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diff --git a/76507-h/76507-h.htm b/76507-h/76507-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..13f1c85 --- /dev/null +++ b/76507-h/76507-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11634 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> +<meta charset="UTF-8"> +<title>The Exposition of 1851 | Project Gutenberg</title> +<link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> +<style> +body { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; position: relative;} +p {text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.4em; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;} +hr {margin: 1ex 37% 1ex 37%;} +h1 {page-break-before: always; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0} +h2 {padding-top: 6em; page-break-before: avoid; text-align: center; font-weight: normal; font-size: large;} +table {padding: 1ex;} +th {font-weight: normal; padding: 0; padding-left: 0.2em;} +td {padding: 0; } +.align_c { text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} +.title_size {font-size: x-large;} +.four_space { margin-top: 2em;} +.pagenum { position: absolute; right: -3.5em; font-size: small; text-indent: 0; text-align: right; border: 1px solid silver; margin-top: 0.3em; padding: 0 0.2em; color: silver;} +.x_small { font-size: x-small;} +.one_space { margin-top: 1.3ex; margin-bottom: 1.3ex;} +.break_before {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 6em;} +.x-ebookmaker .break_before {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 0;} +.emph { letter-spacing: 0.2em;} +.font2p { font-size: 2em; } +.small { font-size: small;} +.chapter { page-break-before: always;} +.smaller { font-size: smaller;} +.two_space { margin-top: 2em;} +.small-caps { font-variant: small-caps;} +.footnote { font-size: small; margin: 2ex 0;} +.center { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} +.fontp9 { font-size: 0.875em;} +.align_l { padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1.2em;} +.valign_t { vertical-align: top;} +.align_r { text-align: right; } +.valign_b { vertical-align: bottom;} +.avoid_break {page-break-inside: avoid;} +.pad_left { padding-left: 1.5em;} +.italic { font-style: italic;} +.block_align_l {text-align: left; display: inline-block;} +.noindent {text-indent: 0;} +.hang_indent {text-align: justify; padding-left: 2.5em; text-indent: -1.2em;} +.justify { text-align: justify; } +.bot_line { border-bottom: 1px solid black;} +.margtb { margin: 1em 0;} +.image-center { text-align: center; margin: 1em 0;} +.image_a { width: 6em;} +.pad_lx { padding-left: 3em;} +.space_after { margin-bottom: 1.3ex;} +.valign_m { vertical-align: middle;} +.pad_lr { padding: 0 1em;} +.large { font-size: large;} +.sig { text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} +.right { margin-left: auto;} +.indent_a { text-indent: 7em;} +.right2 { text-align: right; margin-right: 6em;} +.indent_b { text-indent: 4em;} +.indent_large { text-indent: 8em;} +.right3 { text-align: right; margin-right: 10em;} +.box {page-break-before: always; margin: 4em 1em 1em 1em; border: 2px solid grey; padding: 1em;} +h2 {font-size: 1em; line-height: 2;} +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76507 ***</div> +<p class="align_c title_size four_space"> +THE EXPOSITION<br> +<span class='x_small'>OF</span><br> +1851. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c x_small one_space"> +LONDON:<br> +<span class='x_small'>R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL.</span> +</p> +<hr> +<h1 class="align_c break_before"> +<span class='font2p'><span class='emph'>THE EXPOSITIO</span>N</span><br> +<span class='x_small'>OF</span><br> +<span class='font2p'><span class='emph'>1851</span>;</span> +</h1> +<p class="align_c x_small one_space"> +OR, +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +VIEWS OF THE INDUSTRY,<br> +THE SCIENCE, AND THE GOVERNMENT,<br> +OF ENGLAND. +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +<span class='x_small'>BY</span><br> +CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ.<br> +<span class='x_small'>CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL SCIENCES OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.</span> +</p> +<p class="align_c small four_space"> +SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS. +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +LONDON:<br> +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.<br> +1851. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><h2 id='tg_pref'><span class='emph'>PREFAC</span>E<br> +<span class='smaller'>TO THE FIRST EDITION.</span> +</h2></div> +<hr> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">England</span> has invited the civilized world to meet +in its great commercial centre; asking it, in friendly +rivalry, to display for the common advantage of all, +those objects which each country derives from the +gifts of nature, and on which it confers additional +utility by processes of industrial art.</p> +<p> +This invitation, universally accepted, will bring +from every quarter a multitude of people greater +than has yet assembled in any western city: these +welcome visitors will enjoy more time and opportunity +for observation than has ever been afforded +on any previous occasion. The statesman and the +philosopher, the manufacturer and the merchant, +and all enlightened observers of human nature, +may avail themselves of the opportunity afforded +by their visit to this Diorama of the Peaceful Arts, +<span id='page-vi' class='pagenum'>vi</span>for taking a more correct view of the industry, +the science, the institutions, and the government of +this country. One object of these pages is, to suggest +to such inquirers the agency of those deeper-seated +and less obvious causes which can be detected +only by lengthened observation, and to supply them +with a key to explain many of the otherwise incomprehensible +characteristics of England. +</p> +<p> +Who, for instance, could have conceived that +England, after making unexampled efforts for the +adoption of “<i>Free Trade</i>,” should be the first +nation to prohibit[<a href='#fn_1' id='fnb_1'>1</a>] its very basis, “<i>competition</i>,” +at the world’s great bazaar? +</p> +<p> +This country is fortunate in having on the Western +Continent, a great nation derived from the same +common stock, speaking the same language, sharing +the same feelings, but fortunately not partaking +the same <i>prejudices</i>. Proud of the only ancestry +which is not contemptible, it glories in the genius +and the virtues of our common forefathers, and in +its young ambition now strives in science and in +literature, to prove itself <i>their</i> worthy descendants⁠—<i>our +own</i> generous rivals. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-vii' class='pagenum'>vii</span>Separated from us by an intervening ocean, the +judgment of America is not obscured by the repulsion +or the fascination of personal manners,⁠—by the +tales of jealous rivals or enthusiastic friends. It can +thus, as it were, anticipate for us the decision of posterity +upon the reputation of those English writers +who have never visited her shores. Many foreigners +speaking other tongues, whose researches in industrial, +economical, and physical science, have conferred +honour on their own country, now visit +ours. These and their congenial spirits throughout +the world, sit in judgment on the <i>prejudices</i> of +England, and will, if I mistake not, find ample +reason to agree with the Danish statesman in the +opinion,⁠—that great nations are often governed by +very small people. +</p> +<p> +England has invited the judgment of the world +upon its <i>Arts</i> and its <i>Industry</i>;⁠—science appeals +to the same tribunal against its <i>ingratitude</i> and its +<i>injustice</i>. +</p> +<p> +Several friends whose esteem I prize, have urged +me to avoid everything personal,⁠—some even to +suppress this volume. I value their friendship, +whilst I reject their counsel. In illustrating the +<span id='page-viii' class='pagenum'>viii</span>position of science in this country, it would have +been affectation not to have mentioned the Calculating +Engines. Who else <i>could</i> have fully known,⁠—who +else <i>would</i> have fully told their history? +</p> +<p> +It has been suggested to me that, to select +<i>individual</i> examples for illustration, is personality. +To have made general charges without them, +would have been termed <i>vague</i>, and would certainly +have been <i>useless</i>. It still however appears to me +that a <i>single</i> illustration in each case, would cause the +least pain, and might yet be sufficient for the purpose. +If it is thought otherwise the remedy is easy. +</p> +<p> +The facts stated in the following pages are not +drawn from any violation of the confidences of +private society: those whose names are mentioned, +are paid by the nation, and therefore responsible to +their employers. Against them I have no personal +feeling; their official acts are necessarily mentioned +as parts of the system to which they belong. +</p> +<p> +The remark most frequently made has been, “that +the publication of this volume will do me injury.” +This opinion is indeed a severer censure on the +conduct of the government than any I have myself +pronounced. I do not agree in it, for I know of +<span id='page-ix' class='pagenum'>ix</span>no injury within the power of those who have never +given me a single occasion for gratitude. +</p> +<p> +Bad men always hate those they have injured;⁠—Good +or great men, when they have discovered that +they have been unjust, always more than repair +the injury they have committed. +</p> +<p> +Those who, from an acquaintance with the case, +can truly interpret this volume, will <i>know</i> that I +have abstained; they will <i>see</i> that I possess the +power, though not the disposition, to avenge injury. +But the same spirit which has carried me through +difficulties few have encountered, at the expense of +sacrifices which I hope fewer may ever be called +upon to make, forbids me tamely to submit to +injustice. +</p> +<p> +The reader of these pages will observe that I +have exposed with an unsparing pen the dishonesty +of party. The modes employed by it to “discredit” +and intimidate an honest man are various. +</p> +<p> +If he agree with them in a principle, but differ +in its application, he is called “<i>crotchety</i>.” If he +cannot be induced by sophistry to vote with them +against his sense of right, he is called “<i>impracticable</i>.” +If, when passed over in the appointment +<span id='page-x' class='pagenum'>x</span>to some office for which he is qualified by knowledge +and entitled by position, he complain of the +neglect; notwithstanding he continues to vote with +his party, he is called a “<i>disappointed man</i>.” If, +however, he has energy, and is backed by great +political or professional interest, he may then secure +a <i>present</i> peerage for himself, his wife, or his +relative, with a promise of better treatment when +anything desirable becomes vacant. +</p> +<p> +At last, having discovered that his party are sincere +and united only in their desire to retain office; +if his arguments admit of no refutation,⁠—if his +perception of right can be obscured by no sophistry,⁠—if +he can himself be cajoled by no flattery, +seduced by no advantage, deterred by no intimidation, +from expressing his real opinion upon the +merits of his party: then, although he may support +them whenever they are true to their principles, +yet he is pronounced a “<i>cantankerous +fellow</i>.” Thus bad names are coined by worse[<a href='#fn_2' id='fnb_2'>2</a>] +men to destroy honest people; as the madness of +innocent dogs arises from the cry of insanity raised +by their villanous pursuers. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-xi' class='pagenum'>xi</span>The merit of the original conception of the +present Exposition is insignificant in comparison +with that of the efforts by which it was carried out, +and with the importance of its practical results. +</p> +<p> +To have seen from afar its effects on the improvement, +the wealth, and the happiness of the people⁠—to +have seized the fit moment, when, by the right +use of the influence of an exalted station, it was +<i>possible</i> to overcome the deeply-rooted prejudices of +the upper classes⁠—to remove the still more formidable, +because latent, impediments of party⁠—generously +to have undertaken great responsibility, and +with indefatigable labour to have endeavoured to +make the best out of the only materials at hand,⁠—these +are endowments of no ordinary kind. +</p> +<p> +To move in any rank of society an exception to +its general rules, is a very difficult, and if accompanied +by the consciousness of the situation, a very +painful position to a reflecting mind. +</p> +<p> +Whatever may be the cause, whether exalted +rank, unbounded wealth, surpassing beauty, or unrivalled +wit,⁠—the renown of daring deeds, the +magic of a world-wide fame; to all within those +narrow limits the dangers and the penalties are +<span id='page-xii' class='pagenum'>xii</span>great. Each exists an isolated spirit; each, unconsciously +imprisoned within its crystal globe, perceives +the colours of all external objects modified +by those tints imparted to them by its own surrounding +sphere. No change of view can teach +it to rectify this partial judgment; throughout its +earthward course the same undying rainbow +attends to the last its parent drop. +</p> +<p> +Rarely indeed can some deep-searching mind, +after long comparison, perceive the real colours of +those translucent shells which encompass kindred +spirits; and thus at length enable him to achromatise +the medium which surrounds his own. To +one who has thus rectified the “colour-blindness” +of his intellectual vision, how deep the sympathy he +feels for those still involved in that hopeless obscurity +from which he has himself escaped. None +can so justly appreciate that sense of loneliness, +that solitude of mind, which surrounds unquestioned +eminence on its lofty throne;⁠—none, therefore, can +make so large an allowance for its errors;⁠—none +so skilfully assist in guiding its hazardous career. +</p> +<p> +The triumph of the industrial arts will advance +the cause of civilization more rapidly than its +<span id='page-xiii' class='pagenum'>xiii</span>warmest advocates could have hoped, and contribute +to the permanent prosperity and strength of +the country, far more than the most splendid victories +of successful war. The influences thus +engendered, the arts thus developed, will long +continue to shed their beneficent effects over +countries more extensive than those which the +sceptre of England rules. +</p> +<hr> +<p> +P.S.⁠—The greater part of this Work was in +type some time previous to the opening of the +Exposition:⁠—it would be of no interest to the +public to explain the cause of this delay. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +NOTE ADDED TO THE SECOND EDITION. +</p> +<p class='one_space'> +<span class="small-caps">It</span> has been suggested to me that, without some +explanation, the Author of this Volume might +appear to have reserved his opinions on the subject +of the Exposition, until it was too late for the +Commission to make use of them. This was not +the case.</p> +<p> +<span id='page-xiv' class='pagenum'>xiv</span>Being fully aware of the importance of such +exhibitions, and having myself, many years before, +endeavoured to connect them with the British +Association, I hailed the announcement of the plan +as one calculated to produce the most extensive +good. At that period I was in Paris, and both +abroad and at home I have uniformly spoken of +the Exposition with the highest approbation. +</p> +<p> +On one or two points I differed entirely from +the opinion of those to whom its management was +confided. The questions of the <i>site of the building</i>, +and of <i>affixing prices to articles exhibited</i>, were the +most important of them. I took the earliest opportunity +of expressing strongly my views on those +subjects to several personal friends who were +members of that Commission, nor did I ever fail to +communicate through the fittest channel any +circumstance I became acquainted with which might +advance its interests. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_1'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_1'>1</a>] See Chapter on Prices. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_2'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_2'>2</a>] “A bad old woman making a worse will.”⁠—<span class="small-caps">Byron.</span> +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><h2 id='tg_contents'> +<span class='emph'>CONTENT</span>S. +</h2></div> +<hr> +<table class='center fontp9'> +<tr class="small"> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">PAGE</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_1'>CHAPTER I.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Introduction</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_2'>CHAPTER II.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Error Respecting the Interchange of Commodities</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">7</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_3'>CHAPTER III.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Of Societies</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_4'>CHAPTER IV.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Origin of the Exposition of 1851</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">26</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_5'>CHAPTER V.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Object and Use of the Exposition</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">42</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_6'>CHAPTER VI.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Limits</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">48</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_7'>CHAPTER VII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Site and Construction of Building</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">55</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_8'>CHAPTER VIII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Prices</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_9'>CHAPTER IX.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Prizes</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">99</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_10'>CHAPTER X.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Juries, etc.</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">112</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_11'>CHAPTER XI.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Ulterior Objects</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">125</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_12'>CHAPTER XII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Intrigues of Science</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">149</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_13'>CHAPTER XIII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Calculating Engines</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">173</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_14'>CHAPTER XIV.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Position of Science</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">189</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_15'>CHAPTER XV.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">The Press</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">202</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_16'>CHAPTER XVI.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Party</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">209</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_17'>CHAPTER XVII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Rewards of Merit</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">220</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_app'>APPENDIX.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">The Eleventh Chapter of Mr. Weld’s History of the Royal Society</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">251</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="chapter"><h2 id='tg_1'>CHAPTER I.<br> +<span class='smaller'>INTRODUCTION.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">One</span> of the most frequent sources of mistaken +views in economical science, arises from confounding +the nature of <i>universal</i> with that of <i>general +principles</i>.</p> +<p> +§ <i>Universal principles</i>, such as the fact that +every number ending with the figure five is itself +divisible by five, rarely occur except in the exact +sciences. Universal principles are those which do +not admit of a single exception. +</p> +<p> +<i>General principles</i> are those which are much +more frequently obeyed than violated. Thus it is +generally true that <i>men will be governed by what +they believe to be their interest</i>. Yet it is certainly +true that many individuals will at times be governed +by their passions, others by their caprice, others by +entirely benevolent motives: but all these classes +together, form so small a portion of mankind, that +it would be unsafe in any inquiry to neglect the +<span id='page-2' class='pagenum'>2</span>great principle of self-interest. Notwithstanding, +however, all the exceptions we may meet with, it +is impossible to take any just views of society +without the admission of general principles, and on +such grounds they will be used in these pages. +</p> +<p> +Self-interest, combined in various degrees with +knowledge, assumes the most diversified forms. It +excites our contempt or raises our admiration, +according to the littleness or the greatness of the +object it pursues⁠—according to the temporary or the +more distant advantages it seeks. On the one hand, +it governs the minister of a party on his doubtful +eminence, whilst on the other it guides the enlightened +statesman to the object of his distant ambition. +</p> +<p> +§ Again, it is admitted as a general principle that +<i>each man is the best judge of his own wants and of +his own interest</i>. Now although many individuals, +and even whole classes of society, have at times +been thought by more enlightened men to have +formed erroneous opinions as to their true interest, +yet, when it is remembered, that every man must +see many views of his own case, and must know +many facts connected with it, which he has not +communicated even to his most confidential adviser, +those who have had most experience are most inclined +to believe that the exceptions are much less +frequent than at first sight would appear. +</p> +<p> +Another source of erroneous opinions arises from +neglecting causes apparently insignificant. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-3' class='pagenum'>3</span>In taking a comprehensive view of any subject, +it is very desirable to throw into the shade all its +minor points; but in estimating the consequences +of any set of facts, there is another condition which +must be fulfilled, before we can arrive at accurate +conclusions. If we are about to neglect a cause +on account of its apparent insignificance, it is <i>essential</i> +that it should not be one of <i>frequent</i> recurrence. +Thus, if a labourer inconsiderately lift his +shovel but an inch or two more than is necessary +to throw its load into his barrow, although the +exertion of force is trivial in each instance, its +repeated occurrence during the whole day, will +produce at its conclusion a very sensible difference +either in fatigue or in the amount of the work +done. Napoleon is said to have remarked of Laplace, +when he was Minister of the Interior, that +he was too much occupied with considering <i>les +infiniment petites</i>. To dwell upon small affairs +which are isolated, is not the province of a statesman; +but to integrate the effect of their constant +recurrence is worthy of the greatest. +</p> +<p> +One of the most important processes in all inquiry, +is to divide the subject to be considered +into as many different questions as it will admit +of, and then to examine each separately, or in other +words to suppose that each single cause successively +varies whilst all the others remain constant. +</p> +<p> +But this most obvious doctrine of common sense +<span id='page-4' class='pagenum'>4</span>has frequently been contested in questions of +economical science, and has been often characterized +as theoretical, and as entirely inapplicable to the +affairs of life. It is certain that very little progress +can be made in any subject without this aid, +and it is hopeless for those whose minds are +incapable of mastering the simpler questions, ever +to institute successfully an investigation into their +united action. +</p> +<p> +A familiar illustration will explain this better. +Two men are making an excavation, removing the +earth in the usual way with spades and wheelbarrows. +</p> +<p> +One of these men, Q., does more work than his +companion P., and if an inquiry is made, Why is +this so? the usual reply would be that Q. is either +stronger, more active, or more skilful than P. +</p> +<p> +Now it is the third of these qualifications which +is the most important, because if Q. were inferior +even both in strength and in activity, he might yet +by means of his skill perform a greater quantity +of work without fatigue. +</p> +<p> +He might have ascertained that a <i>given</i> weight of +earth raised at each shovelfull, together with a +certain number of shovelfulls per hour, would be +more advantageous for his strength than any other +such combination. +</p> +<p> +That a shovel of a certain weight, size, and form +would fatigue him less than those of a different +construction. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-5' class='pagenum'>5</span>That if its handle were two or three inches longer +than he required, its additional weight would at the +end of the day have been uselessly lifted many hundred +times. +</p> +<p> +That if each spadefull of earth were lifted but an +inch or two above the barrow beyond what was +necessary, a still greater waste of force would arise. +</p> +<p> +That if the barrow itself had its wheel at a distance +beyond the centre of its load, it would be +more fatiguing to draw. +</p> +<p> +That if the barrow had upright sides, it would +require more exertion to turn out its load than if +its sides were much inclined. +</p> +<p> +Thus although Q. might have less strength and +less activity than P., he might yet by skill and +practice, have arrived at some combination of these +tools which should enable him with less fatigue +to do more daily work than P. +</p> +<p> +But in order to have arrived at this degree of +skill, Q. must when a boy have been taught to +examine <i>separately</i> the consequences of any defect +or inconvenience in the parts of the tools he was +to use in after life, or in the modes of using them. +If not so taught, he must have arrived at the +same knowledge by the slower and more painful +effort of his own reflections. +</p> +<p> +In either case he would be able to communicate +his knowledge to his friends or his children; and if +circumstances induced or obliged him to enter upon +<span id='page-6' class='pagenum'>6</span>a new trade, he would naturally apply those principles +to his new tools. Indeed, whatever subject +might be presented to a mind thus trained, such +habits of inquiry would most probably be applied +to its examination. Thus, by the early education of +his reasoning faculties on the trade by which he is +to subsist, he would not only render his own labour +more productive, but would have his mind better +prepared for the reception of other truths. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-7' class='pagenum'>7</span><h2 id='tg_2'>CHAPTER II.<br> +<span class='smaller'>ERROR RESPECTING THE INTERCHANGE OF COMMODITIES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">There</span> exists in society a widely-spread error +relating to the very principle of that interchange +of property between individuals which is usually +called a bargain. It is almost always supposed +that one party is a gainer whilst the other is a loser. +Indeed, by those whose reasoning on the subject +has been limited to this single view of the question, +it is with some plausibility maintained, that since +the quantity of the commodities interchanged is in +no case augmented by the bargain, the gain of one +party can be accomplished only by an equal loss on +the part of the other.</p> +<p> +The insufficiency of this reasoning depends upon +the truth of the principle that each party, being the +best judge of the pleasure or advantage he can derive +from the possession of a thing, <i>himself</i> decides that +in his own case it will be increased by the exchange. +</p> +<p> +It may, however, be asked, How does it happen +<span id='page-8' class='pagenum'>8</span>that the sum of two commodities so exchanged has +a greater value after the exchange than before? or +in other words, Whence has the profit arisen?⁠—is +there any third party at whose expense it has been +acquired? The answer is⁠—that there is another +source which almost always either directly or indirectly +contributes towards this profit. The advantage +is most frequently won by industry and +knowledge from nature herself. +</p> +<p> +§ The following illustration, which happens also +to be a tolerable approach to truth, will explain +this principle more clearly:⁠— +</p> +<p> +It is found by experience that the upper-leather +of Boots made in France, is better and more +durable than the upper-leather manufactured in +England. On the other hand, it is found that the +leather prepared in England for the soles of boots +is less permeable by water, and more durable than +that made in France. +</p> +<p> +Let us suppose that in each country a pair of +boots will endure twelve months’ continual wear; +after which time they are thrown aside. +</p> +<p> +In England the destruction of the boots will +arise from that of the upper-leather, whilst in France +it will be caused by that of the sole. Let us also +suppose that the upper-leather of France will wear +three months longer than the French soles, and +reciprocally that the soles of England will wear three +months longer than the English upper-leather. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-9' class='pagenum'>9</span>Under these circumstances, it is clear that if the +inhabitants of each country insist on making their +boots <i>entirely</i> with the produce of <i>their own</i> tanneries, +the average duration of a pair of boots both +in France and in England will be twelve months. +</p> +<p> +Let us assume, for the sake of simplicity, that in +each country the upper-leather and the soles have +the same value. Then it is equally clear, if England +were to give to France a million pair of soles in +exchange for a million pair of French upper-leathers, +that one million of the inhabitants of each nation +would find their boots last during fifteen instead +of twelve months. +</p> +<p> +This prolonged duration of their boots would +not have been acquired by any sacrifice on either +side: the exchange is here for the common and +great advantage of both. +</p> +<p> +This probably arises from the joint action of many +causes. The animals which in each country supply +the hides, may either from breed, from food, or +from climate be best adapted to produce that kind +of leather in which each country excels. The +water, the bark, or the climate peculiar to each +country, may then contribute its share to the same +effect. Again, the industry, the skill, and the +knowledge of the people employed, as well as the +character of the population and the distribution of +its capital, may also have its influence on these +results. +</p> +<p> +If we pursue this illustration one stage further, +<span id='page-10' class='pagenum'>10</span>it will appear that it is our interest not only that +we should make these exchanges with France, but +that she should also make exchanges with other +countries than our own. +</p> +<p> +Let us suppose that France, having a larger +population than England, required for its annual +consumption two million pair of boots, and also +that she possessed no other commodities which we +required. Under these circumstances there could +be no further direct interchange of leather, and +France would possess a million pair of upper-leathers +beyond our demand. But it is clear that if France +could exchange these upper-leathers for the wools +or any other produce of Germany which we might +require, she would not only gain the additional +duration of three months for her own extra million +pair of boots, but would also enrich us by the +advantage which we should derive from the exchange +of the strong hides of England for the produce transmitted +to us from Germany. +</p> +<p> +§ The general result of all those inquiries of which +only the slightest sketch has now been attempted, is +that⁠—<i>the free and unlimited exchange of commodities +between nations, contributes to the advantage +and the wealth of all</i>;⁠—that this benefit arises from +no sacrifice on the part of one nation for the +profit of another; but that the sum of the productive +powers of man is by these means, without any +increased labour, largely augmented throughout the +world;⁠—that this increment is won partly by +<span id='page-11' class='pagenum'>11</span>the suppression of ignorance and fraud, and partly +by the united effects of industry, of skill, and of +science, in compelling nature to minister to the +wants of man. +</p> +<p> +All who admit the truth of these principles, must +feel an earnest desire to support every effort which +may assist in their dissemination amongst the +masses of mankind. Education is the earliest, and +the most effective aid; but it must be secular education. +It must be the education of the faculties of +each child, with reference to the wants of his future +course of life. The religion of the uneducated and +unenlightened man, even when true, partakes of the +nature of superstition, and instruction in religious +truth <i>alone</i> will not be enough: his mind must be +opened and informed on other subjects also. He +who by observation and inquiry has arrived at the +conviction that any line of conduct which is dishonest +towards his neighbour, will most probably +prove unprofitable to himself in this world, will +surely have a strong additional motive to guard +him in the hour of temptation from those courses +which his religion teaches him will incur punishment +in a future state. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-12' class='pagenum'>12</span><h2 id='tg_3'>CHAPTER III.<br> +<span class='smaller'>OF SOCIETIES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Associations</span> for occasional discussion, of men +pursuing the same or similar studies, have long +been found advantageous for the inter-communication +of the difficulties, the doubts, and the +discoveries of students. In more recent times, +when each art has gradually connected itself with +the sciences on which its success depends, the +importance of these meetings has become obvious +to the manufacturer, although in this country it +may not yet have become apparent to the statesman.</p> +<p> +The Academia del Cimento, the Royal Society of +London and the Academy of Sciences at Paris, have +had a long series of imitators in the principal cities +of the civilized world. The increasing extension of +science and the wants of its cultivators, have led +them to subdivide their pursuits and to form +Societies specially devoted to each separate subject. +</p> +<p> +§ These learned bodies, however, are of a stationary +character, located for convenience in some +<span id='page-13' class='pagenum'>13</span>capital or large city. With the advance of civilization +new wants arose, and Professor Oken of +Munich, feeling the great advantage of periodical +meetings of the cultivators of the natural sciences, +organized an annual assemblage of German naturalists +to be held successively in each of the great +cities of Germany, thus rendering the field of +friendly intercourse and of scientific observation +much more easily accessible to all who felt an interest +in their common object. +</p> +<p> +Although the earliest meetings were small,[<a href='#fn_3' id='fnb_3'>3</a>] +their value was soon perceived, and the cultivators +of other sciences more or less connected with +natural history, were gradually admitted, to the +manifest advantage of all parties, until at the great +meeting in 1828 at Berlin, the physical sciences +themselves possessed their fair share of eminent +representatives. But another important improvement +had already commenced: foreigners were +admitted to this German union, and amongst +upwards of four hundred members, although nearly +thirty were aliens in language and in country, they +were welcomed with the warmest kindness by their +enlightened friends. +</p> +<p> +Baron Alexander Humboldt, the President of +the Association, in his inaugural address proclaimed +its principle in the following words:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“May those excellent persons, who, deterred +<span id='page-14' class='pagenum'>14</span>neither by the perils of the sea nor of the land, +have hastened to our meeting from Sweden, +from Norway, from Denmark, from Holland, from +England, and from Poland, point out the way +to other strangers in succeeding years, so that +by turns every part of Germany may enjoy the +effects of scientific communication with the different +nations of Europe.” +</p> +<p> +At that meeting a map of Europe was published +on which were conspicuously indicated those towns +and countries only, which had sent representatives +to this congress of intellect. On that map Austria +figured an intellectual desert, not because her philosophers +were less industrious in the researches of +science, less acute in combining into laws the facts +they had ascertained, nor in any way unworthy of +sitting amongst the congregated talent of their own +or of other races: but because the government of +the country, more ignorant of its interest than the +philosophers were of theirs, refused them passports. +</p> +<p> +§ A few years afterwards, the light of truth +having penetrated official heads, the learned of +Europe, to the credit of the Austrian government, +were invited and hospitably entertained at Vienna. +The stability of the great empire which welcomed +them, was not shaken by their patient and acute +discussions: and it was at last perceived that unless +when depressed by neglect or persecution, philosophers +possess in their own departments subjects +<span id='page-15' class='pagenum'>15</span>of far more animating and delightful interest than +the unstable and inconclusive discussions of politics. +</p> +<p> +Sweden sent thirteen representatives to the meeting +at Berlin in 1828, Denmark seven, Poland +three, Holland two. Russia, France, England and +Naples each sent one. +</p> +<p> +§ An account of this scientific congress at Berlin +was published in 1829 in the <i>Edinburgh Journal of +Science</i>. It was communicated by the author of +these pages to Sir David Brewster. In the number +of the same Journal for April, 1831, is an account +by J. F. W. Johnstone, Esq., of the meeting of +this scientific Congress, at Hamburgh, in September, +1830. Sir David Brewster, in conjunction +with the late secretary of the Royal Society of +Edinburgh, Sir J. Robison, and the Rev. William +Vernon Harcourt, and several other cultivators of +science, resolved on attempting to organize a similar +institution in Great Britain. The difficulties as +well as the advantages of this undertaking were +then discussed. In Prussia the social position of +men of science is quite different from that which +they occupy in England. In Prussia the sovereign +was aware of the value of science to his country, +and was therefore induced to support it by an +enlightened patriotism as well as by a generous +ambition. In England science is pursued by no +powerful profession which can aid or thwart +the measures of the minister of the day. He is, +<span id='page-16' class='pagenum'>16</span>therefore, indifferent to its progress, and is usually +incapable of distinguishing the charlatan from the +philosopher. +</p> +<p> +§ In 1831 the first meeting of the British Association +for the Advancement of Science was held at +York. It was proposed by those who undertook its +management, that each succeeding meeting should +be held in some large city or town at a considerable +distance from that which received it in the previous +year, and that after its objects had become well +understood by the public, it should complete its +cycle by holding a meeting in the metropolis. But +it was soon felt that in order to influence public +opinion, it was necessary that it should combine +larger interests than were yet enlisted in its cause. +</p> +<p> +Such at that time was the state of education +in England, that amongst the influential classes, +country gentlemen, lawyers, members of parliament, +peers, &c., few were found qualified for, or +even capable of taking any interest in the then +<i>existing</i> Sections of the British Association. +</p> +<p> +Accident fortunately supplied an occasion for +remedying, at least partially, this defect. The +opportunity occurred at the meeting at Cambridge +in 1833, and was instantly seized upon, although +in a somewhat irregular manner. Professor Quetelet +had been deputed by the Belgian government to +attend the third meeting of the British Association. +The varied knowledge and enthusiastic love of +<span id='page-17' class='pagenum'>17</span>science possessed by M. Quetelet, might have qualified +him to take part in any of its sections, but it +so happened that he had brought over with him +some highly interesting statistical documents which +unfortunately could find a reception in none. +Under these circumstances, a gentleman[<a href='#fn_4' id='fnb_4'>4</a>] who fully +understood their value invited a few of his private +friends most interested in that subject to meet +M. Quetelet in his own rooms in college, for the +purpose of talking over this valuable budget. The +author of these pages was one of those thus +honoured. He perceived the advantage that might +be taken of the accident, and immediately suggested +to his friend that the invitation should be extended +to all those known to be interested in statistical +inquiries, and that those present should at once +form themselves into a Statistical Section, and then +apply to the council for a bill of indemnity for the +irregularity. The plan being unanimously approved +of, it was immediately acted upon, and before the +termination of the meeting a Statistical Section was +not only recognised by the Association, but was +as fully attended as even the most popular of the +other sections. +</p> +<p> +At the concluding meeting of the Statistical +Section at Cambridge it was resolved, that a more +permanent body was necessary to carry out the +<span id='page-18' class='pagenum'>18</span>views and wishes of the section, and it was agreed +to establish a Statistical Society in London. +The author of these pages was deputed to carry +out those arrangements which terminated in its +establishment. +</p> +<p> +The more pressing difficulty being thus removed, +the principle of extending the basis of the Association +so as to unite the interests of various classes, +was steadily and unremittingly pursued. The +Physical and Mathematical Section was divided, +and a new section, that of the practical application +of mechanical science, or Civil Engineering, was +formed. The next step was very important, but +more difficult to accomplish. It was proposed by +an exhibition of the raw produce, the processes, +and the instruments for the production of manufactured +goods, to unite in the same common +interest, not only all the consumers, but all those +who contributed to the production, or even to the +distribution of wealth. +</p> +<p> +The numerous foreigners who flocked to these +annual meetings of the British Association, might, +it was naturally thought, be induced to bring over +with them new instruments of science, or objects of +art and industry, the produce of their respective +countries. Whilst thus giving, and receiving in +return new ideas and valuable information, the +commercial interchanges between different nations +would necessarily be augmented by the steadily +<span id='page-19' class='pagenum'>19</span>increasing knowledge of the wants of each, and +by the peaceful rivalry of all. +</p> +<p> +The first exhibition of this kind took place at +Newcastle in 1838. The number of exhibitors +was not large, but it was hoped that with time and +encouragement this commencement might lead to +much more extensive expositions of more general +utility. It was followed by another on an enlarged +scale, held at Birmingham in the succeeding year, +after which it was discontinued. +</p> +<p> +The following extracts from a letter addressed +by the Author to the Members of the British Association, +were printed in 1839:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“My reasons for not resigning the trusteeship +of the British Association at Newcastle were, that +by retaining it until the following meeting, I +should give the Society more time to select my +successor; and that by remaining on the council +until the meeting at Birmingham, I might be +enabled to assist more effectually in the arrangement +of the collections relating to the mechanical +arts, which it was anticipated would be amongst +the largest yet called forth by the British +Association.” +</p> +<p> +“The real merits of the British Association +have been misunderstood by the superficial; but +it possesses in its bearings upon the pecuniary +interests of large masses of the community a +power and an influence which nothing but great +<span id='page-20' class='pagenum'>20</span>misconduct can destroy. Look at the manufacturers +of produce and of machinery, flocking +to our annual meeting to interchange their ideas, +enlightening their practical experience by the +reasonings of science, and returning laden with +the seeds of permanent ameliorations in their +establishments. Look at the exhibitions of the +productions of our factories, and say whether the +humblest shopkeeper has not an interest in the +existence of that body which gives publicity to +the objects in which he deals, and which spreads +them so largely before the eyes of those who can +appreciate their merit, as well as of those who +are likely to become consumers.” +</p> +<p> +“These are material interests permanently engaged +in our cause by the strongest ties⁠—those +of mutual advantage, cemented by reciprocity of +kindly feelings.” +</p> +<p> +§ This is not the place to discuss the causes +which have led to the present state of things. It +is sufficient here to observe, that if the views of +those who originally organized the British Association, +had been supported both from within and +from without, in the manner which so important a +project in the history of science deserved, the +Exhibition of 1851 would have found itself led +by the science of the country, prepared by long +experience on a smaller scale, yet under very various +circumstances, to guide with some reasonable prospect +<span id='page-21' class='pagenum'>21</span>of success that gigantic undertaking, and to +elicit from it the many invaluable services it might +be expected to render to civilization. +</p> +<p> +Its legislative department would not have been +committed to the guidance of a body of men, all +of them respectable, and some, indeed, eminent in +their several lines, but entirely inexperienced in the +conduct and arrangement of any such undertaking⁠—persons, +all of them amiable and excellent in +their private capacity, yet who have exhibited in +their corporate union an entire ignorance of the +great principle on which alone such expositions +rest,⁠—and who, contrary to the advice and the +remonstrance of the best informed, have forbidden +the most important quality by which men judge +of commodities, their <i>Price</i>, from being attached to +the objects on which their judgment is to be +pronounced. +</p> +<p> +§ Long, however, before the origin of these +itinerant societies, the voice of the statesmen of +other countries, and the popular voice in England, +had called into existence societies for the promotion +of the arts connected with commerce and manufactures. +In France, the “Conservatoire des Arts et +Metiers” was established. In England the Society +of Arts has endured above a century. Its novelty +and utility caused it to flourish for a time: its +seat in the metropolis of a people whose wealth +and power arise entirely from the unbending energy +<span id='page-22' class='pagenum'>22</span>with which they apply themselves to advance the +arts and to extend commerce, added to its powers. +Yet, even with these advantages, that Society has +never risen to the position it deserved, and has +for years been languishing in premature decay. +Lately, indeed, a powerful impulse has been communicated +to its proceedings, but even the presidency +of the Prince-Consort has not yet raised it +to its due position in the public opinion. +</p> +<p> +The causes of this state of things are not remote. +The position of the Royal and of other societies +is equally influenced by them. Although intimately +connected with the greatest interests of the +country, they can offer to those who give their time +or intellect to advance such objects, neither wealth +nor rank⁠—neither place nor patronage. They constitute +no distinct combination of men into a powerful +class, like the Bar, the Navy, or the Army: they +are of no party, and finally, they are not fashionable. +It is true that the discoveries which such societies +profess to reward, are in many instances the source +of wealth to the few who, fortunately for themselves, +possess those other qualities necessary for its acquisition, +but which are so rarely united with genius. +It is also true that wealth once acquired, will, if discreetly +employed, certainly lead its possessor to all +those other things, equally coveted as the great prizes +in the lottery of life by the Bar, the Military, and +even by the Church. Nor is this to be regretted, +<span id='page-23' class='pagenum'>23</span>seeing that the aristocracy of this country thus +fortunately receives fresh blood and renewed intellect +by adopting into its class the sagacious +merchant, or the skilful fabricator of a princely +fortune: the time may thus be postponed when +the accident of birth will no longer be admitted +as a fit qualification for a legislator. But even +here it is the wealth of the aspirant that wins the +position, not the integrity and sagacity of the man. +</p> +<p> +In France the government itself took the lead in +directing an institution for the advancement of the +arts. In 1795 it established the Conservatoire des +Arts et Metiers, in which are deposited an extensive +collection of drawings, models, and machines employed +in the various manufactures of the nation. +</p> +<p> +Subsequently, ten professors were attached to +this institution, to lecture gratuitously on those +sciences more immediately connected with arts and +manufactures. One of these devotes himself exclusively +to the explanation of machinery in actual +employment. There are also lectures on descriptive +geometry, and on mechanical drawing. The expense +of this establishment is about 6,000<i>l.</i> a-year. +</p> +<p> +§ The government of France perceived at a still +earlier period the advantages which would result +from the juxtaposition, at proper intervals of time, +in one large building, of selected specimens of all +the produce of the national industry, and in 1798 +the first of these periodic meetings was held at the +<span id='page-24' class='pagenum'>24</span>expense of the government. During upwards of +half a century, at intervals of about five years, +France, uninterrupted by the many changes in the +form of its government, has continued to maintain +these valuable expositions with increasing +success and advantage. Prussia and Belgium also +have adopted the plan of holding these meetings. +</p> +<p> +But if the principles on which they rest are well +founded, it is clear that they are applicable to a +still wider field: and that as in the Associations of +science, cultivators from all nations are invited +to be present, so in the Exhibition of the productions +of industry the general advantage of mankind +is most advanced by the joint contributions of the +whole industrial world. +</p> +<p> +§ These views have long been felt and expressed, +not merely by men of speculation, but by those +who take a practical part in the affairs of life. +</p> +<p> +Enlightened French statesmen had long been +aware of the advantage of this species of competition, +and only abstained from proposing it until +the conviction of the nation justified the foresight +of its chiefs. +</p> +<p> +At length it was thought that the time had +arrived for ascertaining more correctly the general +opinion. Previously, therefore, to making the +necessary arrangements for the Exposition at Paris +in 1849, the Minister of Commerce sent circulars +to the several Chambers of Commerce throughout +<span id='page-25' class='pagenum'>25</span>France, in order to ascertain whether it was the +general opinion that foreign productions should be +admitted to the competition. +</p> +<p> +The opinion of the public was not, however, +sufficiently advanced to justify the undertaking; +and considering the political situation of the country, +the government wisely abstained from a measure +which was not yet entirely in unison with the +feelings of the people. +</p> +<p> +Thus it has happened that it was reserved for +Great Britain, the country most interested in the +cause, though the latest to adopt it, unprepared +by any previous experience at once to attempt this +vast enterprise. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_3'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_3'>3</a>] The first was held at Leipsic in 1822. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_4'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_4'>4</a>] The Rev. Richard Jones, Professor of Political Economy +at Haileybury. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-26' class='pagenum'>26</span><h2 id='tg_4'>CHAPTER IV.<br> +<span class='smaller'>ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">§ It</span> is not now necessary to inquire minutely +into the origin of the present Exposition. It is +sufficient to state that it appears to have been proposed +by some members of the Society of Arts, who +urged it on the attention of Prince Albert.</p> +<p> +The magnitude of the undertaking, and the great +principles on which it rested, seem not to have +been fully understood, and the public were very +imperfectly prepared either to appreciate its advantages +or to contribute to its support. A capitalist +was therefore sought, and found willing to +undertake the risk of the speculation, and terms +were agreed upon, by which £20,000 was advanced +for distribution in prizes, one of which was to +amount to £5,000. This contract contained some +singular stipulations, and formed the basis of the +proceedings for several months. It contained also +a clause by which, on certain conditions, it might +be cancelled within a limited time. +</p> +<p> +In order to carry out this undertaking, it was +<span id='page-27' class='pagenum'>27</span>proposed that a Royal Commission should be issued, +over which, of course, Prince Albert should preside. +As soon as these views became publicly known, +they excited great discussion, and were the subject +of much criticism. +</p> +<p> +§ The Ministers could not of course commit themselves +by publicly avowing their disapprobation of an +undertaking commenced under such high auspices. +It might, however, readily have been foreseen that +they would be averse to such a scheme, because +whilst it was sure to give them a great deal of +trouble, it would afford them no compensation in +the shape of patronage. +</p> +<p> +Those, however, who usually reflect and retail +the opinions of the Government, were by no means +silent; at first it was said to be Utopian, then ridiculous, +then, in the slang of official life, it was +“<i>pooh-poohed</i>;” at a later period, when great public +meetings had been held, and when public +dinners began to give it an English character, the +best speech which has yet been made on the subject, +containing the far-sighted views of a statesman, +was ridiculed as full of <i>German</i> notions, by coxcombs +whose intellect was as defective as their foresight, +and whose selfishness was more remarkable +than either. +</p> +<p> +Another class of persons, the Belgravians, though +actuated by the same motives, were induced to join +in the outcry for other reasons. As soon as it became +<span id='page-28' class='pagenum'>28</span>known that the locality of the building would +be the southern side of Hyde Park, they represented +that the park would be destroyed, and become +utterly useless. As if a building covering twenty +acres out of above three hundred and twenty, could +prevent the people from enjoying air and exercise +on the remaining three hundred. +</p> +<p> +Again, it was asserted that by cutting down a +few trees within the limits assigned to the building, +the park would be desolated; the shady walks destroyed; +whilst all the while there was a goodly +stock of timber, old and young, abounding in the +other three hundred acres. Before this absurd +delusion could be removed from the public mind, +all the plans were made specially to conform themselves +to the enclosure of these miserable trees. It +was not discovered until after the Crystal Palace +was completed, that several of them were on +the verge of extinction, and that all would +probably perish by exposure under such unusual +conditions. Some of the most decrepit and most +inconveniently situated trees have now been cut +down. +</p> +<p> +§ The Belgravians found out other causes of +complaint. They could not tolerate the mass of +plebeians of all nations who would traverse their +sacred square, and they threatened to spoil the +London season by going out of town. When it was +suggested to them, that in these days of agricultural +<span id='page-29' class='pagenum'>29</span>distress, if they left town they might console themselves +by letting their houses at a high price, they +refused to be consoled. +</p> +<p> +The Belgravians next consulted their “<i>medicine-men</i>,” +who, seeing that they wanted to be frightened, +suggested to them that <i>some</i> foreigners were dirty,⁠—that +dirt in <i>some</i> cases causes disease. The Belgravian +mind immediately made the inference that +the foreigners would bring with them the plague; +then they dwelt on sanitary measures, and on the +danger to the public, until they themselves became +nearly insane. +</p> +<p> +It was then suggested that the foreigners might +become assassins by night,⁠—or take military possession +of London by day. Their tradesmen too, +who hated the scheme, and knew the humour of +their customers, assured them that trade would be +entirely ruined; whilst at the same time, it was +whispered that many of them had sent large orders +to France for goods to be exhibited at the Crystal +Palace, and afterwards to be sold to their capricious +customers, either as French, or as English surpassing +French, just as the whim of the moment might +cause a demand for the one or the other. +</p> +<p> +This opposition of the inhabitants of Belgravia +increased as the preparations for the opening of the +Exposition advanced. The working classes had +been favourable to the scheme from the commencement, +and a knowledge of its advantages seems +<span id='page-30' class='pagenum'>30</span>to have advanced slowly in society from below +upwards. +</p> +<p> +That the inhabitants of this fashionable quarter +were necessarily exposed to some inconveniences +cannot be denied. Their much-frequented riding +ground was for a time interfered with, but they +should have remembered that although the public +at large <i>paid</i> for the maintenance of the park, the +greatest portion of its advantages were <i>enjoyed</i> by +those residing nearest to it. +</p> +<p> +Under these circumstances they ought to have +been well content to forego for a time these trifling +advantages, and to suffer with a good grace the +little temporary inconveniences resulting from a +plan which was unrivalled for the advancement +of the arts of peace, and calculated not only to +benefit our own country, but to contribute to the +civilization of the world. +</p> +<p> +Notwithstanding much opposition and many +prophecies of failure, a Royal Commission was at +last appointed. It consisted almost exclusively of +members of parliament, and of persons holding +official situations. It was stated that not more +than two of its members had ever seen a foreign +exposition, and although it included many men +distinguished in other departments of knowledge, +there was scarcely one whose name was known to +the nations we invited as at all eminent in that +over which the Commission presided. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-31' class='pagenum'>31</span>In England, a commissioner, however small his +acquaintance with the subject, is always deemed +fully competent in virtue of his appointment. The +light in which this places us in the opinion of other +nations is by no means flattering to our national +vanity. It has been admirably described by an +accomplished Italian resident amongst us in language +which an Englishman might be proud to +own, and with a degree of moral courage which +few Englishmen would dare to exert on such a +subject.[<a href='#fn_5' id='fnb_5'>5</a>] +</p> +<p> +It was easy to perceive that when so great a +mass of people in distant quarters of the world +was set in motion for such an object, it would be +impossible to draw back, and that its own momentum +would carry on the scheme. +</p> +<p> +§ That the Prince who took so strong an interest +in it, and who saw so clearly and so far beyond the +horizon which limited the view of those by whom +he was surrounded, should become its chief, was +quite natural. There are, however, circumstances +in the state of society in this country, and in the +constitution of human nature itself, which render it +almost impossible to have unfettered discussion +when a person of that exalted rank takes the chair +at the meetings of a Committee. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-32' class='pagenum'>32</span>These objections are entirely unconnected with +the individual person, and if any amount of good +feeling and skill in such a Chairman could remove +the difficulty, we have fortunately had amongst us +several Princes who might easily have accomplished +it. But the forms of society forbid in the presence +of princes that full and free discussion by which +alone the united knowledge of a Committee can +be brought into play. Debates must take place +and divisions occur: otherwise some individual +may take upon himself to assume what either is, +or appears to him to be, the sense of the meeting: +this is much more frequently simply the expression +of <i>his own views</i>. Thus, perhaps, he prevents the +statement of his opinion by some timid man, which +is possibly worth more than that of all the rest of +the Committee. +</p> +<p> +Again: in Committees presided over by persons +of this elevated rank, it is not an uncommon occurrence +for some member, anxious for the success of +his <i>own</i> views, privately to hint in conversation with +other members, that these are the wishes of their +President. +</p> +<p> +To these objections, which are generally true, +there is, however, one exception. When the Chairman +is eminently conversant with the subject, while +at the same time the minds of the Committee are +like a sheet of blank paper,⁠—the best course that +can then be pursued is to allow the Chairman to +interpret the sense of the Committee. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-33' class='pagenum'>33</span>The first act of the Commission was most judicious. +It was to annul the contract with the +capitalist who had undertaken the building and the +commercial management of the Exhibition. It is +to be regretted, however, that the actual amount of +compensation which he was to receive, was not +finally settled at the time. The subsequent extent +of the undertaking having exceeded that which +was originally contemplated, may render this a +question of some difficulty. +</p> +<p> +The next step was to appeal to the public for +subscriptions to carry on the plan. For this object +delegates were sent to many of the large towns, +some of whom, not possessing more knowledge of +the subject than the Commissioners themselves, and +having none of their tact, nearly caused the failure +of the whole scheme. +</p> +<p> +The knowledge and good sense, however, of the +working and manufacturing classes, supplied the +deficiencies of these missionaries, and the subject +became popular amongst them. There were, +indeed, many exceptions even amongst these +classes. Those whose business had been long +established, and who were manufacturing as largely +as their capital would admit, had no reason to seek +additional publicity for the sale of their produce. +Upon them the Exposition would impose only +trouble and expense, without any corresponding +advantage. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-34' class='pagenum'>34</span>Others who possessed machinery of peculiar +powers of production, or for the fabrication of +curious products, were unwilling to expose these +singular and costly machines to the eyes of their +rivals from all countries. The produce of such machines +being generally novelties, they found a ready +sale for it, and therefore had no reason to seek the +Exhibition as the means of publicity. +</p> +<p> +The extent of the demand for space at the Exhibition, +has been as was naturally to be expected, so +great, that it was quite unnecessary to press any +person to exhibit who was not fully aware that it +was for his own interest to do so. +</p> +<p> +With respect to the subscriptions, there are some +observations which it may be useful to make for the +sake of all subscribers to future schemes. It is said +that the total amount subscribed is nearly 90,000<i>l.</i> +of which only about 60,000<i>l.</i> have been paid. +</p> +<p> +No subscription ought ever to be advertised +until it has been actually paid. It is quite unjustifiable +to employ the money of <i>bonâ fide</i> subscribers +in paying for advertisements to gratify the vanity +of those, who are ambitious of appearing large +donors, and who are yet so mean as to decline +fulfilling their pledges. +</p> +<p> +This practice has, unfortunately, of late years +been too prevalent. Persons of rank and position +in the country have condescended to allow their +names to appear in lists, for subscriptions which +<span id='page-35' class='pagenum'>35</span>they never intended to pay, the effect of which has +been to decoy others who trusted to their respectability +and truth. The public in future will do +well to abstain from subscribing to <i>any list</i>, however +respectable the names may apparently be, unless +it is distinctly stated that the subscriptions advertised +have really been paid. +</p> +<p> +In the present case it would be a further waste +of money to advertise the defaulters: but the Commission +have a remedy, and they owe it to the +genuine subscribers. Let a circular be sent to +each defaulter, announcing that unless his subscription +is paid by a certain day, his name will be +returned to the clerk of the <i>Black list</i>, who has +directions to make an alphabetical index of defaulters, +several copies of which will be exposed to the public +in various parts of the Crystal Palace during the +whole time of the exhibition. +</p> +<p> +If public opinion were fully ripe for such a vast +industrial undertaking, it ought to be entirely self-supporting. +This seems to have been the opinion +of the Commission, and with every wish to assist +that object, and every desire to make allowances +for the want of all past experience on the subject, +a few remarks may be made which may promote +the interests of some future Exposition, even though +unavailing for the present. +</p> +<p> +The first question is necessarily the position of +the building, and the facilities for access and egress. +<span id='page-36' class='pagenum'>36</span>As this question is discussed in <a href='#tg_7'>Chapter VII.</a>, +it is sufficient here to state, that the amount +received from the admission of the public will very +much depend upon this point. On the other hand, +the difficulty and expense of conveying the things +exhibited, will not be very different in different +localities. This arises from the fact that if a +package has to be taken from a boat, a ship, or +a railway, and to be conveyed by cart to the locality +at which it is to be exhibited, the expense and the +danger of injury will be but very slightly increased, +whether it is carted an additional quarter of a mile, +or mile, or even a still greater distance. +</p> +<p> +Another very important question arises as to the +price of admission to the Exhibition. There is no +doubt, that if it were entirely free to the public, it +would be almost entirely useless. Nor is it less certain +that various prices ought to be charged on different +days. The Commission seem to have made a +very fair selection for the commencement of the experiment. +Perhaps it would have been better to allow +Saturday to be one of the cheapest days of admission, +because in many workshops the journeymen leave +their work at an earlier hour on that day: by the +sacrifice of the half day’s work, they would then be +able to spend a considerable portion of the day in examining +those objects in which they take an interest. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps on a future occasion some such scheme +of admission as the following might be found most +<span id='page-37' class='pagenum'>37</span>productive. After the exceptional days at the commencement, +occupying the first fortnight, the +admission might be charged thus:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">May</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">June</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">July</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">Aug.</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">Sept.</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">Oct.</th> +</tr> +<tr class="small italic"> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Mon.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Tues.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">5</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Wednes.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">5</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Thurs.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Frid.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Sat.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The principle of this scale is, that each week day +shall gradually diminish in actual price, but shall +always preserve its relative price. Thus Tuesday is +always the day of dearest admission, Wednesday of +the next dearest, whilst Saturday is always the day +of cheap admission. These periods might be distributed +by weeks instead of months. +</p> +<p> +Whatever arrangement is made as to the price of +admission, it is of very great importance that the +number of visitors at the various prices should be +noted and recorded for future use. It will indeed +be unfortunate if knowledge so important for any +similar occasion, should not be registered on the +present. +</p> +<p> +For this purpose <i>every</i> entrance should have one +or more self-acting turnstiles registering the number +of those who pass through it. Not only the public +who pay, but the exhibitors and all who have free +admissions should be registered. At the end of +<span id='page-38' class='pagenum'>38</span>each hour, when the clock strikes, each gate-keeper +should enter in a book the number indicated by his +register. Such a collection of facts, extending over +the whole time of the Exposition, would not only +be invaluable for any future one, but would furnish +materials for other important inquiries. +</p> +<p> +The general state of the weather, which of course +would have a powerful influence, might be known +from other registers: but it would be advisable +that at the end of each day some note were made +of the general state of the weather at the Crystal +Palace itself. +</p> +<p> +§ After the first of these Expositions it seems +probable that their advantages will become so well +known, that it may be quite possible to let out the +stalls to exhibitors under certain conditions. Foreigners +might still be admitted to exhibit without +payment, because the expense of carriage would +more than compensate for the rent. +</p> +<p> +Some stalls might be granted without rent by +the Commissioners, the peculiar circumstances of +each case having been considered. Again, other +stalls, or at least other means of exhibition, might +be accorded to those who contributed articles of +actual use in the building; as for example, a large +striking clock, a steam-engine to drive the machinery +or to supply the fountains. +</p> +<p> +Other means might be readily devised of increasing +the receipts, giving at the same time increased +<span id='page-39' class='pagenum'>39</span>convenience to the public. Thus, from the great +extent of the building, and from the crowd, it may +become difficult to pass easily from one part of the +building to another. Now if the stalls were placed +back to back along the centre of the great longitudinal +avenues, a railway formed of wooden planks +placed edgeways might be raised above the middle +of them at a height of about eight feet, which +would interfere but little with the stalls. +</p> +<p> +On this open railway cars mounted on wheels +bound with india-rubber,[<a href='#fn_6' id='fnb_6'>6</a>] in order to avoid all noise, +might travel at the rate of from one to two or perhaps +three miles an hour. These cars might have +luxurious cushions, and hold parties of different +numbers. One line in a side aisle, the “express,” +might be devoted entirely to conveying passengers +from one end to the other at the rate of three +miles an hour, setting down at six or more intermediate +stations: the payment might be one +penny, or perhaps, on grand days, two or three +pence. The other lines should take parties slowly +along, so as to allow time to see the crowd below +and the wonders of the exhibition, which might be +rendered more distinct by means of opera glasses. +Each trip might occupy twenty minutes or half an +hour, and be charged threepence, sixpence, or a +shilling, according to the price of admission on that +<span id='page-40' class='pagenum'>40</span>day. By these means multitudes of ladies, children, +and even of men, relieved from bodily fatigue, +might be able to acquire knowledge or derive pleasure, +which without these resources it would be +impossible for them to enjoy. +</p> +<p> +It is probable that the light iron framing of such +cars might be provided gratuitously by some exhibitors, +and the spring cushions and ornamental +drapery might be supplied by others, in consideration +of the advertisement thus afforded of the purveyor’s +taste and skill. +</p> +<p> +The chariots of these railways should be drawn by +means of a rope connected with the motive power. +</p> +<p> +If dumb railways are not thought expedient, +small galleries at least might be made to which +admission should be obtained by a small payment, +so that those who wanted to traverse quickly from +one part to another of the building, might thus, by +avoiding the crowd, save time. +</p> +<p> +Umbrellas, and sticks, and great coats might be +taken charge of by ticket on payment of one halfpenny. +Also, any visitor might be allowed to deposit +on his departure a bag containing his catalogue, +note-book, or any articles which it might be inconvenient +to him to take home with him each day, +as is customary at the railway stations. +</p> +<p> +Other accommodations will suggest themselves, +to be provided on the payment of a very small +fee; for example, soap and water and a clean towel +<span id='page-41' class='pagenum'>41</span>may be very desirable to some visitors, especially +to those who may examine the machinery. +</p> +<p> +It is probable that there may occasionally occur +large crowds pressing for admittance. It may be +worth while to consider whether in such cases an +additional reserved entrance might not be opened, +through which ladies and children, and men whom +age or indisposition has deprived of the physical +force requisite for encountering a crowd, might be +allowed to pass on the farther payment, say of sixpence +or a shilling. +</p> +<p> +If it were possible to have a similar reserved +enclosure close to the building, in which carriages +might remain on payment of a small fee, much +inconvenience would be saved to some of the +visitors, and some advantage would result to those +who did not avail themselves of it, in consequence +of the diminished line of carriages at the public +entrances. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_5'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_5'>5</a>] “What shall we do with the Glass Palace? By Spiridione +Gambardella.” London: Aylott & Jones, Paternoster-row. +</p> +<p> +The speech of the rash “commander of the Channel fleet” +(page 9) is worthy of the pen of the celebrated wit who +bestowed that appointment. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_6'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_6'>6</a>] Or the rails themselves might have grooves lined with +vulcanized india-rubber. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-42' class='pagenum'>42</span><h2 id='tg_5'>CHAPTER V.<br> +<span class='smaller'>OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> approaching Exposition is considered by +many as a great and splendid show, calculated to +give pleasure and excitement to hundreds of thousands +of persons. Even in this sense it would be +beneficial, for it is always important that the pleasures +of the people should be productive of some +advance in their tastes and information. But its +great and paramount value depends on other +causes. Its object may be most concisely expressed +by stating that⁠—</p> +<p> +The Exposition is calculated to promote and +increase the free interchange of raw materials and +manufactured commodities between all the nations +of the earth. +</p> +<p> +Its object is not the exclusive benefit of England, +and if any such mistaken view is still entertained, +it may without hesitation be stated that it would be +impossible by any mode of management to accomplish +so selfish an object. +</p> +<p> +It is the interest of every people, that all other +<span id='page-43' class='pagenum'>43</span>nations should advance in knowledge, in industrial +skill, in taste, and in science. The advances made +in the two latter subjects acquire <i>permanent</i> existence +only through the <i>publicity</i> given to their enunciation +and discussion. Refining and elevating all +by whom they are received, new principles in taste +or in science, as soon as they are accepted as truths, +become the universal property of mankind. +</p> +<p> +In whatever distant country any man devises +means of diminishing the cost of production of the +commodity he deals in, the following effects will +result⁠— +</p> +<p> +He will make larger profits than usual. +</p> +<p> +He will then diminish his price in order to get +more customers. +</p> +<p> +His rivals in trade now find it necessary to +undersell him in order to get back their customers. +</p> +<p> +Whilst this competition goes on, the price of the +commodity falls, a larger consumption takes place +and new purchasers will arise, which for a time +checks the fall. +</p> +<p> +Ultimately, his rivals in the trade either remove +their capital into other lines of business, or adopt +the improved process. +</p> +<p> +In the mean time the first discoverer will, if +a prudent and industrious man, have realized a considerable +capital, for he will be fully aware that in +the present state of science no monopoly can be +permanent. He will rather seek for a succession +<span id='page-44' class='pagenum'>44</span>of moderate improvements, which exciting no immediate +inquiry or rivalry, shall increase the average +per centage of his profits, thus constantly keeping +his manufactory one, or at the utmost, only two +steps in advance of his competitors. +</p> +<p> +When in consequence of such an improvement, +a reduced price and an enlarged demand has arisen +in his own country, the manufacturer will naturally +make inquiries whether at this diminished price +other countries may not be induced to become +purchasers. If this is the case, the fact of their +free interchange with him proves that they can +acquire his commodity at a less cost than they can +themselves produce it. +</p> +<p> +But although the Exposition itself could not and +ought not to have been attempted for the sole +benefit of this country, it is almost certain that +England will reap the greatest share of its advantages. +This will arise from the more extended +system of her commerce, and from the habits of +her people. The profits of the merchant, other +circumstances being equal, depend upon the amount +of his capital. Similarly, the knowledge brought +back by the traveller in foreign countries, or derived +from his observation in his own, will mainly depend +on the stock of information he carried with him to +give in exchange. +</p> +<p> +§ To arrive at those principles by which the +Exposition ought to be regulated, it becomes necessary +<span id='page-45' class='pagenum'>45</span>to examine the nature and extent of the +interests involved. +</p> +<p> +In all interchanges there are three distinct parties +concerned⁠— +</p> +<div class="align_c one_space"><div class="block_align_l">The Consumer,<br> +The Middle-man,<br> +The Producer.<br> +</div></div><p class='noindent one_space'> +The overwhelming superiority both in amount of +capital and in the number of the first of these +classes, the <i>Consumer</i>, is at once apparent, and +ought throughout the inquiry to be steadily borne +in mind. In fact, each individual of the other two +classes is necessarily a member of the first; for all +men are <i>consumers</i>, and as such their common bond +of interest is to purchase every thing in the <i>cheapest</i> +market.</p> +<p> +§ The class <i>Producer</i> is equally indispensable +for the purposes of exchange, but its number is +much more limited. The interest of each individual +producer is, that he should sell his <i>own</i> produce at +as dear a price as possible, whilst he purchases that +of all other producers as cheaply as he can. +</p> +<p> +The class <i>Producer</i>, therefore, is not only comparatively +small, but has really a very divided interest, +arising only from the difference between the personal +and the class interest of the individual. +</p> +<p> +§ The class <i>Middle-man</i> is more extensive, comprising +merchants, brokers, factors, wholesale and +retail shopkeepers, hawkers, &c. The profits of this +<span id='page-46' class='pagenum'>46</span>class are generally regarded by the public with some +degree of suspicion. It is often thought that their +profits are exorbitant. But in truth this is not +frequently the case. The division of employments +necessarily produces middle-men, and the public in +the long run obtain the articles they require with +more convenience and economy, and at a less fluctuating +price, than it would be without such agency. +But the number of intermediate agents in any commerce +is itself subject to change, in different trades +and at various times: it is quite possible that these +changes may not have taken place with sufficient +promptitude, and thus the public may have suffered +for a time either by an excess or a defect in the +number of middle-men. +</p> +<p> +The interests of middle-men are, individually, +the same as those of consumers. As a class, the +extension of commerce is for their advantage, +because they are paid according to the amount of +exchanges made. But they have also another and a +very powerful interest. They fear that if the public +were acquainted with the manufacturing price of +articles, it would consider the difference between +that and the selling price as a tax imposed by the +middle-man upon the consumer. The middle-man +therefore has a direct interest in preventing the +public from arriving at a knowledge of the prices +charged by the original manufacturer. It is also +the interest of the middle-man that the manufacturer +<span id='page-47' class='pagenum'>47</span>should not know the price at which his produce sells +by retail: but, as it is in most cases impossible to +prevent this, few attempts at concealment are made. +</p> +<p> +§ It appears, then, that the interests of these +classes may be thus summed up⁠— +</p> +<p> +Consumers, including every human being, have +a strong interest in the freest competition as producing +the lowest price. +</p> +<p> +Producers have an interest in selling their produce +in the dearest market, and therefore claim free +competition. But they have no advantage in selling +it at the highest price: because a high price limits +the extent of the sale. Their object is that the +profit on each article, multiplied by the number +sold, shall be the greatest possible. +</p> +<p> +Middle-men, although usually adverse to competition, +have yet a direct interest in the amount sold. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-48' class='pagenum'>48</span><h2 id='tg_6'>CHAPTER VI.<br> +<span class='smaller'>LIMITS.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">One</span> of the great difficulties in exhibiting together +samples of the produce and the industry of the +world, must obviously be the magnitude and consequent +expense of any building capable of containing +such an exposition. In order to do this +most effectively, and to secure the greatest amount +of space for the primary object, it became necessary +to lay down principles within the limits of which +the objects exhibited should be confined. No real +difficulty opposed the definition of this boundary, +even if a liberal interpretation were admitted.</p> +<p> +The Fine arts and the Industrial arts, although +of the highest importance each to the other, are +separated by a sufficiently definite line of demarcation, +even at the points at which they most nearly +approach. The characteristic of the fine arts is, that +each example is an individual⁠—the production of +individual taste, and executed by individual hands; +the produce of the fine arts is therefore necessarily +<span id='page-49' class='pagenum'>49</span>costly. The characteristic of the industrial arts is, +that each example is but one of a multitude,⁠—generated +according to the same law, by tools or +machines, (in the largest sense of those terms,) and +moved with unerring precision by the application +of physical force. Their produce is consequently +cheap. +</p> +<p> +The fine arts idealize nature by generalizing from +its individual objects: the industrial arts realize +identity by the unbounded use of the principle of +copying. +</p> +<p> +The union of the two, enlarging vastly the utility +of both, enables art to be appreciated and genius +to be admired by millions whom its single productions +would never reach; whilst the producer in +return, elevated by the continual presence of the +multiplied reproductions of the highest beauty, +acquires a new source of pleasure, and feels his +own mechanical art raised in his estimation by +such an alliance. +</p> +<p> +§ This distinction between the fine arts and those +of industry, would appear to place some of the +latter in a class to which they are not yet generally +admitted. It might seem that all lace not produced +by machinery, must according to this view +be admitted amongst the fine arts. +</p> +<p> +There are in the Exhibition some beautiful examples +of such lace amongst the productions of +other countries as well as of our own. They are made +<span id='page-50' class='pagenum'>50</span>by the united labour of many women. The cost of +a piece of lace will consist of⁠— +</p> +<p> +1.⁠—The remuneration to the artist who designs +the pattern. +</p> +<p> +2.⁠—The cost of the raw material. +</p> +<p> +3.⁠—The cost of the labour of a large number of +women working on it for many months. +</p> +<p> +Let us compare this with the cost of a piece of +statuary, which is undoubtedly of a much higher +class of art; it will consist of:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1.⁠—The remuneration to the artist who makes +the model. +</p> +<p> +2.⁠—The cost of the raw material. +</p> +<p> +3.⁠—The cost of labour by assistants in cutting +the block to the pattern of the model. +</p> +<p> +4.⁠—Finishing the statue by the artist himself. +</p> +<p> +In lace-making the skill of the artist is required +only for the production of the first example. Every +succeeding copy is made by mere labour: each copy +may be considered as an <i>individual</i>, and will cost +the same amount of time. +</p> +<p> +In sculpture the three first processes are quite +analogous to those in lace-making. But the +fourth process requires the taste and judgment +of the artist. It is this which causes it to +retain its rank amongst the fine arts, whilst lace-making +must still be classed amongst the industrial. +</p> +<p> +Here we may observe the strong analogy which +<span id='page-51' class='pagenum'>51</span>unites these very different processes. If we continue +the examination we shall find other resemblances, +and by contrasting sculpture with lace +made by machinery, we shall see in the very nature +of their production, the wide interval which separates +the industrial from the fine arts. +</p> +<p> +In the making both of lace and of statues, the +remuneration to the artists can only be reduced by +producing a larger number of them through more +extended education. The expense of the raw material +is small in both. The expense of labour in lace-making +is very large, and it is perhaps considerable +also in sculpture. The discovery of more convenient +localities yielding marble, may make some diminution +in its cost; and the improved manufacture of +thread may slightly reduce the price of lace. A +reduction in the price of labour may to a very +moderate extent reduce the cost of the raw material +of both. But it is evident that any <i>very great</i> +reduction is not to be expected. +</p> +<p> +Let us now contrast this possible reduction with +the past history of some industrial art. The plain +lace made at Nottingham, called patent net, will +supply us with a good example. In the year +1813 that lace was sold in the piece at the rate of +21<i>s.</i> a-yard. At the present time lace of the same +kind, but of a better quality, is sold under the +same circumstances at 3<i>d.</i> per yard. Thus, in less +than forty years the price of the industrial produce +<span id='page-52' class='pagenum'>52</span>has diminished to one eighty-fourth part of its +original price. +</p> +<p> +§ The fine arts, already possessing a building and +an exhibition of their own, which usually opens on +the same day as that proposed for the opening +of the Palace of Industry, it seems difficult at first +to imagine why the limited space disposable within +the latter edifice should be occupied by any portion +of a subject exclusively belonging to the fine arts. +Yet it has been decided that Sculpture shall be +admitted but Painting rejected.[<a href='#fn_7' id='fnb_7'>7</a>] +</p> +<p> +Supposing both departments of art to be equally +excluded, there would still be a propriety, and +even almost a necessity to admit some examples of +each. New tools used by the sculptor, suppose for +preparing the block, might require an example of +their mode of application; whilst the effects produced +on the surface of the marble by other tools, +could only be shown by comparative specimens. +</p> +<p> +Machinery of a very beautiful kind has been +contrived for copying accurately, on a reduced or +an enlarged scale, both medals and statues. The +Venus de Medici itself could not be justly excluded +from a purely industrial exhibition,⁠—if +<span id='page-53' class='pagenum'>53</span>placed in the centre of a series diminishing on the +one side to a statuette of a foot high, and increasing +on the other to a figure double her own height. +Such a series, though fairly introduced as an illustration +of industrial art, would, indeed, itself be +highly interesting to the fine arts, as exhibiting the +effect of change of magnitude, when the proportions +remain identical. +</p> +<p> +Enamel painting would be excluded as belonging +to the fine arts, but every painting on porcelain +partakes in fact of the nature of an enamel painting. +A service of porcelain would of course be +admitted as a specimen of mechanical art, however +highly it might be adorned by this form of +painting. +</p> +<p> +New modes of engraving might be exhibited, +analogous, for example, to that by which medals +are so beautifully represented. There are several +new methods of surface printing for multiplying +original designs. In all such cases it would be +very desirable to place before the eye of the +spectator, the originals from which the copies were +derived, and it might also add to the utility and +interest of the Exposition, even to exhibit other +forms of engraving of the same subject, for the +sake of comparison. +</p> +<p> +The instruments by which daguerreotypes and +talbotypes are produced, would assuredly claim a +place; so also might a collection of their results. +<span id='page-54' class='pagenum'>54</span>It would also be instructive that some of these +productions should be accompanied by the original +forms or paintings from which they were copied. +</p> +<p> +The general rule, therefore, might be, that specimens +of the fine arts should not be admitted by +themselves; but that they should not be excluded,⁠—as +illustrations,⁠—either of the use of some tool or +instrument by which their own production might +be assisted,⁠—or as forming parts or decorations of +objects of the industrial arts,⁠—or for the sake of +comparison with the copies or imitations of them +produced by these latter arts. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_7'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_7'>7</a>] Since this was written, the beautiful effect produced by +sculpture in the Crystal Palace has fully justified the decision +of the Commission. In fact, the only real objection to the +admission either of sculpture or painting arises from the extent +of space required. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-55' class='pagenum'>55</span><h2 id='tg_7'>CHAPTER VII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> questions connected with the construction +of the building, were surrounded with considerable +difficulties, even to the best informed. It should be +capable of containing specimens, not merely of all +the manufactured products of the world, but also of +all the raw materials now used, and even of such, +as being presented to the attention of competent +persons, might probably become useful hereafter.</p> +<p> +The site of such a building, its fitness for its +purpose, and the cost of its construction, were the +chief points to be considered. +</p> +<p> +Its situation especially was the most important, +because that circumstance would greatly influence +the number of persons visiting the Exposition, and +therefore the amount of the receipts out of which +the building was to be paid for. +</p> +<p> +The first principle which should guide the choice +of a site, is obviously the <i>convenience of visitors</i>; and +a little observation, or a moderate share of common +sense, will show how the principle should be applied. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-56' class='pagenum'>56</span>It is known to all those who have observed the +course of crowds of human beings going to and returning +from some centre of attraction, that if the +spot on which the assemblage is to take place is +subject to our choice, much of the difficulty of +the arrangements will be removed. +</p> +<p> +Other circumstances being equal, that site is the +best which admits of the greatest number of independent +channels by which the multitude can +arrive and retire. The means of access should be +so arranged that various divisions of the visitors +would, according to the quarter in which they +reside, naturally take each its own most convenient +course, without the necessity of any instruction +from police or attendants. +</p> +<p> +Various sites had been proposed. Hyde Park;⁠—the +Regent’s Park;⁠—Primrose Hill, still more distant;⁠—fields +on the south side of the Thames intended +to form Battersea Park. +</p> +<p> +It is fortunate that neither of the two latter +was chosen, although they had many advocates: +for in all probability the receipts would have been +diminished by at least a third, if not by a half. +</p> +<p> +Various situations were pointed out in Hyde +Park. One on the north nearly facing Hyde Park +Gardens⁠—one on the south nearly opposite the +Barracks; this latter was ultimately chosen. +</p> +<p> +§ But a different position may be pointed out +which combines so many advantages that it is much +<span id='page-57' class='pagenum'>57</span>to be regretted it was not placed at the disposal +of the Commission. +</p> +<p> +The distance between Cumberland Gate and the +gate at Hyde Park Corner, is about 1,300 yards, or +nearly three quarters of a mile. On the eastern +side of the park, adjoining Park Lane, there is a +narrow strip occupied by plantations, the circular +reservoir and gardens. +</p> +<p> +On the open ground adjacent to this strip, but +rather nearer to Cumberland Gate, the Crystal +Palace might advantageously have been placed. Its +length being nearly 629 yards, each end would have +been about 350 yards from the two great roads of +access. This site would have possessed the following +advantages:⁠— +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. Its distance from the north or south entrance +of the park would, for the average of +visitors, have been considerably less than +that of the present site.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +To persons standing at Hyde Park Corner or +at Cumberland Gate, the respective ends of +the building would have appeared, from its +great elevation, almost close to them.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. There are very few trees upon it, and those +few are still young.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. It is the highest ground in the park, and +could, therefore, be better drained.</p> +<p> +In its present position the building can scarcely +be seen from either of those positions. It is above +<span id='page-58' class='pagenum'>58</span>half a mile from Hyde Park Corner: whilst it is three +quarters of a mile by footpath, and nearly a mile and +a half by carriage drive from Cumberland Gate. +</p> +<p> +The large majority of visitors from the north and +the south will enter the park through these two approaches. +The average distance, therefore, which +each will have to travel in the park, will be nearly +three quarters of a mile. +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b">Yards.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">The distance of the nearest end of the present building from Hyde Park Corner is about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">940</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">From Cumberland Gate is, by footpath, about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">1560</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Ditto, by carriage, about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">2490</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">The distance of the end of the proposed site from Hyde Park Corner, is about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">375</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Ditto, from Cumberland Gate</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">375</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +If we consider how many persons might have +entered close to a building thus placed, through +Grosvenor and Stanhope Gates, or through any temporary +ones near them, it will be perceived that this +average distance would in fact be much diminished. +</p> +<p> +Supposing that an equal number of visitors arrive +by each approach, we have some means of approximating +to one portion of the inconvenience and +loss which the public will suffer from its present +position. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-59' class='pagenum'>59</span>In the first place the number of visitors has been +variously estimated from one to seven millions. +Let us suppose it to be four millions. Each of +these four million visitors will, on an average, have +to travel one mile and a quarter more than would +have been necessary to go to and return from the +Exposition. Thus five millions of miles will be +uselessly traversed. If the expense of transport +were one penny a-mile, and the value of time on +an average four shillings a-day, the account would +run thus⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">persons travel 1½ mile.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">miles at six miles per hour.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">500,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">hours.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">4<i>s.</i>=⅕<i>l.</i>)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">50,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">days of ten hours each.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">value of lost time.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +A similar calculation of the time lost by 2,000,000 +persons travelling three miles an hour would give +13,333<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +The expense of travelling at 1<i>d.</i> per mile of the +first 2,000,000, who travel in carriages, gives⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">12)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">miles.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">20)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">250,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">12,500</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">cost of carr. of two millions 1½ mile each.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">cost of time of ditto.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">13,333</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">cost of time of two millions at 1 mile each.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">35,833</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">total loss.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p class='noindent'> +<span id='page-60' class='pagenum'>60</span>In this estimate the price of one penny a-mile may +perhaps be thought high, especially when it is +known that many will go on foot, others in omnibus, +others in their own carriages: but in order to +remain the same number of hours in the present +building, from the extra time required to visit it, it +will be necessary for many persons to spend one +additional day in London, which could scarcely be +done under twenty pence even by the poorest visitor.</p> +<p> +The allowance of six miles an hour for travelling +in omnibus or carriage, considering the stoppages +of the one, and the crowd on the single road of +approach for both, will be admitted to be moderate. +</p> +<p> +The rate of four shillings per day, or twenty-four +shillings per week, as the value of the time of the +visitors, will probably be thought less than its +average value. +</p> +<p> +There can be no doubt that under these disadvantages +the actual site must cause the loss of a +large number of visitors, who would have partaken +of the enjoyment in the more favourable position. +The amount of <i>pure loss</i> thus suffered by the visitors +as a class, must be withdrawn from the sum they +intended to expend on their visit. +</p> +<p> +One of the earliest acts of the Commission +was to advertise for plans of a building suitable for +their purpose. +</p> +<p> +Certain principles were laid down. It should +be <i>temporary</i> in its character⁠—it should be economical +<span id='page-61' class='pagenum'>61</span>in its cost⁠—it should be fire-proof or nearly +so⁠—it should be built and fit for use in an inconceivably +short time, and capable of being removed +in still less. +</p> +<p> +A lithographed plan of the ground assigned for +it, was circulated for the use of all who chose to +make suggestions, or to compete for the prizes +offered for the most approved designs; this insured +a certain amount of uniformity in scale, which rendered +comparison easier. Although, from necessity, +a very short time could be allowed for +preparation, yet 240 designs for the building were +offered. +</p> +<p> +These were exhibited to the public at the apartments +of the Society of Arts; a certain number of +them were selected as worthy of praise, and some +as deserving more substantial rewards. +</p> +<p> +There appears to have existed from the beginning +in the public mind, not only in England but on the +Continent, a belief that the Commissioners would +not be very rigid in interpreting their rules. This +was probably confirmed by the sudden and unlooked-for +withdrawal of the large prizes that had +been promised to the public at the commencement. +Accordingly, the various plans seemed to vie with +each other in violating the rules laid down by the +Commission; those selected for reward were not +the most consistent with them. In order to give +confidence to the future, it would have been expedient, +<span id='page-62' class='pagenum'>62</span>previously to examining their merits, to have +rejected all which grossly violated the conditions +proposed by the Commission. +</p> +<p> +Beautiful plans might be suggested for magnificent +buildings, if the designers were alike reckless +of cost and of time of construction, and those who +had honestly confined themselves to the prescribed +conditions felt, with some reason, aggrieved at +finding the violators of them applauded and +rewarded. +</p> +<p> +Although there was, in the opinion of the Commissioners, +much of beauty and genius, and many +suggestions of value, yet none of the plans approached +their own idea of what was requisite. It +was therefore resolved that the Commission should +itself originate one, availing themselves of the hints +contained in these plans. +</p> +<p> +In the mean time, Mr. Paxton, who had devised +and successfully carried out a new kind of architecture, +the chief material of which was glass, came to +their assistance. He drew the plans of his singular +design, and was fortunate enough to find in Messrs. +Fox and Henderson a firm capable of supplying all +those mechanical details necessary for its success, +and even of contracting to execute the work in a +period of time so short that it will probably long +remain unrivalled in the art of construction. +</p> +<p> +The Commission accepted this offer, and the +present beautiful building arose as if by magic. +<span id='page-63' class='pagenum'>63</span>Amongst all the curious and singular products which +the taste, the skill, the industry of the world, have +confided to the judgment of England, there will +be found within that crystal envelope, few whose +manufacture can claim a higher share of our +admiration than that palace itself, which shelters +these splendid results of advanced civilization. +</p> +<p> +The building itself was regularly manufactured. +Simple in its construction, and requiring the multiplied +repetition of few parts, its fabrication was +contrived with consummate skill. The internal +economy with which its parts were made and put +together on the spot was itself a most instructive +study.[<a href='#fn_8' id='fnb_8'>8</a>] +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_8'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_8'>8</a>] The reader will find very interesting details and drawings +of this manufacture in the “Illustrated London News,” and in +the “Expositor.” +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-64' class='pagenum'>64</span><h2 id='tg_8'>CHAPTER VIII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>PRICES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> great mass of consumers are always anxious +to know the <i>price</i> of a commodity. To them it is +the most essential consideration in a purchase. The +thoughtless rich care little about the price, and +those who don’t intend to pay, care still less about +it. The most knowing of this latter class, indeed, +often deceive the vigilance of honest tradesmen by +affecting a peculiar earnestness about cheapness. +It is quite true that many well-known articles in +great demand have a certain market price, and some +a certain fixed price; as for instance, a penny roll. +In this latter case the judgment of the purchaser +is directed to its size, or its goodness, or to both +those qualities together.</p> +<p> +§ It may be useful to trace out the course of +purchases by retail, and to show the fine gradations +of impediment which are insensibly interposed between +the vendor and consumer, as obstacles to a +full examination of the article by the latter. Of +course neither an article of daily consumption ought +<span id='page-65' class='pagenum'>65</span>to be taken as an example, nor yet one immediately +wanted by a consumer, whose time is so valuable +that it would be cheaper to go into the first shop +he finds and purchase it at any price. +</p> +<p> +§ Let us suppose that a lady having some leisure +goes out in search of a fan. She passes several +shops in which they may or may not be kept for +sale. +</p> +<p> +She sees some fans in a shop window, but as +they are <i>not open</i> she passes on, intending to return +to them if she cannot suit herself elsewhere. +</p> +<p> +A few doors beyond there are some fans <i>open</i>, +but none of them exactly suit her taste, and she +does not like to give the owner of the shop the +trouble of opening a number of fans, none of which +may please her. +</p> +<p> +In the next street she sees in the window of +a shop some fans, which <i>are open</i>. One of these +appears to suit her, but there is no price marked on +it. She does not like to go into the shop and +examine more minutely whether the subtle implement +she requires has sufficient strength to withstand +its ball-room trials, lest it may be too expensive +for her purse. +</p> +<p> +A short distance beyond another set of <i>opened</i> +fans present themselves to her notice in the window +of another shop, each of them with its price distinctly +marked upon it. One of these the hesitating +lady prefers, <i>a little</i>, to the last she had +<span id='page-66' class='pagenum'>66</span>approved, and she resolves to enter this shop +and examine the fan. But perceiving before she +enters, that there is no attendant in the shop, she +thinks the mistress may be at dinner, or have gone +up stairs to her baby, and she says to herself, “It +is of no consequence; I will not disturb her now.” +</p> +<p> +Still passing onward she finds a shop in the +window of which is a pretty fan, although not quite +so good as the last, and within there sits the shopkeeper⁠—but +the door is <i>shut</i>. +</p> +<p> +Although the fan was not the most suitable the +lady had seen, yet had that door been open, she +would have entered, hoping that the fans exposed +in the window were samples of classes kept in store +within. +</p> +<p> +At last she finds all these impediments removed; +a fan that will nearly suit her lies open in the +window, with its price clearly marked, an attendant +is in the shop, and the door is hospitably <i>open</i>. She +enters and examines it, and finding it well made, +asks whether there are others of the same class of +pattern, to which the reply is that it is the only one +remaining. Upon this she purchases the fan, +although had she entered several of the former +shops, she might have found fans both more exactly +suited to her taste and at a less price. The +<i>marking</i> has decided her choice. It is not to be +imagined that all, or even the greater part of these +impediments, ever occurred to one person at the +<span id='page-67' class='pagenum'>67</span>same time: but there are few who have not at +different times felt the effects of most of them. +</p> +<p> +§ It is said that <i>ladies by education and birth</i> +occasionally amuse themselves by entering shops +and giving interminable trouble, having no intention +of making any purchase. This doubtlessly is +a libel. +</p> +<p> +§ Several other minor impediments deter purchasers +from some shops, and incline them to frequent +others; amongst these may be mentioned an over +officiousness in the attendants to recommend to the +attention of the purchaser other articles than those +he requires. This pressure to induce purchases is +peculiarly offensive, and drives away the best +customers. +</p> +<p> +The absence of a marked price upon an article, +tends to defeat the effect of competition, as well as +to produce loss of time both to consumer and +vendor. It is therefore, to a certain extent, a cause +of increase of price. +</p> +<p> +Its effect is to cause the same article to be sold +at different prices in the same neighbourhood, thus +counteracting that uniformity of price at considerable +distances, which is consequent upon rapid and +cheap communication. +</p> +<p> +§ As the extent to which this is carried even in a +great city, may not be known, the following occurrence +will afford an illustration:⁠— +</p> +<p> +A gentleman wishing to make the light of his +<span id='page-68' class='pagenum'>68</span>reading lamp approach more nearly to day-light, +looked out for a lamp-glass of a blue tint. Having +observed one of the wished-for colour in a shop +window marked at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> he purchased it. After +a considerable trial he was so satisfied with the +comfort it afforded to his eyes, that he wished to +have other lamps in his house similarly furnished. +On returning to the shop at which the blue globe +was purchased, he found that its proprietor had +retired, and his successor was in a different line of +business. Seeing in the window of another shop +in his own neighbourhood, a coloured globe of the +same size, he entered and inquired the price. To +his great surprise the price was stated to be 3<i>s.</i>; +and on asking if any reduction would be made if +he took a dozen or two, the answer was that in that +case the lowest price would be half-a-crown each. +</p> +<p> +This naturally led him to suppose that the cheapness +of the first glass arose from the accident of its +proprietor being about to retire from business, and +he therefore decided upon confining his indulgence +in the luxury of white light to his single reading +lamp. One day, however, he accidentally saw in +another shop window a similar globe of blue glass. +On inquiring within, he was informed that its price +was 1<i>s.</i>, and that the price per dozen was 11<i>s.</i> +</p> +<p> +Under these new circumstances he provided a +blue globe for every lamp in his house. +</p> +<p> +Now it is necessary to observe that these glasses, +<span id='page-69' class='pagenum'>69</span>charged at 3<i>s.</i>, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, and 1<i>s.</i>, were offered for +sale at three different shops not distant from each +other a mile and a half, and were not only of the +same size, weight, shade of colour and quality of +glass, but had each the same maker’s stamp upon +them, and may possibly have been taken from the +same pot of glass. It is remarkable also that the +cheapest glass globe, although exposed in the shop +window, had no price attached to it. +</p> +<p> +§ It is obvious, if it were the custom invariably +to mark the price upon each article exposed for sale, +that such unreasonable differences of price in the +same article could not exist. It is certain that, if the +Royal Commissioners were to consult the dealer +who charged 3<i>s.</i> for an article sold by his neighbour +at 1<i>s.</i>, they would be informed that it would +be absolutely ruinous to have prices affixed to +articles exhibited. Such a tradesman would assure +them, and with perfect truth, that it would entirely +destroy his trade. But if he cannot live upon the +ordinary profits of capital employed in his trade, +are the unwary public to pay two hundred per +cent. beyond the market price, in order to support +a tradesman unfit for his business? If, on the +other hand, the Commissioners were to ask the +opinion of the tradesman who sold the glass at 1<i>s.</i>, +he undoubtedly would not object to the general +practice of affixing prices to each article. The +opinion of the vendor of the glass at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> was +<span id='page-70' class='pagenum'>70</span>sufficiently expressed by its being attached to that +article. +</p> +<p> +§ There are several causes assigned for the +admitted repugnance of shopkeepers to allow the +price of any article they sell to be marked upon it. +</p> +<p> +It is broadly asserted that the public, being +unable to judge of the article, will be guided too +much by the cheapness of its money price, neglecting +its other qualities, and will thus be induced to +purchase worthless things. +</p> +<p> +It is always somewhat suspicious when the vendor +volunteers to take care of the interest of the +purchaser. It reverses the decision of the common +sense of mankind, expressed in the ancient proverb, +“<i>caveat emptor</i>.” Besides, it is by no means true +that the public are so ignorant or incapable of +appreciating all those other qualities. In some +articles the difficulty is undoubtedly great, whilst in +others it may require time to be spent in their examination +even by those who are as conversant with +the articles as the vendor himself. But why should +the time of both parties be wasted by an examination, +when the price may be such as to preclude its +purchase, whatever may be its other merits? +</p> +<p> +§ Of all the various qualities which contribute to +the excellence of any given article, that which it is +most easy to ascertain⁠—that which it is impossible +to falsify⁠—and that without the exact knowledge of +which no purchase can possibly be made, is the +<span id='page-71' class='pagenum'>71</span>very one which it is wished to withhold from the +knowledge of the purchaser, until through the art +of the vendor, the finer feelings of the customer +induce him to think himself in some measure +committed to purchase that of which he does not +entirely approve. +</p> +<p> +It is from circumstances like these, that the prejudice +against retail dealers arises and is confirmed +in the public mind. There is no reason why that +class should not be as highly respected as the possessors +of extensive domains. To deserve that +respect they have only to insist upon all persons in +their employment abstaining from the slightest deception +in serving their customers; to which rule it +would be desirable to add, that the leading members +of each trade should unite in discountenancing +those who are guilty of any such practices. +</p> +<p> +§ The effect upon the sale of an article by the +absence of its price may be illustrated by another +example. Some years ago a large bazaar was held +for some charitable object at the Hanover Square +Rooms. It was patronised by the highest rank, +and the beauty of the fair shopkeepers was even +more attractive than the wares they had to dispose +of. A collector thought this a favourable opportunity +of adding to his collection a vase of porphyry: +having paid the admission fee of 5<i>s.</i>, he entered, +and soon perceived some beautiful specimens +of the object he desired. Having looked +<span id='page-72' class='pagenum'>72</span>at them for some time, he selected in his mind +one which he would willingly have purchased +if it were within the limit (10<i>l.</i>) which he had +assigned for the gratification of his taste. There +was, however, no price attached to any of the vases, +and fearing that they were all beyond his means, he +reluctantly departed without the wished-for acquisition. +It happened that he mentioned in the +course of the next year the circumstance to a friend +who was acquainted with the history of the vase in +question. The vase for which he would willingly +have given 10<i>l.</i> was not sold at that bazaar, but +some time after it appeared at a less fashionable +bazaar And was sold for 5<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +§ Most of those who visit the Exposition will +each according to their means wish to retain some +memorial of it. Many will have been economising +during the previous year in order to purchase some +object of utility or of pleasure either for their own +use or to take back as remembrances to their family +and friends. It would be very difficult amidst the +vast variety of attractions, even if the price of each +were marked upon it, to select the most desirable +article within those limits of expense to which each +purchaser is confined. But by forbidding the +marking of prices, this difficulty is converted into +an impossibility. The first step according to the +decree of the Commissioners, would be to go round +and ask the price of at least a hundred, if not +<span id='page-73' class='pagenum'>73</span>a thousand articles. These must be written down +by each inquirer unless the Exhibitors supply him +with printed lists. Even if he make a selection out of +these, it is a hundred to one that some other article +in the enormous collection would, if he had known +its price, have pleased him better. +</p> +<p> +§ If we examine the history of the earlier stages +of society, we shall see the constant tendency of its +institutions to facilitate the mutual exchange of +commodities between its members, and to remove +every obstacle impeding their interchange. When +the population was thinly scattered over the country, +the possessor of a fowl, wanting a pound of +butter, was obliged to go some distance to a neighbour +either to purchase the butter or to get it +in exchange for the fowl. But it would have cost +him more time than the worth of the butter if he +had visited several neighbours to find out where +it was the cheapest. To remedy this inconvenience, +market days were established in the villages and +towns at more or less frequent intervals. On +these occasions each farmer sent one of the family +to the periodic market, who sold the produce of the +farm and purchased whatever might be required of +their neighbours, who were each represented by +one of their own family at that common market. +Itinerant vendors of various manufactured articles +flocked to these markets because they there met their +customers with less loss of time and less fatigue. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-74' class='pagenum'>74</span>Whilst these hawkers thus gained on the one +hand, it must be admitted that they lost on the +other those occasionally extravagant profits sometimes +levied on the necessities of their isolated customers. +But on the whole they derived from their +trade a more regular rate of profit, because the +competition side by side of rival goods and rival +prices, rendered that profit much less fluctuating. +Their greatest gain, however, arose from the time +saved by all parties, which largely increased the +consumption of their respective articles of produce. +</p> +<p> +§ When towns became enlarged, the same principle +of mutual interest led to the selection of particular +streets or quarters of the town by particular +trades. In many cities on the continent, the jewellers, +as well as some other trades, still occupy +entire streets by themselves. +</p> +<p> +The next step seems to have been to hold +a general exchange in a fixed spot at certain +periodic times. This was necessary for the merchants +and larger dealers, and for international +exchanges. In great cities this was again subdivided +into various branches of business, as⁠—The +Corn Exchange⁠—The Coal Exchange, &c. +</p> +<p> +§ At these marts a class of men called brokers +arose, whose business it was to sell on commission +for the producers, and to purchase on commission +for the merchants or other middle men. +</p> +<p> +The economy of time produced by this arrangement +<span id='page-75' class='pagenum'>75</span>is very great. Let us suppose an exchange +or bazaar attended by a hundred purchasers and +a hundred sellers. Each purchaser, in order to +become fully acquainted with the state of the +market, must ask at least two questions of each +seller⁠— +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1st. What is the price?</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2d. What quantity have you for sale at that +price?</p> +<p> +This alone gives rise to <i>twenty thousand questions</i>. +If, on the other hand, a broker is employed, each +of the two hundred persons who constitute the +market, will have to answer those two questions +only to his own broker; consequently, there will +only be four hundred such questions. If there are +twenty brokers, these may meet together at the +market, and each stating his commissions both for +purchase and for sale, a list may be immediately +formed by which the state of the market as to supply +and demand becomes known, and in the event of +there being but little difference in the quality of the +articles, it becomes easy for the brokers to arrange +the requisite exchanges at prices which are equitable +for all parties. +</p> +<p> +§ Great, however, as this advantage is, it is small +compared with another which we shall now consider. +When a bargain is made directly by the two individuals +interested in it, there usually occurs on both +sides an attempt to appear more or less indifferent +<span id='page-76' class='pagenum'>76</span>about it, in order to secure advantageous terms. +Thus price is made to depend partly upon the +personal feelings and qualities of the parties, and +the less impulsive and more sagacious will gain +considerable advantage over the hasty and inexperienced. +A certain degree also of misrepresentation +often occurs, and the price demanded is frequently +greater than that which the seller is willing to take: +thus the quantity of time consumed by parties +themselves in bargaining, is always much greater +than that in which their brokers can do the business +for them on more advantageous terms. +</p> +<p> +Again: the broker has an interest in effecting +sales, because he is paid in proportion to their +amount. But he has no interest in favouring one +class of his customers more than another: his +profits depend entirely upon his knowledge, his +industry, and his integrity. The necessity of the +intervening broker arises from the imperfections of +mankind, and when rigidly honest his services are +invaluable. If one party is perfectly aware of all +circumstances relating to the state of the market, +he has no need of any broker, because he can +acquire no new information: on the other hand, +those who treat with him may as well save themselves +the expense of a broker, because nothing can +be communicated on the subject which is not +already known. +</p> +<p> +When these principles, which are found to prevail +<span id='page-77' class='pagenum'>77</span>in large transactions, are applied to the retail +concerns of everyday life, the intervention of the +broker is not required. This arises from the multitude +of the transactions, the smallness of the individual +amount of each, and the immense variety of +the articles of exchange. +</p> +<p> +§ Another class of middle-men now come into +existence, namely, Shopkeepers. The evils already +pointed out still exist. One of the questions, it is +true, need not be asked, for the quantity of an +article held by a retail dealer, is usually much larger +than the wants of any individual customer; but +the question of price still remains. The removal +of all these difficulties may be accomplished by the +adoption of one simple plan⁠—let the price be +affixed to each article. +</p> +<p> +Other advantages result from the publicity thus +given to price. Many who would not otherwise inquire +the price, thinking it might be above their +means, will now become purchasers. Others, not +themselves intending to purchase, may incidentally +cause their friends to purchase by quoting the prices +they have seen affixed to certain articles. Others +again, may be induced by the cheapness of an article +to purchase it for uses for which it was not originally +intended,⁠—as, for instance, a beautiful chintz for +papering a room. +</p> +<p> +§ In almost all works of industry, whatever +may be the kind of excellence of an article exhibited, +<span id='page-78' class='pagenum'>78</span>it is possible to produce one of greater +excellence. +</p> +<p> +Take for instance a sheet of window-glass; its +size might be adduced as the ground of excellence. +The beautiful process of “<i>flashing</i>” by which it is +made, is preceded by another in which the workman +blows a large globe of glass. The size of the expanded +flat circle of glass, called a “<i>table</i>,” depends +on the magnitude of this sphere, which again is +limited by the power of the workman’s lungs. But +when larger tables were wanted, an observant workman +found that if his mouth had been previously +washed out with water, a greater sphere was produced. +In fact, a small portion of the water, carried +over with his breath, became converted into steam +by the heat, and thus increased the pressure within. +This led to a new limit, and there can be no doubt +that by means of expensive mechanical contrivances, +still larger spheres might be blown. +</p> +<p> +§ Now the whole merit of any such new process, +in the eye of the manufacturer, would depend on +the <i>price</i> at which the produce could be sold. +</p> +<p> +The same principle prevails in almost all works +of the civil engineer. With the talent now existing +in that profession, scarcely any undertaking is impossible. +The real and most important limitation +is the <i>price</i> of execution. +</p> +<p> +§ In the fine arts also the ultimate object still is +the acquisition by the public of the productions +<span id='page-79' class='pagenum'>79</span>submitted to their examination. If, however, the +price is not stated, it may happen that a person of +moderate means, more capable of appreciating a +work of art than richer men, might be prevented +from acquiring it by a feeling of delicacy. For not +liking to ask the price, and thinking probably that +it is beyond his means, the object may be sold to a +richer competitor at a lower price than he would +himself willingly have given. +</p> +<p> +This consequence of the absence of price is injurious +both to art and to artists: it occasionally +removes from the field of competition the best +judges of real merit. It is true that in several +professions a certain delicacy respecting money +matters exists which is wanting in others. Medical +men and artists are peculiarly subject to its influence; +but it is not reported of any lawyer that he +ever refused a fee, and it is recorded of some Secretary +of the Admiralty that he claimed <i>a quarter +of a year’s war salary</i>, on account of the two days +interruption of peace by the combat of Algiers. +</p> +<p> +§ Another result of the prices not being marked +upon objects is, that the public are unable to form +any just estimate of their commercial value; consequently, +no proper public opinion arises to assist +the juries in their decisions. This is a matter of +considerable importance: the duty of a juror at an +exposition is quite different from that of a juror in +a legal question. It is the business of the Industrial +<span id='page-80' class='pagenum'>80</span>juror to avail himself of the knowledge and the +observations of all around him. Much of what he +thus hears he may be able himself to verify by +examination or experiment, and thus public opinion +will be more matured, and the decisions of the +juries have greater weight. +</p> +<p> +§ Many of the qualities of the articles exhibited +can only be ascertained by use, or even by their +destruction. In such cases a single sample would +often be purchased if it had its price affixed to it. +</p> +<p> +Another class, small indeed in number, but +important from its functions, suffers the greatest +inconvenience from the absence of price. Those +engaged in studying the commercial and economical +relations of various manufactures, either for the +gratification of their own tastes or for the instruction +of the public, are entirely deprived of the most +important element of their reasonings. +</p> +<p> +If <i>every article</i> had its price affixed, many relations +would strike the eye of an experienced observer +which might lead him to further inquiries, +and probably to the most interesting results. But +it is quite impossible for him to write to any considerable +portion of 15,000 expositors for their list +of prices, or even to go round and ask for it in the +building itself. +</p> +<p> +§ Price in many cases offers at once a verification +of the truth of other statements. Thus, to a person +conversant with the subjects, +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-81' class='pagenum'>81</span>The low <i>price</i> of an article might prove that it had +been manufactured in some mode entirely different +from that usually practised. This would lead to +an examination of it, in order to discover the improved +process. +</p> +<p> +The <i>price</i> of an article compared with its weight, +might prove that the metal of which it is made +<i>could not</i> be genuine. +</p> +<p> +The <i>price</i> of a woven fabric, added to a knowledge +of its breadth and substance, even without its +weight, might in many cases effectually disprove +the statement of its being entirely made of wool, or +hair, or flax, or silk, as the case might be. +</p> +<p> +The exchange of commodities between those to +whom such exchanges may be desirable, being the +great and ultimate object of the Exposition, every +circumstance that can give publicity to the things +exhibited, should be most carefully attended to. +The price in money is the <i>most important element</i> in +every bargain; to omit it, is not less absurd than to +represent a tragedy without its hero, or to paint a +portrait without a nose. +</p> +<p> +It commits a double error: for it withholds the +only test by which the comparative value of things +can be known, and it puts aside the greatest of all +interests, that of the consumer, in order to favour +a small and particular class⁠—the middle-men. +</p> +<p> +The composition of that Commission must be +most extraordinary, where an error so contrary to +<span id='page-82' class='pagenum'>82</span>the principles and so fatal to the objects of the +Exposition, could have been committed. It is not +too late to apply at least a partial remedy to the +evil, and it is scarcely credible that those with +whom it rests, can remain unconscious of the mistake +into which they have been led. +</p> +<p> +§ At the eighth meeting of the Commissioners, +on the 28th Feb. 1850, further conditions and +limitations were submitted to them by Col. Reid, +one of which was⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“A price may be attached to the objects exhibited, and +the objects, if sold, may be marked; but no sales will be +permitted within the building.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +This judicious recommendation was, however, +not adopted, for on the 11th April, 1850, the following +rule was published⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“The Exhibition being intended for the purposes of display +only, and not for those of sale.... +</p> +<p> +“For the same reason the Commissioners have decided that +the prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +Several strong remonstrances were addressed to +the Commissioners against the rule forbidding the +affixing prices to the articles exhibited. Efforts +were made both in public and through private +representations to some of its individual members, +by persons competent to advise, and anxious for +the success of a great and meritorious undertaking. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-83' class='pagenum'>83</span>In the report of the Leeds Committee to the +Commissioners the following passage occurs:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“They are, further, most strongly of opinion that the +statement of price is essential, <i>if the Exhibition is to be of any +real utility</i>. To the manufacturer or merchant price will be +the test of comparative value and excellence in the majority +of cases; and the inspection of particular fabrics, especially +the products of other districts or countries, for the purposes +of information or improvement, will be of no avail to them if +price as well as style and finish is not before them.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +From the secretary to the Hamburg Commission +a communication was received stating that⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“In consequence of the decision of the Commissioners with +respect to the prohibition to attach prices, it is the opinion that +there will be an <i>incurable deficiency</i> in the Exhibition.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +From the Central Danish Commission a letter +was sent, stating that⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“By reason of the regulation of Her Majesty’s Commissioners +that prices may not be attached to articles sent for +exhibition, and Danish goods being chiefly remarkable for +their cheapness, a space of about 450 square ft. will be sufficient +for Denmark.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +The Chevalier Bunsen transmitted a despatch from +the Prussian government, <i>objecting to the decision</i> +of the Commissioners which <i>prohibits the affixing of +prices</i> to articles exhibited. +</p> +<p> +§ On the 14th November, 1850, an answer to +this letter was approved, and ordered to be sent to +all foreign commissioners. +</p> +<p> +The following are extracts:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +<span id='page-84' class='pagenum'>84</span>“The arguments advanced by you in favour of authorizing +the affixing of prices to the articles exhibited, have received +the maturest consideration of Her Majesty’s Commissioners, +who are fully sensible of the great importance of the +subject. +</p> +<p> +“At the same time, every wish is felt on their part, to give +to each exhibitor the <i>benefit</i> to be derived by him from the +knowledge on the part of the public, of the cheapness of the +articles exhibited by him. They feel, however, as they have +already intimated, that by allowing the affixing of the actual +prices to articles themselves, they should be making themselves +responsible for the accuracy of those prices in all instances, and +they would not consider themselves warranted in assuming this +responsibility in the case of an Exhibition of the productions +of all the nations in the world (however perfect may be the machinery +in an individual country, like Prussia, for ensuring that +accuracy, and for preventing the liability to deception). But +Her Majesty’s Commissioners authorize the attachment of a +notice to those Goods, of which the merit consists in the low +price at which they can be produced, to the effect that they +are <i>exhibited for cheapness</i>, and they have made it a condition +that all persons making this claim must send the prices in an +invoice to the Commissioners, who will instruct the juries to +make this an essential element in their determination of +their awards.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +The Decision No. 16 was then altered as +follows:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“Prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited, +although the articles may be marked as shown for economy of +production. But as the cost at which articles can be produced +will, in some cases, enter into the question of the +distribution of rewards, the Commissioners, or the persons +intrusted with the adjudication of the rewards, may have to +make inquiries, and possibly to take evidence, upon the subject; +still they do not consider it expedient to affix a note of +<span id='page-85' class='pagenum'>85</span>the price to the articles displayed. When the Exhibitor +considers the merit of his article to consist in its cheapness, +and founds a claim on this ground, he must state the price in +the invoice sent to the Commissioners.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +This rule is a model specimen of what very clever +men united in a large committee can assent to. +</p> +<p> +The first and last sentences of the oracular +writing pronounce that⁠— +</p> +<p> +Prices must not be affixed to any article exhibited +for the judgment of the public, <i>even though</i> +there should be <i>no other reason</i> for exhibiting it +than its price. +</p> +<p> +The intervening sentence reveals to us that even +Commissioners may in some cases be themselves +unable to judge without a knowledge of the price⁠—that +it may perchance be so important that they +must take evidence upon it. Yet, with a very +flattering deference to the sagacity of the public, +they seem to think <i>it</i> can, without that information, +form as good an opinion as their own. +</p> +<p> +It may be remarked that the permission to ask +of the attendant the price of an article, on which +much stress has been laid, depends on several contingencies, +namely:⁠—that every article has an attendant;⁠—that +he is at all times at his post;⁠—and +also that he <i>knows</i> its price. +</p> +<p> +It is admitted that the Commissioners wish “to +give each exhibitor the <i>benefit</i> to be derived by +him from the knowledge [of price] on the part of +the public,” and also that the public cannot judge +<span id='page-86' class='pagenum'>86</span>without that information, and yet, with singular +inconsistency, they forbid the simplest and most +natural mode of accomplishing this object, placing +in fact an impediment in the way of their own +wishes. +</p> +<p> +The only argument which is urged in favour of +this rule, occurs in the reply to the Prussian application, +in which it is stated, “after the maturest +consideration on the part of Her Majesty’s Commissioners,” +they feel “that by allowing the affixing +the actual price to the articles themselves, +they should be making themselves responsible for +the accuracy of those prices in all instances.” +This singular timidity in fact involves the Commissioners +in far larger responsibility, since according +to their own argument they admit that they are +“<i>responsible</i>” for any statement they “<i>allow</i>” the +exhibitors to make; it follows, therefore, that any +statement they <i>command</i> the exhibitors to attach to +the articles exposed must be still more firmly +<i>guaranteed</i> by the Commissioners. +</p> +<p> +But they have very rightly ordered that every +article shall have attached to it a statement of the +<i>reason</i> for which it is exhibited. Consequently <i>they +guarantee the statements made by exhibitors</i>. +</p> +<p> +If, therefore, a piece of calico is exhibited entirely +for the sake of the <i>permanence</i> of the beautiful +colour with which it is dyed, the beauty it is true +may be evident to the eye, but the merit will consist +<span id='page-87' class='pagenum'>87</span>wholly in the <i>permanence</i>. If this is stated by the +exhibitor, the Commissioners themselves are responsible +for its truth. +</p> +<p> +Again, some beautiful damasked fabric is exhibited; +the only merit consists in its being made +entirely of flax. This statement must be appended, +or there is no use in exhibiting it; but if stated, +the <i>Commissioners are responsible</i> that there is no +silk intermixed: multitudes of similar cases might +be adduced. +</p> +<p> +But the truth is, that no such responsibility as +that which they have assumed, ought to be placed +on the Commissioners; their duty is sufficiently +arduous, and their previous experience very limited. +A certain per centage of error and accident, will +necessarily occur, even to the most highly informed, +and if they industriously exercise the knowledge +they may acquire in carrying on this undertaking, +the public ought to be grateful for their labours⁠—to +assist them in carrying out their regulations, and +remonstrate strongly only when their rules violate +the very foundations of those principles on which the +whole advantage of the Exposition rests. +</p> +<p> +§ Nothing could have been more simple than to +have repudiated any such guarantee, and to have +left the public to trust to the integrity and honour +of the exhibitors, which, considering the danger and +facility of detection, would have been a sufficient +security. The Royal, and almost all other scientific +<span id='page-88' class='pagenum'>88</span>Societies, place at the head of each volume a +distinct declaration that their authors alone are +responsible, both for the facts as well as for the +reasonings contained in their respective memoirs. +</p> +<p> +§ If the alternative were proposed, Shall the rule +rigidly laid down be?⁠— +</p> +<p> +“No article shall have its price marked on +it”⁠—or, +</p> +<p> +“Every article must have its price marked upon +it,”⁠—the disadvantages would be far less under the +latter rule. The essential principle of the Exposition +being the increase of commerce and the exchange +of commodities, it might even be contended that +sales should be permitted on the premises. The +chief objection to this arises from the impediments +it might offer to the free access of visitors to the +examination of the articles exhibited. +</p> +<p> +Means, however, might be suggested by which +that objection would be considerably removed. It +might, for instance, be permitted to all those exhibitors +of articles of moderate size, that they +should bring in with them each morning a sufficient +number of such articles, done up in paper ready to +be delivered to the purchaser on his handing over +the money price. This would apply to a large +number of articles, as shawls, dresses, &c. +</p> +<p> +In other articles, sold by weight, packets might +be previously made up of various weights, as one +pound, three pounds, six pounds, &c. In those +<span id='page-89' class='pagenum'>89</span>sold by length, parcels of fixed numbers of yards +might be prepared. +</p> +<p> +If this system were still thought to be inconvenient +from causing crowds in particular spots, it +might be permitted to the attendants to take orders +for articles to be sent home in the evening, and +paid for either at the time or on delivery. +</p> +<p> +It is quite certain that under either of these conditions +a much larger quantity of merchandize +would be sold immediately. +</p> +<p> +Many would purchase on the spot who could +never return for that purpose, or who were on the +point of leaving London, and much trouble would +be saved to a large class of purchasers. +</p> +<p> +The effect of the purchases made in the earlier +days of the Exposition, would act as so many advertisements +to attract visitors on the succeeding +days; some articles thus purchased would probably +be sent into the country by friends, and +others be taken home by visitors, and many additional +country visitors would thus be attracted +before the end of the season. +</p> +<p> +Another and a very important advantage would +also accrue from such an arrangement. The manufacturers +acquire their knowledge of the demand +for their productions from the factors and agents; +these again from the shopkeepers who sell by retail +to the public. Under the proposed circumstances, +this knowledge would be acquired much more +<span id='page-90' class='pagenum'>90</span>rapidly, and in the course of the first two or three +weeks the opinion of the public would be known +upon all the articles of most popular demand. +</p> +<p> +§ Upon the whole, the best plan seems to be that +the rule should be⁠— +</p> +<p> +“Every article must have its price attached.” +</p> +<p> +The exception should be exemptions granted by +officers of the Commission, and the ground of those +exemptions should be stated on the respective +articles. +</p> +<p> +At the Exposition at Paris, in 1849, the general +rule was that upon each article its price should be +marked. Certain exceptions occurred, and in two +instances the writer of these pages wishing to purchase +specimens, although assisted most willingly +by M. Le Dieu, the indefatigable head of the +management always present on the spot, was unable, +after some correspondence and much inquiry, +to purchase or obtain samples of the objects he +desired. +</p> +<p> +§ Perhaps the best way of complying with the +rules of the Commissioners, and yet giving the +public what they tacitly admit the public will demand, +would be that the exhibitor should fix on +each of his articles, in a conspicuous manner, a +letter or a number,[<a href='#fn_9' id='fnb_9'>9</a>] and that he should have on the +<span id='page-91' class='pagenum'>91</span>printed bill or card of address all the corresponding +numbers or letters, and opposite to each the +price at which it was to be sold at his warehouse +or place of business. Each expositor might have a +quantity of these addresses hung up or placed upon +his stall, with an indication to the public that they +were at liberty to take away these cards or bills. +</p> +<p> +It may be worth while to make a few observations +on the reasons which probably influenced and +misled the Commission on so important a point. +</p> +<p> +The tradesmen of London had been unduly and +rather indelicately pressed to subscribe towards the +Exposition; many were compelled to subscribe +against their wishes. They saw few or none of the +advantages which would accrue to them from it, +and they believed, (erroneously,) that it would inundate +the country with foreign and cheaper articles +that would supplant their own trade. +</p> +<p> +It was thought that, when the public became +acquainted with the wholesale as well as with the +retail price of articles, such knowledge would lead +to a reduction of the retail profits. The public, +it was argued, would be reluctant to make a fair +allowance for the various items which contribute +to swell the amount of the difference between the +wholesale and retail price of commodities. +</p> +<p> +§ It may be useful then to state broadly the principle, +that it is greatly for the advantage of the +public, both as regards economy of time and of +<span id='page-92' class='pagenum'>92</span>money, that there should always exist a sufficient +number of middle-men of various orders. +</p> +<p> +The shopkeeper, who is the one in immediate +contact with the public, and therefore liable to +the greatest misrepresentation, has, amongst others, +the following expenses to add to the cost of +production, which must necessarily increase the +retail price:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1. Commission to broker or other middle-man. +</p> +<p> +2. Cost of carriage from manufactory to shop. +</p> +<p> +3. Rent of shop itself, and perhaps, also of a +warehouse. +</p> +<p> +4. Insurance of stock against fire. +</p> +<p> +5. Attendants to sell in shop. +</p> +<p> +6. Sending goods home to purchasers. +</p> +<p> +7. Expense of paper, string, &c. for packing +goods delivered. +</p> +<p> +8. Loss by plunder of servants. +</p> +<p> +9. Expense of taking stock to diminish this loss. +</p> +<p> +10. Goods soiled or injured by exposing to sale. +</p> +<p> +11. Goods going out of fashion, cheapened by +improved manufacture, or superseded by new inventions. +</p> +<p> +12. Giving long credit. +</p> +<p> +13. Bad debts. +</p> +<p> +14. Payment for his own personal services, as +retail trader. +</p> +<p> +15. Interest on capital employed. +</p> +<p> +§ Admitting, however, that these grounds fully +<span id='page-93' class='pagenum'>93</span>account for a large difference between the wholesale +and retail price, they will by no means justify +several practices which are too frequent at some +shops at the west end of the town. +</p> +<p> +Different prices for the very same article are +often demanded by retail tradesmen, according to +the supposed position of the purchaser. Fish, for +example, which varies much in price, and is at +times very cheap, will seldom be found charged in +the household bill much below the average price, +unless the housekeeper is honest and looks sharply +after the matter. Few circumstances more annoy +a customer or are more injurious to the tradesman +than this offence of having two prices. +</p> +<p> +When the same prices are charged equally to all +customers, it often happens that it is much higher in +the western than in less fashionable localities. This +may arise from a vicious system of giving credit, +and the extra price is necessary to compensate for +risk of loss, and of capital lying unproductive. The +effect, however, is injurious to the tradesman: +many of those who pay ready money and would +therefore be his best customers, desert the shop. +Those whose means are small, go to a greater +distance for the daily or weekly purchases; whilst +those possessed of larger incomes, purchase the +same articles, not only at a cheaper shop in the +city but in larger quantities, and therefore more +nearly at the wholesale price. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-94' class='pagenum'>94</span>Our foreign visitors naturally ask how it happened +that in the country of Adam Smith so +strange a mistake could have been made: they +inquire why none of the eminent disciples of that +school were placed on the Commission? They will +learn with surprise that our Minister of Commerce +took, as befitted his office, an active part in it; +that the great economist, to whose profound views +and extensive experience in monetary affairs more +than one minister has been indebted, was also a +member; that even the apostle of <i>free trade</i> himself, +whose successful exertions have been crowned +with merited reward, sat on the same commission; +and yet that the talents, the knowledge, and the +eloquence of such men, failed to convince the understandings +of their colleagues, who, in violation +of the first principles of “<i>Free trade</i>,” deliberately +raised an obstacle against <i>competition</i>. +</p> +<p> +Since the first edition of this work was printed, +the Crystal Palace has been filled by the industry +and peopled by the nations of the earth. The +fears of the ignorant, the hopes of the selfish, the +vaticinations of the shallow, have proved alike +groundless. Opinions expressed by the few who +were competent to judge, which were then scouted +as the ravings of visionaries, have now become +realized as facts. +</p> +<p> +However great the admitted advantages resulting +from the Exposition have been, still it has failed +<span id='page-95' class='pagenum'>95</span>to produce anything like the information which it +was calculated to afford. Many of those who most +rejoice in its success regret that so much perseverance +and energy have not, owing to one fatal +error, been permitted to accomplish the full amount +of good which they so well deserved to have achieved. +</p> +<p> +The public have now had ample opportunity of +forming their own opinion upon the question of +<i>price</i>; and they are almost unanimous in their +decision that without having the <i>price</i> on the +articles they examine, the collection is of little +intrinsic use to them, although it is a very agreeable +and splendid show. +</p> +<p> +No attempt to answer the arguments on that +question contained in the first edition of this work +has yet reached me. An entirely different reason +has now been assigned for the omission of <i>price</i>. +</p> +<p> +It is asserted that the shopkeepers of London +persuaded the Commissioners that if <i>prices</i> were +permitted to be fixed upon articles, they, the +shopkeepers, would destroy the Exhibition, by not +exhibiting anything themselves, and by their determination +ruin the producer, if, by affixing prices +to his produce, he should expose the “<i>secrets of +trade</i>.” +</p> +<p> +One of the proverbs most frequently appealed to +is⁠—deprecation of <i>protection</i> by one’s <i>friends</i>: +few cases have ever occurred in which its application +is more necessary. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-96' class='pagenum'>96</span>These friends thus maintain that the reason for +<i>forbidding prices</i> to be placed upon articles, stated +by the Commissioners to have been arrived at after +mature consideration, and <i>officially</i> communicated +by them to foreign governments,⁠—was not the <i>real +reason</i>. +</p> +<p> +The motive of the rule laid down by the Commission +seems to have been a conscientious wish +not to mislead the public, and was at most only an +error of judgment. +</p> +<p> +The <i>friends</i> of the Commission, however, have +imputed to them a line of conduct which, to use +the mildest form of expression, is highly undignified, +and have suggested that they were driven to the +adoption of the rule by fears which were absurd. +</p> +<p> +Some of the fashionable shopkeepers at the +West-end may have endeavoured to alarm their +too credulous customers by holding out such exaggerated +estimates of their own power; but the +mass of London tradesmen are a shrewder race, and +estimate more truly their own influence. They +well know, in the present state of rapid communication +throughout the land, that any such attempt must +necessarily fail. Imagine for a moment the present +race of butchers attempting to starve London by +combining to withhold meat. The utmost they +could accomplish, if so inclined, would be to put +their customers to some small and temporary inconvenience, +at the expense of certain ruin to themselves. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-97' class='pagenum'>97</span>The practical effect of forbidding prices has been +very unfortunate. The great and meritorious +efforts by which the plan has been carried out, +have been shorn of much of their utility. A building +of half the size, containing only articles <i>each</i> +of which had attached to it a short and clear statement +of the grounds on which it was exhibited, +and the price at which it could be acquired, would +have conveyed far more instruction to the public, +and have been far more effective for the promotion +of commerce, thus fulfilling much more completely +the two great objects of the Exposition. +</p> +<p> +To reply that prices may be obtained on inquiry, +betrays a childish ignorance of the whole subject. +It is practically impossible to obtain the required +information; and those who have made the effort, +have found that even in the cases where an attendant +is present to explain the articles, he is often +entirely ignorant of their price. +</p> +<p> +The effect of the absence of price on visitors is +a source of painful annoyance to themselves, and of +loss to the manufacturers and shopkeepers, from +whom they would otherwise have purchased largely. +</p> +<p> +Foreigners are so sensible of this defect, that +they have in many instances printed priced catalogues +of their own articles. Their interpretation +of our refusal to allow prices to be affixed is, that +we are unable to compete with other nations in +economy of production. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-98' class='pagenum'>98</span>The philosopher and the economist, by whose +researches and comparisons the public might have +been instructed, wander through the lofty avenues +and splendid galleries of the Crystal Palace, tantalized +by expectations, raised but to be disappointed. +They at last are compelled to abandon +their mission in hopeless despair, wilfully deprived, +by the managers of this industrial feast, of that +information on which all their conclusions must +ultimately rest. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_9'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_9'>9</a>] As by one of the rules each separate article exhibited +must have a number, the same numbers might be used in the +bills. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-99' class='pagenum'>99</span><h2 id='tg_9'>CHAPTER IX.<br> +<span class='smaller'>PRIZES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> great feature of the original plan of the +Exposition was to give large prizes. One, at least, +was to have been 5,000<i>l.</i>, and the whole amount of +them 20,000<i>l.</i></p> +<p> +The anticipation of these prizes gave hope and +industry to thousands: means were examined and +measures taken by many a workman, at the expense +of great personal sacrifices, to enable him to complete +a model of some favourite scheme, by which +he might hope to win one amongst the many pecuniary +prizes, and thus be repaid at least for a +portion of his efforts. +</p> +<p> +The announcement on the Continent of these +liberal arrangements was received with unbounded +astonishment and admiration. The magnitude of +the great prize seemed to foreigners incredible, and +the liberality of offering it to the competing world, +was altogether beyond their conception of the +character assigned to us as a nation. +</p> +<p> +It was certainly very unfortunate that such an +<span id='page-100' class='pagenum'>100</span>announcement should have been made and then +withdrawn. But as the question will probably +arise again, it may be useful for some future occasion +to inquire now into the principles on which +pecuniary prizes should be awarded. +</p> +<p> +Science, literature, and industrial art are in +some measure subject to the same laws in the +distribution of pecuniary rewards. It is desirable +that such prizes should be given to those objects +only which, possessing very considerable merit and +utility, are of such a nature as not to repay the first +inventors. +</p> +<p> +§ One effect of such rewards would be to increase +very much the number of minds engaged in making +inventions. This itself is a matter of more importance +than might at first be thought, as will be +shown on some future occasion in examining the +question of monopoly. +</p> +<p> +The inventor, the capitalist, and the manufacturer +of articles are usually distinct persons. Of these +the inventor is generally the least rewarded. The +capitalist and the manufacturer can almost always +make their own way to wealth, and if successful +their reward is usually large, and almost always +greater even than the highest prize which could be +offered by the managers of such an Exhibition as is +now contemplated. +</p> +<p> +If it were a condition for obtaining a prize that +no patent should be taken out, then the prize may +<span id='page-101' class='pagenum'>101</span>be considered as the purchase money of the patent +for the use of the public. If a patent is desired by +the inventor, a medal or an honorary prize might +be given, with the addition in certain cases of a +reward in money. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps an enumeration of some objects which +might become fit subjects for prizes, may best illustrate +these views. +</p> +<p> +§ One of the inventions most important to a class +of highly skilled workmen (engineers) would be +a small motive power,⁠—ranging perhaps from the +force of half a man, to that of two horses, which might +commence as well as cease its action at a moment’s +notice, require no expense of time for its management, +and be of moderate price both in original +cost and in daily expense. A small steam-engine +does not fulfil these conditions. In a town where +water is supplied at high-pressure, a cylinder and a +portion of apparatus similar to that of a high-pressure +engine, would fully answer the conditions, if +the water could be supplied at a moderate price. +Such a source of power would in many cases be invaluable +to men just rising from the class of journeyman +to that of master. It might also be of +great use to many small masters in various trades. +If the cost per day were even somewhat greater +than that of steam for an equal extent of power, +it would yet be on the whole much cheaper, +because it would <i>never consume power without doing</i> +<span id='page-102' class='pagenum'>102</span><i>work</i>. It might be applied to small planing and +drilling machines, to lathes, to grindstones, grinding +mills, mangling, and to a great variety of other +purposes. +</p> +<p> +§ In all large workshops a separate tool, or +rather machine, is used for each process, and this +contributes to the economy of the produce. But +many masters in a small way are unable to afford +such an expense, not having sufficient work for the +full employment of any one machine. +</p> +<p> +Of this class are many jobbing masters who live +by repairing machines. Such also are that class of +masters who make models of the inventions of +others and carry out for them their mechanical +speculations. To these two classes, that of amateur +engineers may be added. +</p> +<p> +The lathe with its sliding rest is the basis of +their stock. With this they can drill, and with the +addition of a few wheels can cut screws. The +further addition of a vertical slide will enable them +to plane small pieces of metal by means of facing +cutters on the mandril. By other additions the +teeth of wheels may also be cut, and in some rare +cases, a lathe may be converted into a small planing +machine. The loss of time in making the changes +necessary to enable the lathe to fulfil all these +different functions, necessarily confines its use to +the peculiar classes alluded to above, but to make +these changes is often less expensive than to be +<span id='page-103' class='pagenum'>103</span>obliged continually to send to larger workshops +where the heavier portion of their work can be +executed. It would certainly be desirable, if some +good plan cannot be devised for bringing the whole of +such operations within the reach of <i>one</i> machine of +moderate price, that at least a system should be +devised for combining them in <i>two</i> separate machines. +</p> +<p> +Some readers may possibly think such combinations +as have been mentioned, too minute and special +for the subject of a prize: but when it is considered +that they bear upon the interests of one of +the best classes of workmen, and how important it +is for the welfare of the community that skill, industry, +and intelligence should be assisted in their +efforts to rise in the social scale, these details will +be excused. +</p> +<p> +§ The improvements which have been made in +the economy of working voltaic batteries, lead to the +expectation that they may be employed as sources +of artificial light. Although the light thus obtained +is not yet sufficiently steady for general +use, it may possibly become available for light-houses. +</p> +<p> +Galvanic light offers some advantages for this +purpose on account of its intensity and of the +facility it affords for darkening and restoring the +light, by breaking and renewing the galvanic +circuit. +</p> +<p> +But it would be possible to adapt the same +<span id='page-104' class='pagenum'>104</span>principle of occultations to ordinary lighthouses. +It would only be necessary to apply mechanism +which should periodically pull down an opaque +shade over the glass cylinders of the argand burners. +This should be instantaneously thrown back by a +spring. A series of obscurations corresponding to +the digits of any number, and separated by any intervals, +might thus be continually repeated. +</p> +<p> +Ready means might thus be supplied of clearly +distinguishing one light-house from another. For +this purpose it would be necessary to denote the +light-houses on any coast by different numbers. +</p> +<p> +Any digit might be expressed by an equivalent +number of occultations and restorations of the light: +thus⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">2</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">3</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">0.0</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">0.0.0</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">0.0.0.0,</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">&c.,</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Again, the character of the digit might be indicated +by occultations preceded and followed, by +shorter or longer intervals of light. +</p> +<p> +At the commencement, the first digit of any +number, might be distinguished by a previous +uniform continuance of the light during ten or +twenty seconds, whilst the separation of each digit +from the next in order might be denoted by a +short pause of two or three or more seconds. +</p> +<p> +Thus, if the number of a light-house were 253: +after a cessation of any obscuration during ten +<span id='page-105' class='pagenum'>105</span>seconds, two occultations should follow each other +at intervals of about a second. A pause should +then occur during three seconds, after which five +occultations should occur, at intervals of one +second, as before. Another pause of three seconds +must then happen, and be succeeded by three +other occultations occurring at intervals of one +second each; after which ten seconds must elapse +before the cycle thus described is repeated. +</p> +<p> +These might be thus represented:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr class="x_small"> +<td colspan="6" class="align_c valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="11" class="align_c valign_t">2 hundreds.</td> +<td colspan="8" class="align_c valign_t">5 tens.</td> +<td colspan="12" class="align_c valign_t">3 units.</td> +<td colspan="6" class="align_c valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">\</td> +<td colspan="31" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">/</td> +<td colspan="10" class="align_r valign_t"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Thus, at about every half minute the number +of the lighthouse would be repeated. +</p> +<p> +In this manner any number under 1,000 may be +expressed in less than one minute; since the largest, +999, would require +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class="align_c valign_t">Seconds.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">For each digit 9, or in all</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">27</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Two short pauses between the digits</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">One long long pause at end of the number</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">10</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">43</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Every light-house, therefore, would be continually +repeating its own number. +</p> +<p> +It would contribute still more to prevent mistakes, +if the light-houses on a coast were not numbered +in succession; for should any mistake be made in +counting the obscurations, it would most probably +<span id='page-106' class='pagenum'>106</span>be detected if the digits of the numbers of the +light-houses on the same part of the coast were as +different as possible. +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td colspan="5" class="align_l valign_t">Lighthouse numbered in succession⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">234</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">235</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">236</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">237</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">238</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="5" class="align_l valign_t">Ditto irregularly⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">142</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">324</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">581</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">787</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">612</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +If a mistake of a single obscuration were made in +the units of the number 237, and it had been counted +236, this observation might, until repeated, mislead +the sailor, and induce him to suppose himself opposite +the preceding light-house. On the contrary, if the +irregular mode of numbering were adopted, the +mistake of 786 for 787 could not mislead, because +the seven in the hundreds place would point out +the error. It would, however, be better to have +the figure in the tens’ place also different in any +two light-houses so near that a possibility of mistake +is likely to occur. The general benefit which would +result to all maritime nations, renders the practical +application of these principles a peculiarly fit subject +for a prize. +</p> +<p> +Since the first edition of this work was published, +an occulting light has been exhibited for about +three weeks, representing during each night the +constant repetition of one of the following numbers, +136, 227, 354, 432. +</p> +<p> +As might easily have been anticipated, its effect +<span id='page-107' class='pagenum'>107</span>was quite satisfactory in determining those numbers. +At about a distance of a quarter of a mile, +its occultations were even more distinct than at +shorter distances. +</p> +<p> +Successive improvements have occurred, until it +now seems desirable to revise and simplify the light-houses +of the world, by making them speak one +universal language, intelligible even to the commonest +capacity. No time could be more favourable +than the present for establishing an international +system of signals, founded on numbers, +and adapted to the wants and convenience of all +nations. The following brief outline of such a +plan requires, therefore, no apology. +</p> +<p> +The present modes of identifying lighthouses +are by +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. The <i>colour</i> of the lights.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. The <i>number</i>, <i>distance</i>, and <i>relative position</i> of +the lights exhibited.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. The <i>variations</i> in colour or intensity, or in +the time during which the lights are partially +or totally obscured, compared with +that during which they are visible.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +4. By striking bells or gongs in foggy weather.</p> +<p> +There are around the coasts of Great Britain +about 290 light-houses and light-ships. They +exhibit nearly 390 lights. Of these, about one +hundred lights are coloured, chiefly red. Fifty-five +<span id='page-108' class='pagenum'>108</span>are revolving lights, varying in their periods from +five seconds to four minutes. In foggy weather +fifteen of these toll bells, and thirty-three strike +gongs. It is proposed to abolish all the revolving +lights, and to retain white light, to distinguish by +its occupations the number of the light-house which +it is destined to indicate. +</p> +<p> +With respect to those lighthouses which indicate +ports, next to the information as to the name of the +port, the most important question is the depth of +water at its entrance. This may be given by +allowing the occupations of the white light to +indicate the number of the port, after which a +glass of green or of any other colour being interposed, +the number of occultations mark the +number of feet of the depth of water at the +time. +</p> +<p> +A float in a well, to which the tide has access by +a small aperture, will serve the double purpose of +raising the weight that drives the mechanism for +occulting, and of prescribing, according to the +height of the tide in feet, the corresponding +number of occultations of the green light. +</p> +<p> +Thus a constant alternation will go on during +the whole night of repetitions of the <i>number</i> of the +port, by occultations of white light, and of the +number of feet which indicate the depth of water +at its entrance, by green light. +</p> +<p> +There are certain cases of obscuration of lights +<span id='page-109' class='pagenum'>109</span>by fog in which bells and gongs are continually +sounded. These convey information of danger, +but do not identify its position. The same +principle which gives numerical accuracy to light-houses, +and even the same mechanism, may be +made to operate during fogs with equal effect on +sounds. Thus, by striking the gong the requisite +number of times to indicate the hundreds, the +tens, and the units denoting the light, allowing, +of course, the usual pauses and the same long +intervals, the number of the light-house or light-ship +may be known as quickly and as certainly by +means of bells, or gongs, or other sounds, as by +the occultations of its light. +</p> +<p> +It may be worth examining what musical notes +are heard at the greatest distances through fogs, +and the sounds of what instruments penetrate +farthest amidst the roar of winds and waves. The +shrill whistle of the steam carriage should be tried +against the deep tones of the organ and the loud +noise of the trumpet. The most powerful sounds +produced by air require but little physical force +for their generation; and whenever the directions +in which it is necessary to give warning are known, +the sounds employed may be concentrated by reflectors, +in the same manner as light. +</p> +<p> +The depth of water at the entrance of harbours +may easily be indicated in the day-time by a tide-telegraph +governed by the same float which produces +<span id='page-110' class='pagenum'>110</span>the occultations during the night. Its form may be +as below, +</p> +<div class="image-center"> +<img src="images/telegraph.png" class="image_a" alt="The tide-telegraph."> +</div> +<p class='noindent'> +in which the arms projecting on the left side +indicate the tens; those on the right side the +units. The long arm for the fifth saves trouble +in counting. These arms must be movable on +centres within the mast, and must be governed by +cams connected with the float, so as to indicate at +any time the state of the tide. If it were found +necessary to distinguish light-houses during the +day, then signs expressing their permanent numbers +might be painted upon them, or fixed to masts +rising out of each. The right side of the telegraph +might, if required, be used as a day telegraph for +communicating with vessels.</p> +<p> +By means of such light-houses it would be easy +to convey telegraphic messages either to vessels in +distress, or for other purposes. It would simply +be required to use the light itself or a subsidiary +one to indicate a series of numbers corresponding +<span id='page-111' class='pagenum'>111</span>to those in some known Telegraphic Dictionary. +No danger of any mistake could arise during the +few minutes thus employed, because any other +vessel on counting the succession of obscurations +would not only perceive that the light-house was +telegraphing, but would also know the object of +the message. A small apparatus might easily be +contrived for the use of vessels, by which they +might ask any questions necessary for their safety. +Such means for ships sailing in company, or even +for fleets, might enable them to proceed on their +voyage during the night, and to communicate any +orders even with greater facility than in the day. +</p> +<p> +Sir David Brewster proposed in the <i>Edinburgh +Philosophical Transactions</i> a plan for distinguishing +light-houses by optical means. The light transmitted +through a thin film, when analysed by +a prism, appears either single, or subdivided into +two, three, four or more parts. Light-houses, therefore, +might thus be distinguished from one another +numerically. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-112' class='pagenum'>112</span><h2 id='tg_10'>CHAPTER X.<br> +<span class='smaller'>JURIES, ETC.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">a</span> clear statement of the <i>principles</i> on which +each jury is to award prizes, should be placed +before them. These principles ought to be well +discussed, and in that discussion manufacturers +should be invited to take a part.</p> +<p> +The first object of the jury should be to lay +down rules by which these principles are to be +carried out. Each class of the subjects to be +rewarded will have its own rules. They will +generally be few in number, and capable of being +expressed in few words: some of these are suggested +below, but merely by way of example. +</p> +<p> +One of the most general rules will indicate +the means by which the jury can ascertain the fact, +that the material of the manufacture under consideration +is truly the substance it is represented +to be. +</p> +<p> +For instance: some woven fabric is examined, +professing to be made either entirely of wool, or +wholly of flax. It may be quite true that experienced +<span id='page-113' class='pagenum'>113</span>manufacturers and dealers, are able to +detect any adulteration of either material by admixture +with the other. But statements of facts +made on authority, never possess the same weight +with the public as those which are accompanied +by information enabling any individual among that +public to verify the fact for himself. +</p> +<p> +The form of the fibre as shown by the microscope +is one test. A more simple one is to burn some +fibres in the flame of a candle. Every fibre which, +when thus treated, produces the smell of burnt +feathers, is animal matter of some kind, as wool, +silk, horse-hair, &c. The burnt fibres of hemp, +flax, cotton, and other vegetable matters have a +totally different scent; a fact of which any one +may readily assure himself by making the experiment. +</p> +<p> +It may perhaps be necessary in some cases to +wash the fabric under examination, lest in what is +termed the “getting up for the market,” some +animal matter or size might mislead. But the jury +ought to be acquainted with all such difficulties, and +they should state the method they took for investigating +them. +</p> +<p> +The microscope is of great use in the detection +of adulterations in most vegetable substances. +</p> +<p> +§ Every object produced is subject to certain +defects, and possessed of certain excellences: these +should be clearly enumerated. Whenever such +<span id='page-114' class='pagenum'>114</span>statements are expressed by numbers, the information +will be more satisfactory. +</p> +<p> +Thus, in cutting tools, as applied to various +metals, it is very important that the angle at which +the tool is applied, should be stated: it is also +necessary to state the angle which the edge of the +tool receiving the shaving cut off, makes with the +surface cut. The velocity of the tool in cutting +should be stated, also the names of the fluids, if +any, used in cutting. +</p> +<p> +The durability of woven fabrics, as well as of +a great variety of other manufactured articles, +is a most essential quality, on which, combined +with the price, their chief value to the customer +depends. +</p> +<p> +It is very desirable that the jury should find +satisfactory means of testing this most important +character, which is not discernible, even by the +most curious and instructed spectator. +</p> +<p> +The knowledge of the weight required for tearing +asunder any woven fabric, as a ribbon, a stay-lace, +tape, &c., together with the breaking weight of +their individual threads, and the number of these +threads in an inch, may in some cases be very +valuable, especially in coarse articles, such as sailcloth, +sacking, &c. +</p> +<p> +In other cases, the articles may be submitted to +twenty or thirty washings and dryings, during +which it may repeatedly be examined. The greatest +<span id='page-115' class='pagenum'>115</span>change will most frequently occur on the first +washing, which removes the dressing. +</p> +<p> +§ In many articles the durability of different +parts varies considerably. In some cases one part +will wear out, if replaced, many times before the +remainder of the article is at all injured by use. +In all such cases the jury should adopt such rules +as the following:⁠— +</p> +<p> +Examine the durability of each part, and also +the difficulty and the expense of replacing it when +injured. +</p> +<p> +Examine also, for the same purpose, what parts +are most exposed to injury or destruction by +accident. +</p> +<p> +Examine also the <i>relative</i> expense of putting the +article in a working state when first purchased and +brought home. +</p> +<p> +These rules will be best understood by an illustration. +Let us suppose a jury to be examining the +relative merits of several cottage stoves for cooking. +Of course the first inquiry will be as to +which admits of the best performance of the operations +of⁠— +</p> +<table class='center'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Boiling,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Baking,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Stewing,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Supply of hot water,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Roasting,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Ironing,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Broiling,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">&c.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The cost of the fuel must not only be given, +but also its weight, because the price of fuel varies +<span id='page-116' class='pagenum'>116</span>in different localities. The capability of using +different sorts of fuel in the several stoves, and the +amount of fuel so consumed for its equivalent of +coal, should also be stated. +</p> +<p> +These and other comparative inquiries having +been made, the durability of that part of the stove +which is subjected to the direct action of the burning +fuel, must be examined. It will be made either +of iron or of earthenware; and the relative merit of +the various stoves will, as far as this point is concerned, +consist in the facility and economy with which +such parts can be removed, and the corresponding +new parts be purchased and replaced in their proper +position. It is always desirable for the consumer +that the vendors of such articles should keep a stock +of the parts liable to wear out, and that the latter +should undertake to replace them at a fixed price. +</p> +<p> +Those parts of the stove which project so as to be +liable to accidental blows, and those which from their +more constant use are much exposed to accident, +as the hinges and the latches of doors, should then +be examined. These, if of cast-iron or other brittle +material, and constituting part of the substance of +the door, should be sufficiently strong to resist +fracture: if they are attached to it by rivets or +otherwise, they will be lighter and stronger when +made of wrought-iron. +</p> +<p> +The last inquiry is into the expense of fixing the +stove for use. It may be set in brickwork, within +<span id='page-117' class='pagenum'>117</span>the chimney, in which case it will require a bricklayer +and a large mass of materials in the shape of +bricks and mortar, and possibly of stone. Or it +may stand on its own base containing its own ash-pit, +and by means of a small iron pipe the smoke may +be conveyed into a flue. In this case almost any +workman with hammer and chisel and a small +quantity of mortar or cement, can fix it ready for +use. +</p> +<p> +Again, the stop-cock for the water-cistern may be +either hard-soldered, riveted, or screwed in. If the +latter, it can easily be unscrewed or reground when +necessary. The same remark applies to the leaden +supply-pipe; it may be connected by soldering, or +by a union joint. In the former case these parts +will require the aid not only of the tinman or coppersmith, +but also of the plumber. +</p> +<p> +§ The expense of repairing a machine does not in +all cases depend on the cost of the part replaced, or +even on the actual cost of replacing that part alone. +It often happened in the earlier days of locomotive +engines, that the expense of some small +reparation necessary to keep the machine in good +working order, did not amount to ten shillings; +whilst the expense of removing and replacing other +parts, without which the workman could not get at +the defective part, amounted to fifty or eighty shillings, +or even to a still larger sum. +</p> +<p> +Thus facility of getting at all the parts of an +<span id='page-118' class='pagenum'>118</span>engine for the purposes of repair, or even of examination, +is one of the advantages which the broad +possesses over the narrow gauge. +</p> +<p> +§ In many articles exposed to great or sudden +force, and to much wear and tear, it is very desirable +that if any breakage occur, it should happen +at that point where the consequences would be the +least dangerous to the persons using it, and the +reparation of it least expensive. +</p> +<p> +During a series of experiments made by the +author in 1839, on the Great Western Railway, it +was necessary, amongst a variety of other curves, to +cause a pen to draw upon long rolls of paper the +curve described by the centre of a carriage, projected +on the plane of the road. When everything +is in proper order, this line ought to be parallel to, +and in the middle between, the two rails. But it is +well known that instead of answering these conditions, +it often describes a <i>serpentine</i> curve, arising +from that snake-like motion of a train which the +carriages acquire by rolling alternately towards each +rail, until they are checked by the flanges pressing +against it. +</p> +<p> +To accomplish the drawing of the line above-mentioned, +it was necessary to have depending +from the carriage, a very stout jointed wooden arm, +terminating in an iron <i>shoe</i> with a steel projection. +This <i>shoe</i> was, by a powerful spring, pressed close +to the rail in the middle point between the two side +<span id='page-119' class='pagenum'>119</span>wheels of the carriage, and by a communication +with the pen the required curve was described. +</p> +<p> +But such an apparatus was exposed to very +rough work, and, in fact, was generally broken +three or four times during each experimental journey. +If the broken part had fallen between the +wheel and the rail, it might have caused a serious +accident. To prevent this the following precautions +were taken⁠— +</p> +<p> +The wooden arm was strengthened with thin +strips of iron, except at one part about an inch +long. At this part of the wood a small notch was +cut with a saw. The lower portion had a strong +iron eye fixed into it, which was connected loosely +to a hook by a rope passing through a hole in the +middle of the carriage. +</p> +<p> +Whenever the apparatus broke, it was always at +the notch. The position of the loose rope holding +the broken part was such, that the tendency was +immediately to drag it into the middle of the road +under the centre of the carriage. This at once removed +it from interference with the wheels. The +pen describing the curve soon gave notice by ceasing +to move laterally, that the arm was broken; +on which one of the assistants immediately took +hold of the loose rope, and pulling the broken +fragment close up to the bottom of the carriage, +prevented the possibility of any further danger. +</p> +<p> +§ If each jury were to explain concisely the +<span id='page-120' class='pagenum'>120</span>means employed by them to examine the qualities +of each class of objects submitted to them, much +valuable information would result. A collection of +these rules for the judgment or verification of +articles, if reduced into order, and published in a +small compass, by a competent person, at the close +of the Exposition, would be invaluable to the +public. The result would be beneficial to all <i>honest</i> +tradesmen, and injurious only to the <i>fraudulent</i>. +Such means when put into the hands of the public +would soon enable it to distinguish the genuine +from the sophisticated articles, and to select those +which in point of excellence and durability are best +suited to the means or wants of the purchaser.[<a href='#fn_10' id='fnb_10'>10</a>] +The increased knowledge of the public would be +felt by the retail dealers, and would make them +more anxious to obtain excellent and durable goods +from the manufacturer. +</p> +<p> +§ Several of the papers issued by the Commission +bear honourable testimony to the sagacity +of those who composed them. They treat the +persons addressed as reasoning men, explaining +to them the results contemplated: thus whilst +offering their own most strenuous exertions, they +admit that these would scarcely prove effective +without the co-operation of the public in a plan +devised for the common advantage of all. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-121' class='pagenum'>121</span>In former days had there been water-fowl in our +parks, some such notice as this would have been +placarded:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“Whoever throws stones at, or frightens these +birds, shall be prosecuted with the utmost severity +of the law.” +</p> +<p> +In the present day we read the much more +effective address, +</p> +<p> +“These birds are recommended to the protection +of the public.” +</p> +<p> +However ragged the coat of the passer-by, his +feelings not his fears are addressed, and his pride +is gratified by being appointed as it were a temporary +trustee for the safety of his feathered friends. +The advantage of acting upon this principle is not +confined merely to its direct efficiency for its purpose. +A still more important benefit remains +latent, one which never ought to be lost sight of in +the enactment or the administration of laws. +</p> +<p> +<i>It enlists public opinion in favour of law and of +order.</i>[<a href='#fn_11' id='fnb_11'>11</a>] +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-122' class='pagenum'>122</span>Thus aiding the prevention, the detection, and +the punishment of offenders, it renders the interference +of the police far less necessary, and when +called for, more effective. +</p> +<p> +§ This principle might perhaps be applied with +advantage to the admission under regulations of +certain classes of <i>skilled</i> workmen by means of +tickets, for a limited number of days. +</p> +<p> +Most effective assistance might be rendered both +to the police and to the attendants at the Exposition +by the following plan:⁠—Allow a certain +<span id='page-123' class='pagenum'>123</span>number of persons, in whom the executive can +repose confidence,⁠—generally master manufacturers +or employers,⁠—the privilege of recommending a +small number of their best and most regular +workmen or assistants, to whom should be +granted tickets of admission, subject to the following +conditions:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1. Tickets of admission shall be granted for +periods of from three to any greater number of +days. Some tickets being for the first three days +of each week, or otherwise, as may be convenient. +</p> +<p> +2. They shall either be gratuitous or obtainable +by a small payment. +</p> +<p> +3. Each ticket-holder shall wear the ticket by a +string from the button of his coat, or as may be +arranged. +</p> +<p> +4. He shall, when required by the police or attendants, +assist in any duty they may desire for the +safety or general convenience of the expositors. +</p> +<p> +5. Whenever he observes any irregularity, or +has reason to believe that thieves or improper +persons have obtained admission, he is to inform +the nearest policeman. +</p> +<p> +6. Whenever he observes any machine or any +object exhibited, to be out of order, or in danger +of being injured, or its parts misplaced, he is to +communicate the fact to the nearest attendant, who +will refer him to the proper superintendent of that +department. He will explain the defect he has +<span id='page-124' class='pagenum'>124</span>pointed out, and if asked by the superintendent, he +is to put it in order, or suggest to him some other +person then present, who may be better able to +complete the reparation. +</p> +<p> +7. Each master should be required to pledge +his word that he will only recommend trustworthy +persons. Each workman admitted might simply +be required to give his word of honour that he +would assist. +</p> +<p> +These regulations ought to be printed and stuck +up in various parts of the building. +</p> +<p> +It would, indeed, be desirable to have a certain +number of boards placed in the most public parts +of the Exposition, on which should be fixed and +properly classified all rules, and other information +useful to the public. Also notices as to prices and +hours of visiting the Exposition might from time +to time be affixed. Each board ought also to have +a plan of the ground-floor and galleries of the +building, on which the names of the different subjects +and countries occupying the various parts, +might be readily ascertained by the visitors. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_10'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_10'>10</a>] Several valuable papers containing rules of this kind +have lately appeared in the <i>Lancet</i>. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_11'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_11'>11</a>] The ancient law of rendering the hundred responsible for +damages done by a mob, is founded on this principle. It is so +important, that the reader will, perhaps, pardon another illustration. +</p> +<p> +Amongst boys as amongst men, a degree of pugnacity exists, +to the annoyance of the more quiet portion. This was +checked at a certain school by giving full permission to the +boys to fight whenever they liked, and at the same time prescribing +certain simple rules for the combat, as follows:⁠— +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. When two boys wish to fight, they must inform the +chief usher of their wish.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. He must appoint a time for the combat, not sooner +than three, nor more than six hours, after the notice.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. At the appointed time, if the lads are still desirous of +the contest, the chief usher must take the pugnacious +ones to an enclosure, where they cannot be seen by +their comrades. He then desires them to fight +until they are tired, he standing by to see fair play.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +4. Any boy present or assisting at an illegal fight will be +punished.</p> +<p> +The consequence is that their honour or their ill-humour is +soon satisfied. No party is made, to back them; no friends +call out to them, “Give it him, Tom!” “At him, Jack!” +Their pugnacity is not, as it has been in some instances +at public schools, unnaturally excited by the stimulus either +of betting or of brandy. +</p> +<p> +After long experience, it was found that quarrels rarely +arrived at a fight. It was the <i>interest</i> of all the rest of the +school to make some just and amicable arrangement. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-125' class='pagenum'>125</span><h2 id='tg_11'>CHAPTER XI.<br> +<span class='smaller'>ULTERIOR OBJECTS.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Besides</span> those universal advantages which will +result, in a greater or less degree, to every nation +maintaining friendly intercourse with its neighbours, +there are others arising from the Exposition, which +may be secured by a little industry and small expense, +if timely thought is bestowed upon them.</p> +<p> +There are also opportunities for advancing several +kindred subjects to which it may be useful to +allude. +</p> +<p> +The most obvious is the facility it will afford of +making extensive collections of examples of the present +state of many industrial products.[<a href='#fn_12' id='fnb_12'>12</a>] All woven +manufactures, for example, might be arranged in +books. A small piece of each article being pasted +in, might be followed by a short statement of the +various facts relating to it⁠—as, for example, a piece +of plain cambric⁠— +</p> +<div class="avoid_break"> +<p class="align_c small one_space"> +<span id='page-126' class='pagenum'>126</span><span class="small-caps">Plain Cambric.</span> (Date.) +</p> +<div class="align_c small space_after"><div class="block_align_l">Woven in a ---- loom, at ---- by ----<br> +Number of threads in warp.<br> +Number of threads of weft, in ten inches length.<br> +Breadth of piece in inches.<br> +Length of piece in yards.<br> +Weight per square yard.<br> +Price per yard retail.<br> +Price per piece of ---- yards, as sold by the manufacturer.<br> +</div></div></div> +<p> +Coloured woven goods might be similarly arranged +as regards colour, and the note connected +with them ought to contain the name and locality +of the dyer, and also the nature of the dye used. +Such volumes would hereafter become highly instructive, +and save many costly experiments. But +it will be necessary to provide against, or to +allow for the fading of the colouring matter. This +could be done only by preserving some portion of +it unchanged by time or exposure. Woven fabrics +will not supply this test, but another department +of manufacture would, if properly treated, give by +the permanence of its colours, invaluable aid not +only to many arts, but also to the naturalist and +the man of science. +</p> +<p> +§ The enamel colours used on porcelain, have +the permanent character required. Different manufactories +excel in different colours. The first step +therefore would be to invite each manufacturer to +send tablets of porcelain of a given size, on which +are to be painted a number of small squares, containing +<span id='page-127' class='pagenum'>127</span>all the pure colours he employs. Besides +these squares, a certain number of other squares +should contain two or more combinations of these +colours, two by two, or in such proportions as are +usually employed. +</p> +<p> +The comparison of these tablets would indicate +where the purest and most useful porcelain colours +could be obtained. The next step would be that +a small committee of manufacturers and men of +science, should decide on the number of combinations +and shades of colour it might be desirable to +bring together as permanent and standard objects +of reference. +</p> +<p> +The different makers of porcelain should then +each receive an order for a certain number of +tablets containing those colours in which they +respectively excel. Each small square should be +numbered. A sufficient quantity of the proper +materials constituting each colour, should then be +mixed in the proper proportion, and applied at the +same time, to the same number on each tablet; +and these tablets should be exposed to the fire +under as nearly as possible the same circumstances +of heat, and for the same length of time. +</p> +<p> +Thus an extensive system of unchangeable +colours might be obtained, and if 500 sets were +made, they might be distributed in all the great cities +and universities of the world. It might perhaps +be found that certain colours were deficient, and +<span id='page-128' class='pagenum'>128</span>this would of course stimulate discovery by making +known the want. Thus, in the course of upwards +of twenty-five years, during which the author has +been collecting on a small scale, such tablets of +colours, he has been unable to meet with any specimen +of an enamel colour at all approaching to the +pure scarlet of the common geranium. +</p> +<p> +The utility of such sets of standard colours +would be very great, enabling all nations to speak +a language regarding colour at once accurate and +universal. It might serve as the starting point and +the test of many analogous collections of materials +tinted by colours of more transitory duration, +whose relative degree of fixity might thus be +measured: as silks, cottons, linens, woollens, leather, +paper, and many other materials. +</p> +<p> +There are two coloured substances which seem +to promise a higher degree of permanence than +those just mentioned⁠—sealing-wax and glass. For +these admit of the renewal of their surfaces by +grinding, in case atmospheric or external causes +should have altered or impaired the superficial +colour. +</p> +<p> +A collection of small squares of sealing-wax +would be cheaper, and might if duly verified by +comparison with the porcelain standard be in many +cases a useful instrument. Glass also might supply +a suit of transparent colours of great interest. A +complete collection of the enamel colours used for +<span id='page-129' class='pagenum'>129</span>the mosaic work made at Rome would also be +instructive. +</p> +<p> +§ Perhaps the most important advantage which +such an Exposition can confer, is to instruct the +consumer in the art of judging of the character of +the commodity he is about to purchase. Besides +the money we pay in return for the skill, labour, +and capital expended in producing each article we +purchase; a further, and often a very considerable +sum is paid in order to assure us that it possesses +those qualities which the vendor has asserted. +This is called the <i>cost of verification</i>; in some +cases, as in that of white sugar, it is very small, +for almost every one can see by its external character +the degree of goodness of that article. In +other cases nothing less than a whole life spent in +acquiring a knowledge of his subject, can be of any +avail, as <i>in the case of the purchase of a field</i>. +The verification of the fact that the vendor has +really the right to sell it, can, in many cases, be +arrived at only by a profound chancery-lawyer, and +sometimes requires an expense even beyond the +value of the field itself. +</p> +<p> +When the purchaser has been convinced that he +is no judge of the goodness of an article, he usually +buys it at some shop having the reputation of +selling only the best of the kind. In this case he +justly pays a higher price to the vendor, who ought +to be remunerated for his skill in selecting good +<span id='page-130' class='pagenum'>130</span>articles from the manufacturer or merchant, and +for his integrity in not taking advantage of the +ignorance of his customer. +</p> +<p> +It may be contended that it is cheaper for the +purchaser to pay for the use of the skill and integrity +of the vendor than to spend his own +time in acquiring the same skill; and in many +instances this is true. Still, however, the integrity +remains to be paid for, and if simple and ready +modes of verification were more generally known, +a very large portion of this loss of time would be +saved. +</p> +<p> +In all those articles which are easily verified the +retail price varies but little; whilst on those that +are difficult to verify, the price of the same article, +although apparently of the same quality, will be +found to vary considerably at different shops. +</p> +<p> +The duties of the various juries who will examine +and recommend the articles for which prizes are to +be awarded, will require much consideration. It +cannot be expected, even after long experience +through several successive expositions, that it would +be possible to form a jury which should satisfy +every exhibitor. Much, however, may be done, +even at the first, by a sincere desire to arrive at +just conclusions, and by an earnest endeavour to +inform the public of the principles, and to point out +the observations, which have led their judgment to +the decisions at which they may arrive. Each of the +<span id='page-131' class='pagenum'>131</span>purely mechanical arts is allied to one or more of +the sciences; almost all their various processes are +amenable to, and explicable by known laws; it is +possible for him who is a perfect master of his own +craft, so to explain them without technical terms, +and in the language of common sense, that most +persons of tolerably liberal education, and possessing +a fair average intellect, may not only understand +the effect produced, but admire the ingenuity +by which it was attained. +</p> +<p> +§ It is of great importance that an effort should +be made to remove that veil of mystery which unfortunately, +even in minds otherwise well instructed, +often shrouds the principles on which perfection in +manufactures, in science, and still more remarkably +in the fine arts, depends. These principles nevertheless +are founded immutably on the nature of the +material world around us, as well as upon our own +internal feelings. Those which regulate taste are as +general, although its rules are not so precise, as those +which relate to physics. Nor need it be dreaded +that a knowledge of the <i>grounds</i> of that admiration +which works of genius ever command from cultivated +minds, should diminish the pleasure derived +from their contemplation. +</p> +<p> +Show to the student some mechanism effecting +results apparently beyond the reach of the art, and +he becomes impressed with the immense distance +between his own intelligence and that which contrived +<span id='page-132' class='pagenum'>132</span>it. Explain to him the simple means and +the beautiful combinations by which it is effected, +you then raise him in his own estimation, and the studious +disciple thus instructed, will ultimately arrive +at the conclusion that the only distance which is +really <i>immense</i>, is that existing between the perfection +of the highest work of human skill and the +simplest of the productions of nature. +</p> +<p> +§ In questions relating to taste the subject matter +is so idealized, that the enthusiastic and the timid +equally dread its contact with the more sober +powers of reasoning, lest the process of analysis +should disenchant its visionary scenes, and dissolve +the unreal basis of their delight. Taste the most perfect, +without a knowledge of the principles on which +it rests, resembles the barren instinct of animals: +like them, it gathers but little improvement from +experience, and like them it perishes with the extinction +of the individual life; its labours leave no +inheritance to its race. +</p> +<p> +Taste united with an intimate knowledge of its +principles, and still more if conjoined with the +power of eliminating from the fleeting relations +amongst the objects of its attention, those resemblances +which, when sufficiently multiplied and +defined, lead up to the discovery of higher generalizations, +confers upon its enviable possessor a double +source of happiness; it adds the delight of an intellectual +triumph to those romantic feelings which are +<span id='page-133' class='pagenum'>133</span>excited by the beautiful, the lovely, or the sublime +in Nature, or which are suggested by the most +perfect representations of art. +</p> +<p> +The comprehension of the cause of our pleasure renders +us more acute to perceive those elements which +conduce to its existence, to trace their connexion, +to estimate their amount, to mould into form, and +to call up for the happiness of others and of ourselves, +their endless combinations. +</p> +<p> +There is, however, for that rare union of judgment, +imagination, and taste, which we call genius, +when each exists in due proportion and in rich +abundance, a yet higher object, a still nobler ambition. +To have given to mankind those models, +which, after twenty centuries, still rivet their attention, +commanding unbounded admiration and +defying rivalry, is indeed a splendid achievement, +justly repaid by the undying fame which +accompanies the names of those benefactors to +mankind. +</p> +<p> +But great as undoubtedly our gratitude ought to +be for such gifts, it is trifling compared with that +which civilized society would owe to him, who +should instruct us in the <i>principles</i> that guided the +intellect as well as the hands, of those by whom +such immortal works were executed. +</p> +<p> +In the fine arts, and in the arts of industry, as +well as in the pursuits of science, the highest +department of each is that of the discovery of +<span id='page-134' class='pagenum'>134</span>principles, and the invention of methods. To investigate +the laws by which human intellect picks +with caution its uncertain track through those +obscure and outlying regions of our knowledge +which separate the known and the certain from +the unknown;⁠—to teach us how to cast as it were +an intellectual and temporary connecting line across +that chasm, by which a new truth is separated from +the old⁠—confident that when arrested by that +isolated truth it will have fixed itself upon one solid +point, amidst a floating chaos of error,⁠—confident +also that, when once the fixity of that single point +has been assured, it is always <i>possible</i>, however +formidable the task, to link it by innumerable ties +to established knowledge, and thus to fill up the +intervening space even to the very boundary of its +enlarged domain:⁠—to achieve such a conquest in +any science surpasses all other discoveries, for it +supplies tools for the use of intellect, and enlarges +the limits and the powers of human reason. +</p> +<p> +§ One of the great advantages of the Exposition +will arise from the interchange of kindly feelings +between the inhabitants of foreign countries and our +own. The classes who visit us will consist neither +of the very elevated nor of the very low. They +will all of them, probably, possess more instruction +and information than the average of their class +amongst their countrymen: consequently they will +consist of persons the most likely to derive instruction +<span id='page-135' class='pagenum'>135</span>from their visit, and therefore to return home +with pleasing impressions. +</p> +<p> +It has been found on the continent that the +periodic unions of men of science have had an excellent +effect in removing jealousies and establishing +friendships. It has not unfrequently happened +that two philosophers have met in such societies, +and have entered into discussions which have enabled +each to appreciate more justly the talent of the +other, before one of them was aware that he +had formerly criticised a work of his new friend, in +terms which their present good understanding would +effectually prevent him from repeating. +</p> +<p> +The experience we have had of the visit of the +National Guard of Paris, strongly confirms this view. +It brought out the better feelings of our nature +towards our neighbours, and all classes took their +share in endeavouring to make those visits agreeable. +On their return home, the feeling excited by the +visit was conveyed far beyond the actual visitors; +and it has left on the population of Paris a permanent +advance in good will towards Englishmen. +</p> +<p> +§ Several objects may be suggested whose discussion +would be of the greatest importance for the +advancement of the industrial arts, but which are +not within the scope of the Exhibition. There are, +however, other places of meeting where some of +these might be discussed. The Society of Civil +Engineers might entertain some inquiries, whilst +<span id='page-136' class='pagenum'>136</span>the Statistical Society would be the most appropriate +place for others. +</p> +<p> +A few of these objects may be shortly alluded to. +</p> +<p> +§ The law of patents is, perhaps, one of the most +interesting as well as of the most difficult questions. +Amongst our visitors, doubtless, there will be several +who have studied the subject in their own country +and who might assist us by their information and +experience. +</p> +<p> +§ We have another law⁠—that of partnership⁠—which +presents greater obstacles to the advance of +the mechanical arts than even the defective state of +the patent law. In England, whoever enters into a +partnership, however small a share of the profits he is +to receive, yet his whole fortune becomes responsible +for any losses. In most other countries there are +a class of partnerships called anonymous, or <i>en commandite</i>, +in which persons willing to risk only +a limited sum are entirely relieved of all further +responsibility. +</p> +<p> +The effect of our English system is highly unfavourable +to inventors. It prevents in all but a few +cases a small capital from being raised by the joint +contributions of persons more immediately acquainted +with the character and prospects of the inventor, +and who are in that respect best fitted to measure +the chance of his success. +</p> +<p> +A far greater impediment, however, arises from +its entirely preventing a considerable quantity of +<span id='page-137' class='pagenum'>137</span>capital from being directed to inventions. Its +operation may be thus explained. +</p> +<p> +There exist in this country a great number +of persons of manufacturing and commercial habits, +whose knowledge of men is considerable, and whose +judgment of the capabilities of a proposed scheme +or invention, is cautious and judicious. +</p> +<p> +Persons of this description often possess capital, or +such credit as easily to command its use. If partnerships +could be entered into, in which the liability +was limited, many persons so circumstanced would +naturally use their skill and knowledge in selecting +a certain number of schemes, in each of which they +would embark a small sum. By thus spreading +the risks over an extensive field, the profits to the +capitalist would be much more certain: whilst many +an excellent invention now lost for want of capital +to carry it out, would thus enrich its inventor and +benefit the country. +</p> +<p> +§ Connected with the subject of patents is another, +which is of some consequence to the public. Many +of those capable of improving the arts by new inventions, +have no desire to secure their discoveries by +patent and thus to render them profitable to themselves, +but are willing to give the public the entire +advantage. +</p> +<p> +Now it is supposed that, if an inventor, under +the existing law, publishes the drawings of an +engine which has not actually been constructed, a +<span id='page-138' class='pagenum'>138</span>machine-maker might make the machine, take out +a patent for it, and supply the public to the exclusion +even of the inventor himself. +</p> +<p> +If the invention is a purely mechanical contrivance, +it is quite possible with mere drawings and +with the aid of the Mechanical Notation to demonstrate +the possibility of its construction and of all +its movements, with the same certainty as that with +which a proposition in Euclid is proved. +</p> +<p> +It seems then desirable, that some mode of +publication should be arranged by which the public +should really enjoy the gifts which science may +present without risking monopoly by an interloper. +</p> +<p> +$ The subject of co-operation is one of the greatest +importance, and like many other social questions +neither its principles nor its limits seem to be clearly +understood. It is of the utmost importance that +the masses should be enlightened on a subject so +exciting, and bearing so directly on their interests. +But until it has been further investigated, and +numerous instances having a practical connexion +with its principles have been collected, it is hopeless +to attempt a popular treatment of the subject. It +would be highly desirable that those of our foreign +visitors who have at all studied that most important +question, should communicate to us the results of +their experience. +</p> +<p> +§ The <i>Mechanical Notation</i> to which a slight allusion +has been made, is a system of signs by which +<span id='page-139' class='pagenum'>139</span>all machinery may be perfectly described even without +the necessity of any explanation in words. It forms +in fact an universal language, which will be, when +generally employed, capable of being read by every +people, just as the Arabic numerals are at present. +</p> +<p> +It has now been in use for more than twenty-five +years, during which time many improvements and +additions have been made. A considerable portion of +it was published in 1826.[<a href='#fn_13' id='fnb_13'>13</a>] Amongst the subsequent +additions there is one called the Mechanical Alphabet, +which consists of very simple but expressive +signs placed above those letters of the alphabet used +to express certain parts of machinery. Possibly from +100 to 200 of such signs may be required. Now +before any publication is made of those already used, +it is of the greatest importance that they should be +thoroughly revised, and that practical mechanicians +familiar with every branch of the art, should contribute +information respecting the requirements in their +different departments. Those also who are most experienced +in the art of mechanical drawing, ought to +confer together respecting the new rules according +to which all drawings should have letters attached +to the various parts of the machinery they represent. +</p> +<p> +The <i>universality of the language</i> is of such +importance, that it would be quite mischievous +hastily to publish to the world any other than +a well-considered system of signs. The Exposition +<span id='page-140' class='pagenum'>140</span>of 1851 furnishes an opportunity for such a revision. +</p> +<p> +§ Considerable discussion has arisen respecting +the ultimate fate of the Crystal Palace. Three questions +have been agitated:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1. Shall it be pulled down? +</p> +<p> +2. Shall it be removed to another locality? +</p> +<p> +3. To what uses can the building be applied if +it is retained? +</p> +<p> +Public opinion has undergone a great revolution +since the opening of the Exhibition; but however +strongly it may now be expressed, it ought not to +interfere with public faith. If, after all the protestations +and pledges of the Commission, that +the building was to be of temporary duration, it +should be permitted to remain permanently in its +present locality, little faith will be given in future +to the promises of public bodies. The pledge contained +in the document by which the Commission +was appointed, viz. that 20,000<i>l.</i> should be given +in prizes, has neither been redeemed nor forgotten; +and the treatment of the income-tax by the successive +political parties has added little to the respect with +which official promises are regarded. +</p> +<p> +If the country had originally maintained its undoubted +right to use its own parks for its own +purposes, the building might then have remained; +but the inhabitants of Belgravia, having raised a +violent opposition to the selection of that locality, +<span id='page-141' class='pagenum'>141</span>were only pacified on receiving the strongest assurances +that the building should be removed after +it had fulfilled its original purpose. In justice +therefore to them, it must be taken down. +</p> +<p> +The second question, Shall the Crystal Palace be +removed? is by no means decided by the answer +given to the first. It would be perfectly consistent +with good faith to remove it to any other part of +the park not contiguous to Belgrave Square. +</p> +<p> +The third question, therefore, To what uses can +the building be applied? must now be examined, +in order to arrive at a definitive decision upon the +second. +</p> +<p> +A wish seems to be very generally entertained +for the preservation of the building; and various +uses have been suggested to which it might be +advantageously applied. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Paxton wishes to convert it into a winter +garden. +</p> +<p> +M. Gambardella, in his highly interesting pamphlet, +“What shall we do with the Glass Palace?”[<a href='#fn_14' id='fnb_14'>14</a>] +has proposed to have within its walls alternately +exhibitions of painting and of sculpture. +</p> +<p> +Permanent galleries of the fine arts have also +been proposed. +</p> +<p> +Collections of the industrial arts, and models, +have also been suggested. +</p> +<p> +A portion of it might also be appropriated to the +<span id='page-142' class='pagenum'>142</span>building of several theatres for lectures, of various +sizes, capable of containing from 100 to 2,000 +persons. +</p> +<p> +The great principle to be borne in mind is, that, +whatever the future destination of the building, it +must be self-supporting. The best and most certain +test of its utility to the public is furnished by the +fact of their being willing to pay for the enjoyments +it affords them. +</p> +<p> +The plan of having a considerable portion of the +building devoted to a winter garden would supply +a great want in our wet and uncertain climate. +The temperature ought not to be high, so that +exercise might be taken under shelter. No dogs, +horses, or carriages ought to be admitted. +</p> +<p> +A large portion of those residing in the immediate +neighbourhood would subscribe, and also many +who possessed carriages. But the number of subscribers +would depend chiefly on the position chosen +for the building. In its <i>present</i> locality, the prejudices +of the wealthier class would be increased by the +injustice of retaining it in violation of the strongest +pledges, and it would probably have a very limited +number of subscribers. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps it might be desirable to add reading-rooms +for newspapers and for the periodical literature +of the day. Subscriptions to these might be +either for limited periods, or even for a single day. +A refreshment-room, also, would be required. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-143' class='pagenum'>143</span>If, however, the building were removed to the +situation proposed in the seventh chapter of this +volume, it would be accessible to a much larger +number of subscribers. Its two ends being then +placed at a small distance from the two great +thoroughfares passing Hyde Park Corner and the +Marble Arch, a large number of its visitors would +arrive by the omnibuses which pass each of those +well-frequented localities. +</p> +<p> +Space might readily be found either for periodical +or permanent galleries of painting and of sculpture. +An objection has been made to the former, namely, +that the light in the glass palace is not fit for the +exhibition of paintings. It is singular that it should +not have occurred to such objectors that this is +almost the only building in which, from its very +nature, there exists the most unlimited control over +both the quantity and the direction of light that +may be required. +</p> +<p> +The profit to be derived from this part of the +establishment will, as in the former questions, depend +greatly on the situation of the building. +</p> +<p> +Another plan, mentioned in the first edition of +this work, was, to have collections of the produce +and manufactures exhibited on the present occasion. +Few applications of the building would be more appropriate, +and scarcely any could be more useful, +than this. Fortunately, the Executive Committee +have undertaken the task, and it cannot be doubted +<span id='page-144' class='pagenum'>144</span>that the exhibitors will willingly lighten their labour +by giving every assistance in their power. One or +two suggestions may here be offered, for the purpose +of impressing on the exhibitors at future Expositions +the great importance of attaching to each object a +brief and condensed account of facts connected with +it. In the article of raw materials there will not be +much difficulty, as there are many instances of excellence +in that department. The case of drugs from +Liverpool is a good illustration. Their price, however, +is omitted, because it was forbidden. In the permanent +collection, this most important element will, +of course, occupy its proper place. It might also +be useful to give the date of the first importation +of each drug, and the first application to its various +uses. The quantity, also, of the chemical element +on which its use is founded contained in a given +weight of the substance would, if known, be highly +interesting: as, for instance, the quantity of quinine +in a given weight of bark. +</p> +<p> +In making a collection of machines, there is some +fear of occupying a very large space without a corresponding +advantage. A lace frame, making in +one breadth of fifteen feet from sixty to a hundred +repetitions of the same lace, would, commercially +speaking, be the most advantageous; but such a +frame with only ten repetitions would be more +useful for instruction. The various self-acting mules, +also, would easily fill a large room. Perhaps the +<span id='page-145' class='pagenum'>145</span>collection might be confined to working models: +these might be made, from time to time, to replace +the larger machines, and funds for that purpose +might be derived from the payments of the visitors +both to the exhibition and to the lectures which +ought to be given to explain the collection. +</p> +<p> +In making a collection of specimens of manufactured +articles, as well as of produce, it would in +many cases add little to the expense if a sufficient +quantity were purchased to divide into many samples. +Thus, the collections of foreign countries and of our +own cities might be enriched by authentic specimens. +This view applies more particularly to collections +of woven fabrics. +</p> +<p> +A well authenticated collection of cotton, flax, +wool, and silk, in the raw state, through all their +successive stages of manufacture, up to the woven +fabrics of which they constitute the basis, if accompanied +by the prices of each at intervals of +ten years during the last century, would furnish +materials of the most valuable kind, and would +greatly aid the economist, the statesman, and the +philosopher, in discovering and putting to the +test the principles connected with their several +inquiries. +</p> +<p> +It is not necessary, or even desirable, that this +collection should consist of articles of fancy: it +ought to be composed of all those fabrics which, +although at first rare and costly, have ultimately +<span id='page-146' class='pagenum'>146</span>become objects of habitual consumption by large +classes of the community. +</p> +<p> +Another purpose of great importance to which a +portion of such a building might be applied, is the +construction of convenient theatres for the delivery +of lectures, and for the discussion of questions of +interest. The want of such buildings in the western +part of the metropolis has long been felt, and acts +injuriously on the progress of knowledge. +</p> +<p> +In the present state of society, oral statements of +the great principles which govern it, illustrated by +striking facts drawn with judgment from varied +sources, would, if delivered with ability and good +taste, attract large audiences. Even science itself +might be rendered popular by such means. Yet if any +highly gifted person, qualified for such a task, were +willing to devote to the subject the time necessary +to assure the success of his efforts, he would now be +stopped at the very threshold, for he could find no +convenient theatre in any part of the west of +London, which he could hire for the delivery of +such a course of lectures. +</p> +<p> +The only theatre capable of holding 1,000 +persons, is that of the Royal Institution in Albemarle +Street. Let us suppose the lecturer +capable of attracting 1,000 subscribers, each willing +to pay a sovereign for a short course of lectures. +How would the sum thus raised be divided? He +could lecture at that theatre only by the permission +<span id='page-147' class='pagenum'>147</span>of the Managers, who would scarcely pay him more +than 100<i>l.</i>[<a href='#fn_15' id='fnb_15'>15</a>] for the course. The 1,000<i>l.</i> therefore, +which the public would willingly pay for the +instruction they received would be thus divided:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">To the intellect which charmed them</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">To the rent of the room in which they listened</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">900</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>1,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +If the 900<i>l.</i> were the remuneration of the creative +mind, and the 100<i>l.</i> were the payment for the use +of the room and the necessary attendants, the +information of several classes of society would be +far other than it now is, and the status of the +lecturer would be entirely altered. At present, +however great the talent of the instructor, his +position is not exactly that which the interests of +society demand. The term, <i>itinerant</i> lecturer, +has long been one of reproach, and even now it +is not thought quite dignified in a gentleman to +give a lecture <i>for money</i>. The reason is obvious: +nothing is thought respectable in England which +does not produce wealth. Any shrewd and unscrupulous +fellow, who swindles on a gigantic +scale, will, if he succeed, be immediately received +with welcome into what is called the best society. +Neither wit nor talent are necessary for his admission: +if, indeed, he be horridly vulgar, a few +<span id='page-148' class='pagenum'>148</span>additional hundreds of thousands will procure him +absolution in fashionable eyes, even for that most +deadly sin. +</p> +<p> +Enable the instructor to receive his due portion +of that reward which the public are willing to +pay, and he too will become rich, and therefore +eminently respectable. With this increased remuneration, +minds of a higher order will be attracted +to the study of the most difficult of arts,⁠—that of +teaching; and the time will arrive when accomplished, +enlightened, and independent men may earn +from five to ten thousand a-year without courting +a constituency for parliamentary influence, or a +minister for justice to merit he is incapable of +appreciating. +</p> +<p> +Such results, however, demand the use of convenient +theatres of various sizes, placed in situations +easily accessible. +</p> +<p> +It appears then that, on every ground which has +been considered, the utility of the Crystal Palace +will depend almost entirely on the situation chosen +for its ultimate position. +</p> +<p> +Looking at the question in a purely commercial +view, considering the difficulty of access from the +north to its present locality; contrasting it with the +facility of access from every quarter in the site proposed; +it is not too much to presume that its +revenue would be so greatly enlarged by the removal, +that it would justify an expenditure of forty +or even of fifty thousand pounds. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_12'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_12'>12</a>] The French chamber has devoted 50,000 francs to the +purchase of specimens.⁠—(<i>Illustrated News</i>, 2d. Feb. 1851.) +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_13'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_13'>13</a>] Phil. Trans. 1826, p. 250. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_14'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_14'>14</a>] Published by Aylott and Jones, Paternoster Row. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_15'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_15'>15</a>] It is far from the author’s intention to reproach in the +slightest degree the Managers of that most valuable Institution. +Every member having a right to be present at every lecture, +it is not in their power to do otherwise. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-149' class='pagenum'>149</span><h2 id='tg_12'>CHAPTER XII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Several</span> causes have justly lowered the position +of science in England. The conduct of the Royal +Society, and of men of science themselves, has +equally contributed to this result. In a work +on the Decline of Science[<a href='#fn_16' id='fnb_16'>16</a>] in 1830, I exposed the +wretched mismanagement of the Royal Society, but +not until in conjunction with Wollaston and other +eminent men, I had found the inutility of every effort +we made to improve it from within. Our reform +bill stands recorded upon the minutes of the council, +with the signatures of Wollaston, of Young, of +Herschel, and of others whose names ought to have +commanded respect: but it was defeated by an ingenious +manœuvre.</p> +<p> +The facts stated in the work alluded to, have never +been disputed: one answer[<a href='#fn_17' id='fnb_17'>17</a>] only having, as far as +<span id='page-150' class='pagenum'>150</span>I am aware, ever been attempted to any part of that +volume. It appeared in the Annals of Philosophy, +and was first mentioned to me by the late Francis +Baily, F.R.S. Not having then seen it, I inquired +whether he thought any reply necessary; his answer +was, “<i>No: it is a full admission of the truth of +your statement.</i>” +</p> +<p> +§ In France the body who elect to offices in the +Institute, are men of the highest intellectual attainments, +whose suffrage it is an honour to receive, +and who, during the existence of the monarchy, +constituted one amongst the classes out of whom +Peers of France were selected. +</p> +<p> +In England, out of about 800 Fellows of the +Royal Society, the greater part of them know +nothing of science, and of course their votes swamp +those of the members most competent to pronounce +opinions. The new mode of admitting fellows of +the Royal Society, has had a good effect in improving +the qualification of those admitted; but unfortunately, +its operation is so slow that it will be +many years before the Society is relieved from its +incumbrances. +</p> +<p> +§ In the Academy of Sciences at Paris, the office +of Secretary is an object of ambition even to men of +the highest scientific attainments. It is usually +held by persons of the greatest eminence, who are +themselves at the same time carrying out original +inquiries on subjects connected with their official +<span id='page-151' class='pagenum'>151</span>duties. It is sufficient to cite the names of Delambre, +of Fourier, of Cuvier, and of Arago. +</p> +<p> +In England the Secretary of the Royal Society +of London occupies no such position. To some of +our most eminent men, it may, when young, have +been an object of ambition to hold it for a few years: +but considering the very moderate pay of 100<i>l.</i> +a-year, and how considerable a portion of time must +be occupied by its duties if conscientiously fulfilled, +it is rare that any man of original talent and independent +feeling will join in the intrigues by which +it is too frequently obtained. +</p> +<p> +In consequence of this state of things, the +officers of the Royal Society are most frequently +third or fourth-rate men, who not having sufficient +occupation in their own professions, seek the office +as a means of adding to their income. Or, they may +be, in some cases, military men, who being paid by +the public for other duties, are glad to get relieved +from them without the loss of their emoluments. +Persons holding offices in the Royal Society ought +by their scientific eminence to confer dignity on +their office: instead of acquiring a position in the +world by its acceptance. +</p> +<p> +§ Again, the justice of the decisions of the Council +in awarding their medals, has been publicly impeached. +A very few years since, a general meeting +of the Society was summoned on the requisition of +several of its members, to inquire into the circumstances +<span id='page-152' class='pagenum'>152</span>attending the award of certain Royal medals. +It was admitted by the President that there had +been considerable irregularities in some of the +awards, and the Council only escaped a vote of +censure in consequence of some little want of +management in those who proposed it. +</p> +<p> +During this discussion one of the Fellows of the +Royal Society got up, and remarked that although +this case was very bad, it became trifling when +compared with the circumstances attending the very +first award of the Royal medals; for on that occasion +the Council had wilfully violated the laws they +had themselves established for their distribution, +and that on his formally demonstrating the facts by +reference to their own minutes, they with singular +consistency refused to alter their unfair and unjust +decision. +</p> +<p> +§ Difficulties of another kind arise respecting +the Presidents of Societies. When the office of +President is really or practically a permanent one, +it is very difficult to carry on the business of the +Society if the President is a person of exalted rank, +or if he do not permanently reside in London. +</p> +<p> +In either case it usually happens that a secretary +or treasurer, or other officer who is resident, insensibly +becomes the means of communication with +the President, who is naturally anxious to be acquainted +with the feelings and wishes of the body +over which he presides. The most honest officer +<span id='page-153' class='pagenum'>153</span>can scarcely fail to have some little bias towards his +own opinions: he will naturally mix more with +those who approve of, than with those who differ +from them, and will consequently, although perhaps +unintentionally, communicate to the President a +one-sided view of his own, as the dominant opinion +of the Society. +</p> +<p> +The President, on the other hand, however really +anxious he may be to introduce any amendments +which he conceives advantageous for the Society, +will naturally doubt their policy if informed that +they are not in unison with the opinions of the +body. He will communicate with his treasurer, +secretary, or other officer, and almost always express +his concurrence in the course proposed to him as +being the most agreeable to the body at large. +</p> +<p> +The officer, receiving such a reply, will naturally +mention at the Council the opinions of the President. +He may even from good nature allow the +Council to think that the President himself <i>originated</i> +the views he only <i>adopted</i> because he believed +them to be those of the Society. +</p> +<p> +Under such circumstances, it is difficult to oppose +the expressed wishes of the absent President, and +strangely enough, without any intentional deceit, +President, Council, and Society are supposed to be +unanimous in doing what each by itself thinks +inexpedient. +</p> +<p> +§ It is true that by great kindness, good sense, +<span id='page-154' class='pagenum'>154</span>and decision of character, the Prince or absent +President may in some cases mitigate or prevent +these evils. Such cases, however, are the exception, +not the rule. +</p> +<p> +§ In a work containing views on the state of +science in England, foreigners at least will expect +that I should take some notice of my own calculating +engines. +</p> +<p> +I had hoped that the history of the transactions +between myself and the government respecting them, +as related in the eleventh chapter of the History of +the Royal Society by Mr. Weld, together with the +two criticisms on that work in the Athenæum,[<a href='#fn_18' id='fnb_18'>18</a>] +would have rendered any further explanation on +my part unnecessary. Many persons, however, +who admit these as fully explaining the part I was +compelled to take, have at the same time expressed +to me their doubts that some occult agency was at +work to prejudice the government, and have asked +who were its scientific advisers on such an important +subject, during the long period in which the +Difference Engine was in abeyance. +</p> +<p> +§ I have not been blind to the passions and interests +of men. My own pursuits were of such a +character that they interfered with those of none of +my colleagues in the paths of science; and perhaps +I may have trusted too much to this circumstance +as exempting me from rivalry and jealousy. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-155' class='pagenum'>155</span>As a reformer both in science and in politics, I +knew that I should excite enmity in the minds of +some honest men, and also in those of many other +persons who dreaded inquiry into jobs not yet exposed. +When I published the Decline of Science, in +1830, I certainly was not aware how many would +include themselves in the latter class: but had I +foreseen it, I should not have altered my course. +To have met and to have defeated intrigue by +watchfulness, might not have been a difficult task, +but it would have required too great a sacrifice of +time devoted to far higher objects. It was, moreover, +an occupation for which I had little taste. +</p> +<p> +The time, however, has now arrived when, having +given up all expectation of constructing the Analytical +Engine from the drawings which I had caused +to be made at very great expense, I think it right +to state the result of my own observations, and +especially to point out the facts that have come to +light to confirm them. These, if they do not open +the eyes of some, who, having been themselves deceived, +have done me injustice, will at all events +be of use for the future, and may save the young +and inexperienced enthusiast of science from embarking +in undertakings, honourable to the country, +but ruinous to himself. +</p> +<p> +It has often been remarked, that an event in +itself trivial sometimes leads to results with which +it seems to have no conceivable connexion. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-156' class='pagenum'>156</span>A beaver constructing his dwelling on the plateau +of the Andes, may have turned the course of a river, +which otherwise would shortly have joined the Pacific, +into a valley through which, after lengthened +wanderings, it now flows into the Atlantic Ocean. +</p> +<p> +So, by some strange combination of circumstances, +a quarrel in which I had no part, and +with whose origin I am unacquainted, seems to +have had an unanticipated effect in impeding the +construction of the Calculating Engines. +</p> +<p> +At the time of the foundation of the Astronomical +Society, Sir James South, whose observatory +and whose house were hospitably open to every +cultivator of astronomy, was on terms of intimate +friendship with almost all of those persons at that +period most eminent in science. It is sufficient to +mention the names of Wollaston and Davy, and to +add that when the late Mr. Fallows was appointed +Astronomer at the Cape, although previously a +stranger, he became for several months the guest +of Sir James South, who assisted him in acquiring +that practical knowledge of instruments so necessary +in his new avocation.[<a href='#fn_19' id='fnb_19'>19</a>] +</p> +<p> +§ In 1829 Sir James South was elected President +<span id='page-157' class='pagenum'>157</span>of the Astronomical Society. It now appears, however, +that previously to this appointment, <i>a party +had been formed</i> adverse to Sir J. South, which +party, with the view of thwarting him, placed in +the office of Secretary the Rev. Richard Sheepshanks, +Fellow of Trinity Coll., Cambridge.[<a href='#fn_20' id='fnb_20'>20</a>] +</p> +<p> +In March, 1831, the Board of Visitors of the +Royal Observatory of Greenwich, met at the Admiralty, +to consider the propriety of separating the +duties of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac +from those of Astronomer Royal. The new arrangement +was advocated, amongst others, by Sir J. South, +and after some discussion, in which Capt. Beaufort +and myself took part, it was ultimately carried. As +we were leaving the meeting-room, Mr. Sheepshanks +addressing me said: “I am determined to +put down Sir James South, and if you and other +respectable men will give him your support, I +will put you down.” He at the same time told +me he “intended to put Captain Beaufort down.” +</p> +<p> +During the course of 1832, it was found that +the large equatorial mounting which had been contrived +and executed by Troughton, for his friend +Sir J. South’s twelve-inch object-glass, was an +entire failure. This produced at the time a difference +between two friends who esteemed each other +highly, and who had been for years united by +<span id='page-158' class='pagenum'>158</span>reciprocal acts of kindness in ties of “<i>very intimate</i>” +friendship. Well acquainted myself with +the character of the parties, and the circumstances +of the case, I have not the slightest doubt that this +unfortunate affair might easily, by the exertions of +judicious friends, have terminated in the entire +restoration of their former friendship. But this +was a course which the Rev. R. Sheepshanks took +effectual means to prevent. Having himself a +“<i>personal</i>” quarrel with Sir James South, he +“<i>offered</i>” his services to assist Messrs. Troughton +and Simms. He “<i>offered to go</i>” himself to examine +the instrument in Sir J. South’s observatory, +and “<i>got his friend, Professor Airy, to go with +him</i>” for the purpose of remedying the defects of +the Equatorial. +</p> +<p> +Notwithstanding he was told by Mr. Simms that +“<i>Sir J. South had declared that no person could +have been pitched upon more obnoxious than yourself</i>,” +he still persevered in obtruding himself +into Sir J. South’s observatory as the agent of +Troughton and Simms, until it was at last discovered +that no after contrivances or expense could +correct the errors of an instrument itself radically +defective in principle. +</p> +<p> +It may readily be supposed that the continuance +for months of these visits by Mr. Sheepshanks and +Professor Airy, and the <i>irritating correspondence</i> +consequent upon them, which, though <i>nominally</i> +<span id='page-159' class='pagenum'>159</span>that of Troughton and Simms, was really “<i>directed +by</i>” the Rev. R. Sheepshanks, destroyed all hope +of a reconciliation. The parties then had recourse +to the Court of King’s Bench, and it was curious +to observe the vigour and energy with which the +Rev. R. Sheepshanks applied himself to the exercise +of his earlier studies.[<a href='#fn_21' id='fnb_21'>21</a>] +</p> +<p> +Having <i>volunteered</i> his services to Messrs. +Troughton and Simms⁠—he “<i>wrote every letter</i>” +for them during the subsequent law-suit⁠—he acted +for them in all the various characters of “<i>friend</i>” +and “<i>adviser</i>”⁠—of “<i>workman</i>” and “<i>agent</i>”⁠—of +“<i>attorney</i>” and “<i>counsel</i>;”[<a href='#fn_22' id='fnb_22'>22</a>]⁠—he made an “<i>affidavit</i>” +in the case⁠—became a <i>witness</i> himself⁠—and +undertook to <i>intimidate witnesses</i> on the opposite +side. +</p> +<p> +This latter performance is fortunately rare in +England, and is so remarkable that it is necessary +to give some account of the proceedings. +</p> +<p> +Not wishing to become involved in so disagreeable +a case, I had refused to be a witness on the +part of Sir J. South. Having, however, had some +conversation on the subject with the late Lord +Abinger (then Mr. Scarlett), he represented to me +that my evidence was essential for the justice of the +<span id='page-160' class='pagenum'>160</span>case, and upon that ground I reluctantly waived my +objection to appear as a witness. +</p> +<p> +Having been examined in chief on the seventeenth +day of the Arbitration, I remained in the room a +few minutes after the Arbitrator had left it. +The Rev. R. Sheepshanks, the only other person +then present, addressing me said, “it was necessary +to <i>discredit me</i> because I had supported Sir J. +South.” He added that “he would, at a future +time, <i>attack me</i> publicly on <i>another subject</i>, on +account of the part I had taken in this matter.” +</p> +<p> +The remembrance of his former threats more +than four years before at the Visitation at the Admiralty, +added to the knowledge of the unremitting +perseverance with which he had carried on his hostility +to Sir J. South, satisfied me that it would be +unsafe for the cause of truth, and possibly injurious +to myself, if I were not to take measures for making +known the nature of the weapons which the Rev. +R. Sheepshanks was employing. As he had ventured, +<i>after</i> my having given evidence on oath, to +threaten me with injury, with the hope of inducing +me to modify that evidence on cross-examination, it +appeared to me probable that he might have been +tampering with the evidence of other witnesses in +the same cause, who from their position or circumstances +in life, might be compelled by the fear of +his vengeance to shape their evidence so as to adapt +it to his views. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-161' class='pagenum'>161</span>The Rev. R. Sheepshanks discovered on reflection +no impropriety in this course of intimidating +witnesses, or of attacking those who could not be +induced to take up his own private quarrels. He +thus defended both. +</p> +<p> +“<i>I think it allowable to throw down the gauntlet +in this manner.</i>” +</p> +<p> +“<i>I have another ground of dispute with Captain +Beaufort, and certainly intend to put him down.</i>” +</p> +<p> +The gallant Admiral has survived many a dangerous +day, and needs not the pen of a friend to +protect his honest and well-earned fame. +</p> +<p> +The reader may perhaps be astonished at the +statement made in the preceding pages, and feel +disposed to consider it an <i>ex parte</i> statement. It +<i>is entirely</i> an <i>ex parte</i> statement: it is not necessary +for its support that the reader should give +credence even to that small part of it which appears +to rest on my own evidence before the Arbitrator. +<i>The whole of it is founded entirely on the testimony +of the</i> Rev. R. Sheepshanks <i>himself.</i> Every statement +of those which are marked as quotations was +either elicited from him on his cross-examination, +or in the few instances in which it came from +myself, its correctness was confirmed by his subsequent +admission or re-statement. After my statement, +and the Rev. R. Sheepshanks’ reply to it, +the Arbitrator addressing him said⁠— +</p> +<p> +“With respect to the matter of fact, you agree?” +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-162' class='pagenum'>162</span>Rev. R. Sheepshanks. “Yes, we agree as to the +matter of fact.” +</p> +<p> +Professor Airy, who was afterwards appointed +Astronomer Royal, had long before become as deeply +engaged as his friend Mr. Sheepshanks in this most +unfortunate quarrel. Years of aggravating delay and +discussion resulted from the procrastinated reference, +and at length one of the parties, Mr. Troughton, +being dead, a decision not satisfactory to either +was given in December 1838. But the inextinguishable +desire “to put down Sir James South” +survived the lawsuit which was only used as a +means, and reappeared from time to time through +the aid of the press, in forcible but somewhat +unmeasured charges and recriminations between +the Astronomer Royal, the Rev. R. Sheepshanks +and others on the one side, and the astronomer of +Campden Hill on the other. +</p> +<p> +It was a curious though a very painful study, to +observe from time to time the various consequences +of this feud. +</p> +<p> +Against those men of science who refused to +forsake their ancient social relations with Sir James +South, a system of disparagement was maintained +which could not fail in the course of time to produce +its effects. The avowed object of the party of which +the Rev. R. Sheepshanks was the organ, was, in his +own expressive words, to <i>discredit and put down every +respectable person</i> who supported Sir J. South. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-163' class='pagenum'>163</span>It was melancholy to observe the gradual change +in the expression of opinions by some of those +qualified from their knowledge to guide the opinion +of the public. Intimidated at first into silence; the +uncontradicted assertions of those around them +then got possession of their minds, until at length, +without any new examination, they were flattered +into an acquiescence in, if not indeed into the +expression of, opinions entirely opposite to their +former ones. These new views were doubtless conveyed +by their flatterers to other ears, and thus the +process of “<i>discrediting every respectable person</i>” +opposed to them, was carried on under the authority +of honourable names. +</p> +<p> +One after another almost all Sir James South’s +old friends and acquaintance amongst <i>men of science +only, however</i>, were alienated from him. +</p> +<p> +One man was alarmed by the fear that some +inaccuracies in his astronomical publications should +be severely criticised. Of another it was hinted +that his mathematics were all wrong, and might be +shown up. +</p> +<p> +Those who were timid feared the anger of the +dominant party; those who were young might +have their prospects blighted by even appearing +in friendly relations with him who supported the +unequal conflict; those who were old loved +repose, and found it easiest to appear to side with +the most numerous party; whilst those who saw +<span id='page-164' class='pagenum'>164</span>through the whole of it, had better things wherewith +to occupy their minds, than to attend to such +affairs. +</p> +<p> +It is obvious to all who have observed society +that such a system of “<i>discrediting</i>” carried on for +a series of years, especially against one too much +occupied or too proud to expose it, must end in +establishing the set of opinions propagated by the +party. Honest and even tolerably well-informed +persons, will at length be misled, and be found to +adopt them. +</p> +<p> +Opinions thus propagated must have had their +influence widely spread, and unless those members +of the various administrations with whom decisions +relative to the Difference Engine rested, had been +either highly skilled in mathematical science, or +deeply read in human nature, it would have been +almost impossible for them not to have been +misled. +</p> +<p> +The former qualification is unnecessary; the +latter is indispensable for a statesman. Of the +<i>eight</i> Prime-ministers with whom I have had communications +relative to the Difference Engine, <i>one</i> +only personally examined it; doubtless not with +the view of criticising the mechanism, but of reading +the character of its author. Had my <i>official</i> +intercourse with that eminent man commenced +earlier or continued later, the fate of the Calculating +Engines would probably have been far different. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-165' class='pagenum'>165</span>It is always difficult to trace intriguers up to a +direct intercourse with government. In the present +case, the vanity of some of them overcame their +judgment, and they gave themselves out as advisers +of the government on scientific subjects. To these +I shall not at present refer, but confine myself to +citing from official documents two cases of direct +communication with the government by persons +on whose judgment it appears to have relied. +</p> +<p> +The Whigs seemed to have had great confidence +in the devotion of the Rev. R. Sheepshanks to their +interests, since they took the extraordinary step of +appointing him, although a Clergyman, one of the +Boundary Commissioners under the Reform Bill, +and he is, I believe, at present one of the Standard +Measure Commission. +</p> +<p> +The Astronomer Royal, besides his situation at +Greenwich, has been a member of several Commissions:⁠— +</p> +<div class="align_c one_space space_after"><div class="block_align_l">The Tidal Harbour Commission.<br> +The Standard Measure Commission.<br> +The Harbour of Refuge Commission.<br> +The Railway Gauge Commission.<br> +</div></div><p> +The following are extracts from his Annual +Reports:⁠— +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +“The Board of Admiralty, on my representation of the interruption +to our business caused by the rating of so many +Chronometers, and <i>by my own employment on public business +unconnected with the Observatory</i>, immediately sanctioned +<span id='page-166' class='pagenum'>166</span>the employment of an additional computer.”⁠—<i>Astron. Royal, +Rep. June 1841</i>, p. 7. +</p> +<p> +“On former occasions I have avowed without scruple that +I do not consider the Royal Observatory as a mere isolated +place for the conduct of Astronomical observations. I consider +it a part, perhaps the most important part, of the scientific +institutions of this country.”⁠—P. 18. +</p> +<p> +“In concluding this long report, I have been uniformly +supported by the <i>confidence of the government</i>.”⁠—<i>Astron. +Royal, Rep. June 1844</i>, p. 20. +</p> +</div> +<p> +The following extract of a letter from the Astronomer +Royal to the late Sir Robert Peel, shows +that his time was so occupied with the labours of +the Railway Gauge Commission, that he was +unable to draw up a memorial which he had himself +proposed, even though it related to an astronomical +subject⁠—our colonial observatories. +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +* * * * “I have been so closely employed on +the papers of the Railway Gauge Commission, that it has been +impossible for me to draw up a memorial before the present +time. * * * * +</p> +<p> +“April 16th, 1846. +</p> +<p class=''> +To the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel, Bart., &c.”</p> +<p> +“By the giving opinions on subjects of railways and <i>other +mechanical matters referred to me by Government</i>, it has +appeared that our energies are not wholly absorbed in the +mere Astronomy of the Observatory.”⁠—<i>Astron. Royal, Rep. +June 1846</i>, p. 10. +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +(N.B. The italics do not occur in the original quotations.) +</p> +</div> +<p> +Now it is evident from these extracts from +Reports of the Astronomer Royal to the Board of +Visitors and from other facts, that he wishes himself +<span id='page-167' class='pagenum'>167</span>to be considered the general referee of Government +in all scientific questions. +</p> +<p> +The office of Astronomer Royal is one of great +importance: it requires the undivided energy and +talents of one person, and great as Mr. Airy’s +abilities undoubtedly are, yet it is highly injudicious +to divert them from their legitimate object,⁠—the +direction of the many arduous duties of the establishment +over which he presides. +</p> +<p> +During many years I have frequently found, in +my communications with members of Government +on subjects connected with the Calculating Engines, +difficulties on their part which remained entirely +unexplained;⁠—unseen obstacles which were never +alluded to, but whose existence could not be +doubted. +</p> +<p> +Although frequently warned by personal friends +that it was unwise to neglect such machinations as +those which I have, at length, been reluctantly +compelled to expose; yet I was unwilling for a +long time to believe that they were directed against +myself. +</p> +<p> +I have now traced the connexion of the Rev. +R. Sheepshanks, (who had avowed his determination +“<i>to discredit me</i>,” and also to “<i>attack me on another +subject at a future time</i>,”) through his friend the +Astronomer Royal, with the Government. According +to the Astronomer Royal’s own statement, he +was their adviser on all scientific subjects. The +<span id='page-168' class='pagenum'>168</span>Government had no other official adviser, and would +scarcely have ventured to decide upon points connected +with some of the most profound questions +of mathematics, on their own responsibility. +</p> +<p> +There are, I am aware, other channels than those +of official reports, by which the Government may +have been influenced. I do not, therefore, expect +to find any formal report denying the practical +utility of the Calculating Engines, or the possibility +of constructing them. +</p> +<p> +If there is any such, I claim as a matter of +justice, that it be published. The Difference +Engine and the Analytical Engine, are questions of +pure science. If the Astronomer Royal has maintained +that they are either useless or impracticable, +then the grounds of that opinion <i>must</i> have been +stated, and, if published, the solidity of those +grounds might be examined. +</p> +<p> +It now becomes necessary to take a very brief +review of the conduct of Government with respect +to the Difference Engine. Having contrived and +executed a small model of a Difference Engine, +I published a very short account of it in a letter +to Sir Humphry Davy, in the year 1822. At +the wish of the Government I undertook to construct +for them an engine on a much larger scale, +which should print its results. I continued to work +at this Engine until 1834, refusing in the mean +time other sources of profitable occupation, amongst +<span id='page-169' class='pagenum'>169</span>which was an office of about 2,500<i>l.</i> a-year. +Circumstances over which I had no control then +caused the work to be suspended. +</p> +<p> +After eight years of repeated applications, and +of the most harassing delay, at the end of 1842 +the Government arrived at the resolution of giving +up the completion of the Difference Engine, on the +alleged ground of its expense. +</p> +<p> +In the mean time, new views had opened out to +me the prospect of performing purely algebraic +operations by means of mechanism. To arrive at +so entirely unexpected a result I deemed worthy of +any sacrifice, and accordingly spared no expense in +procuring every subsidiary assistance which could +enable me to attain it. Each successive difficulty +was met by new contrivances, and at last I found +that I had surmounted all the great difficulties of +the question, and had made drawings of each distinct +department of the Analytical Engine. +</p> +<p> +Having expended upwards of 20,000<i>l.</i> on the +experiments and inquiries which had led me to +these results, it would not have been prudent to +attempt the <i>construction</i> of such an engine. I +thought, however, that there were several offices +in the appointment of Government for which I was +qualified, and to which, under the circumstances, +I had some claim. I hoped if I had obtained one +of these, by fulfilling its laborious duties for a few +years, and by allowing the whole salary to accumulate, +<span id='page-170' class='pagenum'>170</span>that I might then have been able to retire, and +adding the money thus earned to my own private +resources, that I might yet have enough of life and +energy left to <i>execute</i> the Analytical Engine, and +thus complete one of the great objects of my +ambition. +</p> +<p> +Having neither asked nor been offered any +acknowledgment for all the sacrifices I had made, +I felt that I had some just claims to one of these +appointments. Every application was unsuccessful; +whatever may have been the reasons, the conduct +of Government has been exactly that which might +have been expected had they been the <i>allies</i> or the +<i>dupes</i> of the party which thought it necessary, +from enmity to Sir James South, to “discredit” +the author of the Analytical Engine. +</p> +<p> +One only of the many reports which were circulated, +I thought it worth while to contradict, and +that cost me more trouble, and wasted more of my +time, than the refutation of the calumny was worth. +It was boldly and perseveringly stated that I had +received from the Government a large pecuniary +reward for my services. The fact was, not merely +that I never <i>did</i> receive any such reward, but that +I was almost constantly <i>advancing money</i> to pay +the engineer who was constructing the Engine for +the Government, before I had myself received the +amount of his bills from the Treasury. +</p> +<p> +On tracing up these rumours, they were usually +<span id='page-171' class='pagenum'>171</span>found to arise from a species of dishonesty very +difficult to convict. Thus one person circulated +them widely; when asked for the grounds of the +charge, he referred to certain Parliamentary Papers, +and affected to believe that the sums paid <i>for the +workmen</i> were paid to the <i>inventor</i>: of course <i>he</i> +could no longer safely propagate the falsehood. +Another then took up the tale, until he was met by +the same question, when <i>he</i> not only expressed his +delight at being informed of the truth, but half +convinced his indignant, though credulous auditor, +that <i>he</i> would assist in propagating the correction. +Thus the assertion was continually repeated, until +honourable and upright men, who had been deceived +and discovered the deception, were so +frequent in society, that it became dangerous to +the character of the traducers to continue the +circulation of the calumny. +</p> +<p> +Even since the first edition of this work has +appeared, one of these calumnies has been again +revived, in the statement that⁠— +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +The reason why the Government gave up the construction +of the original Difference Engine was, that Mr. Babbage refused +to finish <i>it</i>, and wished them to take up the Difference +Engine No. 2. +</p> +</div> +<p> +An attempt has been made to prove its truth by +a quotation from this volume, in which the accuser, +mistaking dates, assigns the drawings of the Difference +Engine No. 2, which did not exist until 1847, +<span id='page-172' class='pagenum'>172</span>as the causes of the discontinuance of No. 1, which +was given up in 1843. This charge too is made in +the face of a distinct denial by Mr. Babbage that the +late Sir Robert Peel could have been influenced by +any such <i>supposed</i> wish, because he had in his possession +a written <i>disavowal</i> of it from Mr. B. himself; it +is also made in the teeth of the very words used by +the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, in his letter +to Mr. B. regretting the necessity of giving it up, +assigns as its cause “<i>the expense</i>.” Both these +latter statements had been already published in +1848. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_16'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_16'>16</a>] Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on +some of its Causes. 1830. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_17'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_17'>17</a>] A small pamphlet, the production of an amiable and +excellent foreign philosopher, cannot be considered an answer: +since it did not <i>contradict</i> the facts, and only answered opinions +on science, which were <i>not</i> maintained in that book. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_18'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_18'>18</a>] Athenæum, 14 Oct. 1848, and 16 Dec. 1848. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_19'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_19'>19</a>] Sir James South, in conjunction with Sir John Herschel, +completed the examination of 380 double and triple stars; a +work for which the authors were awarded the great Astronomical +prize of the Institute of France in 1825, and the Medal +of the Astronomical Society of London in 1826. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_20'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_20'>20</a>] “When he [Sir J. S.] was elected President, I [Rev. R. S.] +was elected Secretary to keep him in order.” +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_21'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_21'>21</a>] At an earlier period of his life, his studies were directed +towards the profession of the law. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_22'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_22'>22</a>] On the 19th July, 1836, at the 23d meeting under the +Arbitrator, the Rev. R. Sheepshanks <i>cross-examined</i> Mr. +Savage the Architect. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-173' class='pagenum'>173</span><h2 id='tg_13'>CHAPTER XIII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>CALCULATING ENGINES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">It</span> is not a bad definition of <i>man</i> to describe +him as a <i>tool-making animal</i>. His earliest contrivances +to support uncivilized life, were tools of the +simplest and rudest construction. His latest +achievements in the substitution of machinery, not +merely for the skill of the human hand, but for the +relief of the human intellect, are founded on the use +of tools of a still higher order.</p> +<p> +The successful construction of all machinery +depends on the perfection of the tools employed, +and whoever is a master in the art of tool-making +possesses the key to the construction of all machines. +</p> +<p> +The Crystal Palace, and all its splendid contents, +owe their existence to <i>tools</i> as the physical means:⁠—to +intellect as the guiding power, developed +equally on works of industry or on objects of taste. +</p> +<p> +The contrivance and the construction of tools, +must therefore ever stand at the head of the industrial +arts. +</p> +<p> +The next stage in the advancement of those arts +<span id='page-174' class='pagenum'>174</span>is equally necessary to the progress of each. It +is the art of drawing. Here, however, a divergence +commences: the drawings of the artist are +entirely different from those of the mechanician. +The drawings of the latter are Geometrical projections, +and are of vast importance in all mechanism. +The resources of mechanical drawing have not yet +been sufficiently explored: with the great advance +now making in machinery, it will become necessary +to assist its powers by practical yet philosophical +rules for expressing still more clearly by signs and +by the letters themselves the mutual relations of +the parts of a machine. +</p> +<p> +As we advance towards machinery for more complicated +objects, other demands arise, without satisfying +which our further course is absolutely stopped. +It becomes necessary to see at a glance, not only +every <i>successive</i> movement of each amongst thousands +of different parts, but also to scrutinize all +contemporaneous actions. This gave rise to the +Mechanical Notation, a language of signs, which, +although invented for one subject, is of so comprehensive +a nature as to be applicable to many. If +the whole of the facts relating to a naval or military +battle were known, the mechanical notation would +assist the description of it quite as much as it would +that of any complicated engine. +</p> +<p> +This brief sketch has been given partly with the +view of more distinctly directing attention to an +<span id='page-175' class='pagenum'>175</span>important point in which England excels all other +countries⁠—the art of <i>contriving and making tools</i>; +an art which has been continually forced upon my +own observation in the contrivance and construction +of the Calculating Engines. +</p> +<p> +When the first idea of inventing mechanical +means for the calculation of all classes of astronomical +and arithmetical tables, occurred to me, I +contented myself with making simple drawings, +and with forming a small model of a few parts. +But when I understood it to be the wish of the +Government that a large engine should be constructed, +a very serious question presented itself for +consideration:⁠— +</p> +<p> +Is the present state of the art of making +machinery sufficiently advanced to enable me to +execute the multiplied and highly complicated +movements required for the Difference Engine? +</p> +<p> +After examining all the resources of existing +workshops, I came to the conclusion that, in order +to succeed, it would become necessary to advance +the art of construction itself. I trusted with some +confidence that those studies which had enabled me +to contrive mechanism for new wants, would be +equally useful for the invention of new tools, or of +other methods of employing the old. +</p> +<p> +During the many years the construction of the +Difference Engine was carried on, the following +course was adopted. After each drawing had been +<span id='page-176' class='pagenum'>176</span>made, a new inquiry was instituted to determine +the mechanical means by which the several parts +were to be formed. Frequently sketches, or new +drawings, were made, for the purpose of constructing +the tools or mechanical arrangements thus +contrived. This process often elicited some simpler +mode of construction, and thus the original contrivances +were improved. In the mean time, many +workmen of the highest skill were constantly +employed in making the tools, and afterwards in +using them for the construction of parts of the +engine. The knowledge thus acquired by the +workmen, matured in many cases by their own +experience, and often perhaps improved by their +own sagacity, was thus in time disseminated widely +throughout other workshops. Several of the most +enlightened employers and constructors of machinery, +who have themselves contributed to its +advance, have expressed to me their opinion that if +the Calculating Engine itself had entirely failed, the +money expended by Government in the attempt to +make it, would be well repaid by the advancement it +had caused in the art of mechanical construction. +</p> +<p> +It is somewhat singular, that whilst I had anticipated +the difficulties of construction, I had not +foreseen a far greater difficulty, which, however, +was surmounted by the invention of the Mechanical +Notation. +</p> +<p> +The state of the <i>Difference Engine</i> at the time +<span id='page-177' class='pagenum'>177</span>it was abandoned by the Government, was as +follows: A considerable portion of it had been +made; a part (about sixteen figures) was put +together; and the drawings, the whole of which are +now in the Museum of King’s College at Somerset +House, were far advanced. Upon this engine the +Government expended about £17,000. +</p> +<p> +The drawings of the <i>Analytical Engine</i> have been +made entirely at <i>my own cost</i>: I instituted a long +series of experiments for the purpose of reducing +the expense of its construction to limits which +might be within the means I could myself afford to +supply. I am now resigned to the necessity of +abstaining from its construction, and feel indisposed +even to finish the drawings of one of its many +general plans. As a slight idea of the state of the +drawings may be interesting to some of my readers, +I shall refer to a few of the great divisions of the +subject. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Arithmetical Addition.</span>⁠—About a dozen +plans of different mechanical movements have been +drawn. The last is of the very simplest order. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Carriage of Tens.</span>⁠—A larger number of drawings +have been made of modes of carrying tens. +They form two classes, in one of which the carriage +takes place successively; in the other it occurs +simultaneously, as will be more fully explained at +the end of this chapter. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Multiplying by Tens.</span>⁠—This is a very important +<span id='page-178' class='pagenum'>178</span>process, though not difficult to contrive. Three +modes are drawn; the difficulties are chiefly those of +construction, and the most recent experiments now +enable me to use the simplest form. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Digit Counting Apparatus.</span>⁠—It is necessary +that the machine should count the digits of the +numbers it multiplies and divides, and that it should +combine these properly with the number of decimals +used. This is by no means so easy as +the former operation: two or three systems of contrivances +have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Counting Apparatus.</span>⁠—This is an apparatus of +a much more general order, for treating the indices +of functions and for the determination of the repetitions +and movements of the Jacquard cards, on which +the Algebraic developments of functions depend. +Two or three such mechanisms have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Selectors.</span>⁠—The object of the system of contrivances +thus named, is to choose in the operation +of Arithmetical division the proper multiple to be +subtracted; this is one of the most difficult parts +of the engine, and several different plans have been +drawn. The one at last adopted is, considering the +object, tolerably simple. Although division is an +inverse operation, it is possible to perform it entirely +by mechanism without any tentative process. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Registering Apparatus.</span>⁠—This is necessary in +division to record the quotient as it arises. It is +simple, and different plans have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-179' class='pagenum'>179</span><span class="small-caps">Algebraic Signs.</span>⁠—The means of combining +these are very simple, and have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Passage through Zero and Infinity.</span>⁠—This +is one of the most important parts of the Engine, +since it may lead to a totally different action upon +the formulæ employed. The mechanism is much +simpler than might have been expected, and is +drawn and fully explained by notations. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Barrels and Drums.</span>⁠—These are contrivances +for grouping together certain mechanical actions +often required; they are occasionally under the +direction of the cards; sometimes they guide themselves, +and sometimes their own guidance is interfered +with by the Zero Apparatus. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Groupings.</span>⁠—These are drawings of several of +the contrivances before described, united together +in various forms. Many drawings of them exist. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">General Plans.</span>⁠—Drawings of all the parts +necessary for the Analytical Engine have been made +in many forms. No less than thirty different general +plans for connecting them together, have been +devised and partially drawn; one or two are far +advanced. No. 25 was lithographed at Paris in +1840. These have been superseded by simpler or +more powerful combinations, and the last and most +simple has only been sketched. +</p> +<p> +A large number of Mechanical Notations exist, +showing the movements of these several parts, +and also explaining the processes of arithmetic and +<span id='page-180' class='pagenum'>180</span>algebra to which they relate. One amongst them, +for the process of division, covers nearly thirty large +folio sheets. +</p> +<p> +About twenty years after I had commenced the +first Difference Engine, and after the greater part +of these drawings had been completed, I found +that almost every contrivance in it had been superseded +by new and more simple mechanism, which +the construction of the Analytical Engine had +rendered necessary. Under these circumstances +I made drawings of an entirely new Difference +Engine. The drawings, both for the calculating +and the printing parts, amounting in number to +twenty-four, are completed. They are accompanied +by the necessary mechanical notations, and by an +index of letters to the drawings; so that although +there is as yet no description in words, there is +effectively such a description by signs, that this +new Difference Engine might be constructed from +them. +</p> +<p> +Amongst the difficulties which surrounded the +idea of the construction of an Engine for developing +Analytical formulæ, there were some which seemed +insuperable if not impossible, not merely to the common +understandings of well-informed persons, but +even to the more practised intellect of some of the +greatest masters of that science which the machine +was intended to control. It still seemed, after much +discussion, at least highly doubtful whether such +<span id='page-181' class='pagenum'>181</span>formulæ could ever be brought within the grasp of +mechanism. +</p> +<p> +I have met in the course of my inquiries with +four cases of obstacles presenting the appearance +of impossibilities. As these form a very interesting +chapter in the history of the human mind, and are +on the one hand connected with some of the +simplest elements of mechanism, and on the other +with some of the highest principles of philosophy, +I shall endeavour to explain them in a short, and, +I hope, somewhat popular manner, to those who +have a very moderate share of mathematical knowledge. +Those of my readers to whom they may +not be sufficiently interesting, will, I hope, excuse +the interruption, and pass on to the succeeding +chapters. +</p> +<p> +§ The first difficulty arose at an early stage of the +Analytical Engine. The mechanism necessary to +add one number to another, if the carriage of the +tens be neglected, is very simple. Various modes had +been devised and drawings of about a dozen contrivances +for carrying the tens had been made. The +same general principle pervaded all of them. Each +figure wheel when receiving addition, in the act of +passing from nine to ten caused a lever to be put +aside. An axis with arms arranged spirally upon it +then revolved, and commencing with the lowest +figure replaced successively those levers which might +have been put aside during the addition. This +<span id='page-182' class='pagenum'>182</span>replacing action upon the levers caused unity to be +added to the figure wheel next above. The numerical +example below will illustrate the process. +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">5</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="align_l valign_m pad_lx">Numbers to be added.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Sum without any carriage.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Puts aside lever acting on tens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">First spiral arm adds tens and</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">puts aside the next lever.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Second spiral arm adds hundreds, and</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">puts aside the next lever.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Third spiral arm adds thousands.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Now there is in this mechanism a certain analogy +with the act of memory. The lever thrust aside +by the passage of the tens, is the equivalent of the +note of an event made in the memory, whilst the +spiral arm, acting at an after time upon the lever +put aside, in some measure resembles the endeavours +made to recollect a fact. +</p> +<p> +It will be observed that in these modes of +<i>carrying</i>, the action must be <i>successive</i>. Supposing +a number to consist of thirty places of figures, each +of which is a nine, then if any other number of +thirty figures be added to it, since the addition of +each figure to the corresponding one takes place at +the same time, the whole addition will only occupy +nine units of time. But since the number added +may be unity, the carriages may possibly amount +<span id='page-183' class='pagenum'>183</span>to twenty-nine. Consequently the time of making +the carriages may be more than three times as long +as that required for addition. +</p> +<p> +The time thus occupied was, it is true, very +considerably shortened in the Difference Engine: +but when the Analytical Engine was to be contrived, +it became essentially necessary to diminish +it still further. After much time fruitlessly expended +in many contrivances and drawings, a very +different principle, which seemed indeed at first to +be impossible, suggested itself. +</p> +<p> +It is evident that whenever a carriage is conveyed +to the figure above, if that figure happen to be a nine, +a new carriage must then take place, and so on as +far as the nines extend. Now the principle sought +to be expressed in mechanism amounted to this. +</p> +<p> +1st. That a lever should be put aside, as before, +on the passage of a figure-wheel from nine to ten. +</p> +<p> +2d. That the engine should then ascertain the +position of all those nines which by carriage would +ultimately become zero, and give notice of new +carriages; that, foreseeing those events, it should +anticipate the result by making all the carriages +simultaneously. +</p> +<p> +This was at last accomplished, and many different +mechanical contrivances fulfilling these conditions +were drawn. The former part of this mechanism +bears an analogy to memory, the latter to +foresight. The apparatus remembers as it were, +<span id='page-184' class='pagenum'>184</span>one set of events, the transits from nine to ten: +examines what nines are found in certain critical +places: then, in consequence of the concurrence of +these events, acts at once so as to anticipate other +actions that would have happened at a more distant +period, had less artificial means been used. +</p> +<p> +§ The second apparent impossibility seemed to +present far greater difficulty. Fortunately it was +not one of immediate <i>practical</i> importance, although +as a question of philosophical inquiry it possessed +the highest interest. I had frequently discussed +with Mrs. Somerville and my highly gifted +friend the late Professor M‘Cullagh of Dublin, +the question whether it was possible that we +should be able to treat algebraic formulæ by +means of machinery. The result of many inquiries +led to the conclusion, that if not really +impossible, it was almost hopeless. The first difficulty +was that of representing an indefinite number +in a machine of finite size. It was readily +admitted that if a machine afforded means of +operating on <i>all</i> numbers under twenty places of +figures, then that any number, or <i>an indefinite</i> +number, of less than twenty places or figures might +be represented by it. But such number will not +be really indefinite. It would be possible to make +a machine capable of operating upon numbers of +forty, sixty, or one hundred places of figures: still, +however, a limit must at last be reached, and the +<span id='page-185' class='pagenum'>185</span>numbers represented would not be really <i>indefinite</i>. +After lengthened consideration of this subject, the +solution of the difficulty was discovered; and it +presented the appearance of reasoning in a circle. +</p> +<p> +Algebraical operations in their most general form +cannot be carried on by machinery without the +capability of expressing <i>indefinite</i> constants. On +the other hand, the only way of arriving at the +expression of an indefinite constant, was through +the intervention of Algebra itself. +</p> +<p> +This is not a fit place to enter into the detail +of the means employed, further than to observe, +that it was found possible to evade the difficulty, +by connecting <i>indefinite</i> number with the <i>infinite in +time</i> instead of with the <i>infinite in space</i>. +</p> +<p> +The solution of this difficulty being found, and +the discovery of another principle having been made, +namely⁠—that <i>the nature of a function might be +indicated by its position</i>⁠—algebra, in all its most +abstract forms, was placed completely within the +reach of mechanism. +</p> +<p> +§ The third difficulty that presented itself was +one which I had long before anticipated. It +was proposed to me nearly at the same time by +three of the most eminent cultivators of analysis +then existing, M. Jacobi, M. Bessel, and Professor +M‘Cullagh, who were examining the drawings of +the Analytical Engine. The question they proposed +was this:⁠—How would the Analytical Engine be +<span id='page-186' class='pagenum'>186</span>able to treat calculations in which the use of tables +of logarithms, sines, &c. or any other tabular numbers +should be required? +</p> +<p> +My reply was, that as at the time logarithms +were invented, it became necessary to remodel the +whole of the formulæ of Trigonometry, in order to +adapt it to the new instrument of calculation: so +when the Analytical Engine is made, it will be +desirable to transform all formulæ containing tabular +numbers into others better adapted to the use +of such a machine. This, I replied, is the answer I +give to you as mathematicians; but I added, that +for others less skilled in our science, I had another +answer: namely⁠— +</p> +<p> +That the engine might be so arranged that wherever +tabular numbers of any kind, occurred in a formula +given it to compute, it would on arriving at +any required tabular number, as for instance, if it +required the logarithm of 1207, stop itself, and ring +a bell to call the attendant, who would find written +at a certain part of the machine “Wanted log. of +1207.” The attendant would then fetch from +tables previously computed by the engine, the logarithm +it required, and placing it in the proper +place, would lift a detent, permitting the engine to +continue its work. +</p> +<p> +The next step of the engine, on receiving the +tabular number (in this case the logarithm of 1207) +would be to <i>verify</i> the fact of its being really that +<span id='page-187' class='pagenum'>187</span>logarithm. In case no mistake had been made by +the attendant, the engine would use the given +tabular number, and go on with its work until +some other tabular number were required, when +the same process would be repeated. If, however, +any mistake had been made by the attendant, and +a wrong logarithm had been accidentally given to +the engine, it would have discovered the mistake, +and have rung a louder bell to call the attention of +its guide, who on looking at the proper place, +would see a plate above the logarithm he had just +put in with the word “<i>wrong</i>” engraven upon it. +</p> +<p> +By such means it would be perfectly possible to +make all calculations requiring tabular numbers, +without the chance of error. +</p> +<p> +Although such a plan does not seem absolutely +impossible, it has always excited, in those informed +of it for the first time, the greatest surprise. +How, it has been often asked, does it happen if the +engine knows when the <i>wrong</i> logarithm is offered +to it, that it does not also know the right one; and +if so, what is the necessity of having recourse to the +attendant to supply it? The solution of this difficulty +is accomplished by the very simplest means. +</p> +<p> +§ The fourth of the apparent impossibilities to +which I have referred, involves a condition of so +extraordinary a nature that even the most fastidious +inquirer into the powers of the Analytical Engine +could scarcely require it to fulfil. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-188' class='pagenum'>188</span>Knowing the kind of objections that my countrymen +make to this invention, I proposed to +myself this inquiry:⁠— +</p> +<p> +Is it possible so to construct the Analytical +Engine, that after the cards representing the +formulæ and numbers are put into it, and the handle +is turned, the following condition shall be fulfilled? +</p> +<p> +The attendant shall stop the machine in the +middle of its work, whenever he chooses, and as +often as he pleases. At each stoppage he shall +examine all the figure wheels, and if he can, +without breaking the machine, move any of them +to other figures, he shall be at liberty to do so. +Thus he may from time to time, falsify as many +numbers as he pleases. Yet notwithstanding +this, the final calculation and all the intermediate +steps shall be entirely free from error. I +have succeeded in fulfilling this condition by means +of a principle in itself very simple. It may add +somewhat, though not very much, to the amount of +mechanism required; in many parts of the engine +the principle has been already carried out. I by +no means think such a plan <i>necessary</i>, although +wherever it can be accomplished without expense it +ought to be adopted. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-189' class='pagenum'>189</span><h2 id='tg_14'>CHAPTER XIV.<br> +<span class='smaller'>POSITION OF SCIENCE.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Science</span> in England is not a profession: its +cultivators are scarcely recognised even as a class. +Our language itself contains no <i>single</i> term by +which their occupation can be expressed. We +borrow a foreign word [<i>Savant</i>] from another +country whose high ambition it is to advance +science, and whose deeper policy, in accord with +more generous feelings, gives to the intellectual +labourer reward and honour, in return for services +which crown the nation with imperishable renown, +and ultimately enrich the human race.</p> +<p> +The first question which presents itself to a +government desirous of advancing science, is to +consider what departments of knowledge it is important +that it should reward. This is a point +upon which much misunderstanding prevails, and +with regard to which interested parties have studiously +endeavoured to delude the public. +</p> +<p> +As the fund which can be applied to this purpose +<span id='page-190' class='pagenum'>190</span>even by a generous nation, is moderate, the +first limitation of its application ought naturally to +be,⁠—to confine it to those discoveries which are +from their very nature not immediately capable of +becoming a source of profit. +</p> +<p> +One of the most common errors, is to reward +persons who have merely acquired an extensive +knowledge of various departments of science, but +who have neither extended its boundaries by new +methods, nor added new principles to its theories. +</p> +<p> +§ An analogous mistake often occurs to wealthy +and benevolent persons residing in the country, +who, finding in the son of their village blacksmith +or other artificer, some great aptitude for figures, +immediately conclude that if properly trained and +then sent to College, he will turn out a great +mathematician. Now although in very rare instances +such cases may have occurred, the general +result is quite different. The lad thus selected, +if as is usually the case he is somewhat above the +average intellect, will under such favourable circumstances +probably acquire a considerable knowledge +of science, and become a very respectable member +of society. But if the benevolent person who thus +totally changed the position in life of this young +man, had first made inquiries at our national schools, +he would probably have found several out of every +hundred scholars, capable under similar treatment of +acquiring a still larger amount of that knowledge. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-191' class='pagenum'>191</span>§ With the increasing extension of science the +labour of some of its details becomes excessive, and +those who are able to afford the expense, gladly +employ computers to relieve them from the more +irksome portions of their toil. The reduction of +astronomical and meteorological observations are of +this kind. When once the formulæ to be used are +decided upon, and a skeleton form is ruled or printed +and a system of checks is devised, the remaining +work may be executed by persons of very moderate +attainments. This may be extended to the computation +of the orbits of planets, of comets, and of +double stars, and such assistance may usually be +had on very moderate terms. In more extensive +operations, the liability to error from the want +of sufficient checks, and the great tediousness and +even uncertainty of the result must remain, until +mechanism shall entirely relieve the mind from +these difficulties. +</p> +<p> +§ Let us now consider what is the present situation +of men of science in England. +</p> +<p> +The estimate which is formed of the social +position of any class of society, depends mainly +upon the answer to these two questions:⁠— +</p> +<p> +What are the salaries of the highest offices to +which the most successful may aspire? +</p> +<p> +What are the honorary distinctions which the +most eminent can attain? +</p> +<p> +Offices of a strictly scientific nature are few, and +<span id='page-192' class='pagenum'>192</span>their salaries are generally of small amount: +amongst these there are⁠— +</p> +<p> +A few of the professorships at our universities. +</p> +<p> +The Astronomer Royal. +</p> +<p> +The Astronomers of some of our Colonial Observatories. +</p> +<p> +The Master of Mechanics to the Queen. +</p> +<p> +The Conductor of the Nautical Almanac. +</p> +<p> +The Director of the Museum of Economical +Geology and of the Geological Survey. +</p> +<p> +Various officers of the same institution. +</p> +<p> +Some of the officers in the Natural History department +of the British Museum. +</p> +<p> +The most valuable of these, that of Astronomer +Royal, receives about 1,300<i>l.</i> a-year, including a +pension of 300<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +Thus there is amongst this class one solitary +prize of at the utmost 1,300<i>l.</i> a-year, and that is +confined to one department of science. +</p> +<p> +Offices for which men of science are at least as +fit as any other persons, are numerous, though they +are very rarely attained by those who pursue it. +</p> +<p class='two_space'> +It may, perhaps, have been expected that the +recent appointment of Sir John Herschel to the Mastership +of the Mint, should have been noticed in the +previous list. But until the motives which dictated +it are known, I have no observation to make, except +that it is gratifying to me to find that the great +<span id='page-193' class='pagenum'>193</span>principle of the “claims of science,” for which I +have all my life been contending, has been thus as +it were, unconsciously admitted by the minister: +and had the accident of birth placed me in his +position, the appointment would have been the same, +although the motives for it might have been different.</p> +<p> +Let us now turn to the <i>honorary distinctions</i> +which await science. During the eleven years of +the present reign, one solitary instance is to be +found of a baronetcy given for science, and that too +occurred only at a festival (the coronation) at which +baronetages and peerages were showered upon +those whose sole claim was founded on the mere +support of party. +</p> +<p> +During the same interval, about half a dozen of +those who cultivate science, have been knighted. +</p> +<p> +It appears then that the highest position a man +of science can attain, and that but very rarely, is a +baronetcy; that the highest salary is about 1,000<i>l.</i> +a-year. When this is compared with the most successful +prizes in the army, the navy, the church, or +the bar, it shows at once the inferior position occupied +by science. +</p> +<p> +Connected with the navy is an office which ought +to be held by a person eminently uniting science +with practical skill. The Surveyor-General of the +Navy has to decide upon questions of the greatest +difficulty. The mathematical theories and inquiries +on which the various qualities of sailing vessels and +<span id='page-194' class='pagenum'>194</span>steamers depend, are of the most complicated kind, +and are not even yet sufficiently advanced to serve +as secure and absolute guides. Yet without a knowledge +of their present state, and a power of advancing +those theories, it is hopeless to expect the +greatest and most valuable additions to the science +of naval architecture. This can only be accomplished +by one who combines a great facility in +applying such portions of them as admit of it, to +the practical facts which experience is continually +bringing to light. +</p> +<p> +The talent for commanding a fleet is by no +means rare: the most successful in that line may +attain fortune, the peerage, and a large pension. +The talent for investigating the laws regulating the +forms of ships, is of the very rarest order. Even if +its possessor should happen to be of the naval profession, +his greatest reward could only extend to +knighthood, and a thousand a-year during the tenure +of an office of great labour. Of course, naval men +having the requisite talents, would never turn them +into so unprofitable a direction: yet it would be +difficult to say how many millions of money have +been, and continue to be, uselessly expended for +want of that knowledge. +</p> +<p> +Amongst those situations in the appointment of +the government, there are many in which a knowledge +of various branches of science is highly useful. +A considerable number of these are filled by officers +of engineers, artillery, and other corps of the army +<span id='page-195' class='pagenum'>195</span>and of the navy. Thus those whose service is +already paid for by the country, are excused from +doing their ordinary duty, and are paid again for +doing another and perhaps a more agreeable duty. +</p> +<p> +Under the delusive plea that <i>military</i> and <i>civil</i> +engineering are the same science, military engineers +have been placed in situations for which they were +unfit, and civil engineers have been excluded, to +the injury of that profession, and to the much +greater damage of the country. The Ordnance +Magnetical Observatories will furnish an example +of the <i>economy</i> which, it is pretended, results from +such arrangements. +</p> +<p> +Some ten or twelve years ago, it was proposed by +Humboldt that various governments should establish +magnetical observatories at different points on +the earth’s surface, so chosen that by the united +information thus obtained, we might arrive at more +accurate and correct ideas of the state of the earth’s +magnetism. That plan has been pursued with +great advantage to science. A magnetical observatory +was built at Greenwich, and continuous observations +were made which have been reduced and +published annually under the direction of the +Astronomer Royal. The expense[<a href='#fn_23' id='fnb_23'>23</a>] of the Magnetic +and Meteoric Observatory, excluding that portion +of the Astronomer Royal’s salary which may be +<span id='page-196' class='pagenum'>196</span>considered due to his services in the direction of +this department, but <i>including the whole of the +making and recording the observations themselves</i>, +is 720<i>l.</i> annually. +</p> +<p> +There are other magnetical observatories in several +of our colonies in which observations are made. +These observations appear to be sent for reduction +to an establishment at Woolwich, under the superintendence +of Colonel Sabine. +</p> +<p> +Now the first and most obvious course would +have been to have employed an additional number +of computers at Greenwich, who should use the +same formulæ and methods of reduction. This +would ensure perfect uniformity, and would apparently +be the most economical plan. +</p> +<p> +The course that is actually pursued is to have +a separate establishment at Woolwich, with an +officer, and several non-commissioned officers on +extra pay, so that the account stands thus:⁠—[<a href='#fn_24' id='fnb_24'>24</a>] +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b pad_left"><i>£</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b pad_left"><i>s.</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b pad_left"><i>d.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">One officer, extra pay</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">182</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">10</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">One non-commissioned officer, ditto</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">27</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Three non-commissioned officers, ditto</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">68</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Contingent, not exceeding</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">200</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">Apparent expense</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>478</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">3</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p class='noindent'> +But to this must be added⁠—</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The full pay of Lieut.-Colonel</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">300</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">His extra pay</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">273</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Full pay of one officer, if a Captain</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">192</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Ditto one non-commissioned ditto[<a href='#fn_25' id='fnb_25'>25</a>]</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">20</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Ditto three ditto ditto</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">50</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">Real expense</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>1,314</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">17</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">11</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +<span id='page-197' class='pagenum'>197</span>In the estimate for civil service for 1850[<a href='#fn_26' id='fnb_26'>26</a>] the +following items occur:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left"><i>£</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left"><i>s.</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left"><i>d.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Extra pay to Colonel Sabine, Royal Artillery, for services in connexion with the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations, for ten years, from 7th May, 1839, to 7th May, 1849, at 15<i>s.</i> a-day</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">2,739</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Deduct 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> per day granted him from 1st June, 1841, to 7th May, 1848, as compensation for loss of command pay</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">434</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>£</i>2,305</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +This certainly requires an explanation. Here is +an officer not doing the services of his profession, +who it seems has been allowed a compensation for +what he <i>might</i> have received if he <i>had</i> rendered +those services: notwithstanding which, at the end +of ten years, he claims and is allowed the above sum +of £2,305 7<i>s.</i> for services the payment of which +it would seem by this account was never contemplated +during those ten years. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-198' class='pagenum'>198</span>It is also to be remarked that Colonel Sabine +does not reside at Woolwich, where the only +effective portion of the work is carried on. +</p> +<p> +§ But to return to our argument: it is singular +that even the principles on which science ought +to be rewarded, are not entirely settled. +</p> +<p> +Should all equally great discoveries be rewarded +in the same way, without regard to the different +positions in society which the discoverers occupy? +If this principle were admitted, the rewards must +be very large, or there would be none for the +higher classes of society. +</p> +<p> +Of all steps in the social scale, that which first +elevates a man into the class of Gentlemen is by far +the greatest. In this country, where the differences +of rank are great, there is fortunately, until we +approach royalty, no absolute line of demarcation +between any classes, except the one alluded to; +even the peerage to a private gentleman is not so +great an advance. +</p> +<p> +It is without doubt very desirable that all classes +should contribute to the intellectual advancement of +the country. But unless different advantages are +proposed to different classes, it is not possible to +apply any general stimulus to all. +</p> +<p> +§ Those who maintain that science is its own +reward, cannot have remarked the vicious circle in +which they reason. The delight derived from discovery +<span id='page-199' class='pagenum'>199</span>is indeed a high intellectual reward, but the +force of this maxim is only known practically to +those who have already advanced in the career of +discovery: it can, therefore, never direct the inquirer +into that line. All men are subject to the same +feelings and passions. It is assuredly true that +men of wealth and rank will be happier if they +cultivate their faculties, and add to the amount of +human knowledge: but they cannot be aware of +this truth until they are considerably advanced, +consequently it cannot have induced them to commence +this cultivation. +</p> +<p> +§ But it is for the interest of those who are +the consumers of knowledge, that all other minds +should be induced to advance it: therefore it is +our interest to place even before the highest classes, +at the commencement of their career, motives for its +pursuit. Having raised such expectations, justice +requires us to fulfil them; nor can we regret that +the advantages derived from the course into which +we have invited them, should have proved beneficial +to them beyond even the limits of our prediction. +</p> +<p> +It is of the very nature of knowledge that the recondite +and apparently useless acquisition of to-day, +becomes part of the popular food of a succeeding +generation. Thus the nobleman who spends his +wealth in constructing unrivalled instruments, and +his nights in scrutinizing with them the remotest +boundaries of space into which human vision has +<span id='page-200' class='pagenum'>200</span>yet penetrated, is preparing a source of pleasure +and happiness for the descendants of those very +peasants whom his practical skill in engineering +has raised by his own instructions above the ranks +in which he originally found them. +</p> +<p> +§ Another question has been raised, but not yet +answered, respecting those pensions which have +been awarded for scientific discoveries. A certain +definite limit has been fixed by practice, which has +never yet been exceeded in pensions assigned to +science. The sum of three hundred a-year, the +maximum of reward to science, is almost the minimum +of reward for other services. +</p> +<p> +The most important question is, Whether these +pensions are given as the reward of scientific services +rendered to the country, or as charity to +enlightened and studious persons who happen to +be poor? In the one case, they are an honour +which a philosopher may be proud of receiving from +his country: in the other, they are no more than a +higher order of pauper relief, which an independent +gentleman can scarcely condescend to accept. +</p> +<p> +Another important question, though of a different +nature, also arises here. Are these pensions, thus +small in amount, fit to be offered to those who, in +order to arrive at their discoveries, have themselves +in some cases spent out of their own private fortune, +sums far larger than the fee simple of the +rewards thus offered to them. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-201' class='pagenum'>201</span>Is it just that the <i>same rewards</i> should be given +to persons filling well-endowed scientific offices, +supplied with all the means of discovery which +the most perfect art can produce, as to other +philosophers, who, at the expense of their own +personal comfort and perhaps of the interests of +their family, have purchased the costly means by +which they have succeeded in <i>equally</i> improving +their several departments of science? +</p> +<p> +For the honour and the advancement of science, +it is necessary that these questions should be distinctly +answered. It is to be hoped that some +independent member of parliament will at last press +them in a manner which no ministerial shuffling +can evade. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_23'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_23'>23</a>] See App. to Rept. of Select Com. on Misc. Expenditure, +p. 222. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_24'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_24'>24</a>] See p. 221 App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 848 +(543) II. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_25'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_25'>25</a>] The pay of the non-commissioned officers has been +assumed as somewhat less by ten per cent. than their extra +pay. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_26'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_26'>26</a>] See p. 41, App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 848, +(268) IV. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-202' class='pagenum'>202</span><h2 id='tg_15'>CHAPTER XV.<br> +<span class='smaller'>THE PRESS.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Some</span> of the principles for the discovery of truth, +professed and acted upon by those who administer +the laws of England, and by those who practice +in its courts, are certainly repugnant to the first +impressions and feelings of honest men, if not +also to common sense. It is, therefore, absolutely +necessary, in order to remove these impressions, +to state the ground on which those principles +are defended. That ground may be shortly expressed +thus⁠—</p> +<p> +It has been found by long experience that it is +more for the advantage of truth and justice that +professional men should be stimulated by fees and +the hope of advancement, to put forward or conceal +every fact, to advance, withhold, or oppose every +inference and argument, <i>solely</i> as it may be of +advantage to the party by whom they are employed. +</p> +<p> +It is also stated that the public are aware of +this convention, and, therefore, are not deceived by +the speeches of the advocate. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-203' class='pagenum'>203</span>Without asking whether the long experience +alluded to has ever been fortified by the trial and +the failure of an opposite course, it may be at once +stated that this mode of arriving at truth is contrary +to the result of long experience in matters of +science. In all discussions on those subjects, it is +found far more conducive to truth, if either party +in discussing a mooted point discover in his own +argument a flaw, unobserved by his opponent, that +he should immediately point it out, and that they +should both apply their minds to repair it, and if +unsuccessful, admit it. The same course is pursued +with regard to facts; every circumstance, however +apparently remote, is contributed by both inquirers +to the common stock, without the slightest care as +to its bearings on one or the other side of the +question. Facts thus conveyed for the first time +to the mind of one of the parties, often recall to his +memory analogous facts, and thus the materials +of reasoning or of induction become largely increased. +</p> +<p> +§ To this supposed legal principle, it may be +fairly objected that it is entirely a theoretical view. +To be convinced of this it is enough to appeal to +every man who has ever sat on a jury or heard one +addressed by counsel. He well knows that the very +first effort of the learned advocate is to attempt to +persuade the jury that he is no advocate at all. +This line is sustained throughout his address, and +<span id='page-204' class='pagenum'>204</span>his great object is to convince them that he himself +personally believes both the facts to which his +witnesses testify, and the inferences he adduces +from their evidence. The more skilful the advocate, +the more he endeavours to persuade the jury that +he is merely an impartial observer, assisting them +in arriving at a just conclusion. +</p> +<p> +The effects of long habit in thus mystifying less +practised reasoners, cannot fail to be injurious to +the moral character of the man. Take a case of +title to property, on which a barrister is consulted. +Suppose the holder has no right whatever to it, yet +will the barrister by every means his knowledge +and ingenuity can suggest, help his client to rob +some other person of his property. It is useless to +say that in such circumstances the attorney conceals +certain facts of his case, and does not put the +facts to the counsel in this plain way. On such +occasions the most skilful counsel are always employed, +and they are certainly competent, <i>if they +choose it</i>, to ascertain the real state of the case. In +criminal cases such attempts to mislead juries are +still more reprehensible. +</p> +<p> +§ If the principle now discussed is sound, it +is capable of application to another subject⁠—the +press. But strangely enough, lawyers, more than +any other class, abuse the press because it treats +its subject commercially, and refuse to admit that +rule in the case of editors of newspapers, which +<span id='page-205' class='pagenum'>205</span>they claim as a sanction for themselves. A little +examination, however, will show that the conduct +of the press is much more defensible than that of +the bar. +</p> +<p> +The public require a daily account of all facts connected +with politics and the institutions of the +country; it also demands analyses, discussions, and +opinions on the bearings of all such facts upon its +interests. As opinions amongst the public are +often much opposed to, or widely different from +each other, it is clear that this demand cannot be +satisfied without many newspapers. Now, looking +solely to the commercial profit arising from its sale, +it is tolerably certain that some one paper supported +by greater capital, and conducted with greater skill, +will endeavour to represent the opinions of the +largest class of those who purchase these sheets of +diurnal information. The first place being thus +occupied, other journals will arise to represent the +opinions of smaller, yet, perhaps, of powerful classes. +Thus the opinions of all parties, and, in some +measure, their relative strength, become known to +each other. This is an end much to be desired. +</p> +<p> +If the opinions of the public change, those +of the leading journal must of course follow, +even though they are directly opposed to those advocated +by it a few days before. Such a change +undoubtedly shocks the feelings of many who +remain constant to their own views, and cases often +<span id='page-206' class='pagenum'>206</span>occur in which these latter give up their usual paper. +It must, however, be admitted that there are few +political or economical questions on which one side +is morally right, the other morally wrong. That +a given man has or has not got possession of another +man’s estate, that a man has or has not committed +a murder or other crime, must, in most +cases, be well known to his counsel; if in either +case the wrong-doer escapes punishment, an injury +is done to society. But whether a given line of +policy or a given law, is more or less beneficial or +even injurious to the State, is generally dependent +on so many causes that very few are able to +foresee their consequences with tolerable certainty. +</p> +<p> +The most general and unsophisticated opinion is, +that no man is justified in advocating, even when +unpaid, doctrines in which he does not himself believe. +With respect to the press, it is possible +that the writer of the second article may be a +different individual from the person who wrote the +first article; but even were he the same person, the +bar at least have no right to find fault with +him. +</p> +<p> +§ The press then may advantageously be considered +as expressing the opinions of classes, not of +individuals. It has greatly improved in the last +quarter of a century, in consequence of the general +improvement of all classes. +</p> +<p> +There is now also fortunately established a certain +<span id='page-207' class='pagenum'>207</span>professional feeling amongst its members that reports +of speeches, or of facts, ought to be <i>rigidly exact</i>. +Abstracts of speeches will occasionally be coloured +not by additions, but by selections or omissions, +according to the side of the question advocated by +the writer. Yet even here the more popular papers +are careful to do justice to all parties. It is the +more important that this latter rule should be +admitted as a principle, because, from the great +length of the debates themselves, they are rarely +read by persons much occupied, except when questions +of great interest occur. +</p> +<p> +To such persons an <i>impartial</i> abstract is invaluable. +</p> +<p> +In the leading articles greater latitude is allowable. +These, if the theory which has been explained +is admitted, are avowedly the expressions +of the opinion of its customers. The power of the +press is undoubtedly great, yet it is bound by the +strongest ties of interest not to abuse that power. +It is clearly its interest to seem consistent, and +consequently to employ, at almost any expense, the +best means of ascertaining the opinions of the +country <i>before</i> they are publicly expressed. Having +attained this knowledge, it will get the credit of +appearing to lead public opinion. +</p> +<p> +Its powers of doing good when honestly conducted, +are yet larger than its powers of mischief. +Yet even here its power is of necessity limited. It +<span id='page-208' class='pagenum'>208</span>cannot advocate even the <i>best</i> course of policy on +any important subject unless it is tolerably certain +that it will succeed in convincing its customers that +it is <i>really</i> the best. It <i>ought</i> not to advocate that +best course, because the falling off of its subscribers +might then disable it from as effectually assisting +the <i>second best</i>. It, however, neither ought, nor is +it ultimately its interest, to conceal those opinions +from its subscribers. +</p> +<p> +The power it possesses, of exposing knaves and +swindlers, by means of its correspondents, and of +sending highly intelligent commissioners from time +to time to inquire personally into the situation of +various classes of the population, are of great value, +and could only be exercised by a wealthy as well +as by a powerful press. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-209' class='pagenum'>209</span><h2 id='tg_16'>CHAPTER XVI.<br> +<span class='smaller'>PARTY.</span> +</h2></div> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +“Of all the tyrannies that molest this terrestrial scene +perhaps there is none so arbitrary, so extravagant, or so +grotesque as the tyranny of party. There is none that so +frequently subjects the wise to the caprices of the fool, and +the good to the designs of the knave.”⁠—<i>The Times, Dec. 1850.</i> +</p> +</div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">There</span> are two great principles of government +which divide the opinions of mankind.</p> +<p> +1st. Unchangeableness; or, “Let things alone:”⁠—the +law of the Medes and Persians. +</p> +<p> +2d. Progress; or, the continual advancement +of mankind in the improvement of their Institutions. +</p> +<p> +No number of persons sufficiently extensive to +deserve the name of a class, have ever advocated +the principle of <i>Retrocession</i>. Some few enthusiasts +have indeed believed in a golden age, and +have advocated the pastoral, or even the hunting +life. These, however, were not persons capable of +collecting, examining, and weighing the evidence on +which alone an opinion on the comparative happiness +of people existing in a savage or in a civilized +state of life can justly be formed. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-210' class='pagenum'>210</span>A larger number exist, the admirers of the past, +each perhaps the worshipper of his own peculiar +age. Had he lived in those times, enjoying only the +ordinary capacity he now possesses, but endowed +with all the increased knowledge of the present day, +he might then have attained a position more commensurate +with his wishes, though quite disproportioned +to the industry of his exertions or the calibre of +his intellect. +</p> +<p> +§ In our own country, “the wisdom of our ancestors” +is with some the hackneyed theme of +unbounded admiration. +</p> +<p> +Our ancestors were generally wise and sagacious +men: they applied their energies and their knowledge, +as far as it went, to their <i>existing</i> wants and +necessities. Those amongst them who deserved +that character, would, if questioned, have expressed +in language the precept to which their deeds conformed. +Availing themselves gratefully of all the +knowledge bequeathed to them by their predecessors, +they struggled to advance it for their own +and their children’s benefit, and thus they might +have counselled every generation to their latest +posterity:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“You have received from us, tested by many trials, +the treasured knowledge, gathered under difficulty +and danger, of our country’s experience. +</p> +<p> +“Let the great object of each generation be to +purify that body of knowledge from its partial +<span id='page-211' class='pagenum'>211</span>errors, to add to it the greatest amount of new +truths. +</p> +<p> +“Remember that accumulated knowledge, like +accumulated capital, increases at compound interest: +but it differs from the accumulation of +capital in this; that the increase of knowledge +produces a more rapid rate of progress, whilst the +accumulation of capital leads to a lower rate of +interest. Capital thus checks its own accumulation: +knowledge thus accelerates it own advance. +Each generation, therefore, to deserve comparison +with its predecessor, is bound to add much more +largely to the common stock than that which it +immediately succeeds.” +</p> +<p> +§ A question has not unfrequently been proposed +by those who apply their foresight to remote rather +than to immediate objects⁠— +</p> +<p> +“What will become of our posterity when our +coal-fields are exhausted?” +</p> +<p> +The best answer to this question is, that when +that distant day arrives, if our posterity, with the +accumulated knowledge of centuries, shall have +failed to find any substitute for coal in the many +other sources of heat which nature supplies, they +will then deserve to be frost-bitten. +</p> +<p> +§ It is remarkable that the great parties adopt +opposite principles in pursuance of the same line of +reasoning. +</p> +<p> +The advocates of things as they are, wish to stop +<span id='page-212' class='pagenum'>212</span>all change, in order to <i>prevent revolution</i>. Those +who inculcate continual progress, support it, because +it makes all changes gradual, and thus, in +their opinion, it <i>prevents revolution</i>. +</p> +<p> +It is by sudden changes in laws and institutions +that the greatest misery is inflicted on mankind. +Those gradual changes which are spread over a considerable +period are foreseen, and men make preparation +beforehand to accommodate themselves to +the new but expected circumstances. +</p> +<p> +If the changes effected by the Reform Bill, had been +spread over the ten preceding and ten subsequent +years, few will deny that it would have been a better +measure, and more effective for its purpose. The +experience derived from its earlier changes would +then have been available for its later uses. The pertinacity, +however, with which all reform was resisted, +led to such a state of affairs, that after the refusal to +transfer the franchise from East Retford, revolution +was averted only by vast and <i>immediate</i> concession. +</p> +<p> +§ The terms Tory and Whig had been the +watchwords of these two parties, until, at last, the +public lost all confidence in either. With the increasing +wealth of the country, and with the greater +application of observation, of reasoning, and of +science, to its many arts and manufactures, a vast +increase has been produced in the numbers, the +power, and the influence of the middle classes. +Many individuals who have raised themselves by +<span id='page-213' class='pagenum'>213</span>their intellect and industry into this class, have been +so fully impressed with the advantages of previous +training, that they have made efforts to give their +children an education more extensive and more +liberal than any which, until lately, our universities +had attempted to supply. +</p> +<p> +It is to the growth of this class, which includes +men possessing from 500<i>l.</i> to 5,000<i>l.</i> a-year, that +we are indebted for much of the strength which +public opinion now exerts upon the ministry of the +day. Notwithstanding the vast influence of wealth +and of rank throughout the country, there are still +amongst these middle classes, thousands whose +moderation renders them rich; who, therefore, can +afford to be honest, and whose approbation is +neither to be purchased by wealth, nor won by the +seductions of rank and of fashionable life. +</p> +<p> +Such men, on all public questions, influence +widely and justly the opinions of those around +them. There are such in the House of Commons; +and, with the extension of knowledge, many more +will be added to their number. +</p> +<p> +Thus the very weakness of an administration may +possibly become an advantage, since it thus becomes +impossible for government to carry any measure +entirely opposed to the calm good sense of the +people. This, however, admits of one excepted +case. If a party to advance its own interests will +pander to some strong passion, to some prejudice +<span id='page-214' class='pagenum'>214</span>of ignorance or of bigotry, it may for a time succeed, +though it will ultimately lose in character. +</p> +<p> +In the meantime, the people have found out that +Party is made use of only for the aggrandizement +of a few families; that it has degenerated into a +clique, banded together for mercenary purposes, +without enthusiasm or genius to compensate for its +meanness, and with little of talent to palliate its +want of integrity. +</p> +<p> +The reign of party, however, verges towards its +end; the supplies on which it feeds are sapped +by economical reform. That almost all places under +Government are greatly overpaid admits of no denial. +The demand for them is notoriously great, and it is +equally notorious that nothing but the strongest political +interest has any chance in the contest for them. +</p> +<p> +The government of England is nominally a +limited monarchy, but practically almost an oligarchy. +A large number of its appointments are +shared by a few families, into which some daring +and unscrupulous intruders occasionally force their +way, by opposition which it is easier to quell by +place than to answer by argument: or into which +less gifted and more cunning supporters sometimes +obtain an entrance by a judicious alliance. +</p> +<p> +§ It is strongly asserted that government cannot +go on without party. That those who maintain +this opinion are incapable of so conducting it, must +be at once admitted. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-215' class='pagenum'>215</span>Without, however, entering into the debateable +question of the <i>limits</i> of party, it is sufficient +to state another principle, which no honest man +will deny, and then to leave to the advocates of +party to reconcile it with their doctrine. +</p> +<p> +<i>It is morally wrong to endeavour to convince any +one of the truth of an opinion in which the advocate +himself does not believe.</i> +</p> +<p> +If this principle were practically acted upon, +how much of the valuable time of both Houses of +Parliament would be saved! In looking over a +debate, or still better, a <i>division</i>, the private +opinions of many of the speakers are often well +known by their friends to be quite at variance with +the doctrines they advocated in their speeches. +The quasi-honesty of those who admit the truth in +private, is however venial, when compared with the +hypocrisy of those who are equally false on both +occasions. +</p> +<p> +Party, then, as it practically exists, is one of the +evils of the political state of England. +</p> +<p> +The remedy must come partly from the reduction +of temptation, by diminishing the salaries of all +those places and appointments for which there is +such immense competition; partly from the effect +of public opinion; and ultimately, to a far greater +extent, when any sincere desire exists to restrain it, +from improved methods of distributing patronage. +</p> +<p> +But one defect seems almost always to accompany +<span id='page-216' class='pagenum'>216</span>a high state of civilization, namely,⁠—a great +deficiency of moral courage in large classes of persons, +who from knowledge and position ought +rightly to contribute their share to the formation +and expression of public opinion. The first evil +which this produces, is an excessive zeal and energy +in a few of those who are most strongly convinced. +These bear the brunt of the attacks of all who +are interested in the support of abuses. If, unhappily, +they are not independent in fortune as +well as in spirit, these, the forlorn hope of reform, +are sure ultimately to be trampled upon and destroyed +by the jobbers⁠—they die with ruined +fortunes and broken hearts. +</p> +<p> +Many of those who shared their opinions, and +urged on their enthusiasm, but who warily abstained +from expressing their own thoughts <i>in public</i>, now +venture to avow those principles, to which opinion +has at length advanced: these reap the rewards +won by the energies and sacrifices of their martyred +friends. For such, the epithet the poet applied to +Bacon is not unfit: +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +⁠—“the wisest⁠—meanest of mankind.”⁠—<span class="small-caps">Pope.</span> +</p> +</div> +<p> +A very serious evil arises from this timidity in +expressing opinions. The whole state of society +presents a counterfeit surface,⁠—no man knows how +many or how few really share his opinions: its +whole fabric is in a state of unstable equilibrium; +<span id='page-217' class='pagenum'>217</span>it is liable at every moment to most unlooked-for +changes, from accidents apparently trivial. +</p> +<p> +The following is one amongst many examples +which might have been selected of the different +standard with which Party measures services rendered +to the public by those within and those +without its own limits. +</p> +<p> +In the year 1847, when some millions of English +money were sent over to save the people of Ireland +from perishing by famine, it became necessary to +organize a system of accounts and of regulations, +for the direction of those officers who were sent +over for the purpose of personally superintending +the distribution of this relief. +</p> +<p> +These arrangements were made by the Assistant +Secretary of the Treasury, Sir C. T----, K.C.B., +at extra hours; but it does not appear how many +months he was so employed. +</p> +<p> +The office at that time held by this gentleman, +was one for which he received a salary of £2,500 per +annum; and certainly this liberal salary ought to +have commanded the devotion of his whole time, if +necessary, to the public service. It would seem +that some application was made from the Treasury, +and that Lord John Russell acceded to it with unwonted +liberality. He gave the remuneration in a +manner thought unconstitutional by several eminent +members of the House of Commons, and to an +extent justly considered extravagant by the public. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-218' class='pagenum'>218</span>The following extracts from Hansard will explain +the matter. +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +“The Chancellor of the Exchequer.⁠—With regard to Sir +C. T----, the case was an exceptional one; but his services on +the extraordinary emergency alluded to were so very great +that it had been thought right to make a Treasury minute, +awarding him £2,500. The item would be found in the +‘Civil Contingencies’ laid before the House. +</p> +<p> +“Mr. Disraeli,⁠—while readily acknowledging the great +services rendered by this gentleman, could not forget that the +Order of the Bath had been conferred upon him⁠—a reward +bestowed upon him as for services which could not be paid by a +pecuniary grant. The vote of £2,500 was surely conceived in +rather bad taste; and a <i>preux chevalier</i> like Sir C. T----, +bearing his blushing honours, might well be supposed to recoil +from receiving an extra year’s salary. +</p> +<p> +“Mr. Gladstone⁠—condemned the conduct of Government +in this matter. It was their duty to have submitted a vote +to the House, not to have taken on themselves to reward a +public servant. If there was one rule connected with the +public service which more than any other ought to be scrupulously +observed, it was this, that the salary of a public officer, +more especially if he were of high rank, ought to cover all +the services he might be called upon to render. Any departure +from this rule must be dangerous. +</p> +<p> +“Lord John Russell said, that the Government thought the +services of Sir C. T---- were deserving of reward. +</p> +<p> +“Mr. Goulburn.⁠—According to all precedent, the House of +Commons ought to have fixed the amount of Sir C. T.’s remuneration. +</p> +<p> +“Lord John Russell.⁠—Sir C. T---- stated in his evidence +that he worked three hours before breakfast; that he then went +to the Treasury, where he worked all day; and that the pressure +upon him was such that he wondered that he had been +able to get through it alive.”⁠—<i>Hansard</i>, Vol. 101, p. 138, +1848. Supply, 14th Aug. 1848. +</p> +</div> +<p> +<span id='page-219' class='pagenum'>219</span>There appears to be some indistinctness as to +the fund out of which this 2,500<i>l.</i> was taken. +Compare Hansard with Questions 1693 and 1696 +of the Report on Miscellaneous Expenditure. +</p> +<p> +No mode of keeping accounts, however, will +alter the fact; that if the famine had not occurred, +neither would the 2,500<i>l.</i> have been required; +consequently, that sum was part of the whole +amount our humanity cost us. +</p> +<p> +The liberality of the Minister to the Assistant +Secretary of the Treasury, may be explained by +stating that he was the <i>brother-in-law</i> of a Cabinet +Minister. +</p> +<p> +There was another gentleman at least equal in +talent to the Assistant Secretary, whose services +were gratuitous, who, at the risk of his health, was +actively engaged on the spot in superintending the +distribution of the relief. To him the Government +thought it sufficient to give the Companionship of +the Bath, whilst the Assistant Secretary was made +a Commander of that Order. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-220' class='pagenum'>220</span><h2 id='tg_17'>CHAPTER XVII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>REWARDS OF MERIT.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> personal distinctions in the gift of the +Government of this country consist of the following +five orders of knighthood:⁠—</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr class="small"> +<th class="align_c valign_t">NAME.</th> +<th colspan="3" class="align_c valign_t">NO. OF MEMBERS.</th> +</tr> +<tr class="x_small"> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">GRAND</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">KNIGHT</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">COMP.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="x_small"> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">CROSS.</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">COM.</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Garter</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">25</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Thistle</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">St. Patrick</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Bath Military</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">50</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">102</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">525</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Bath Civil</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">25</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">50</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">St. George and St. Michael</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">20</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">25</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">147</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">172</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">750</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Of these, the first three are restricted, with few +and rare exceptions, to persons of a certain rank⁠—including +earls, and those above them. The number +of these, with the addition of three sons for +each duke, and of the eldest sons of marquesses, +amounts to about four hundred and fifty. Amongst +this favoured class fifty-seven ribbons may be conferred; +so that about one-eighth of the class enjoy +the decoration. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-221' class='pagenum'>221</span>These ribbons, although much sought after by +the class amongst which they are distributed, are +more correctly appreciated by the public at large. +</p> +<p> +With some illustrious and honourable exceptions, +they are usually given by those in power to their +party supporters. They have also occasionally been +employed by the minister of the day, as inducements +to persuade his friends to postpone inconvenient +questions, to the agitation of which they +had been publicly pledged. +</p> +<p> +An amusing and characteristic anecdote respecting +one of these Orders, the Garter, is related of a +late Premier. At a time when several of these +“baubles” had fallen vacant, and been judiciously +given away by the discreet minister, a friend asked +him, why he had not retained a Garter for himself? +to which he wittily replied, “Why, the fact is, I +don’t see the use of a man’s bribing himself.” +</p> +<p> +The order of St. Michael and St. George was +instituted for the Ionian Islands, and is usually +given, after a certain time of service, to the Lord +High Commissioner, to the Commanders-in-Chief +of the Mediterranean fleet, and to other persons +connected with the public service in those +quarters. +</p> +<p> +Thus England has, practically, only one order of +merit; and, singularly enough, with the exception +of a few civil crosses of the first-class almost invariably +given for diplomatic service, until lately, +<span id='page-222' class='pagenum'>222</span>that order was not accessible to any other than +military merit. +</p> +<p> +§ In countries, however, which we fondly flattered +ourselves were less advanced in civilization than our +own, the vulgar notion of paying homage to brute +force has long been superseded by a more just +appreciation of the elements of military glory. +Nations even the most ambitious of this species of +renown, have admitted that physical prowess, that +recklessness of personal danger, form but the smallest +amongst those qualities which contribute to military +success. +</p> +<p> +It is now felt and admitted, that it is the civil +capacity of the great commander which prepares the +way for his military triumphs; that his knowledge +of human nature enables him to select the fittest +agents, and to place them in the situations best +adapted to their powers; that his intimate acquaintance +with all the accessaries which contribute to the +health and comfort of his troops, enables him to +sustain their moral and physical energy. It has +been seen that he must have studied and properly +estimated the character of his foes as well as of his +allies, and have made himself acquainted with the +personal character of the chiefs of both; and still further, +that he must have scrutinized the secret motives +which regulated their respective governments. +</p> +<p> +When directly engaged in the operations of contending +armies occupying a wide extent of country, +<span id='page-223' class='pagenum'>223</span>he must be able, with rapid glance, to ascertain the +force it is possible to concentrate upon each of many +points in any given time, and the greater or less +chance of failing in the attempt. He must also +be able to foresee, with something more than conjecture, +what amount of the enemy’s force can be +brought to the same spot in the same and in +different times. With these elements he must +undertake one of the most difficult of mental tasks, +that of classifying and grouping the innumerable +combinations to which either party may have +recourse for purposes of attack or defence. Out of +the multitude of such combinations, which might +baffle by their simple enumeration the strongest +memory, throwing aside the less important, he must +be able to discover, to fix his attention, and to act +upon the most favourable. Finally, when the course +thus selected having been pursued, and perhaps +partially carried out, is found to be entirely deranged +by one of those many chances inseparable from +such operations, then, in the midst of action, he +must be able suddenly to organise a different +system of operations, new to all other minds, yet +possibly although unconsciously, anticipated by his +own. +</p> +<p> +The genius that can meet and overcome such +difficulties <i>must</i> be intellectual, and would, under +different circumstances, have been distinguished +in many a different career. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-224' class='pagenum'>224</span>Nor even would it be very surprising that such +a commander, estimating justly the extent of his +own powers, and conscious of having planned the +best combinations of which his mind is capable, +should, having issued his orders, calmly lie down +on the eve of the approaching conflict, and find in +sleep that bodily restoration so indispensable to the +full exercise of his faculties in the mighty struggle +about to ensue. +</p> +<p> +§ It is not uninteresting to observe in society the +opinions of its different classes respecting honours +conferred on science. Military and naval men, +especially the most eminent, feel that genius is +limited by no profession, and themselves sympathizing +with it, would gladly hail as brothers in +the same distinction, the philosopher and the poet. +With lawyers the case is reversed; genius dwells +not in their courts: industry and acuteness, monopolised +by one absorbing professional subject, exclude +larger views; and ribbons not being amongst +the honoraria of their own profession, they reprobate +their application to science. To this there are, +however, some noble exceptions. Amongst the +brightest ornaments of their own profession, men +are to be found of larger experience and more +extended views than it often produces, who are +themselves qualified to have become discoverers +in other sciences. It is much to be regretted when +such powers are applied to the mere administration, +<span id='page-225' class='pagenum'>225</span>instead of to the reformation, of the laws of their +country. +</p> +<p> +It is difficult to pronounce on the opinion of +the ministers of our Church as a body: one +portion of them, by far the least informed, protests +against anything which can advance the honour +and the interests of science, because, in their +limited and mistaken view, science is adverse to +religion. This is not the place to argue that great +question. It is sufficient to remark, that the best-informed +and most enlightened men of all creeds +and pursuits, agree that truth can never damage +truth, and that every truth is allied indissolubly +by chains more or less circuitous with all other +truths; whilst error, at every step we make in its +diffusion, becomes not only wider apart and more +discordant from all truths, but has also the additional +chance of destruction from all rival errors. +</p> +<p> +All established religions are, and must be in +practice, political engines⁠—they have all a strong +tendency to self-aggrandisement. Our own is by no +means exempt from this very natural infirmity. +</p> +<p> +The Church has been reproached with endeavouring +to appropriate to itself all those professorships +in our Universities which are connected with science: +it is however certain that the larger portion of these +ill-remunerated offices have been filled by clergymen. +</p> +<p> +But a much graver charge attaches itself, if not +to our clergy, certainly to those who have the distribution +<span id='page-226' class='pagenum'>226</span>of ecclesiastical patronage. The richest +Church in the world maintains that its funds are +quite insufficient for the purposes of religion, and +that our working clergy are ill-paid, and church +accommodation insufficient. It calls therefore upon +the nation to endow it with larger funds, and yet, +while reluctant to sacrifice its own superfluities, it +approves of its rich sinecures being given to reward,⁠—not +the professional service of its indefatigable +parochial clergy, but those of its members +who, having devoted the greater part of their time +to scientific researches, have political or private +interest enough to obtain such advancement. +</p> +<p> +But this mode of rewarding merit is neither +creditable to the Church nor advantageous to science. +It tempts into the Church talents which some of its +distinguished members maintain to be naturally of +a disqualifying, if not of an antagonistic nature to +the pursuits of religion; whilst, on the other hand, +it makes a most unjust and arbitrary distinction +amongst men of science themselves. It precludes +those who cannot conscientiously subscribe to +Articles, at once conflicting and incomprehensible, +from the acquisition of that preferment and that +position in society, which thus in many cases, must +be conferred on less scrupulous, and certainly less +distinguished inquirers into the works of nature. +</p> +<p> +As the honorary distinctions of orders of knighthood +are not usually bestowed on the clerical +<span id='page-227' class='pagenum'>227</span>profession, its members generally profess to entertain +a great contempt for them, and pronounce +them unfit for the recognition of scientific merit. +</p> +<p> +The want of an order for the reward of civil +service, having been publicly commented upon, the +question was at last forced upon the attention of +the government. A plan was drawn up for the +reformation of the Order of the Bath, and amongst +the qualifications for its civil grades the word science +was for the first time introduced. The draft, however, +remained in the office, and the intention, if +such it were, of the Tories was not followed out. +</p> +<p> +On the advent of the Whigs to office, they seized +upon so plausible an opportunity for gaining +popularity, whilst in reality they were serving their +own purposes. They proceeded to reconstruct the +Order of the Bath, making two divisions, the Military +and the Civil, each of which consisted of three +classes. +</p> +<p> +On the 25th May, 1847, there appeared in the +Gazette letters patent under the great seal reconstituting +the Order of the Bath. It was announced +that it should consist of two divisions, the Military +and the Civil; each division comprising three +classes. This memorable document was accompanied +by certain regulations as to the number +of each class of the knights, followed by a new set +of thirty-seven statutes, which it declares “<i>shall +henceforth be inviolably observed and kept within</i> +<span id='page-228' class='pagenum'>228</span><i>the said Order</i>.” But throughout these “<i>inviolable</i>” +statutes, <i>scientific</i> merit is not even mentioned +as a qualification. +</p> +<p> +In the Civil branch of the Order the qualification +for the first class is prescribed by the eighth +statute, and the tenth and twelfth statutes distinctly +refer to the same. The only qualification +to be found in the statutes applicable to either of +the three civil classes, is when, referring to the first +class of the order, it is stated that⁠— +</p> +<p> +“No persons shall be nominated thereto, or to +either of the other two civil divisions of this +Order, who shall not <i>by their personal services to +our crown</i>, or <i>by the performance of public duties</i>, +have merited our royal favour.” +</p> +<p> +The first of these two qualifications includes the +services in the household of the Sovereign. Now +although it may be agreeable, and may even be +thought desirable, that the head of the State should +have means of occasionally conferring distinction +upon those of its subjects in personal attendance +upon it, who have undertaken and accomplished +duties beyond the immediate sphere of those for +which they are paid in money and by position, yet +such claims are personal, not national claims. The +lord-in-waiting who has been the agreeable cicerone +of some foreign prince, may well be contented +with the diamond ring, the costly <i>tabatière</i>, or the +flattering miniature, eclipsed only by the brilliants +<span id='page-229' class='pagenum'>229</span>surrounding it, which recall to his memory those +hours of idleness. If the prince be also a sovereign, +he may add to these gratifications, that of conferring +a ribbon as a further return for the <i>empressement</i> +with which the polished official has fulfilled the +duties of his office. Under such circumstances he +will easily acquire permission to wear that distinction +in his own country: a permission which would +be refused by government to the author of the most +splendid scientific discovery which might shed a +lustre over the age in which he lives. +</p> +<p> +If such decorations are desirable for such services, +let them be confined to one or to all of the +four other orders: but let one national order at least +be consecrated to real merit. +</p> +<p> +The only other class who are qualified by the +Statutes for the honours of the Bath, are “those +who by the performance of public duties have +merited our favour.” This may indeed include +every person who holds office, but it is clear that +the intention was to exclude everybody not already +receiving pay from the public. +</p> +<p> +It has been suggested that a different conclusion +may be inferred from the tenth paragraph of the +prefatory matter to these statutes, in which the +following words occur:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“To the due distribution of rewards amongst +such of our faithful subjects as are now or shall +hereafter become eminently distinguished by their +<span id='page-230' class='pagenum'>230</span>loyalty and merit in the military or civil service +of us, our heirs, and successors, or <i>shall otherwise +have merited our favour</i>.” +</p> +<p> +These latter words are certainly placed with some +skill, to furnish a loophole for escape, if public +opinion should scout the limited range to which the +gratitude of the country would thus be confined by +a party, who differ only from the Tories in affecting +an admiration for knowledge which they do not feel. +It must, however, be observed that this is a mere +statement, and that no such words occur in any +<i>statute</i>. Besides, those who maintain that the party +in power when these statutes were issued, intended +that science or any other kind of unpaid civil merit, +should be susceptible of reward by the Order of the +Bath, except it also received pay from the country, +must at the same time admit that during the four +years in which that party has distributed those +honours, England has not furnished one single +instance of any other than a paid official having +been thought sufficiently distinguished to deserve +the honour. +</p> +<p> +The public recollect with sufficient disgust the +professions of both parties respecting science and +literature, when the “pension list” was revised in +1838. The claims of science and of literature were +then with affected generosity put forward by party, +while the true object was to save for their own +advantage as large a pension list as they could. That +<span id='page-231' class='pagenum'>231</span>object once attained, a different view of those claims +was taken, as we see by its results, of which +a searching analysis must at no distant day be made. +</p> +<p> +The statements uttered in both Houses even +during the last session, by members of the present +administration, have been so <i>extraordinary</i>, that the +public are compelled to look beyond the plain +English meaning of words, and to withhold their +confidence until they have examined them with the +scrutiny of a casuist. It is not therefore surprising +that those who interpret statutes issued by such +parties, should suspect the existence of latent +meanings. +</p> +<p> +Dismissing this point, however, the obvious interpretation +of the <i>statutes</i> of the Bath is that no +one is qualified to become a member who has not +been actually in the <i>service</i> of the country, that is, +who has not already been paid for his labours. +</p> +<p> +The real intention of the concoctors of this scheme +is too evident to be concealed. They hoped, by +bestowing the Order in few and rare cases on some +public servants who had made exertions beyond those +of their class, or sacrifices beyond necessity, to get +credit for a generosity to which they are strangers, +whilst the real object was to secure for their own +party and supporters the largest possible share of +the patronage. +</p> +<p> +The advantages they promised themselves from +the present arrangement were these:⁠— +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-232' class='pagenum'>232</span>1st. By confining the Order of the Bath to +officials, they limited the number of competitors. +</p> +<p> +2d. They thus limited it to a class which contained +already a large proportion of their own +friends and of the friends of their opponents. +</p> +<p> +3d. This plan enabled them, by putting into +office their own connexions, persons perhaps of +very ordinary abilities, ultimately to push them into +the upper departments, and then on pretence of +extraordinary service to give them these honours. +</p> +<p> +4th. It enabled them also to make way for such +connexions, by tempting those above them, whether +friends or opponents, to retire on the receipt of one +or other of the decorations of the Bath. +</p> +<p> +It is not to be denied that such rewards, fairly +and judiciously given for <i>great</i> and <i>extraordinary</i> +services, might furnish fit motives for extraordinary +exertions. But if honours are to be given to every +chief of an office or head of a department, after +more or less service in proportion to the extent +of his political interest, or to every minister we +send abroad, without regard to the success of his +mission; and if promotion in the Order is to depend +on the time during which they have been members +of it, then the Bath will no longer be the reward +of great exertions or of brilliant talent, but of +seniority and routine. Its crimson ribbon will thus +cease to distinguish civil merit, and become the +appropriate reward of <i>red-tape</i> mediocrity. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-233' class='pagenum'>233</span>It has been suggested that a new order of +knighthood should be created, for the purpose of +rewarding scientific and literary merit. This plan +is entirely inadmissible: there are already five +Orders of English Knights, and the new Order +would, as the most recent creation, be inferior in +rank to those now existing. It would, therefore, +necessarily fix science at a low point in the social +scale. +</p> +<p> +If it were adopted, the numerous members of the +Order of the Bath would then look down upon and +disparage the new Order; whilst, on the other +hand, if great discoveries in science were admitted +as claims to its honours, every member of the Order +of the Bath would be interested in defending his +scientific brethren. +</p> +<p> +§ Much discussion has lately arisen respecting +the payment of persons in the employment of +government. The economists have lately had a +committee of the House of Commons, in which +they have in some instances damaged a good cause +by want of information. Their enemies will doubtless +take advantage of their ignorance, and seem +not unwilling to have allowed them to fall into +these mistakes. +</p> +<p> +Those who contend that persons in office are +under-paid, generally maintain the doctrine that the +holder of every office ought to receive enough to +support him, without any assistance from private +<span id='page-234' class='pagenum'>234</span>fortune, in that position of society which others in +the same or similar offices occupy. +</p> +<p> +This may be true for some of the higher stations, +where great talents and industry are essential; but +these offices are the exceptions. To maintain this +doctrine is to assert, that the government must +pay such a salary to every employé as to be able +to choose out of the whole number of persons +existing in the country, those most capable of +filling that office. Now in every country where +capital has at all accumulated, there will always +be a sufficient number of persons, having some +amount of private fortune, who will be able and +willing to fill all the ordinary offices requiring no +very special talent, for a much smaller sum than +their average expenditure would require. This +more limited class is yet sufficiently large for the +government to select from. The competition of +capital with labour leads to this result. +</p> +<p> +The inducements to office under government +are many, in addition to that of its salary. +</p> +<p> +1st. The salary itself generally increases with the +time of service. +</p> +<p> +2d. There is usually a retiring pension after a +certain time of service, or in case of accidental +incapacity. +</p> +<p> +3d. There is the chance of promotion by political +interest, or perchance from skill and industry displayed +in office. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-235' class='pagenum'>235</span>4th. Some incapable head of a department may +want a clever fellow to do the work for which he is +himself either too idle or too ignorant. +</p> +<p> +5th. There is the chance of being promoted, in +order to make a vacancy for some one below who +has more influence. +</p> +<p> +6th. Then there are the great prizes,⁠—few indeed, +but very great when occurring to those +without the accidents of birth or interest. It is +possible that a clerk commencing at a salary of 80<i>l.</i> +may ultimately attain a seat in the cabinet, and +then the peerage is open to him. +</p> +<p> +Admitting that there are several cases in which +offices are considerably underpaid, no answer has +yet been given to the great argument arising from +supply and demand. It is an admitted fact, that +for every office under government, and for every +grade in the army and navy, the number of fitting +candidates on each vacancy is very large, and the +political and family interest set at work to acquire +it, is very great. This can arise only from those +offices being overpaid, not by the actual money +payment, but by combining that form of remuneration +with position in society, and other advantages +to which they lead. If this be the case, it is quite +unnecessary to add any new inducement⁠—such as +the decoration of the Bath⁠—to those so circumstanced, +unless it be indeed for very extraordinary +services. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-236' class='pagenum'>236</span>Another indication of over-payment is to be +found in the fact, that in several professions such +offices are matter of sale and purchase. They +are so avowedly both in the Church and in the +Army. +</p> +<p> +The Whigs, afraid of intellect when combined +with independence, have, during their temporary +and tolerated possession of office, confined the new +honours the country has to bestow, to those persons +only who can be influenced by the hope of promotion,⁠—namely, +to those already occupying office. +If a distinction is to be made amongst scientific +men, let us inquire whether those who fill the few +public situations reserved for science and paid by +the country, ought to be eligible rather than those +whose equally successful contributions to science +have been given without any such advantage. +</p> +<p> +To enable any individual in the present day to +enlarge the bounds of science by original discovery, +he must be content to sacrifice his whole time and +energies to that object. It is true that a considerable +or even a great knowledge of certain sciences, +and possibly the power of making some additions +to them, may co-exist in a few instances with the +qualifications necessary for other employments. +Such attainments are highly creditable to those +officials who so employ their leisure without neglecting +their official duties. But the more successful +their scientific discoveries, the greater must be the +<span id='page-237' class='pagenum'>237</span>regret that the whole power of such intelligence +cannot be directed to one subject. +</p> +<p> +The various sciences have, it is true, such relations +to each other, that few can be cultivated to +any great advantage without some acquaintance +with those sciences intimately connected with the +favourite pursuit. But if it is admitted that all +inquiries into Nature and her laws, are directly +beneficial to the arts and commerce of the country, +it is, in a national point of view, eminently +impolitic not to secure for science that division of +labour which so remarkably contributes to the progress +of all other subjects. +</p> +<p> +In addition to the unbounded occupation of time +and thought, necessary for the most effective employment +of mind in the path of original discovery, there +are far other requisites. In some sciences, many +laborious transcriptions, in others still more laborious +arithmetical computations, are required; in +others, abstruse and complicated although known +and regulated algebraical processes, must be gone +through; in others, drawings of the most complicated +description must be executed with almost overwhelming +labour; in others, extensive experiments +must be made. Again, in some, where mechanical +means must be contrived for new and intellectual +processes, it may be necessary even to invent +and make new tools for the purpose of bringing +mechanical art itself up to that degree of perfection +<span id='page-238' class='pagenum'>238</span>which science demands. Although the contriving +and directing mind engaged in researches +that require such aids, ought undoubtedly to be +united with a physical structure capable itself of +accomplishing each and all that such pursuits require, +yet it is often impossible that one human +frame, however hardy, can sustain that labour: +time itself would be wanting, limited as it ever +must be by the duration of one human life. +</p> +<p> +Yet if the powers of that mind and that frame +have been rightly cultivated, and if the want of +pecuniary means do not prevent their exercise, it is +quite possible, by proper aid, to concentrate in one +life the accumulated labour of many. Assistants of +various degrees of manual and mental skill may be +employed, the economical organization of their +labour may be arranged. The most perfect effect +of such an establishment can only be attained when +the presiding head is never employed except on +work for which money could procure no substitute, +and when each assistant is devoted to work +of the highest kind which he can successfully +execute. +</p> +<p> +He who directs a scientific establishment for the +Government, has all these means provided for him, +and is himself paid, though not always liberally, for +his own labours. <i>He</i> is to be deemed <i>qualified</i> for +the order of the Bath. +</p> +<p> +<i>He</i> who sacrifices profession and that position to +<span id='page-239' class='pagenum'>239</span>which its most successful members usually attain, +who spends a fortune in purchasing that assistance +which alone can render his power effective, and has +spent his life in cultivating highly that power for +the advancement of science, is deemed by his country, +however great his success, <i>disqualified</i> for the +Order of the Bath. +</p> +<p> +But it is not the sound and wholesome part of +the country⁠—it is not the people of England who +have arrived at this conclusion;⁠—it is the insolence +of power,⁠—it is the meanness of party,⁠—it is the +selfishness of a clique. +</p> +<p> +The spirit which dictated a limitation equally +opposed to every generous feeling and to every +statesman-like view, is consistent only with such +influences. When the ministry founded that new +source of patronage, it sought to acquire for itself +a kind of popularity amongst its adherents. Had +it admitted intellectual merit, it would have obtained +popularity for the Crown from an enlightened +nation. But the interests of party are transitory,⁠—those +of the sovereign permanent: it is the interest +of party to be ever jealous of the personal popularity +of the Crown. +</p> +<p> +In thus excluding from its honours one class of +the intelligence of the country, did it never occur to +the short-sighted minister who planned this arrangement, +that some portion of the talents thus insulted, +might be driven to other inquiries which it would +<span id='page-240' class='pagenum'>240</span>neither be easy to answer nor even expedient to +discuss? +</p> +<p> +A party which first refuses to science the means +of acquiring competence,⁠—then excludes it from +personal honours because it has already been denied +official position,⁠—and which refuses it hereditary +rank, because it has not devoted itself to the acquisition +of wealth, will naturally cause questions to +be raised as to the expediency of different forms of +government. +</p> +<p> +Of what class, it will naturally be asked, are the +persons who have made such laws? +</p> +<p> +Is the possession of hereditary rank at all necessary +for the government of the country? +</p> +<p> +At a distant period, and under a less complicated +form of society, the obvious disadvantages of appointing +a legislator for life from the accident of his +birth, instead of the fitness of his talents, might +have been tolerated under the influence of force. +It has since been consecrated by established usage, +and some of its evils mitigated by the continual +infusion of fresh blood into decaying stocks. But +at the present day, and amidst the multiplied +relations of highly civilized life, the question +whether an upper chamber ought to be hereditary, +or appointed only for life, is one upon which nations +as well as philosophers, avowedly disagree. +</p> +<p> +In a very few years this great question will +come to be more thoroughly investigated, and +<span id='page-241' class='pagenum'>241</span>those who now advocate the continuance of existing +institutions, will then have enough on their +hands, without rashly forcing, by injustice and +insult, both talent and interest into the ranks of +their opponents. +</p> +<p> +At present it is sufficient to call attention to a +statement often made, that a chamber of Peers for +life is incompatible with the existence of a limited +monarchy. This, like many other party dogmas, is +a mere gratuitous assertion, put forward to alarm +the timid who have experienced the advantages and +are anxious for the continuance of that form of +government. +</p> +<p> +Various opinions have been advanced, and are +current in society, concerning the proper reward +for those <i>whose science adds to the boundaries of +human knowledge</i>, and certain principles are held +by the occupiers of high political office, to which +it may be well to advert. +</p> +<p> +Some of these persons have themselves acquired +a smattering of one science, political economy, and +thus they reason:⁠—They are informed that it is a +highly agreeable occupation to make discoveries, +and although it is known that it costs years of +labour and study to acquire that power, yet it is +found that many persons are willing to indulge in +this luxury, and are generally disposed to publish +the results of their discoveries. Since, therefore, +the public can get the benefit of the knowledge for +<span id='page-242' class='pagenum'>242</span>nothing, it would be very extravagant in the +stewards of the public to pay anything for it. +</p> +<p> +But it seems not to have been observed by these +reasoners, that although all discoveries are of value +to the country, yet the time at which they become +practically useful occurs at very different, and often +at distant periods. It might also be suggested to +them, that the discoverers of the great principles +of nature are very rarely the persons most capable +of applying them to practice. It is also clear +that the acquisition of money was not one of their +objects in devoting themselves to such unprofitable +pursuits. +</p> +<p> +Under such circumstances, if the Government +neither encourage science by pecuniary nor by +honorary reward, it is most probable that the discoveries +which are made, will occur in its more +recondite recesses; and as the only recompense +obtained is the intellectual pleasure felt in the pursuit, +the greater part of the discoveries made will +be of the most abstract kind. +</p> +<p> +This tendency is still further increased by the +fact that the far larger number of those who cultivate +science, are precluded from competition by the +expense necessary for the pursuit of many of its +more practical branches. The most highly intellectual +and exciting,⁠—all the departments of the pure +mathematics, for example, attract by the comparative +economy of the expenditure they demand. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-243' class='pagenum'>243</span>And yet it may happen that immense sums might +have been saved to the nation, if the efforts of +competent men had been applied to reform the +domestic economy or rather the domestic extravagance +of many of our public establishments, instead +of expending them more agreeably though less profitably, +on the interpretation of an almost impossible +cypher, or the still more interesting discovery of +relations amongst new orders of imaginary quantities. +</p> +<p> +How often has the question been asked by persons +seeking a profitable investment of their capital, +Will such a canal or railroad pay? This is really +an indefinite question, and admits of no one answer +applicable to all cases. It may, for example, in +some particular instance, be tolerably certain that +at the end of the first four years, if the shares are +sold, and the account closed, there will be an +entire loss of half the principal, and all interest +during that time. If the shares are not sold until +the end of eight years, they will produce a return +of the original capital, together with a profit of +five per cent. If, however, those shares were +retained until the end of twelve years, they might, +when sold, produce a return of the original capital, +together with a profit of ten per cent. during the +whole time. +</p> +<p> +Now, it is obvious that the answer to the question, +“Will that canal or railway pay?” must +<span id='page-244' class='pagenum'>244</span>depend on the capital possessed by the purchaser +and on the period of time during which he can afford +to abstain from its use. The purchaser who could +not abstain from the use of the interest of +his money for four years might be ruined, whilst +he who could abstain for twelve, might be greatly +enriched. But a wealthy country is generally better +able to abstain than any commercial firm, and the +investment in discoveries becoming productive at a +distant time, will be of far more advantage to a +nation than to individuals. +</p> +<p> +A certain number of persons maintain the +opinion, that if men of science became rich they +would become idle, and that it is expedient to +starve them into discovery. Such persons may +perhaps have been misled by arguing from a +supposed analogy with some other profession. But +the pleasure of science arises from the exertion, +not from the inactivity of the mind. +</p> +<p> +Others, and a very large number, hold that +science is of so sublime a nature, that it ought to be +above all sublunary rewards;⁠—they maintain that +it is beneath its dignity to wish for the wealth or +the honours awarded to success in other pursuits;⁠—that +ribbons and titles are quite unworthy of +the ambition of those who are searching into the +truths of nature. +</p> +<p> +When men state a principle, the best test of their +sincerity is to be found in their application of it. +<span id='page-245' class='pagenum'>245</span>We may ourselves utterly repudiate a principle, and +yet be unable to show that it is not sincerely +believed by those who assert its authority. Man +cannot dive into the mind of his fellow-man, and +witness the internal conviction he asserts; but he +can always examine the <i>fairness</i> with which he +applies that principle. +</p> +<p> +Now, if the lofty dignity of science is such that +it is, from its very nature, incompatible with +wealth⁠—if decorations and titles are entirely unworthy +of its legitimate ambition,⁠—then, as a +necessary consequence, all pursuits of a higher +order are still more absolutely excluded from such +vanities. +</p> +<p> +Is it consistent, therefore, with these opinions, to +maintain that the Ministers of a Christian Church, +who interpret to us the <i>word</i> of God, should receive +payment for their labour, rank for their exertions, +and, in some instances, even the very ribbons[<a href='#fn_27' id='fnb_27'>27</a>] so +<span id='page-246' class='pagenum'>246</span>contemned: whilst those who make us intimately +acquainted with the <i>works</i> of the Almighty, who +discover to us the laws which he has impressed on +matter, and thus add to the physical comfort, the +intellectual pleasure, and the religious feeling of +mankind, should be compelled to exercise those rare +endowments, only by the sacrifice of fortune and +the renunciation of all those enjoyments, rewards, +and honours, which the ministers even of the purest +creed receive without reproach? +</p> +<p> +But these are the opinions of the shallow and +the thoughtless. The pursuits of mind may modify, +they can never obliterate the instincts, the feelings, +or the passions of man. +</p> +<p> +The consciousness of power, and the conviction +of its successful exertion, exist undiminished by the +neglect or the ingratitude of the country he inhabits. +The certainty that a future age will repair the injustice +of the present, and the knowledge that the +more distant the day of reparation, the more he has +outstripped the efforts of his cotemporaries, may +well sustain him against the sneers of the ignorant, +or the jealousy of rivals. +</p> +<p> +It is possible that in some rare instance such a +man may feel personally little ambition to attain +what all others covet; still, however, he may be +<span id='page-247' class='pagenum'>247</span>bound by other ties which link him inseparably to +the present. +</p> +<p> +He may look with fond and affectionate gratitude +on her whose maternal care watched over the dangers +of his childhood; who trained his infant mind, +and with her own mild power, checking the rash +vigour of his youthful days, remained ever the +faithful and respected counsellor of his riper age. +To gladden the declining years of her who with +more than prophetic inspiration, foresaw as woman +only can, the distant fame of her beloved offspring, +he may well be forgiven the desire for some outward +mark of his country’s approbation. +</p> +<p> +If such a relative were wanting, there might yet +survive another parent whose less enthusiastic temperament +had ever repressed those fond anticipations +of maternal affection, but who now in the +ripeness of his honoured age, might be compelled, +with faltering accents, to admit that the voice +of the country confirmed the predictions of the +mother. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps another and yet dearer friend might exist, +the partner of his daily cares, the witness of his unceasing +toil; whose youthful mind, cultivated by his +skill, rewards with enduring affection those efforts +which called into existence her own latent and unsuspected +powers. When driven by exhausted means +and injured health almost to despair of the achievement +of his life’s great object⁠—when the brain +<span id='page-248' class='pagenum'>248</span>itself reels beneath the weight its own ambition +has imposed, and the world’s neglect aggravates +the throbbings of an overtasked frame, an angel +spirit sits beside his couch ministering with gentlest +skill to every wish, watching with anxious thought +till renovated nature shall admit of bolder counsels, +then points the way to hope, herself the guardian +of his deathless fame. +</p> +<p> +The fool may sneer, the worldly-wise may smile, +the heartless laugh,⁠—the saint may moralize, the +bigot preach: there dwells not within the deep +recesses of the human heart one sentiment more +powerful, more exalted, or more pure than these. +</p> +<p> +That man is not a statesman, who is unaware of +the strength of these powerful excitements to +human action. Cold and incapable of such sentiments +himself,⁠—no grasp of intellect enables him +to infer their existence, and thus to supply the +deficiencies of his own, by an insight into the hearts +of others. +</p> +<p> +That man is a fool, not a statesman, who knowing +their strength, hesitates to avail himself of it +for the benefit of his country and of mankind. +</p> +<p> +But if there should arise a man conscious of their +power, who yet should dare to use it for the purposes +of party, that man will combine in his character +the not incongruous mixture of statesman and of +knave. A statesman he may be, if he can penetrate +into the character of men, and can divine the action +<span id='page-249' class='pagenum'>249</span>of human motives upon the masses, as well as on +the individuals of his race. With such knowledge, +and with the talent that its possession implies, he +cannot be a fool; except indeed, in as far as he is +entitled to credit for that limited amount of folly +which is inseparably attached to him in his other +character of knave. It is <i>possible</i> that he may be +successful in his day; it is <i>certain</i> that he will +ultimately be found out and disgraced in the eyes +of posterity. His name may remain a beacon for a +time, until some greater or more recent knave +supersedes his example, and thus consigns him to +oblivion. +</p> +<p> +It is not then the gaudy ribbon, the brilliant star, +the titled name, that have intrinsic charms for him +who dedicates his genius to the search for truth. +How large a portion of his real greatness, even of his +most splendid discoveries, would he not willingly +sacrifice to confer on those he loves that exquisite +happiness, which arises only when hidden but long-cherished +convictions, entertained diffidently from +the consciousness of partial affection, receive at +length their final confirmation by that decision +which national acknowledgment can alone command! +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_27'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_27'>27</a>] The following dignitaries of the Church wear decorations +of Orders of Knighthood. +</p> +<table class='center'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Archbishop of Armagh.</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Bishop of Oxford.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Archbishop of Dublin.</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Dean of Westminster.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Dean of St. Patrick.</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The vestments of the Bishop of Oxford throw into the +shade those even of Roman Catholic prelates. +</p> +<p> +“The said prelate shall have and wear for his habit, a +mantle of crimson velvet, lined with white taffeta, richly +guarded with the Sovereign’s badges and cognizances, and +upon his right shoulder an escutcheon of the arms of the +Order, within a garter, and the lace of his mantle shall be +of blue silk, interwoven with gold.”⁠—<i>History of British +Orders of Knighthood, by Sir Harris Nicolas</i>, p. 430. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-251' class='pagenum'>251</span><h2 id='tg_app'> +<b>Appendix.</b> +</h2></div> +<hr> +<p class="align_c large one_space"> +<span class='small'>THE</span><br> +ELEVENTH CHAPTER<br> +<span class='x_small'>OF THE</span><br> +<span class='title_size'>HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.</span> +</p> +<p class="align_c small two_space"> +BY +</p> +<p class="align_c"> +C. R. WELD, ESQ. +</p> +<p class="align_c x_small"> +ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c small one_space"> +REPRINTED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE PROPRIETOR. +</p> +<p class="align_c break_before"> +<span id='page-253' class='pagenum'>253</span>EXTRACT FROM WELD’S +</p> +<p class="align_c large"> +HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c two_space"> +CHAPTER XI. +</p> +<p class='hang_indent small one_space'> +The Society receive a Letter from the Treasury respecting Mr. +Babbage’s Calculating Machine⁠—Letter from Mr. Babbage to +Sir H. Davy⁠—A Committee appointed to consider Mr. Babbage’s +Plan⁠—They Report in favour of it⁠—Mr. Babbage has an interview +with the Chancellor of the Exchequer⁠—Government advance +1,500<i>l</i>.⁠—Difference-Engine commenced⁠—Mr. Babbage gives all his +labour gratuitously⁠—Advice of the Society again requested⁠—Mr. +Babbage’s Statement⁠—Committee appointed to inspect the Engine⁠—Their +Report⁠—Heavy Expenses not met by the Treasury⁠—Meeting +of Mr. Babbage’s personal friends⁠—Their Report⁠—Duke +of Wellington inspects the Works⁠—His Grace recommends +the Treasury to make further Payments⁠—Letter from +Mr. Babbage to the Treasury⁠—Communication from the Treasury +to the Council⁠—Referred to a Committee⁠—Report of +Committee⁠—They recommend the Works to be removed to the +vicinity of Mr. Babbage’s Residence⁠—Government act on the +Recommendation⁠—Fire-proof Buildings erected⁠—Misunderstanding +with Mr. Clement⁠—Works stopped⁠—Mr. Babbage discovers +new principles which supersede those connected with the Difference-Engine⁠—He +requests an interview with Lord Melbourne⁠—Letter +to M. Quetelet explaining the principles of Analytical-Engine⁠—Mr. +Babbage visits Turin⁠—M. Menabrea’s account of the +Engine⁠—Translated with Notes by Lady Lovelace⁠—Mr. Babbage +applies to Government for their Determination⁠—Letter from the +Chancellor of the Exchequer⁠—Mr. Babbage’s Answer⁠—Government +resolve not to proceed with the Engine⁠—Mr. Babbage has an +interview with Sir R. Peel⁠—Difference-Engine placed in the +Museum of King’s College⁠—Present State of the Analytical-Engine.</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c two_space"> +1820-25. +</p> +<p class='one_space'> +<span class="small-caps">On</span> the 1st April, 1823, a letter was received from +the Treasury, requesting the Council to take into +consideration a plan which had been submitted to +Government by Mr. Babbage, for “applying machinery +<span id='page-254' class='pagenum'>254</span>to the purposes of calculating and printing mathematical +tables;” and the Lords of the Treasury further desired +“to be favoured with the opinion of the Royal Society +on the merits and utility of this invention[<a href='#fn_28' id='fnb_28'>28</a>].”</p> +<p> +This is the earliest allusion to the celebrated Calculating +Engine of Mr. Babbage, in the records of the +Society[<a href='#fn_29' id='fnb_29'>29</a>]. But the invention had been brought before +them in the previous year by a letter from Mr. Babbage +to Sir H. Davy, dated July 3, 1822, in which he gives +some account of a small model of his engine for calculating +differences, which “produced figures at the rate +of 44 a minute, and performed with rapidity and precision +all those calculations for which it was designed[<a href='#fn_30' id='fnb_30'>30</a>].” +He then proceeds to enumerate various tables which +the machine was adapted to calculate, and concludes: +“I am aware that these statements may perhaps be +viewed as something more than Utopian, and that the +philosophers of Laputa may be called up to dispute my +<span id='page-255' class='pagenum'>255</span>claim to originality. Should such be the case, I hope +the resemblance will be found to adhere to the nature +of the subject, rather than to the manner in which it +has been treated. Conscious from my own experience +of the difficulty of convincing those who are but little +skilled in mathematical knowledge, of the possibility of +making a machine which shall perform calculations, I +was naturally anxious, in introducing it to the public, +to appeal to the testimony of one so distinguished in +the records of British science[<a href='#fn_31' id='fnb_31'>31</a>]. Induced by a conviction +of the great utility of such engines, to withdraw +for some time my attention from a subject on which it +has been engaged during several years, and which possesses +charms of a higher order, I have now arrived at +a point where success is no longer doubtful. It must, +however, be attained at a very considerable expense, +which would not probably be replaced by the works it +might produce for a long period of time, and which is +an undertaking I should feel unwilling to commence, as +altogether foreign to my habits and pursuits.” +</p> +<p> +The Council appointed a Committee to take Mr. +Babbage’s plan into consideration, which was composed +of the following gentlemen: Sir H. Davy, Mr. Brande, +Mr. Combe, Mr. Baily, Mr. (now Sir Mark Isambard) +Brunel, Major (now General) Colby, Mr. Davies Gilbert, +Mr. (now Sir John) Herschel, Captain Kater, +Mr. Pond (Astronomer-Royal), Dr. Wollaston, and +Dr. Young. On the 1st May, 1823, the Committee +reported: “That it appears that Mr. Babbage has displayed +great talents and ingenuity in the construction +of his machine for computation, which the Committee +think fully adequate to the attainment of the objects +<span id='page-256' class='pagenum'>256</span>proposed by the inventor, and that they consider Mr. +Babbage as highly deserving of public encouragement +in the prosecution of his arduous undertaking[<a href='#fn_32' id='fnb_32'>32</a>].” +</p> +<p> +This Report was transmitted to the Lords of the +Treasury, by whom it was, with Mr. Babbage’s letter +to Sir H. Davy, printed and laid before Parliament[<a href='#fn_33' id='fnb_33'>33</a>]. +</p> +<p> +In July, 1823, Mr. Babbage had an interview with +the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Robinson (now +Earl of Ripon), to ascertain if it were the wish of +Government that he should construct a large engine of +the kind, which would also print the results it calculated. +Unfortunately, no Minute of that conversation was +made at the time, nor was any sufficiently distinct understanding +arrived at, as it afterwards appeared that a +contrary impression was left on the mind of either +party[<a href='#fn_34' id='fnb_34'>34</a>]. Mr. Babbage’s conviction was, that whatever +might be the labour and difficulty of the undertaking, +the engine itself would, of course, become the property +of the Government, which had paid for its construction. +</p> +<p> +Soon after this interview with the Chancellor of the +Exchequer, a letter was sent from the Treasury to the +Royal Society, informing them that the Lords of the +Treasury “had directed the issue of 1,500<i>l.</i> to Mr. Babbage, +to enable him to bring his invention to perfection, +in the manner recommended.” +</p> +<p> +These words “<i>in the manner recommended</i>,” can refer +<span id='page-257' class='pagenum'>257</span>only to the previous recommendation by the Royal +Society; but it does not appear from their Report, that +any plan, terms, or conditions had been pointed out. +</p> +<p> +Towards the end of July, 1823, Mr. Babbage took +measures for the construction of the present Difference-Engine[<a href='#fn_35' id='fnb_35'>35</a>], +and it was regularly proceeded with for four +years. +</p> +<p> +And here it is right to state, that Mr. Babbage gave +his mental labour gratuitously, and that from first to +last he has not derived any emolument whatever from +Government[<a href='#fn_36' id='fnb_36'>36</a>]. Sectional, and other drawings, of the +most delicate nature had to be made; tools to be formed +expressly to meet mechanical difficulties; and workmen +to be educated in the practical knowledge necessary in +the construction of the machine. The mechanical department +was placed under the management of Mr. +Clement, a draughtsman of great ability, and a practical +mechanic of the highest order[<a href='#fn_37' id='fnb_37'>37</a>]. Money was advanced +from time to time by the Treasury, the accounts +furnished by the engineer undergoing the examination +of auditors[<a href='#fn_38' id='fnb_38'>38</a>], and passing through the hands of Mr. +<span id='page-258' class='pagenum'>258</span>Babbage. Thus years elapsed, and public attention +became at length directed to the fact, that a large sum +had been expended upon the construction of the engine, +which was not completed. Again the advice of the +Royal Society was solicited. +</p> +<p> +In December, 1828, Government begged the Council +“to institute such enquiries as would enable them to +report upon the state to which it (the machine) had +then arrived; and also whether the progress made in +its construction confirmed them in the opinion which +they had formerly expressed, that it would ultimately +prove adequate to the important object which it was +intended to attain.” +</p> +<p> +Accompanying this communication was a statement +from Mr. Babbage of the condition of the engine, in +which he says:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“The machine has required a longer time and greater +expense than was anticipated, and Mr. Babbage has already +expended about 6,000<i>l.</i> on this object. The work is now in +a state of considerable forwardness, numerous and large drawings +of it have been made, and much of the mechanism has +been executed, and many workmen are occupied daily in its +completion.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +A Committee was appointed by the Council, consisting +of Mr. Gilbert (President), Dr. Roget, Captain +Sabine, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Baily, Mr. Brunel, +Captain Kater, Mr. Donkin, Mr. Penn, Mr. Rennie, +Mr. Barton, and Mr. Warburton.[<a href='#fn_39' id='fnb_39'>39</a>] +</p> +<p> +They minutely inspected the drawings, tools, and +the parts of the engine then executed, and drew up a +report, “declining to consider the principle on which +the practicability of the machinery depends, and of the +<span id='page-259' class='pagenum'>259</span>public utility of the object which it proposes to attain; +because they considered the former fully admitted, and +the latter obvious to all who consider the immense +advantage of accurate numerical tables in all matters of +calculation, which it is professedly the object of the +engine to calculate and print with perfect accuracy.” +</p> +<p> +They further stated, that “the progress made was +as great as could be expected, considering the numerous +difficulties to be overcome; and lastly, that they had +no hesitation in giving it as their opinion, that the +engine was likely to fulfil the expectations entertained +of it by its inventor.” +</p> +<p> +The Council adopted the Report, expressing their +trust, that while Mr. Babbage’s mind was intently +occupied on an undertaking likely to do so much +honour to his country, he might be relieved as much +as possible from all other sources of anxiety. +</p> +<p> +It is clear that the Council of the Royal Society +regarded Mr. Babbage’s engine, as it then existed, in a +favourable light, and were sanguine respecting its +satisfactory completion. +</p> +<p> +Government acted on the foregoing Report; funds +were advanced, the machinery was declared national +property, and the works were continued. But there +was evidently a misgiving on the part of the Lords of +the Treasury, for the official payments soon failed to +meet the heavy and increasing expenses incurred by +Mr. Babbage. +</p> +<p> +Under these circumstances, by the advice of Mr. +Wolryche Whitmore (Mr. Babbage’s brother-in-law), +a meeting of Mr. Babbage’s personal friends was held +on the 12th of May, 1829. It consisted of:⁠— +</p> +<div class="align_c space_after one_space"><div class="block_align_l">The Duke of Somerset, F.R.S.,<br> +Lord Ashley, M.P.,<br> +Sir John Franklin, Capt. R.N., F.R.S.,<br> +<span id='page-260' class='pagenum'>260</span>Mr. Wolryche Whitmore, M.P.,<br> +Dr. Fitton, F.R.S.,<br> +Mr. Francis Baily, F.R.S.,<br> +Sir John Herschel, F.R.S.<br> +</div></div><p> +They drew up the annexed Report:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>May 12, 1829.</i></p> +<p> +“The attention of the undersigned personal friends of +Mr. Babbage having been called by him to the actual state +of his Machine for Calculating and Printing Mathematical +Tables; and to his relation to the Government on the one +hand, and to the Engineers and workmen employed by him +in its execution on the other, declare themselves satisfied, +from his statements and from the documents they have +perused, of the following facts. +</p> +<p> +“That Mr. Babbage was originally induced to take up the +work on its present extensive scale, by an understanding on +his part, that it was the wish of Government he should do so, +and by an advance of 1,500<i>l.</i> in the outset, with a full +impression on his mind that such further advances would be +made as the progress of the work should require, and as +should secure him from ultimate loss. +</p> +<p> +“That the public and scientific importance of the Engine +has been acknowledged, in a Report of a Committee of the +Royal Society, made at the time of its first receiving the +sanction of His Majesty’s Government, and that its actual +state of progress is such, as in the opinion of the most +eminent Engineers and other Members of the Royal Society, +as detailed in a further Report of a Committee of that body, +to warrant their impression of the moral certainty of its +success, should funds not be wanting for its completion. +</p> +<p> +“That it appears, that Mr. Babbage’s actual expenditure +has amounted to nearly 7,000<i>l.</i> and that the whole sum +advanced to him by the Government is 3,000<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +“That Mr. Babbage has devoted, from the commencement +of his arduous undertaking, the most assiduous and anxious +attention to the work in hand, to the injury of his health, +and the neglect and refusal of other profitable occupations. +</p> +<p> +“That a very huge expense still remains to be incurred, +to the probable amount of at least 4,000<i>l.</i>, as far as he can +<span id='page-261' class='pagenum'>261</span>foresee, before the Engine can be completed; but that Mr. +Babbage’s private fortune is not such as, in their opinion, to +justify the sacrifices he must make in completing it without +further and effectual assistance from Government; taking +into consideration not only his own interest, but that of his +family dependent on him. +</p> +<p> +“Under these circumstances, it is their opinion that a full +and speedy representation of the case ought to be made to +Government, and that in the most direct manner by a personal +application to his Grace the Duke of Wellington. +</p> +<p> +“And that in case of such application proving unsuccessful +in procuring effectual and adequate assistance, they must +regard Mr. Babbage as no longer called on⁠—considering the +pecuniary and personal sacrifices he will then have made; +considering the entire and <i>bonâ fide</i> expenditure of all that +he will have received from the public purse on the object of +its destination, and considering the moral certainty to which +it is at length by his exertions reduced⁠—as no longer called +on to go on with an undertaking which may prove the +destruction of his health, and the great injury, if not the +ruin of his fortune. +</p> +<p> +“That it is their opinion that Mr. W. Whitmore and +Mr. Herschel should request an interview with the Duke of +Wellington for the purpose of making this representation. +</p> +<table class='right'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">(Signed,)</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Somerset.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Ashley.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">John Franklin.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">W. W. Whitmore.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Wm. Henry Fitton.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Francis Baily.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">J. F. W. Herschel.</span>”</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> +In consequence of what passed at this interview, +which took place as suggested, the Duke of Wellington, +accompanied by the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Mr. +Goulburn) and Lord Ashley, inspected the <i>model</i> of +the engine, the drawings, and parts in progress. The +Duke recommended that a grant of 3,000<i>l.</i> should be +made towards the completion of the machine, which +was duly paid by the Treasury. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-262' class='pagenum'>262</span>In the mean time, difficulties of another kind arose. +The engineer, who had constructed the Engine under +Mr. Babbage’s directions, had delivered his bills in +such a state, that it was impossible to judge how far +the charges were just and reasonable; and although +Mr. Babbage had paid several thousand pounds, there +yet remained a considerable balance, which could not +be liquidated until the accounts had been examined, +and the charges approved by professional engineers. +</p> +<p> +With a view of drawing attention to these charges, +Mr. Babbage addressed the following letter to the +Chancellor of the Exchequer:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Dorset Street, 21 December, 1830.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">My Lord</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_a'> +“I beg to call your Lordship’s attention to +the enclosed account[<a href='#fn_40' id='fnb_40'>40</a>] of the expenses of the Machine for +calculating and printing mathematical tables, by which it +appears that a sum of 592<i>l.</i> 4<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> remained due to myself +upon the last account, and that a further sum of nearly 600<i>l.</i> +has since become due to Mr. Clement.</p> +<p> +“It is for the payment of this latter sum that I wish to +call your Lordship’s attention. Mr. Maudslay, one of the +engineers appointed by the Government to examine the bills +of Mr. Clement, having been unable from illness to attend, +his report has been delayed, and Mr. Clement informs me +that should the money remain unpaid much longer, he shall +<span id='page-263' class='pagenum'>263</span>be obliged, from want of funds, to discharge some of the +workmen; an event which I need not inform your Lordship +would be very prejudicial to the progress of the machine. +</p> +<p> +“Another point which I wish to submit to your attention, +when your Lordship shall have had leisure to examine personally +the present state of the works, is, that since it is +absolutely necessary to find additional room for the erection +of the machine, it becomes a matter of serious consideration +whether it would not contribute to the speedier completion of +the machine, and also to economy in expenditure, to remove +the works to the neighbourhood of my own residence. +</p> +<p class='right2'> +“I have, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">C. Babbage</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p> +The receipt of this letter caused the Treasury to +make the following communication to the Secretary of +the Royal Society:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Treasury, 24 December, 1830.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_b'> +“The Lords Commissioners of H. M. Treasury, +having had under their consideration a letter from Mr. +Babbage, containing an account of the expense which has +been incurred in the construction of the Machine for calculating +and printing mathematical tables, amounting to the sum +of 7,192<i>l.</i> 4<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>, and requesting an advance of 600<i>l.</i> to +defray a part of that expense; I am commanded by their +Lordships to refer you to the Report of the Council of the +Royal Society dated 16th February, 1829, which entirely +satisfied their Lordships of the propriety of supporting Mr. +Babbage in the construction of this machine, and to state +that advances to the amount of 6,000<i>l.</i> have been made on +this account, and that directions have been given for a further +advance of 600<i>l.</i></p> +<p> +“I am also to acquaint you, that the Machine is the property +of Government, and consequently my Lords propose to +defray the further expense necessary for its completion. I am +further to request you will move the Council of the Royal +Society to cause the machine to be inspected, and to favour +my Lords with their opinion whether the work is proceeding +<span id='page-264' class='pagenum'>264</span>in a satisfactory manner, and without unnecessary expense, +and what further sum may probably be necessary for completing +it. +</p> +<p class='right2'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">J. Stewart</span>.”</p> +<p class=''> +“<i>The Secretary, Royal Society.</i>”</p> +</div> +<p> +The consideration of this letter was referred to the +same Committee which had previously been appointed +for a similar purpose, with the addition of Sir John +Lubbock and Mr. Troughton. +</p> +<p> +Again the Committee met[<a href='#fn_41' id='fnb_41'>41</a>] Mr. Babbage, at No. 21, +Prospect Place, Lambeth (where the construction of +the engine was carried on), and minutely inspected the +machinery and drawings. +</p> +<p> +Their Report embodied the whole facts of the case:⁠—the +workmanship of the various parts of the machine +was declared to have been executed with the greatest +possible degree of perfection, and the pains taken to +verify the charges on the part of the Government altogether +satisfactory. It was recommended that the +vacancy occasioned by the decease of Mr. Maudslay, +who had been appointed to inspect the accounts, should +be filled up by another engineer, conversant with the +execution of machinery, and the value thereof. With +respect to the suggested removal of the workshops +nearer to Mr. Babbage’s residence, the Committee gave +their entire concurrence, on the ground that greater +expedition would thereby be attained in carrying on +the work, and that it was highly essential to secure all +the machinery and drawings in fire-proof premises, +without delay. A plot of ground held on lease by +Mr. Babbage, adjacent to his garden at the back of his +<span id='page-265' class='pagenum'>265</span>house in Dorset Street, was recommended as a desirable +site for the contemplated erections, of which the plans +and estimates had been submitted to the Committee. +The framers of the Report stated in conclusion that:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“Such an arrangement would be eminently conducive to +the speedy and economical completion of the Machine, as well +as to the effectual working and employment of the same, after +it shall have been completed. +</p> +<p> +“That as to the sum which may be necessary for completing +the Engine, they attach hereto the estimate of Mr. +Brunel.”[<a href='#fn_42' id='fnb_42'>42</a>] +</p> +</div> +<p> +The Report, with Mr. Brunel’s estimate, were sent +to the Treasury on the 13th April, 1831: and having +been approved by a Committee of practical engineers +appointed by Government, the latter acted on the +recommendations which it contained. The piece of +ground adjoining Mr. Babbage’s garden was taken, and +a fire-proof building erected, designed to contain the +plans and drawings, and also the engine when completed. +But new and unforeseen difficulties arose. +When about 17,000<i>l.</i> had been expended, further +progress was arrested on account of a misunderstanding +<span id='page-266' class='pagenum'>266</span>with Mr. Clement, who made the most extravagant +demands as compensation for carrying on the construction +of the engine in the new buildings. These demands +could not be satisfied with proper regard to the justice +due to Government. Mr. Clement accordingly withdrew +from the undertaking, and carried with him all +the valuable tools that had been used in the work; a +proceeding the more unfortunate, as many of them had +been invented expressly to meet the unusual forms and +combinations arising out of the novel construction.[<a href='#fn_43' id='fnb_43'>43</a>] +</p> +<p> +An offer was made to surrender the tools, for a given +sum, which was declined, and the works came to a +stand-still. But other circumstances interposed to prevent +the completion of the original design. +</p> +<p> +During the suspension of the works, Mr. Babbage +had been deprived of the use of his own drawings. +Having in the meanwhile naturally speculated upon +the general principles on which machinery for calculation +might be constructed, <i>a principle of an entirely +new kind</i> occurred to him, the power of which over the +most complicated arithmetical operations seemed nearly +unbounded. This was the executing of analytical operations +by means of an analytical-engine. On re-examining +his drawings, when returned to him by the +engineer, the new principle appeared to be limited only +by the extent of the mechanism it might require. +The invention of simpler mechanical means for performing +the elementary operations of the engine, now +derived a far greater importance than it had hitherto +possessed; and should such simplifications be discovered, +<span id='page-267' class='pagenum'>267</span>it seemed difficult to anticipate, or even to over-estimate, +the vast results which might be attained. +</p> +<p> +These new views acquired additional importance +from their bearings upon the engine already partly +executed for the Government; for, if such simplifications +should be discovered, it might happen that +the Analytical-Engine would execute with greater +rapidity the calculations for which the Difference-Engine +was intended; or that the Difference-Engine +would itself be superseded by a far simpler mode of +construction. +</p> +<p> +Though these views might perhaps at that period have +appeared visionary, they have subsequently been completely +realized. To have allowed the construction of +the Difference-Engine to be resumed, while these new +conceptions were withheld from the Government, would +have been improper; yet the state of uncertainty in +which those views were then necessarily involved, rendered +any written communication respecting their probable +bearing on that engine, a task of very great +difficulty. It therefore appeared to Mr. Babbage, that +the most straightforward course was to ask for an interview +with the head of the Government, and to communicate +to him the exact state of the case. +</p> +<p> +On the 26th September, 1834, Mr. Babbage requested +an audience of Lord Melbourne, for the purpose of +placing these views before him; his Lordship acceded +to the request, but from some cause the interview was +postponed; and soon after, the ministry went out of +office, without the desired conference having taken +place. +</p> +<p> +The duration of the Duke of Wellington’s administration +was short; and no decision on the subject of +the <i>Difference</i>-Engine was obtained. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-268' class='pagenum'>268</span>In May, 1835, Mr. Babbage announced in a letter[<a href='#fn_44' id='fnb_44'>44</a>] +to M. Quetelet, which was laid before the Academy of +Sciences at Brussels, that he had “for six months been +engaged in making the drawings of a new calculating +engine of <i>far greater power than the first</i>.” “I am +myself astonished,” says Mr. Babbage, “at the power +I have been enabled to give to this machine; a year +ago I should not have believed this result possible. +This machine is intended to contain a hundred variables, +or numbers susceptible of changing, and each of these +numbers may consist of twenty-five figures. The +greatest difficulties of the invention have already been +surmounted, and the plans will be finished in a few +months.” +</p> +<p> +Subsequently to the date of this letter, Mr. Babbage +visited Turin, where he explained to Baron Plana, +M. Menabrea, and several other distinguished philosophers +of that city, the mathematical principles of his +Analytical-Engine, and also the drawings and engravings +of the more curious mechanical contrivances, by which +those principles were to be carried into effect. M. +Menabrea, with Mr. Babbage’s consent, published the +information which he had received in the 41st volume +of the <i>Bibliothèque Universelle de Génève</i>. The article is +remarkable as giving the first account of the Analytical-Engine.[<a href='#fn_45' id='fnb_45'>45</a>] +An English translation, with copious original +<span id='page-269' class='pagenum'>269</span>notes, made by a lady of distinguished rank and +talent,[<a href='#fn_46' id='fnb_46'>46</a>] was published in the third volume of Taylor’s +<i>Scientific Memoirs</i>. +</p> +<p> +But it did not contain all the information respecting +the Difference-Engine that was desirable, and Mr. +Babbage was consequently led to communicate a short +article upon this subject to the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, +which is inserted in the 23rd volume[<a href='#fn_47' id='fnb_47'>47</a>]. The more +comprehensive statements and official documents which +Mr. Babbage has placed at my disposal renders it unnecessary +to do more than allude to that article. +</p> +<p> +For nine years, that is, from the year 1833, when the +construction of the Difference-Engine was suspended, +until 1842, no decision respecting the machine was +arrived at, although Mr. Babbage made several applications +to Government on the subject. +</p> +<p> +On the 21st October, 1838, he wrote to the Chancellor +of the Exchequer, stating that the question he +wished to have settled was:⁠—“Whether the Government +required him to superintend the completion of the +Difference-Engine, which had been suspended during +<span id='page-270' class='pagenum'>270</span>the last five years, according to the original plan and +principle, or whether they intended to discontinue it +altogether.” This letter produced no result. Time +wore on, and Sir Robert Peel became Prime Minister. +This was in 1841. Up to the termination of the +Parliamentary Session in 1842, Mr. Babbage had received +no other communication on the subject than a +note from Sir George Clerk (Secretary to the Treasury), +written in January of that year, stating that he feared +the pressing official duties of Sir Robert Peel would +prevent him turning his attention to the matter for +some days. +</p> +<p> +Having availed himself of several private channels +for recalling the question to Sir Robert Peel’s attention +without effect, Mr. Babbage, on the 8th of +October, 1842, again wrote to him, requesting an early +decision. +</p> +<p> +At last Mr. Babbage received the following letter:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Downing Street, Nov. 3, 1842.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">My dear Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_large'> +“The Solicitor-General has informed me +that you are most anxious to have an early and decided +answer as to the determination of the Government with +respect to the completion of your Calculating Engine. I +accordingly took the earliest opportunity of communicating +with Sir R. Peel on the subject.</p> +<p> +“We both regret the necessity of abandoning the completion +of a Machine on which so much scientific ingenuity and +labour have been bestowed. But on the other hand, the +expense which would be necessary in order to render it either +satisfactory to yourself, or generally useful, appears on the +lowest calculation so far to exceed what we should be justified +in incurring, that we consider ourselves as having no other +alternative. +</p> +<p> +“We trust that by withdrawing all claim on the part of +the Government to the Machine as at present constructed, and +<span id='page-271' class='pagenum'>271</span>by placing it at your entire disposal, we may, to a degree, +assist your future exertions in the cause of science. +</p> +<p class='right3'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">Henry Goulburn.</span></p> +<p class='noindent'> +“<i>Charles Babbage, Esq.</i>”</p> +<p class='one_space'> +“P.S. Sir R. Peel begs me to add, that as I have undertaken +to express to you our joint opinion on this matter, +he trusts you will excuse his not separately replying to the +letter, which you addressed to him on the subject a short +time since.”</p> +</div> +<p> +To this letter Mr. Babbage replied as follows:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Dorset Street, Nov. 6, 1842.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">My dear Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_large'> +“I beg to acknowledge the receipt of +your letter of the 3rd of Nov., containing your own and Sir +Robert Peel’s decision respecting the Engine for calculating +and printing mathematical tables by means of Differences, +the construction of which has been suspended about eight +years.</p> +<p> +“You inform me that both regret the necessity of abandoning +the completion of the Engine, but that not feeling justified +in incurring the large expense which it may probably +require, you have no other alternative. +</p> +<p> +“You also offer, on the part of Government, to withdraw +all claim in the Machine as at present constructed, and to +place it at my entire disposal, with the view of assisting my +future exertions in the cause of science. +</p> +<p> +“The drawings and the parts of the Machine already +executed are, as you are aware, the absolute property of +Government, and I have no claim whatever to them. +</p> +<p> +“Whilst I thank you for the feeling which that offer +manifests, I must, under all the circumstances, decline accepting +it. +</p> +<p class='right2'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">C. Babbage</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p> +Mr. Babbage had an interview with Sir R. Peel +subsequently to the date of the foregoing letter: the +<span id='page-272' class='pagenum'>272</span>result was, however, entirely unsatisfactory; and thus, +with the communication from the then Chancellor of +the Exchequer, terminated an engagement which had +existed upwards of twenty years, during which period +it is due to Mr. Babbage to state, that he refused more +than one highly desirable and profitable situation,[<a href='#fn_48' id='fnb_48'>48</a>] in +order that he might give his whole time and thoughts to +the fulfilment of the contract, which he considered himself +to have entered into with the Government. +</p> +<p> +With respect to the Difference-Engine little remains +to be added. In 1843, an application was made to +Government, by the Trustees of King’s College, London, +to allow the Engine, as it existed, to be removed +to the museum of that institution. The request was +complied with; and the Engine, enclosed within a glass +case, now stands nearly in the centre of the Museum. +It is capable of calculating to five figures, and two +orders of differences, and performs the work with absolute +precision; but no portion whatever of printing +machinery, which was one of the great objects in the +construction of the Engine, exists. All the drawings +of the machinery and other contrivances are also in +King’s College. +</p> +<p> +Before closing this Chapter, it will not be out of +place to put upon record the state of the Analytical-Engine +at this period (1848). +</p> +<p> +Mechanical Notations have been made, both of the +actions of detached parts, and of the general action of +the whole, which cover about four or five hundred large +folio sheets of paper. +</p> +<p> +The original rough sketches are contained in about +<span id='page-273' class='pagenum'>273</span>five volumes. There are upwards of one hundred large +drawings. No part of the construction of the Analytical-Engine +has yet been commenced. A long series of +experiments have, however, been made upon the art of +shaping metals; and the tools to be employed for that +purpose have been discussed, and many drawings of +them prepared. The great object of these inquiries +and experiments is, on the one hand, by simplifying the +construction as much as possible, and on the other, by +contriving new and cheaper means of execution, ultimately +to reduce the expense within those limits which +a private individual may command. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_28'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_28'>28</a>] In the following account of the Difference and Analytical Engines, +besides the MS. documents in the Archives of the Royal Society, I have +derived very valuable information from an unpublished statement +drawn up by Mr. Babbage, which he has been so kind as to place in my +hands. The original documents which are in Mr. Babbage’s possession, +and which are referred to, I have myself examined. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_29'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_29'>29</a>] The idea of a Calculating Engine is not new. The celebrated +Pascal constructed a machine for executing the ordinary operations of +arithmetic, a description of which will be found in the <i>Encycl. Méthod.</i>, +and in the Works of Pascal, Tom. <span class="small-caps">iv.</span> p. 7, Paris, 1819. In his <i>Pensées</i> +he says, alluding to this Engine: “<i>La machine arithmétique fait des +effets qui approchent plus de la pensée que tout ce que font les animaux; +mais elle ne fait rien qui puisse faire dire qu’elle a de la volonté comme +les animaux.</i>” Subsequently, Leibnitz invented a machine by which, +says Mr. De Morgan, “arithmetic computations could be made.” +Polenus, a learned and ingenious Italian, invented a machine by which +multiplication was performed⁠—and mechanical contrivances for performing +particular arithmetical processes were made about a century +ago, but they were merely modifications of Pascal’s. These Engines +were very different to Mr. Babbage’s Difference-Engine. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_30'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_30'>30</a>] This letter was printed and published in July, 1822. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_31'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_31'>31</a>] Sir H. Davy had witnessed and expressed his admiration of the +performances of the Engine. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_32'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_32'>32</a>] I am informed upon good authority, that Dr. Young differed in +opinion from his colleagues. Without doubting that an engine could +be made, he conceived that it would be far more useful to invest the +probable cost of constructing such a calculating machine as was proposed, +in the funds, and apply the dividends to paying calculators. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_33'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_33'>33</a>] Parliamentary Paper, No. 370, 1823. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_34'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_34'>34</a>] Mr. Babbage very justly observes, that had the mutual relations of +the two parties, and the details of the plans then adopted, been clearly +defined, there is little doubt but that the Difference-Engine would long +since have existed. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_35'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_35'>35</a>] It will be desirable to distinguish between, +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. The small <i>Model</i> of the Original or Difference-Engine.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. The Difference-Engine itself, belonging to the Government, a +part only of which has been put together.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. The designs for another Engine called the Analytical-Engine.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_36'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_36'>36</a>] Sir R. Peel distinctly admitted this in the House of Commons in +March, 1843. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_37'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_37'>37</a>] A curious anecdote is related illustrative of the great perfection to +which Mr. Clement was in the habit of bringing machinery. He +received an order from America to construct a large screw in the <i>best +possible manner</i>, and he accordingly made one with the greatest mathematical +accuracy. But his bill amounted to some hundreds of pounds, +which completely staggered the American, who never calculated upon +paying more than 20<i>l.</i> at the utmost for the screw. The matter was +referred to arbitrators, who gave an opinion in favour of Mr. Clement. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_38'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_38'>38</a>] They were Messrs. Brunel, Donkin, and Field. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_39'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_39'>39</a>] Colonel Sabine informs me, that Dr. Whewell was afterwards added +to the Committee. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_40'> +<p>[<a href='#fnb_40'>40</a>]</p> +<table class='avoid_break center'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b">£</th> +<th class="align_r valign_b"><i>s.</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b"><i>d.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Expense to end of 1824</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">600</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Expense to end of 1827</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">521</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Mr. Clement’s Bills to June, 1827</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">4,775</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Ditto, 9th May, 1829</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">730</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">12</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6,628</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">4</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Deduct old tools sold</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">36</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6,592</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">4</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Mr. Clement’s Bill to December, 1830, <i>about</i></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">600</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7,192</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">4</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_41'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_41'>41</a>] I have a letter of Sir J. Herschel’s before me, expressing his regret +at being unable to attend on this occasion, but that his faith in the +engine and its inventor remained unshaken. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_42'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_42'>42</a>] Mr. Brunel’s estimate appears in the following letter to Mr. +Warburton:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Feb. 28, 1831.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">Dear Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_a'> +“Having taken in consideration the erection of the +proposed shops, the removal of the machinery, the accommodation for +it, and also for the maker; having also taken into consideration the +further completion of the drawings, and the ultimate accomplishment +of the Engine until it is capable of producing plates for printing; +though I feel confident that the sum of 8,000<i>l.</i> will be ample to realize +the objects that are contemplated, I should nevertheless recommend +that the Government be advised to provide for the sum of 12,000<i>l.</i> by +way of estimate, and that the yearly sum required, exclusive of the +sum requisite for the buildings and removal (say 2,000<i>l.</i>), will not +exceed from 2,000<i>l.</i> to 2,500<i>l.</i></p> +<p class='right2'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">M. I. Brunel</span>.”</p> +<p class=''> +“<i>Henry Warburton, Esq.</i>”</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_43'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_43'>43</a>] This Mr. Clement had a legal right to do. Startling as it may +appear to the unprofessional reader, it is nevertheless the fact, that +engineers and mechanics possess the right of property to all tools that +they have constructed, although the cost of construction has been +defrayed by their employers. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_44'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_44'>44</a>] Mr. Babbage informs me, that this letter was intended only as a +private communication. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_45'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_45'>45</a>] In the <i>Ninth Bridgewater Treatise</i>, Mr. Babbage has employed +various arguments deduced from the Analytical-Engine, which afford +some idea of its powers. See second edition. In 1838, several copies of +plans of this new engine, engraved on wood, were circulated amongst +Mr. Babbage’s friends at the Meeting of the British Association at +Newcastle. +</p> +<p> +In 1840, Mr. Babbage had one of his general plans of the Analytical-Engine +lithographed at Paris. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_46'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_46'>46</a>] I am authorized by Lord Lovelace to say, that the translator is +Lady Lovelace. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_47'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_47'>47</a>] “The Difference-Engine could only tabulate, and was incapable by +its nature of developing; the Analytical-Engine was intended to either +tabulate or develop. The Difference-Engine is the embodying of one +particular and very limited set of operations, the Analytical-Engine, the +embodying of the science of operations. The distinctive characteristic +of the Analytical-Engine, is the introduction into it of the principle +which Jacquard devised for regulating by means of punched cards the +most complicated patterns in the fabrication of brocaded stuffs. +Nothing of the sort exists in the Difference-Engine. We may say most +aptly, that the Analytical-Engine weaves <i>Algebraical patterns</i>, just as +the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves!”⁠—Note to translation of +Menabrea’s Memoir. The 59th volume of the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> contains +an able and elaborate article upon the Difference-Engine, written +by Dr. Lardner. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_48'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_48'>48</a>] Mr. Babbage has shown me letters by which it appears that he +declined offices of great emolument, the acceptance of which would have +interfered with his labours upon the Difference-Engine. +</p> +</div> +<p class='break_before'> +<span id='page-275' class='pagenum'>275</span><span class="small-caps">The</span> annexed Review of the Eleventh Chapter of +<span class="small-caps">Mr. Weld’s History of the Royal Society</span>, by Professor +<span class="small-caps">De Morgan</span>, has been reprinted with his permission, +and that of the Editor, <i>verbatim</i>, from the +Athenæum of October 14th, 1848.</p> +<p> +Three Notes at the foot of the pages have been +added for the purpose of explanation. +</p> +<p> +These are followed by the remarks upon them, +reprinted from the “<i>Athenæum</i>” of 16th December, 1848. +</p> +<p class="align_c break_before"> +<span id='page-277' class='pagenum'>277</span><span class="small-caps">Professor De Morgan’s Review</span> <i>of</i> <span class="small-caps">Weld’s</span><br> +<span class="small-caps">History</span> <i>of the</i> <span class="small-caps">Royal Society</span>. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +THE ATHENÆUM.<br> +<span class='fontp9'><i>LONDON, SATURDAY, OCTOBER 14, 1848.</i></span> +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c four_space"> +MR. BABBAGE’S CALCULATING MACHINE. +</p> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">In</span> our review of Mr. Weld’s “History of the Royal +Society,” [<i>ante</i>, p. 621,] we noted that one chapter was +devoted to the history of the celebrated undertaking +above named. This chapter is taken from materials +furnished by Mr. Babbage himself, all the documents +having undergone the inspection of Mr. Weld. Of +recent publications on the subject it may be well to +note⁠—1. A short account of the transactions with the +Government, communicated by Mr. Babbage to the +<i>Philosophical Magazine</i> for September, 1843. 2. A +sketch of the <i>Analytical Engine</i> (on which Mr. Babbage +is now at work, that commenced by the Government +being the <i>Difference Engine</i>) written in Italian by +Menabrea, and translated, with notes (and a list of all +previous publications), by the Countess of Lovelace +(August 1843). The statements put forward by Mr. +Babbage have thus been in substance before the public +for five years, without contradiction: for though the +account (No. 1) was not signed, it was stated to be +<i>from authority</i>, allowed to pass as such by the Editors +<span id='page-278' class='pagenum'>278</span>of the magazine, and generally understood to emanate +from Mr. Babbage. We are then bound to take this +first statement as admitted by Government, more especially +after the publication by Mr. Weld, avowedly +made from the documents furnished by Mr. Babbage +himself: and assuredly we understand Mr. Weld as +conceiving himself to be distinctly informed by Mr. +Babbage, that <i>all</i> documents of any importance had +been communicated.</p> +<p> +The heads of the public history of the <i>Difference +Engine</i> are as follows:⁠—In April, 1823, the Government +requested the opinion of the Royal Society on +Mr. Babbage’s plan for “applying machinery to the +purposes of calculating and printing mathematical +tables.” The Royal Society reported favourably, that +the machine was “fully adequate to the objects proposed,”⁠—and +this report was laid before Parliament. +In July, Mr. Babbage had an interview with the Chancellor +of the Exchequer (Earl of Ripon) to ascertain +if Government would wish him to construct for <i>printing</i> +as well as <i>calculating</i>. There is no minute of this conversation, +and the parties have different memories upon +it. But soon after, the Treasury informs the Royal +Society that 1,500<i>l.</i> was to be issued to Mr. Babbage +“to enable him to bring his invention to perfection, in +the manner recommended.” Mr. Weld remarks that +no plan had been pointed out; but it must be noticed +that the original application was for an opinion upon +<i>calculating and printing</i>, that the opinion spoke of the +<i>full adequacy</i> of the plan for <i>the objects proposed</i>, and +that the final determination of the Government was +to proceed <i>as recommended</i>. Unless there were a previous +understanding that all documents should either speak +with the verbal completeness of an indictment or be +wholly void, it is clear that the Government determined +<span id='page-279' class='pagenum'>279</span>to assist Mr. Babbage in realizing the full invention, +and told him so.[<a href='#fn_49' id='fnb_49'>49</a>] +</p> +<p> +The work went on for four years, under advances of +money from time to time: the funds were applied by +Mr. Babbage, and the accounts were audited by Messrs. +Brunel, Donkin, and Field. We suppose that Government +did not exceed the proposed advance of 1,500<i>l.</i>; +but this is not expressly stated. In December, 1828, +Government applied again to the Royal Society to +report upon the state, progress, and prospects of the +machine. Mr. Babbage at the same time stated that +he had expended 6,000<i>l.</i>⁠—meaning, we suppose, 4,500<i>l.</i> +over and above the Government advance. A Committee, +consisting of Messrs. Gilbert, Roget, Sabine, +Herschel, Baily, Brunel (the elder), Kater, Donkin, +Penn, Rennie, Barton, Warburton, declined to report +on practicability or utility, considering both as fully +established, and reported that, the difficulties considered, +the progress was as great as could be expected, +and that the engine was likely to fulfil the expectations +of its inventor. On this report the Government made +further advances, and the machine was declared national +property. But the official payments soon failed: and +Mr. Babbage called a meeting of private friends, in +May 1829, who, on the representation that he had then +advanced 4,000<i>l.</i> himself, in addition to the Government +advance of 3,000<i>l.</i>, advised him strongly not to +proceed without adequate help from the Government. +<span id='page-280' class='pagenum'>280</span>On this representation, the Duke of Wellington, Mr. +Goulburn, and Lord Ashley inspected what there was +to show, and the Treasury advanced 3,000<i>l.</i> more. In +December 1830, nearly 600<i>l.</i> was still due to Mr. +Babbage, “upon the last account,” and that sum to the +superintendent, Mr. Clement. The Treasury gave +directions for the advance of 600<i>l.</i> to pay Mr. Clement, +and desired a fresh inspection and opinion from the +Royal Society. The Committee above named (with +the addition of Sir J. Lubbock and Mr. Troughton) +reported (April 1831) as favourably as before on every +point, and recommended attention to Mr. Babbage’s +suggestion that the workshops should be removed to the +neighbourhood of his residence. With regard to probable +expense, they subjoined Mr. Brunel’s estimate +that 8,000<i>l.</i> additional would be sufficient; but recommending +that the Government be advised to provide +for 12,000<i>l.</i> by way of estimate. A piece of ground +adjoining Mr. Babbage’s garden was taken, and a fire-proof +building was erected. When about 17,000<i>l.</i> had +been expended altogether, further progress was arrested +by the extravagant demands made by Mr. Clement, as +compensation for carrying on the construction in the +new buildings. These were out of the question: and +Mr. Clement withdrew, taking with him all the tools +which had been used, many of which had been invented +for the occasion. For it is the law that engineers and +mechanics possess the right of property in all tools they +have constructed, even though the cost of construction +may have been defrayed by their employers. A special +agreement ought, the reader will say, to have been +made as to these tools; but whether the neglect is to +be charged on Mr. Babbage, or on the Government, +those must say who feel able. As it very seldom +happens that the employer furnishes tools, it is easy to +<span id='page-281' class='pagenum'>281</span>see how the necessity for a special agreement may have +escaped the notice of all parties. +</p> +<p> +So far all is intelligible enough, and no blame +attaches to either side, at least that we can venture to +impute. But now the question divides in a curious +way. While the works were suspended, Mr. Babbage +reconsidered the whole question, and invented what he +calls the <i>Analytical Engine</i>,⁠—which we will take, on his +word and Menabrea’s publication, derived from his +communications, to be immensely superior to the <i>Difference +Engine</i>. To resume the latter, while Government +was unacquainted with these new and more simple +conceptions, would have been improper; to write on +unfinished speculations would have been difficult. Mr. +Babbage therefore (September 1834) requested a personal +interview with Lord Melbourne; which was +agreed to,⁠—but before it took place the ministry was +dissolved. From this time until 1842 Mr. Babbage +made applications to the various administrations, which +remained unanswered; until at last, in November, 1842, +a letter from Mr. Goulburn, in answer to a new application, +informed Mr. Babbage that the Government +intended to discontinue the project on the ground of +expense. +</p> +<p> +In the meanwhile Mr. Babbage incurred severe censure +in scientific circles, as being himself the cause of +the delay. It was asserted that he had compromised +the Royal Society, which had so strongly recommended +his project to the Government. It was pretty generally +believed that the delay arose from his determination +that the Government should take up the new engine +and abandon the old one. +</p> +<p> +But, until the statement made by him shall be proved +either false or defective, it must stand that the Government +never returned any answer to the question⁠—Shall +<span id='page-282' class='pagenum'>282</span>the new engine be constructed, or shall the old one be +proceeded with? We are of opinion that they ought +to have required him to proceed with the old one. +They ought to have said⁠—The public can only judge +by results: how well satisfied soever men of science +may be that the new machine is immeasurably superior +to the old one, society at large will never comprehend +the abandonment of a scheme on which so much has +been expended; they will say⁠—What if, in constructing +No. 2, No. 3 should be discovered, as much superior to +No. 2 as No. 2 is to No. 1! And if Mr. Babbage had +declined to proceed with his first project, when thus +urged, it is our opinion that he would have richly +deserved a very harsh censure. And of this we are +sure, that if Government had allowed him to finish the +first machine, and he had done so with success, the +House of Commons would willingly have granted money +for the second,⁠—aye, and for the third and fourth, if he +had invented them. But the Government itself prevented +the matter from coming to any such issue. It +is possible that Sir R. Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed +Mr. Babbage’s well-known wish[<a href='#fn_50' id='fnb_50'>50</a>] to abandon the first +plan in favour of the new one to influence their decision. +It may be that they were startled at finding that +17,000<i>l.</i> expended upon one project was only the +precursor of another. If so, we think they put themselves +in the wrong by not fastening on Mr. Babbage +the alternative of either proceeding with the existing +construction, or taking the entire responsibility +of refusal upon himself. As the matter now stands, +and unless Mr. Babbage can be refuted, the answer to +the question why he did not proceed is, that during the +<span id='page-283' class='pagenum'>283</span>eight years in which he had to bear the blame of the +delay he could not procure even the attention of the +Government, much less any decision on the course to +be taken. +</p> +<p> +It is generally understood that Mr. Babbage is +determined to proceed with the <i>Analytical Engine</i>, +gradually, and at his own expense; and that the drawings +are in a state of great forwardness. According to +Mr. Babbage himself, many experiments have been +made with the object “on the one hand, by simplifying +the construction as much as possible, and on the +other, by contriving new and cheaper means of execution, +ultimately to reduce the expense within those +limits which a private individual may command.” +</p> +<p> +In looking at all the circumstances of this statement, +we regret its divided responsibility. Mr. Weld has +seen Mr. Babbage’s documents. Should he have made +an insufficient selection, who is to blame? Mr. Weld +says, “I have derived very valuable information from +an unpublished statement drawn up by Mr. Babbage, +which he has been so kind as to place in my hands. +The original documents, which are in Mr. Babbage’s +possession, and which are referred to, I have myself +examined.” From all this we should conclude that if +Mr. Weld had omitted anything material, or fallen into +any misconception, Mr. Babbage would before this have +set it right. But it would be more satisfactory if we +had Mr. Babbage’s own acceptance of the statement +thus made, as being that on which he is content to rest +his case; at least until some specific counter-statement +should demand more detail of explanation. Continued +silence will be tantamount to such acceptance. +</p> +<p> +There is also one piece of information which must +be drawn out before the case can be finally adjudicated. +We stand thus:⁠—Scientific rumour states that Mr. +<span id='page-284' class='pagenum'>284</span>Babbage compelled the Government to give him up by +demanding permission to abandon the <i>Difference Engine</i> +and substitute the <i>Analytical Engine</i>. To this, in the +formal point of view, Mr. Babbage has fully answered, +by showing that the Government never communicated +to him that it was their pleasure he should proceed on +the plan originally contemplated. The question now +remains⁠—Did Mr. Babbage, or did he not, in the +several unanswered applications which he made to the +Ministry, press the claims of the new machine and the +abandonment of the old? If so, did he do it in such +a manner as to give to understand, or make apparent, +that he would not consent to recommence operations at +the point of relinquishment? The “several applications” +which were made from 1833 to 1838 are not +particularized, much less described as to contents. But, +in October 1838, Mr. Babbage wrote to the Chancellor +of the Exchequer, stating, to use Mr. Weld’s words, +that “the question he wished to have settled” was, +whether the Government required him to superintend +the completion of the <i>Difference Engine</i> according to +the original plan and principle, or whether they intended +to discontinue it altogether. Now the words <i>quoted</i> are +very like the idiom a person would employ who had in +his mind that up to that time some other question had +been among those proposed for discussion. And it is +worthy of note that all the communications are undescribed +until we come to the one of October 1838; +which shows that then at least, whether before or not, +Mr. Babbage had put the question on the right issue. +Of what tenor, then, were the undescribed applications?[<a href='#fn_51' id='fnb_51'>51</a>] +If of the same as that of October 1838, Mr. +Babbage stands quite clear; but if they were such as +<span id='page-285' class='pagenum'>285</span>fairly to give rise to the rumour above mentioned, then +it must be said, that though <i>he</i> had every disposition to +get wrong, Government always prevented him by blocking +his path with an error of its own. But in any case +it is to be remembered, that for the last four years of +unanswered application Mr. Babbage stood upon the +right ground; and also that the rumoured <i>refusal</i> to +proceed never was made. +</p> +<p> +The public, we think, has a right to explanation +from the Government, and to further explanation from +Mr. Babbage. Sir R. Peel turned it off with a joke +in the House of Commons. He recommended that +the machine should be set to calculate the time at +which it would be of use. He ought rather to have +advised that it should be set to compute the number of +applications which might remain unanswered before a +Minister, if the subject were not one which might affect +his parliamentary power. If it had done this, it would +have shown that its usefulness had commenced. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_49'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_49'>49</a>] By the words “<i>no plan</i>,” the reviewer here evidently refers to the +<i>mechanical and mathematical plan</i>, on the fitness of which the Royal +Society had already, as he observes, made a report. Mr. Weld, on the +other hand, refers to the <i>mutual relations</i> of the two parties, Mr. Babbage +and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, relative to the expenses and +even to the ownership of the <i>Difference-Engine</i>, as appears by the footnote +<a href='#fn_34'>(34)</a> at <a href='#page-256'>page 256</a>. +</p> +<p class='sig'> +C. B.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_50'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_50'>50</a>] It is scarcely possible that this <i>supposed</i> wish could have influenced +Sir Robert Peel, because he had before him a written disavowal of it +from Mr. Babbage himself. +</p> +<p class='sig'> +C. B.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_51'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_51'>51</a>] The two following will sufficiently explain them:⁠—On the 23d +December, 1834, Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of +Wellington, pointing out the only plans which, in his opinion, could be +pursued for terminating the questions relative to the <i>Difference Engine</i>, +namely: +</p> +<p> +<i>First</i>, the Government might desire Mr. Babbage to continue the +construction of the Engine in the hands of the person who has hitherto +been employed in making it. +</p> +<p> +<i>Secondly</i>, the Government might wish to know whether any other +person could be substituted for the engineer at present employed to +continue the construction; a course which was possible. +</p> +<p> +<i>Thirdly</i>, the Government might (although he did not presume that +they would) substitute some person to superintend the completion of +the Engine instead of Mr. Babbage himself. +</p> +<p> +<i>Fourthly</i>, the Government might be disposed to give up the undertaking +entirely. +</p> +<p> +A letter to Sir R. Peel from Mr. Babbage, dated 7th April, 1835, and +enclosing the above plans, concludes thus:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“The delays and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my expressing +a wish that I may at length be relieved from them by an early +decision of the Government on the question.” +</p> +<p class='sig'> +C. B.</p> +</div> +<p class="align_c break_before"> +<span id='page-286' class='pagenum'>286</span><i>From the</i> <span class="small-caps">Athenæum</span> <i>of</i> <span class="small-caps">Saturday, Dec.</span> <i>16th, 1848</i>. +</p> +<hr> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Mr. Babbage</span> has reprinted, for private circulation, +Mr. Weld’s chapter on his <i>Calculating Machine</i>, and has +appended to it our review[<a href='#fn_52' id='fnb_52'>52</a>] of that chapter [see <i>ante</i>, p. +1029] with three short foot-notes. The first of these +is on a point immaterial to the issue; the second and +third contain distinct statements of fact from Mr. +Babbage, in reference to our comments upon his proceedings +and those of the Government. Our readers +will remember that from September 1834 to November +1842, Mr. Babbage could not procure the attention of +the Government to the state of the engine, on which +17,000<i>l.</i> had been spent; and that, about the beginning +of that period, Mr. Babbage had invented the new +engine, which he called the <i>Analytical Engine</i>. And +further, they will remember that all notion of the +possibility of blame having been justly incurred by +Mr. Babbage rested, in our comment, upon the hypothesis +that he had put his wish to abandon the <i>Difference +Engine</i> and substitute the <i>Analytical Engine</i> before +the Government in such a form as to give them a right +to suppose that he was unwilling to proceed with the +former. On our remark that it is possible that Sir R. +Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed his well-known wish +to influence their decision, Mr. Babbage observes:⁠—“It +is scarcely possible that this <i>supposed</i> wish could +<span id='page-287' class='pagenum'>287</span>have influenced Sir Robert Peel, because he had +before him a written disavowal of it from Mr. Babbage +himself.”</p> +<p> +Again, of the first half of the period of unanswered +application Mr. Weld gives no account, as to the tenor +of the applications therein made to the Government: +though he shows by documents that during the second +half Mr. Babbage, to repeat our own phrase, “stood +upon the right ground.” And thereupon we expressed +our opinion that the public had a right to explanation +from the Government, and to further explanation from +Mr. Babbage. This further explanation Mr. Babbage +now gives, in the following words; among which we +insert some bracketed comments:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“The two following [applications made to the Government] +will sufficiently explain them [the undescribed +applications of the first half of the period of unanswered +application]:⁠—On the 23rd December, 1834, +Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of +Wellington, pointing out the only [the reader will +remark this word <i>only</i>] plans which in his opinion +could be pursued for terminating the questions relative +to the <i>Difference Engine</i>, namely⁠—<i>First</i>, the +Government might desire Mr. Babbage to continue +the construction of the engine in the hands of the +person who has hitherto been employed in making it. +<i>Secondly</i>, the Government might wish to know whether +any other person could be substituted for the engineer +at present employed to continue the construction⁠—a +course which was possible. <i>Thirdly</i>, the Government +might (although he did not presume that they would) +substitute some person to superintend the completion +of the engine instead of Mr. Babbage himself. <i>Fourthly</i>, +the Government might be disposed to give up the +undertaking entirely.” A letter to Sir Robert Peel +<span id='page-288' class='pagenum'>288</span>from Mr. Babbage, dated the 7th of April, 1835, and +enclosing the above plans, concludes thus: “The delays +and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my expressing +a wish that I may at length be relieved from +them by an early decision of the Government on the +question.” +</p> +<p> +From the above it appears that at the end of 1834, +Mr. Babbage⁠—though then so full of the <i>new</i> engine, +that in September he had asked an audience of Lord +Melbourne, to communicate the exact state of the case, +and to request, of course, his consideration of the question +whether the new engine should or should not take +the place of the old one⁠—began his applications to the +Government with distinct reference to the <i>old</i> engine, +and to the question of its completion or abandonment. +Certainly the first of the two applications was not well +timed, for it was made when the Duke of Wellington +held all the seals, and a Government courier was hunting +Sir Robert Peel all over Italy, to tell him to come +home quick and be Prime Minister. But it was +repeated to Sir Robert Peel in the April following, +when the latter was also in official possession of the +previous letter. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Babbage having thus filled up the only <i>lacuna</i> +which the public press has brought to his notice, we +can but repeat that those who would impute to him the +blame of the failure of Government to complete his +Calculating Machine must begin by proving his statement +to be false or defective. In 1835 he complains <i>to</i> +the Government of “delays and difficulties,” which he +implies to be mainly caused <i>by</i> the Government, and +he gets no answer whatever to repeated applications, +until 1843. Those who have propagated the rumours +that his conduct was the cause of the delay, and that +he compromised his friends in the Royal Society, who +<span id='page-289' class='pagenum'>289</span>had aided in bringing him under the notice of the +Government, are bound to abstain in future, or to show +cause. +</p> +<p> +We end by a quotation from Mr. Weld, which we +abstained from giving so long as we supposed that the +discontinuance of the Calculating Machine might be, in +any degree, Mr. Babbage’s fault. “Mr. Babbage has +shown me letters, by which it appears that he declined +offices of great emolument, the acceptance of which +would have interfered with his labours upon the +<i>Difference Engine</i>.” +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_52'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_52'>52</a>] We said in that review that Menabrea’s Memoir was in Italian:⁠—we +should have said French. +</p> +</div> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +THE END. +</p> +<div class='box fontp9'> +<p class="align_c space_after"> +Transcriber’s Notes. +</p> +<p> +New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain. +</p> +<p> +Some words are inconsistently hyphenated such as “light-house”, “lighthouse” and “astronomer-royal”, “astronomer royal”. These have been left as originally printed. +</p> +<p> +The footnotes have been renumbered throughout the book and moved to the ends of the chapters. +</p> +<p> +The <a href='#tg_app'>Appendix</a> consists of extracts from other publications. The footnotes have been renumbered but there remain references to page numbers in the original publications. +</p> +<p> +Some small changes have been made as follows: +</p> +<p> +A closing quotation mark at the end of the first sentence of <a href='#fn_47'>footnote 47</a> has been removed since all of this text is taken from the note cited. +</p> +<p> +In order to obtain the correct alignment of text: +</p> +<p> +On <a href='#page-126'>page 126</a> the dashes serving to indicate repeated text have been replaced by duplicated text. +</p> +<p> +In the table in <a href='#fn_40'>footnote 40</a> the ditto marks have been replaced by duplicated text. +</p> +<p> +In the table on <a href='#page-220'>page 220</a> “The Bath” has been repeated instead of being bracketed to “Military” and “Civil”. +</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76507 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/76507-h/images/cover.jpg b/76507-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b0332a --- /dev/null +++ b/76507-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/76507-h/images/telegraph.png b/76507-h/images/telegraph.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2197b5a --- /dev/null +++ b/76507-h/images/telegraph.png |
