + +<p><i>Which</i> and <i>what</i> may be used as <b>interrogative adjectives</b>.</p> + +<p>The <b>articles</b> are <i>the</i>, <i>an</i>, and <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The</i> is a <b>definite article</b>. <i>An</i> and <i>a</i> are <b>indefinite articles</b>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select all the limiting adjectives, including +articles, and tell what they modify. Give reasons for the +articles used.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What business brings you here?</p> + +<p>2. In that same village, and in one of these very houses, there +lived, many years since, a simple, good-natured fellow of the name +of Rip Van Winkle.</p> + +<p>3. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, +every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues +and shapes of these mountains.</p> + +<p>4. Which fan did your mother carry when she was a young lady +in Maine?</p> + +<p>5. Lobo had only five followers during the latter part of his reign.</p> + +<p>6. What excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle?</p> + +<p>7. The dog managed so that each fresh rush should be toward +the settlement.</p> + +<p>8. No wild animal dies of old age.</p> + +<p>9. Which part in the play of <i>Julius Cæsar</i> did Edwin Booth take?</p> + +<p>10. When this dog of marvelous wind saw that the wolf was dead, +he gave him no second glance.</p> + +<p>11. After much pains on my behalf and many pains on his, +Bingo learned to go at the word in quest of our old yellow cow.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">I only ask a hut of stone,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A very plain brown stone will do,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">That I may call my own;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And close at hand is such a one</div> + <div class="verse indent0">In yonder street that fronts the sun.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>13. No other living thing can go so slow as a boy sent on an +errand.</p> + +<p>14. What courage can withstand the ever-during and all-besetting +terrors of a woman’s tongue?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Classify the words <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> in the +following sentences as interrogative pronouns or interrogative +adjectives. Where they are pronouns, tell their case. Where +they are adjectives, tell what they modify.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What have you in your basket?</p> + +<p>2. What manner of man is this?</p> + +<p>3. Which of these pictures did you paint?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span></p> + +<p>4. Which is it, a toadstool or a mushroom?</p> + +<p>5. Which city has the larger population?</p> + +<p>6. Which boy threw the stone?</p> + +<p>7. What stone did he throw?</p> + +<p>8. What did the man come for?</p> + +<p>9. What do you want?</p> + +<p>10. Which will you take?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLVI">XLVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section172"><b>172.</b> Since different objects may possess the same quality +in different degrees, there must be some means of telling this. +We do it by changing the form of adjectives. For instance, +wool, snow, and feathers have the same quality of softness, +but not in the same degree, so we say that wool is <i>soft</i>, snow +is <i>softer</i>, and feathers are <i>softest</i>. This change in the adjective +soft to denote the degree of softness is called <b>comparison</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section173"><b>173.</b> Comparison is a <b>property</b> of adjectives. There are +three <b>degrees</b> of comparison,—the <b>positive</b>, the <b>comparative</b>, +and the <b>superlative</b>.</p> + +<p>The positive degree denotes the simple quality, the comparative +degree denotes more or less of this quality, and the +superlative denotes most or least of this quality. When we +give the three forms of an adjective, we are said to <b>compare</b> +it. We compare <i>bold</i> by saying: positive, <i>bold</i>; comparative, +<i>bolder</i>; superlative, <i>boldest</i>; or positive, <i>bold</i>; comparative, +<i>less bold</i>; superlative, <i>least bold</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section174"><b>174.</b> Comparison is denoted in three ways:—</p> + +<p>(1) By adding the suffixes <i>er</i> and <i>est</i>. These are added to +adjectives of one syllable, and to a few of two syllables; as, +<i>fine</i>, <i>finer</i>, <i>finest</i>; <i>lovely</i>, <i>lovelier</i>, <i>loveliest</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) By prefixing the adverbs <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>. This method +is used in comparing longer adjectives; as, <i>spacious</i>, <i>more +spacious</i>, <i>most spacious</i>; <i>disagreeable</i>, <i>more disagreeable</i>, <i>most +disagreeable</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span></p> + +<p>(3) By prefixing the adverbs <i>less</i> and <i>least</i>; as, <i>rough</i>, <i>less</i> +<i>rough</i>, <i>least rough</i>; <i>elegant</i>; <i>less elegant</i>, <i>least elegant</i>. This is +a mode of comparing adjectives on a descending scale instead +of an ascending scale.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section175"><b>175.</b> Some adjectives cannot be compared at all; as, +<i>asleep</i>, <i>dead</i>, <i>correct</i>, <i>round</i>, <i>square</i>, <i>principal</i>. Instead of +saying <i>rounder</i>, we may say <i>more nearly round</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section176"><b>176.</b> Some adjectives are compared irregularly. The following +are examples:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th><span class="smcap">Positive</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Comparative</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Superlative</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>good</td> + <td>better</td> + <td>best</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>ill</td> + <td>worse</td> + <td>worst</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>bad</td> + <td>worse</td> + <td>worst</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>many</td> + <td>more</td> + <td>most</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>much</td> + <td>more</td> + <td>most</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>little</td> + <td>less</td> + <td>least</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>far</td> + <td>farther <i>or</i> further</td> + <td>farthest <i>or</i> furthest</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Comparison</b> in an adjective is a change of +form to express quality or quantity in different degrees.</p> + +<p>There are three <b>degrees</b> of comparison,—<b>positive</b>, <b>comparative</b>, +and <b>superlative</b>.</p> + +<p>Short adjectives are compared by adding the suffixes <i>er</i> +and <i>est</i>.</p> + +<p>Longer adjectives are compared by prefixing <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>.</p> + +<p>Many adjectives may be compared on a descending scale +by prefixing <i>less</i> and <i>least</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the adjectives, and tell the kind and +the degree of each. Compare each adjective. If any cannot +be compared, state that fact.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. There was nothing in these woods bigger than a weasel.</p> + +<p>2. The way led through the deepest and most perilous part of +the swamp.</p> + +<p>3. This brother was younger and handsomer, and much more +amiable than William.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span></p> + +<p>4. As she grew older, she became less exacting and more tolerant, +less certain and more hopeful, less vigorous in body, but gentler +in manner and sweeter in spirit.</p> + +<p>5. The Hotel de Cluny is one of the quaintest, queerest, pleasantest, +and most homelike places we are likely to meet with.</p> + +<p>6. The other captive was of a more restless temperament, +slenderer in build, more eager and alert of eye, less companionable +of mood.</p> + +<p>7. Least vague of all was the terror of the usually unterrified +weasel.</p> + +<p>8. Those men are most apt to be obsequious and conciliating +abroad, who are under the discipline of shrews at home.</p> + +<p>9. At the least flourish of a broomstick or a ladle, Wolf would +fly to the door with yelping precipitation.</p> + +<p>10. The lynx was smaller than her mate, somewhat browner in +hue, leaner, and of a peculiarly malignant expression.</p> + +<p>11. The women of the village used to employ Rip to do such little +odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them.</p> + +<p>12. The singing master’s hair was a little longer, his hands were +a little whiter, his shoes a little thinner, his manner a trifle more +polished than that of his soberer mates.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the use of adjectives in sentences 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section177"><b>177.</b> Sometimes errors are made in the use of adjectives.</p> + +<p>The comparative degree should be used in comparing two +objects, the superlative in comparing more than two. If +only two roads are open to us, we ought to say that we shall +take the <i>shorter</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select the proper adjective for each of these +sentences, and give your reasons:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Which would be the (<i>cheapest</i> or <i>cheaper</i>) route—by water +or by rail?</p> + +<p>2. Prince is the (<i>swifter</i> or <i>swiftest</i>) horse, but Pete is the (<i>stronger</i> +or <i>strongest</i>).</p> + +<p>3. Which is the (<i>higher</i> or <i>highest</i>)—the Eiffel Tower or the +Washington Monument?</p> + +<p>4. Of the two leading candidates, Wilson and Harmon, which is +(<i>more likely</i> or <i>most likely</i>) to be nominated?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p> + +<p>Sometimes an ill-chosen adjective is used after the verb +<i>feel</i>. The sentence, “I feel <i>good</i>,” is correct only when it +means “I feel righteous,” while “I feel <i>well</i>,” means “I am +in good health.” In this sentence <i>well</i> is an adjective meaning +the opposite of <i>sick</i>.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—We also have the adverb <i>well</i>, denoting manner, as in +the sentence, “LaFollette spoke <i>well</i>.”</p> + +<p>The sentence, “Rufus looks <i>good</i>,” is correct when we +mean that Rufus looks as if he were a good man; but we +should say, “Rufus looks <i>well</i> (not <i>good</i>) in gray.” Here +<i>well</i> is an adjective meaning pleasing or acceptable.</p> + +<p>The limiting adjectives <i>this</i> and <i>these</i> should not be followed +by the word <i>here</i>. We point out sufficiently when we say +<i>this book</i>, <i>these books</i>.</p> + +<p>The personal pronoun <i>them</i> should never be used for the +limiting adjective <i>those</i>. We should say <i>those horses</i>, <i>those +wagons</i>, <i>those tents</i>.</p> + +<p>If we modify a noun by the limiting adjective <i>each</i>, <i>every</i>, +<i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>, or <i>no</i>, we must use a singular pronoun to represent +that noun; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Each man took <i>his</i> appointed place.</p> + +<p>Every girl made <i>her</i> own costume.</p> + +<p>Neither man lost <i>his</i> job.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Supply the correct pronoun in each of these +sentences:—</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The masculine pronoun should be used when there is no +word in the sentence that indicates whether the male or the female +sex is referred to.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Everybody came and brought —— appetite.</p> + +<p>2. Each lady contributed whatever —— chose.</p> + +<p>3. No young person can afford to waste —— time.</p> + +<p>4. Neither doctor will give —— assistance.</p> + +<p>5. No day is without —— disappointments.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span></p> + +<p>6. If either man calls, tell —— that I am busy.</p> + +<p>7. Every girl in the class said that —— did not understand the +lesson.</p> + +<p>8. Every boy wishes that —— might be president.</p> + +<p>9. No soldier acknowledged that —— was afraid.</p> + +<p>10. Neither chair is in —— place.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLVII">XLVII. REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section178"><b>178.</b> In our study of adjectives in Lessons <a href="#IX">IX</a>, <a href="#XXVI">XXVI</a>, +<a href="#XXXIII">XXXIII</a>, <a href="#XXXVII">XXXVII</a>, <a href="#XLIV">XLIV</a>, <a href="#XLV">XLV</a>, and <a href="#XLVI">XLVI</a> we have +learned that adjectives may be classified as limiting adjectives +and descriptive adjectives; that <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> +are interrogative adjectives; that adjectives have the +property of comparison; and that adjectives may be +used in four different ways: (1) before a noun to modify +that noun; (2) after a noun as an appositive modifier; (3) as +a subjective complement of certain intransitive verbs, and +(4) as the objective complement of certain transitive +verbs.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Make an outline of the subject, Adjectives, to +recite from in class. Illustrate each point you make with a +good sentence of your own composition.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section179"><b>179.</b> When we parse an adjective, we should tell:—</p> + +<p>(1) Its class,—descriptive, limiting, or interrogative.</p> + +<p>(2) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).</p> + +<p>(3) Its use, and what it modifies.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Parse each adjective in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The puppy grew bigger and clumsier each day. His most +friendly overtures to the cat were wholly misunderstood.</p> + +<p>2. Paris is an immense city, full of broad and handsome streets, +magnificent buildings, grand open places with fountains and statues, +great public gardens and parks free to everybody.</p> + +<p>3. His gray eyes, clear and kind, flashed like fire when he spoke +of his adventures.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span></p> + +<p>4. Which picture shall we hang between these two front windows—the +little Nydia or this pretty landscape?</p> + +<p>5. It was clear that the whelps of last spring had betaken themselves +to other and safer hunting grounds.</p> + +<p>6. For a moment the boy felt afraid—afraid in his own woods.</p> + +<p>7. Below us lies a lake, clear and cold, whereon fairies might +launch their airy shallops.</p> + +<p>8. Jo Calone threw down his saddle on the dusty ground, and +turned his horses loose.</p> + +<p>9. What fun the rabbits must have been having!</p> + +<p>10. The full moon of October, deep orange in a clear, deep sky, +hung large and somewhat distorted just over the wooded hills.</p> + +<p>11. For a long time pain and hunger kept me awake.</p> + +<p>12. How sweet and demure those girls looked!</p> + +<p>13. Do you suppose that any old Roman ever had twenty-four +different kinds of pie at one dinner?</p> + +<p>14. There was something in their cries that sounded strangely +wild and fierce.</p> + +<p>15. The cardinal bird drew herself up very straight, raised her +crest, and opened her big beak.</p> + +<p>16. What harm can a naked frog do us?</p> + +<p>17. Land in London is so valuable that a single acre of it has been +sold for four and a half million dollars.</p> + +<p>18. The old servant made our lives miserable by her cantankerous +ways.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLVIII">XLVIII. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section180"><b>180.</b> When we say, “This ring was my mother’s,” we use the +word <i>this</i> as an adjective modifying the noun <i>ring</i>. When we +say, “This was my mother’s ring,” we use the one word <i>this</i> +in place of <i>this ring</i> as subject of the sentence, hence <i>this</i> is no +longer an adjective, but has become a pronoun. Since its ordinary +use is that of an adjective, we call it an <b>adjective pronoun</b>.</p> + +<p>Many limiting adjectives may be used as pronouns. We +often make such sentences as these:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><i>Few</i> shall part where <i>many</i> meet.</p> + +<p>If honor is lost, then <i>all</i> is lost.</p> + +<p>When <i>two</i> or <i>three</i> are gathered together in Thy name, Thou wilt +grant their requests.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section181"><b>181.</b> The commonest adjective pronouns are <i>all</i>, <i>any</i>, <i>each</i>, +<i>either</i>, <i>few</i>, <i>first</i>, <i>former</i>, <i>last</i>, <i>little</i>, <i>many</i>, <i>more</i>, <i>most</i>, <i>much</i>, +<i>neither</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>other</i>, <i>several</i>, <i>some</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>these</i>, <i>those</i>.</p> + +<p>Make sentences containing five of these adjective pronouns.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section182"><b>182.</b> Two adjective pronouns, <i>one</i> and <i>other</i>, may be declined.</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Nom.</i></td> + <td>one</td> + <td>ones</td> + <td>other</td> + <td>others</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Poss.</i></td> + <td>one’s</td> + <td>ones’</td> + <td>other’s</td> + <td>others’</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Obj.</i></td> + <td>one</td> + <td>ones</td> + <td>other</td> + <td>others</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Sentences like these are common:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>One sometimes tires of <i>one’s</i> occupation.</p> + +<p>Each envied the <i>other’s</i> good fortune.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>The two adjective pronouns, <i>one</i> and <i>other</i>, may be modified +by adjectives; as, “Many others came,” “The green +ones are the prettiest.”</p> + +<p><i>Each other</i> and <i>one another</i>, though consisting of two words, +may be considered as one adjective pronoun.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section183"><b>183.</b> Some adjective pronouns may be modified by articles. +We say, “<i>The last</i> is the best of all the game,” “I like +gooseberries, so I picked <i>a few</i>.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>adjective pronoun</b> is a limiting adjective +used in place of a noun.</p> + +<p>The adjective pronouns <i>one</i> and <i>other</i> may be declined.</p> + +<p>Some adjective pronouns may be modified by adjectives.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select the adjective pronouns in these sentences. +Tell the use and case of each. Tell the noun that +each pronoun stands for. Supply this noun where you can. +What part of speech does the adjective pronoun become then?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. This is the story of a bad boy.</p> + +<p>2. Many of the protozoa are very beautiful. Some build shells +for themselves of strange and curious shapes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span></p> + +<p>3. The ham turned out to be a very remarkable one.</p> + +<p>4. There is a vast difference between the styles of 1860 and +1900. The former favored Paisley shawls and flounced skirts, +the latter sanctioned the tailor-made suit and the shirt waist.</p> + +<p>5. A little made us very happy once.</p> + +<p>6. From time to time one or another of the leaping rabbits would +take himself off through the fir trees, while others continued to +arrive along the moonlight trails.</p> + +<p>7. All is of God that is or is to be.</p> + +<p>8. A bluejay and a red squirrel were loudly berating each other +for stealing.</p> + +<p>9. The convenience of resting one’s self in the open air is one +of the comforts of Paris.</p> + +<p>10. Each of these was a wolf of renown; most of them were +above the ordinary size; one in particular, the second in command, +was a veritable giant. Several of the band were especially +noted. One of them was a beautiful white wolf, that the Mexicans +called Blanca; this was supposed to be a female, possibly Lobo’s +mate. Another was a yellow wolf of remarkable swiftness.</p> + +<p>11. It is not easy to change one’s life all in a minute.</p> + +<p>12. It is a blessed fact that one’s own home is the hub of the +universe.</p> + +<p>13. Every one said that I was a tomboy.</p> + +<p>14. Some wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long knives +in their belts, and most of them had enormous breeches of similar +style with that of the guide’s.</p> + +<p>15. The years hurry onward, treading in their haste on one +another’s heels.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>What noun is understood after <i>guide’s</i> in sentence 14?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XLIX">XLIX. VERBS: TENSE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section184"><b>184.</b> Three very common words are <i>yesterday</i>, <i>to-day</i>, and +<i>to-morrow</i>. The word <i>yesterday</i> refers to time that has gone, +or past time; <i>to-day</i> refers to time that now is, or <b>present</b> +time; and <i>to-morrow</i> refers to time that is to come, or <b>future</b> +time.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section185"><b>185.</b> Every event takes place in time, and so when we tell +of the occurrence of any event, we must have some way of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>making clear whether that event took place in the past, or +is taking place in the present, or will take place in the future. +Of course, we might tell this by adverbs or adverbial phrases, +but we have a very much better way,—we tell it by the form +of the verb we use. What time do we think of when we see +the verbs <i>eats</i>, <i>works</i>, <i>plays</i>, <i>sleeps</i>? What time is told by +the verbs <i>ate</i>, <i>worked</i>, <i>played</i>, <i>slept</i>? What change is made +in the form of the two sets of verbs? What time is told by +the verbs <i>will eat</i>, <i>will work</i>, <i>will play</i>, <i>will sleep</i>?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section186"><b>186.</b> In the last group of verbs, where each verb consists of +two words, it is the first word <i>will</i> that denotes future time. +Such a word is called a helping word, or <b>auxiliary</b> verb.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section187"><b>187.</b> The change in the form of a verb to denote time is +called <b>tense</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section188"><b>188.</b> Tense is a property of all verbs. It is evident that +there must be three tenses,—present, past, and future, as +shown in the three sets of verbs that have just been examined. +These are called <b>primary</b> tenses.</p> + +<p>There are three other tenses, called <b>secondary</b> tenses. +We may say, “I <i>have eaten</i> my supper,” “I <i>had eaten</i> my +supper,” “I <i>shall have eaten</i> my supper.” These verbs call +attention not so much to the time of the action as to the fact +that it is completed, or perfected.</p> + +<p><i>Have eaten</i> means that a past action is completed at the +present time. This form is called the <b>present perfect</b> tense.</p> + +<p><i>Had eaten</i> means that a past action was completed before +some particular past time. This form is called the <b>past +perfect</b> tense.</p> + +<p><i>Shall have eaten</i> means that an action will be completed +before some definite future time. This is called the <b>future +perfect</b> tense.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Tense</b> is that property of a verb which denotes +the time of an action or an event.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span></p> + +<p>There are six tenses:—</p> + +<p>(1) The <b>present tense</b> denotes that an action is taking place. +It usually consists of one word, the simplest form of the verb.</p> + +<p>(2) The <b>past tense</b> denotes that an action did take place. +It usually consists of one word.</p> + +<p>(3) The <b>future tense</b> denotes that an action will take +place. It consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary +<i>shall</i> or <i>will</i>.</p> + +<p>(4) The <b>present perfect tense</b> denotes that a past action +is now completed. It consists of two words, one of which is +the auxiliary <i>have</i> or <i>has</i>.</p> + +<p>(5) The <b>past perfect tense</b> denotes that a past action was +completed before a particular past time. It consists of two +words, one of which is the auxiliary <i>had</i>.</p> + +<p>(6) The <b>future perfect tense</b> denotes that a future action +will be completed before a particular future time. It consists +of three words, one of which is the auxiliary <i>have</i>, and +another the auxiliary <i>shall</i> or <i>will</i>.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Notes.</span>—1. The present tense is used also to denote (1) that something +is true at all times; as “Waste makes want,” and (2) that +something occurs habitually; as, “She teaches school.”</p> + +<p class="note">2. When a predicate consists of a series of verbs in the same tense, +the auxiliary is usually expressed only with the first verb. In the +sentence, “Now that he has eaten and slept, he is ready for work,” +the second verb is <i>has slept</i>, with the auxiliary understood.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section189"><b>189.</b> A common error is the use of the present perfect +tense for the past tense. We say, “I <i>have been</i> in Florida +several times,” because we mean several times before now; +but we say, “I <i>was</i> in Florida last year,” because we mean +that our being there occurred in past time with no reference +whatever to the present. If we are still in Florida we may +say, “I <i>have been</i> in Florida a long time”; but if we are no +longer in Florida we say, “I <i>was</i> in Florida a long time.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Justify the use of the past or the present +perfect tense in each of these sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. I learned the poem last evening.</p> + +<p>2. I have learned the poem already.</p> + +<p>3. I bought my hat at Stone’s.</p> + +<p>4. I have bought a new spring hat.</p> + +<p>5. I came home last Monday.</p> + +<p>6. I have come to stay a week.</p> + +<p>7. I tried my skates this afternoon.</p> + +<p>8. I haven’t tried my new skates.</p> + +<p>9. I have walked ever since sunrise.</p> + +<p>10. I walked from sunrise until noon.</p> + +<p>11. I spoke to the President this morning.</p> + +<p>12. I have never spoken to the President.</p> + +<p>13. I spoke to him twice when I was in Washington.</p> + +<p>14. I have spoken to him several times.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Using the subject <i>I</i>, form the six tenses of +the following verbs. Consult the dictionary for forms of +which you are not sure.</p> + +<ul> + <li>break</li> + <li>bring</li> + <li>buy</li> + <li>come</li> + <li>drive</li> + <li>go</li> + <li>leave</li> + <li>love</li> + <li>run</li> + <li>see</li> + <li>sing</li> + <li>take</li> + <li>turn</li> + <li>wait</li> +</ul> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 3.</b>—Select all the verbs in these sentences, and +tell the tense of each:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Trees wave, flowers bloom, and bright-winged birds flit from +palm to cedar.</p> + +<p>2. The lynx turned to the right, along a well-worn trail, ran up a +tree, descended hastily, and glided away among the thickets.</p> + +<p>3. Tommy and I had played together till five o’clock that +Saturday afternoon.</p> + +<p>4. The children thought, “how long the vacation will be!” but +the mother thought, “how soon it will have come and gone.”</p> + +<p>5. He who knows nothing fears nothing.</p> + +<p>6. The duck had never seen a guinea egg before in all her life.</p> + +<p>7. The boy comes nearer to perpetual motion than anything +else in nature.</p> + +<p>8. Nobody has yet discovered how many grasshoppers a turkey +will hold.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span></p> + +<p>9. I have made no addition to my cabinet since we met.</p> + +<p>10. The big black pots swinging from the cranes had bubbled and +gurgled and sent out puffs of appetizing steam.</p> + +<p>11. “How many pieces shall I cut this pie into?” said she.</p> + +<p>12. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height of +13,000 feet above the sea.</p> + +<p>13. You shall go to bed, and I will remain with you a few days +until you get over this fever.</p> + +<p>14. The daisies have shut up their sleepy red eyes.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Analyze sentences 2, 3, 6, 9, 14.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="L">L. THE INDICATIVE MODE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section190"><b>190.</b> Each of the six verb forms that we have been studying,—I +<i>eat</i>, I <i>ate</i>, I <i>shall eat</i>, I <i>have eaten</i>, I <i>had eaten</i>, I <i>shall +have eaten</i>,—is used in the statement of a fact, and is said +to be in the <b>indicative mode</b>.</p> + +<p>Mode is that property of a verb which denotes the manner +of an assertion.</p> + +<p>The indicative mode is used in the statement of a fact.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section191"><b>191.</b> In some tenses there is a slight difference between the +singular and the plural form of a verb, hence verbs are said +to have the property of <b>number</b>. We should always use the +verb form that agrees with the number of the subject. In +the present tense, for example, we say in the singular, “The +man <i>goes</i>;” and in the plural, “The men <i>go</i>.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section192"><b>192.</b> In some tenses there is a slight difference in the form +of the verb to denote person, hence verbs are said to have the +property of <b>person</b>. In the present perfect tense, we say in +the first person, “I <i>have</i> gone;” and in the third person, +“He <i>has</i> gone.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section193"><b>193.</b> When we give all the forms of a verb in the three persons +and the two numbers of each tense, we are said to <b>conjugate</b> +the verb.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section194"><b>194.</b> Conjugation of the verb <i>be</i> in the indicative mode:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I am</td> + <td>we are</td> + <td>I was</td> + <td>we were</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou art</td> + <td>you are</td> + <td>thou wast</td> + <td>you were</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he is</td> + <td>they are</td> + <td>he was</td> + <td>they were</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I shall be</td> + <td>we shall be</td> + <td>I have been</td> + <td>we have been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou wilt be</td> + <td>you will be</td> + <td>thou hast been</td> + <td>you have been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he will be</td> + <td>they will be</td> + <td>he has been</td> + <td>they have been</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I had been</td> + <td>we had been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou hadst been</td> + <td>you had been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he had been</td> + <td>they had been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I shall have been</td> + <td>we shall have been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou wilt have been</td> + <td>you will have been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he will have been</td> + <td>they will have been</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section195"><b>195.</b> Conjugation of <i>see</i> in the indicative mode:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I see</td> + <td>we see</td> + <td>I saw</td> + <td>we saw</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou seest</td> + <td>you see</td> + <td>thou sawest</td> + <td>you saw</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he sees</td> + <td>they see</td> + <td>he saw</td> + <td>they saw</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I shall see</td> + <td>we shall see</td> + <td>I have seen</td> + <td>we have seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou wilt see</td> + <td>you will see</td> + <td>thou hast seen</td> + <td>you have seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he will see</td> + <td>they will see</td> + <td>he has seen</td> + <td>they have seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I had seen</td> + <td>we had seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou hadst seen</td> + <td>you had seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he had seen</td> + <td>they had seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I shall have seen</td> + <td>we shall have seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou wilt have seen</td> + <td>you will have seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he will have seen</td> + <td>they will have seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, <a href="#Page_126">p. 126</a>, in +the six tenses of the Indicative Mode.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LI">LI. THE INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section196"><b>196.</b> The indicative mode is used not only in stating facts, +but also in asking questions. In interrogative sentences the +order of the words that make up the verb is changed somewhat. +In a simple statement we say, <i>I have paid</i>. In a question we +say, <i>Have I paid?</i> putting the auxiliary before the subject.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section197"><b>197.</b> Conjugation of <i>be</i> in the indicative mode, interrogative +form:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>am I</td> + <td>are we</td> + <td>was I</td> + <td>were we</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>art thou</td> + <td>are you</td> + <td>wast thou</td> + <td>were you</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>is he</td> + <td>are they</td> + <td>was he</td> + <td>were they</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>shall I be</td> + <td>shall we be</td> + <td>have I been</td> + <td>have we been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>wilt thou be</td> + <td>will you be</td> + <td>hast thou been</td> + <td>have you been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>will he be</td> + <td>will they be</td> + <td>has he been</td> + <td>have they been</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>had I been</td> + <td>had we been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>hadst thou been</td> + <td>had you been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>had he been</td> + <td>had they been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>shall I have been</td> + <td>shall we have been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>wilt thou have been</td> + <td>will you have been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>will he have been</td> + <td>will they have been</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section198"><b>198.</b> When we use the present and past tenses of any verb +except <i>be</i> for asking questions, we do not say <i>sings she?</i> or +<i>sang she?</i> but <i>does she sing?</i> <i>did she sing?</i> that is, we use the +auxiliaries <i>do</i> and <i>did</i>.</p> + +<p>Conjugate the verb <i>see</i> in the indicative mode, interrogative +form.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, <a href="#Page_126">p. 126</a>, in +the indicative mode, interrogative form.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section199"><b>199.</b> The use of the negative word <i>not</i> after a verb gives +rise to many contractions which are permissible in familiar +conversation. The contractions for which incorrect forms +are often used are the following:—</p> + +<ul> + <li>isn’t</li> + <li>wasn’t</li> + <li>aren’t</li> + <li>weren’t</li> + <li>don’t</li> + <li>doesn’t</li> + <li>haven’t</li> + <li>hasn’t</li> +</ul> + +<p>There is no contraction for <i>am not</i>; the word <i>ain’t</i> is incorrect.</p> + +<p>Contractions are oftenest misused in questions. Notice +the following correct forms:—</p> + +<ul> + <li>Isn’t it too bad?</li> + <li>Isn’t he tall?</li> + <li>Isn’t she pretty?</li> + <li>Aren’t you cold?</li> + <li>Aren’t they coming?</li> + <li>Wasn’t it long?</li> + <li>Weren’t you there?</li> + <li>Weren’t they slow?</li> + <li>Don’t you believe me?</li> + <li>Doesn’t it hurt?</li> + <li>Doesn’t she work hard?</li> + <li>Doesn’t he like it?</li> + <li>Haven’t you been there?</li> + <li>Hasn’t he any friends?</li> +</ul> + +<p>We should be careful never to say, <i>you was</i> or <i>was you</i>; +for the pronoun <i>you</i>, even when it denotes one person, is +followed by a verb in the plural form. We should say, +“You <i>were</i> late,” “<i>Were you</i> late?” “<i>Weren’t you</i> late?”</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LII">LII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section200"><b>200.</b> When we say, “If I were you, I should be a doctor,” +we have a dependent proposition, <i>If I were you</i>, which states +not a fact, but an imaginary condition. This condition is, +moreover, directly contrary to fact, for I am not you, and +never can be. The verb used in expressing such a condition +is said to be in the <b>subjunctive</b> mode.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section201"><b>201.</b> The subjunctive mode is found not only in dependent +propositions introduced by if, but in those introduced by +<i>lest</i>, <i>whether</i>, <i>although</i>, etc.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>(a) Be quiet lest the baby <i>wake</i>.</p> + +<p>(b) We cannot tell whether he <i>be</i> the rightful heir or not.</p> + +<p>(c) Though he <i>wait</i> long, yet he will come at last.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In each of these sentences the subjunctive mode is used to +express doubt or uncertainty, or something imagined but +not actually realized.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section202"><b>202.</b> The subjunctive mode is so named because it is found +principally in dependent, or subjoined propositions. It is, +however, found also in independent propositions expressing a +wish; as, “Long <i>live</i> the King!” “God <i>bless</i> thee, dear!”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section203"><b>203.</b> The subjunctive mode is used in the statement of +something that is uncertain; as, “If he <i>come</i> in time, dinner +will be served at six.” This sentence means that his coming +is to take place in the future, hence we cannot tell whether +it will be a fact or not. In the sentence, “If he <i>comes</i> in +time, dinner is served at six,” we use the indicative mode +because we mean that sometimes he really does come in time.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section204"><b>204.</b> The subjunctive mode is little used, especially in +conversation; but we find many instances of it in the Bible +and in the works of Shakespeare, hence we should understand +its meaning. Nowadays, except to express a wish, as, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>“Heaven <i>defend</i> thee!” and to express a condition contrary +to fact, as, “If the ring <i>were</i> gold, it would not discolor your +finger,” most persons use the indicative mode or some other +verb phrase. Instead of saying, “If to-morrow <i>be</i> fair,” +most persons say, “If to-morrow <i>is</i> fair,” or “If to-morrow +<i>should be</i> fair.” (See <a href="#LXI">Lesson LXI</a>.)</p> + +<p class="section" id="section205"><b>205.</b> There are four tenses in the subjunctive mode, but +the forms do not differ greatly from those of the indicative +mode. There is no interrogative form.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section206"><b>206.</b> Conjugation of <i>be</i> in the subjunctive mode:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I be</td> + <td>we be</td> + <td>I were</td> + <td>we were</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>you be</td> + <td>you be</td> + <td>thou were</td> + <td>you were</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he be</td> + <td>they be</td> + <td>he were</td> + <td>they were</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I have been</td> + <td>we have been</td> + <td>I had been</td> + <td>we had been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou have been</td> + <td>you have been</td> + <td>thou had been</td> + <td>you had been</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he have been</td> + <td>they have been</td> + <td>he had been</td> + <td>they had been</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section207"><b>207.</b> Conjugation of <i>see</i> in the subjunctive mode:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I see</td> + <td>we see</td> + <td>I saw</td> + <td>we saw</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou see</td> + <td>you see</td> + <td>thou saw</td> + <td>you saw</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he see</td> + <td>they see</td> + <td>he saw</td> + <td>they saw</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I have seen</td> + <td>we have seen</td> + <td>I had seen</td> + <td>we had seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou have seen</td> + <td>you have seen</td> + <td>thou had seen</td> + <td>you had seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he have seen</td> + <td>they have seen</td> + <td>he had seen</td> + <td>they had seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The <b>subjunctive mode</b> is used in an exclamative +sentence to express a wish, and in a dependent proposition +to express something contrary to fact or something +uncertain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span></p> + +<p>The subjunctive mode has no future tenses.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Conjugate all the verbs in Exercise 2, <a href="#Page_126">p. 126</a>, +in the subjunctive mode.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select all the verbs in the subjunctive mode +in these sentences, and tell why that mode is used:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Misery loves company—even though it be very poor company.</p> + +<p>2. If the weather be fine, there breaks upon the eye, as we rise +higher and higher, a succession of those views of mountain, lake +and forest, which can be had only from an elevated position.</p> + +<p>3. The Lord be between thee and me when we are absent one +from the other.</p> + +<p>4. If the whole world were put into one scale and my mother +into the other, the world could not outweigh her.</p> + +<p>5. If a boy were obliged to work at nut gathering in order to +procure food for the family, he would find it very irksome.</p> + +<p>6.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Green be the turf above thee,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Friend of my better days!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>7. John convinces himself that he must watch the hawk lest it +pounce upon the chicken.</p> + +<p>8. If chicadee seem preoccupied or absorbed, you may know that +he is building a nest.</p> + +<p>9. If I were a millionaire, city life would be agreeable enough, +for I could always get away from it.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">And Death, whenever he come to me,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Shall come on the wide, unbounded sea.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. In their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou +dash thy foot against a stone.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Christ save us all from a death like this,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">On the reef of Norman’s Woe!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>13. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride.</p> + +<p>14. God be merciful to us, and bless us, and show us the light of +his countenance.</p> + +<p>15. If a man say that he hath no sin, he deceiveth himself, and +the truth is not in him.</p> + +<p>16. If he had told the truth, somebody would have believed him.</p> + +<p>17. If impressment were the law of the world, if it formed part +of the code of nations and were usually practiced, then it might be +defended as a common right.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIII">LIII. THE IMPERATIVE MODE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section208"><b>208.</b> We learned in <a href="#XIV">Lesson XIV</a> that sentences expressing +a command or an entreaty are called imperative sentences; +that the subject of the verb in an imperative sentence is a +pronoun of the second person,—<i>you</i>, <i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i>; and that +this subject is seldom expressed. The verb in an imperative +sentence is said to be in the <b>imperative mode</b>; as, “<i>Sleep</i>, +baby, <i>sleep</i>.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section209"><b>209.</b> There is only one form for the imperative mode, hence +it is not said to have tense at all.</p> + +<p>Conjugation of <i>be</i> in the imperative mode:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>be (<i>you</i> or <i>thou</i>)</td> + <td>be (<i>you</i> or <i>ye</i>)</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Conjugation of <i>see</i> in the imperative mode:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>see (<i>you</i> or <i>thou</i>)</td> + <td>see (<i>you</i> or <i>ye</i>)</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The <b>imperative mode</b> is used in expressing a +command or an entreaty. It has but one form. Its subject +is always the pronoun <i>you</i>, <i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—From these sentences select the verbs in the +imperative mode. Conjugate these verbs in the indicative, +subjunctive, and imperative modes.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Ring, happy bells, across the snow.</p> + +<p>2. Break, break, break, on thy cold, gray stones, O sea!</p> + +<p>3. Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.</p> + +<p>4. Run upstairs and get my glasses.</p> + +<p>5. Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks.</p> + +<p>6.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul!</div> + <div class="verse indent0">As the swift seasons roll.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Leave thy low-vaulted past,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Let each new temple, nobler than the last,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast....</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span></p> + +<p>7. Laugh, and the world laughs with you.</p> + +<p>8.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Work till the last beam fadeth,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Fadeth to shine no more.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>9. Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I +will give you rest.</p> + +<p>10. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might.</p> + +<p>11. Suffer the little children, and forbid them not to come unto +me, for of such is the kingdom of heaven.</p> + +<p>12. Honor thy father and thy mother.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Tell me not in mournful numbers</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Life is but an empty dream.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>Find all the terms of address in the sentences above.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIV">LIV. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section210"><b>210.</b> If we examine the conjugation of the verb <i>see</i>, we +shall discover that most of the tenses are formed by the use +of auxiliary verbs, and that only four forms of the verb <i>see</i> +itself are made use of; namely, <i>see</i>, <i>sees</i>, <i>saw</i>, <i>seen</i>. The +form <i>sees</i> occurs only once, but the other three forms occur +often. These three forms—<i>see</i>, <i>saw</i>, <i>seen</i>—are called the +<b>principal parts</b> of the verb <i>see</i>.</p> + +<p>The principal parts of any verb are the present indicative, +as, <i>go</i>, <i>take</i>; the past indicative, as, <i>went</i>, <i>took</i>; and another +form, as, <i>gone</i>, <i>taken</i>, called the <b>past participle</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section211"><b>211.</b> The past participle is used in forming all the perfect +tenses. It is plain, then, that we should say <i>I have gone</i> (not +<i>have went</i>), <i>I had taken</i> (not <i>had took</i>); since <i>went</i> and <i>took</i> +are past tense forms, not past participles.</p> + +<p>The past participle is never used in the primary tenses. +That is why we say <i>I saw</i> (not <i>seen</i>), <i>I did</i> (not <i>done</i>).</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The very common word <i>ought</i> is, as we use it to-day, an +old past tense form of the verb <i>owe</i>, and not a past participle. +Hence, we should say <i>ought to go</i>, or <i>ought not to go</i> (not <i>had ought to +go</i> or <i>hadn’t ought to go</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section212"><b>212.</b> Most verbs form their past tense and past participle +by adding <i>d</i> or <i>ed</i> to the present tense. The past tense and +the past participle of <i>move</i> are <i>moved</i> and <i>moved</i>; of <i>plow</i> are +<i>plowed</i> and <i>plowed</i>; of <i>lift</i> are <i>lifted</i> and <i>lifted</i>. Such verbs +are called <b>regular verbs</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section213"><b>213.</b> Many verbs in very common use form their past tense +or past participle, not by the addition of a suffix, but by some +change within the word, such as a change in the vowel. The +past tense and past participle of <i>sing</i> are <i>sang</i> and <i>sung</i> respectively; +of <i>leave</i> are <i>left</i> and <i>left</i>; of <i>write</i> are <i>wrote</i> and +<i>written</i>. These verbs are called <b>irregular verbs</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section214"><b>214.</b> Some verbs, like <i>put</i> and <i>set</i>, have the same form for +each of their principal parts. These also are irregular verbs.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section215"><b>215.</b> The verb <i>be</i> is very irregular. Its principal parts +are: present tense <i>am</i>, past tense <i>was</i>, past participle <i>been</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section216"><b>216.</b> If we know the proper auxiliaries for the different +tenses, we can conjugate any verb correctly by first ascertaining +its principal parts. These can always be found in a dictionary.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The <b>principal parts</b> of a verb are the present +tense, the past tense, and the past participle.</p> + +<p>A <b>regular verb</b> is one that forms its past tense and past +participle by adding <i>d</i> or <i>ed</i> to the present tense.</p> + +<p>An <b>irregular verb</b> is one whose past tense or past participle +is formed in some other way than by adding <i>d</i> or <i>ed</i> to the +present tense.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Webster’s New International Dictionary gives the +present tense form of every verb. If the verb is irregular, the +dictionary gives also the past tense form preceded by <i>pret.</i>, and the +past participle preceded by <i>p.p.</i> The abbreviation <i>pret.</i> stands for +<i>preterit</i>, which means past tense. If the verb is regular, the abbreviations +are omitted, and the form <i>d</i> or <i>ed</i> is printed but once.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Find in the dictionary the past tense and the +past participle of each of the following verbs. Use the three +forms of each verb correctly in sentences.</p> + +<ul> + <li>awake</li> + <li>bear</li> + <li>beat</li> + <li>begin</li> + <li>bid</li> + <li>bind</li> + <li>bite</li> + <li>bleed</li> + <li>blow</li> + <li>break</li> + <li>bring</li> + <li>build</li> + <li>buy</li> + <li>catch</li> + <li>choose</li> + <li>cling</li> + <li>come</li> + <li>cost</li> + <li>creep</li> + <li>cut</li> + <li>dare</li> + <li>dig</li> + <li>do</li> + <li>draw</li> + <li>drink</li> + <li>drive</li> + <li>eat</li> + <li>fall</li> + <li>feed</li> + <li>fight</li> + <li>find</li> + <li>flee</li> + <li>fling</li> + <li>fly</li> + <li>forget</li> + <li>freeze</li> + <li>get</li> + <li>give</li> + <li>go</li> + <li>grind</li> + <li>grow</li> + <li>hang</li> + <li>have</li> + <li>hide</li> + <li>hit</li> + <li>hold</li> + <li>hurt</li> + <li>keep</li> + <li>kneel</li> + <li>knit</li> + <li>know</li> + <li>lay</li> + <li>lead</li> + <li>lend</li> + <li>let</li> + <li>lie</li> + <li>lose</li> + <li>make</li> + <li>meet</li> + <li>pay</li> + <li>read</li> + <li>ride</li> + <li>ring</li> + <li>rise</li> + <li>run</li> + <li>say</li> + <li>seek</li> + <li>sell</li> + <li>shake</li> + <li>shed</li> + <li>shine</li> + <li>shoot</li> + <li>show</li> + <li>shrink</li> + <li>shut</li> + <li>sink</li> + <li>sit</li> + <li>slay</li> + <li>sleep</li> + <li>slide</li> + <li>sling</li> + <li>smite</li> + <li>speak</li> + <li>spend</li> + <li>spin</li> + <li>spread</li> + <li>spring</li> + <li>stand</li> + <li>steal</li> + <li>stick</li> + <li>sting</li> + <li>stride</li> + <li>strike</li> + <li>string</li> + <li>strive</li> + <li>swear</li> + <li>sweat</li> + <li>sweep</li> + <li>swim</li> + <li>swing</li> + <li>take</li> + <li>tell</li> + <li>think</li> + <li>throw</li> + <li>tread</li> + <li>wear</li> + <li>weave</li> + <li>weep</li> + <li>wet</li> + <li>win</li> + <li>wind</li> + <li>wring</li> +</ul> + +<p class="section" id="section217"><b>217.</b> Many errors are made in using the different forms of +irregular verbs.</p> + +<p>Certain verbs, the meaning and principal parts of which are +somewhat alike, occasion a good deal of trouble to some persons. +The most important of these are <i>lie</i> and <i>lay</i>, <i>sit</i> and +<i>set</i>, and <i>rise</i> and <i>raise</i>. The first word of each pair, <i>lie</i>, <i>sit</i>, +and <i>rise</i> is an intransitive verb. The second verb of each pair, +<i>lay</i>, <i>set</i>, and <i>raise</i>, is a transitive verb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Supply the correct form of <i>lie</i> or <i>lay</i> in each +of these sentences, and give your reason in each case.</p> + +<p><i>Lie</i> means to be at rest in a reclining position.</p> + +<p><i>Lay</i> means to place a thing down in a reclining position.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. —— down, Phiz, and be a good dog.</p> + +<p>2. Phiz —— at the foot of my couch and gazed out of the +nearest window.</p> + +<p>3. After he had —— there an hour or more, he whined to go out +on the street.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span></p> + +<p>4. Phiz brought in a notebook and —— it at my feet.</p> + +<p>5. Go and —— it on your master’s chair, Phiz.</p> + +<p>6. Did the soldiers —— on the damp ground?</p> + +<p>7. This land —— too low for grain fields.</p> + +<p>8. How long has my fan been —— on the window sill?</p> + +<p>9. Grant —— in bed dictating his Memoirs.</p> + +<p>10. The tools have —— here in the wet and are rusted.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Supply the correct form of <i>sit</i> or <i>set</i> in each +of these sentences, and give your reason in each case.</p> + +<p><i>Sit</i> means to be in a sitting position.</p> + +<p><i>Set</i> means to place a thing down in a position of rest.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. By and by we looked in, and there —— Miss Eugene.</p> + +<p>2. Have you —— here long, or did you just come?</p> + +<p>3. I will —— my suit case here, and then —— in your seat.</p> + +<p>4. Why did you —— there so long without speaking?</p> + +<p>5. Father —— the white hen to-day, so she will be —— for about +three weeks.</p> + +<p>6. The little bird —— and sings at his door in the sun.</p> + +<p>7. Who has been —— in my chair?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 3.</b>—Supply the correct form of <i>rise</i> and <i>raise</i> in +each of these sentences, and give your reason in each case.</p> + +<p><i>Rise</i> means to move from a lower to a higher position.</p> + +<p><i>Raise</i> means to cause to rise.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The bread —— very slowly that cold day.</p> + +<p>2. Bread —— because of the yeast in it.</p> + +<p>3. After the bread had ——, we set the pans in the oven.</p> + +<p>4. They —— the old house so as to put a furnace in the cellar.</p> + +<p>5. The Black River —— sixteen inches yesterday.</p> + +<p>6. If the river continues to ——, the dam will go out.</p> + +<p>7. Shall we —— the flag at sunrise?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>The present tense form of some verbs is misused for the +past tense. We should say, “The tailor <i>came</i> (not <i>come</i>) +last night,” “I <i>ran</i> (not <i>run</i>) a mile yesterday,” “And then +he <i>said</i> (not <i>says</i>), ‘Hurry up.’” The verbs oftenest misused +in this way are <i>come</i>, <i>give</i>, <i>run</i>, <i>say</i>, and <i>see</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p> + +<p>Study the following correct sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>He <i>came</i> last night.</p> + +<p>She <i>came</i> to meet me.</p> + +<p>It <i>came</i> without warning.</p> + +<p>I <i>ran</i> a mile yesterday.</p> + +<p>He <i>ran</i> in front of me.</p> + +<p>She <i>ran</i> out of sugar.</p> + +<p>At last he <i>said</i>, “I will go.”</p> + +<p>John <i>said</i>, “The schoolhouse is +on fire.”</p> + +<p>I <i>said</i>, “Ring the bells.”</p> + +<p>He <i>gave</i> me a dollar.</p> + +<p>I <i>gave</i> the child a penny.</p> + +<p>She <i>gave</i> it to me.</p> + +<p>They <i>ran</i> up a bill.</p> + +<p>The dog <i>ran</i> behind.</p> + +<p>The baby <i>ran</i> to his mother.</p> + +<p>I <i>saw</i> the parade yesterday.</p> + +<p>He <i>saw</i> me go out.</p> + +<p>She <i>saw</i> them at the window.</p> + +<p>I <i>came</i>, I <i>saw</i>, I <i>conquered</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Some persons make a wrong past tense for certain verbs, +and use such forms as <i>blowed</i> and <i>drawed</i>, when they should +use <i>blew</i> and <i>drew</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 4.</b>—Supply the correct form for the past tense +in each of these sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. <i>Blow.</i> The wind soon —— the smoke away.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Draw.</i> The boat —— four feet of water.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Grow.</i> Lucy —— too fast to be strong.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Know.</i> Nobody —— the right date but me.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Throw.</i> Who —— the ball last?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Some persons use the past participle of <i>see</i> and <i>do</i> for the +past tense. We should say, “I <i>saw</i> (not <i>seen</i>) my duty, and +I <i>did</i> (not done) it.”</p> + +<p>Study these correct sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I <i>saw</i> the boat go down.</p> + +<p>Who <i>saw</i> the star first?</p> + +<p>We <i>saw</i> the elephant dance.</p> + +<p>He <i>did</i> his own work.</p> + +<p>She <i>did</i> it too fast.</p> + +<p>Everybody <i>did</i> what he could.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Another common error is the use of the past tense of a +verb for the past participle, as in the expressions <i>is broke</i> +and <i>had froze</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 5.</b>—Supply the correct form in each of these +sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. <i>Begin.</i> First we must finish what we have ——.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Break.</i> Dear me! I have —— the bird’s seed dish.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Drink.</i> Have you —— all the milk?</p> + +<p>4. <i>Freeze.</i> If the lagoon is ——, we can go skating.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Steal.</i> Why do you think that the purse was ——?</p> + +<p>6. <i>Swim.</i> Have you ever —— out to the island?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LV">LV. VOICE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section218"><b>218.</b> When we say, “The fish swallowed the worm,” we +have a sentence made up of a subject, a verb, and an object +complement. The subject names the doer of the action, +while the object names the receiver of the action. The verb +<i>swallowed</i> could have nothing for subject but some word that +indicates the doer of the action. How is it with the verbs +<i>broke</i>, <i>struck</i>, <i>whittled</i>? A verb that requires for its subject +the name of the doer of an action is said to be in the <b>active +voice</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section219"><b>219.</b> When we say, “The worm was swallowed by the +fish,” we have a sentence made up of a subject, a verb, and +a prepositional phrase. The subject names the receiver of +the action, and the phrase tells by whom the action was performed. +The verb <i>was swallowed</i> could have nothing for subject +but some word that indicates the receiver of the action. +How is it with the verbs <i>was swept</i>, <i>has been eaten</i>, <i>will be cut</i>? +A verb that requires for its subject the name of the receiver +of the action is said to be in the <b>passive voice</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section220"><b>220.</b> When a verb is changed from the active to the passive +voice, the object of the active verb becomes the subject of +the passive verb. Hence it is evident that only transitive +verbs can have the passive voice.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section221"><b>221.</b> A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the +past participle of the verb to the conjugation of the verb <i>be</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section222"><b>222.</b> Conjugation of the verb <i>see</i> in the passive voice:—</p> + +<p class="center">INDICATIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I am seen</td> + <td>we are seen</td> + <td>I was seen</td> + <td>we were seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou art seen</td> + <td>you are seen</td> + <td>thou wast seen</td> + <td>you were seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he is seen</td> + <td>they are seen</td> + <td>he was seen</td> + <td>they were seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I shall be seen</td> + <td>we shall be seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou wilt be seen</td> + <td>you will be seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he will be seen</td> + <td>they will be seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I have been seen</td> + <td>we have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou hast been seen</td> + <td>you have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he has been seen</td> + <td>they have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I had been seen</td> + <td>we had been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou hadst been seen</td> + <td>you had been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he had been seen</td> + <td>they had been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I shall have been seen</td> + <td>we shall have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou wilt have been seen</td> + <td>you will have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he will have been seen</td> + <td>they will have been seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center">SUBJUNCTIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I be seen</td> + <td>we be seen</td> + <td>I were seen</td> + <td>we were seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou be seen</td> + <td>you be seen</td> + <td>thou were seen</td> + <td>you were seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he be seen</td> + <td>they be seen</td> + <td>he were seen</td> + <td>they were seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I have been seen</td> + <td>we have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou have been seen</td> + <td>you have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he have been seen</td> + <td>they have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I had been seen</td> + <td>we had been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou had been seen</td> + <td>you had been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he had been seen</td> + <td>they had been seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span></p> + +<p class="center">IMPERATIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>be seen (<i>you</i> or <i>thou</i>)</td> + <td>be seen (<i>you</i> or <i>ye</i>)</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section223"><b>223.</b> Conjugation of the verb <i>see</i> in the passive voice, indicative +mode, interrogative form:—</p> + +<p class="center">INDICATIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present</span></th> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>am I seen</td> + <td>are we seen</td> + <td>was I seen</td> + <td>were we seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>art thou seen</td> + <td>are you seen</td> + <td>wast thou seen</td> + <td>were you seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>is he seen</td> + <td>are they seen</td> + <td>was he seen</td> + <td>were they seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>shall I be seen</td> + <td>shall we be seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>shalt thou be seen</td> + <td>shall you be seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>will he be seen</td> + <td>will they be seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>have I been seen</td> + <td>have we been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>hast thou been seen</td> + <td>have you been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>has he been seen</td> + <td>have they been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>had I been seen</td> + <td>had we been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>hadst thou been seen</td> + <td>had you been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>had he been seen</td> + <td>had they been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Future Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>shall I have been seen</td> + <td>shall we have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>shalt thou have been seen</td> + <td>shall you have been seen</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>will he have been seen</td> + <td>will they have been seen</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—<b>Voice</b> is that property of a verb which shows +whether the subject names the doer or the receiver of an action.</p> + +<p>The <b>active voice</b> shows that the subject names the doer of +an action.</p> + +<p>The <b>passive voice</b> shows that the subject names the receiver +of an action.</p> + +<p>A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the +past participle of the verb to the conjugation of the verb <i>be</i>.</p> + +<p>No intransitive verb has a passive voice.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Conjugate the verbs <i>draw</i>, <i>take</i>, <i>find</i>, <i>forget</i>, +and <i>leave</i> in the passive voice, both declaratively and interrogatively.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select the verbs in the following sentences. +Tell whether they are transitive or intransitive. Give the +tense, mode, voice, and subject of each. Change the active +verbs to the passive voice and the passive to the active.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—When the verb is passive, the name of the doer of the +action is often omitted. Sometimes we do not know who the doer +is; as, “The art of printing was invented in China long ago.” +Sometimes we do not wish to tell who the doer is; as, “A window +was broken in the basement yesterday.” Sometimes the subject is +so obvious as not to be worth telling; as, “Lying is despised.” In +changing sentences like these three to the active voice, we must +supply a subject for the verb. For instance, in changing the sentence, +“The pie was cut into four pieces,” we might say, “Mother +cut the pie into four pieces.”</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The babe was conveyed to the church in a grand procession. +The road, all the way, was carpeted with green rushes. Over this +road the little infant Elizabeth was borne by one of her godmothers. +She was wrapped in a mantle of purple velvet, with a long train. +This train was trimmed with ermine, a very costly kind of fur, and +was borne by lords and ladies of high rank. These dignitaries were +appointed for the purpose by the king.</p> + +<p>2. The height of the pinnacle is determined by the breadth of +the base.</p> + +<p>3. Leicester Hospital supports twelve old soldiers and their +wives.</p> + +<p>4. After the housework had been done, they went out to the +sunny garden, and picked the luscious red raspberries, not forgetful +of the time when Mrs. Howe had set out the bushes with her own +hands.</p> + +<p>5. Many of these splendid castles on the Rhine have been +destroyed in modern times.</p> + +<p>6. It is wonderful and beautiful how a man and his dog will +stick to one another through thick and thin.</p> + +<p>7. The door had been very firmly fastened, but the crowd tore +it away bodily, and the light of the torches streamed into the room.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span></p> + +<p>8. This garden is shaded by long lines of trees, and adorned with +fountains and statues.</p> + +<p>9.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Away to the window I flew like a flash,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Tore open the shutters, and threw up the sash.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>10. Elephants are very strictly preserved by the English government.</p> + +<p>11. The farm boy picks up the potatoes after they have been +dug; he drives the cows night and morning; he brings wood and +water and splits kindling; he gets up the horse and puts out the +horse; whether he is in the house or out of it, there is always something +for him to do.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">They who do their souls no wrong,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">But keep at eve the faith of morn,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Shall daily hear the angel song,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">“To-day the Prince of Peace is born.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>13. Mr. Marley has been dead these seven years.</p> + +<p>14. The Peterkins told how their mother had put salt in the +coffee, and how the chemist had made it worse instead of better.</p> + +<p>15. We climbed the Alps, veiled our faces before the awful +splendors of Mont Blanc, trembled on the verge of dizzy heights, +shrank back from fathomless abysses, picked our way across the +<i>Mer de Glace</i>, and cowered beneath the weight of the whole incumbent +mass of mountains as we went through the tunnel.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the part of speech and use of <i>way</i>, sentence 1, <i>forgetful</i> +4, <i>one another</i> 6, <i>open</i> 9, <i>up</i> 9, <i>souls</i> 12, <i>years</i> 13, <i>worse</i> 14.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LVI">LVI. THE PASSIVE VOICE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section224"><b>224.</b> Every combination of some form of the verb <i>be</i> with +the past participle of a transitive verb is not necessarily a +passive verb.</p> + +<p>For example, one passive form of the verb <i>do</i> is <i>is done</i>, but +it does not follow that <i>is done</i> is always a passive verb. In +the sentence, “The meat is done now,” we do not mean that +the meat is receiving an action, hence <i>is done</i> cannot be a +passive verb. We mean to tell the condition of the meat, +that it is <i>done</i> meat. The word <i>done</i> is used in precisely the +same way as an adjective; as if we should say, “The meat is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span><i>good</i> now,” In other words, the participle <i>done</i> is a subjective +complement.</p> + +<p>Past participles are used as subjective complements to tell +the condition of something <i>after</i> an action has been performed +on it; as, “Every window in the house is <i>broken</i>,” “My +dress is badly <i>torn</i>,” “The old house is <i>deserted</i>.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section225"><b>225.</b> When we are in doubt as to whether we have a true +passive verb or not, we may apply these tests: (1) Does +the sentence mean that the subject is acted upon? (2) Can +we add a phrase, telling the performer of the action? (3) Can +we change the sentence to the active voice, keeping, of course, +the same tense?</p> + +<p>Let us take, for instance, the sentence, “Courage is praised.” +We do mean that courage receives the praising. We can +add the phrase <i>by everybody</i>. And we can change the sentence +to the active sentence, “Everybody praises courage.” +Hence <i>is praised</i> is the verb, and is in the passive voice.</p> + +<p>But in the sentence, “Every seat in the balcony is taken,” +if <i>is taken</i> is a passive verb, it must mean, since it is present +tense, that every seat is receiving an action now. It does not +mean this, but it does mean that every seat is a <i>taken</i> seat, +hence <i>taken</i> is used as a subjective complement, and the verb +is just the one word <i>is</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section226"><b>226.</b> We learned in <a href="#XXXVII">Lesson XXXVII</a> that some verbs like +<i>make</i>, <i>elect</i>, <i>appoint</i>, and <i>call</i>, are often followed by a direct +object and an objective complement; as, “We called our +canary Buttercup.”</p> + +<p>When such a sentence is changed to the passive voice, the +direct object becomes, of course, the subject, and we have the +sentence, “Our canary was called Buttercup.” The word +<i>Buttercup</i> has now become a subjective complement. How +do we know this?</p> + +<p>When the objective complement is an adjective, as in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>sentence, “She kept the polished floor as <i>bright</i> as a mirror,” +if we change the sentence to the passive voice, the adjective +becomes a subjective complement; as, “The polished +floor was kept as bright as a mirror.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section227"><b>227.</b> We learned in <a href="#XXXIV">Lesson XXXIV</a> that certain verbs +may be followed by both an indirect and a direct object; as, +“Fred told Arthur the news.”</p> + +<p>In changing this sentence to the passive voice we may use +the direct object for the subject of the passive verb; as, +“The news was told to Arthur by Fred”; or we may use +the indirect object for the subject of the passive verb; as, +“Arthur was told the news by Fred.” In the latter case +we have an idiomatic construction—a passive verb <i>was told</i> +taking a direct object <i>the news</i>. The direct object of a passive +verb is often called a <b>retained object</b>, because it remains +as an object after the sentence has been changed to the passive +voice.</p> + +<p>Not all sentences containing a direct and an indirect object +can be changed to the passive voice in two ways. We +say, “A rose was given to me,” or “I was given a rose.” +We say, “A holiday was promised to the children,” or “The +children were promised a holiday.” But we do not say, “I +was passed the bread,” “I was written a note,” or “I was +poured a cup of tea.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The past participle of a transitive verb may +be used as the subjective complement of some form of the +verb <i>be</i>. In such a case it denotes the condition of the subject.</p> + +<p>When a sentence containing a direct object and an objective +complement is changed to the passive voice, the direct object +becomes the subject, and the objective complement becomes +a subjective complement.</p> + +<p>Some sentences containing both an indirect and a direct +object may be changed to the passive voice in two ways, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>either the direct object or the indirect object becoming the +subject.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select each verb in the following sentences. +Tell its voice, and how it is completed.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the +turtle is heard in the land.</p> + +<p>2. Queen Elizabeth is often familiarly called Queen Bess.</p> + +<p>3. Rebecca’s face was so swollen with tears and so sharp with +misery that for a moment Uncle Jerry scarcely recognized her.</p> + +<p>4. To put it mildly, Mrs. Howe was greatly pleased when she +was elected first president of the Murray Hill Society.</p> + +<p>5. When the eggs had been beaten stiff, the little cook sifted the +sugar.</p> + +<p>6. Christ the Lord is risen to-day.</p> + +<p>7. The colonists were so disheartened and alarmed that they +sailed at once for England.</p> + +<p>8. The youngest girl in the senior class was chosen valedictorian.</p> + +<p>9. When the automobile ran off the bridge, every one was surprised +at the driver’s escape.</p> + +<p>10. The black colt had been named Odin, but he was always +called Teddy.</p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The day is past and gone,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The evening shades appear.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. Those people are mistaken who say that hard work does not +pay—they have never really tried it.</p> + +<p>13. The room was made cool and dark, so that the lady might +sleep.</p> + +<p>14. The roofs of the long red barns, which had been stained green +by the weather, were struck by the level rays of the low, western sun.</p> + +<p>15. The fabric of common order in America is sound and strong +at the center; the pattern is well marked, and the threads are firmly +woven.</p> + +<p>16. Harvard College may be regarded as the legitimate child of +Emmanuel College at Cambridge in England.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Make either one or two passive sentences +out of each sentence in Exercise 2, <a href="#Page_90">page 90</a>. Tell in each +case what becomes of the subject, the direct object, and the +indirect object.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LVII">LVII. THE PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section228"><b>228.</b> We have learned to conjugate verbs both declaratively +and interrogatively, in both the active and the passive voice. +There is another form of conjugation, as shown in the statements, +<i>I am laughing</i>, <i>I was laughing</i>, <i>I shall be laughing</i>, <i>I +have been laughing</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>We use this form of conjugation when we wish to call attention +to the <i>continuance</i> of the action asserted by the verb, and +we call it the <b>progressive conjugation</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section229"><b>229.</b> Just as we use the past participle in conjugating a +verb in the passive voice, so we use the <b>present participle</b> in +conjugating a verb in the progressive form. <i>Laughing</i> is the +present participle of the verb <i>laugh</i>. The present participle +of every verb ends in <i>ing</i>; as, <i>running</i>, <i>hoping</i>, <i>tying</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section230"><b>230.</b> Synopsis of the progressive conjugation of the verb +<i>see</i>:—</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In the <b>synopsis</b> of a conjugation we give only one form +for each tense, instead of six forms.</p> + +<p class="center">INDICATIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td><i>Present</i></td> + <td>I am seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Past</i></td> + <td>I was seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Future</i></td> + <td>I shall be seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Present Perfect</i></td> + <td>I have been seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Past Perfect</i></td> + <td>I had been seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Future Perfect</i></td> + <td>I shall have been seeing</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center">SUBJUNCTIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td><i>Present</i></td> + <td>I be seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Past</i></td> + <td>I were seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Present Perfect</i></td> + <td>I have been seeing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Past Perfect</i></td> + <td>I had been seeing</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center">IMPERATIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>be seeing (you, thou, ye)</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section231"><b>231.</b> The progressive conjugation may be made interrogative +by changing the position of the auxiliary; as, <i>am I seeing?</i> +<i>was I seeing?</i> etc.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The <b>progressive conjugation</b> is used to denote +a continued action.</p> + +<p>It is made by joining the present participle of a given verb +to the conjugation of the verb <i>be</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Conjugate the verbs <i>lift</i>, <i>dine</i>, and <i>get</i> in the +progressive form, both declaratively and interrogatively.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LVIII">LVIII. THE EMPHATIC CONJUGATION</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section232"><b>232.</b> In the indicative mode, present tense, we may say, +<i>I study</i>, which is the common form, or <i>I am studying</i>, which +is the progressive form, or <i>I do study</i>, which is the <b>emphatic +form</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section233"><b>233.</b> The emphatic conjugation is made by using the auxiliary +verb <i>do</i>. It is found only in the present and past tenses +of the indicative mode, and in the imperative mode.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section234"><b>234.</b> Conjugation of the verb <i>try</i> in the emphatic form.</p> + +<p class="center">INDICATIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I do try</td> + <td>we do try</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou dost try</td> + <td>you do try</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he does try</td> + <td>they do try</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I did try</td> + <td>we did try</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou didst try</td> + <td>you did try</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he did try</td> + <td>they did try</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center">IMPERATIVE MODE</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>do try (thou, you, or ye)</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section235"><b>235.</b> The two tenses of the indicative mode, emphatic +form, may be made interrogative, as we learned in <a href="#LI">Lesson LI</a>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section236"><b>236.</b> The emphatic form is used for other purposes than +for emphasis. It is generally used instead of the ordinary +forms when the adverb <i>not</i> modifies the predicate. We say, +“I do not love thee, Dr. Fell,” instead of “I love thee not.” +And in the imperative mode with <i>not</i> we say, “Do not run +with the ball,” instead of “Run not with the ball.”</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIX">LIX. PARSING OF VERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section237"><b>237.</b> When we parse a verb, we should tell,—</p> + +<p>(1) Its class as to form,—regular or irregular.</p> + +<p>(2) Its principal parts.</p> + +<p>(3) Its class as to use,—transitive or intransitive.</p> + +<p>(4) Its voice,—active or passive.</p> + +<p>(5) Its mode,—indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.</p> + +<p>(6) Its tense.</p> + +<p>(7) Its person.</p> + +<p>(8) Its number.</p> + +<p>(9) Its form of conjugation,—interrogative, progressive, +or emphatic.</p> + +<p>(10) Its simple subject.</p> + +<p>(11) Its complement (if any),—direct object, subjective +complement, or objective complement.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Parse each verb in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What are you smiling at, Lady Mother?</p> + +<p>2. The shades were lowered at the windows, the lamps were +lighted, the great family table was drawn towards the fire.</p> + +<p>3. When he went out from the village at the head of his men one +fine day, while the sun was shining brightly, and the birds were +singing, he did not neglect a single one of the many things which +he had been told always brought good luck to the hunting.</p> + +<p>4. “No,” said Mrs. Howe, “I don’t enjoy moving, but the +children do. They have been transporting clocks, and pictures, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>and lamps all the forenoon, when they haven’t been loading the +dray, but they don’t seem a bit tired.”</p> + +<p>5. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose +his own soul?</p> + +<p>6. Child, was not your father called Mustapha the tailor?</p> + +<p>7. Do look at those gateposts!</p> + +<p>8. The hens had been mysteriously disappearing for over a +month.</p> + +<p>9. Stir not a step till I come again.</p> + +<p>10. Do you wonder that I missed a word in spelling?</p> + +<p>11. Son, have any told thee that thou art beautiful beyond all +men?</p> + +<p>12. Hadn’t you been putting on airs?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LX">LX. THE AUXILIARY VERBS <i>SHALL</i> AND <i>WILL</i></h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section238"><b>238.</b> In conjugating a verb in the future tense, indicative +mode, we make use of the auxiliaries <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>.</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th><i>Singular</i></th> + <th><i>Plural</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I shall go</td> + <td>we shall go</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou wilt go</td> + <td>you will go</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he will go</td> + <td>they will go</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>These verb phrases express simple futurity,—they assert +an intention on the part of the person indicated by the subject, +but not a promise.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section239"><b>239.</b> We have another set of verb phrases belonging to +the future tense, indicative mode:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>I will go</td> + <td>we will go</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>thou shalt go</td> + <td>you shall go</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>he shall go</td> + <td>they shall go</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>These phrases are used to express a promise, a vow, or a +threat on the part of the speaker; that is, the speaker will see +to it that the action is carried out. There is more of certainty +in these phrases than in those of the first set.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section240"><b>240.</b> <i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i> with <i>have</i> are used also in forming the +future perfect tense; as, <i>I shall have gone</i>, <i>he will have come</i>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>etc. There is much less occasion to use the future perfect +tense than there is to use the simple future tense, so we shall +discuss the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> only in the future tense. +When that is mastered, the future perfect tense will present +no difficulties.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section241"><b>241.</b> Frequent errors are made in the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>. +Perhaps the commonest occur in interrogative sentences. +Many persons say carelessly, “Will I open this window for +you?” This question means, “Am I going to open this +window for you?” and the only possible answer is, “I am +sure I don’t know.” What is really intended by the question +is this, “Do you wish me to open this window?” hence we +should say, “<i>Shall</i> I open this window for you?” The rule +is,—When the subject of an interrogative sentence is <i>I</i> or +<i>we</i>, the auxiliary <i>shall</i> should be used instead of <i>will</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section242"><b>242.</b> In questions where the subject is a word of the second +or the third person, we should use in the question the form we +expect in the answer. A boy should say to his employer, +“Shall you be in your office this afternoon?” because he +expects the reply, “I shall,” meaning, “I intend to be there.” +But a boy says to another boy, “Will you pitch for us to-morrow?” +because he expects the reply, “I will,” meaning +“I promise.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—Rules for the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>:—</p> + +<p>(1) To assert simple futurity use <i>shall</i> in the first person, +and <i>will</i> in the second and third persons.</p> + +<p>(2) To assert determination, a promise, or a threat, use +<i>will</i> in the first person, <i>shall</i> in the second and third +persons.</p> + +<p>(3) In questions use <i>shall</i> in the first person. In the second +and third persons use <i>will</i> or <i>shall</i> according to the answer +you should get. The form of the answer is to be determined +by rules 1 and 2.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Account for the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> in the +following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. “What shall we do next?” said I, with a long breath.</p> + +<p>2. Thou shalt hang for laying thy hand upon me.</p> + +<p>3. Will you please tell me whether Mrs. Josiah Wheeler lives +on this road?</p> + +<p>4. You shall have a birthday party on the lawn, and I will +make you a soldier suit, and papa will get you a drum, and the +supper table shall be set under the balm-of-Gilead tree.</p> + +<p>5. “No,” said the fairy, “this is my ax, and it shall lie upon the +shelf, while you must dive for yours, yourself.”</p> + +<p>6. “We will come into the crop lands to play with thee by +night,” said Gray Brother to Mowgli.</p> + +<p>7. Blessed are the peacemakers; for they shall be called the +children of God.</p> + +<p>8. The first social problem is the problem of rule: who shall +exercise it, how far shall it go, and by what means shall it be enforced?</p> + +<p>9. Whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it.</p> + +<p>10. Let us rest ourselves, and then we shall be better able to +pursue our walk.</p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">When shall we three meet again</div> + <div class="verse indent0">In thunder, lightning, or in rain?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, whence cometh my +strength.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Who will fill our vacant places?</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Who will sing our songs to-night?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The daisies will be there, love.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The stars in heaven will shine;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">But I shall not feel thy wish, love,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Nor thou my hand in thine.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the part of speech and use of <i>thy</i>, sentence 2, <i>me</i> 3, +<i>you</i> 4, <i>this</i> 5, <i>yours</i> 5, <i>yourself</i> 5, <i>children</i> 7, <i>we</i> 11, <i>mine</i> 12.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary, +and give your reason in each case.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. O mother dear, Jerusalem, when —— I come to thee?</p> + +<p>2.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">We —— meet, but we —— miss him,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">There —— be one vacant chair.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span></p> + +<p>3. There is no market in the world in which money —— buy +brains.</p> + +<p>4. You —— always have this little blue Wedgwood tea set to +remember her by.</p> + +<p>5. —— you wear the hat even if it is not becoming?</p> + +<p>6. I —— know him when he comes, happy youth.</p> + +<p>7. —— you get my watch that was left at the jeweler’s?</p> + +<p>8.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Oh, who —— walk a mile with me</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Along life’s merry way?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>9. If you do not promise to be home before midnight, you —— +not go to the ball.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Three years she grew in sun and shower,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Then Nature said, “A lovelier flower</div> + <div class="verse indent0">On earth was never sown;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">This Child I to myself —— take;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">She —— be mine, and I —— make</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A Lady of my own.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza1"> + <div class="verse indent0">“The stars of midnight —— be dear</div> + <div class="verse indent0">To her; and she —— lean her ear</div> + <div class="verse indent0">In many a secret place</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Where rivulets dance their wayward round,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And beauty born of murmuring sound</div> + <div class="verse indent0">—— pass into her face.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent2">“And vital feelings of delight</div> + <div class="verse indent0">—— rear her form to stately height,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Her virgin bosom swell;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Such thoughts to Lucy I —— give</div> + <div class="verse indent0">While she and I together live</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Here in this happy dell.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXI">LXI. DEFECTIVE VERBS. VERB PHRASES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section243"><b>243.</b> Some verbs lack one or more of their principal parts. +Such verbs are called <b>defective verbs</b>.</p> + +<p>A very common defective verb, which has only one form, +is <i>ought</i>. (See <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>.)</p> + +<p>Other defective verbs are <i>can</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>shall</i>, and <i>will</i>. +The past tense forms of these verbs are <i>could</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>must, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>should</i>, and <i>would</i>, respectively. No one of these verbs is +ever used as a principal verb, except <i>would</i>, as in the familiar +expressions, “I <i>would</i> I were a bird,” “<i>Would</i> that he were +here!”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section244"><b>244.</b> <i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i> are used as auxiliary verbs to form the +future tenses. <i>Can</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>should</i>, and +<i>would</i> are used to form certain very useful verb phrases that +are in the present, the past, or the future perfect tense, and +in either the indicative or the subjunctive mode according to +their meaning.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section245"><b>245.</b> Using these verb phrases in the indicative mode we +say,—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>I <i>may go</i> to Japan.</td> + <td>He <i>may have gone</i> home early.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I <i>can see</i> seven stars.</td> + <td>It <i>cannot have come</i> yet.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>We <i>must go</i> early.</td> + <td>He <i>must have sold</i> it.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>You <i>might hurry</i> a little.</td> + <td>We <i>might have hurried</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>He <i>could not tell</i> a lie.</td> + <td>I <i>could have eaten</i> more.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>She <i>would talk</i> in church.</td> + <td>He <i>would have helped</i> me.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>We <i>should honor</i> the flag.</td> + <td>You <i>should have earned</i> it.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>If we look closely at the meaning of these sentences, and +think of others containing the same auxiliaries, we shall conclude +(1) that <i>may</i> and <i>might</i> denote possibility or permission, +(2) that <i>can</i> and <i>could</i> denote power or ability, (3) that +<i>must</i> denotes necessity, (4) that <i>would</i> denotes determination, +(5) that <i>should</i> denotes obligation or duty.</p> + +<p>Any one of the verb phrases just studied may be made interrogative +by transposition; as,—<i>May I borrow</i> your knife?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section246"><b>246.</b> <i>Can</i> and <i>must</i> are used only in the indicative mode. +Using <i>may</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>would</i>, and <i>should</i> in subjunctive +verb phrases, we say,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Long <i>may</i> it <i>wave</i>!</p> + +<p>Oh, that he <i>would help</i>!</p> + +<p>Though he <i>might be telling</i> the truth, he would not be believed.</p> + +<p>If I <i>could go</i> with father, I should be happy.</p> + +<p>If it <i>should freeze</i>, we could go skating.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p> + +<p>If we look closely at these sentences, we shall see that the +verbs denote (1) a wish, (2) something contrary to fact, (3) +something uncertain. (See <a href="#LII">Lesson LII</a>.)</p> + +<p class="section" id="section247"><b>247.</b> The seven auxiliaries just studied may be used in +making passive verb phrases. Use the following phrases or +similar ones in sentences:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>may be broken</td> + <td>may have been taken</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>can be cut</td> + <td>can have been heard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>must be paid</td> + <td>must have been bought</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>might be driven</td> + <td>might have been kept</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>could be seen</td> + <td>could have been done</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>would be hurt</td> + <td>would have been stung</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>should be met</td> + <td>should have been thrown</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section248"><b>248.</b> Other verb phrases in very common use in speech are +formed by means of the participle <i>going</i>. It is easy to imagine +the following conversation as really taking place.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>“I <i>am going to go</i> to Niagara Falls next summer.”</p> + +<p>“Why, <i>you were going to go</i> there last summer. In fact, you +<i>have been going to go</i> there every summer since I have known you.”</p> + +<p>“True enough. My intentions are good, but my purse is light. +Perhaps I <i>shall be going to go</i> all my life, and then get to heaven first +after all.”</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Each of the four groups of italicized words is a verb phrase +denoting an intention. Make ten similar phrases; as, <i>am +going to sing</i>, <i>was going to eat</i>. Notice that <i>going</i> does not +denote the act of going anywhere to sing or to eat, as it does +in “I am going to the Park to hear the band play,” but +only the <i>purpose</i> or <i>intention</i> of singing or eating.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section249"><b>249.</b> Just as we denote an intended future action by using +the word <i>going</i>, so we often denote a customary past action +by a phrase in which we employ the verb <i>used</i>; as, “She +<i>used to wear</i> a little red cape,” “Johnson <i>used to touch</i> every +fence post that he passed.” The italicized words should +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>not be separated here, but should be considered as one group +or verb phrase.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section250"><b>250.</b> In speaking of any of the verb phrases described in +this lesson, we may call them verbs; we decide their person +and number by their subject, their voice and mode by their +meaning, and their tense by their form.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section251"><b>251.</b> The verbs <i>have</i> and <i>do</i> are not always auxiliaries. +They are sometimes principal verbs, and as such are conjugated +in the various ways. What are the principal parts of +<i>have?</i> of <i>do</i>?</p> + +<p>Conjugate <i>have</i> in the indicative mode; <i>do</i> in the emphatic +form; <i>have</i> in the progressive form; <i>do</i> in the passive voice, +in the third person, singular number, using <i>it</i> for the subject.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section252"><b>252.</b> Verbs like <i>rain</i>, <i>snow</i>, <i>hail</i>, etc., are sometimes called +<b>impersonal verbs</b>, because they are used only in the third +person singular with the pronoun <i>it</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>defective verb</b> is one that lacks one or +more of its principal parts.</p> + +<p>Defective verbs are used as auxiliary verbs.</p> + +<p>The auxiliaries <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>would</i>, and +<i>should</i> are used to form certain common verb phrases.</p> + +<p>These verb phrases may be active or passive, declarative +or interrogative, indicative or subjunctive mode, present, +past, or present perfect tense.</p> + +<p><i>Going</i> is used to form verb phrases that denote a future or +intended action.</p> + +<p><i>Used</i> is employed to form verb phrases that denote a customary +past action.</p> + +<p><i>Have</i> and <i>do</i> may be principal verbs as well as auxiliary verbs.</p> + +<p><b>Impersonal verbs</b> are used only in the third person singular, +with the neuter pronoun <i>it</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select all the verb phrases in the following +sentences. Tell their voice, person, number, subject, and +complement if they have any.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What a bird it must be that could utter such wondrous +sounds!</p> + +<p>2. From time to time the two rabbits would halt, sit up on their +hind quarters, erect their long, attentive ears, and glance about +warily with their bulging eyes.</p> + +<p>3.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The rich man’s son inherits cares;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The bank may break, the factory burn,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A breath may burst his bubble shares,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And soft white hands could hardly earn</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A living that would serve his turn.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>4. All the girls in the class are going to wear pink chambray +dresses, and mother is going to make mine by hand.</p> + +<p>5. We can go by the North Road, the South Road, or the +Middle Road.</p> + +<p>6. Instead of candy, mother used to give him sugar in a cup, +and then he would stretch out on the sunny doorstep and feed his +sweet crystals to the flies.</p> + +<p>7. The Cottontails were now sole owners of the holes, and did +not go near them when they could help it, lest anything like a +path should be made that might betray their last retreats to an +enemy.</p> + +<p>8. If you are going to make orange marmalade to-morrow, you +must peel the oranges this evening.</p> + +<p>9. I should think that something might be done about covering +the cow’s horns; perhaps they might be padded with cotton.</p> + +<p>10. Governor Winthrop wrote his third wife tender messages in +a way that could only have come of long practice.</p> + +<p>11. The children used to stand at the window in the twilight, and +watch the lights appear in the houses; and when they had counted +ten, they used to clap their hands, and say, “Now, mother, it is time +to light the lamp.”</p> + +<p>12. On the usual crisp mornings of sugar season the snow at such +an hour would have borne a crust to crackle sharply under every +footstep.</p> + +<p>13. I had not told the horse that I was going to whip him, so he +was taken by surprise and started forward.</p> + +<p>14. Grandpa would not be helped into his overcoat.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select all the verb phrases containing any +form of <i>have</i> or <i>do</i>. Tell whether this form is used as an auxiliary +or as a principal verb.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Shere Khan does us great honor.</p> + +<p>2. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember +the Kaatskill Mountains.</p> + +<p>3. Do you ever wonder how so much sin and wrong and suffering +can be in God’s world?</p> + +<p>4. Mother never forgot the millionaire’s daughter who said that +she did up her father’s shirts.</p> + +<p>5. All the Offal Court boys had this same hard time, so Tom +supposed it was the correct and comfortable thing.</p> + +<p>6. Where does amber get its strange, poetic charm?</p> + +<p>7. I never had the pleasure of meeting a crowing hen; but I +have known a great many whistling girls, and I cannot recall an +instance where their ends were any worse than those of other girls.</p> + +<p>8. If I could have committed suicide without killing myself, +I should certainly have done so.</p> + +<p>9. She had eaten as many mouthfuls of breakfast as she possibly +could in her excited condition, had kissed everybody good-by twice +over, and now thought it was time to be starting.</p> + +<p>10. I can’t write a composition unless I have something to say, +can I?</p> + +<p>11. On these hard, smooth roads one horse will do the work of +two.</p> + +<p>12. I do not feel wholly sure that my Pussy wrote these letters +herself.</p> + +<p>13. The Boy had no fear of the undisputed Master of the Woods, +the big black bear.</p> + +<p>14. Do the duty that lies nearest thee; thy second duty will +already have become clearer.</p> + +<p>15. Jakie had been stolen from the nest before he could fly.</p> + +<p>16. I do wish that you and your father would turn around +directly and come home.</p> + +<p>17. Jane had had the inestimable advantage of a sorrow.</p> + +<p>18. The old bell had things all its own way up in the steeple.</p> + +<p>19. Boys always do the nice splendid things, and girls can only +do the nasty dull ones that get left over.</p> + +<p>20. After the twins had had measles and mumps, whooping cough +descended on the household.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p> + +<p>Tell the part of speech and use of <i>us</i>, sentence 1, <i>honor</i> 1, +<i>shirts</i> 4, <i>same</i> 5, <i>great</i> 7, <i>two</i> 11, <i>wholly</i> 12, <i>herself</i> 12, <i>bear</i> 13, +<i>clearer</i> 14, <i>father</i> 16, <i>home</i> 16.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section253"><b>253.</b> Many errors are made in the use of the auxiliaries +<i>may</i> and <i>can</i>, <i>would</i> and <i>should</i>.</p> + +<p>We should use <i>may</i> to denote permission, liberty, or possibility, +and <i>can</i> to denote power or ability.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Supply the correct word in each of these +sentences, and give your reason in each case:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What —— I do to help you?</p> + +<p>2. You —— have a watch when you graduate.</p> + +<p>3. I —— go by boat, but it is doubtful.</p> + +<p>4. —— you run an automobile?</p> + +<p>5. —— we have a school paper?</p> + +<p>6. Do you think that I —— earn ten dollars a week?</p> + +<p>7. Fred, you —— open the east windows.</p> + +<p>8. If we walk fast, we —— surely get there in time.</p> + +<p>9. We —— get there in time, but we shall have to hurry.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Make three good sentences containing <i>may</i> and three containing +<i>can</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Would</i> is used to denote,—</p> + +<p>(1) Determination; as, “Albert <i>would</i> leave school.”</p> + +<p>(2) Inclination; as, “I <i>would</i> read more if I could.”</p> + +<p>(3) Customary past action; as, “We <i>would</i> listen to her +songs hour after hour.”</p> + +<p><i>Should</i> is used to denote,—</p> + +<p>(1) Simple intention; as, “I <i>should</i> come often if you did +not live so far.”</p> + +<p>(2) Obligation or duty; as, “We <i>should</i> honor our parents.” +Perhaps these auxiliaries are oftenest misused when associated +with the verb <i>like</i>. The expression, “I would like to +go,” is wrong, because it means “I am inclined or determined +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>to like something,” which is not good sense. We +should say,—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>I should like to go</td> + <td>We should like to go</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>You would like to go</td> + <td>You would like to go</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>He would like to go</td> + <td>They would like to go</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>In a dependent clause <i>should</i> denotes merely an imaginary +condition, and <i>would</i> denotes inclination as well as an imaginary +condition.</p> + +<p>The clauses, “If I should lose my watch,” “If you should +lose your watch,” “If he should lose his watch,” are equivalent +to the present tense of the subjunctive mode, and denote +merely an imaginary condition.</p> + +<p>The clauses, “If I would study harder,” “if you would +study harder,” “if he would study harder,” denote an imaginary +condition that may become real according to the inclination +of the subject.</p> + +<p>What is the meaning of the familiar dependent clause in +the following sentence: “If it would only snow, we could +have a sleigh ride?”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Supply the correct word in each of these sentences, +and give your reason in each case:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. You —— study the text before you undertake the exercise.</p> + +<p>2. What —— you do with him, Mr. Dick?</p> + +<p>3. I —— wash him and put him to bed.</p> + +<p>4. Neither of the boys —— obey me.</p> + +<p>5. As soon as day broke, the canary —— begin to sing.</p> + +<p>6. I —— like to meet your grandfather.</p> + +<p>7. Any girl —— be satisfied with two new hats.</p> + +<p>8. They —— all like to come, I am sure.</p> + +<p>9. I —— not take one cent of his money.</p> + +<p>10. I —— think that you —— be glad to work.</p> + +<p>11. Each man —— keep himself loyal to truth.</p> + +<p>12. If I —— tell the story, the children —— not be satisfied.</p> + +<p>13. If I —— tell them stories all day long, they —— not be satisfied.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span></p> + +<p>Make five good sentences containing <i>would</i>, and five containing +<i>should</i>.</p> + +<p>The verb <i>have got</i> is often misused for the verb <i>have</i>. “I +have it” means “I possess it,” while “I have got it” means +“I have procured it.” “I have to go” means “I must go,” +while “I have got to go” is an incorrect expression.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 3.</b>—Supply <i>has</i> or <i>have</i>, <i>has got</i>, or <i>have got</i> in +each of the following sentences, and give your reason in each +case. Use the negative word <i>not</i>, if necessary.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. —— you tickets for the entertainment?</p> + +<p>2. No, I —— them yet.</p> + +<p>3. Can he buy a farm if he —— no money?</p> + +<p>4. —— you a chisel, Albert?</p> + +<p>5. No, I —— one, but Herman —— one.</p> + +<p>6. At last he —— a position on the police force.</p> + +<p>7. We —— a fruit farm and father —— a new tenant on it.</p> + +<p>8. We —— to practice at four o’clock.</p> + +<p>9. I can’t go to the football game for I —— to work Saturday +afternoons.</p> + +<p>10. Nobody —— to leave before nine o’clock.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>What correct expressions can you substitute for <i>has got</i> +in the familiar sentence, “Madge has got to do as I say”?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXII">LXII. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section254"><b>254.</b> In the sentence,—Ruth said, “<i>I like your cake</i>,” +we have a <b>direct quotation</b>, the exact words spoken by Ruth. +A direct quotation is often called <b>direct discourse</b>.</p> + +<p>In the sentence,—<i>Ruth said that she liked my cake</i>, +we have an <b>indirect quotation</b> containing the substance, or +thought, of Ruth’s remark, but not her exact words. An +indirect quotation is often called <b>indirect discourse</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section255"><b>255.</b> In changing from direct to indirect discourse, we are +likely to make a change in personal pronouns, as well as in +the tense of verbs. An indirect quotation usually takes the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>form of a dependent clause beginning with the word <i>that</i>. If +the verb of saying that usually precedes an indirect quotation +is in the present tense, then the verb in the quotation is likely +to be in the present or the future tense; but if the verb of saying +is in the past tense, then the verb in the quotation is likely +to be in the past tense; as,</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Father <i>says</i> that he <i>is</i> on the jury.</p> + +<p>Father <i>said</i> that he <i>was</i> on the jury.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Can you account for the tense of the verb in the indirect +quotation in this sentence,—Somebody once said that the +pen is mightier than the sword?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section256"><b>256.</b> When a direct quotation containing the word <i>shall</i> +is changed to an indirect quotation, <i>shall</i> is retained if the +verb of saying preceding the quotation is in the present tense; +but if this verb is in the past tense, then <i>shall</i> is changed to +<i>should</i>. In like manner <i>will</i> is changed to <i>would</i>; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Mother says, “I shall be voting soon.”</p> + +<p>Mother says that she shall be voting soon.</p> + +<p>Mother said that she should be voting soon.</p> + +<p>Mother says, “I will make him a pillow.”</p> + +<p>Mother says that she will make him a pillow.</p> + +<p>Mother said that she would make him a pillow.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section257"><b>257.</b> If a direct quotation is a question, it becomes an indirect +question when changed to indirect discourse; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>He asked, “Why do you tremble so?”</p> + +<p>He asked me why I trembled so.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section258"><b>258.</b> A command may be changed from direct to indirect +discourse; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Christ said, “Love your enemies.”</p> + +<p>Christ said that we should love our enemies.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Account for the use of <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>should</i>, and +<i>would</i> in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The teacher said, “I shall be pleased to go.”</p> + +<p>2. The teacher said that she should be pleased to go.</p> + +<p>3. Aunt Elsie said, “I will tell you the story to-morrow.”</p> + +<p>4. Aunt Elsie said that she would tell us the story to-morrow.</p> + +<p>5. The principal said, “You shall have no recess to-day.”</p> + +<p>6. The principal said that we should have no recess to-day.</p> + +<p>7. Mother said, “You will be late.”</p> + +<p>8. Mother said that I should be late.</p> + +<p>9. The mayor said, “The matter shall be investigated.”</p> + +<p>10. The mayor said that the matter should be investigated.</p> + +<p>11. The director said, “The celebration will be on Tuesday.”</p> + +<p>12. The director said that the celebration would be on Tuesday.</p> + +<p>13. The teacher said, “David and Harry shall not take part.”</p> + +<p>14. David and Harry, the teacher said that you should not take +part.</p> + +<p>15. The boys said, “David and Harry will be sorry.”</p> + +<p>16. David and Harry, the boys said that you would be sorry.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Change the following sentences from direct +to indirect discourse:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Longfellow said, “Life is real, life is earnest.”</p> + +<p>2. John wrote, “I know that Shep will give you a warm welcome +when you come.”</p> + +<p>3. The lawyer demanded, “Mr. Christoff, what have you done +with the company’s books?”</p> + +<p>4. The Bible says, “Give to him that asketh.”</p> + +<p>5. Patrick Henry asked, “When shall we be stronger?”</p> + +<p>6. The eloquent speaker said, “The declaration of our independence +will strengthen us at home, and give us character abroad.”</p> + +<p>7. The great orator declared, “If we fail, it can be no worse for +us. But we shall not fail. The cause will raise up armies.”</p> + +<p>8. He admitted, “We may not live to the time when this declaration +shall be made good.”</p> + +<p>9. Then he uttered this prophecy: “This declaration must +cost treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it will +richly compensate for both.”</p> + +<p>10. Every listener was moved when the statesman said, “If it +be the pleasure of Heaven that my country shall require the poor +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>offering of my life, the victim shall be ready at the appointed hour +of sacrifice.”</p> + +<p>11. His closing words were these: “All that I have, and all that +I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am now ready here to stake +upon it; and I leave off as I began, that live or die, survive or +perish, I am for the declaration.”</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 3.</b>—Make the following sentences clear by changing +them from indirect to direct discourse:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The teacher told Mrs. Gray that her little girl lost the report +she had given her.</p> + +<p>2. Jennie told Ada that her mother was willing that she should +go to the concert with her and her brother.</p> + +<p>3. Bertrand told George that he ought to sell his sailboat and +buy his launch.</p> + +<p>4. The teachers asked the young men why they had made such +a disturbance in the corridor when they had forbidden them to +congregate there.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXIII">LXIII. AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. COLLECTIVE NOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section259"><b>259.</b> A verb must agree with its subject in number, and +since the verb changes its form sometimes to denote number, +we must be careful to employ the correct form. We should +say, “The rose <i>is</i> red, the roses <i>are</i> red; the wind <i>does</i> +blow, the winds <i>do</i> blow; the bird <i>flies</i>, the birds <i>fly</i>.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section260"><b>260.</b> This agreement of the subject and the verb is a simple +matter in English, for in our language verbs have the +same form in the singular and the plural, except in four +cases:—</p> + +<p>(1) The verb <i>be</i>, which changes its form considerably to +indicate number, in the present and past tenses. See <a href="#Page_128">page 128</a>.</p> + +<p>(2) Any verb in the second person conjugated in the solemn +style. See <a href="#Page_128">page 128</a>.</p> + +<p>(3) Any verb in the third person of the present tense, indicative +mode; as, he <i>speaks</i>, they <i>speak</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span></p> + +<p>(4) Any verb in the third person of the present perfect +indicative; as, he <i>has</i> spoken, they <i>have</i> spoken.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section261"><b>261.</b> As <i>don’t</i> is a contraction of <i>do not</i>, it should be used +only with a plural subject, or with the singular pronouns <i>I</i> +and <i>you</i>. We say, “I <i>don’t</i> know,” “You <i>don’t</i> know,” +“They <i>don’t</i> know,” but “He <i>doesn’t</i> know,” “She <i>doesn’t</i> +know,” “It <i>doesn’t</i> come.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section262"><b>262.</b> A compound subject composed of two or more singular +nouns should have a plural verb when the parts are joined +by any conjunction but <i>or</i> or <i>nor</i>. We say, “Either John or +Byron <i>is</i> her cousin,” and “Both John and Joe <i>are</i> her cousins.”</p> + +<p>When two singular subjects refer to one person, the verb, +of course, should be singular. We say, “The secretary and +treasurer <i>was</i> absent.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section263"><b>263.</b> When a singular noun is modified by the limiting +adjective <i>each</i>, <i>every</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>, <i>any</i>, or <i>no</i>, and used as +subject of a clause, its verb must be singular; as, “Each flower +<i>is</i> a thing of beauty,” “No man <i>lives</i> but loves something.”</p> + +<p>In declarative sentences this rule is not likely to be violated, +but it is often violated in interrogative sentences, where the +verb precedes the subject. We should say, “<i>Has</i> either book +been returned?” “<i>Is</i> either of you willing to stay?” “<i>Was</i> +neither of the speakers on time?”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section264"><b>264.</b> There is a class of nouns like <i>flock</i>, <i>army</i>, <i>herd</i>, <i>company</i>, +which mean a collection of individuals, and so seem +to be plural; but since the individuals forming the collection +are thought of as one body, these nouns are in reality singular. +They are <b>collective nouns</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section265"><b>265.</b> The verb of which a collective noun is subject is a +singular verb, and the pronoun that stands for a collective +noun is the neuter singular pronoun <i>it</i>. We say, “The company +<i>is</i> on <i>its</i> way to the Philippines.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span></p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—When a collective noun is plural in meaning, that is, +when the individuals are thought of as acting separately, it takes +a plural verb; as, “The faculty <i>are</i> not going to trouble <i>their</i> heads +about the kind of shoes we wear.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A verb must agree with its subject in person +and in number.</p> + +<p>A <b>collective</b> noun is one that names a group of individuals +considered as one body.</p> + +<p>A collective noun is usually singular and neuter.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—If you do not already know, find out from +the dictionary to what sort of individuals each of these collective +nouns is applied.</p> + +<ul> + <li>bevy</li> + <li>choir</li> + <li>committee</li> + <li>constellation</li> + <li>covey</li> + <li>crew</li> + <li>drove</li> + <li>family</li> + <li>fleet</li> + <li>flock</li> + <li>gang</li> + <li>hive</li> + <li>horde</li> + <li>jury</li> + <li>mob</li> + <li>orchestra</li> + <li>regiment</li> + <li>swarm</li> + <li>tribe</li> + <li>troop</li> +</ul> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Find all the collective nouns in these sentences. +Find evidence as to whether they are singular or +plural. If they are plural, tell why. Give the reason for +the number of each verb.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Forty wolves make a very fair pack indeed.</p> + +<p>2. At the edge of the thicket was a straggling colony of low blueberry +bushes.</p> + +<p>3. Here, in course of days, there accumulated a shining cluster +of six large white eggs.</p> + +<p>4. At last cousin Eben came with a double sleigh and the team +of prancing grays, and then the whole family was off for Christmas +dinner at Aunt Mary’s.</p> + +<p>5. Has either of the critics ever heard the new organ?</p> + +<p>6. No man in his senses takes such a risk.</p> + +<p>7. A school of porpoises were ducking and tearing through the +water.</p> + +<p>8. Through the ancient forest, which was a mixed growth of +cedar, water ash, black poplar, and maple, with here and there a +group of hemlocks on a knoll, the light drained down confusedly.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span></p> + +<p>9. The opinions of this junto were completely controlled by +Nicholas Vedder.</p> + +<p>10. Is either of you going up the river in the houseboat?</p> + +<p>11. This band of crows numbered about two hundred.</p> + +<p>12. Each year the old crow came with his troop, and for about +six weeks took up his abode on the hill.</p> + +<p>13. Here and there a band of chimney sweeps were staring in +stupid wonder at the miracle of a showman’s box.</p> + +<p>14. Butler tells of an Indian tribe in the Far North that was all +but exterminated by a feud over a dog.</p> + +<p>15. On a level spot was a company of odd-looking personages +playing at ninepins.</p> + +<p>16. Every word on his papers was correctly spelled.</p> + +<p>17. The rest of the horses swept dutifully into line, and the +herd was off.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXIV">LXIV. REVIEW OF VERBS: PARSING</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section266"><b>266.</b> Study again Lessons <a href="#XXIII">XXIII-XXVII</a>, <a href="#XLIX">XLIX-LXIII</a>. +Make an outline of verbs, having the following main topics:—</p> + +<p>(1) Classification.</p> + +<p>(2) Properties.</p> + +<p>(3) Conjugation.</p> + +<p>(4) Principal Parts.</p> + +<p>(5) Auxiliaries.</p> + +<p>(6) Agreement.</p> + +<p>Fill in the subtopics and recite in detail from your outline +with illustrations of every point.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Parse the verbs in the following sentences +according to the outline on <a href="#Page_150">p. 150</a>:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. If you have a Halloween party, shall you invite the Cromers?</p> + +<p>2. At first the chemist said he couldn’t do anything about it; +but when Agamemnon said they would pay in gold if he would +only go, he packed up his bottles in a leather case, and went back +with the Peterkins.</p> + +<p>3.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Faith’s journeys end is welcome to the weary,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And heaven, the heart’s true home, will come at last.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span></p> + +<p>4. We are going to have a tile well, and Mr. Jones is going to +oversee the men who dig it.</p> + +<p>5. This woodchuck was neither handsome nor interesting, but +he knew how to take care of himself.</p> + +<p>6. Sheep are usually kept in flocks of from one thousand to +three thousand under one or more shepherds.</p> + +<p>7. Rabbits telegraph each other by thumping on the ground +with their hind feet.</p> + +<p>8. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?</p> + +<p>9.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Breast the wave, Christian, when it is strongest.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Watch for day, Christian, when the night’s longest.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>10. Even so did men talk round the king’s cages at Oodeypore.</p> + +<p>11. Your Uncle Nathan and I used to be called the bothering +Bodleys, because we were always teasing to find out something.</p> + +<p>12. The Peterkins had been so busy inside the house that they +had not noticed the ceasing of the storm outside.</p> + +<p>13. For thou, Lord, wilt give thy blessing unto the righteous, +and with thy favorable kindness wilt thou defend him as with a +shield.</p> + +<p>14. My father’s, like every other young ladies’ school near a +village, was very much disturbed by the attentions of the village +young men.</p> + +<p>15. If any man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone +astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and go into the mountains +and seek that which goeth astray?</p> + +<p>16. They were sitting round the breakfast table and wondering +what they should do because the lady from Philadelphia had gone +away.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXV">LXV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. SIMPLE ADVERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section267"><b>267.</b> In <a href="#X">Lesson X</a> it was shown that an adverb modifies +a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Select the adverbs +in the following sentences, and tell what words they modify:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>We proceeded through a tract of country excessively wild and +desolate.</p> + +<p>People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.</p> + +<p>John knew that he could spend a day very pleasantly in going +over to that pasture.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span></p> + +<p>All the adverbs in these sentences are called <b>simple adverbs</b> +because they have but one office in the sentence,—they +merely modify the word they go with.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section268"><b>268.</b> In the sentence, “Perhaps my pony can carry the +load,” the word <i>perhaps</i> tells nothing whatever about the +action of carrying, but rather serves to make the whole statement +doubtful. Such a word is said to modify the whole +sentence. Some other adverbs used in this way are <i>certainly</i>, +<i>indeed</i>, <i>fortunately</i>, and <i>not</i>.</p> + +<p>The common use of the adverb <i>not</i> is to change an affirmative +statement to a negative statement, as in the sentence, +“I will not wear my heart upon my sleeve.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section269"><b>269.</b> The simple adverbs, <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>why</i>, <i>how</i>, <i>whence</i>, +<i>whither</i>, are used in asking questions; as, “<i>When</i> shall we be +stronger?” “<i>Why</i> do you answer me so?” Such adverbs +modify the whole predicate. They are called <b>interrogative +adverbs</b>.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—<i>The</i> is sometimes used as an adverb before comparatives; +as, “<i>The</i> more you have, <i>the</i> more you want.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section270"><b>270.</b> When the meaning permits, adverbs may be compared +in the same manner as adjectives; as, <i>fast</i>, <i>faster</i>, <i>fastest</i>; +<i>pleasantly</i>, <i>more pleasantly</i>, <i>most pleasantly</i>; <i>fortunately</i>, +<i>less fortunately</i>, <i>least fortunately</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>simple adverb</b> is one that merely modifies +the word or the group of words that it goes with.</p> + +<p>Some simple adverbs, like <i>not</i>, <i>perhaps</i>, <i>certainly</i>, modify +the whole sentence.</p> + +<p>An <b>interrogative adverb</b> is a simple adverb that is used in +asking a question.</p> + +<p>Some adverbs may be compared.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the simple adverbs in the following +sentences, and tell what each modifies. In so far as you +can, tell what each adverb denotes. (See <a href="#X">Lesson X</a>.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. How the huge breakers foam and fret!</p> + +<p>2. People living by the sea are always more or less superstitious.</p> + +<p>3. No one can work well without sleep.</p> + +<p>4. Whence came that blessed mother love, so strong, so dauntless, +so pure, and whither has it fled?</p> + +<p>5. Where had the stone been before? Why did it come there? +When would it go away?</p> + +<p>6. Heaven is not reached at a single bound.</p> + +<p>7. Luckily, poor Pepper was not seriously hurt.</p> + +<p>8. Meanwhile Mrs. Peterkin was getting quite impatient for +her coffee.</p> + +<p>9. How do you like to go up in a swing, up in the air so blue?</p> + +<p>10. Why should one hurry when days are long and calm and +sweet?</p> + +<p>11. You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him +drink.</p> + +<p>12. Presently a huge black bear poked his nose out of the bushes, +and sniffed inquiringly.</p> + +<p>13. How quickly we learn to claim as our own that in which we +delight!</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXVI">LXVI. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section271"><b>271.</b> In <a href="#XX">Lesson XX</a> we learned that a dependent clause is +one that does not make sense when standing alone; also that +such a clause sometimes has the office of an adverb, modifying +a predicate, and sometimes that of an adjective, modifying +a noun. It is, therefore, called an <b>adverbial clause</b> +or an <b>adjective clause</b>.</p> + +<p>Select and classify the dependent clauses in each of the +following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Old Stony Phiz set out on a visit to the valley where he was +born.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) When I first came to Rivermouth, I looked upon girls as +rather tame company.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section272"><b>272.</b> A dependent clause is usually introduced by some +word which indicates that it is a dependent clause. In the +clause <i>where he was born</i>, this introductory word is <i>where</i>. +What is the introductory word in the clause in sentence (<i>b</i>)?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p> + +<p>This introductory word does more than introduce the +clause; it joins the clause to the word the clause modifies. +What does <i>where</i> join in (<i>a</i>)? What does the introductory +word in (<i>b</i>) join?</p> + +<p>But these words do more than join. <i>Where</i> denotes place, +and modifies the verb <i>was born</i>. Hence it is an adverb. +What does <i>when</i> denote? What does it modify?</p> + +<p>Since these words have two uses, that of an adverb and +that of a joining word, we call them <b>conjunctive adverbs</b>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>conjunctive adverb</b> is one that introduces +a clause, modifies some part of the clause, generally the predicate, +and joins the clause to that part of the sentence which +the clause modifies.</p> + +<p>Some common conjunctive adverbs are <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>whence</i>, +<i>whenever</i>, <i>wherever</i>, <i>while</i>, <i>why</i>, <i>how</i>. (See note, <a href="#Page_177">p. 177</a>.)</p> + +<p>An <b>adverbial clause</b> is a dependent clause that is used like +an adverb.</p> + +<p>An <b>adjective clause</b> is a dependent clause that is used like +an adjective.</p> + +<p>Both the adjective and the adverbial clause may be introduced +by a conjunctive adverb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the conjunctive adverbs in the following +sentences. Tell what clause they introduce, what they +join, what they denote, and what they modify.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. When his eyes got command of the dusk, he saw to his surprise +that the den was empty.</p> + +<p>2. Mr. Gathergold bethought himself of his native valley, and +resolved to go back thither, and end his days where he was born.</p> + +<p>3. The canals in Amsterdam are crossed by a great many drawbridges, +and the people must sometimes wait while a ship or barge +is passing.</p> + +<p>4. Our lunch was only bread and tea and blueberries and cream, +but do you remember how delicious it tasted that day when you +came home from the circus as tired as a dog and as hungry as a +bear?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span></p> + +<p>5.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Whenever I cross the river</div> + <div class="verse indent2">On its bridge with wooden piers,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Like the odor of brine from the ocean,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Comes the thought of other years.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>6. The reason why men succeed who mind their own business +is because there is so little competition.</p> + +<p>7.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The frugal snail, with forecast of repose,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Carries his house with him where’er he goes.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>8. When all the trees in the forest have the same number of +leaves, then will all men be alike in their power and skill.</p> + +<p>9.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">While the breath’s in his mouth, he must bear without fail,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">In the name of the Empress the Overland Mail.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Where’er our footsteps range,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Comes the chilling breath of change,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And the best of friends look strange</div> + <div class="verse indent2">When the purse is low.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. The reason why men do not obey us is because they see the +mud at the bottom of our eye.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">So shut your eyes while mother sings</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Of wonderful sights that be.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>13. Chip answered me with a cheery little note or two whenever +I spoke to him.</p> + +<p>14.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">My heart leaps up when I behold</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A rainbow in the sky.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXVII">LXVII. SUMMARY OF ADVERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section273"><b>273.</b> We have learned,—</p> + +<p>(1) That adverbs may be simple adverbs or conjunctive +adverbs.</p> + +<p>(2) That simple adverbs merely modify some word or +group of words.</p> + +<p>(3) That conjunctive adverbs modify, and at the same time +introduce a dependent clause and join it to whatever the +clause modifies.</p> + +<p>(4) That one kind of simple adverb is the interrogative +adverb, which is used in asking a question.</p> + +<p>(5) That an adverb may modify a verb, an adjective, an +adverb, a whole predicate, or even a whole statement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span></p> + +<p>(6) That adverbs may denote time, place, manner, degree, +and direction.</p> + +<p>(7) That some adverbs may be compared.</p> + +<p>Give a good illustration of each point in this summary.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section274"><b>274.</b> When we parse an adverb we should tell,—</p> + +<p>(1) Its class as to use,—simple, interrogative, conjunctive.</p> + +<p>(2) Its class as to meaning,—time, place, manner, etc.</p> + +<p>(3) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).</p> + +<p>(4) Its use, and what it modifies.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Parse each adverb in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Virtue and intelligence will lead our country ever onward in +her happy career.</p> + +<p>2. Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?</p> + +<p>3. The man in the moon came down too soon.</p> + +<p>4. Fortunately, what seemed to be a barrel of apples turned out +to be an electric lamp.</p> + +<p>5. The old horse cars rocked along scarcely faster than we could +walk.</p> + +<p>6. Calmly I await the hour when the summons comes for me.</p> + +<p>7. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore.</p> + +<p>8. I will lock the door most willingly, but I will not cover the +bird.</p> + +<p>9. Probably Frank was mightily relieved when he saw the +mayor’s automobile.</p> + +<p>10. Our side made a remarkably good score.</p> + +<p>11. Where shall we sit in the new church?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXVIII">LXVIII. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section275"><b>275.</b> We have learned that such words as <i>and</i>, <i>but</i>, and <i>or</i> +are conjunctions. Their use is merely to join, and they may +join either words, phrases, or clauses. Since they join like +elements,—a word to a word, a phrase to a phrase, a clause +to a clause, a sentence to a sentence, we call them <b>coördinate</b> +conjunctions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section276"><b>276.</b> In the sentence, “Either the well was very deep or +she fell very slowly,” the coördinate conjunction <i>or</i>, which +joins two sentences, is preceded by the word <i>either</i>, which +hints that <i>or</i> is coming. When <i>either</i> and <i>or</i> are used in this +way, they are called <b>correlatives</b>; that is, they are words +related to each other. Other correlatives are <i>neither</i>, <i>nor</i>; +<i>not only</i>, <i>but</i>; <i>both</i>, <i>and</i>. It is always the second word of +these pairs that does the joining. The first merely tells the +listener or reader what sort of sentence is to follow.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Frequently a coördinate conjunction has another word +going with it to change or emphasize its meaning. In the sentence, +“He is rich and yet he is not generous,” the word <i>yet</i> going with <i>and</i> +changes its meaning to <i>but</i>. In the sentence, “He is poor, but still +he is generous,” the word <i>still</i> reinforces the meaning of <i>but</i>. Such +a word associated with a conjunction may be said to be a part of the +conjunction, that is, the two words together do the joining. In the +same way the two words <i>not only</i> form the correlative of <i>but</i> or <i>but +also</i>; as, “He is not only a teacher but also a student.” What does +<i>but also</i> join here?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>coördinate conjunction</b> is one that joins +like elements. It is sometimes more than one word.</p> + +<p><b>Correlative coördinate conjunctions</b> are pairs of words, the +second of which does the joining.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—When we parse a coördinate conjunction we +tell its class and what it joins. If it has a correlative, we +state that fact. Parse the coördinate conjunctions in the +following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The writer who professes to care nothing for fame is probably +deceiving himself, or else his liver is out of order.</p> + +<p>2. Everybody took a holiday, and high and low, rich and poor, +feasted and danced and sang, and got very mellow.</p> + +<p>3. There was neither dust nor mud nor noise to annoy one.</p> + +<p>4. The mahogany arm chair is very handsome, and the green +plush rocker is very comfortable, but still I choose this little chair +with the flowers painted on the back, that mother gave to me when +I was only five.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span></p> + +<p>5. On its southern side is an elevated walk, or terrace, very +broad and handsome, and about half a mile long.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In the preceding sentence, try to discover under what +circumstances an appositive is joined to the word it explains by <i>or</i>. +Notice the punctuation. Make other sentences illustrating this +use of <i>or</i>.</p> + +<p>6. The road to Paradise is rough and thorny.</p> + +<p>7. His chief amusements were gunning and fishing, or sauntering +along the beach and through the myrtles.</p> + +<p>8. Neither hare nor grouse was stirring in the brushy opens.</p> + +<p>9. You know Mary always bangs things when she is cross, but +I never could see what good it does.</p> + +<p>10. When the two children went down to the river to play, they +not only disobeyed their mothers, but they also ran away from +school.</p> + +<p>11. I never looked either neat or clean, though I had my daily +bath and a generous allowance of clothes.</p> + +<p>12. Over the tree tops and from the open spaces in the wood +could be seen the first pallor of approaching day.</p> + +<p>13. In deep snow the moose can neither flee nor fight.</p> + +<p>14. They always put Mammy Tittleback in the carriage too; +but before they had carried her far, she generally jumped out, and +walked the rest of the way by their side.</p> + +<p>15. These Spaniards wished to build ships and to get away; +but they had neither knowledge nor tools nor iron nor forge nor tow +nor resin nor rigging.</p> + +<p>16.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">He prayeth best who loveth best</div> + <div class="verse indent0">All things both great and small.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the part of speech and use of <i>himself</i>, sentence 1, <i>high</i>, +<i>low</i> 2, <i>mellow</i> 2, <i>when</i> 4, <i>neat</i> 11, <i>allowance</i> 11, <i>pallor</i> 12.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXIX">LXIX. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section277"><b>277.</b> We have learned that a dependent clause is often +used as an adverb to modify a predicate. When so used, it is +joined to the predicate it modifies by some connecting word.</p> + +<p>Sometimes this connecting word is a conjunctive adverb, +as was pointed out in <a href="#LXVI">Lesson LXVI</a>, but more often it is +some other word, as in the following sentences:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Sheep are such senseless creatures <i>that</i> they are liable to be stampeded +by the veriest trifle.</p> + +<p>You cannot catch a muskrat <i>unless</i> you put tar on his nose.</p> + +<p>I love hens <i>because</i> they are such good mothers.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>What is the dependent clause in each of these sentences? +What does it modify? What word joins it to that part of +the sentence which it modifies?</p> + +<p>These connecting words,—<i>that</i>, <i>unless</i>, and <i>because</i>,—are +not adverbs, for they do not modify any word. They merely +connect, hence they are conjunctions. Since they connect +elements not alike, not equal in rank, they are called <b>subordinate +conjunctions</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section278"><b>278.</b> There are many subordinate conjunctions. The most +common are <i>after</i>, <i>although</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>because</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>if</i>, <i>in order +that</i>, <i>lest</i>, <i>provided</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>so that</i>, <i>than</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>till</i>, and <i>unless</i>.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—There is little distinction between the subordinate conjunction +and the conjunctive adverb. Both connect a dependent +to a principal clause; and some subordinate conjunctions, like conjunctive +adverbs, express time, cause, or manner, etc. For this +reason, <i>as</i>, <i>after</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>till</i>, etc. are included by some +authors among conjunctive adverbs. Compare, “I came <i>when</i> you +called me” with “I came <i>before</i> you called me.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>subordinate conjunction</b> is one that introduces +a dependent clause, and joins it to that part of the +sentence which it modifies.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences. +Tell their class and what they join.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The four cubs, running down hill on their bellies, melted into +the thorn and underbrush as a mole melts into a lawn.</p> + +<p>2. Boys will do any amount of work provided it is called play.</p> + +<p>3. The great horned owl stood so erect and motionless that he +seemed a portion of the pine trunk itself.</p> + +<p>4. Since the maples were cut down, the elms have flourished.</p> + +<p>5. Androclus had not lain long quiet in the cavern, before he +heard a dreadful noise, which seemed to be the roar of some wild +beast, and terrified him very much.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span></p> + +<p>6. Harry laughed till the tears ran down his cheeks.</p> + +<p>7. Unless you have sat on a stone fence and beaten russet +apples soft on its hard top, you have missed one of the greatest +delicacies that the orchard gives.</p> + +<p>8. I liked the doctor very much, for he would let me drive around +with him, and hold his horse while he made his professional calls.</p> + +<p>9. Fast the ivy stealeth on, though he wears no wings.</p> + +<p>10. Even after the invitations were sent out, it seemed to Dolly +that the party day would never come.</p> + +<p>11. The shawl doll was my favorite because it was more nearly +the size of a real baby.</p> + +<p>12. The two young Cratchits crammed spoons into their mouths +lest they should shriek for goose before their turn came to be helped.</p> + +<p>13. A man would laugh if you told him that he had never really +seen a burdock.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Select all the verbs in the sentences above. Classify them +as transitive or intransitive. Tell their voice, mode, and +tense.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section279"><b>279.</b> Some words may be used as conjunctions, as prepositions, +or as adverbs.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p class="noindent"><b>After.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—I came <i>after</i> you called me the second time.</p> + +<p>Adv.—We look before and <i>after</i>, and pine for what is not.</p> + +<p>Prep.—Let us walk to the lake <i>after</i> school.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Before.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—The roosters woke me <i>before</i> the sun rose.</p> + +<p>Adv.—They had never seen mountains <i>before</i>.</p> + +<p>Prep.—In winter we get up <i>before</i> daylight.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>But.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—I am weak, <i>but</i> Thou art mighty.</p> + +<p>Prep.—He relishes no fruit <i>but</i> apples.</p> + +<p>Adv.—We can <i>but</i> die.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Else.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—You must tell the truth, <i>else</i> you will not be trusted.</p> + +<p>Adv.—How <i>else</i> can we get to Berlin?</p> + +<p>Adv.—Where <i>else</i> shall I look for your glasses?</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—What part of speech is <i>else</i> in the sentences, “What <i>else</i> +can I do for you?” “Who <i>else</i> was there?”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>For.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—Work <i>for</i> the night is coming.</p> + +<p>Prep.—The faithful slave died <i>for</i> his young master.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Hence.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—Smoke is coming out of the chimney, <i>hence</i> the house +must be occupied.</p> + +<p>Adv.—Let me go <i>hence</i> and be no more seen.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Only.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—I should be glad to go, <i>only</i> I have nothing to wear.</p> + +<p>Adv.—I made the cake; mother <i>only</i> baked it.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—What part of speech is <i>only</i> in the sentence, “Grace is +an <i>only</i> child”?</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Since.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—I have been happy <i>since</i> you became my friend.</p> + +<p>Prep.—Prices have never gone down <i>since</i> the war.</p> + +<p>Adv.—One day the dog disappeared, and he has never been heard +of <i>since</i>.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>So.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—The baby monopolized her time, <i>so</i> she withdrew from +the club.</p> + +<p>Adv.—Don’t speak <i>so</i> loud, Caroline.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Till</b> or <b>Until.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—Tarry thou <i>till</i> I come.</p> + +<p>Prep.—We work hard <i>until</i> noon.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Yet.</b></p> + +<p>Conj.—She speaks much, <i>yet</i> she says very little.</p> + +<p>Adv.—Has the case been settled <i>yet</i>?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Explain the use of each italicized word in the sentences +above.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section280"><b>280.</b> When we parse a preposition, we tell (1) what phrase +it introduces, and (2) what words it shows a relation between; +thus, “In the sentence, ‘I bring you tidings of great joy,’ +the preposition <i>of</i> introduces the adjective phrase <i>of great joy</i>, +and shows a relation between its object <i>great joy</i> and the +noun <i>tidings</i>.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Parse all the conjunctions, adverbs, and +prepositions in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Roger Conant came over from England before 1630.</p> + +<p>2. We had a cold spell in April, so the peach crop is small.</p> + +<p>3. Our flag was still there.</p> + +<p>4. The barn was strongly built, so it was made over into a good +house.</p> + +<p>5. Ours is a government of the people, for the people, and by +the people.</p> + +<p>6. Look before you leap.</p> + +<p>7. Years have passed since anybody remembered my birthday.</p> + +<p>8. The poet saw the daffodils beside the lake.</p> + +<p>9. After the boy arrived in Richmond, he slept under a sidewalk.</p> + +<p>10. Did anybody besides Rufus go with you to Janesville?</p> + +<p>11. Mr. Micawber would pay his debts if something would only +turn up.</p> + +<p>12. Jill came tumbling after.</p> + +<p>13. The turkey was steamed first, else it would not have been so +tender.</p> + +<p>14. The fern has grown fast since Easter.</p> + +<p>15. I can’t paint well if you look over my shoulder.</p> + +<p>16. There is nothing to breathe but air.</p> + +<p>17. Wait till the clouds roll by.</p> + +<p>18. Disappointments will surely come, yet they need not crush +us.</p> + +<p>19. I will go before the king.</p> + +<p>20. Did you make your will before you went round the world?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXX">LXX. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section281"><b>281.</b> Adverbial clauses are used in many different relations. +Frequently they denote the <b>time</b> when an action is performed; +as, “When the pie was opened, the birds began to sing.” +Here the clause tells when the birds began to sing, and hence +modifies the predicate. It is joined to <i>began to sing</i> by the +conjunctive adverb <i>when</i>.</p> + +<p>A subordinate connective does not have to come <i>between</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>the elements that it joins. This enables us to put a dependent +clause at the beginning of a sentence. What is the +advantage of such an arrangement?</p> + +<p>An adverbial clause of time answers such questions as +<i>when?</i> <i>how often?</i> <i>how long?</i> It is joined to what it modifies +by the conjunctive adverbs <i>when</i>, <i>while</i>, <i>whenever</i>, or by the +subordinating conjunctions <i>before</i>, <i>after</i>, <i>till</i>, <i>until</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>as</i>.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, if the connective is <i>when</i>, and the clause comes +first, we begin the principal proposition with the simple +adverb <i>then</i>, which we call a correlative of <i>when</i>. Illustrate +this.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section282"><b>282.</b> The adverbial clause may be used to tell the <b>place</b> +where some action is performed; as, “The maid is standing +with reluctant feet where the brook and river meet.” Here +the clause tells where the maid is standing, and is joined to +<i>is standing</i> by the conjunctive adverb <i>where</i>.</p> + +<p>An adverbial clause of place answers such questions as <i>in +what place?</i> <i>to what place?</i> <i>from what place?</i> It is introduced +by the conjunctive adverbs <i>where</i>, <i>whence</i>, <i>whither</i>, <i>wherever</i>. +Sometimes <i>there</i> is used in the principal proposition as a correlative +of <i>where</i> in the clause. Which of these correlatives +is the connective?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section283"><b>283.</b> Frequently the <b>manner</b> of an action, the way in which +it was performed, is told by an adverbial clause; as, “Not +as the conqueror comes, they the true-hearted came.” What +is the clause here? What does it tell? What does it modify? +What is the connective? What is the use of <i>not</i>?</p> + +<p>A clause of manner answers the question <i>in what way?</i> It +is joined to what it modifies by the subordinate conjunction +<i>as</i>, <i>as if</i>, or <i>as though</i>. The simple adverb <i>so</i> may be used as +a correlative of <i>as</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section284"><b>284.</b> The word <i>like</i> is never a subordinate conjunction, +hence it cannot properly be used for <i>as</i> or <i>as if</i>. We should +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>say, “Walk <i>as</i> (not <i>like</i>) I do;” “She walks <i>as if</i> she were +tired (not <i>like</i> she was tired).” <i>Like</i> may be used as a preposition +to introduce a phrase; as, “Elizabeth walks <i>like him</i>.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Fill the blank in each of these sentences with +the proper word, and explain your choice:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Mary sings —— a bird.</p> + +<p>2. It looks —— it would rain.</p> + +<p>3. The man speaks —— he knew his subject.</p> + +<p>4. March came in —— a lion.</p> + +<p>5. You knit just —— my grandmother does.</p> + +<p>6. The children ate —— they were hungry.</p> + +<p>7. Can you dance —— the gypsies do?</p> + +<p>8. Plant the seeds exactly —— I told you to.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An adverbial clause of <b>time</b> tells when a condition +exists, or when an action was performed.</p> + +<p>An adverbial clause of <b>place</b> tells where a condition exists, +or where an action was performed.</p> + +<p>An adverbial clause of <b>manner</b> tells in what way something +was done.</p> + +<p>The connectives <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, and <i>as</i> are sometimes accompanied +by the correlatives <i>then</i>, <i>there</i>, and <i>so</i> respectively.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select all the adverbial clauses in the following +sentences. Tell what each clause denotes, what it modifies, +and what its connective is. Study the punctuation +of these sentences, and make a rule for the punctuation of +adverbial clauses:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Your bicycle is a stationary bit of iron and india rubber, +until you put your feet upon the pedals and use your mind to guide +the wheel.</p> + +<p>2. The old man sits as if he were carved in stone.</p> + +<p>3. Where the snowflakes fall thickest, there nothing can freeze.</p> + +<p>4. When mother awoke and saw the burglar, she quietly ordered +him to leave; and only after she had pursued his obedient figure to +the door did it occur to her that the proper thing to do was to +scream.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span></p> + +<p>5. Where the peak leaned to the valley, the trunk of a giant pine +jutted forth slantingly from a roothold a little below the summit.</p> + +<p>6. As we came up the harbor I had noticed that the houses were +huddled together on an immense hill.</p> + +<p>7.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">I have come to meet judges so wise and so grand</div> + <div class="verse indent0">That I shake in my shoes while they’re shaking my hand.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>8.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">She struck where the white and fleecy waves</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Looked soft as carded wool.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>9. Whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I +will lodge.</p> + +<p>10. When the blackbird approached that side of the cage, the +goldfinch dashed away as though he feared his strange neighbor +might come through.</p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">I love to hear thine earnest voice wherever thou art hid,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Thou testy little dogmatist, thou pretty Katydid!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. At every little station a man popped out as if he were worked +by machinery, and waved a red flag, and appeared as though he +would like to have us stop.</p> + +<p>13. The little bandy-legged dogs had been trotting steadily for +many an hour, until their tongues hung out for want of breath.</p> + +<p>14. Years had passed since that particular panther had strayed +from his high fastnesses, where game was plentiful and none dared +poach on his preserves.</p> + +<p>15. I stood up and “hollered” with all my might, as everybody +does with oxen, as if they were born deaf, and whacked them with +the long lash over the head, just as the big folks did when they +drove.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXI">LXXI. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CAUSE, PURPOSE, AND RESULT</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section285"><b>285.</b> One action or condition may cause some other action +or condition, and when we tell this, we often make such a sentence +as the following, “Most caged birds are not happy, +because few of them are well cared for.” Here the dependent +proposition, <i>because few of them are well cared for</i> is an adverbial +clause of <b>cause</b>, for it tells the cause of the fact in the +principal clause, or why most caged birds are not happy.</p> + +<p>The adverbial clause of cause answers the question <i>why?</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>or <i>how do you know?</i> and is usually joined to the predicate +that it modifies by the subordinate conjunction <i>for</i>, <i>because</i>, +or <i>since</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section286"><b>286.</b> Sometimes an action is performed in order that some +other action or condition may come to pass. We say then +that the action is performed for a <b>purpose</b>, and we express +this purpose by means of an adverbial clause; as, “Leonardo +da Vinci would walk the whole length of Milan that he might +alter a single tint in his picture of the Last Supper.” Here +the clause <i>that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the +Last Supper</i> tells the purpose that the artist had in walking +the whole length of Milan. What does this clause modify? +What is it introduced by?</p> + +<p>A clause of purpose answers the question <i>what for?</i> It is +usually joined to the predicate that it modifies by the subordinate +conjunction <i>that</i>, <i>so that</i>, or <i>in order that</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section287"><b>287.</b> A clause of purpose tells an intention without +saying that this intention ever really comes to pass. But +there is another clause which tells what really happens +as an outcome of the action or condition in the principal +clause. This is called a clause of <b>result</b>; for instance, “So +porous is the limestone of the roads that in five minutes after +a brisk shower one has no need of overshoes.” Here the principal +clause tells us that the roads are porous, and the clause +tells us what is the result, or outcome, of their being porous. +What is the clause in this sentence? What does it modify? +What is it introduced by?</p> + +<p>A clause of result answers the question <i>what of it?</i>, and is +generally introduced by the subordinate conjunction <i>that</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A clause of <b>cause</b> tells what produces a certain +act or condition.</p> + +<p>A clause of <b>purpose</b> tells the intended consequence of some +action.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span></p> + +<p>A clause of <b>result</b> tells the real consequence of some action +or condition.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select the adverbial clauses, classify them, +giving your reason in each case, tell what they modify, and +what they are joined by. Account for the punctuation.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. I have explained thus carefully about my Bird Room because +I do not approve of keeping wild birds in cages.</p> + +<p>2. When Chipee had eaten all she could, she would quietly sit +down in the seed dish so that Chip couldn’t get any.</p> + +<p>3. Of course this bird could not be set free, for he did not know +how to take care of himself.</p> + +<p>4. One little nugget of purest gold the surveyor carefully preserved, +that it might one day become a wedding ring for the gray-eyed +girl in Maine.</p> + +<p>5. Had his nerves grown so sensitive that the staring of a chipmunk +or a rabbit had power to break his sleep?</p> + +<p>6. So strong was Polly’s liking for green peas that the sight of +raw peas made her wild till some were given to her.</p> + +<p>7. Master Fox said to the Crow, “Sing but one song to me, +that I may greet you as the Queen of Birds.”</p> + +<p>8. It is very convenient to be a reasonable creature, since it +enables you to find or make a reason for everything you have a +mind to do.</p> + +<p>9. Rebecca left the screen door ajar, so that flies came in.</p> + +<p>10. Rolf was called the Goer because he had such long legs that +when he mounted one of the little Norwegian horses, his feet touched +the ground.</p> + +<p>11. Dikes are built that the spread and flow of the water may be +regulated, and the land protected from destructive floods.</p> + +<p>12. The sun burned down so fiercely that the people were fainting +in its rays; it seemed as if they must die of heat, and yet they +were obliged to go on with their work, for they were very poor.</p> + +<p>13. Then the people ran as only hill folk can run, for they knew +that in a landslip you must climb for the highest ground across the +valley.</p> + +<p>14.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Lest we forget, lest we forget!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>15. I go to prepare a place for you, that where I am there ye +may be also.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXII">LXXII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION AND CONCESSION</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section288"><b>288.</b> Very often an action cannot take place except under +a certain condition, and this condition is often expressed in +a dependent clause; as in the sentence, “A man can buy a +vote only if some other man is willing to sell a vote.” Here +the one condition under which a man can buy a vote is told +in the adverbial clause, <i>if some other man is willing to sell a +vote</i>. This is called a clause of <b>condition</b>. It is generally introduced +by <i>if</i>, <i>unless</i> (which means <i>if not</i>), <i>provided</i>, or <i>providing</i>. +In the illustration what does the clause modify? +What is the use of <i>only</i>?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section289"><b>289.</b> Sometimes an action takes place in spite of something +else, and we tell this in such a sentence as the following, +“Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him.” Here the fact +that I trust Him is true in spite of the fact that He may slay +me. Such a clause as <i>though He slay me</i> is called a clause +of <b>concession</b>, for it concedes, or grants, something that +seems to be in direct opposition to what is in the principal +clause. What does it modify? What can you say of the +word <i>yet</i>?</p> + +<p>A clause of concession is generally joined by the subordinate +conjunction <i>though</i>, or by some such word as <i>notwithstanding</i>, +or <i>even if</i>, which means <i>though</i>.</p> + +<p>Sometimes <i>though</i> has a correlative, the word <i>yet</i>, <i>still</i>, or +<i>nevertheless</i> used at the beginning of the principal clause.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A clause of <b>condition</b> answers the question +<i>provided what?</i> It tells the circumstance under which the +principal statement is true.</p> + +<p>A clause of <b>concession</b> answers the question <i>in spite of +what?</i> It tells the circumstance in spite of which the principal +statement is true.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all adverbial clauses. Tell what each +clause denotes, what it modifies, what it is joined by. Account +for the punctuation.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. If your everyday language is not fit for a letter or for print, +it is not fit for talk.</p> + +<p>2. In Bermuda, if you are in want of some choice cologne, do +not fail to ask for it at the nearest shoe shop.</p> + +<p>3. Though delicate in his tastes, an elephant likes quantity as +well as quality, and at his meals makes nothing of bales of hay and +gallons of water.</p> + +<p>4. Though the weeping willow and the mountain ash could not +endure the cold northeast storms, yet the sturdy elms grew apace +and soon spread their branches far.</p> + +<p>5. Half the pleasure in going out to murder another man with a +gun would be wanting, if one did not wear feathers, and gold lace, +and stripes on his pantaloons.</p> + +<p>6. There is something queer about thoughts; you cannot have +a good time with them if you have done anything naughty.</p> + +<p>7.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Though watery deserts hold apart the worlds of East and West,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Still beats the selfsame human heart in each proud Nation’s breast.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>8. If our forefathers had not chosen to emigrate to America, +we should now be English people ourselves.</p> + +<p>9. Rebecca was so slender and so stiffly starched that she slid +from space to space on the leather cushions, though she braced +herself against the middle seat with her feet, and extended her +cotton-gloved hands on each side.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">If the men were so wicked, I’ll ask my papa</div> + <div class="verse indent0">How he dared to propose to my darling mamma.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Was he like the rest of them? Goodness! Who knows?</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And what should I say if a wretch should propose?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. Though he looked like a bird, he behaved like a monkey.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Though with patience he stands waiting, with exactness grinds he all.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>13. If the scythes cut well and swing merrily, it is due to the boy +who turned the grindstone.</p> + +<p>14. If a man write little, he had need have a great memory; +if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he +doth not.</p> + +<p>15.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Men must work and women must weep.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Though storms be sudden and waters deep.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And the harbor bar be moaning.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>Account for the mode of the verb in each dependent clause +in the preceding sentences.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXIII">LXXIII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section290"><b>290.</b> Often we are not satisfied to say, “Cousin John is +good.” We wish to tell <i>how</i> good he is, and a common way +of doing this is by means of a comparison. We say, “Cousin +John is as good as gold.” Here the group of words <i>as gold</i> +is a clause with the word <i>is</i> omitted. It is called a clause of +<b>comparison</b>. It denotes an <b>equality</b> between John’s goodness +and that of gold. Since this clause answers the question +<i>how good?</i> it must modify the adjective <i>good</i>.</p> + +<p>What is the introductory word of the clause of comparison?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section291"><b>291.</b> Sometimes we compare two things and yet denote +an <b>inequality</b> between them; as in the sentence, “The river +is bluer than the sky.” Here the clause of comparison is +introduced by the subordinating conjunction <i>than</i>. It modifies +the word <i>bluer</i>. We know this because it is the word +<i>bluer</i> that needs the clause, and without the word <i>bluer</i> the +clause would not be in the sentence at all.</p> + +<p>Notice that a clause of equality modifies an adjective in +the positive degree, while a clause of inequality modifies an +adjective in the comparative degree.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section292"><b>292.</b> A clause of comparison may modify an adverb as +well as an adjective, as in these sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>The old man moved as slowly as a cloud.</p> + +<p>More swiftly than eagles, his coursers they flew.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span></p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The adverb <i>rather</i> is seldom used without being modified +by a clause of comparison; as, “Henry Clay said that he would +rather be right than be president.” When we supply the words +understood, the clause reads, <i>than he would be president</i>.</p> + +<p>Complete the clauses in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Some people would rather have money than brains.</p> + +<p>I should rather earn a college education than go without it.</p> + +<p>A wise American would rather go to Yellowstone Park than to +Switzerland.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A clause of <b>comparison</b> tells the degree of +some quality or quantity by pointing out a likeness or a +difference.</p> + +<p>A clause of comparison pointing out a <b>likeness</b> is introduced +by <i>as</i>, and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the +positive degree.</p> + +<p>A clause of comparison pointing out a <b>difference</b> is introduced +by <i>than</i>, and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the +comparative degree.</p> + +<p>A clause of comparison is seldom completely expressed.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the clauses of comparison. Tell +what they denote, what they modify, and what they are introduced +by.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Sitting up on the driver’s high seat is almost as good as +climbing the meeting-house steeple.</p> + +<p>2.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The muscles of his brawny arms</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Are strong as iron bands.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>3. The loons could dive quicker than the eagle could swoop and +strike.</p> + +<p>4. Gertrude was prouder than ever when the president of the +college said, “Your mother is handsomer than you will ever be, +young lady.”</p> + +<p>5.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The hearts that were thumping like ships on the rocks</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Beat as quiet and steady as meeting-house clocks.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>6. Truth is stranger than fiction.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span></p> + +<p>7. I had rather have a fool to make me merry than experience +to make me sad.</p> + +<p>8.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Her cheeks like the dawn of day,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Her bosom white as the hawthorn buds,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">That ope in the month of May.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>9. One syllable of woman’s speech can dissolve more love than +a man’s heart can hold.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">I am nearer my home to-day</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Than I ever have been before.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. Whiter than snow were his locks, and his cheeks were as +brown as the oak leaves.</p> + +<p>12.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">A steed as black as the steeds of night</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Was seen to pass as with eagle flight.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>13. Weeds are sure to grow quicker in my garden than anywhere +else.</p> + +<p>14.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Dark as winter was the flow</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Of Iser rolling rapidly.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>15. I should rather see the friezes of the Parthenon molder to +dust under the blue veil of the Grecian atmosphere than have +them preserved in the grand halls of the British Museum.</p> + +<p>16. The huge body of the elephant needs less sleep than anything +else that lives.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section293"><b>293.</b> Since the predicate is usually omitted in clauses of +comparison, it follows that these clauses often consist of only +two words; as, “I am as old as Mary.” “I am older than +Mary.” One of these words is the connective, and the other +is often the subject of the clause. When the subject is a +pronoun, we must be careful to use the nominative form. +We should say, “Are you older than <i>I</i>? than <i>he</i>? than <i>she</i>?”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Fill the blank in each of these sentences. +Then supply the words omitted, and thus show that you have +chosen the right pronouns:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Our parents are wiser than (<i>we</i> or <i>us</i>).</p> + +<p>2. You are not always so careful as (<i>she</i> or <i>her</i>).</p> + +<p>3. Who knows the day better than (<i>me</i> or <i>I</i>)?</p> + +<p>4. What! You are stronger than (<i>who</i> or <i>whom</i>)?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span></p> + +<p>5. The Preston girls were just as friendly as (<i>me</i> or <i>I</i>).</p> + +<p>6. No man could be more faithful than (<i>him</i> or <i>he</i>).</p> + +<p>7. Who stands higher in this city than (<i>they</i> or <i>them</i>).</p> + +<p>8. Are you older or younger than (<i>her</i> or <i>she</i>)?</p> + +<p>9. Well, perhaps I am not so polite as (<i>he</i> or <i>him</i>).</p> + +<p>10. Our geese are whiter than (<i>them</i> or <i>they</i>).</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Justify the case of the italicized pronoun +in each of these sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Jessie likes Julia as well as <i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>2. I found her brother more easily than <i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>3. I expect an angel sooner than <i>them</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXIV">LXXIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section294"><b>294.</b> We are ready now to analyze sentences containing +adverbial clauses. In analyzing such sentences we should +state as soon as we come to an adverbial clause, (1) what it +denotes and (2) what part of speech its introductory word is. +We should not analyze any dependent clause in detail, however, +until we have completed our analysis of the principal +clause.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model.</span>—<i>The lion fixed his great hind claws in the softer +skin of the crocodile’s throat, and ripped it open as one would +rip a glove.</i></p> + +<p>This is a complex, declarative sentence.</p> + +<p>The subject is <i>the lion</i>. The predicate is <i>fixed his great hind +claws in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat, and ripped it +open as one would rip a glove</i>.</p> + +<p>The predicate is compound, the two parts being joined by +the conjunction <i>and</i>. The first predicate verb is <i>fixed</i>. It +is completed by the direct object <i>his great hind claws</i>, and +then modified by the prepositional phrase <i>in the softer skin +of the crocodile’s throat</i>. The base word of the object is +<i>claws</i>; it is modified by the adjectives <i>hind</i> and <i>great</i>, and by +the possessive pronoun <i>his</i>. The base word of the object of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span>the preposition <i>in</i> is <i>skin</i>. It is modified by the adjectives +<i>softer</i> and <i>the</i>, and by the prepositional phrase of <i>the crocodile’s +throat</i>. The base word of the object of the preposition <i>of</i> is +<i>throat</i>; it is modified by the possessive noun <i>crocodile’s</i>, which +is modified by the adjective <i>the</i>.</p> + +<p>The second predicate verb is <i>ripped</i>. It is completed by the +direct object <i>it</i> and the objective complement <i>open</i>, and then +modified by the adverbial clause of manner <i>as one would rip +a glove</i>, which is introduced by the subordinate conjunction <i>as</i>.</p> + +<p>The subject of this clause is the adjective pronoun <i>one</i>. +The predicate is <i>would rip a glove</i>. The predicate verb is +<i>would rip</i>. It is completed by the direct object <i>a glove</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze the following sentences. When you +write the analysis of a sentence, use abbreviations, and instead +of writing out a group of words in full, as is done in +the model, write only the first and last words of the group +with a dash between them. Be sure to underline all words +quoted from the sentence.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">He looks the whole world in the face,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">For he owes not any man.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>2. The young lion was growing so fast that the milk of three +goats was scarcely sufficient for him.</p> + +<p>3.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">When the glorious sun is set,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When the grass with dew is wet,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Then you show your little light.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>4. When Charles was studying shorthand, his mother read +sermons to him for an hour every morning, so that he might have +practice in the writing of long words.</p> + +<p>5. If you save the pennies, the dollars will take care of themselves.</p> + +<p>6.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Where the purple violet grows,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Where the bubbling water flows,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Where the grass is fresh and fine,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Pretty cow, go there and dine.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>7. Tommy, though he was getting a big boy, retained some of +the habits of a baby.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span></p> + +<p>8. I was sitting on the top rail of the front fence, when a party of +gypsies went by on their way to a camp.</p> + +<p>9.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The day is done, and the darkness</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Falls from the wings of night,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">As a feather is wafted downward</div> + <div class="verse indent2">From an eagle in his flight.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>10. Whenever you see many drones, you will find plenty of +young bees.</p> + +<p>11. After the robins have pinched and shaken all the life out of +an earthworm, as Italian cooks pound all the spirit out of a steak, +and then gulped him, they stand up in honest self-confidence, +expand their red waistcoats with a virtuous air, and outface you with +their bold calm eyes.</p> + +<p>12. Moti Guj, the elephant, never trampled the life out of his +master Deesa, for, after the beating was over, Deesa would embrace +his trunk, and call him his love and his life and the liver of his soul, +and give him some liquor.</p> + +<p>13. If imitation be the sincerest form of flattery, the mischief +of the monkey should be regarded more leniently.</p> + +<p>14. I liked dolls well enough, though my assortment was not a +choice one.</p> + +<p>15. Her nails were so hard that they would yield to the scissors +only after a day’s soaking in hot soapsuds.</p> + +<p>16.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And they fell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXV">LXXV. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section295"><b>295.</b> We learned in <a href="#XX">Lesson XX</a> that a dependent clause often +has the use of an adjective, that is, it modifies a noun; as in +the sentence, “This is the house that Jack built.” Such a +clause as <i>that Jack built</i> is called an adjective clause. Why?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section296"><b>296.</b> An adjective clause may be used for two different +purposes.</p> + +<p>(1) It may serve to point out a particular person, place, +or thing; as, “This is the maiden all forlorn that milked the +cow with the crumpled horn.” Here the clause tells what +particular maiden is meant. A clause of this sort is called a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span><b>restrictive</b> clause, because it limits, or restricts, the application +of the word it modifies.</p> + +<p>(2) An adjective clause may serve merely to bring in a +new thought, something that is worth telling, of course, but +still not necessary to the truth of the sentence; as, “My +father had ten cows, which I had to escort to and from pasture +night and morning.” This clause does not tell what particular +cows my father had, but merely tells an additional fact +about them. Such a clause as this is called an <b>unrestrictive</b> +clause. It is set off by a comma.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section297"><b>297.</b> A restrictive clause is usually necessary to the truth +of a sentence; as, “A city that is set on a hill cannot be +hid,” “A prince that is a tyrant is unfit to rule.”</p> + +<p>To find out whether a clause is restrictive or not, determine +first what word it modifies; then ask yourself the question, +Did the author put this clause into the sentence to point +out a particular object?</p> + +<p>Could such a term as <i>The Declaration of Independence</i>, <i>my +mother’s father</i>, <i>Theodore Roosevelt</i>, <i>the planet Mars</i>, or <i>Boston</i> +be modified by a restrictive adjective clause?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>adjective clause</b> is a dependent clause that +modifies a noun or a pronoun.</p> + +<p>A <b>restrictive</b> adjective clause is one that points out a particular +person, place, or thing. A restrictive clause is not +set off by commas.</p> + +<p>An <b>unrestrictive</b> adjective clause is one that merely adds +a new thought to the sentence. An unrestrictive clause is +set off by a comma.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select the adjective clauses. Tell what +they modify. Then find out whether they are restrictive +or not, and why.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Always test an adjective clause first to find out whether +it is restrictive. If you decide that it is not restrictive, then it must +be unrestrictive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Charley Marden, whose father had promised to cane him if +he ever set foot on sail or row boat, came down to the wharf in a +sour-grape humor to see us off.</p> + +<p>2. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with +constant use.</p> + +<p>3. From one corner of St. Paul’s churchyard runs the lively +street called Cheapside, from which John Gilpin started on his +famous ride.</p> + +<p>4. The reason why the women and children slept upon the floor +was their fear lest the Indians should fire through the windows and +kill them in their beds.</p> + +<p>5. The king whose despotic power was felt over the entire extent +of the cattle range was an old gray wolf.</p> + +<p>6. The monks who put peas in their shoes as a penance do not +suffer more than the country boy in his penitential Sunday shoes.</p> + +<p>7. There is a girl in the carriage, who looks out at John, who is +suddenly aware that his trousers are patched on each knee and in +two places behind.</p> + +<p>8. He could see the pale and naked trunk of a pine tree, which +the lightning had shattered.</p> + +<p>9. The night that was so favorable to the wild rabbits was +favorable also to the fox, the wildcat, and the weasel.</p> + +<p>10. The only days that I can remember in Yonkers were hot.</p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">All things that are on earth shall wholly pass away,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Except the love of God, which shall live and last for aye.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and +abundance of their pens, whence sallied forth, now and then, troops +of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Write sentences containing restrictive adjective +clauses pointing out a certain river, a certain boy, a +certain bridge, a certain house, a certain day.</p> + +<p>Write sentences containing unrestrictive clauses that tell +something about the moon, the President of the United States, +Salt Lake City, the Sistine Madonna, the Eiffel Tower.</p> + +<p>Write sentences containing adjective clauses introduced +by the conjunctive adverbs <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, and <i>why</i>. (See +<a href="#LXVI">Lesson LXVI</a>.) Tell whether your clauses are restrictive or +unrestrictive.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXVI">LXXVI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section298"><b>298.</b> Just as an adverbial clause is joined to what it modifies +by a conjunctive adverb or a subordinate conjunction, +so an adjective clause must be joined to the noun it modifies +by some connecting word.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#LXVI">Lesson LXVI</a> it was shown that this word may be a +conjunctive adverb, as in the sentence, “I can never forget +the night when I first heard the whippoorwill sing.” What +is the clause here? What does it modify? How is it joined +to the word that it modifies?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section299"><b>299.</b> Most adjective clauses are introduced by some other +word than a conjunctive adverb. In the sentence, “The +hand that rocks the cradle rules the world,” the adjective +clause <i>that rocks the cradle</i> is joined to the noun <i>hand</i>, which +it modifies, by the word <i>that</i>. This word is used as subject +of the verb <i>rocks</i>, and really means <i>hand</i>. Since it takes the +place of a noun, it is a pronoun; and since this noun, or antecedent, +precedes the pronoun, we say that the pronoun <i>relates</i> +to its antecedent, and we call it a <b>relative</b> pronoun.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section300"><b>300.</b> The relative pronouns that introduce adjective +clauses are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, and <i>that</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Who</i> has three case forms: nominative, <i>who</i>; possessive, +<i>whose</i>; objective, <i>whom</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Which</i> has the possessive form <i>whose</i>; <i>that</i> has no possessive +form.</p> + +<p><i>Which</i> and <i>that</i> do not change their form for the objective +case.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section301"><b>301.</b> A relative pronoun always has a use in the adjective +clause that it introduces. This is the same use that the antecedent +would have if it were used in place of the pronoun.</p> + +<p>The four common uses are:—</p> + +<p>(1) Subject of a verb; as, “He who fights and runs away +may live to fight another day.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span></p> + +<p>(2) Object of a verb; as, “This is the day that the Lord +hath made.”</p> + +<p>(3) Object of a preposition; as, “I saw the room in which +Shakespeare was born.”</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Sometimes the pronoun comes before the preposition; +as, “The buggy that we rode in was low and light.”</p> + +<p>(4) Possessive modifier; as, “Any boy whose memory is +good can learn a history lesson.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section302"><b>302.</b> The relative pronoun <i>that</i> introduces only restrictive +adjective clauses. The pronouns <i>who</i>, <i>whose</i>, <i>whom</i>, and +<i>which</i> may introduce either restrictive or unrestrictive clauses.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section303"><b>303.</b> <i>Who</i> has for its antecedent the name of some person; +<i>which</i> has for its antecedent the name of some thing. The +antecedent of <i>that</i> may be the name of a person or a thing.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section304"><b>304.</b> The word <i>but</i> may be used as a relative pronoun as +a substitute for the two words <i>that not</i>. Instead of saying, +“There is no day that has not an end,” we may say, “There +is no day <i>but</i> has an end.” This is a better sentence than the +first because it contains only one negative word.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section305"><b>305.</b> The word <i>as</i> may be used as a relative pronoun following +the words <i>such</i>, <i>same</i>, or <i>as many</i>. We say,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I like <i>such</i> flowers <i>as</i> you sent me.</p> + +<p>Your dress is the <i>same</i> color <i>as</i> mine.</p> + +<p>I will take <i>as many</i> apples <i>as</i> will fill this basket.</p> + +<p>I want <i>such</i> a chair <i>as</i> you are sitting in now.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In each of the sentences above, what is the use of the relative +pronoun <i>as</i> in the clause that it introduces?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>relative pronoun</b> is one that refers to a preceding +noun or pronoun, and joins to it an adjective clause.</p> + +<p>The relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses +are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, and <i>that</i>.</p> + +<p><i>As</i> and <i>but</i> are sometimes used as relative pronouns.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section306"><b>306.</b> When we parse a relative pronoun we tell,—</p> + +<p>(1) Its antecedent.</p> + +<p>(2) What adjective clause it joins to its antecedent.</p> + +<p>(3) Its case.</p> + +<p>(4) Its use in the adjective clause.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Parse all the relative pronouns in the following +sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. In came the six young followers whose hearts the Misses +Fezziwig broke.</p> + +<p>2. There were the wide sweeps of forest through which the +winter tempests howled, upon which hung the haze of summer +heat, over which the great shadows of summer clouds traveled.</p> + +<p>3. Susie was a well-behaved child, who took care of her clothes +and played quiet games.</p> + +<p>4. And now the dandelion is a pest—the same yellow dandelion +with its long, bitter, milky stem that we children sought for +in the shady fence corners to make into spiral curls.</p> + +<p>5. Buffers had a small moustache, which he fostered much, and +a cane with which he was not yet very familiar.</p> + +<p>6. She bade me good-by as if I were a friend of her family whom +she would gladly meet again.</p> + +<p>7. There is only one bird that terrifies the crow, and that is the +owl.</p> + +<p>8. Solomon John proposed that they should open the window, a +thing which Agamemnon could easily do with his long arms.</p> + +<p>9. There was one lady whose conversation at the best of times +made my mother sleepy.</p> + +<p>10. The two men shared those mysterious rites of smoking and +shaving and discussing stocks which occupy men when they are left +to themselves.</p> + +<p>11. The turkey cock, who had been born into the world with +spurs, and thought he was a king, puffed himself out like a ship +with full sails, and flew at the duckling.</p> + +<p>12. In a few moments Ned arrived at a small open glade in the +middle of the forest, in which, to his horror, he saw a lion upon the +body of a man, whom he seized by the throat, while Nero stood +within a few yards, baying him furiously.</p> + +<p>13. He lives longest who does most.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Analyze the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">No time is like the old time when you and I were young,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When the buds of April blossomed, and the birds of spring-time sung.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>2.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">No place is like the old place, where you and I were born,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Where we lifted first our eyelids on the splendor of the morn.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>3. No friend is like the old friend, who has shared our morning +days.</p> + +<p>4. At the teachers’ meeting, which she regularly attended with +her mother, Gertrude saw the pale-faced little lady whom the children +called a “Grahamite.”</p> + +<p>5. The old broken gate which a gentleman would not tolerate +an hour upon his grounds is a great beauty in the picture which +hangs in his parlor.</p> + +<p>6. Often the road passes between lofty walls of solid rock, from +the crevices of which all lovely growths are springing.</p> + +<p>7.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Read from some humbler poet,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Whose songs gushed from his heart,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">As rain from the clouds in summer,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Or tears from the eyelids start.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>8. Michel was a vivacious, lean little Frenchman, who fulfilled +the duties of a chambermaid very adroitly.</p> + +<p>9. The first thing that my pet starling imitated was the rumbling +of carts and carriages on the street.</p> + +<p>10. In one corner of the fireplace sat a superannuated crony, +whom the sexton called John Ange, and who had been his companion +from childhood.</p> + +<p>11. The good ship <i>Humber</i> is taking home a regiment whose term +of service has expired.</p> + +<p>12. Madame took for breakfast two fresh eggs, which her two +hens laid for her every morning with the perfect regularity that is +the politeness of all well-bred poultry.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The boy stood on the burning deck,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Whence all but him had fled.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14. Lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither +moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through +and steal.</p> + +<p>15. Sycamore Ridge might have been one of the dreary villages +that dot the wind-swept plain to-day, instead of the bright, prosperous +elm-shaded town that it is.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXVII">LXXVII. NOUN CLAUSES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section307"><b>307.</b> We have seen that a dependent clause may have the +use of an adverb or of an adjective. It may also have another +use, as may be seen in the sentence, “Whatever +Midas touched with his finger immediately glistened and +grew yellow.” If we ask the question, <i>What glistened and +grew yellow?</i> we get the answer, <i>Whatever Midas touched with +his finger</i>; hence this group of words must be the subject. +But this group is a clause, for it contains the subject <i>Midas</i> +and the verb <i>touched</i>. A clause used as the subject of a +predicate is used like a noun, hence we call it a <b>noun clause</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section308"><b>308.</b> The noun clause has several other uses of a noun besides +that of subject. It may be,—</p> + +<p>(1) Object of a verb; as, “I think that life would be very +dull without meals.”</p> + +<p>(2) Subjective complement; as, “The sad part of this +tale is that the trouble was not with poor little Quackalina’s +eyes at all.”</p> + +<p>(3) In apposition; as, “He had a theory that the big +horned owl might be tamed.” Here the clause explains the +noun <i>theory</i> telling exactly what the theory is. This may +seem at first like an adjective clause, but there is a clear difference. +We can make a sentence by putting the verb <i>is</i> between +the noun <i>theory</i> and the clause. This shows that the +two are identical, but we cannot do this with the noun <i>theory</i> +and an adjective clause, as in this sentence, “I do not believe +in the theory that he sets forth in his book.”</p> + +<p>(4) Object of a preposition; as, “Aladdin’s mother listened +with surprise to what her son told her.” If you ask +the question, <i>listened to what?</i> you get the answer, <i>what her +son told her</i>. Therefore, the group of words <i>what her son told +her</i>, which is a dependent proposition, must be the object of +the preposition <i>to</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span></p> + +<p>(5) Some adjectives, like <i>anxious</i>, <i>aware</i>, <i>careful</i>, <i>certain</i>, +<i>glad</i>, <i>hopeful</i>, <i>sorry</i>, and <i>sure</i>, especially when used as subjective +complements, are modified by noun clauses that take +the place of adverbial prepositional phrases. We may say,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I am sure <i>of his election</i>.</p> + +<p>I am sure <i>that he will be elected</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In the first sentence the adjective <i>sure</i> is modified by the +phrase <i>of his election</i>. In the second sentence the adjective +<i>sure</i> is modified by the noun clause <i>that he will be elected</i>, +which answers the question <i>sure of what?</i> This may be called +the adverbial use of the noun clause.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section309"><b>309.</b> Often, when a noun clause is used as subject, it is +placed after the predicate, and the sentence begins with the +word <i>it</i>; as, “It is curious that almost every nation on earth +has some particular traditions regarding the dog.” If we ask +the question, <i>what is curious?</i> the answer is not <i>it</i>, for that +tells nothing, but the clause. The word <i>it</i> is called an <b>anticipative +subject</b>, because it comes before the real subject, +and signifies also to the reader that the real subject may be +expected after the predicate.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section310"><b>310.</b> The tense of the verb in a noun clause is determined +partly by the meaning of the sentence and partly by the +tense of the verb in the independent clause. What is the +meaning of each of the following sentences, and what is the +tense of each verb?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I understand that he builds bridges.</p> + +<p>I understand that he will build the bridge.</p> + +<p>I understand that he has built the bridge.</p> + +<p>I understood that he builds bridges.</p> + +<p>I understood that he would build the bridge.</p> + +<p>I understood that he had built the bridge.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A noun clause is a dependent clause having +the use of a noun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span></p> + +<p>The noun clause may be used adverbially to modify certain +adjectives.</p> + +<p>The word <i>it</i> may be used as an anticipative subject to +throw the real subject, a noun clause, after the verb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Select all the noun clauses, and explain the +use of each.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Just then a shout from the boys’ tent proclaimed that the +twins were awake.</p> + +<p>2. There were two summer houses at one end of what we called +a park.</p> + +<p>3. The probability is very great that the Vikings did land on our +coast.</p> + +<p>4. What made the little silver teapot so alluring was that it +held just enough for two.</p> + +<p>5. Be careful how you handle my razor.</p> + +<p>6. It so happened that one of his neighbors had two very beautiful +daughters.</p> + +<p>7. I discovered that the world was not created exclusively on +my account.</p> + +<p>8. Mr. Cobb had a feeling that he was being hurried from peak +to peak of a mountain range without time to take a good breath in +between.</p> + +<p>9. That supply follows demand is a sure rule of political +economy.</p> + +<p>10. The truth is that my dancing days are over.</p> + +<p>11. In choosing words it is to be remembered that there is not a +really poor one in any language.</p> + +<p>12. Are you aware that Phio has gone to the hospital?</p> + +<p>13. On the very day of his inauguration Jefferson took a step +toward what he called simplicity, and what his opponents thought +vulgarity.</p> + +<p>14. I knew that I was born at the North, but I hoped that nobody +in New Orleans would find it out.</p> + +<p>15. The Austrian commander noticed this peculiarity about the +firing,—that every shot seemed to come from the same place.</p> + +<p>16. That the monkeys had stolen the snuffbox was obvious, +for both of them were seized with convulsions of sneezing.</p> + +<p>17. I am glad that you are going to talk on the peace movement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p> + +<p>18. The disadvantage of being a boy is that it does not last long +enough.</p> + +<p>19. We are all sorry that some days never come but once.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Justify the tense of the verb in the noun +clause in each of these sentences—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I know that fever produces thirst.</p> + +<p>I knew that tennis is a healthful sport.</p> + +<p>I know that the lake will freeze to-night.</p> + +<p>I knew that the lake would freeze last night.</p> + +<p>I know that my turn comes next.</p> + +<p>I knew that my turn came next.</p> + +<p>I know that she has heard the news.</p> + +<p>I knew that she had heard the news.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXVIII">LXXVIII. INTRODUCTORY WORDS OF NOUN CLAUSES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section311"><b>311.</b> We have learned that adjective clauses and adverbial +clauses are joined to what they modify by some connective. +This word also serves to show that the clause it introduces +is not independent but dependent.</p> + +<p>The noun clause also is introduced by some connecting +word. In the sentence, “That you have wronged me doth +appear in this,” the first word <i>that</i> could be placed nowhere +in the clause except at the beginning, and it reveals at once +that the clause it introduces is dependent.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section312"><b>312.</b> The introductory word of a noun clause may be several +parts of speech:</p> + +<p>(1) The subordinating conjunctions <i>if</i>, <i>that</i>, and <i>whether</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Go and see <i>if</i> your father is coming home.</p> + +<p>I believe <i>that</i> all men are created free and equal.</p> + +<p>I do not know <i>whether</i> Mary is a suffragist or a suffragette.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Often the connective <i>that</i> is omitted; as, “You said you +were coming home early,” “David thought Dora was an +angel.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span></p> + +<p>(2) The interrogative pronouns <i>who</i>, <i>whose</i>, <i>whom</i>, <i>which</i>, +<i>what</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Nobody knows <i>who</i> first wrote the story of little Red Riding Hood.</p> + +<p>Can you tell <i>whose</i> picture this is?</p> + +<p>We cannot tell <i>whom</i> the baby looks like.</p> + +<p>Have you heard <i>which</i> came out ahead?</p> + +<p>Tell me <i>what</i> you like, and I will tell you <i>what</i> you are.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In sentences of this sort the interrogative pronoun is not +used in a direct question, but always when a noun clause is +introduced by an interrogative pronoun there is an indirect, +or implied question. Make a direct question out of each of +the noun clauses above.</p> + +<p>The interrogative pronoun always has a use in the noun +clause that it introduces, just as the relative pronoun has a +use in the adjective clause. What is the use of each interrogative +pronoun in the preceding sentences?</p> + +<p>(3) The relative pronoun <i>what</i>. This pronoun is always +equivalent to the two words <i>that which</i>, and there is no question +implied in a noun clause introduced by this pronoun.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><i>What</i> Martha told me about the will did not surprise me.</p> + +<p>Getting dinner is <i>what</i> takes most of my time.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>(4) The indefinite pronouns <i>whoever</i>, <i>whichever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, etc.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><i>Whoever</i> came was made welcome.</p> + +<p>Take <i>whichever</i> you like.</p> + +<p><i>Whatever</i> is, is right.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>What is the use of each noun clause in these sentences? +What is the use in the clause of each indefinite pronoun?</p> + +<p>(5) The conjunctive adverbs <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>why</i>, <i>how</i>, +<i>whither</i>, etc.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Do you know <i>when</i> the steamer sails?</p> + +<p>I cannot remember <i>where</i> I put my spectacles.</p> + +<p>Can you tell <i>why</i> he never wears a muffler?</p> + +<p>I never understood <i>how</i> the purse was returned.</p> + +<p>It is strange <i>how</i> the memory clings to some things.</p> + +<p>Who knows <i>whither</i> the clouds have fled?</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span></p> + +<p>The adverb introducing a noun clause modifies some word +within the clause, usually the verb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The noun clause may be introduced by +(1) a subordinate conjunction, (2) an interrogative pronoun, +(3) the relative pronoun <i>what</i>, (4) an indefinite pronoun, +(5) a conjunctive adverb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the noun clauses, and tell the use +of each in the sentence. Tell the introductory word of each +clause, and its use in the clause.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What disgusted them still more was that Bluebeard had +already been married several times, and no one knew what had +become of his wives.</p> + +<p>2. Ernest was always ready to believe in whatever seemed +beautiful and good.</p> + +<p>3. We asked the boatman why he did not speak Gaelic to his +dog as well as to his family.</p> + +<p>4. Whoever has been hypnotized by a book agent will understand +how mother felt about the spectacles that she bought and +could not wear.</p> + +<p>5. I wonder if Burbank ever really produced a deodorized +onion.</p> + +<p>6. Shakespeare’s chair stands in the chimney nook of a small +gloomy chamber, just behind what was his father’s shop.</p> + +<p>7. Whatever was iron or brass in other houses was silver or +gold in this.</p> + +<p>8. The apothecary listened as calmly as he could to the story of +how Mrs. Peterkin had put salt in her coffee.</p> + +<p>9. The lady from Philadelphia asked where the milk was kept.</p> + +<p>10. Fortunately, what God expects of us is not <i>the</i> best, but <i>our</i> +best.</p> + +<p>11. Why this spot was selected for a mansion was always a +mystery, unless it was that the newcomer desired to isolate himself +completely.</p> + +<p>12. Whether the Indians were not early risers, or whether they +were away just then on a warpath I couldn’t determine.</p> + +<p>13. What passes for laziness in a boy is very often an unwillingness +to farm in a particular way.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span></p> + +<p>14. The direction of a man’s life follows the unseen influence of +what he admires and loves and believes in.</p> + +<p>15. Her only noteworthy achievement was that she had named +her twin sons Marquis de Lafayette Randall and Lorenzo de Medici +Randall.</p> + +<p>16. I wonder who could describe those wonderful coral gardens on +which we gazed through twenty fathoms of crystal water.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXIX">LXXIX. REVIEW OF CLAUSES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section313"><b>313.</b> We have learned that clauses may be independent or +dependent; that dependent clauses may be used like nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs; that adjective clauses may be restrictive +or unrestrictive; that adverbial clauses may denote various +circumstances, such as time, place, manner, etc.; that +dependent clauses are introduced by some word that indicates +their dependence.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Study again Lessons <a href="#XVIII">XVIII</a>, <a href="#XX">XX</a>, <a href="#LXVI">LXVI-LXXVIII</a>, +and then make an outline of the subject, Clauses, +having for your main topics,—</p> + +<p>(1) Classification.</p> + +<p>(2) Introductory word.</p> + +<p>(3) Use.</p> + +<p>Make a good original sentence to illustrate each point.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Analyze the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Though Diana looked very old, she looked exactly the same +during all the years in which I knew her; and Aunt Maria, who +had known her all her life, said that she had never looked any +younger.</p> + +<p>2. The only difference between the sisters was that while Miranda +only wondered how they could endure Rebecca, Jane had +flashes of inspiration in which she wondered how Rebecca would +endure them.</p> + +<p>3. Whether the pigeons dropped exhausted on some ship and +were helped across the ocean, or whether some storm at sea swept +them away forever, no one ever knew.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span></p> + +<p>4. Did mother know who brought the scarlet-runner seeds +from Whittier’s birthplace?</p> + +<p>5. I never quite understood why a girl who climbed trees, clung +to the tail end of carts, and otherwise deported herself as a well-conditioned +girl should not, was called a tomboy.</p> + +<p>6. The boy remembers how his mother’s anxiety was divided +between the set of his turn-over collar, the parting of his hair, and +his memory of the Sunday-school verses.</p> + +<p>7. Most people think that the best thing they can give to a +caged bird is his liberty.</p> + +<p>8. The horrible thought came coldly over me that the tiger was +keeping me company until a good chance offered for a spring.</p> + +<p>9. Possibly the reason why monkeys have been so little on the +stage is that their appearance there would emphasize too strongly +the striking similarity between man and monkey.</p> + +<p>10. An elephant who will not work and is not tied up is about as +manageable as an eighty-one ton gun in a heavy seaway.</p> + +<p>11. Nothing cleverer than was Moufflou had ever walked upon +four legs.</p> + +<p>12. The truth is that boys have always been so plenty that they +are not half appreciated.</p> + +<p>13. The professor was so pleased with his witticism that I was +let off without even a scolding.</p> + +<p>14. Those Indian nations who still preserve their ancient mode +of life, have dogs which bear a strong resemblance to wolves.</p> + +<p>15. The partridge remembered the time when the chickadees +had seemed such big, important creatures.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Criticize the use of <i>between</i> in sentence 6.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXX">LXXX. REVIEW OF PRONOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section314"><b>314.</b> We have learned that pronouns may be classified as +follows:—</p> + +<p>(1) Personal pronouns.</p> + +<p>(2) Compound personal pronouns.</p> + +<p>(3) Interrogative pronouns.</p> + +<p>(4) Adjective pronouns.</p> + +<p>(5) Relative pronouns.</p> + +<p>(6) Indefinite pronouns.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Study again Lessons <a href="#V">V</a>, <a href="#XXXIX">XXXIX-XLIII</a>, +<a href="#XLVIII">XLVIII</a>, <a href="#LXXVI">LXXVI</a>, <a href="#LXXVIII">LXXVIII</a>, and then be prepared to explain +each class of pronoun, and to tell the various uses of +each class. Illustrate each point with an original sentence +or with one that you yourself have found in some book.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Parse all the pronouns in the following sentences. +If there is anything peculiar in the use of any pronoun, +comment upon it. (See pp. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, +<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.)</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. What was the Great Stone Face?</p> + +<p>2. To make a quarrel needs, indeed, two; but to make peace +needs only one.</p> + +<p>3. When the swarm comes out, it consists of both old and young +bees, and, indeed, some say that the old queen leads them, and the +young one takes her vacant throne.</p> + +<p>4. We could easily surmise who the Halloween rascals were, +but what was the terrifying apparatus they applied to our window +panes we could not imagine.</p> + +<p>5. All of this is mine and thine.</p> + +<p>6. Attracted by the smell either of the newly killed waterbuck +or of ourselves, the hungry lions were storming our position.</p> + +<p>7. Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again.</p> + +<p>8. The interior of St. Paul’s is just what one would expect after +viewing the outside. A maze of grand arches on every side encompasses +the dome, which you gaze up at as at the sky; and from +every pillar and wall look down the marble forms of the dead.</p> + +<p>9. By the wholesome law of the prairie, he who falls asleep on +guard is condemned to walk all day.</p> + +<p>10.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Who has sight so keen and strong</div> + <div class="verse indent0">That it can follow the flight of song?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>11. The schoolhouse was a high brick building, and the yard +itself was made of brick.</p> + +<p>12. The Eskimo dogs are of great use to their masters in discovering +by the scent the winter retreats which the bears make under +the snow.</p> + +<p>13. The Taj Mahal is a Mohammedan tomb, the tomb of the +favorite wife of an Indian Mogul. It is her tomb, and also his own, +for he lies beside her, and it was built in compliance with a request +of hers before she died.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span></p> + +<p>14. I procured a bowl of soup from the steward, but as I was +not able to eat it, I gave it to an old man whose hungry look and +wistful eyes convinced me it would not be lost on him.</p> + +<p>15.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">What’s a fair or noble face</div> + <div class="verse indent0">If the mind ignoble be?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>16.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Keep fresh the grass on Wordsworth’s grave,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">O Rotha, with thy living wave!</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Sing him thy best! for few or none</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Hears thy voice right, now he is gone.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXI">LXXXI. INFINITIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section315"><b>315.</b> Look at the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Dare <i>to be</i> true.</p> + +<p>It is high time <i>to go</i>.</p> + +<p>The bishop seemed <i>to have talked</i> with angels.</p> + +<p>You ought <i>to have been paying</i> attention.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>We have here certain verb forms,—<i>to be</i>, <i>to go</i>, <i>to have +talked</i>, <i>to have been paying</i>,—which are very familiar to all +of us, but which we have not yet studied. They are not +forms of the indicative, subjunctive, or imperative mode, nor +are they like any of the verb phrases that we have examined. +They all begin with the word <i>to</i>, and they contain two, three, +or four words, the last of which is the important one. We +call these groups of words <b>infinitives</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section316"><b>316.</b> An intransitive verb has four infinitives, two of them +denoting a present action, hence called <b>present infinitives</b>; +and the other two denoting an action already completed, +hence called <b>perfect infinitives</b>.</p> + +<p>The four infinitives of the intransitive verb <i>laugh</i> are +these:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th><span class="smcap">Present</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>to laugh</td> + <td>to have laughed</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>to be laughing</td> + <td>to have been laughing</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Which two of these infinitives belong to the progressive +conjugation?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section317"><b>317.</b> Transitive verbs have six infinitives. The infinitives +of the transitive verb <i>eat</i> are these:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Present</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Active</i></td> + <td>to eat</td> + <td>to have eaten</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Active Progressive</i></td> + <td>to be eating</td> + <td>to have been eating</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Passive</i></td> + <td>to be eaten</td> + <td>to have eaten</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="section" id="section318"><b>318.</b> The infinitives above are called <b>infinitives with <i>to</i></b>, +because they begin with the word <i>to</i>. This word is not used +as a preposition, but merely as a sort of handle, or introduction, +to the infinitive.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section319"><b>319.</b> Besides the infinitive with <i>to</i> there is another form +called the <b>infinitive in <i>-ing</i></b>. The infinitives in <i>-ing</i> of the +verb <i>eat</i> are these:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Present</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Active</i></td> + <td>eating</td> + <td>having eaten</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Active Progressive</i></td> + <td></td> + <td>having been eating</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Passive</i></td> + <td>being eaten</td> + <td>having been eaten</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>What are the infinitives in <i>-ing</i> of the verb <i>laugh</i>? Which +two forms does it lack?</p> + +<p>Find the infinitives in <i>-ing</i> in these sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>He was fined for losing his temper.</p> + +<p>“Being a Boy” is the title of a book.</p> + +<p>He was vexed at having misspelled so many words.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section320"><b>320.</b> All infinitives are forms of verbs, but they cannot be +predicate verbs because they do not assert. They are spoken +of as <b>verbals</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section321"><b>321.</b> A verbal is used in a sentence like some part of speech,—a +noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The infinitive is +most frequently used like a noun. The infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is +very much like a noun in another respect too,—it <i>names</i> the +action or state that the predicate verb <i>asserts</i>. If we should +ask for the name of any action that we saw a person performing, +the answer would be an infinitive in <i>-ing</i>; as, <i>reaping</i>, +<i>mowing</i>, <i>plowing</i>, <i>driving</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section322"><b>322.</b> The infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is so much like a noun that it +can be modified by a possessive noun or pronoun. We say, +“<i>Your</i> winning the victory depends on your keeping cool.” +“The farmer’s chagrin was due to his <i>hay’s</i> having spoiled.” +Explain the use of all the possessives in these sentences.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is often called a <b>gerund</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section323"><b>323.</b> The infinitive may take the same complements and +modifiers that any other form of the same verb might take. +The infinitive, together with all the words associated with it, +makes an <b>infinitive phrase</b>. The base word of an infinitive +phrase is always an infinitive. What are the infinitive phrases +in all the illustrative sentences in this lesson?</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>verbal</b> is a verb form that denotes action +or being without asserting it.</p> + +<p>A verbal is used in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, +or an adverb.</p> + +<p>An <b>infinitive</b> is a verbal that is generally used as a noun.</p> + +<p>There are two classes of infinitives,—the infinitive with +<i>to</i>, and the infinitive in <i>-ing</i>.</p> + +<p>The infinitive has two tenses,—present and perfect.</p> + +<p>The infinitive may be active or passive or progressive.</p> + +<p>An <b>infinitive phrase</b> is a group of words consisting of an infinitive +together with its complement and modifiers.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Write all the infinitives of the verbs <i>be</i>, <i>bring</i>, +<i>come</i>, <i>find</i>, <i>freeze</i>, <i>go</i>, <i>leave</i>, <i>seem</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>turn</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select all the infinitive phrases in the following +sentences. Tell the voice and tense of each infinitive.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model</span>—<i>It is hard to teach an old dog new tricks.</i> <i>To +teach an old dog new tricks</i> is an infinitive phrase. <i>To teach</i> +is the present active infinitive of the transitive verb <i>teach</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Am I to give a reason for all I choose to do?</p> + +<p>2. The cherry pie seemed to have been left in the refrigerator +for that hungry young pair.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span></p> + +<p>3. Driving between these long lines of dainty-flowering and +sweet-smelling rows of hedges is very delightful.</p> + +<p>4. All the lines of pain smoothed out of her brow, and she +seemed to be peacefully sleeping.</p> + +<p>5. The lights had been extinguished, the buoys removed, and +the whole coast seemed to have gone back hundreds of years.</p> + +<p>6. Your having given me the opera glasses is no reason that +you have a right to borrow them continually.</p> + +<p>7. Any child should know that a hot stove is a thing to be +avoided, but I did not seem to realize the fact.</p> + +<p>8. The boy would like to have thrown a stone at the wagon.</p> + +<p>9. Did you mind being reproved by your mother for sitting up +so late?</p> + +<p>10. It was already past the appointed hour for Mr. Cobb and his +coach to be lumbering down the street.</p> + +<p>11. From her having been staying at the Antlers the entire season, +I should judge her to be wealthy.</p> + +<p>12. Scrooge was not a man to be frightened by echoes.</p> + +<p>13. There’s no use in making two bites of a cherry.</p> + +<p>14. The fact of the letter’s having been opened was evident, but +it could not be proved against the mail carrier.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the part of speech and use of <i>your</i>, sentence 6, <i>her</i> 11, +<i>letter’s</i> 14.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXII">LXXXII. INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS OR COMPLEMENTS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section324"><b>324.</b> If we wish to make an assertion about a person, a +place, or an object, we use a noun for the base word of our +subject; but if we wish to make an assertion about an action, +we use an infinitive or an infinitive phrase for subject; as, +“Just to breathe the air and feel one’s self alive was enough,” +“Going after the cows was a serious thing in my day.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section325"><b>325.</b> We have seen that a noun clause used as subject may +be thrown to the end of the sentence by means of the anticipative +subject <i>it</i>; as, “It is a good thing <i>that somebody +likes to cook</i>.” In the same way an infinitive phrase used as +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>subject may come after the predicate; as, “It pleased the +jackal to see Mother and Father Wolf look uncomfortable.” +Recast this sentence, omitting <i>it</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section326"><b>326.</b> The infinitive phrase is often used as the object of a +verb. Not all transitive verbs, however, can be completed +by infinitives—only those which can take for an object the +name of an action or a condition; as, “The cloud began to +sink softly down to the earth,” “After a struggle Bess gave +up using two lumps of sugar in her coffee.”</p> + +<p>Why cannot the verbs <i>break</i>, <i>bring</i>, <i>buy</i>, <i>cut</i>, <i>eat</i>, and <i>plow</i> +take infinitives for objects?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section327"><b>327.</b> The infinitive is used as a subjective complement of +an intransitive verb in two ways that differ slightly; as, “The +hunter’s first impulse was to laugh at his own folly,” “No +trees of any magnitude were to be seen.”</p> + +<p>In the first sentence the infinitive phrase, <i>to laugh at his +own folly</i>, completes the verb <i>was</i> and explains just what the +impulse was, hence it denotes identity with the subject. Its +use is precisely like that of the word <i>dime</i> in the sentence, +“My ‘lucky penny’ is a silver <i>dime</i>,” hence we say that it +is used like a noun.</p> + +<p>In the second sentence it is clear that the infinitive <i>to be +seen</i> completes the verb <i>were</i> and tells something about the +subject, hence it must be a subjective complement. But +instead of being used like a noun to denote identity with the +subject, it is equivalent to the adjective <i>visible</i>, hence may +be said to be used like an adjective.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The infinitive phrase may be the subject of +a verb, the object of a verb, or a subjective complement.</p> + +<p>By means of the anticipative subject <i>it</i>, the real subject, +an infinitive phrase, may be placed at the end of the sentence.</p> + +<p>As subjective complement the infinitive phrase may have +the use of a noun or of an adjective.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Tell the grammatical use of all infinitive +phrases in these sentences, and classify all infinitives:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Mowgli said that he never wished to see, or hear, or smell +man again.</p> + +<p>2. That which most resembles living one’s life over again is +recalling all the circumstances of it and recording them in writing.</p> + +<p>3. To fit out a fleet, and to levy and equip an army, and to +continue the forces thus raised in action during a long and uncertain +campaign would cost a large sum of money.</p> + +<p>4.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">When the days begin to lengthen,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Then the cold begins to strengthen.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>5. It is delightful to look upon the charming country which +springs up under a watering-pot sky.</p> + +<p>6. One of the best things in farm life is gathering the chestnuts, +hickory nuts, butternuts, and beechnuts.</p> + +<p>7. Speaking of Latin reminds me that I once taught my cows +Latin.</p> + +<p>8. The quaint, picturesque old town seems to bristle with forts.</p> + +<p>9. When I wanted to hit a mark, my usual way was to aim at +something else.</p> + +<p>10. The one idea in Mowgli’s head was to get Messua and her +husband out of the trap.</p> + +<p>11. This boy was so forward in domestic arts that he undertook +sewing on the machine when he was only five years old.</p> + +<p>12. It is bad manners to find fault with your food at the table.</p> + +<p>13. To climb a tree and shake it, to club it, to strip it of its +fruit, and pass to the next, is the sport of a brief time.</p> + +<p>14. One of Jakie’s amusements was dancing across the back of +a tall chair, taking funny little steps, coming down hard, jouncing +his body, and whistling as loud as he could.</p> + +<p>15. The Englishman learned to fight from behind a tree, to follow +a trail, and to cover his body with hemlock boughs for disguise.</p> + +<p>16. It exactly suits the temperament of a real boy to be very +busy about nothing.</p> + +<p>17. Trotting on city pavements is very hard on the dray horses.</p> + +<p>18. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the part of speech and use of <i>that</i> and <i>which</i> in sentence +2, <i>sum</i> 3, <i>then</i> 4, <i>years</i> 11. What is the object of <i>from</i> +in sentence 15? Think of similar expressions.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXIII">LXXXIII. INFINITIVES AS MODIFIERS OF NOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section328"><b>328.</b> The infinitive phrase is often a modifier of a noun, +and may be used either like an adjective or like an appositive.</p> + +<p>In the sentence, “Ulf still had a name to win,” what noun +does the infinitive modify? How do you know?</p> + +<p>In the sentence, “The mayor gave the order to close the +skating rink,” the infinitive phrase <i>to close the skating rink</i> +modifies the noun <i>order</i> by telling exactly what the order was; +hence we must say that it is in apposition with <i>order</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section329"><b>329.</b> The infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is not used as an adjective modifier +of a noun except in some compound words like these: +<i>rolling-pin</i>, <i>laughingstock</i>, <i>meetinghouse</i>, <i>drawing-room</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section330"><b>330.</b> Often the infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is used in apposition, as in +the sentence, “Her household tasks, keeping the bedrooms +tidy and caring for the canary birds, left her little time for +music practice.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The infinitive phrase may modify a noun +either as an adjective or as an appositive.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the infinitive phrases, and explain +the use of each. Classify also each infinitive, as in the preceding +exercise.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Is this a time to be cloudy and sad</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When our Mother Nature laughs around?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>2. As the Cloud became larger, this wish to do something for +the people of earth was ever greater in her heart.</p> + +<p>3. This is your last chance to see Chicago, Tom.</p> + +<p>4. Day after day mother sat at the east window engaged in her +favorite pastime—making something dainty and beautiful with +her needle.</p> + +<p>5. Almost all persons who travel in Switzerland have a great +desire to go to the top of at least one of the towering peaks they see +about them.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p> + +<p>6. Now bring us something to eat. I have not patience to +wait, for I am ravenously hungry.</p> + +<p>7. The first tracks to meet our eyes were the delicate footprints +of the red squirrel.</p> + +<p>8. The Colonel’s only form of exercise, riding horseback every +evening, made him a familiar figure throughout the city.</p> + +<p>9. Nothing pleased the dog more than an order to go and fetch +the cow.</p> + +<p>10. To the deer a mystery means something to be solved.</p> + +<p>11. A strange longing to follow the swan took possession of +each of the young birds.</p> + +<p>12. A queer freak of my chewink was her determination to get her +feet into her food.</p> + +<p>13. Never lose an opportunity to see anything beautiful.</p> + +<p>14. This father was the comrade of his son, made so by the +memory of his own boyhood sports,—playing baseball on the +common, swimming in the lake off Miller’s Point, skating out to +Garlic Island, and gathering hickory nuts and hazelnuts in the +autumn woods.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Classify the dependent clauses in sentences, 1, 2, 5, 9. +Tell the part of speech and use of <i>figure</i>, sentence 8.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXIV">LXXXIV. INFINITIVES AS PARTS OF “DOUBLE OBJECTS.” AS MODIFIERS OF VERBS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section331"><b>331.</b> In the sentence, “I want my friends to believe in +me,” we find the verb to be <i>want</i>. If we ask the question +<i>want what</i>? the answer is the group of words <i>my friends to +believe in me</i>; hence we are sure that this group of words is +the object.</p> + +<p>But this object is different from any group of words that +we have studied hitherto. It does not consist of a base word +and modifiers, but instead it consists of two parts that are +equally important. These are <i>my friends</i> and the infinitive +phrase <i>to believe in me</i>. The phrase is not a modifier of +<i>friends</i>, but has the logical relation of predicate to <i>friends</i>, +as may be proved by changing the whole group of words to +a noun clause, <i>that my friends should believe in me</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span></p> + +<p>When the object of a verb consists of two parts, a noun +element and an infinitive, having to each other the logical relation +of subject and predicate, we call the whole group a +<b>double object</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section332"><b>332.</b> Although the relation between the two parts of a +double object is logically that of subject and predicate, still +this relation is not grammatically expressed. A double object +does not make sense standing alone, and we cannot speak of +the infinitive in a double object as a predicate, for an infinitive +cannot assert. It is customary, however, to speak of the +noun element in a double object as the subject of the infinitive. +The subject of an infinitive is always in the objective +case, as may be plainly seen by substituting a pronoun for +the noun used as subject. In the sentence quoted, the pronoun +that might take the place of <i>my friends</i> is the objective +pronoun <i>them</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section333"><b>333.</b> An infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is often used as part of a double +object; as, “I hear their voices <i>ringing</i> in merry childish +glee,” “I can see his gallant figure <i>coming</i> down the road.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section334"><b>334.</b> Notice that a double object is not two objects of +equal rank, as in the sentence, “I want <i>peace and quiet</i>;” +but is one object consisting of two equal parts so closely +related, that neither of these parts could be the object if used +without the other.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section335"><b>335.</b> When the infinitive with <i>to</i> is used after the verbs +<i>hear</i> and <i>see</i>, as well as after <i>feel</i>, <i>let</i>, <i>make</i>, the <i>to</i> of the infinitive +is omitted; as, “Did you hear me (<i>to</i>) <i>rap</i> at your +door?” “Let us (<i>to</i>) <i>be</i> true to one another,” “The mosquitoes +made us (<i>to</i>) <i>go</i> indoors.”</p> + +<p>Find and explain the double objects in each of these three +sentences.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section336"><b>336.</b> When a sentence containing a double object is changed +to the passive voice, the noun element of the double object +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>becomes the subject of the passive verb, and the infinitive +phrase becomes the subjective complement of the verb. +Change this sentence to the passive voice and explain the +change, “We expected John to decorate the banquet room.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section337"><b>337.</b> We have seen that the infinitive may be used as the +complement of a verb in several ways: it may be the direct +object of a verb, or the subjective complement, or part of a +double object. There is another very common relation of +the infinitive to a verb, as shown in the sentence, “Some +persons live to eat.” The infinitive <i>to eat</i> is in the predicate, +but it is not an object of the verb <i>live</i>, neither is it a +subjective complement. How do we know this? As the infinitive +answers the question <i>for what purpose</i>? we conclude +that it is a modifier of the verb <i>live</i>. Furthermore, it could +be expanded into the adverbial clause of purpose, <i>that they +may eat</i>.</p> + +<p>The infinitive denoting purpose is very common, as seen +in the familiar sentences: “We go to school to learn,” “We +stood up to see,” “I sat down to rest.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An infinitive phrase and a noun, having the +logical relation of subject and predicate, may form the <b>double +object</b> of some transitive verbs.</p> + +<p>An infinitive phrase denoting the purpose of an action may +be used to modify a verb.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Write sentences containing double objects of +the verbs <i>cause</i>, <i>desire</i>, <i>expect</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>hear</i>, <i>let</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>order</i>, <i>see</i>, <i>wish</i>.</p> + +<p>Explain why there are no double objects in these +sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. They could get no water to drink.</p> + +<p>2. He has an ax to grind.</p> + +<p>3. We found plenty to eat.</p> + +<p>4. She bought a rose to wear.</p> + +<p>5. I made a cake to sell.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Explain the use of all infinitive phrases in +these sentences. Classify the infinitives.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The boy made up his mind that he would take two of the +whelps home with him to be brought up in the ways of civilization.</p> + +<p>2.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">In happy homes he saw the light</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Of household fires gleam warm and bright.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>3. More rarely a fox or a hyena quickened his gallop to study +the intruder at a safe distance.</p> + +<p>4. When the car stopped and I looked up at the window with +the pink geranium, I saw mother waiting to welcome me.</p> + +<p>5. The whole family went to the station to see us off.</p> + +<p>6. I do not quite know what caused me to lift my head from the +friendly shelter of the blanket.</p> + +<p>7. He felt his swift craft quiver with life beneath him in response +to the rhythmic stroke of the oarsmen.</p> + +<p>8. Jupiter bustled about to prepare some marsh hens for +supper.</p> + +<p>9. To keep the artillery dry, we stuffed wads of loose hemp into +the muzzles, and fitted wooden pegs to the touch holes.</p> + +<p>10. Down the elm-bordered road we two walked toward the sunset, +and watched the mists rising ghostlike from the fields.</p> + +<p>11. Mowgli heard the sound rumble, and rise, and fall, and die +off in a creepy sort of whine behind him.</p> + +<p>12. At recess the next noon the Centipedes met in a corner of +the schoolyard to talk over the proposed lark.</p> + +<p>13. Our Heavenly Father himself has planted that pea, and made +it grow and blossom to bring joy to you and hope to me, my blessed +child.</p> + +<p>14. Nearly all the finest diamonds in the world are brought to +Amsterdam to be cut into shape.</p> + +<p>15. It was Long Tom who taught Harvey to shoot at a mark +with a revolver.</p> + +<p>16. He’s gone to fight the French for King George upon his +throne.</p> + +<p>17. We heard the meadow larks singing their wistful songs, but +always instead of the black hearts upon their yellow breasts they +showed us just the two white feathers in their tails.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Change sentences 2, 4, 10, 11, 13, 17 to the passive voice, +and explain the change in the use of the infinitive.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXV">LXXXV. OTHER USES OF INFINITIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section338"><b>338.</b> The most frequent use of the infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is as +the object of a preposition; as, “I am tired of <i>doing</i> nothing,” +“He earned a living by <i>sharpening</i> scissors.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section339"><b>339.</b> The infinitive in <i>-ing</i>, like the noun, may be the object +of any preposition, but the infinitive with <i>to</i> is used as the +object of very few prepositions, only <i>about</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>but</i>, and +<i>save</i>, the last two meaning <i>except</i>.</p> + +<p>In the sentence, “He ate nothing but bananas,” the object +of the preposition <i>but</i> must be a noun because it must be the +name of a food. But in the sentence, “He did nothing but +play tennis,” the object of <i>but</i> must be an infinitive because +it must be the name of an action.</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—We often hear the expression “I was about to say.” In +this familiar idiom the prepositional phrase <i>about to say</i> is used as +the subjective complement of the verb <i>was</i>. How do we know this? +What is the use of the infinitive <i>to say</i>?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section340"><b>340.</b> In the sentence, “The gentleman drew out the chair +for the lady to sit down,” if we ask the question <i>for what?</i> +we get the answer <i>the lady to sit down</i>, hence the group of +words <i>the lady to sit down</i> must be the object of the preposition +<i>for</i>. But this group of words consists of two parts, <i>the lady</i> +and the infinitive phrase <i>to sit down</i>, which have the logical +relation of subject and predicate, hence we conclude that +the preposition <i>for</i> may take a double object.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section341"><b>341.</b> The sentences, “Sheep are apt,” “I am sorry,” +“The traveler was glad,” are all incomplete. We wish to +know in what respect sheep are apt, what I am sorry about, +what the traveler was glad of. In other words, the adjectives +<i>apt</i>, <i>sorry</i>, and <i>glad</i> need a modifier to make the sentence complete +in meaning. This modifier may be an infinitive, “Sheep +are apt <i>to get lost</i>,” “I am sorry <i>to leave Warwick</i>,” “The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>traveler was glad <i>to see his home again</i>.” We learn from these +sentences that an infinitive phrase may modify an adjective.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Complete the following sentences by infinitive +phrases. What do your phrases modify? How do you know?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. This child is too young—</p> + +<p>2. A man of twenty-five is old enough—</p> + +<p>3. The water was so deep as—</p> + +<p>4. The general was anxious—</p> + +<p>5. Some lessons are not easy—</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section342"><b>342.</b> The infinitive may be used independently; as, “<i>To +be frank</i>, I do not like it.” “<i>To make a long story short</i>, we +were utterly defeated.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section343"><b>343.</b> A common error is the use of the perfect infinitive for +the present. It is proper to say, “I ought to have gone,” +when we mean that the time of the going was in the past; +as, “I ought to have gone then, or yesterday, or a year ago.” +But when we mean that the going is at the present time or +is to be in the future, then we should use the present infinitive, +and say, “I ought to go.”</p> + +<p>What is the difference in the meaning of the following +pairs of sentences?</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>1.</td> + <td>I am sorry to offend you.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>I am sorry to have offended you.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2.</td> + <td>I am glad to see you.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>I am glad to have seen you.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3.</td> + <td>The train is reported to be late.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>The train is reported to have been late.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4.</td> + <td>The man is said to be a candidate.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>The man is said to have been a candidate.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It is evident from the four pairs of sentences above that +some verbs in the present tense may be followed by either a +present or a perfect infinitive. This is likewise true of some +verbs in the past tense. We say, “He seemed to be sleeping,” +meaning that he was sleeping at the time we noted his appearance. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>We also say, “He seemed to have been sleeping,” +meaning that he had slept before we noted his appearance.</p> + +<p>What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs +of sentences:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>1.</td> + <td>Washington was never known to fight a duel.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>Hamilton was known to have fought a duel.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2.</td> + <td>The ship was reported to be wrecked.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>The ship was reported to have been wrecked.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3.</td> + <td>The child appeared to lead the old man.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>The child appeared to have led the old man.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Since the verbs <i>desire</i>, <i>expect</i>, <i>hope</i>, <i>want</i>, and <i>wish</i> refer to +something in the present or the future, but never in the past, +they cannot be followed by a perfect infinitive. It is absurd +to say, “I hoped to have seen you,” “I expected to have +gone,” “I wished to have stayed.” We should say:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I desire to go. I desired to go.</p> + +<p>I expect to be there. I expected to be there.</p> + +<p>I hope to pass. I hoped to pass.</p> + +<p>I want to know. I wanted to know.</p> + +<p>I wish to speak. I wished to speak.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The infinitive phrase may be used as the object +of a preposition. The preposition <i>for</i> may take a double +object.</p> + +<p>The infinitive phrase may modify an adjective.</p> + +<p>The infinitive phrase may be used independently.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Explain the use of each infinitive phrase. +Classify each infinitive.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The cat was just about to spring upon the window sill where +the bird cage sat, when Paul shouted out a warning.</p> + +<p>2. I am perfectly willing to dine in the kitchen beside this cool +north window.</p> + +<p>3. The gay youths spent their time in walking, hunting, fishing, +feasting, and dancing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span></p> + +<p>4. It was so cold at Petoskey in July that the hotel proprietor +furnished a large lamp for us to heat our room by.</p> + +<p>5. The cherries grew too high to be picked except by the robins.</p> + +<p>6. My lot was indeed a hard one; I was too old to play out of +doors with my brothers, and too young to go to parties with my +sisters.</p> + +<p>7. After supper, the boy who has done nothing all day but turn +grindstone, and spread hay, and run his little legs off at everybody’s +beck and call, is sent on some errand or some household chore lest +time may hang heavy on his hands.</p> + +<p>8. Bark is only good to sharpen claws.</p> + +<p>9. John was hungry enough to have eaten the New England +Primer.</p> + +<p>10. Franklin was employed in cutting wicks for the candles, +filling the molds for cast candles, attending the shop, going of +errands, etc.</p> + +<p>11. To tell the truth, I prefer to stay at home.</p> + +<p>12. The only way to make the world better is for each man to do +his best.</p> + +<p>13. A dog is good to bite peddlers and small children, and to +run out and yelp at wagons that pass by, and to howl all night when +the moon shines.</p> + +<p>14. To sum up, the infinitive is used chiefly as a noun, but also as +an adjective and an adverb.</p> + +<p>15. The teacher’s eyes glanced half a dozen different ways at +once,—a habit probably acquired from watching the boys.</p> + +<p>16.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">None knew thee but to love thee,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Nor named thee but to praise.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>17. To see the sparks rush like swarms of red bees skyward +through the smoke is an experience long to be remembered.</p> + +<p>18. To make way for hemp the magnificent forests of Kentucky +were felled.</p> + +<p>19. The crow and the blackbird seem to love these plants.</p> + +<p>20. It takes a hundred days to lift out of the tiny seed these +powerful hollow stalks.</p> + +<p>21. The seeds fall to the ground, there to be folded in against +the time when they shall rise again.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Classify the dependent clauses in sentence 1. What is +the object of <i>except</i> in sentence 5?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXVI">LXXXVI. SUMMARY OF INFINITIVES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section344"><b>344.</b></p> + +<ul> + <li>I. <span class="smcap">Definition.</span>—An infinitive is a verbal noun.</li> + <li>II. <span class="smcap">Forms.</span></li> + <li class="sub1">1. The infinitive with <i>to</i>.</li> + <li class="sub2">(a) Intransitive verbs.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Present</i>, to go, to be going.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Perfect</i>, to have gone, to have been going.</li> + <li class="sub2">(b) Transitive verbs.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Present</i>, to see, to be seeing, to be seen.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Perfect</i>, to have seen, to have been seeing, to have been seen.</li> + <li class="sub1">2. The infinitive in <i>-ing</i>.</li> + <li class="sub2">(a) Intransitive verbs.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Present</i>, going.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Perfect</i>, having gone, having been going.</li> + <li class="sub2">(b) Transitive verbs.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Present</i>, seeing, being seen.</li> + <li class="sub3"><i>Perfect</i>, having seen, having been seeing, having been seen.</li> + <li>III. <span class="smcap">Uses.</span></li> + <li class="sub1">1. As a <b>noun</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">(a) <i>Subject of a verb.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">To err is human.</li> + <li class="sub3">Hunting is a sport.</li> + <li class="sub2">(b) <i>Object of a verb.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">He expects to win.</li> + <li class="sub3">They stopped working.</li> + <li class="sub2">(c) <i>Subjective complement.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">My desire is to own a boat.</li> + <li class="sub3">His task is feeding the sheep.</li> + <li class="sub2">(d) <i>Appositive.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">His idea, to use coal ashes, was carried out.</li> + <li class="sub3">His work, running a machine, is monotonous.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span></li> + <li class="sub2">(e) <i>Object of a preposition.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">The patient did nothing but eat and sleep.</li> + <li class="sub3">The child was praised for telling the truth.</li> + <li class="sub1">2. As an <b>adjective</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">(a) <i>Modifying a noun.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">I have a garden to make.</li> + <li class="sub2">(b) <i>Completing a verb.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">These boats are not to let.</li> + <li class="sub1">3. As an <b>adverb</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">(a) <i>Modifying a verb.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">I went back to get some matches.</li> + <li class="sub2">(b) <i>Modifying an adjective.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">We are sure to succeed.</li> + <li class="sub1">4. As part of a <b>double object</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">(a) <i>Of a verb.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">I made her tell me.</li> + <li class="sub2">(b) <i>Of a preposition.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">I made room for her to sit with me.</li> + <li class="sub1">5. <b>Independent use.</b></li> + <li class="sub3">To speak plainly, I don’t believe it.</li> +</ul> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXVII">LXXXVII. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES CONTAINING INFINITIVE PHRASES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section345"><b>345.</b> The infinitive phrase is analyzed very much like a +predicate. First, the infinitive should be given as the base +word; then its complement and modifiers should be given.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model.</span>—<i>By the law of the jungle the tiger has no right to +change his quarters without fair warning.</i></p> + +<p>This is a simple, declarative sentence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span></p> + +<p>The subject is <i>the tiger</i>. The predicate is <i>has by the law +of the jungle no right to change his quarters without fair +warning</i>.</p> + +<p>The predicate verb is <i>has</i>; it is completed by the direct +object <i>no right to change his quarters without fair warning</i>, and +then modified by the prepositional phrase <i>by the law of the +jungle</i>.</p> + +<p>The base word of the object is the noun <i>right</i>; it is modified +by the infinitive phrase <i>to change his quarters without fair +warning</i>, and then denied by the adjective <i>no</i>.</p> + +<p>The base word of the infinitive phrase is the infinitive <i>to +change</i>; it is completed by the direct object <i>his quarters</i> and +modified by the prepositional phrase <i>without fair warning</i>. +The base word of the object is the noun <i>quarters</i>, modified by +the possessive pronoun <i>his</i>. The base word of the object of +the preposition <i>without</i> is the infinitive <i>warning</i>, which is +modified by the adjective <i>fair</i>.</p> + +<p>The base word of the object of the preposition <i>by</i> is the +noun <i>law</i>, which is modified by the prepositional phrase <i>of +the jungle</i> and the article <i>the</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Turning grindstones to grind scythes is one of those heroic +but unobtrusive occupations for which one gets no credit.</p> + +<p>2. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and +some few to be chewed and digested.</p> + +<p>3. When Kotick felt his skin tingle all over, his mother told him +he was learning the feel of the water.</p> + +<p>4. Mother made and embroidered a white linen pocket for me +to wear at my belt.</p> + +<p>5. The neighbors and friends did not wait for an invitation to go to +the house of the young wife, so impatient were they to see her treasures.</p> + +<p>6. The Boy had no desire to investigate further, with the risk +of finding the lynx at home.</p> + +<p>7. It seems hard any day to think what to have for dinner.</p> + +<p>8. The next thing was to cord up the trunk, and Mr. Peterkin +tried to move it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span></p> + +<p>9. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height of +13,000 feet above the sea.</p> + +<p>10. If you wear an automobile veil to pick cherries in, I must get +an automobile to take you to the cherry trees.</p> + +<p>11. No person but yourself is permitted to lift this stone or enter +the cave.</p> + +<p>12. Very sweet were the child’s ways of loving her father,—putting +flowers on his study table, learning to read so that she could +read his books, reaching up to rub her cheek against his, praying for +him, and letting him put her to bed.</p> + +<p>13. The Oldest Inhabitant refused to go to bed on any terms, +but persisted in sitting up in a rocking-chair until daybreak.</p> + +<p>14. The Eskimo never knows when his own time may come to beg.</p> + +<p>15. Fate tried to conceal him by naming him Smith.</p> + +<p>16. The only department of life in which Mr. Randall failed to +shine was the making of sufficient money to live upon.</p> + +<p>17. He saw an eagle swoop across the gigantic hollow, but the +great bird dwindled to a dot ere it was halfway over.</p> + +<p>18. After she began wearing the bracelet, she was unwilling to go +without it even for a day.</p> + +<p>19. Hewing wood and sawing plank leave me no time to take part +in disputes.</p> + +<p>20. The one object of Polly’s life was to get out of her cage.</p> + +<p>21. The skipper had taken his little daughter to bear him company.</p> + +<p>22. Every boy is anxious to be a man.</p> + +<p>23. A man has no more right to say a rude thing to another than +to knock him down.</p> + +<p>24. To travel in Switzerland it is generally necessary to cross the +mountains, to go around the sides, or to go through them.</p> + +<p>25. Even the blind men’s dogs appeared to know Scrooge.</p> + +<p>26. Let dogs delight to bark and bite.</p> + +<p>27. When a bear kills a sheep, he skins it deftly and has the +politeness to leave the pelt in a neat bundle, just to indicate to the +farmer that he has been robbed by a gentleman.</p> + +<p>28. The first tracks to meet their eyes were the delicate footprints +of the red squirrel.</p> + +<p>29. It is not good to make a jest of thy teacher.</p> + +<p>30. Angels seemed to have sat with Ernest by the fireside.</p> + +<p>31. My joy was greater than I can express when I saw the tiger +rise and slink into the jungle.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXVIII">LXXXVIII. PARTICIPLES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section346"><b>346.</b> In <a href="#LIV">Lesson LIV</a> we learned that the perfect tenses of +any verb are formed by combining certain auxiliaries with the +<b>past participles</b> of the verb; as, “I have <i>heard</i>,” “I had +<i>heard</i>,” “I shall have <i>heard</i>.” We learned also that the past +participle is one of the principal parts of a verb.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#LV">Lesson LV</a> we learned that the passive voice of any transitive +verb is formed by adding its past participle to the conjugation +of the verb <i>be</i>; as, “It is <i>caught</i>,” “It was <i>caught</i>,” +“It will be <i>caught</i>.”</p> + +<p>In <a href="#LVI">Lesson LVI</a> we learned that the past participle of a verb +may be used like an adjective as the subjective complement +of a verb; as, “The potatoes seem <i>done</i>,” “The flowers are +<i>withered</i> now.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section347"><b>347.</b> In <a href="#LVII">Lesson LVII</a> we learned that the <b>present participle</b> +of a verb always ends in <i>-ing</i>, and that this participle is used +in forming the progressive conjugation, as, “I am <i>sleeping</i>,” +“I was <i>sleeping</i>,” “I shall be <i>sleeping</i>.”</p> + +<p>We are ready now to study participles in all their relations.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section348"><b>348.</b> Intransitive verbs have four participles:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Present</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Past</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>coming</td> + <td>come</td> + <td>having come</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Progressive</i></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td>having been coming</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Transitive verbs have six participles:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Present</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Past</span></th> + <th><span class="smcap">Perfect</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Active</i></td> + <td>writing</td> + <td></td> + <td>having written</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Active Progressive</i></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td>having been writing⁠<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Passive</i></td> + <td>being written</td> + <td>written</td> + <td>having been written</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> This form is rarely used.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The active participles denote action performed; they make +us think of the doer of the action. On the other hand, the +passive participles denote action received; they make us +think of the receiver of the action.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span></p> + +<p>The present participle expresses action as still in progress; +the past participle expresses action completed in past time; +the perfect participle expresses past action completed before +some particular past time.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section349"><b>349.</b> The participle, like the infinitive, is a verbal, because +it is a verb form without the power to assert. Just as an +infinitive is oftenest used as a noun, so the participle is oftenest +used as an adjective; that is, it is usually associated with +some noun. Indeed, it is by their adjective use that we +are able to distinguish participles from infinitives in <i>-ing</i>, +for in form they are almost exactly the same.</p> + +<p>What nouns do the participles belong with in the following +sentences?</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I hear the sound of trickling water.</p> + +<p>The lost child had wandered far.</p> + +<p>The diamonds sparkling in her dark hair rivaled the stars.</p> + +<p>The chair made two hundred years ago tilted one forward very +uncomfortably.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section350"><b>350.</b> The participles used oftenest are the simplest of all, +the present active participle and the past passive participle.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section351"><b>351.</b> A participle, like an infinitive, may have all the complements +and modifiers that a verb may have; as, “The man +<i>turning the switch</i> is faithful,” “<i>Feeling sleepy after lunch</i>, I +took a nap.”</p> + +<p>The participle and all its accompanying words form together +a <b>participial phrase</b>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—A <b>participle</b> is a verbal that is generally used +as an adjective.</p> + +<p>Participles may be active or passive or progressive in meaning.</p> + +<p>Participles have three tenses,—present, past, and perfect. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>The present participle expresses continuing action, the past +participle completed action, and the perfect participle past +action completed before a particular time.</p> + +<p>Participles have the same complements and modifiers as +verbs.</p> + +<p>A <b>participial phrase</b> is a group of words consisting of a +participle and its complement and modifiers.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Form all the participles of the verbs <i>choose</i>, +<i>draw</i>, <i>drink</i>, <i>go</i>, <i>find</i>, <i>know</i>, <i>tell</i>, <i>think</i>, <i>turn</i>, <i>shine</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Select all the participial phrases in these +sentences. Tell what noun or pronoun they belong with. +Classify the participles.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Two children sat on the grass under the lilacs, making dandelion +chains and talking happily.</p> + +<p>2. Those three tall poles now being lifted to position will enable +us to have a telephone.</p> + +<p>3. From a little hill called Hutchinson’s Hill you could look over +three and a half miles of ground covered with fighting seals.</p> + +<p>4. Having given away the old candle mold, she was anxious +to get it back again.</p> + +<p>5. Mrs. Merrithew, knowing well that little folk are generally +troubled with a wonderful thirst, had also brought a cup and +a bottle of lemonade.</p> + +<p>6. The floors were bird’s-eye maple, and having been lately +waxed, they looked too fine for my desecrating tread.</p> + +<p>7. The workmen, having been painting for hours on the sunny +side of the house, grew faint and dizzy.</p> + +<p>8. The boy took his seat, frowning and blinking at the candle +light, while his mother, placing his coffee before him, let her hand +rest on his shoulder.</p> + +<p>9. Having passed at the turnstile into the campus, David stood +before the college.</p> + +<p>10. In one hand he carried a faded valise made of Brussels +carpet sprinkled with pink roses.</p> + +<p>11. The old peasant woman, having eaten three meals with the +servants and three with the mistress, declared at evening that she +was satisfied.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span></p> + +<p>12. If all the money being spent for ice-cream sodas were put to +some useful purpose—cement sidewalks, for instance,—few of us +would be stubbing our toes on old board walks.</p> + +<p>13. A snowball soaked in water and left out to cool was a projectile +which had been resorted to with disastrous results.</p> + +<p>14. No flying or crawling creature escapes the sharp little eyes +of the birds.</p> + +<p>15. Its roots having been cut, the top of the tree suffered.</p> + +<p>16. The tourists, having watched the bears nose about among +the tin cans in the garbage piles, went back to the hotel to avoid +being devoured by mosquitoes.</p> + +<p>17. Very soon their path led them out into a wide glade, fenced +all about with the serried and formal ranks of the young firs.</p> + +<p>18. That log just being sawed will produce eight hundred feet +of lumber.</p> + +<p>19. The whale is the largest animal now living in the world.</p> + +<p>20. Having been told by his master that he too could go to the +village, Shep bounded away down the road like mad.</p> + +<p>21. Sleep, having descended upon him, spread a quiet mist +through his brain.</p> + +<p>22. Having been tramped down by the cattle, the snow was +smooth like a floor.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Tell the use of all the infinitive phrases in sentences 2, 4, +10, 13.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LXXXIX">LXXXIX. PARTICIPLES MODIFYING NOUNS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section352"><b>352.</b> The participle may be associated with a noun in +several ways.</p> + +<p>(1) The participle may modify a noun precisely like an +adjective, as when we say <i>boiling</i> water, <i>pleading</i> eyes, <i>revolving</i> +turret, <i>educated</i> men, <i>hammered</i> brass, <i>plowed</i> land, <i>dried</i> +apples.</p> + +<p>The participle in this use can be distinguished from a real +adjective in two ways:—(<i>a</i>) it comes from a verb, (<i>b</i>) it +cannot be compared.</p> + +<p>Apply these two tests to the seven participles just given.</p> + +<p>Some participles have become real adjectives, as <i>loving, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span>learned</i>, <i>striking</i> (in <i>striking appearance</i>), <i>annoying</i>, <i>exciting</i>. +Any one of these adjectives may be compared.</p> + +<p>(2) The participle or participial phrase may take the place +of an adjective clause. Sometimes it is used instead of a +restrictive clause, thus pointing out a particular thing or +class of things; as, “The men <i>shoveling coal on the docks</i> were +prostrated by the heat.” Sometimes the participial phrase +takes the place of an unrestrictive clause, thus adding a new +thought to the sentence; as, “Here comes a turbaned negress, +<i>balancing a basket of lemons on her head</i>.”</p> + +<p>In both the sentences just given the participial phrase +comes after the noun it modifies, thus taking in the sentence +the same position as the appositive adjective.</p> + +<p>The restrictive participial phrase is not set off by a comma. +The unrestrictive participial phrase is set off by a comma.</p> + +<p>(3) The participial phrase may take the place of a clause +of time or cause, and yet modify a noun, as in the following +sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Those pens, <i>having been given to me by my dear master</i>, were never +put to any common uses.</p> + +<p><i>Having said these words</i>, Beowulf plunged into the water and +disappeared among the dark waves.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In the first sentence, change the phrase to a clause of cause. +What noun does the phrase modify?</p> + +<p>In the second sentence, what does the participial phrase +modify? What can you say of its position? Change it to +a clause of time.</p> + +<p>Note that although the participial phrase may take the +place of a clause of time or cause, it is still an adjective element; +for, as shown in the sentences just studied, such a +participial phrase may modify a noun.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The participle may be used alone to modify +a noun precisely like an adjective.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span></p> + +<p>The participial phrase may modify a noun, taking the place +of a clause.</p> + +<p>The participial phrase sometimes comes before, and sometimes +after, the noun it modifies.</p> + +<p>A participial phrase is set off by a comma when it is unrestrictive, +whether it follows or precedes the word it modifies.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Explain the use of all the participial phrases. +Classify the participles. Account for the punctuation.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The breaking waves dashed high</div> + <div class="verse indent0">On a stern and rock-bound coast.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>2. Being direct descendants of Adam and Eve, we had much of +their inquiring turn of mind.</p> + +<p>3. Worms are elongated, soft-bodied animals, differing greatly +in form and habits.</p> + +<p>4. The books bound in red morocco belonged to my mother, and +the “Iliad” illustrated by Flaxman was one of my father’s treasures.</p> + +<p>5. The Temple School was a two-story brick building, standing +in the center of a great square piece of land, surrounded by a high +picket fence.</p> + +<p>6.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Then [comes] the whining schoolboy with his satchel</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And shining morning face, creeping like snail</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Unwillingly to school.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>7. That tree toad squatting on the trellis and peering down at +us reminds me of the gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame.</p> + +<p>8. The boys looked like a legion of imps, coming and going in +the twilight, busy in raising some infernal edifice.</p> + +<p>9. At last, finding himself hungry and weary, and seeing that +there were herds of wild asses in the plain which he was traversing, +Rustum thought that he would catch one of them for his meal, +and rest for the night.</p> + +<p>10. It is only he who is weary of life that throws himself in the +way of a roaring lion.</p> + +<p>11. Like most things connected in their first associations with +schoolbooks and schooltimes, the Leaning Tower of Pisa seemed +much too small.</p> + +<p>12. In the morning it was raining, with little prospect of fair +weather, but having expected nothing better, we set out on foot for +the Causeway.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span></p> + +<p>13. In this tavern the visitor may derive good entertainment +from real Genoese dishes,—sausages, strong of garlic, sliced and +eaten with fresh green figs; cocks’ combs and sheep kidneys, +chopped up with mutton chops and liver; small pieces of some +unknown part of a calf, twisted into small shreds, fried, and served +up in a great dish; and other curiosities of that kind.</p> + +<p>14. Having supposed the Giant’s Causeway to be of great height, +I was somewhat disappointed at first for I found the Loom, which +is the highest part of it, to be but fifty feet from the water.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XC">XC. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section353"><b>353.</b> Although the participial phrase is in the sentence for +the purpose of telling something about some person or thing, +still it does not always go with the noun that names that +person or thing. In the sentence, “The children stood watching +them out of the town,” the participial phrase <i>watching +them out of the town</i> tells something about the <i>children</i>, but it +is not a direct modifier of the noun <i>children</i>, for it belongs in +the predicate of the sentence. It does not modify the verb +<i>stood</i>, for it does not tell how the standing was done. It +really takes the place of a second predicate, <i>watched them out +of the town</i>, but participles are not asserting words, hence we +cannot call this phrase a predicate. The best way to tell +about it is this: The verb <i>stood</i> is accompanied by the participial +phrase <i>watching them out of the town</i>, which denotes an +action taking place at the same time as the standing.</p> + +<p>Tell about the participial phrases in these sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Fred entered the house <i>calling as usual for his mother</i>.</p> + +<p>The Indians advanced, <i>shouting their war cries</i>.</p> + +<p>She gazed forward, <i>shading her eyes with both hands</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Sometimes the participle is used adverbially to modify +a verb; as in the sentence, “The children went scampering off to +the woods.” This sentence does not mean that the children went +<i>and</i> scampered. They only scampered, and the scampering was +what made them go. Since the participial phrase tells just how the +children did the going, it must be a modifier of the verb <i>went</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span></p> + +<p class="note">What is the difference between the sentence just given and the +following?—“The children went singing to the woods.” It is plain +that not every verb can be modified by a participle. Usually only +a verb meaning <i>come</i> or <i>go</i> may be so modified.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section354"><b>354.</b> In <a href="#LV">Lesson LV</a> it was shown that the past participle +is often used as a subjective complement; as, “This dress is +<i>soiled</i>,” “My money is <i>spent</i>.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section355"><b>355.</b> In a few idiomatic expressions the participle is used +adverbially to modify an adjective; as, <i>freezing</i> cold, <i>steaming</i> +hot, <i>hopping</i> mad, <i>dripping</i> wet. Here the participle +tells how cold, how hot, etc., and thus denotes degree.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section356"><b>356.</b> Sometimes the noun that a participle modifies is +omitted, and the participle is said to be used as a noun; as, +“The loving are the daring,” which means that loving persons +are daring persons. We also speak of the <i>killed</i> and <i>wounded</i>.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The participle or the participial phrase may +be a part of the predicate in three ways.</p> + +<p>(1) It may be an accompaniment of the verb.</p> + +<p>(2) It may be a subjective complement of the verb.</p> + +<p>(3) It may be a modifier of a few verbs, denoting the way +in which an action was performed.</p> + +<p>The participle may be used adverbially to modify an adjective +and thus denote the degree of some quality.</p> + +<p>The participle may be used as a noun.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Explain the use of all participles and participial +phrases. Classify the participles.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The little mare gave me all the sympathy I could ask, repeatedly +rubbing her soft nose over my face, and lapping up my +salt tears with evident relish.</p> + +<p>2.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Three fishers went sailing out into the west,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Out into the west as the sun went down.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>3. The warriors of the king were little pleased to hear such talk +from his lips.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span></p> + +<p>4. After her conference with the superintendent, this undignified +young schoolmistress went dancing and skipping home to +tell her mother of her promotion.</p> + +<p>5. The sun shining on the rippling water made it so dazzling +bright that we were almost blinded.</p> + +<p>6.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Little white Lily sat by a stone,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Drooping and waiting till the sun shone.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>7. On my first day in Tangiers the spectacle was bewildering, +and only by concentrating my attention on detached groups could +I form any distinct impression of it.</p> + +<p>8. Then Rustum made his way to the bazaar, taking his camel +drivers with him.</p> + +<p>9. After licking his lips and polishing his whiskers, the lynx +went loping off through the woods with the limp body of the mink +in his jaws, to eat it at leisure in his lair.</p> + +<p>10. In October the woods were a blaze of color,—clear gold, +flaming scarlet, crimson, amber, and coppery brown.</p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">I watch him as he skims along,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Uttering his sweet and mournful cry.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. Society may be divided into two classes—the bores and the +bored.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The ship has weathered every rock, the prize we sought is won.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14. Three kings came riding from far away.</p> + +<p>15. One day as the king sat drinking in one of the chambers of +his palace, and boasting after his custom, a genius, disguised as a +minstrel, desired to be admitted to the royal presence.</p> + +<p>16. The underfed dogs snapped and growled in the passages, glaring +at the cold stars, and snuffing into the bitter wind, night after night.</p> + +<p>17. Drops of nightly dews trickle down to the seeds, moistening +the dryness, closing up the little hollows of the ground, drawing the +particles of maternal earth more closely.</p> + +<p>18. The barley and the rye are garnered and gone, the landscape +is bare and deserted.</p> + +<p>19. The air was stinging cold and felt like ice upon the boy’s +bare, hot throat.</p> + +<p>20. Her heart overflowed with sympathy for all the weary, the +beaten, the oppressed.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Explain the use of the infinitive phrases in sentences 3, 4, 7, +9, 15.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XCI">XCI. ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL PHRASES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section357"><b>357.</b> In the sentence, “When the snow had left the lawns +bare, the crocuses appeared,” we have an adverbial clause. +What is it? What does it denote? Such a clause is frequently +condensed into a group of words like this, <i>the snow +having left the lawns bare</i>. In this group there are two parts,—the +noun element <i>the snow</i>, which was subject of the clause, +and the participial phrase <i>having left the lawns bare</i>, which is +made out of the predicate of the clause. It is clear then +that the two parts of this group of words have the logical, +though not the grammatical, relation of subject and +predicate.</p> + +<p>Such a group of words is called an <b>absolute phrase</b>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section358"><b>358.</b> The absolute phrase is generally spoken of by grammarians +as an independent element; that is, it is not a modifier +of any part of the sentence.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section359"><b>359.</b> Occasionally, as in the example given, the absolute +phrase is an abridgment of an adverbial clause of time. +Oftener it is used instead of a clause of cause, as in the sentence, +“<i>The drought having lasted so long</i>, the foliage began +to turn yellow.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section360"><b>360.</b> Sometimes an absolute phrase is used instead of an +independent clause, thus changing a compound sentence to a +simple sentence; as, “The crew escaped from the ship in +three boats, <i>only two reaching Siberia</i>.” What clause would +you make out of the absolute phrase here? By what conjunction +would you join it to the first independent proposition?</p> + +<p class="section" id="section361"><b>361.</b> The noun or the pronoun that is the base word of the +noun element in an absolute phrase is said to be in the <b>nominative +case</b>, used <b>absolutely</b>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—An <b>absolute phrase</b> is a group of words used +independently and consisting of a noun or a pronoun and a +participle, having to each other the logical relation of subject +and predicate.</p> + +<p>An absolute phrase is an abridgment of an adverbial clause +or an independent clause.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Select all the absolute phrases. Separate them +into their two parts. Expand them into adverbial clauses +or independent clauses.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. His feet were clad in half slippers of red leather, the toes +being pointed and turned upward.</p> + +<p>2. She had paused in reverie, her hands clasped behind her +head.</p> + +<p>3. Jack telling his condition, the giant bade him welcome.</p> + +<p>4. Grandma and Norman were sitting on the floor in front of +the ice box, the child having manifested a peculiar desire for cold +boiled potato.</p> + +<p>5. From a balcony above leaned the lovely Ermengarde, her +golden tresses crowned with a nightcap of rare and curious design.</p> + +<p>6. The Frey home was made up of cheery workers, even little +Dorothea having her daily self-assumed tasks.</p> + +<p>7. The laws of that country being very severe against slaves, +Androcles was sentenced to be torn in pieces by a furious lion.</p> + +<p>8. Through wild and desolate scenes, by forests, rocks, and +waterfalls, we pass, the little locomotive always puffing and pushing +vigorously behind us.</p> + +<p>9. Mowgli had been looking from one to the other of his friends, +his chest heaving and his eyes full of tears.</p> + +<p>10. These eggs being sold, Jack and his mother got plenty of +money.</p> + +<p>11. Everywhere, scattered about the country, we have seen windmills, +their great arms moving slowly around.</p> + +<p>12. Under Rebecca’s delicately etched brows her eyes glowed like +two stars; their dancing lights half hidden in lustrous darkness.</p> + +<p>13. The eagerness of Barnum to obtain a white elephant is easily +understood, that animal being considered by showmen the greatest +attraction in the country.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XCII">XCII. AGREEMENT OF PARTICIPLES. OTHER WORDS IN -ING</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section362"><b>362.</b> A sentence containing a participial phrase should be +so constructed that there is no doubt as to what noun or pronoun +the phrase modifies.</p> + +<p>In the sentence, “I had a fine view of your new hospital +coming in on the train this morning,” the participial phrase +seems by its position to modify the noun <i>hospital</i>; but it +really modifies the pronoun <i>I</i>, and hence should be placed at +the beginning of the sentence. If the phrase is expanded +into an adverbial clause of time, it may remain where it is.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section363"><b>363.</b> In the sentence, “<i>Opening the door</i>, my lamp went +out,” the participial phrase has nothing to modify.</p> + +<p>This is called a <b>dangling</b> or a <b>floating participle</b>. The best +way to deal with such a sentence is to expand the participial +phrase into an adverbial clause,—“When I opened the +door.”</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Point out the error in each of these sentences. +Reconstruct each sentence.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. We never once thought of the baby, rushing out of doors to +see the fire.</p> + +<p>2. I heard the whistles plainly, sailing across the bay.</p> + +<p>3. I met your sister coming home from my music lesson.</p> + +<p>4. Mother saw the flames first sitting on the veranda.</p> + +<p>5. Entering the hall, her foot slipped on the waxed floor and she +fell.</p> + +<p>6. Putting two and two together, it is quite plain that he wants +an appointment.</p> + +<p>7. Knitting mittens and piecing quilts, I think Grandmother is +very happy.</p> + +<p>8. Having been recently painted, Mr. Graham did not recognize +his own house.</p> + +<p>9. Grasping the rope and plunging into the surf, the huge receding +wave carried him out almost to the wreck.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section364"><b>364.</b> We have seen that certain participles are in form +precisely like infinitives in <i>-ing</i>, and can be distinguished from +them only by their use. The participle is used like an adjective, +and the infinitive in <i>-ing</i> is used like a noun.</p> + +<p>Take, for instance, the word <i>running</i> in the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Water <i>running</i> down hill acquires great force.</p> + +<p><i>Running</i> races is a small boy’s pastime.</p> + +<p><i>Running</i> water is clear.</p> + +<p>I shall never forget the <i>running</i> of that race.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>In the first sentence it is clear that <i>running</i> is a participle, +because the participial phrase <i>running down hill</i> modifies the +noun <i>water</i> and is, therefore, used like an adjective.</p> + +<p>In the second sentence it is equally clear that <i>running</i> is +an infinitive, for the infinitive phrase <i>running races</i> is subject +of the sentence and is therefore used like a noun.</p> + +<p>In the third sentence <i>running</i> is a participle, because it is +derived from a verb and cannot be compared. (See <a href="#section352">§ 352</a>.) +In other respects it resembles a pure descriptive adjective. +In the phrase “an interesting book” <i>interesting</i> is a pure +adjective; it can be compared.</p> + +<p>In the fourth sentence <i>running</i> is an infinitive in <i>-ing</i>. It is +modified by an article and is used, like a noun, as the object +of the verb.</p> + +<p>In the sentences, “It is a wise <i>saying</i>,” “Take my <i>blessing</i>,” +<i>saying</i> and <i>blessing</i> are pure nouns without verbal force, +as is shown by the fact that they have plural forms.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 1.</b>—Classify the <i>-ing</i> words in the following +sentences as infinitives, participles, adjectives, or nouns:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The half back was cheered by the admiring crowd.</p> + +<p>2. The time of the singing of birds is come.</p> + +<p>3. I distinctly said that I wanted a singing bird.</p> + +<p>4. Singing hymns was her favorite diversion.</p> + +<p>5. Painting high buildings is a dangerous occupation.</p> + +<p>6. The old lady painting in the Louvre was an excellent copyist.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span></p> + +<p>7. Mr. Morgan paid a large sum for this small painting.</p> + +<p>8. The child was pleased with the painting book.</p> + +<p>9. A setting hen looks very placid.</p> + +<p>10. They should have been arrested for setting fire to the old house.</p> + +<p>11. I will ask the photographer when he can give you a sitting.</p> + +<p>12. The child sitting on the curbing said sweetly, “Hello, old lady.”</p> + +<p>13. The smiling days are not always the friendliest.</p> + +<p>14. “I am better,” said Agnes, smiling brightly.</p> + +<p>15. A short saying oft contains much wisdom.</p> + +<p>16. Ever charming, ever new, when will the landscape tire the view?</p> + +<p>17. Health is a blessing that money cannot buy.</p> + +<p>18. Another duty the robin took upon himself,—to assist me +in seeing that every bird in the room had his daily outing.</p> + +<p>19. Turning a canary out into the world is about like turning a +two-year old baby out to get its own living.</p> + +<p>20. We require from buildings as from men two kinds of goodness: +first, the doing their practical duty well; then that they be +graceful and pleasing in doing it.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise 2.</b>—Explain the use of each verbal in the following +sentences. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, +16, 17, 18, 20, 21.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. The garret is a fine place to sit of an afternoon and hear the +rain pattering on the roof.</p> + +<p>2. To be called to the principal’s office filled the stoutest heart +with alarm.</p> + +<p>3.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The lowing herd wind slowly o’er the lea.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>4. The old German carpenter packed Mrs. Howe’s heavy furniture +in an empty store beneath her apartment, and when she refused +to pay him an exorbitant sum, he locked the door on her and her +boxes and went off to find a policeman.</p> + +<p>5. I had views of many interesting scenes in this family of +crows, supposed by the wary parents to be visible only to the cows +stolidly feeding on the hillside.</p> + +<p>6. The chickens seemed to be well cared for by the women; +but the men appeared to be the laziest of mortals.</p> + +<p>7. Let us stand on the long iron bridge that spans the St. Lawrence +just above Montreal, the very place to study the river as it +narrows and runs swifter for its smashing plunge through yonder +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span>rapids to the east,—the dreaded Lachine Rapids, whose snarling +teeth flash white in the sun.</p> + +<p>8. To keep Jim from following the regiment or from staying +and getting lost in search of it, the wagoner had tied him to the rear +axle of his wagon with a strong twine.</p> + +<p>9. The engine mounted the curve faster and faster, roaring +through a tunnel, growling over a bridge, and snarling at a paling +alongside, but no glimpse of the runaway locomotive could the +pursuers get.</p> + +<p>10. Daddy felt, like the midshipman, sadly perplexed when the +dog was finally missing, but he could suggest no mode of revenge +which was not too dangerous for them to put in practice.</p> + +<p>11. The thought of my shortcomings in this life falls like a shadow +on my life to come.</p> + +<p>12. Launching majestically from the edge of the nest, the great +eagle had swooped down into the cold shadow, and then, rising into +the light by a splendid spiral, he had taken a survey of the empty, +glimmering world.</p> + +<p>13. Our terrier was never known to spend a night away from home.</p> + +<p>14. It is inexplicable to me that any bird should be either so +unobservant as not to recognize a foreign egg at sight, or so easy-tempered +as not to insist on straightway being rid of it.</p> + +<p>15. It is easier to do what you please than to do what you ought.</p> + +<p>16. The blue-white moon of midwinter, sharply glittering like +an icicle, hung high in a heaven clear as tempered steel.</p> + +<p>17. Sometimes the fox resorts to numerous devices to mislead +and escape the dog altogether,—walking in the bed of a small +creek, running along a rail fence, or leaping into a hollow stump.</p> + +<p>18. The elephants simply moved their legs mechanically up and +down, and swung their trunks to and fro; but they were determined +not to pull or exert the slightest power, neither did they +move forward a single inch.</p> + +<p>19. The only way to mitigate the hard lot of a canary is to make +him so happy that he will not wish to be free.</p> + +<p>20. The best part of a journey is getting home again.</p> + +<p>21. Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark to penetrate the vast regions +west of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>22. While the old turkey perched upon a tree top to keep an eye +on the enemy, the brood went sailing over the trees toward home.</p> + +<p>23. The officers ordered the crape to be instantly cut off from the +dogs’ legs.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XCIII">XCIII. SUMMARY OF PARTICIPLES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section365"><b>365.</b></p> + +<ul> + <li>I. <span class="smcap">Definition.</span>—A participle is a verbal adjective.</li> + <li>II. <span class="smcap">Forms.</span>—</li> + <li class="sub1">1. Of <b>intransitive verbs</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2"><i>Present</i>, going.</li> + <li class="sub2"><i>Past</i>, gone.</li> + <li class="sub2"><i>Perfect</i>, having gone, having been going.</li> + <li class="sub1">2. Of <b>transitive verbs</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2"><i>Present</i>, seeing, being seen.</li> + <li class="sub2"><i>Past</i>, seen.</li> + <li class="sub2"><i>Perfect</i>, having seen, having been seeing, having been seen.</li> + <li>III. <span class="smcap">Uses.</span></li> + <li class="sub1">1. To form the <b>perfect tenses</b>, the <b>passive voice</b>, and the <b>progressive conjugation</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">I have trusted you.</li> + <li class="sub2">You were trusted by me.</li> + <li class="sub2">I am trusting you.</li> + <li class="sub1">2. As an <b>adjective modifier</b> of a noun or a pronoun.</li> + <li class="sub2">(a) <i>Restrictive.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">Barking dogs seldom bite.</li> + <li class="sub3">The picture painted by Leonardo da Vinci was stolen.</li> + <li class="sub2">(b) <i>Unrestrictive.</i></li> + <li class="sub3">(1) Used in place of an adjective clause.</li> + <li class="sub4">The silver moon, shining in the rosy eastern sky, must have looked upon the setting sun.</li> + <li class="sub3">(2) Used in place of a clause of time or cause.</li> + <li class="sub4">Having built a magnificent church, we had to have a magnificent organ.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span></li> + <li class="sub1">3. As <b>subjective complement of a verb</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">Christ is risen.</li> + <li class="sub2">Everybody is gone.</li> + <li class="sub1">4. As an <b>accompaniment of a verb</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">Then the blind girl came nearer, reaching out her hands toward my face.</li> + <li class="sub1">5. As part of an <b>absolute phrase</b>.</li> + <li class="sub2">The roast turkey having received due attention, the boys were ready for mince pie.</li> + <li>IV. <span class="smcap">Modifiers and Complements.</span></li> + <li class="sub1">Participles have the same modifiers and complements +as verbs.</li> + <li class="sub2">Having earned the money, I spent it.</li> + <li class="sub2">Growing tired, we walked slower.</li> + <li class="sub2">Calling me a coward, he went on.</li> + <li class="sub2">Turning sharply to the right, he struck the tree.</li> + <li>V. <span class="smcap">Agreement.</span></li> + <li class="sub1">1. The construction of a sentence should leave no doubt + as to what word a participial phrase modifies.</li> + <li class="sub1">2. Dangling participles should be avoided.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Make two good sentences to illustrate each use of the participle.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XCIV">XCIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section366"><b>366.</b> A participial phrase is analyzed very much like an +infinitive phrase. First the participle should be given as the +base, then its complement and modifiers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model.</span>—<i>Behind each islet of tall reeds is a fishing boat held +fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river.</i></p> + +<p>This is a simple, declarative sentence. The subject is <i>a +fishing boat held fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river</i>. +The predicate is <i>is behind each islet of tall reeds</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span></p> + +<p>The base word of the subject is <i>boat</i>. It is modified by the +infinitive <i>fishing</i>, the article <i>a</i>, and the participial phrase <i>held +fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river</i>.</p> + +<p>The base word of this phrase is the participle <i>held</i>. It is +modified by the adverb <i>fast</i> and by the prepositional phrase +<i>by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river</i>. The base word of +the object of the preposition <i>by</i> is the noun <i>poles</i>. It is modified +by the adjective <i>two</i> and the participial phrase <i>stuck in +the bottom of the river</i>. The base word of this phrase is the +participle <i>stuck</i>. It is modified by the prepositional phrase +<i>in the bottom of the river</i>, etc.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section367"><b>367.</b> A sentence containing an absolute phrase should be +analyzed as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model.</span>—<i>Amy having gone to Vermont, the lady was lonely.</i></p> + +<p>This is a simple, declarative sentence containing the absolute +phrase <i>Amy having gone to Vermont</i>, which is used instead +of the adverbial clause of cause, <i>since Amy had gone +to Vermont</i>.</p> + +<p>The subject is <i>the lady</i>. The predicate is <i>was lonely</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>The absolute phrase consists of the noun <i>Amy</i> and the +participial phrase <i>having gone to Vermont</i>, which have the +logical relation of subject and predicate. The base of the +participial phrase is the participle <i>having gone</i>, etc.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze the following sentences:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. In one store I would find a catbird moping on a high shelf or +in a dark back room; in another a bluebird scared half to death, +and dumb in the midst of squawking parrots and singing canaries.</p> + +<p>2. In that first battle, Jim ran barking after the very first shell +that came screaming over our heads.</p> + +<p>3. The island is supplied with the best water imaginable, small +streams leaping down from the sides of the hills and running through +every valley.</p> + +<p>4. The biting cold wind that shrunk our faces and pinched our +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>noses blue only brought a wild-rose bloom to mother’s delicate +cheeks.</p> + +<p>5. The doings of the people thus suddenly become his neighbors, +Bobby studied with all a bird’s curiosity.</p> + +<p>6. Coming out into the road on my way home again, I fell in +with an old friend.</p> + +<p>7. The soldiers were miserably clad, and asked whether we had +shoes to sell.</p> + +<p>8. It is difficult to describe the left-half’s agony as he picked +himself up and went limping back to his place.</p> + +<p>9. At daylight, directly ahead of us was the island of Juan +Fernandez, rising like a deep blue cloud out of the sea.</p> + +<p>10. Long ears twinkling, round eyes softly shining, the rabbits +leaped lightly hither and thither, pausing every now and then to +touch each other with their sensitive noses, or to pound on the +snow with their strong hind legs in mock challenge.</p> + +<p>11. In long, graceful leaps, barely touching the fence, the fox +went careering up the hill as fleet as the wind.</p> + +<p>12. Joel’s long legs began to ache, and seemed stiffening at the +thighs and knees.</p> + +<p>13. After their supper of milk and oatmeal porridge, the children +sat down, waiting and watching, and fancying they heard sounds in +the hills.</p> + +<p>14. Hearing loud cries of distress coming from the lawn, the +gardener rushed across and found the crow lying on his back, his +claw tightly gripping the end of one of the wings of a large hawk.</p> + +<p>15. We soon found the vireo’s nest, suspended within the angle +of two horizontal twigs, and trimmed outwardly with some kind of +white silky substance.</p> + +<p>16. He lay like a warrior taking his rest.</p> + +<p>17. For four miles the pilot must race along a squirming, twisting, +plunging thread of water, that leaps ahead like a greyhound, +and changes its crookedness somewhat from day to day with wind +and tide.</p> + +<p>18. For centuries the trees had developed strength to resist the +winds when they were clad in all their leaves, or to carry the load +of those leaves weighted with raindrops, or to bear the winter snows; +but they had no strength that would enable them to be coated thick +with ice and then wrenched by angry blasts.</p> + +<p>19. The servants having gone to their cabins, the great house +was filled with the quiet of a Sunday afternoon.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XCV">XCV. ANTICIPATIVE SUBJECT</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section368"><b>368.</b> We have learned that the pronoun <i>it</i> may be used as +an anticipative subject to throw the real subject after the +predicate. This real subject may be a noun clause or an infinitive +phrase.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>It will never be known whether the lady came out of that door +or the tiger.</p> + +<p>It is a mistake to suppose that the fox cannot be tamed.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="section" id="section369"><b>369.</b> We must not conclude that the word <i>it</i> at the beginning +of a sentence is always an anticipative subject. Sometimes +it is the real subject, that is, it is a neuter personal +pronoun having for its antecedent some term perfectly understood +by both speaker and listener; as, “Have you read ‘The +Call of the Wild’? <i>It</i> is the story of a dog that reverted.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section370"><b>370.</b> Sometimes <i>it</i> is used for subject with no special +word for antecedent; as when we say, “It was blowing great +guns.” (See <a href="#section252">§ 252</a>.)</p> + +<p class="section" id="section371"><b>371.</b> In the familiar expression, “It is time to get up,” the +antecedent of <i>it</i> is the word <i>now</i> or the term <i>the present moment</i>.</p> + +<p class="section" id="section372"><b>372.</b> <i>It</i> is not the only word used as anticipative subject. +Another word is <i>there</i>; as in the sentence, “There is snow on +the top of Pike’s Peak.” If we ask the question, <i>What is on +the top of Pike’s Peak?</i> the sensible answer is not <i>there</i>, but +<i>snow</i>, hence <i>snow</i> is the subject. The word <i>there</i> does not +denote place, hence it is not an adverb. It is used merely +to fill a gap in a declarative sentence in which the subject has +been placed after the verb, for if the gap were not filled and +the sentence began with a verb, it would seem to be interrogative. +When so used the word <i>there</i> is called an <b>expletive</b>, +which means a word used to fill up a gap.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span></p> + +<p class="section" id="section373"><b>373.</b> Of course <i>there</i> at the beginning of a sentence is not +always an expletive. Sometimes it is an adverb denoting +place; as, “There will I build me a nest.”</p> + +<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—When <i>there</i> is an adverb we pronounce it distinctly, +but when it is an expletive used as anticipative subject, we slur it.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Summary.</b>—The word <i>it</i> is often used as an anticipative +subject so that the real subject may come after the verb. +The word <i>there</i> may be an anticipative subject. It is then +called an expletive.</p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze the following sentences. If there is +an anticipative subject, state that fact before giving the real +subject; thus,—In the sentence, “Once upon a time there +were four little rabbits,” the anticipative subject is the expletive +<i>there</i>; the real subject is <i>four little rabbits</i>. The predicate +is <i>were once upon a time</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. There would be several insuperable difficulties in adopting +the moon as a residence.</p> + +<p>2. Every object on the moon would be only one sixth as heavy +as the same object on the earth. There a box containing a pound +of chocolate bonbons would weigh only two or three ounces.</p> + +<p>3. It is a little curious that the effect of a short allowance of +food does not show itself in hunger.</p> + +<p>4. There never was such a hailstorm in Wisconsin.</p> + +<p>5. It is just the right time of the moon for planting sweet peas.</p> + +<p>6. There were dances, theatricals, and sleighrides that winter.</p> + +<p>7. It would amuse me very much to sing while I am hunting.</p> + +<p>8. A cannon that breaks loose from its fastenings on a ship is +suddenly transformed into a supernatural beast. It is a monster +developed from a machine; it has the weight of an elephant, the +agility of a mouse, the obstinacy of the ox; it takes one by surprise, +like the surge of the sea; it flashes like lightning; it is deaf as the +tomb; it weighs ten thousand pounds, and it bounds like a child’s +ball.</p> + +<p>9. That day there came our first great snowstorm.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span></p> + +<p>10. There lay the beautiful piece of embroidery that mother had +put away so carefully and forgotten so completely.</p> + +<p>11. There’s a special providence that watches over idiots, drunken +men, and boys.</p> + +<p>12. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">It made the children laugh and play,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">To see a lamb at school.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14. In the reign of King Arthur, and in the county of Cornwall, +near to the Land’s End in England, there lived a worthy farmer, +who had an only son, named Jack.</p> + +<p>15. There the two old dogs sat and talked of the wonderful +tenacity of rheumatism that has once settled in a dog’s shoulder.</p> + +<p>16. There was one passenger in the coach,—a small, dark-haired +person in a glossy buff calico dress.</p> + +<p>17. Professor Boyesen describes what he calls the <i>saeter</i>, the +spring migration of the dairy and dairymaids. It is the great event +of the year in all the rural districts.</p> + +<p>18. There were three Catherines, two Annes, and a Jane.</p> + +<p>19. It is said in Ceylon that the cocoanut, like the magpie and +the robin, will flourish only within sound of the human voice.</p> + +<p>20. There is always a sad element in the departure of a steamer.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XCVI">XCVI. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="section" id="section374"><b>374.</b> We have noted several constructions in which there +is an ellipsis, or omission of some word or words necessary to +the grammatical structure of the sentence.</p> + +<p>(1) The subject of an imperative sentence, the pronoun <i>you</i>, +<i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i> is usually omitted; as, “(<i>You</i>) Honor the flag.”</p> + +<p>(2) A noun is often omitted after a possessive modifier; as, +“Let us go over to Baker’s (<i>house</i>) this evening.”</p> + +<p>(3) An auxiliary verb is often omitted; as, “Somebody +has entered the hall and (<i>has</i>) taken my umbrella.”</p> + +<p>(4) The predicate is often omitted in a clause of comparison; +as, “I am not so tired as you (<i>are</i> or <i>are tired</i>).” “He +has no better right than I (<i>have</i> or <i>have right</i>).”</p> + +<p>(5) The relative pronoun <i>that</i> is often omitted in an adjective +clause; as, “The ring (<i>that</i>) you gave me is too small.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span></p> + +<p>(6) The subordinate conjunction <i>that</i> is often omitted in +a noun clause; as, “You said (<i>that</i>) I might take your skates.”</p> + +<p class="section" id="section375"><b>375.</b> The elliptical sentence is very common, especially +in conversation, where we do not have to depend entirely +upon words to convey our meaning, as we have the help of +emphasis, tone of voice, and gesture. It follows that in oral +language we leave out many words that can easily be supplied +by our listeners.</p> + +<p>(1) In answering questions, we seldom make complete +statements, as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>What is your name? (<i>My name is</i>) Donald.</p> + +<p>Whose boy are you? (<i>I am</i>) Mr. Hill’s (<i>boy</i>).</p> + +<p>Where do you live? (<i>I live</i>) On Jackson Street.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>(2) We often omit a word that has already been expressed +in the sentence; as, “Our first maid was an Irish girl; our +second (<i>maid was</i>) a Norwegian (<i>girl</i>).”</p> + +<p>(3) In sentences beginning with <i>no wonder</i> or <i>no matter</i> we +omit the main verb and the anticipative subject <i>it</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>“No wonder he died,” means “It is no wonder that he died.”</p> + +<p>“No matter what I said,” means “It is no matter what I said.”</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>(4) Two very common questions are <i>What of it?</i> and <i>What +if I do?</i> We may expand the first question thus, “What +(<i>will come</i>) of it?” and the second thus, “What (<i>difference +will it make</i>) if I do?”</p> + +<p>(5) In adverbial clauses we find many cases of ellipsis, but +the words omitted can readily be supplied; as,—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>I lived on the south side when (<i>I was</i>) a child.</p> + +<p>I cut my finger while (<i>I was</i>) paring an apple.</p> + +<p>She sings as if (<i>she were singing</i>) by note.</p> + +<p>I will be there if (<i>it is</i>) possible.</p> + +<p>Though (<i>we were</i>) tired and hungry we plodded on.</p> + +<p>I will go (<i>though it</i>) rain or (<i>though it</i>) shine.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze the following sentences, supplying the +words omitted wherever there is an ellipsis.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. Wisdom is better than rubies.</p> + +<p>2. A song to the oak, the brave old oak!</p> + +<p>3. The sun shall not smite thee by day nor the moon by night.</p> + +<p>4. She will close the house and go to her son’s.</p> + +<p>5. Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First his Cromwell.</p> + +<p>6. It is more blessed to give than to receive.</p> + +<p>7. And then to breakfast with what appetite you have.</p> + +<p>8. To-day he puts forth the tender leaves of hope; to-morrow +blossoms.</p> + +<p>9. Love’s wing moults when caged and captured.</p> + +<p>10. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he +that ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a city.</p> + +<p>11. Few and short were the prayers we said.</p> + +<p>12. All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely +players.</p> + +<p>13.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Stone walls do not a prison make,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Nor iron bars a cage.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>14. Though mild, Calvin was also intolerant.</p> + +<p>15.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Happy the man whose wish and care</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A few paternal acres bound.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>16. Drink to me only with thine eyes.</p> + +<p>17.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">True hope is swift and flies with swallow’s wings,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Kings it makes gods and meaner creatures, kings.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>18. My true love hath my heart, and I have his.</p> + +<p>19.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Lives of great men all remind us</div> + <div class="verse indent0">We can make our lives sublime.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>20. What if the river is too deep for the cattle to ford?</p> + +<p>21.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">If all the year were playing holidays</div> + <div class="verse indent0">To sport would be as tedious as to work.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>22. My kingdom for a horse!</p> + +<p>23.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">No matter what the daisies say,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">I know I’ll be married some fine day.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>24. Blessings on thee, little man!</p> + +<p>25.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Six white eggs on a bed of hay,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Flecked with purple, a pretty sight.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>26.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?”</div> + <div class="verse indent0">“Over the sea.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>27. The wind has a language, I would I could learn.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XCVII">XCVII. REVIEW OF ANALYSIS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="break"><b>Exercise.</b>—Analyze the following sentences. These sentences +contain examples of the various constructions that +have been presented in this book. If there is any doubt as +to what part of speech a certain word is, the dictionary will +usually enable you to decide. Where an ellipsis occurs, the +word or words omitted should be supplied.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. How the black cat had captured the alert and restless squirrel +so quickly was a great mystery to me.</p> + +<p>2. If a woman puts on airs with her equals, she probably has +something about herself or her family that she is ashamed of.</p> + +<p>3. In writing these memoirs I shall yield to the inclination so +natural to old men, of talking of themselves and their own actions.</p> + +<p>4.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">When ye come where I have stepped,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Ye will wonder why ye wept.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>5. I sought out one of these few, Fred Ouillette, pilot and son +of a pilot, an idol in the company’s eyes, a hero to the boys of +Montreal, a figure to be stared at always by anxious passengers.</p> + +<p>6. Must we conclude that the dignity of a bird depends upon +the length of his tail?</p> + +<p>7. During these gales, the top of the tableland is enveloped in +thick clouds, which the people of the Cape call the Devil’s Table +Cloth.</p> + +<p>8. The sand-hills were gashed with numberless ravines; and +as the sky had suddenly darkened, and a cold gusty wind arisen, +the strange shrubs and the dreary hills looked doubly wild and desolate.</p> + +<p>9.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Floweret and hope may die,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">But love with us shall stay.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>10. There are three beautiful dandelions out on the terrace.</p> + +<p>11.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">I hope to see my Pilot face to face</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When I have crossed the bar.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>12. Gray Brother did not come upon the night when I sent him +the word.</p> + +<p>13. The beasts cannot use me more cruelly than I have been +used by my fellow creatures.</p> + +<p>14. If I stroked the cat in my pet monkey’s presence, he would +get into a paroxysm of rage and make great efforts to bite me.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span></p> + +<p>15.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The spangled heavens, a shining frame,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Their great Original proclaim.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>16. He was a strange figure, this tattered, long-haired man, +with the spear and wallet, and his boots cut down into sandals.</p> + +<p>17. Gordon waited long for an opportunity to sing in the choir +at old St. George’s.</p> + +<p>18. When shall you leave Yarmouth? On the fifteenth, if possible.</p> + +<p>19. The captain, whose ideas of hard riding were all derived +from trans-Atlantic sources, expressed the utmost amazement at +the feats of Sorel, who went leaping ravines, and dashing at full +speed up and down the sides of precipitous hills, lashing his horse +with the recklessness of a Rocky Mountain rider.</p> + +<p>20. The Great American Desert is a land where no man permanently +abides; for in certain seasons of the year there is no food +either for the hunter or his steed.</p> + +<p>21.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">One constant element in luck</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Is genuine, solid, old Teutonic pluck.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>22. Did you ever think why a dog’s nose is always wet?</p> + +<p>23. One of the most difficult things is to get any wild animal to +allow himself to be touched with the human hand.</p> + +<p>24. Old Trinity’s steeple probably sways eighteen inches whenever +an elevated train passes.</p> + +<p>25. Do steeple climbers always work in pairs?</p> + +<p>26. The chipmunk had made a well-defined path from his door +out through the weeds and dry leaves into the territory where his +feeding ground lay.</p> + +<p>27. No wonder Eve ate the forbidden fruit.</p> + +<p>28. In Bermuda the banana is as omnipresent as the onion.</p> + +<p>29. We called the mice Jack, Jill, and Jenny, and they seemed +to know their names.</p> + +<p>30. Shooting the Lachine Rapids is like taming a particularly +fierce lion.</p> + +<p>31. Turk slept at night outside his master’s door, and no sentry +could be more alert upon his watch than this faithful mastiff, who +had apparently only one ambition,—to protect and to accompany +his owner.</p> + +<p>32. We fancied we could hear the huge bodies of the whales +burrowing through the water.</p> + +<p>33. At length, finding my life very solitary, I accepted the claw +and heart of a rich and respectable green parrot, who offered me a +good home and the devotion of a lifetime.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span></p> + +<p>34. Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home.</p> + +<p>35. Presently the doe stepped away, and left her little one lying +on a spotted heap of dead leaves and moss.</p> + +<p>36. While traveling along the Rhine, we observed that when the +German has nothing else to do, he eats and drinks.</p> + +<p>37. The Spaniards changed the whole character and habits of +the Indians when they brought the horse among them.</p> + +<p>38. The fires in the Australian bush are often the work of the +natives, to frighten away the white men; and sometimes the work +of the shepherds, to make the grass sprout afresh.</p> + +<p>39. Near the Pyramids, more wondrous and more awful than all +else in the land of Egypt, there sits the lonely Sphinx.</p> + +<p>40. The sexton had lived in Stratford for eighty years, and +seemed still to consider himself a vigorous man, with the trivial +exception that he had nearly lost the use of his legs.</p> + +<p>41. What if this were my last day at school?</p> + +<p>42. It was something to have seen the dust of Shakespeare.</p> + +<p>43. A queen bee will lay two hundred eggs in a few hours, and in +the year she will generally have laid twenty or thirty thousand.</p> + +<p>44. The ground was carpeted with softest moss, into which the +boy’s feet sunk so deep that they were almost covered; and all +over the moss were sprinkled little star-shaped pink flowers.</p> + +<p>45. The wolf asked little Red Riding Hood whither she was going.</p> + +<p>46.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">O happy harbor of God’s saints!</div> + <div class="verse indent2">O sweet and pleasant soil!</div> + <div class="verse indent0">In thee no sorrow can be found,</div> + <div class="verse indent2">Nor grief, nor care, nor toil.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>47. She fell back upon the floor as if by the stroke of an unseen +hand.</p> + +<p>48. Whether she was attended by a physician from Canton or +from Milton, I was unable to say; but neither the gig with the large +allopathic sorrel horse, nor the gig with the homœopathic white +mare was ever seen hitched at the gate during the day.</p> + +<p>49. No sooner did I open their door than out the little starlings +would all fly, and seat themselves on my head and shoulders.</p> + +<p>50. Neither eye nor ear revealed him anything.</p> + +<p>51. Small leisure have the poor for grief.</p> + +<p>52. By a flight of winding stairs we reached a covered balcony, +over which a tropical vine wanders at will.</p> + +<p>53. Dora heard Marjorie singing, laughing, chatting, as she flashed +here and there, helping and hindering in about equal proportions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p> + +<p>54. No matter what honors your ancestors attained, make your +own name honorable.</p> + +<p>55. As I trod the sounding pavement, there was something intense +and thrilling in the idea that the remains of Shakespeare were +moldering beneath my feet.</p> + +<p>56. The lark, springing up from the reeking bosom of the +meadow, towered away into the bright fleecy cloud, pouring forth +torrents of melody.</p> + +<p>57. I now found myself among noble avenues of oaks and elms, +whose vast size bespoke the growth of centuries.</p> + +<p>58. The air within the tunnel is somewhat damp, but fresh and +agreeably cool, and one can scarcely realize in walking along the light +passage, that a river is rolling above his head.</p> + +<p>59. No frog egg may hope to develop into a turtle, or a bird, or +anything but a frog.</p> + +<p>60. I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft.</p> + +<p>61. Everybody knows that the porcupine is ridiculously fastidious +in his choice of food.</p> + +<p>62.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The daisy, by the shadow that it casts,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>63. If I choose to work eleven hours a day, what of it?</p> + +<p>64. Far below lay the earth, brown, dry, and desolate, from +drouth.</p> + +<p>65. There was no sleep that long night for the little duck mother +Quackalina.</p> + +<p>66. One evening, after the ice of a sleet storm had clogged their +wings, the pigeons settled on one of the highest buildings they +could find, and sat and shivered through the long night.</p> + +<p>67. The taking down of a steeple two hundred and thirty-eight +feet high, that rises on a closely built city street, is not a simple +proceeding.</p> + +<p>68.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">The legend of Felix is ended, the toiling of Felix is done;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The master has paid him his wages, the goal of his journey is won.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>69. There we were shown the chair on which the English monarchs +have been crowned for several hundred years.</p> + +<p>70. Under the seat is the stone brought from the Abbey of Scone, +whereon the kings of Scotland were crowned.</p> + +<p>71. Sleeping or waking, my thoughts are all of Ireland and of you.</p> + +<p>72. Fortunately for us, our two lean, wiry little horses did not +object to being used as aquatic animals.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span></p> + +<p>73. Many Russian villages possess a public bath of the most +primitive construction, but in some parts of the country the peasants +take their vapor bath in the household oven in which the bread is +baked!</p> + +<p>74. This aptly illustrates a common Russian proverb, which says +that what is health to the Russian is death to the German.</p> + +<p>75. Scarfs, shawls, stuffs for dresses, morning gowns, and vests, +handkerchiefs, sashes, purses, and tobacco bags are heaped in rich +profusion.</p> + +<p>76. When a man of fourscore, he continued his weekly visits to +the schools.</p> + +<p>77. His master having been honorably discharged before the close +of the war, Jim was left with the regiment in care of Wiggins, the +wagoner.</p> + +<p>78. No other pigeon is so bold and fearless, so full of bulldog +tenacity, so full of royal courage, as the homer.</p> + +<p>79. The French carried their imitation of Indians so far that +they often disguised themselves to resemble their allies, with paint, +feathers, and all.</p> + +<p>80. It was sometimes impossible to tell in an attacking party +which were French and which were Indians.</p> + +<p>81. The sea was dotted everywhere with the heads of seals +hurrying to land and begin their share of fighting.</p> + +<p>82. Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail.</p> + +<p>83.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">If eyes were made for seeing,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Then beauty is its own excuse for being.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>84.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">Out on the lawn there arose such a clatter</div> + <div class="verse indent0">I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>85.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">There is a rapture on the lonely shore.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>86. How I wish that when the Angel comes for me, I might reach +out and feel your hand!</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="GENERAL_REVIEW">GENERAL REVIEW</h2> + +</div> + +<h3>Exercise 1</h3> + +<blockquote> + +<p>(1) The family of the Lambs had long been among the +most thriving and popular in the neighborhood; the Miss +Lambs were the belles of Little Britain, and everybody was +pleased when old Lamb had made money enough to shut +up shop, and put his name on a brass plate on his door. +(2) In an evil hour, however, one of the Miss Lambs had +the honor of being a lady in attendance on the Lady Mayoress, +at her great annual ball, on which occasion she wore +three towering ostrich feathers on her head. (3) The family +never got over it; they were immediately smitten with a +passion for high life; set up a one-horse carriage, put a bit +of gold lace round the errand-boy’s hat, and have been the +talk and detestation of the whole neighborhood ever since. +(4) They could no longer be induced to play at Pope-Joan +or blindman’s buff; they could endure no dances but quadrilles, +which nobody had ever heard of in Little Britain; and +they took to reading novels, talking bad French, and playing +upon the piano. (5) Their brother, too, who had been articled +to an attorney, set up for a dandy and a critic, characters +hitherto unknown in these parts; and he confounded +the worthy folks exceedingly by talking about Kean, the +opera, and the “Edinburgh Review.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Washington Irving</span>, <i>Sketch Book</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of all words +in this paragraph that you do not understand.</p> + +<p>2. Account for the capitalization and punctuation. Why +is the term <i>Edinburgh Review</i> inclosed in quotation marks?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span></p> + +<p>3. What kind of noun is <i>family</i> in sentence (1)? Use it +in a sentence so as to reveal its number and its gender. What +is its number in sentence (3)? How do you account for it?</p> + +<p>4. What two plural forms has the term <i>Miss Lamb</i>? +What is the plural of <i>Lady Mayoress</i>? What does the dictionary +say about the plural form <i>folks</i>? What is the number +of <i>everybody</i> in sentence (1)? What is the plural of +<i>attorney</i>? of <i>dandy</i>?</p> + +<p>5. Tell the part of speech and use of <i>long</i>, <i>enough</i>, sentence +(1); <i>however</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>which</i>, sentence (2); <i>ever</i>, <i>since</i>, sentence +(3); <i>no</i>, <i>longer</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>but</i>, sentence (4); <i>too</i>, <i>up</i>, <i>hitherto</i>, sentence +(5). Which of these words can be used as other parts +of speech? Illustrate in sentences.</p> + +<p>6. Are <i>thriving</i> in sentence (1) and <i>towering</i> in sentence (2) +participles or adjectives? How do you decide? Is <i>pleased</i> +in sentence (1) a complement of <i>was</i> or a part of a passive +verb <i>was pleased</i>? How do you decide? How is <i>smitten</i> +used in sentence (3)? Find two passive verbs, and prove +that they are passive.</p> + +<p>7. Supply the ellipsis before and after <i>popular</i> in sentence +(1); before <i>put</i> in sentence (1).</p> + +<p>8. Tell the use of each of the following verbals: <i>being</i> (2); +<i>reading</i>, <i>talking</i>, <i>playing</i> (4); <i>talking</i> (5). Tell how each of +these verbals is modified or completed.</p> + +<p>9. Select each prepositional phrase and tell what it modifies.</p> + +<p>10. Select all the infinitives with <i>to</i> and tell the grammatical +use of each.</p> + +<p>11. Parse the relative pronouns in sentences (4) and (5). +Are the clauses that they introduce restrictive or unrestrictive?</p> + +<p>12. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: +<i>belles</i> (1); <i>talk</i>, <i>detestation</i> (3); <i>characters</i> (5).</p> + +<p>13. Tell the principal parts of each of these verbs: <i>put</i> (1); +<i>had</i>, <i>wore</i> (2); <i>got</i>, <i>set</i> (3); <i>took</i> (4).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span></p> + +<h3>Exercise 2</h3> + +<blockquote> + +<p>(1) Ahem! Dry work, this speechifying, especially to an +unpracticed orator. (2) I never conceived till now what +toil the temperance lecturers undergo for my sake; hereafter +they shall have the business to themselves. (3) Do, +some kind Christian, pump a stroke or two, just to wet my +whistle. (4) Thank you, sir! (5) My dear hearers, when +the world shall have been regenerated by my instrumentality, +you will collect your useless vats and liquor casks into +one great pile and make a bonfire in honor of the town pump. +(6) And when I shall have decayed like my predecessors, +then, if you revere my memory, let a marble fountain, richly +sculptured, take my place upon this spot. (7) Such monuments +should be erected everywhere and inscribed with the +names of the distinguished champions of my cause.</p> + +<p>(8) One o’clock! (9) Nay, then, if the dinner bell begins +to speak, I may as well hold my peace. (10) Here comes a +pretty young girl of my acquaintance with a large stone +pitcher for me to fill. (11) May she draw a husband while +drawing her water, as Rachel did of old! (12) Hold out your +vessel, my dear! (13) There it is, full to the brim; so now +run home, peeping at your sweet image in the pitcher as you +go, and forget not, in a glass of my own liquor, to drink +“Success to the town pump.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Nathaniel Hawthorne</span>, <i>Twice Told Tales</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of words in these +paragraphs that you do not understand.</p> + +<p>2. Classify each sentence both as to purpose and structure.</p> + +<p>3. What part of speech is <i>ahem</i>? What feeling does it +express in sentence (1)?</p> + +<p>4. Supply the ellipsis in sentence (1). What part of speech +is <i>speechifying</i>? What is its grammatical use?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span></p> + +<p>5. What does the adverb <i>especially</i> in sentence (1) modify?</p> + +<p>6. Account for the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> in these paragraphs.</p> + +<p>7. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the class and use +of each, and the introductory word.</p> + +<p>8. Select all the terms of address. What is the base word +of each?</p> + +<p>9. What is the use of <i>now</i> sentence (2)? <i>old</i> (11)? <i>dinner</i> +(9)?</p> + +<p>10. Parse each predicate verb in sentences (3), (5), (6), (7).</p> + +<p>11. Tell the part of speech and use of <i>themselves</i>, sentence +(2); <i>stroke</i>, <i>two</i> (3); <i>there</i>, <i>full</i>, <i>peeping</i>, <i>glass</i>, <i>own</i> (13).</p> + +<p>12. Tell the use of all infinitive phrases in sentences (3), +(6), (9), (10), (13).</p> + +<h3>Exercise 3</h3> + +<blockquote> + +<p>(1) Once upon a time there came to this earth a visitor +from a neighboring planet. And he was met at the place of +his descent by a great philosopher, who was to show him +everything.</p> + +<p>(2) First of all they came through a wood, and the stranger +looked upon the trees. “Whom have we here?” said he.</p> + +<p>(3) “These are only vegetables,” said the philosopher. +“They are alive, but not at all interesting.”</p> + +<p>(4) “I don’t know about that,” said the stranger. “They +seem to have very good manners. Do they never speak?”</p> + +<p>(5) “They lack the gift,” said the philosopher.</p> + +<p>(6) “Yet I think I hear them sing,” said the other.</p> + +<p>(7) “That is only the wind among the leaves,” said the +philosopher. “I will explain to you the theory of winds; +it is very interesting.”</p> + +<p>(8) “Well,” said the stranger, “I wish I knew what +they are thinking.”</p> + +<p>(9) “They cannot think,” said the philosopher.</p> + +<p>(10) “I don’t know about that,” returned the stranger; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span>and then laying his hand upon a trunk: “I like these people,” +said he.</p> + +<p>(11) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher. +“Come along.”</p> + +<p>(12) Next they came through a meadow where there were +cows.</p> + +<p>(13) “These are very dirty people,” said the stranger.</p> + +<p>(14) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher; +and he explained what a cow is in scientific words which I +have forgotten.</p> + +<p>(15) “That is all one to me,” said the stranger. “But +why do they never look up?”</p> + +<p>(16) “Because they are graminivorous,” said the philosopher; +“and to live upon grass, which is not highly nutritious, +requires so close an attention to business that they +have no time to think, or speak, or look at the scenery, or +keep themselves clean.”</p> + +<p>(17) “Well,” said the stranger, “that is one way to live, +no doubt. But I prefer the people with the green heads.”</p> + +<p>(18) Next they came into a city, and the streets were +full of men and women.</p> + +<p>(19) “These are very odd people,” said the stranger.</p> + +<p>(20) “They are the people of the greatest nation in the +world,” said the philosopher.</p> + +<p>(21) “Are they indeed?” said the stranger. “They +scarcely look so.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">R. L. Stevenson</span>, <i>Fables</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>1. Rewrite this selection, changing the direct to indirect +discourse and noting the changes made in verbs, pronouns, +and other words.</p> + +<p>2. Fill out the elliptical sentences, and tell the grammatical +use of each of the words that you supply.</p> + +<p>3. Comment on the use of <i>and</i> (1), <i>but</i> (15), and <i>but</i> (17).</p> + +<p>4. Explain how each of the following verbs and verbals is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>completed and modified: <i>was</i>, <i>to show</i>, paragraph (1); <i>have</i> +(2); <i>are</i>, and <i>are</i> (3); <i>seem</i> (4); <i>lack</i> (5); <i>think</i>, <i>hear</i>, <i>said</i> +(6); <i>wish</i>, <i>knew</i>, <i>are thinking</i> (8); <i>laying</i> (10); <i>explained</i>, <i>is</i>, +<i>have forgotten</i> (14); <i>is</i> (15); <i>keep</i> (16).</p> + +<p>5. Find the subject of <i>came</i> in the first sentence, and explain +the use of <i>there</i>. Prove that <i>was met</i> in paragraph (1) is a +true passive verb.</p> + +<p>6. Tell the grammatical use of each infinitive in paragraphs +(16) and (17).</p> + +<p>7. Tell the part of speech and use of <i>once</i>, paragraph (1); +<i>first</i> (2); <i>highly</i>, <i>so</i> (16); <i>well</i> (17); <i>next</i> (18); <i>very</i> (19); +<i>indeed</i>, <i>scarcely</i>, <i>so</i> (21).</p> + +<p>8. Parse all the adjective pronouns, interrogative pronouns, +and relative pronouns.</p> + +<p>9. Find all the prepositional phrases, and tell what each +phrase modifies. Tell the object of each preposition, and if +there is anything peculiar about any object, comment upon +the peculiarity.</p> + +<p>10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and use +of each clause, and its introductory word. Classify the adjective +clauses as restrictive or unrestrictive, and tell what +the adverbial clauses denote.</p> + +<p>If a word is used in a peculiar or uncommon way, consult +the dictionary for information regarding it.</p> + +<h3>Exercise 4</h3> + +<blockquote> + +<p>(1) There troop the three most roguish boys that ever made +parents scold or laugh. (2) They have nothing to do but +to set each other on to mischief. (3) They pull off buds +from the unblossomed rose bushes; they pick cucumbers +by the half bushel that were to have been let alone; they +break down rare shrubbery to get whips, and instead get +whippings; they kill the guinea-pigs; chase the chickens; +break up hens’ nests; get into the carriages and wagons only +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span>to tumble out, and set all the nurses a-running; they study +every means of getting under the horses’ feet, and, as the more +dangerous act, they are fond of tickling their hind legs, and +pulling at their tails; they fill the already fed horses with +extra oats, causing the hostler to fear for his charges’ health, +since they refuse oats at the next regular feeding; they paddle +in all the mud on the premises; sit down in the street and +fill their pockets with dirt; they wet their clothes in the +brook, tear them in the woods, lose their caps a dozen times +a day, and go bare-headed in the blazing sun; they cut up +every imaginable prank with their long-suffering nurses when +meals are served, or when bedtime comes, or when morning +brings the washing and dressing. (4) They are little, nimble, +compact skinfuls of ingenious, fertile, endless, untiring mischief. +(5) They stub their toes, or cut their fingers, or get +stung, or eat some poisonous berry, seed, or root, or make us +think that they have, which is just as bad; they fall down +stairs, or eat green fruit till they are as tight as a drum; +and yet there is no peace to us without them, as there certainly +is none with them. Mischievous darlings! Joyful +plagues! Loving, rollicking, laughing rogues!</p> + +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Henry Ward Beecher</span>, <i>Star Papers</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>1. Give the principal parts of each predicate verb in this +selection; its tense. Read the selection with the predicate +verbs in the past tense.</p> + +<p>2. Explain how the following verbs are completed and +modified: <i>made</i>, sentence (1); <i>have</i> (2); <i>pull</i>, <i>were</i>, <i>lose</i>, <i>go</i>, +<i>cut</i> (3); <i>are</i> (4); <i>get</i>, <i>make</i> (5).</p> + +<p>3. Select all the adjectives and tell what they modify. +Classify them as limiting or descriptive. Compare them, +if possible. If any of them do not admit of comparison, +tell why.</p> + +<p>4. Tell the use of <i>there</i>, sentence (1) and <i>there</i> (5).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span></p> + +<p>5. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: +<i>boys</i>, sentence (1); <i>legs</i> (3); <i>hostler</i> (3); <i>times</i> (3); <i>day</i> (3); +<i>drum</i> (5); <i>darlings</i> (5).</p> + +<p>6. Find three nouns in the possessive case, and tell what +each of them modifies. Decline each of these nouns.</p> + +<p>7. Select all the infinitives with <i>to</i> and tell the use of +each.</p> + +<p>8. Select and classify all the words in <i>-ing</i>.</p> + +<p>9. Account for the punctuation of this selection.</p> + +<p>10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and +use of each, and the introductory word.</p> + +<p>11. Tell the part of speech and use of <i>on</i> (2); <i>off</i>, <i>alone</i>, +<i>down</i>, <i>up</i>, <i>already</i> (3); <i>just</i>, <i>down</i>, <i>certainly</i> (5).</p> + +<p>12. Select all the coördinate conjunctions in sentences (3) +and (5) and tell what each conjunction joins.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> + +</div> + +<ul> + <li class="ifrst">Absolute phrases, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Absolute use of noun, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Abstract nouns, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Active voice, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Address, term of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adjective clauses, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">restrictive, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">unrestrictive, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adjective elements, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adjective phrases, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adjective pronouns, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">declension of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adjectives, appositive, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">classified, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">comparison of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in use of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">misused for adverbs, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifying pronouns, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">objective complement, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">parsing of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">review of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">subjective complement, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adverbial clauses, of cause, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of comparison, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of concession, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of condition, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of manner, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of place, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of purpose, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of result, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of time, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">office of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adverbial nouns, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adverbial noun phrases, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifying adjectives or adverbs, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adverbial noun phrases, modifying verbs, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">what they denote, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adverbial phrases, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Adverbs, comparison of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">conjunctive, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">formation of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">interrogative, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">introducing noun clauses, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">meaning of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">misused for adjectives, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifying adjectives, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifying adverbs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifying sentences, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifying verbs, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">parsing of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">simple, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">summary of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>After</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Agreement, of participle and noun, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of subject and verb, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Among</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Analysis, models for, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Antecedent, of personal pronoun, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of relative pronoun, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Anticipative subject, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Appositive, adjective, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">case of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in possessive case, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">infinitive, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">noun, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span></li> + + <li class="indx">Appositive, noun clause, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">position of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">punctuation of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Articles, definite and indefinite, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>As</i>, relative pronoun, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>At</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Auxiliary verbs, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>can</i>, <i>could</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_154">154-156</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Before</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Beside</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Besides</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Between</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>But</i>, conjunction and preposition, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">relative pronoun, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>By</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Can</i> and <i>could</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Capitalization, of proper adjectives, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of proper nouns, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Case, <a href="#Page_83">83-95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cause, clauses of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Clauses, adjective, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193-197</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">adverbial, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180-191</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">dependent, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">independent, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">noun, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">review of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Collective nouns, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Common gender, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Common nouns, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Comparative degree, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Comparison, clauses of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of adjectives, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how denoted, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">irregular, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Complement, defined, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Complement, direct object, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">double object, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">objective, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">subjective, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Complex sentences, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Compound personal pronouns, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Compound predicate, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Compound sentences, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Compound subject, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Concession, clauses of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Condition, clauses of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Conjugation, active voice, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">emphatic, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">imperative mode, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">indicative mode, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">interrogative, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">passive voice, <a href="#Page_140">140-142</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">progressive, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">subjunctive mode, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Conjunctions, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">coördinate, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">correlative, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in compound sentences, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">subordinate, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Conjunctive adverbs, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in noun clauses, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Contractions, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Coördinate conjunctions, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Correlative conjunctions, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Dangling participles, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Declarative sentences, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Declension, of nouns, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of personal pronouns, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of relative pronouns, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Defective verbs, <a href="#Page_154">154-157</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Demonstrative adjectives, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Dependent clauses, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Descriptive adjectives, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Direct and indirect discourse, <a href="#Page_162">162-165</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span></li> + + <li class="indx">Direct and indirect quotations, <a href="#Page_162">162-165</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Do</i>, as principal verb, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Double object, of preposition <i>for</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of verb, <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Double possessive, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Each other</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Elliptical sentences, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Else</i>, as limiting adjective, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Emphatic conjugation, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Enough</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Errors, in adjectives, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in adverbs, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in infinitives, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in interrogative pronouns, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in participles, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in personal pronouns, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in verbs, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137-142</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Exclamatory nouns, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Exclamatory sentences, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Feminine gender, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Floating participle, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>For</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Gender, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how denoted, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Gerund, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Going</i>, in verb phrase, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Have</i>, as principal verb, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Hence</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Idiomatic expressions, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Imperative mode, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">conjugation of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Imperative sentences, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">subject omitted, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Impersonal verbs, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>In</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Independent elements, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Indicative mode, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Indirect discourse, <a href="#Page_162">162-165</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Indirect object, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">becoming subject of passive verb, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">position of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Infinitive phrases, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Infinitives, defined, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in use of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in apposition, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in <i>-ing</i>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modified by possessive, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifier of adjective, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifier of noun, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">modifier of verb, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">object of preposition, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">object of verb, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">part of double object, <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">subjective complement, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">summary of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">used independently, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">with <i>to</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Interjections, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Interrogative adjectives, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Interrogative adverbs, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Interrogative conjugation, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Interrogative pronouns, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in use of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in noun clause, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Interrogative sentences, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">order of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Into</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Intransitive verbs, of action, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of being, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Irregular verbs, defined, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in use of, <a href="#Page_137">137-140</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">principal parts of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>It</i>, as anticipative subject, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span></li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Lay</i> and <i>lie</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Like</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Limiting adjectives, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Manner, clauses of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Masculine gender, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>May</i> and <i>might</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Mode, defined, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">imperative, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">indicative, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">subjunctive, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Modifier, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Must</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Natural order, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Neuter gender, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Nominative case, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Noun clauses, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">introductory word of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Nouns, abstract, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">adverbial, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as adjectives, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as interjections, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">case of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">collective, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">common, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">compound, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">declension of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">direct object, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">gender of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in apposition, <a href="#Page_85">85-87</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in exclamation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in <i>-ing</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">indirect object, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">number of, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">object of preposition, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">objective complement, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">parsing of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">possessive, <a href="#Page_79">79-82</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">proper, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">term of address, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">used absolutely, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Number, defined, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">singular and plural, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Numeral adjectives, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>O</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Object, double, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">indirect, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of preposition, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of verb, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">retained, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Objective complement, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">becoming subjective complement of passive verb, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Off</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>One</i>, declined, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>One another</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Only</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Other</i>, declined, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Own</i>, with possessives, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Parsing, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of nouns, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of prepositions, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of pronouns, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of verbs, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Participial phrases, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Participles, agreement of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">dangling, or floating, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">differing from adjectives, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in use of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">forms of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">summary of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, + <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Parts of speech, summary of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Passive voice, <a href="#Page_140">140-142</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Past participle, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as subjective complement, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in passive conjugation, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Person, of nouns, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of pronouns, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of verbs, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span></li> + + <li class="indx">Personal pronouns, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">compound, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">declension of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in use of, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uses of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103-105</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Phrases, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">absolute, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">adjective, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">adverbial, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as subjective complement, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">denoting possession, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in a series, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">infinitive, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">participial, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">position of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">prepositional, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Place, clauses of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Plurals, foreign, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">formation of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">compound nouns, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">letters and figures, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">titles, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">regular and irregular, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">same as singular, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Positive degree, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Possessive case, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of compound nouns, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Possessive nouns, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">form of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in double possessives, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">what they denote, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Possessive pronouns, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how used, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in double possessives, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Predicate, compound, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">simple, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">transposed, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Prepositions, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">correct use of, <a href="#Page_37">37-39</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">parsing of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Present participle, in progressive conjugation, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Principal parts, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Principal parts, of irregular verbs, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Progressive conjugation, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pronouns, adjective, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">compound personal, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in clauses of comparison, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">indefinite, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">interrogative, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">parsing of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">personal, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pronouns, relative, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">review of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Proper adjectives, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Proper nouns, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Punctuation, of a series, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of appositives, <a href="#Page_86">86-88</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of compound sentences, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of compound subject and predicate, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of declarative sentences, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of exclamatory sentences, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of interrogative sentences, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of phrases, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Purpose, clauses of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Raise</i> and <i>rise</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Reflexive use of pronouns, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Regular verbs, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Relative pronouns, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><i>what</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Result, clauses of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Retained object, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Review, general, <a href="#Page_257">257-264</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of adjectives, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of analysis, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of clauses, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of infinitives, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of nouns, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of participles, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of parts of speech, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of prepositions, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span></li> + + <li class="indx">Review, general, of pronouns, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of sentences, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of verbs, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Sentences, complex, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">compound, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">declarative, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">elliptical, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>,</li> + <li class="isub1">exclamatory, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">imperative, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">interrogative, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">review of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">simple, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sequence of tenses, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Series, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of phrases, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of predicates, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Set</i> and <i>sit</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in indirect discourse, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in interrogative sentences, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">rules for use of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Should</i> and <i>would</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160-162</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in subjunctive mode, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Simple adverbs, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Simple predicate, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Simple sentences, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Simple subject, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Since</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Singular number, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>So</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Subject, compound, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how found, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">simple, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">transposed, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Subjective complement, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">adjective, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">infinitive, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">noun, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">participle, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">prepositional phrase, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Subjunctive mode, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">conjugation of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Subjunctive mode, tenses of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Subordinate conjunctions, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Summary, of adverbs, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of case relations, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of infinitives, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of participles, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Superlative degree, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Tense, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in noun clauses, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">primary, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">secondary, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">sequence of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Term of address, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>The</i>, an adverb, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>There</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Till</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Time, clauses of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>To</i>, omitted in infinitives, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>To</i>, use of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Transitive verbs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">followed by indirect object, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">followed by objective complement, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">what they denote, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Transposed order, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Until</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Used</i>, in verb phrases, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst">Verb phrases, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Verbals, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Verbs, defective, <a href="#Page_154">154-157</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">defined, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">errors in use of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137-142</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">intransitive, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">mode of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">parsing of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">principal parts of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">regular and irregular, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">review of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">tense of, <a href="#Page_123">123-126</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">transitive, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">used as interjections, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span></li> + <li class="isub1">used transitively or intransitively, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">voice of, <a href="#Page_140">140-142</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Voice, active and passive, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">conjugation of passive, <a href="#Page_140">140-142</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">test for passive, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>With</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Words in <i>-ing</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Words used, as adjective or adverb, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as adverb or preposition, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as noun or adjective, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as noun or verb, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as preposition, conjunction, or adverb, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i>Would</i>, as principal verb, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + + <li class="ifrst"><i>Yet</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76768 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/76768-h/images/cover.jpg b/76768-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..538593b --- /dev/null +++ b/76768-h/images/cover.jpg |
