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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76752 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+                           THE PENNY MAGAZINE
+
+                                 OF THE
+
+             Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ 7.]                   PUBLISHED EVERY SATURDAY.          [May 12, 1832
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+                      THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. PAUL’S.
+
+         [Illustration: Old St. Paul’s Cathedral--South View.]
+
+The elevated situation of the spot on which St. Paul’s is built, seems
+to have pointed it out from very ancient times for religious or other
+public purposes. Without adopting the very doubtful opinion of some
+antiquaries, that the Romans during their occupation of the island had
+erected a temple to Diana upon this eminence--an opinion which has not
+even the support of tradition, and which Sir Christopher Wren, when he
+dug the foundations of the present church, became convinced had no other
+support--it seems to be clear that these foreigners used it for a
+cemetery or burial place, if not for anything more sacred. On the
+erection of the present building many Roman funeral vases,
+lacrymatories, and other articles used in sepulture, were found at a
+considerable depth under the surface. Next to these lay in rows
+skeletons of the ancient Britons; and immediately above them, Saxons in
+stone coffins, or in graves lined with chalk, together with pins of
+ivory and box wood which had fastened their grave clothes. The earliest
+building which is actually recorded to have stood on this site was a
+Christian church, built about the year 610, by Ethelbert, King of Kent,
+the first of the Saxon princes who was converted by St. Augustine. It
+was dedicated to St. Paul, and the old historians tell us was indebted
+for the latest improvements which it received to the liberality of St.
+Erkenwald, the bishop of the diocese, who died in 681. However, it could
+scarcely have been a very magnificent or extensive edifice, if it be
+true, as is related, that upon its being accidentally burned down in
+961, it was rebuilt the same year. After this it was again destroyed by
+fire in the year 1087; when the Norman bishop, Maurice, who had just
+been appointed to the see, resolved to undertake its restoration, on a
+much larger and more splendid scale, at his own expense. Both he and his
+successor De Belmeis, each of whom presided twenty years over the
+diocese, are said to have devoted all their revenues to this great work;
+but it was not finished till the time of Bishop Niger, the fourth after
+De Belmeis, in the year 1240. In 1135, indeed, the uncompleted building
+had again caught fire, and been nearly burned to the ground. When the
+fabric, which might thus be called ancient, even while it was yet new,
+at last stood ready for consecration, it exhibited a mass 690 feet in
+length by 130 in breadth, surmounted by a spire 520 feet in height. Some
+additions, which were made to it after this, were not completed till
+1315, in the reign of Edward II., the ninth king after him in whose
+reign the first stone of the pile had been laid.
+
+This was the building we now call old St. Paul’s, the immediate
+predecessor of the present cathedral. It was one of the largest edifices
+in the world, and in its best days, before it was deformed by the
+successive repairs to which it was subjected, and the various foreign
+incumbrances under which it was long buried, it was no doubt a grand and
+imposing structure. But, from the causes we have mentioned, its form in
+the course of time underwent so many changes that at last it presented
+the appearance of little else than a heap of incongruity and confusion.
+The spire was of timber; but in 1315 it was found to be so much decayed
+that the upper part of it had to be taken down and replaced. It was upon
+this occasion that a ball, surmounted by a cross, was first fixed upon
+the termination of the spire.
+
+The first accident which befel the church was the consequence of a
+violent tempest of thunder and wind which burst over the metropolis on
+the 1st of February, 1444. The lightning having struck the spire set it
+on fire; and although a priest succeeded in extinguishing the flames, a
+good deal of damage was done, so that it was not till the year 1462 that
+the gilded ball with the cross again made its appearance on the summit
+of the building. A much more serious disaster than this, however,
+happened about a century afterwards. On the 4th of June, 1561, a plumber
+who was employed in making some repairs, thoughtlessly left a pan of
+coals burning within the spire while he went to dinner; the flames from
+which caught the adjacent wooden work, and in no long time set the whole
+building in a blaze. In spite of every thing that could be done, the
+conflagration continued to rage till it had consumed every thing about
+the church that was combustible, and reduced it to a mere skeleton of
+bare and blackened walls.
+
+With such ardour, however, did the Queen (Elizabeth), and, it may be
+said indeed, the whole nation, promote the scheme of restoring the
+sacred edifice, all ranks contributing to the pious and patriotic work,
+that in the space of about five years it was again opened for worship.
+But it never recovered its ancient splendour: the spire, in particular,
+was not rebuilt at all; and from the shortness of the time spent in the
+restoration altogether, it is probable that other parts of the work were
+hurried over without much attention either to strength or beauty. By the
+end of the reign of Elizabeth accordingly, the structure had fallen into
+sad decay; so that it was found in 1608 that it could not be repaired
+under a cost of considerably more than twenty thousand pounds. It was
+not, however, till 1633, in the reign of Charles I., that the repairs
+were actually begun, the interval having been spent in attempts to
+collect the necessary funds by subscription. Meanwhile the cathedral was
+every year becoming more ruinous. The money subscribed at last amounted
+to above a hundred thousand pounds, and then the celebrated Inigo Jones
+having been appointed to superintend the work, it was, as we have said,
+proceeded with.
+
+We shall now mention some particulars to show the extraordinary state of
+neglect and ruin into which this once proud edifice had been by this
+time allowed to fall. Towards the close of the sixteenth century it is
+stated, that the benches at the door of the choir were commonly used by
+beggars and drunkards for sleeping on, and that a large dunghill lay
+within one of the doors of the church. The place indeed was the common
+resort of idlers of all descriptions, who used to walk about in the most
+irreverent manner with their hats on even during the performance of
+divine service. More than twenty private houses were built against the
+walls of the church, the owners of several of which had cut closets out
+of the sacred edifice, while in other instances doors had been made into
+the vaults which were converted into cellars. At one of the visitations
+the verger presented that “the shrouds and cloisters under the
+convocation-house are made a common lay-stall for boards, trunks, and
+chests, being let out unto trunk-makers; where, by means of their daily
+knocking and noise, the church is greatly disturbed.” One house, partly
+formed of the church, is stated to have been “lately used as a
+play-house;” the owner of another, which was built upon the foundation
+of the church, had contrived a way through a window into a part of the
+steeple, which he had turned into a ware-room; and a third person had
+excavated an oven in one of the buttresses, in which he baked his bread
+and pies.
+
+The first thing which Jones did was to clear away these obstructions,
+after which the work of restoration proceeded slowly but with tolerable
+regularity till the commencement of the civil wars in 1642. In 1643, not
+only all the revenues of the cathedral, but the funds which had been
+collected for repairing it, together with all the unused building
+materials, were seized by the Parliament. The scaffolding was given to
+the soldiers of Colonel Jephson’s regiment for arrears of pay; on which,
+no man hindering them, they dug pits in the middle of the church to saw
+the timber in. Another part of the building was converted into a barrack
+for dragoons and a stable. Public worship, nevertheless, was still
+celebrated in the east end and a part of the choir, which was separated
+from the rest by a brick wall, the congregation entering through one of
+the north windows which was converted into a door. At the west end Inigo
+Jones had erected a portico of great beauty, consisting of fourteen
+columns, each rising to the lofty height of forty-six feet, and the
+whole supporting an entablature crowned with statues. These statues were
+thrown down and broken in pieces; and shops were built within the
+portico, in which commodities of all sorts were sold. The wood-cut, at
+the head of this article, represents the cathedral as it was drawn by
+Hollar in 1656.
+
+In this state things continued till the restoration. Soon after that
+event, the repairing of St. Paul’s again engaged the thoughts of the
+king and the public; and subscriptions to a considerable amount having
+been once more obtained, the work was recommenced on the 1st of August,
+1663. Three years afterwards, however, (in September, 1666,) before it
+had been nearly completed, the great fire, which consumed half the
+metropolis, seized in its progress westward upon the scaffolding by
+which the cathedral was surrounded, and after an awful conflagration,
+left it a mere mass of ruins. History has recorded no finer instance of
+national spirit than the noble courage and alacrity with which the
+citizens of London, and the English government, and people generally,
+rose from this terrible calamity and applied themselves to restore all
+that it had destroyed. In the plans which were immediately taken into
+consideration for rebuilding the city, St. Paul’s was not forgotten. Sir
+Christopher Wren, who had been employed in superintending the previous
+repairs, was ordered to examine and report upon the state in which the
+foundations of the building were, and so much of the walls as was left
+standing. At first it was thought that a considerable portion of the old
+church might still be found available; but this idea was eventually
+given up; and on the 21st of June, 1675, the foundation-stone of the
+present building was laid. From this time the work proceeded without
+interruption till its completion in 1710. The same great architect, Sir
+Christopher Wren, presided over and directed the work from its
+commencement to its close. For this, all that he received was £200
+a-year; and the commissioners had even the spite and meanness, after the
+building was considerably advanced, to suspend the payment of one half
+of this pittance till the edifice should be finished, under the pretence
+of thereby better securing the diligence and expedition of the
+architect. In fact, it was with no small difficulty that Sir Christopher
+at last got his money at all. The whole expense of rebuilding the
+cathedral was £736,000, which was raised almost entirely by a small tax
+on coals. The church of St. Peter’s at Rome, which is indeed a building
+of greater dimensions, but to which St. Paul’s ranks next even in that
+respect among the sacred edifices of Christendom, took one hundred and
+forty-five years to build, was the work of twelve successive architects,
+and exhausted the revenues of nineteen successive popes. It is worthy of
+remark, that St. Paul’s was begun and completed not only by one
+architect, and one master mason, Mr. Thomas Strong, but also while one
+bishop, Dr. Henry Compton, presided over the diocese.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                        AN EMIGRANT’S STRUGGLES.
+
+                        [Concluded from No. 6.]
+
+When we set out upon our expedition, which I have just mentioned, we had
+two servants with us, and as many dogs. One man carried some biscuits;
+another a bottle of rum, a piece of beef, and a little tea and sugar,
+with a couple of tea-pots. Immediately behind my house there is a fine
+long hill, rising, with an easy slope, to the height of five hundred or
+six hundred feet, and covered, like the country in general, with trees
+and grass. It has been the practice to allow proprietors of cattle and
+sheep to graze on the unlocated parts, which they were obliged to quit
+on settlers coming to occupy the ground. These herds were generally left
+in the care of one or two men, while the proprietor lived in Hobart
+Town; the consequence of which was, that the cattle were allowed to
+stray wherever they chose, and became altogether wild. This was the case
+where I have settled; and although the herdsmen have removed themselves
+to their assigned limits, the cattle are still on my ground, and have
+been the cause of my suffering one of the most serious inconveniences
+which can befal a settler. For I had scarcely arrived on my land when my
+working bullocks got into the wild herd, with which they continue until
+this day. This has completely baulked my agricultural projects, obliging
+me to perform by manual labour what the beasts of the field should have
+done for me. But I am again digressing, and tiring you with my
+misfortunes, instead of giving you an account of our journey. As we
+approached the river Ouse we found its banks had been lately burnt by
+the natives, and the grass and smaller trees were completely consumed.
+After some search we found a place which we ventured to wade, but it was
+with great difficulty we could keep our feet. Sometimes the dogs would
+kill a kangaroo, and as we had not time or opportunity to make use of
+it, the huge crows, which abound in the woods, soon hovered over the
+carcase in great numbers. These crows are of the same genus as your
+English ones, but of a different species. They are very large, and
+distinguished by a white ring round the eye: they have even more cunning
+than their brethren of the old world. The banks on the further side of
+the Ouse are yet steeper than on this. We continued to ascend over the
+burnt ground, and underneath huge trees, for about five miles, till we
+arrived at the stock-keeper’s hut, which we discovered by the help of
+the track of horses. Here we found eight men, who had been sent up a few
+days before to erect a hut and stackyard for the cattle. They had
+sheltered themselves by branches of trees, and burnt a large fire in
+front. They had chosen a spot beside a small spring of water, in the
+midst of a large valley, which was almost clear of trees. After making
+some kangaroo soup we again set out, and bending our course more to the
+north, so as to keep near the river, we arrived at sun-set on the border
+of a beautiful lake. It appeared about seven miles long, and
+proportionably broad, with two lofty islands in the midst of it. The
+water was very soft and clear; its bed seemed to be composed of fine
+sand, and very shallow. Having formed our encampment near its brink, and
+lighted three very large fires to keep ourselves warm, we commenced
+making tea. One of the party fired a shot over its surface; the
+discharge was succeeded by a long and lasting peal like thunder, which
+had a sublime effect. We therefore named this piece of water Lake Echo.
+We were now on very high ground, and seemed to overlook all the
+mountains around us. In the morning, at peep of day, we took leave of
+this enchanting scene, which we had admired at the two periods most
+favourable to the display of its beauty with the rising and the setting
+sun. The surface remained as even as glass, and the shadows of its banks
+and islands gave a soft serenity to the landscape. A fine open valley
+led us down to the river, but we traversed it with difficulty, for
+during the wet season the water had so lodged in it that it was now full
+of holes, and we were never sure of a step. We passed many recent
+encampments of the natives, and saw their fires at a little distance. As
+we approached the river the dog started a large kangaroo, and hunted it
+down on the plain. This was a seasonable supply. We immediately
+commenced cooking; cutting off some steaks, we strung them on a stick,
+and set them before the fire; when one side was done we turned the
+other;--this is what they call a _sticker-up_, and our manner of cooking
+them is called _bush-fashion_. The slang nomenclature which the convicts
+have imposed on this land is in many instances unpleasant and vulgar,
+but sometimes appropriate. Having made a comfortable meal we again
+crossed the Ouse, but with still greater difficulty than we had
+encountered the day before. The immediate space between the rivers is
+here still more mountainous than behind my house, and is covered with
+large rugged stones, and fine lofty trees. We passed several encampments
+of the natives. Pursuing our way, we soon came to the Shannon, which we
+crossed, as the eastern side afforded the best walking. Here we entered
+on an extensive plain, but so rough, and so obstructed with rushes, as
+to render our passage through it quite laborious. In one part we struck
+a light, and the wind blowing with great keenness, the grass blazed up
+in a few minutes, the flame extending for nearly half a mile. Our
+provisions were now quite exhausted, and we had to recreate ourselves
+with tea, and chat beside a beautiful cascade on the river. In these
+high regions we found several maple trees, with sweet unctuous juice
+exuding from the bark. You can hardly form an idea of the beauty of the
+heavens, as the vault appeared to the eye, while we reposed on a
+kangaroo rug on the grass, beside a large fire which illumined the
+trees, and with a fine sweep of the river winding its way before us, and
+reflecting the silvery beams of the moon. Next morning, after walking
+three or four miles, we killed a kangaroo, and fared sumptuously on a
+_sticker-up_. Thus refreshed, we descended towards home. We had explored
+in this journey a region which no European had ever seen before, and had
+ascended to some of the highest ground in the island. I should calculate
+my habitation to be nearly two thousand feet above the level of the sea,
+and I think we ascended as much more. You may suppose what romantic
+rapids and cascades occur in the course of a river which falls that
+height in the course of thirty miles. Just before my door I have a broad
+placid stream resembling a lake, over which I have made a flying bridge,
+by means of a rope and the elm-tree case of my wife’s piano, which
+answers the purpose so well that I brought over seven hundred sheep
+belonging to Mrs. Smith, the other day, by twenty at a time. I am
+completely at my own command, for if a visitor comes he must hail on the
+opposite side before I slacken my rope, and allow him to pull the boat
+over.
+
+We have no fish in these rivers, excepting some fresh water craw-fish,
+such as are found in the Thames, some eels, and a small thing not worth
+catching. We sometimes, however, shoot a wild duck or a widgeon, which
+are both large and good. We have also a kind of pigeon, which is very
+fine eating, and many other smaller birds, besides cockatoos
+innumerable, both black and white, and some beautiful parrots and
+paroquets. But the bird which chiefly enlivens the grove is a species of
+magpie, which sings two regular bars of music, of the clearest and
+sweetest notes you can imagine. On taking possession of my grant, my
+plan was to build a rough hut for my servants, which I should inhabit
+whilst a better one was erecting for myself, but the loss of my bullocks
+made me fain to make the best of my first habitation. It is entirely
+built of the materials on the ground, excepting the nails, which came
+from England, and the window-frames, which were made in Hobart Town. The
+walls are composed of logs or planks split out of the trees, of about a
+foot broad, and two or three inches thick. These are sunk two feet in
+the ground, and nailed to a beam at the top; they are then plastered
+over with a mixture composed of sand, clay, and grass cut short, and the
+wall is complete. The roof is covered with shingles, which are also
+split out of the trees round the house, and have exactly the appearance
+of slates. I have not yet been able to make a floor, we therefore walk
+at present upon the bare earth. As I cannot afford to buy another set of
+bullocks (for they cost 87_l._) I must wait patiently till I recover
+them when the wild herds are got in. This of course throws me into great
+difficulties. I have, however, upwards of one hundred sheep, two cows,
+and three or four young ones, a goat, and a pig, besides eight hens.
+These last thrive amazingly, chiefly owing to the number of grasshoppers
+which they eat.
+
+I have just heard of an opportunity to send off a letter, and I
+therefore hasten to a conclusion. It is strange, when I reflect upon it,
+that any vicissitudes of life should have induced me voluntarily to
+undergo separation from my friends; to desert their company for a wild
+and enthusiastic scheme of emigration. Much however as I feel the
+deprivation of such society, I must say that I do not yet regret my
+coming to this country. When I consider that the people around me have
+mostly been convicted of heinous offences in England, I am pleased at
+the security we enjoy. You will, I know, rejoice to hear that I and my
+family are in good health; and that though so remote, I am as near to
+you in the alliance of friendship as ever.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                              THE LOBSTER.
+
+             [Illustration: A lobster, viewed from above.]
+
+Amongst the numerous examples given by Dr. Paley, of the wonderful
+manner in which Nature contrives to overcome difficulties, which would
+at first appear insurmountable, there is perhaps none more striking than
+the mode in which the lobster is released from his case when the
+increasing size of his body requires more room. In most animals the skin
+grows with their growth. In some animals, instead of a soft skin, there
+is a shell, which admits by its form of gradual enlargement. Thus the
+shell of the tortoise, which consists of several pieces, is gradually
+enlarged at the joinings of those pieces which are called “sutures.”
+Shells with two sides, like those of the muscle, grow bigger by addition
+at the edge. Spiral shells, as those of the snail, receive this addition
+at their mouth. The simplicity of their form admits of this; but the
+lobster’s shell being applied to the limbs of his body, as well as to
+the body itself, does not admit of either of the modes of enlargement
+which is observed in other shells. It is so hard that it cannot expand
+or stretch, and it is so complicated in its form that it does not admit
+of being enlarged by adding to its edge. How, then, was the growth of
+the lobster to be provided for? We have seen that room could not be made
+for him in his old shell: was he then to be annually fitted with a new
+one? If so, another difficulty arises: how was he to get out of his
+present confinement? How was he to open his hard coat, or draw his legs
+out of his boots which are become too tight for him? The works of the
+Deity are known by expedients, and the provisions of his power extend to
+the most desperate cases. The case of the lobster is thus provided for:
+At certain seasons his shell grows soft. The animal swells his body; the
+seams open, and the claws burst at the joints. When the shell is thus
+become loose upon the body, the animal makes a second effort, and by a
+trembling motion, a sort of spasm, casts off his case. In this state of
+nakedness the poor defenceless fish retires to a hole in the rocks. The
+released body makes a sudden growth. In about eight and forty hours a
+fresh concretion of humour takes place all over the surface of his body;
+it quickly hardens; and thus a new shell is formed, fitted in every part
+to the increased size of the body and limbs of the animal. This
+wonderful change takes place every year.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                      MATERNAL CARE OF THE EARWIG.
+
+In ‘Insect Transformations,’ (p. 102,) it is mentioned that the
+distinguished Swedish naturalist, Baron De Geer, “discovered a female
+earwig in the beginning of April under some stones, brooding over a
+number of eggs, of whose safety she appeared to be not a little jealous.
+In order to study her proceedings the better, he placed her in a
+nurse-box, filled with fresh earth, and scattered the eggs in at random.
+She was not long, however, in collecting them with all care into one
+spot, carrying them one by one in her mandibles, and placing herself
+over them. She never left them for a moment, sitting as assiduously as a
+bird does while hatching. In about five or six weeks the grubs were
+hatched, and were then of a whitish colour.”
+
+These observations the author of ‘Insect Transformations’ has just had
+an opportunity of verifying and extending, and has communicated to us
+the following interesting facts:--
+
+“About the end of March, I found an earwig brooding over her eggs in a
+small cell scooped out in a garden border; and in order to observe her
+proceedings I removed the eggs into my study, placing them upon fresh
+earth under a bell glass. The careful mother soon scooped out a fresh
+cell, and collected the scattered eggs with great care to the little
+nest, placing herself over them, not so much, as it afterwards appeared,
+to keep them warm as to prevent too rapid evaporation of their moisture.
+When the earth began to dry up, she dug the cell gradually deeper, till
+at length she got almost out of view; and whenever the interior became
+too dry, she withdrew the eggs from the cell altogether, and placed them
+round the rim of the glass where some of the evaporated moisture had
+condensed. Upon observing this, I dropped some water into the abandoned
+cell, and the mother soon afterwards replaced her eggs there. When the
+water which had dropped had nearly evaporated, I moistened the outside
+of the earth opposite the bottom of the cell; and the mother perceiving
+this, actually dug a gallery right through to the spot where she found
+the best supply of moisture. Having neglected to moisten the earth for
+some days, it again became dry, and there was none even round the rim of
+the glass as before. Under these circumstances, the mother earwig found
+a little remaining moisture quite under the clod of earth upon the board
+of the mantel-piece, and thither she forthwith carried her eggs.
+
+“Her subsequent proceedings were not less interesting; for though I
+carefully moistened the earth every day, she regularly changed the
+situation of the eggs morning and evening, placing them in the original
+cell at night, and on the board under the clod during the day; as if she
+understood the evaporation to be so great when the sun was up that her
+eggs might be left too dry before night.
+
+“I regret to add, that during my absence the glass had been moved, and
+the mother escaped, having carried away all her eggs but one or two,
+which soon shrivelled up and will of course prove abortive.”
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                               THE WEEK.
+
+May 14.--This is the birth-day of GABRIEL DANIEL FAHRENHEIT, usually
+regarded as the inventor of the common mercurial thermometer, and
+certainly the first person by whom the instrument was accurately
+constructed. Fahrenheit was born at Dantzic, in 1686. His business was
+that of a merchant, but he was fond of spending his leisure in
+philosophical inquiries and experiments; and at last he settled at
+Amsterdam, and devoted himself almost entirely to the fabrication of the
+instrument which bears his name, and which still continues to be the
+thermometer principally used in Britain, North America, and Holland. He
+is supposed to have begun to make these thermometers about the year
+1720, and he died in 1736. It was Fahrenheit, also, who first noticed
+the fact that water boils at different degrees of temperature, according
+to the weight of the atmospheric column resting upon it--that it
+requires, for instance, less heat to make it boil on the summit than at
+the foot of a high mountain. We shall, in some future number, explain
+the construction and principle of the thermometer. In the mean time we
+extract from ‘the Companion to the Almanac’ for 1830, a comparison of
+the various scales of the thermometer which are in general use:--
+
+“A fertile cause of error in estimating and comparing the statements of
+temperature, is the very different manner in which they are recorded by
+scientific men of different nations. Wherever the English language
+prevails, the graduation of _Fahrenheit_ is generally preferred. By the
+German authors, Römer (Reaumur) is used; and the French have, within a
+few years, decided to adopt that of Celsius, a Swedish philosopher,
+calling it ‘_Thermomètre Centigrade_.’ To diminish this evil, in some
+degree, the annexed diagram has been constructed, which shows by
+inspection, the expression of any point of temperature in the degrees of
+either or of all the above-mentioned scales; and the comparison of any
+degree of one with the equivalent degrees of the others.”
+
+      [Illustration: A thermometer, with markings for the Reaumur,
+ Fahrenheit, and Celsius scales. The following temperatures are marked,
+ most with degrees Fahrenheit: Highest Temp. Sun’s rays at London, 134°;
+  Highest Temp. of the Air at ditto, 90°; Mean Temp. of ditto at ditto,
+    49 and a half°; Lowest Temp. of ditto at ditto, 11°; Ditto at the
+  Earth’s surface at ditto, 5°; Greatest cold observed in the shade in
+  England; Boiling point of water; Boiling point of alcohol, 174° (both
+ at 30 inches barometric pressure); melting points of beeswax (142°) and
+   tallow (127°); Fever heat as usually marked; Fever heat in general,
+ 107°; Blood heat; Summer heat; Temperate; Usual Temp. of Spring water,
+             50°; Water freezes; Strong wine freezes, 20°.]
+
+May 16.--On this day, in the year 1623, was born at Rumsey, in
+Hampshire, the celebrated Sir WILLIAM PETTY, a memorable and animating
+example of the elevation and distinction which real talent, accompanied
+by activity and perseverance, has always in this country been able to
+command for its possessor. Petty’s father was a clothier, and he appears
+to have given his son little to set out in life with but a good
+education. It is said that Petty, when quite a boy, took great delight
+in spending his time among smiths, carpenters, and other artificers, so
+that at twelve years old he knew how to work at their trades. He made so
+great progress at the grammar-school, that at fifteen he had made
+himself master of French, Latin, and Greek, and understood something of
+mathematics and physical science. On entering the world, he went to Caen
+in Normandy with a little stock of merchandize, which he there improved;
+and on his return to England, having obtained some employment connected
+with the navy, he managed to save about sixty pounds before he was
+twenty years of age; and with this sum he repaired to the Continent, to
+study medicine at the foreign universities. He accordingly attended the
+requisite classes successively at Leyden, Utrecht, and Paris; and in
+about three years came home well qualified to commence practising as a
+physician. Having taken up his residence in this capacity at Oxford, he
+soon acquired for himself a distinguished reputation, and, young as he
+was, was appointed assistant professor of anatomy in the University. He
+had already also become known in the scientific world by some mechanical
+inventions of considerable ingenuity; and he was one of the club of
+inquirers who, about the year 1649, began to assemble weekly at Oxford,
+for philosophical investigations and experiments, and out of whose
+meetings eventually arose the present Royal Society. Indeed, Dr. Wallis,
+one of the members, in a letter, in which he has given an account of the
+association, tells us that their meetings were first held “at Dr.
+Petty’s lodgings, in an apothecary’s house, because of the convenience
+of inspecting drugs, and the like, as there was occasion.” Petty’s
+reputation, however, rose so rapidly that, after having succeeded first
+to the professorship of anatomy in the University, and then to that of
+music in Gresham College, he was, in 1652, appointed physician to the
+forces in Ireland. This carried him over to that country--and eventually
+introduced him to a new career. In 1655 we find him appointed secretary
+to the Lord Lieutenant, and three years afterwards a member of the House
+of Commons. He was, however, soon after removed from his public
+employments by the Parliament which met after the death of the
+Protector. On the Restoration, which took place the following year, he
+was made a commissioner of the Court of Claims. The remainder of his
+life was as busy as the portion of it already passed had been; but we
+have no room to enumerate the books he wrote, the ingenious schemes and
+inventions with which his mind was constantly teeming, and the lucrative
+speculations in mining, the manufacture of iron, and various other great
+undertakings, in which he engaged. Suffice it to say, that, after
+accumulating a large property, he died in London, on the 16th of
+December, 1687, full of honours, if not of years. The first Marquis of
+Lansdowne (the father of the present Marquis) was the great-grandson of
+Sir William Petty.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                         THE VALUE OF A PENNY.
+
+It is an old saying, that “a pin a day is a groat a year,” by which
+homely expression some wise man has intended to teach thoughtless people
+the value of small savings. We shall endeavour to show the value of a
+somewhat higher article, though a much despised one,--we mean a penny.
+
+Pennies, like minutes, are often thrown away because people do not know
+what to do with them. Those who are economists of time, and all the
+great men on record have been so, take care of the minutes, for they
+know that a few minutes well applied each day will make hours in the
+course of a week, and days in the course of a year; and in the course of
+a long life they will make enough of time, if well employed, in which a
+man may by perseverance have accomplished some work, useful to his
+fellow-creatures, and honourable to himself.
+
+Large fortunes, when gained honestly, are rarely acquired in any other
+way than by small savings at first; and savings can only be made by
+habits of industry and temperance. A saving man, therefore, while he is
+adding to the general stock of wealth, is setting an example of those
+virtues on which the very existence and happiness of society depend.
+There are saving people who are misers, and have no one good quality for
+which we can like them. These are not the kind of people of whom we are
+speaking; but we may remark that a miser, though a disagreeable fellow
+while alive, is a very useful person when dead. He has been compared to
+a tree, which, while it is growing, can be applied to no use, but at
+last furnishes timber for houses and domestic utensils. But a miser is
+infinitely more useful than a spendthrift, a mere consumer and waster,
+who, after he has spent all his own money, tries to spend that of other
+people.
+
+Suppose a young man, just beginning to work for himself, could save one
+penny a day; and we believe there are few unmarried young workmen who
+could not do this. At the end of a year he would have 1_l._ 10_s._
+5_d._, which he could safely deposit in a savings’ bank, where it would
+lie safely, with some small addition for interest, till he might want
+it. After five years’ savings, at the rate of a penny a day, he would
+have between 8 and 9_l._, which it is very possible he might find some
+opportunity of laying out to such advantage as to establish the
+foundation of his future fortune. Who has not had the opportunity of
+feeling some time in his life how advantageously he could have laid out
+such a sum of money, and how readily such a sum might have been saved by
+keeping all the pennies and sixpences that had been thrown away? Such a
+sum as 8 or 9_l._ would enable a man to emigrate to Canada, where he
+might, by persevering industry, acquire enough to purchase a piece of
+land; and, if blessed with moderate length of life, he might be the
+happy cultivator of his own estate.
+
+Eight pounds would enable a mechanic, who had acquired a good character
+for sobriety and skill, to furnish himself on credit with goods and
+tools to five or six times the amount of his capital; and this might
+form the foundation of his future fortune.
+
+It often happens that a clever and industrious man may have the
+opportunity of bettering his condition by removing to another place, or
+accepting some situation of trust; but the want of a little money to
+carry him from one place to another, the want of a better suit of
+clothes, or some difficulty of that kind, often stands in the way. Eight
+pounds would conquer all these obstacles.
+
+It may be said that five years is too long a time to look forward to. We
+think not. This country is full of examples of men who have risen from
+beginnings hardly more than the savings of a penny, through a long
+course of persevering industry, to wealth and respectability. And we
+believe there is hardly a condition, however low, from which a young man
+of good principles and unceasing industry may not elevate himself.
+
+But suppose the penny only saved during one year: at the end of it the
+young man finds he has got 1_l._ 10_s._ 5_d._ Will he squander this at
+the ale-house, or in idle dissipation, after having had the virtue to
+resist temptation all through the year? We think not. This 1_l._ 10_s._
+5_d._ may perform a number of useful offices. It may purchase some
+necessary implement, some good substantial article of dress, some useful
+books, or, if well laid out, some useful instruction in the branch of
+industry which is his calling. It may relieve him in sickness, it may
+contribute to the comfort of an aged father, it may assist the young man
+in paying back some part of that boundless debt which he owes to the
+care and tender anxiety of a mother, who has lived long enough to feel
+the want of a son’s solicitude. Finally, however disposed of at the end
+of the year, if well disposed of, the penny saved will be a source of
+genuine satisfaction. The saving of it during the year has been a daily
+repetition of a virtuous act, which near the end of the year we have
+little doubt will be confirmed into a virtuous habit.
+
+Suppose a dozen young men, who are fond of reading, were to contribute a
+penny a week to a common stock: at the end of the year they would have
+2_l._ 12_s._ This sum judiciously laid out, would purchase at least
+twelve volumes of really useful books, varying in price from three to
+four shillings, besides allowing some small sum for the person who took
+care of them and kept the accounts. Another year’s saving would add
+another twelve volumes; and in five years the library might contain
+sixty volumes, including a few useful books of reference, such as
+dictionaries, maps, &c.--an amount of books, if well chosen, quite as
+much as any one of them would be able to study well in his leisure
+hours.
+
+But suppose the number of contributors were doubled or trebled, the
+annual income would then amount to 5_l._ 4_s._, or 7_l._ 16_s._, for
+which sum they could certainly procure as many useful books as they
+could possibly want. There might be some difficulty in the choice of
+books, as it is not always easy to know what are good and what are bad.
+We propose to meet this difficulty by occasional notices of particular
+books under the head of ‘The Library.’ At present we will merely suggest
+what _classes_ of books might gradually find admission into such a
+library. There are now good practical and cheap treatises on the
+principles of many of the branches of industry which are followed by
+mechanics--such as books on the elements of geometry and measuring of
+surfaces and solids; on arithmetic; on chemistry, and its application to
+the useful arts, &c.; lives of persons distinguished for industry and
+knowledge; descriptions of foreign countries, compiled from the best
+travels; maps on a pretty large scale, both of the heaven and of
+different parts of the earth: such books as these, with an English
+dictionary, a gazetteer, and some periodical work, would form a useful
+library, such as in a few years might be got together.
+
+It would be impossible to enumerate all the good things that a penny
+will purchase; and as to all the bad things, they are not worth
+enumerating. But there is one which we cannot omit mentioning. A penny
+will buy a penny-worth of gin, and a man may spend it daily without
+thinking himself the worse for it. But as every penny saved tends to
+give a man the habit of saving pennies, so every penny spent in gin,
+tends to cause him to spend more. Thus the saver of the penny may at the
+end of the year be a healthy reputable person, and confirmed economist,
+with 1_l._ 10_s._ 5_d._ in his pocket: the spender may be an unhealthy,
+ill-looking, worthless fellow; a confirmed gin-drinker, with nothing in
+his pocket except unpaid bills.
+
+We wish it were in our power to impress strongly on the working people
+of this kingdom, how much happiness they may have at their command by
+small savings. They are by far the most numerous part of the community;
+and it is by their condition that the real prosperity of the country
+should be estimated; not by the few who live in affluence and splendour.
+Hard as the condition of the working classes often is, are they not yet
+aware that by industry, frugality, and a judicious combination of their
+small resources, they can do more to make themselves happy, than anybody
+else can do for them?
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                               MIRABEAU.
+
+M. Dumont, of Geneva, a distinguished writer on jurisprudence, who died
+about two years ago, has left behind him a most interesting work,
+entitled ‘Recollections of Mirabeau, and of the two first Legislative
+Assemblies.’ This work has been received throughout Europe as one of
+great merit and importance, and deservedly so; for it contains, in a
+brief space, the best account we have read of the most extraordinary
+part of the life of one of the most extraordinary men of modern times;
+and with it, the first impulses and movement of the French Revolution.
+
+This most extraordinary man, whose character is still a problem to most
+of those who knew him, was Honoré Gabriel Riquetti de Mirabeau, who
+ruled the National Assembly, who directed the political opinions of
+twenty-five millions of men for two years together, and who was, for
+that period, what has been cleverly termed “the intellectual Dictator of
+France.” This champion for the people was born a noble; his father was
+the Marquis de Mirabeau, of whose ancestors we know nothing; but, on his
+mother’s side, he could boast a descent of which even those who dislike
+or care not for aristocracy, might be proud; for she was grand-daughter
+of Riquet, constructor of the famous canal of Languedoc. Mirabeau was
+ugly in face almost to hideousness; and he was perfectly conscious of
+this; for, in writing to a lady who had never seen him, he told her to
+fancy the face of a tiger that had been marked with the smallpox, and
+then she would have an idea of his countenance; and at a later period,
+when his voice and gesture and appearance struck the National Assembly
+with awe, he was accustomed to say, if any of its members had shown
+refractoriness during his absence, “I will go down to the House and show
+them my wild boar’s head[1], and that will silence them!”
+
+All the circumstances of the times were favourable to his ambition and
+his wonderful talents and energy; but perhaps no man ever begun public
+life with more disadvantages, as regarded his own character, against
+him. He had been seventeen times in prison; he had deserted his own, and
+run away with other men’s wives; he had had the most scandalous lawsuits
+with his own family; had been condemned as a criminal; exiled; executed
+in effigy; he had written and published one of the most depraved of
+books; had led the most dissipated and obscene of lives; and was known
+to be a dangerous enemy to those he hated, and an unsure friend to those
+he pretended to love. The morals of the French capital had been reduced
+in the days of despotism to a degraded standard; but, according to
+Dumont, when the name of Mirabeau was first read in the National
+Assembly among those elected to represent the French nation, it was
+hissed and hooted by all present.
+
+In spite, however, of all this, in a few weeks he was everything with
+those men who had considered themselves disgraced by being associated
+with him; and gathering influence and power by bounds, and not by slow
+steps, he became almost the absolute master of the National Assembly,
+the mass of whose members he moved and controlled with as much facility
+as the Italian showman moves his wooden puppets. His talents and energy
+were indeed, as we have characterized them--_wonderful_, and so was his
+eloquence; but these qualities would not of themselves have given him
+the supremacy he obtained. There were two other advantages in his
+favour: the first of which we have never heard sufficient importance
+given to--the second of which M. Dumont alone has clearly, and, it
+appears to us, honestly, stated.
+
+During his long imprisonments, Mirabeau had profoundly studied the
+science of politics; and during his exile in foreign countries, and
+particularly in England, he had attentively investigated the practical
+part of government: he was the only man that entered the National
+Assembly well acquainted with the necessary forms and true spirit of a
+representative government; all the rest had to learn their rudiments.
+There was talent--there was even genius in abundance--but all these new
+legislators were theorists; Mirabeau was the only practical man.
+
+In the second place, he had a wonderful art (which he had also acquired
+during his misfortunes, when his poverty obliged him to write and
+compile books and pamphlets for his living) of readily availing himself
+of the assistance of other men, and of working up their materials so as
+to make them appear his own. The whole matter of many of Mirabeau’s most
+admired speeches was furnished by M. Dumont himself, or by another
+citizen of Geneva, M. Duroverai; and, generally, he laid under
+contribution the information and experience of all his associates. When
+he was deficient on any point, or, what was more frequently the case,
+pressed for time, he would assemble these gentlemen, and from their
+conversation, their notes, or digested essays, get up all he wanted, and
+proceed forthwith to astonish the Assembly with his wonderful fund of
+knowledge and flashes of eloquence. But that eloquence, it must be said,
+did really make the matter his own; his powers of adaptation were as
+great as those of invention in other men.
+
+Mirabeau’s hatred to the ancient despotism was implacable; but he seems
+to have had no objection to a constitutional monarchy. Great obscurity
+still hangs over these matters; but it is said that, seeing the
+democratic principle was gaining too much strength, and the revolution
+going too far, he had undertaken to stop its march, and that the
+negotiations with the Court of the unfortunate Louis XVI., which were
+notorious, had for their object the prevention of a republic, and the
+establishment of a limited monarchy. His will had hitherto been law; he
+had ruled and played with all parties and factions--but whether he could
+now have succeeded to the utmost of his wish--whether he could now have
+quieted the storm _he_ had mainly raised, and on which he had floated,
+we cannot determine; for at the very crisis, at the time when he was
+supposed to hold the destinies of his country in his hands, he died in
+the forty-second year of his age, after a most agonizing illness of five
+days, brought on by his detestable excesses.
+
+His funeral was “rather an apotheosis than a human entombment.” Nearly
+all Paris followed his body to the church of Sainte Geneviève,
+thenceforward entitled the Pantheon; the melancholy music, the thousand
+torches, and the intermittent cannon, producing an effect which has been
+forcibly described by many eye-witnesses; and those who had feared and
+hated him, those who had been literally enchanted by his eloquence and
+genius, saw the grave closed over Mirabeau with awe and feelings that
+never can be described.
+
+The career of Mirabeau offers a few consolatory remarks to those who are
+gifted with no extraordinary faculties, either for good or for evil.
+Mirabeau swayed the destinies of millions,--but he was never
+happy;--Mirabeau had almost reached the pinnacle of human power, and yet
+he fell a victim to the same evil passions which degrade and ruin the
+lowest of mankind. He could never be really great, because he was never
+freed from the bondage of his own evil desires. The man who steadily
+pursues a consistent course of duty, which has for its object to do good
+to himself and to all around him, will be followed to the grave by a few
+humble and sincere mourners, and no record will remain, except in the
+hearts of those who loved him, to tell of his earthly career. But that
+man may gladly leave to such as Mirabeau the music, the torches, and the
+cannon, by which a nation proclaimed its loss; for assuredly he has felt
+that inward consolation, and that sustaining hope throughout his life,
+which only the good can feel;--he has fully enjoyed, in all its purity,
+the holy influence of “the peace of God, which passeth all
+understanding.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1:
+
+  In French, la hure.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                              THE MAY-FLY.
+
+“The angler’s May-fly, the most short-lived in its perfect state of any
+of the insect race, emerges from the water, where it passes its
+_aurelia_ state, about six in the evening, and dies about eleven at
+night.”--_White’s Selborne._
+
+            The sun of the eve was warm and bright
+              When the May-fly burst his shell,
+            And he wanton’d awhile in that fair light
+              O’er the river’s gentle swell;
+            And the deepening tints of the crimson sky
+            Still gleam’d on the wing of the glad May-fly.
+
+            The colours of sunset pass’d away,
+              The crimson and yellow green,
+            And the evening-star’s first twinkling ray
+              In the waveless stream was seen;
+            Till the deep repose of the stillest night
+            Was hushing about his giddy flight.
+
+            The noon of the night is nearly come--
+              There’s a crescent in the sky;--
+            The silence still hears the myriad hum
+              Of the insect revelry.
+            The hum has ceas’d--the quiet wave
+              Is now the sportive May-fly’s grave.
+
+            Oh! thine was a blessed lot--to spring
+              In thy lustihood to air,
+            And sail about, on untiring wing,
+              Through a world most rich and fair,
+            To drop at once in thy watery bed,
+            Like a leaf that the willow branch has shed.
+
+            And who shall say that his thread of years
+              Is a life more blest than thine!
+            Has his feverish dream of doubts and fears
+              Such joys as those which shine
+            In the constant pleasures of thy way,
+            Most happy child of the happy May?
+
+            For thou wert born when the earth was clad
+              With her robe of buds and flowers,
+            And didst float about with a soul as glad
+              As a bird in the sunny showers;
+            And the hour of thy death had a sweet repose,
+            Like a melody, sweetest at its close.
+
+            Nor too brief the date of thy cheerful race--
+              ’Tis its use that measures time--
+            And the mighty Spirit that fills all space
+              With His life and His will sublime,
+            May see that the May-fly and the Man
+            Each flutter out the same small span.
+
+            And the fly that is born with the sinking sun,
+              To die ere the midnight hour,
+            May have deeper joy, ere his course be run,
+              Than man in his pride and power;
+            And the insect’s minutes be spared the fears
+            And the anxious doubts of our three-score years.
+
+            The years and the minutes are as one--
+              The fly drops in his twilight mirth,
+            And the man, when his long day’s work is done,
+              Crawls to the self-same earth.
+            Great Father of each! may our mortal day
+            Be the prelude to an endless May!
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+                      HIGH DUTIES AND LOW DUTIES.
+
+It is a well-known principle, that in taxation two and two do not make
+four--that is, if a government receive one sum from a low or a moderate
+duty upon an article of common use, that receipt will not be doubled by
+doubling the duty. In some cases it will be even lessened. This result
+is produced by the diminished consumption, arising out of the higher
+price to the consumer; which higher price includes the additional profit
+which the manufacturer and the retailer must charge for the additional
+capital employed upon the article in consequence of the tax. Suppose a
+tax of a penny were put upon the ‘Penny Magazine.’ Let us see, in that
+case, how the tax would affect the consumption, and what the government
+would gain by the tax. In the first place the tax would raise the price
+of the Magazine to _three_-pence; for, as the retailer receives
+one-third of the present price, he would also require to receive
+one-third of the additional price:--the stamp of a penny would therefore
+immediately become three half-pence to the consumer, by the profit of
+the retailer alone. The remaining half-penny would be necessary to
+compensate the publisher for this additional advance of capital, and for
+the diminished return upon the original outlay for authors, artists, and
+that branch of the printing process which is called composition. There
+are certain expenses which are the same whether a work sells one hundred
+copies, or one hundred thousand. The price being therefore raised to
+three-pence, we may fairly conclude that the consumption would be
+diminished nine-tenths--that ten thousand copies would be sold instead
+of a hundred thousand. Let us see how the revenue would be affected by
+these altered circumstances:--
+
+ The paper for 100,000 copies of the Penny Magazine
+   weighs 3,400 lbs., upon which a duty is paid of 3d.         £. s. d.
+   per lb., amounting to                                       42 10 0
+
+ The imposition of a stamp of 1d. per copy would have
+   the effect of raising the retail price of the Penny
+   Magazine to 3d. At that rate it is presumed that
+   the sale of the _Three_-penny Magazine, instead of
+   being 100,000 copies, would be reduced to 10,000
+   at the utmost.
+
+ Upon 10,000 copies, with 1d. stamp, the revenue
+   would receive as under:               £. s. d.   £. s. d.   £. s. d.
+ Duty of 3d. in the lb. upon paper.                 4  5  0
+ Stamp of 1d. upon 10,000               41 13  0
+ Deduct discount of twenty per cent.
+   allowed upon news stamps              8  6  6
+                                        ________   33  6  6
+                                                   ________   37 11  6
+                                                              ________
+ _Weekly_ loss to the revenue from the high duty               4 18  6
+                                                              ________
+
+ Or, _Annual_ duty upon sixty-four impressions of 100,000
+   copies of the Penny Magazine, using 217,600 lbs. of
+   paper, taxed at 3d. per lb                              2,720  0  0
+ _Annual_ produce of a penny stamp, and paper duty upon
+   10,000 copies                                           2,404 16  0
+                                                           ___________
+ _Annual_ loss to the revenue from the high duty             315  4  0
+
+By this operation, therefore, the government would sustain that loss
+which invariably results from the diminished consumption of an article
+of general use upon which a high duty is imposed; and ninety thousand
+persons would be excluded from the purchase of a little work from which
+they derive instruction and amusement. By this diminished consumption of
+nine-tenths of the Penny Magazine, nearly nine-tenths of the
+paper-makers, printers, type-founders, ink-makers, bookbinders,
+carriers, and retailers, to whom the sale of a hundred thousand copies
+weekly affords profitable employment, would, as far as the Penny
+Magazine goes, be deprived of that employment; and that diminution of
+profitable employment would in a degree diminish their power of
+continuing consumers of other articles contributing to the revenue, and
+thus still more affect the amount of taxation dependent upon the Penny
+Magazine.
+
+
+                         ---------------------
+
+
+_Perseverance_.--“I recollect,” says Sir Jonah Barrington, “in Queen’s
+County, to have seen a Mr. Clerk, who had been a working carpenter, and
+when making a bench for the session justices at the Court-house, was
+laughed at for taking peculiar pains in planing and smoothing the seat
+of it. He smilingly observed, that he did so _to make it easy for
+himself_, as he was resolved he would never die till he had a right to
+sit thereupon, and he kept his word. He was an industrious man--honest,
+respectable, and kind-hearted. He succeeded in all his efforts to
+accumulate an independence; he did accumulate it, and uprightly. His
+character kept pace with the increase of his property, and he lived to
+sit as a magistrate on that very bench that he sawed and planed.”
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                LONDON:--CHARLES KNIGHT, PALL-MALL EAST.
+
+  _Shopkeepers and Hawkers may be supplied Wholesale by the following
+                            Booksellers:_--
+
+ _London_, GROOMBRIDGE, Panyer Alley, Paternoster Row.
+ _Birmingham_, DRAKE.
+ _Bristol_, WESTLEY and Co.
+ _Hull_, STEPHENSON.
+ _Leeds_, BAINES and Co.
+ _Liverpool_, WILLMER and SMITH.
+ _Manchester_, ROBINSON, and WEBB and SIMMS.
+ _Newcastle-upon-Tyne_, CHARNLEY.
+ _Nottingham_, WRIGHT.
+ _Dublin_, WAKEMAN.
+ _Edinburgh_, OLIVER and BOYD.
+ _Glasgow_, ATKINSON and Co.
+
+               Printed by WILLIAM CLOWES, Stamford Street.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+This file uses _underscores_ to indicate italic text. New original cover
+art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain. Itemized
+changes from the original text:
+
+ • p. 61: Added “a” to phrase “the value of a somewhat higher article.”
+ • p. 62: Changed “here” to “there” in phrase “And we believe there is
+   hardly a condition, however low, from which.”
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76752 ***